mm»

JOUENAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

VOLUME V, 1915

BOARD OF EDITORS

Fred. E. Wright William R. Maxon Edson S. Bastin

GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY NATIONAL MUSEUM GEOLOGICAl SURVEY

PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY

EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

OFFICE OF publication

THE WAVERLY press

BALTIMORE, MD.

^ I L I • « A R V

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V JANUARY 4, 1915 No. 1

PHYSICS. — The total emissivity of platinum and the relation

between total emissivity and resistivity. Paul D. Foote.

Communicated by C. W. Waidner.

On the basis of the Maxwell theory, Planck^ has derived the

following equation representing the relation between the reflec-

tion coefficient of a metallic surface, the volume resistivity of

the metal, and the wave length of the incident radiation:

„ V3600 \yr^ + 1 + 1 - V2(V3600 \yr^ +1-1) .-.x

•^x = — =iz^ 1 • ■ \^^

VseOO X-'/r- + 1 + 1 + V2(V3600 XVr^ +1-1)

where Ex is the ratio of the intensities of the reflected to the

incident radiation, r the volume resistivity of the metal in ohms

cm, and X the wave length of the radiation in cm. Defining

the monochromatic emissivity as Ex = 1 — Rx and expanding

the above expression into a series of ascending powers of Vr/X,

Hagen and Rubens- have obtained the following equation in

which the terms of higher order than those indicated are neg-

ligible :

^x = 0.365 ^~ - 0.0667 (^^\ + ...... (2)

The spectral distribution of the energy radiated by a black

body may be expressed by the Planck equation:

1 Planck, Sitz. Konigl. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, p. 278. 1903.

^ Hagen and Rubens, Konigl. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, p. 468. 1910.

1

foote: total emissivity and resistivity

Jk = C,\

-5

e\T - 1

-1

(3)

where T is the absolute temperature and c^ = 1.4450 cm. deg.

The total energy (any arbitrary unit) radiated by a black body

is given by the integral of equation (3) :

I

Jxd\ (4)

The total energy radiated by a nonblack metal may be ex-

pressed as the integral of ihe Planck relation multiplied by the

monochromatic emissivity :

J'= r J^E^dX (5)

Jo

If the total emissivity E oi a, metal is defined as the ratio of

the energy emitted by the metal at an absolute temperature T

to that emitted by a black body at the same temperature, one

obtains the following relation:

^ - T - /.V.rfx ^^>

Equation (6) may be converted to the gamma function form

and is hence readily integrable. One thus obtains the following

expression for the total emissivity of a metal:

E = 0.5736 VrT - 0.1769 rT (7)

where T is the absolute temperature of the radiating metal and

r the volume resistivity in ohms cm at this temperature.

It is therefore apparent that the total emissivity of most

pure metals should increase with increasing temperature both

because of the increasing value of T in equation (7) and because

of, in general, the increasing volume resistivity. The increase

in total emissivity with increasing temperature has been ob-

served in nearly all of the extremely few instances where this

quantity has been measured.^

^ Langmuir, Trans. Am. Elec. Chem. Soc, 23: 321. 1913; Randolph and Over-

holser, Phys. R., 2 (2) : 144. 1913; Burgess and Foote, Bureau of Standards

Scientific Paper 224.

foote: total emissivity and resistivity 3

The above derivation is essentially that of Aschkinass/ who,

in an extensive paper, has discussed the energy emission of metals,

the value of \T,n of the displacement law for metals, and the

relation of various properties of the radiation from metals to

similar properties of black body radiation. He used for the

value of £'x the first term only of equation (2), the one term

formula having been derived by Planck;^ but inasmuch as Hagen

and Rubens^ have since found that the one term relation was

insufficient, it appeared of interest to derive the somewhat gen-

eral relation (7) for total emissivity from the more accurate

relation (2) for monochromatic emissivity. The first term of

equation (7) may be obtained directly from Aschkinass' work by

dividing his equation (10) by the integral of Planck's spectral

equation and correcting the value of C2 in (10) to the present

accepted value of 1.445. The second term of equation (7)

becomes equal to 11 per cent of the first term at 1700°C. and

hence is of considerable importance, especially at the higher

temperatures.

In order to check formula (7) quantitatively, measurements

have been made, with Mr. Kellberg's assistance, upon the total

emissivity of platinum. The apparent temperatures of thin plati-

num strips were measured by three radiation pyrometers of the

Fery mirror type and the apparent temperatures for a wave

length X = 0.65m were obtained with a Holborn Kurlbaum

optical pyrometer. The apparent temperatures measured by

the optical pyrometer were converted in the usual manner to

true temperatures using the value of Eo.es = 0.33. The emis-

sivity of this metal for X = 0.65^ is independent of the tem-

perature.-' This is of course in contradiction to the Maxwell

relation (2) above. But it must be noted that, for metals, the

visible spectrum is usually the region where resonance phenomena

are taking place, and hence one would here expect that the gen-

eral theoretical deductions might fail to apply, as is experi-

mentally found to be the case. This fact does not materially

^ Aschkinass, Ann. d. Physik., (4) 17: 960. 1905.

'•> Waidner and Burgess, Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper 55; Mendenhall,

Astrophys. J., 33: 91. 1911; Spence, Astrophys. J., 37: 194. 1913.

4 foote: total emissivity and resistivity

alter the validity of the expression (7) for the total emissivity,

since by far the greater part of the radiant energy of glowing

metals at temperature below 1500°C. is confined to a spectral

region where resonance phenomena do not exist.

The relation between the true absolute temperature T of a

material, the apparent absolute temperature, S, measured by a

total radiation pyrometer, and the total emissivity is given by

the following expression:

E = I^E^l (^)

where To is the temperature of the receiver. The temperature

coefficient of mass resistivity of pure platinum from 0 to 1100°C.

is very accurately given by the Callendar*' parabolic equation

where 5 = 1.49 and C the fundamental coefficient is 0.0039.

It does not appear likely that serious error is introduced by

the extrapolation of this equation to the melting point of plati-

num. Observations by Pirani,^ Holborn and Wien,^ and Lang-

muir^ above 1100°C. do not deviate seriously from the parabolic

relation. Langmuir concluded from his determinations that

the relation was linear above 1200° but he uses the value 1710°

instead of 1755° for the melting point of platinum. If his data

are corrected for the error in the temperature scale the obser-

vations follow the Callendar formula quite satisfactorily. The

mass resistivity of a 0.6 mm. X 100 cm. wire of Heraeus plati-

num, presumably of the same degree of purity as that of the

strips used in the emissivity determinations, was very kindly

measured by Mr. C. F. Hanson of this Bureau, with an accuracy

of about 0.1 per cent. Reduction to the volume resistivity at

0°C. gave the value of 9.77 X 10 -« ohms cm, with possibly an

error as great as 1 per cent. The ratio r</ro, determined by re-

sistances at constant mass, is equal to the ratio determined at

constant volume within the accuracy of the present work.

* Waidner and Burgess, Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper 124: 151.

7 Pirani. Verh. d. Phys. Ges., 12: 315. 1910.

8 Holborn and Wien, Ann. d. Physik, 59: 360. 1896.

9 Langmuir, J. Am. Chem. Soc, 28: 1357. 1906.

foote: total emissivity and resistivity

Figure 1 represents the total emissivity of platinum as a func-

tion of the temperature in the range 0° to 1700°C.

The computed points are represented by crosses. Prelimi-

nary observations made with radiation pyrometers which were

later found to be somewhat defective are shown by small dots

and the final observations made with an instrument compara-

tively free from these defects are plotted as circles. The large

dot at 15°C. was obtained from the work of Hagen and Rubens

on the reflection coefficients of platinum. These investigators

have determined the dispersion of the reflection coefficient to

Temperature °C

Fig. 1

25/1. If the values of Ex = 1 — Rx are substituted in equation

(6) the total emissivity may be btained. The integration was

performed graphically. The triangles represent the observations

of Lummer and Kurlbaum.^°

The agreement between the theoretical and experimental

values is excellent, when one considers the difficulties involved

in an accurate determination of total emissivity. The devia-

tions of the computed values from the observed values are in

general much less than ± 0.01, which is about the limit of ac-

curacy of the experimental determinations.

Table I presents a summary of the values of the total emis-

sivity of pure platinum for the temperature range 0° to 1700°C.

10 Lummer and Kurlbaum, Verb. d. Phys. Ges., 17: 106. 1898.

6

foote: total emissivity and resistivity

Table II shows the corrections which must be apphed to the

temperature observed with a radiation pyrometer, when sighted

upon pure platinum, in order to obtain the true temperature of

the radiating platinum. The temperature of the receiver is con-

sidered as 300° abs.

TABLE I

Total Emissivity vs. Temperature

TABLE II

Total Radiation Pyrometer Sighted on Platinum

(Receiver = 300° abs.)

In a subsequent paper the emissivity of other metals will be

discussed. Approximate measurements have already indicated

that equation (7) is a general relation, and is by no means re-

stricted to the example cited in the present paper.

SUMMARY

A definite relation has been found to exist between the total

emissivity and the volume resistivity of a metal. This relation

CLARK: RECENT CRINOID FAUNA 7

follows directly from the Maxwell theory of reflection and absorp-

tion. Experimental determinations of the total emissivity of

platinum have verified the derived relation.

MINERALOGY. — Four new minerals. Waldemar T. Schaller,

Geological Survey.

The following very brief notes of four new minerals are given

in order to secure priority, as it is desired to extend further the

optical determinations before the detailed papers are published.

The formulas given have all been derived from the completed

chemical analyses.

Minasragrite is a blue hydrous vanadium sulphate from Min-

asragra, Peru. The monoclinic crystals dissolve readily in cold

water. The vanadium is quadrivalent and the mineral is a hy-

drous acid vanadyl sulphate with the formula V204-3S0316H20,

which is interpreted as (¥002)112(804) 3" I5H2O.

^ernandinite is a green hydrous calcium vanadyl vanadate

from Minasragra, Peru. The analysis yields the formula

CaOV204-5V205l4H2 O, which may be written, as a metavana-

date as follows: [H4Ca(V202)][V03]iol2H20.

Shattuckite is a blue hydrous copper silicate from the Shattuck

Arizona Copper Company's mine at Bisbee, Arizona, Its for-

mula is 2CuO 2Si02H20 and it is close to plancheite in com-

position but differs considerably therefrom in its optical prop-

erties. Shattuckite forms pseudomorphs after malachite and also

occurs as small spherulites.

Bisheeite is found with the shattuckite and forms pseudomorphs

after the shattuckite pseudomorphs of malachite. In composi-

tion bisbeeite is identical with dioptase, CuO 81021120, but is

orthorhombic, pale blue to nearly white in color* and has distinct

optical properties.

ZOOLOGY. — The geographical divisions of the recent crinoid

fauna. Austin H. Clark, National Museum.

The division of the present crinoid fauna as a whole into satis-

factory zoogeographic regions has proved to be a task of no

little difficulty, chiefly because of the almost complete absence

8 CLARK: RECENT CRINOID FAUNA

of these animals from littoral waters having a seasonal fluctuation

of temperature and salinity, and because of the complete inter-

graduation of the littoral and the abyssal types.

Yet the very features which place the greatest obstacles in the

way of outlining the zoogeographic divisions indicated by the

crinoids at the same time suggest that these divisions are of more

than usual significance, and are more fundamental in character,

especially in their relation to the zoogeographic divisions of the

past, than those of the other groups of marine organisms.

In the construction of the scheme outlined below, instead of

following the usual method of subordinating the biological to

the geographical aspect of the problem, I have examined all the

known species of recent crinoids from the point of view of their

systematic affinities and their obvious relationships, later assign-

ing them to the various zoogeographic divisions in which they

appear naturally to group themselves, so that these divisions are

outlined purely from the biological viewpoint, and follow, if

it may be so expressed, the phylogenetic rather than the geo-

graphical migrations of the class.

The crinoid fauna of the present seas is found to be divisible

into two main sections, which, though faunally equivalent, are

different in size and range. These two zoogeographic units are:

I. The Australian Fauna: Occurring all around the coasts

of Australia, and including the Aru Islands and southern New

Guinea (Papua).

The Australian fauna, which is Httoral and sublittoral only,

is characterized by certain very distinctive, primitive and aber-

rant specific types. Three genera, Comakdella, Oligometrides

and Ptilo7netra are confined to it, while Zygometra and Petasometra

are here very highly developed. It is related to the Indo-

Pacific-Atlantic fauna, though it cannot be considered as a part

of it, or as a derivative from it. Of the several divisions of the

Indo-Pacific-Atlantic fauna it is most closely allied with the

Caribbean, and two of the three peculiar genera are, outside of

the Australian region, most closely related to Caribbean types,

Comatulella to the genus Coinactinia, and Oligoinetrides to the

genus Analcidometra; it is interesting to note that neither Comac-

tinia nor Analcidometra occur on the eastern shores of the Atlan-

CLARK: RECENT CRINOID FAUNA 9

tic. The Australian and the Indo-Pacific-Atlantic faunas over-

lap more or less in the Moluccas and in the Lesser Sunda Islands,

and at the present time the entity of the former has become

clouded and largely masked through the intrusion of numerous

alien types from the IVIalayan region, particularly on the east

Australian coast. The Australian fauna appears to be the last

remnant of a once dominant fauna which, overwhelmed by a

more vigorous fauna of subsequent origin, now persists only

in the Australian littoral, and, almost entirely submerged, in

the littoral and sublittoral zones of the Caribbean Sea.

II. The Indo-Pacific-Atlantic Fauna: Primarily character-

istic of the region from Formosa to the Korean Straits, and

eastward to Tokyo Bay, the Hawaiian Islands, the Kermadec

Islands, the Admiralty Islands, the Meangis Islands, the Moluc-

cas, the Lesser Sunda Islands, thence westward and northward

along the southern shores of Java and Sumatra to the Nicobar

and Andaman Islands, Ceylon and southwestward to Madagas-

car and southeastern Africa, northwestern Africa and south-

western Europe, and the Caribbean Sea. From this primary

region, which falls into numerous subdivisions, faunal units, more

or less differentiated from the original unit, have been and are

being evolved (the ''derived" faunas mentioned beyond) which

occupy the entire area of the present seas at all depths, excepting

only the Australian littoral.

The Indo-Pacific-Atlantic fauna, chiefly developed between

the temperature of 10° and 18°.33C. (50° and 65° Fahrenheit),

and composed entirely of species of moderate size, none very

large and none very small, appears to represent the dominant,

conservative, and homogeneous widely spread fauna of the more

recent geological past, and to be the original homogeneous unit

from which the recent faunal units are being evolved (1) by

disruption of the ancient land continuity and consequent geo-

graphical differentiation, (2) by migration of certain virile types

into the cold abysses where, becoming modified, they undergo

redistribution as abyssal types, and (3) by migration of other

virile types into the purely recent hot tropical littoral where, ,

becoming modified, they are redistributed as a tropical littoral

fauna.

10 c^lark: recent crinoid fauna

The geographical divisions of the Indo-Pacific-Atlantic fauna

are the following:

1. Southern Japanese-Hawaiian: Formosa to the Korean

Straits, and eastward to Tokyo Bay; the Hawaiian Islands.

a. Southern Japanese: Formosa to southern Japan, from the

Korean Straits to Tokyo Bay. b. Hawaiian: Hawaiian Islands.

2. Kermadec Island: Kermadec Islands.

3. East Indian- Australian: Andaman Islands southward and

eastward to the Lesser Sunda Islands, the Moluccas, Celebes

and the Meangis Islands, and southward (in deeper water than

that in which the Australian fauna occurs) to southwestern

Australia and Tasmania.

4. Ceylon-East African: Ceylon westward and southwestward

to Madagascar and southeastern Africa.

5. Atlantic: Northwestern Africa and southwestern Europe,

and the Caribbean Sea.

a. East Atlantic: Northwestern Africa and southwestern

Europe, b. Caribbean: Caribbean Sea.

The derived faunas originating from the Indo-Pacific-Atlantic

which include chiefly or entirely littoral and shallow water types

are the following:

1. Malayan: The region westward and northward of the

Andaman, Nicobar and Lesser Sunda Islands, and east of the

Moluccas and Celebes, as far as the Philippine Islands and Hong

Kong.

2. Littoral Atlantic: Norway to the Gulf of Guinea, including

the Mediterranean Sea; Caribbean Sea to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

a. Afro-European: Norway to the Gulf of Guinea, including

the Mediterranean Sea.

b. American: Caribbean Sea to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

3. Red Sea: Red Sea, and eastward to the Persian Gulf.

The derived faunas originating from, the Indo-Pacific-Atlantic

which include exclusively primarily deep water types are the

following :

L Arctic: Arctic Ocean and north Atlantic, south to Nova

Scotia and the extreme north of Europe; the western shores of

the Seas of Okhotsk and Japan.

CLARK: RECENT CRINOID FAUNA 11

a. Arctic Ocean: Arctic Ocean, and the extreme north Atlantic.

6. East Asiatic: Western shores of the Seas of Okhotsk and

Japan.

2. Antarctic: Antarctic regions, and the west coast of South

and North America to Alaska, westward to the western Aleutian

Islands, and southward to southern Japan.

a. Continental Antarctic: Coasts of the Antarctic continent,

Kerguelen, and Heard Island.

b. Megellanic: Cape Horn northward to Alaska, westward

to the western Aleutian Islands, thence southward to Tokyo

and Sagami Bays, Japan.

c. Abyssal: The abysses in the extreme south, and in the east-

ern and northern portions of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans;

probably also the abysses in the eastern part of the Indian Ocean.

The various geographical divisions of the Indo-Pacific-Atlantic

fauna occupy each a relatively circumscribed area, supporting

distinctive species; but the derived faunas, while characteristic

of the area as delimited above, have ill-defined borders and en-

croach more or less upon the surrounding faunas.

Thus the Malayan fauna, especially characteristic of, and

apparently originating in, the very warm water of the Malayan

littoral, is very widely spread wherever very warm water occurs;

a few of its distinctive species reach southwestern Japan, one

reaches the Hawaiian Islands, and several reach Australia, where

they overlie the species of the Australian fauna proper, especially

on the northeastern and eastern coasts, reaching as far south as

Perth and Sydney; Ceylon also supports a few representatives

of this fauna. The Littoral Atlantic fauna, excepting in the

Mediterranean Sea, overlies the true Atlantic fauna. The other

derived faunas similarly have extended their ranges more or less

into territory occupied originally by other faunal units.

The derived faunas appear to be the dominant faunas of the

present seas, composed of the most vigourous and most adaptable

elements in the original Indo-Pacific-Atlantic stock. This

latter now appears to be on the road to complete submergence,

owing to its inability to adapt itself as a whole to the increasingly

diverse oceanographical conditions.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.— Orz certain new -atmospheric-electric

instruments and methods. W. F. G. Swann. Terr. Mag., 19: 171-

185. 1914.

The first instrument described is a modification of the Ebert ion-

counter, designed with a view to securing greatly increased sensitive-

ness. There are two concentric cyUnders, as in the Ebert apparatus,

but instead of the central one being connected to an electroscope read-

ing up to 200 volts, as in that instrument, it is connected to the fiber

of a single-fiber electroscope of the Einthoven type adjusted to a sen-

sitivity of about 20 or 30 divisions per volt. The potential of the fiber

is never allowed to depart far from zero potential and the necessary

field is obtained by insulating and chargmg the outer cylinder to about

200 volts. On releasing the fiber from earth it, of course, starts to

move, and the rate of movement can be noted. In order to prevent

the charge on the outer cylinder affecting the number of ions coimng

to the apparatus, it is shielded by another cylinder which is earthed.

In order to insure that the charge on the -upper edge of the shielding

cylinder does not rob the air of ions which should go to the central rod,

a special attachment is made to the latter which renders this impossible.

The second portion of the paper describes a modification of Elster

and Geitel's apparatus for determining the radio-active content of the

atmosphere. Instead of the collecting wire being charged to —2000

volts below the potential of the earth, as in Elster and Geitel's method,

it is charged to —2000 volts below the potential which the air in its

vicinity would have if it were absent. In this way the charge on the

wire, which is shown to determine the amount of active deposit col-

lected, is independent of the potential gradient. A more fundamental

unit of activity is suggested than that used by Elster and Geitel. It is

12

abstracts: atmospheric electricity 13

based on the initial rate of production of ions in the ionization chamber,

corresponding to unit charge on the collecting wire when exposed. The

employment of an Einthoven electrometer in a manner analogous to

that adopted in the case of the ion-counter described above renders

it possible greatly to increase the convenience, rapidity, and accuracy

of the measurements.

The third portion of the paper describes a piece of apparatus suit-

able for obtaining relative values of the potential gradient. Its action

is based on recording the change of potential which a metal disc under-

goes when, after being earthed and insulated, it is caused to alter its

position in the Earth's field. The chief advantage of the method is

that high insulation is not necessary, since it is only while the disc is

changing its position that leakage is operative. In view of the slow

action of the usual forms of collectors, leakage usually becomes a serious

consideration in determining the final potential obtained, especially

at sea. Another advantage of the present method is that it enables

the potential-gradient to be obtained at any instant.

W. F. G. S.

ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.— Ow certain matters relating to the

theory of atmospheric electric measureynents. W. F. G. Swann.

Terr. Mag., 19: 205-218. 1914.

The earthed portions of pieces of apparatus exposed to the atmos-

pheric potential gradient have to take a negative charge in order that

their potential may remain zero. The effect of the charge in modify-

ing the measurements is discussed for various cases. In the Ebert

ion-counter the effect is to decrease the measured ionic density in the

case of the negative ions, while in the case of the positive ions the

results are unaffected, though the paths of the ions are of course influ-

enced by the charge. It is shown that the effect is expressible very

simply in terms of the charge induced by the potential gradient on the

inside of the opening where the air enters. By measuring this charge

it is possible (laiowing the rate of the air flow) to estimate the order of

magnitude of the effect. The effect is greatest of course when the

apparatus is mounted on a tall slender support. It was found by

measurement that it might easily amount to 20 per cent of the value

of the quantity measured. The analogous effect is discussed for the

case of the Gerdien conductivity apparatus, and it is shown that even

in the case of the negative ions no error is introduced, provided that

the potential of the central conductor is not too high. In fact the

14 ABSTEACTS: ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY

effect of the potential gradient is simply to lower the value of the

maximum potential to which it is allowable to charge the central system.

In the case of the conductivity of the positive ions, while the ionic paths

are influenced, neither the conductivity nor the maximum potential

allowable are influenced on the whole.

The effect of making measurements of conductivity on the top of

a high tower is discussed in the above hght and it is shown that, if suit-

able precautions are taken, the proper conductivity will be obtained

for the air at that altitude, in spite of the influence of the charge on

the tower. There is an advantage in making measurements on the air

far removed from the ground, since the number of ions present are then

uninfluenced by the effects due to the potential gradient referred to

in the first abstract. The question of shielding the instruments to

protect them from the potential gradient is discussed. It is only in

the case of the Ebert apparatus that shielding of this kind is necessary.

It is important to ascertain, however, whether the avoidance of charge

on the earthed portions of the apparatus by shielding is not counter-

acted by the effect of the charge on the shield. It is shown that a

properly arranged shield is on the whole effective.

W. F. G. S.

ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.— T/ie atmospheric-electric observa-

tions made on the second cruise of the Carnegie, 1909-1913. C. W.

Hewlett. Terr. Mag., 19: 127-170. 1914.

The atmospheric-electric work on board the Carnegie has been con-

fined entirely to observations of the specific conductivity, the potential-

gradient, and the radioactivity of the atmosphere, the greater part of

the observations consisting of the first two quantities named. The

observations are divided naturally into three principal groups, accord-

ing to the observer who made them. From New York to Colombo,

E. Kidson conducted the observations; for the route from Colombo

to Manila, owing to breakage in the instruments and the impossibility

of having the requisite repairs made, there are no observations; from

Manila to Tahiti, H. F. Johnston conducted the observations, and from

Tahiti to New York, the work was carried on by C. W. Hewlett. For

an account of the instruments and methods used, as wefl as for the

detailed results obtained, reference must be made to the original article.

From a summary of the various results thus far obtained at sea,

the following deductions in regard to the mean values of the elements

may be drawn: The potential-gradient is of the same order of mag-

abstracts: atmospheric electricity 15

nitude over the sea as over the land; the radioactivity of the air over

ocean-areas far removed from land is small, compared to that found

over land; and the ionization over the ocean is at least as large as that

found over land.

C. W. H.

ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.— Investigation of certain causes

responsible for uncertainty in the measurement of atmospheric con-

ductivity by the Gerdien conductivity apparatus. C. W. Hewlett.

Terr. Mag., 19: 219-233. 1914.

The object of the writer was to test experimentally the behavior of

the apparatus under various conditions. It was shown theoretically

by Dr. Swann that the theory of the apparatus does not necessitate

a constancy of the velocity over a cross section of the air current,

and that, if the potential is below a certain minimum value depending

on the total air flow, the correct value of the conductivity is obtained.

By covering up half of the space opposite the fan, a considerable

irregularity was produced in the air flow. For low charging voltages,

however, the conductivity was practically the same as without the

obstruction. As the voltage is increased beyond a certain point, the

measured conductivity, without the obstruction, becomes less than

that with it, but this is due to the fact that the critical voltage is less

with the obstruction than without it, owing to the smaller air flow in

the former case.

As the measured conductivity was found to depend upon the pres-

ence or absence of the funnel, it was thought advisable to investigate

the exact effect of the latter. Certain theoretical considerations point

to the conclusion that, in the absence of the funnel, the maximum

allowable voltage is reduced, owing to the fact that the stream lines

of the air which enter the funnel near the edges suffer sharp bends in

that vicinity. Experiments were consequently made to determine

whether the effect of the funnel was less important for low charging

voltages. It was found that for charging voltages of 10, 30, 50, 70,

100, the relation of the conductivity without the funnel to that with

the funnel was 0.98, 0.96, 0.98. 0.94, 0.89; hence the theoretical con-

clusion that the ratio is practically unity for low voltages, and less

than unity for higher voltages, is borne out. Experiments have also

been made to determine the effect of the charge induced on the earthed

portions of the apparatus owing to the existence of the potential gra-

dient. It is found that under certain conditions this effect may be

16 abstracts: terrestrial magnetism

considerable. The usual theory of the Gerdien apparatus neglects the

effect of the charge collected by the rod which supports the central

cylinder. Experiments were made to measure directly this charge,

and it' was found to be far from neghgible in comparison with that

collected by the central cylinder. In the use of the Gerdien apparatus

it is important that the charging potential shall always be sufficiently

low. The most sensitive region of the electroscope supplied with the

mstruments is usually in the neighborhood of 150 to 200 volts. It

has been found, however, that the maximum allowable voltage varies

considerably from day to day, presumably owing to variations in the

specific ionic velocities. Usually a charging potential of 150 volts is

far too high.

C. W. H.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— r/i.e local magnetic constant and its

variatioris. L. A. Bauer. Terr. Mag., 19: 113-125. 1914.

Good progress has been made by various investigators in estab-

lishing the relationship between fluctuations of the Earth's magnetism

and those of the Sun's activity during the Sun-spot cycle. The mag-

netic quantity most frequently used for this purpose has been the

range of the diurnal variation — generally of the magnetic declination.

In connection with a preliminary examination of this relationship,

made in 1909, occasion was found to employ various other magnetic

quantities. One of these was what is here termed the ''local magnetic

constant," which, under certain assumptions, is proportional to the

magnetic moment of the Earth, or to the intensity of magnetization;

it is thus a quantity which lends itself readily to physical interpreta-

tion. The result of chief interest obtained from the 1909 investiga-

tion was that an increase in solar activity was accompanied, in gen-

eral, during 1906 to 1909, by a decrease in the local magnetic constant.

Since this investigation, Abbot's extensive observations at Mt. Wilson,

California, and Bassour, Algiers, showing the fluctuations in the values

of the solar constant of radiation for various years, have become avail-

able. The question arises whether any changes in the Earth's mag-

netism follow the same course as that of the solar constant.

As a provisional result, subject to modification when the final com-

putations have been made, it was found that for a change of 10 per

cent observed in the solar-constant values, there is apparently a change

in the local magnetic-constant of about 0.03 per cent of its value, i.e.,

about 10X10-^ C.G.S., decreased magnetic constant corresponding to

increased solar constant. The effect appears to be most pronounced

abstracts: terrestrial magnetism 17

for the observatories in the Sun-Ht portion of the globe, and seems to

be reversed for the observatories in the night portion, judging from the

place where the corresponding solar observations are made. This is

being looked into further.

In the discussion of magnetic disturbances we may have to dis-

tinguish between two broad classes:

(1) The curvilinear, the more prominent as far as general magnitude

is concerned, occurring practically over the whole Earth at the same

time, seemingly initiated by such radiations or streams of charged

particles which are deflected from a straight path, when they come

under the influence of the Earth's magnetic field, as to pass around

and behind the Sun-lit portion of the Earth.

(2) The rectilinear, occurring practically only over the portions of

the Earth reached by the straight-line, or ordinary, radiations from

the Sun. L. A. B.

TERRESTRIAL MAG^YH^WM.— Regarding improvement of appliances

for measurement of the Earth's magnetic elements by magnetic and

electric methods. (Progress Report.) L. A. Bauer, Terr. Mag.,

19: 1-18. 1914.

The instruments for magnetic measurements, employing distinctively

magnetic methods, have now reached the requisite stage of perfection

for meeting the practical requirements, both on land and at sea. How-

ever, the desire is to devise and try out new methods, as, for example,

those based on electrodynamic or electric principles, with a two-fold

object in view: (1) to obtain, more expeditiously than is possible with

the type of magnetometer now in general use, a magnetic measurement

within the relative accuracy required for a successful study of the

magnetic variations; (2) to obtain, another control, by means of a dis-

tinctively different method, on the absolute accuracy of the present

magnetic standards. The present report summarizes what has been

done thus far with respect to improvement of the appliances and

methods for the measurement of the terrestrial-magnetic elements and

what is still further to be undertaken.

In all of the Department's types of magnetometers, the magnet house

is of wood. Furthermore, every instrume^t is as nearly as possible

an independent or absolute one, i.e., all the various constants can be

absolutely determined. It is shown that, as the result of numerous

comparisons, it would seem safe to conclude that the H, or horizontal-

intensity, standards of Kew, Potsdam, and Washington (Department

of Terrestrial Magnetism) give an absolute accuracy within one part

18 abstracts: terrestrial magnetism

ill 10,000, except for some possible error which n;ay be inherent in

the magnetometer-method but not yet disclosed.

When the ocean work of the Department was begun in 1905, it was

necessary either to design entirely new, or to modify considerably, existing

devices. There have resulted thus new magnetic instruments, for use

at sea, designed, as well as chiefly constructed, by the Department.

With these instrumental devices, an accuracy in ocean magnetic work

has been secured which, under favorable conditions and devoting the

same time as in land work, does not fall much short of the general

accuracy of land field work. ' L. A. B.

TERRESTRIAL' MAGNETISM.— i^eswZfs of magnetic observations

made by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1913. R. L. Faris.

U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Publication No. 20.

Pp. 52. 1914.

In 1882 the results of field magnetic observations made by the Coast

and Geodetic Survey prior to 1881, together with descriptions of sta-

tions, were published as Appendix 9, Report for 1881. In "Magnetic

Declination Tables and Isogonic Charts for 1902" declination results

were given for all stations occupied up to that time and descriptions

were given of stations established subsequent to 1881. From 1903

to 1911 there was published annually an appendix to the Superintend-

ent's report giving the results of the magnetic observations made

during the fiscal year (July to June) covered by the report. Special

Publication No. 15 contained the results of magnetic observations made

between July 1, 1911 and December 31, 1912.

The present publication contains the results of observations made

on land and at sea during the calendar year 1913, and in the Philip-

pine Islands in 1912, together with descriptions of the stations occupied.

Results are given for 282 stations in 245 localities including a general

magnetic survey of the Philippine Islands, a detailed survey of the

crater of Kilauea, Hawaii, and an investigation of the area of local dis-

turbance in the vicinity of Wilmington, Delaware. A table is given

presenting a comparison of the declination results at 69 repeat stations

with the results of earlier observations in the same localities. The

results have been corrected to reduce them to the International Stand-

ard of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie In-

stitution of Washington. Horizontal Intensity results heretofore pub-

lished must be diminished by 1 part in 1000 to reduce them to that

standard. D. L. Hazard.

abstracts: geology 19

GEOLOGY. — -The transportation of debris by running water. Grove

Karl Gilbert. Based on experiments made with the assist-

ance of Edw. Chas. Murphy. U. S. Geological Survey Profes-

sional Paper 86. Pp. 263. 1914.

For original brief statement of results see this Journal, 4: 154-158.

1914.

GEOLOGY. — The Montana group of Northwestern Montana. Eugene

Stebinger. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 90-G.

Pp. 68. 1914.

For original brief statement of results see this Journal, 4: 383-384.

1914.

GEOLOGY. — A reconnaissance in the Canyon Range, west-central Utah.

G. F. Loughlin. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper

90-F. Pp. 10. 1914.

The formations studied are all of sedimentary origin and include

limestone of lower Mississippian (Madison) age, quartzite of probable

upper Mississippian age, Eocene conglomerates and sandstones, and

the Pleistocene Lake Bonneville beds. The principal structural fea-

tures are a series of folds, some open and others close, one of the latter

being accompanied by a strike fault of probable reverse character.

Evidence of "basin range" faulting is also present. The contact

between Eocene and Carboniferous strata indicates that the former

were deposited on an erosion surface of considerable irregularity.

The folding of the Carboniferous rocks is believed to have taken

place in late Jurassic or post-Jurassic time. This was followed by an

erosion period, in Cretaceous time, and by deposition of the Eocene

strata, which probably once covered the entire area of the present

range. The volcanic eruptions took place in late Eocene or post-

Eocene time. The volcanic period was followed by profound faulting

and uplift of the range. Sevier River maintained its course during the

uplift, cutting through the Eocene beds and following a probable pre-

Eocene synclinal valley in the quartzite. Pleistocene time was marked

by the deposition of the Lake Bonneville beds and subsequent erosion

of them along the present course of Sevier River.

The ore deposits of the range, which is included in the Leamington

mining district, include small replacement bodies of oxidized and sul-

phide lead-zinc ore, with low silver values, and also small showings of

oxidized copper minerals in quartz veins, which have been only super-

20 abstracts! geology

ficially prospected. The deposits resemble in general character several

deposits, low in silver, in neighboring mining districts. G. F. L.

GEOLOGY. — Reconaissance of oil and gas fields in Wayne and

McCreary counties, Kentucky. M. J. Munn. U. S. Geological

Survey Bulletin No. 579. Pp. 105. 1914. (Prepared in co-

operation with the Kentucky Geological Survey.)

The strata which outcrop in Wayne County have a maximum thick-

ness ranging between 1200 and 1500 feet. The upper part of the series

consists of sandstone, shale, conglomerate, clay, and coal belonging

to the Pennsylvania series ("Coal Measures") of the Carboniferous

system. These beds are underlain by about 1000 feet of Umestone,

shale, and thin sandstone, belonging to the Mississippian series ("sub-

Carboniferous"). Pennsylvanian rocks are absent over the northern

part of the county and along the principal streams, having been re-

moved by erosion. The maximum thickness, probably 400 or 500

feet, of Pennsylvanian rocks is found in the high hills along the southern

border of the county. The limestones and the red and green shales of

the upper part of the Mississippian series are exposed along the valleys

and hillsides of the mountainous region, and the limestones of the

middle and lower part form the surface of the rolling plain in the north-

ern and western portions of the county. These older beds consist of

20 to 40 feet of Devonian shale at the top, underlain unconformably

by Silurian or Ordovician limestones down to water level. Over 1500

feet of rocks, mostly limestones, which are not exposed at the surface,

are known to have been pierced by a few deep wells.

Most of the oil in this district is found in a cherty geode-bearing

limestone called by drillers the Beaver Creek "sand." In well records

the Bearer Creek "sand" is shown to vary considerably in distance

above the top of the Chattanooga ("Black") shale. In many wells

it is as much as 60 feet above the Chattanooga shale, but in most

places where productive it appears to be only a few feet above that

shale, from which it is separated by light-green and blue clay shales.

The writer suspects that in many places where the Beaver Creek

"sand" is reported by producers to be "high" above the Chattanooga

shale, the true Beaver Creek "sand" may be absent, as in the Beaver

Creek mill section, and that certain limestones may have been mistaken

for it.

The geologic structure of this region is that of a broad, compara-

tively shallow trough in which occur many minor anticlines and syn-

abstracts: geology 21

clines. The axis of this great trough or syndinorium trends generally

northeast and southwest. The general dip of the rocks in Wayne

County is toward the southeast and amounts to about 20 feet to the mile.

There is, however, considerable difference in the degree and direction

of dip from place to place, due partly perhaps to unconformities in

the rocks of the different series and systems and to unequal deposi-

tion of sediments, but mainly to warping in the process of folding,

which caused the minor folds and wrinkles that seem to be so inti-

mately associated with the origin of the oil pools.

Alfred H. Brooks.

GEOLOGY.— r/ie Iditarod-Riiby region, Alaska. H. M. Eakin. U. S.

Geological Survey Bulletin No. 578. Pp. 45. 1914.

The province treated extends from Yukon River at Ruby to Idita-

rod River and includes the Ruby, Innoko, and Iditarod mining districts.

The hard rocks of the Ruby district belong to an older complex of

more or less altered sedimentary and volcanic rocks which can be pro-

visionally correlated with the metamorphic Paleozoic and possibly

older rocks of the Yukon-Tanana region. The Innoko and Iditarod

districts are underlain by a younger series, predominantly of sedi-

mentary and subordinately of volcanic rocks, in part at least of Cre-

taceous and probably all of Mesozoic age. Intrusive rocks occur in all

the districts. They include granitic batholiths, stocks, dikes and sills,

that range widely in lithologic character. In most of the region

the hard rocks are heavily mantled by alluvial and possibly lacustrine

deposits in the lowlands, by residual clays and fragmental deposits on

the slopes and lower ridges, and locally near the higher mountain

groups by morainic and glacial out wash deposits.

Auriferous deposits occur in both the Paleozoic and Mesozoic areas,

and they are probably related genetically to certain of the younger

intrusive rocks. This relation is especially clear in the cases of the

monzonites of the Iditarod district and the altered rhyolite porphyry

dikes of the Innoko district. H. M, E.

GEOLOGY. — The ore deposits of northeastern V/ashington. Howland

Bancroft; including a section on the Republic mining district.

Waldemar Lindgren and Rowland Bancroft. U. S. Geologi-

cal Survey Bulletin No. 550. Pp. 215. 1914.

The area investigated in the reconnaissance whose results are here

set forth is situated in the extreme northeastern part of the State of

22 abstracts: geology

Washington, containing within its boundaries the whole of Stevens and

Ferry counties.

The rocks of this region are referred to the Proterozoic, Paleozoic,

Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. The rocks classified provisionally as

pre-Cambrian are the crystalline schists and metamorphosed limestones

and quartzites found between Laurier and Orient. The larger part of

the region is occupied by an extensive series of more or less dynamo-

metamorphosed argillites, lime shales, limestones, and quartzites. Be-

cause of its general similarity to rocks farther west in Washington,

which in places are fossiliferous, this series has been referred to the

Paleozoic era. In places these rocks were intruded by diabase or it

flowed out over their surfaces and was metamorphosed along with the

rest of the series, so that it is now represented by greenstone. In part

of the district greenstones are prominent. One of the most conspicu-

ous rocks of northeastern Washington is intrusive granite. It is thought

that large batholiths intruded the sedimentary series during Mesozoic

time, parts of the batholiths having been subsequently exposed by

erosion. The presence of monzonite porphyry in most of the mining

districts is believed to be due to later eruptions of the granitic magma,

and these may have taken place at intervals from late Mesozoic to

early Tertiary time. Lava flows of various types fill many of the

erosion depressions in the older rocks, and in places form high moun-

tains. Their eruption is thought to have taken place during Tertiary

time. Still later flows of basalt are prominent in the extreme southern

part of the area investigated, although some were seen in the Republic

district. The gold-quartz veins of the Republic (Eureka) district and

the First Thought gold deposits, in the Orient district, are of late Ter-

tiary age and are seliniferous.

The period in which the granite, quartz diorite, quartz monzonite

porphyry, and monzonite porphyry and the accompanying dikes were

intruded was that of the most extensive mineralization. The major

part of the ore deposits are believed to be of Mesozoic age, and they

owe their origin to the after effects of igneous intrusion. During the

Paleozoic period of dynamometamorphism, while the greenstones were

being formed, some of the metallic ores may have been concentrated

from the basic rocks, so that a few of the ore deposits in the area may

be of Paleozoic age. However, intrusive rocks thought to be of Meso-

zoic age were found in the vicinity of the greenstones, and it is more

likely that the deposits associated with the greenstones are due to the

Mesozoic intrusions. Alfred H. Brooks.

abstracts: geology 23

GEOLOGY. — Mining districts of the Dillon quadrangle, Montana, and

adjacent areas. Alexander N. Winchell. U. S. Geological

Survey Bulletin No. 574. Pp. 191. 1914.

The Dillon quadrangle lies in southwestern Montana and is in gen-

eral mountainous, but it contains one large valley, that of Beaver-

head and Jefferson rivers, and numerous smaller valleys. Sedimentary

rocks ranging in age from Algonkian, possibly Archaean, to Quater-

nary, are represented in this province. Igneous rocks include quartz

monzonite, occurring in a large batholith, together with various other

types of intrusives; volcanics also occur.

The geologic structure was determined largely by the intrusion

of the great Boulder batholith, which seems to have penetrated by fault-

ing or thrusting, or by assimilation of material, or by updoming impor-

tant areas in the quadrangle in Tertiary time, or, more probably by a

combination of all these processes.

The principal mineral resources of this area and those adjacent in-

clude gold, silver, copper, and lead, and smaller quantities of zinc,

iron, manganese, tungsten, antimony, arsenic, bismuth, vanadium,

tellurium, and sulphur.

The Boulder batholith in a large sense seems to be in whole or in part

the source of many of the ore deposits of the Dillon quadrangle. The

ore deposits occur chiefly in fissure veins or in irregular bodies pro-

duced by contact metamorphism in limestone or dolomite. Some

of the ore deposits are in the form of fissure veins. Others belong to

the type of ore disseminated in the country rock.

Alfred H. Brooks.

GEOLOGY. — Electric activity in ore deposits. Roger C. Wells.

U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 548. Pp. 1-78. 1914.

Many of the chemical reactions that occur in ore deposits involve

oxidation and reduction, and with electrolytes the phenomena of oxi-

dation and reduction are closely linked with electric activity. Many

ores are also conductors of electricity. It is therefore possible, and

necessary to consider, that balanced chemical action may occur in ore

deposits at two points somewhat removed from each other. Such ac-

tivity would produce different mineral associations than would result

from a direct admixture of the chemical agents. One of the simplest

possible combinations by which electric action could occur would con-

sist in the presence of two different active solutions in contact with a

single body of ore, the two active solutions being united by any "in-

24 abstracts: geology and paleontology

different" electrolyte. Pyrite is so inert to many solutions as to func-

tion like an " unattackable" electrode, thus making oxidizing and

reducing solutions available for producing electric currents in ore

deposits. Differences in polarization were detected, however, and

measured when different minerals were emploj^ed as anodes and

cathodes. R. C. W.

GEOLOGY. — Geology of the phosphate deposits northeast of George-

town, Idaho. R. W. Richards and G. R. Mansfield, with preface

by H. S. Gale. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 577. Pp. 74.

1914.

The area discussed lies in southeast Idaho and includes many for-

mations ranging in age from lo\^'er Carboniferous (Madison limestone)

to Quarternary (chiefly alluvium and basalt). It is traversed by the

great Bannock Overthrust, the plane of which is warped and partially

eroded. The older rocks constituting the upper block are folded into

a series of anticlines and synclines with axes trending slightly west

of north. Large bodies of phosphate rock occur in the synclines. The

younger rocks of the lower block are also underlain by phosphate.

Salt deposits occur along the line of the Bannock Overthrust.

R. W. R.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.— Cretoceows deposits of the east-

ern Gulf region, and species of Exogyra from the eastern Gulf region

and the Carolinas. Lloyd William Stephenson. U. S. Geo-

logical Survey Professional Paper No. 81. Pp. 71. 1914.

The paper is a preliminary general account of the character, dis-

tribution, and age relations of the Cretaceous deposits of the eastern

Gulf region, followed by detailed descriptions of the species of Exogyra

from this region and the Carolinas. It is shown that marine Upper

Cretaceous deposits composing certain great formations merge along

the strike into marine deposits of different character in such a manner

that the relative ages of the deposits in different parts of the area can

not be determined by stratigraphic sequence alone. Two major faunal

zones characterized respectively by Exogyra ponderosa Roemer and

Exogyra costata Say, and two sub-zones characterized respectively by

the genus Mortoniceras and the species Liopistha protexta Conrad, are

recognized; an unnamed zone in the lower part of the Eutaw formation

in the Chattahoochee region is also indicated. Within each of these

zones and subzones are found many other species of restricted range.

Paleontologic means is thus afforded of establishing the age relations

of the deposits.

abstracts: geology 25

Included in the paper are tables showing the occurrence and geo-

logic range of Upper Cretaceous fossils, a table indicating graphically

lithologic variations and age relations of the Cretaceous deposits, and

a geologic map on a scale of 1:2,500,000.

The value of the genus Exogyra in correlation rests on the fact of

its extended geographic distribution and the restricted stratigraphic

range of its principal species, Exogyra costata and Exogyra ponderosa.

L. W. S.

GEOLOGY. — Slate in the United States. T. Nelson Dale and others.

U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 586. Pp. 220. 1914.i

Slate, in ordinary usage, denotes a rock with more or less perfect

cleavage adapting it to various commercial uses, and in which the

particles with few exceptions can not be distinguished except in thin

section under a microscope. Slates are classified, according to genesis,

into (1) sedimentary and (2) igneous; group (1) being by far the most

important and subdivided into:

A. Clay slates: Matrix without any or with very faint aggregate

polarization.

B. Mica slates: Matrix with marked aggregate polarization.

A further subdivision of each group is based upon mineral character.

Igneous slates are divided into (A) ash slates and (B) dike slates.

The slates of group (A) originate in marine deposits of clay and

sand. The angular grains of feldspar and quartz in slate imply the

nearness of masses of granitic rocks. The alternation of slate beds with

quartzite or grit corresponds to the alternation of extremely fine clayey

with sandy sediments from such land masses. These sediments con-

sisted largely of quartz, feldspar and mica, with zircon and other sili-

cates, various compounds of iron, lime and magnesia, together with kao-

lin from the decomposition of the feldspar.

The next stage in the formation of slate is attributed ultimately to

the radiation of the earth's internal heat and the consequent corru-

gation of its outer portion. One effect of this compression was to

metamorphose the shale into slate. This included two processes of

uncertain priority. Under the combined presence of moisture and the

effect of pressure and heat, both the heat generated by the pressure and

that which pervaded the strata at the depth at which they were buried,

1 This is a revised edition of Bulletin 275 of 1906. The coworkers include: W

F. Hillebrand (analyses), E. C. Eckel, A. F. Purdue, L. M. Prindle, F. H.

Moffit, (S. A. Bonine (geology), M. Merriman (tests), Miss A. T. Coons (statistics).

26 abstracts: geology

there occurred such a chemical recombination of the silica, alumina,

potash, iron and water of the feldspar, kaolin and iron of the shale, as to

generate new potash mica in amount sufficient to constitute, in the

mica slates, over 33 per cent of the resulting slate. This muscovite

was of infinitesimal thinness and other dimensions and mostly of longish,

tapering or ribbonlike outline. Most of these scales arranged themselves

with their flat sides parallel to, or overlapping, one another but facing

the direction from which the pressure came and also with an angle of

inclination governed by that pressure. A small but variable proportion,

however, of these scales took such a position that their flat sides be-

came parallel to the direction of the pressure thus giving rise to the

"grain."

As mica crystallizes in columnar crystals and as the plates or scales

due to its molecular structure are transverse to the crystal column,

and as a slab of slate consists largely of parallel scales of mica it may be

said to correspond, when held horizontally, to such a crystal held ver-

tically. When a mica slate is cut in thin section across the cleavage

its optical behavior under polarized light is like that of a mica crystal

cut across its crystal cleavage. Yet as not only a considerable num-

ber of the mica scales in slate lie across the cleavage, but as some scales

of chlorite and crystals of other minerals do also, the texture of a mica

slate combines some of the features of a crystal with some of those of a

tissue.

This crystalline fabric may inclose in its meshes any sedimentary

particles of quartz, zircon, feldspar, kaolin, or other minerals which were

not or could not be made over into mica or secondary quartz but

whose alignment became more or less parallel to that of the major

part of the new mica. During this metamorphism other chemical

combinations were formed by the constituents of the shale, result-

ing in isolated scales or crystals of chlorite, biotite, various carbon-

ates, pyrite, magnetite, graphite, tourmaline, andalusite, etc. These

arranged themselves variously — some in the cleavage direction, some

in the grain direction. Lenses consisting of one mineral surrounded

by one or two others were also formed and concentrically or radiately

arranged. The subjects of slip cleavage, shear-zones, cleavage band-

ing, slate discoloration and weathering are considered in some detail.

T. N. D.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

♦ THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

The 241st meeting was held at the Bureau of Standards on Thurs-

day, October 8, 1914.

The Secretary read the announcement of the action of the Directors

in estabUshing the Maryland Section, whose territory covers all that

part of the previous territory of the Washington Section lying north of

a parallel of latitude through Laurel, Md., including the city of Laurel.

REGULAR PROGRAM

Director S. W. Stratton outlined the work of the Bureau of Stand-

ards, discussing the different kinds of work done and the general plan

of organization. Dr. W. F. Hitlebrand described, more in particular,

the chemical work of the Bureau. He gave statistics to show the vari-

ety and magnitude of the regular testing work, and then took up indi-

vidually the various lines of research which have been carried forward

during the past years. The meetmg then adjourned for an inspection

of some of the laboratories.

The 242d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Thursday, Novem-

ber 12, 1914.

The meeting was devoted to the election of officers for 1915. The

election resulted as follows: President: C. L. Alsberg, of the

Bureau of Chemistry; First Vice-Pres.: R. B. Sosman, of the Geophysi-

cal Laboratory; Second Vice-Pres.: H. M. Loomis, of the Bureau of

Chemistry; Secretary: E. C. McKelvy, of the Bureau of Standards;

Treasurer: F. P. Dewey, of the Bureau of the Mint; Councilors: J. A.

LeClerc, Bureau of Chemistry, P. H. Walker, Bureau of Standards,

J. Johnston, Geophysical Laboratory, F." P. Dunnington, University

of Virginia; Executive Committee, E. W. Boughton, Bureau of Standards,

R. C. Wells, Geological Survey, A. N. Finn, Bureau of Standards,

0. F. Black, Bureau of Plant Industry

The 243d Meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Thursday, Decem-

ber 10, 1914. The amendments proposed at the last meeting, providing

for the separation of the Maryland Section, were passed unanimously.

The President called attention to the recent death (on December 5)

of Dr. a. C. Peale, one of the first members of the Society, and its

Secretary for ten years or more. Dr. Bigelow and Dr. Dewey spoke

27

28 proceedings: chemical society

briefly upon the work of Dr. Peale. Dr. Le Clerc moved that a com-

mittee of three who had been personally acquainted with Dr. Peale be

appointed to -draw up suitable resolutions. Messrs. F. W. Clarke, W.

F. Hillebrand, and F. P. Dewey were appointed.

The following papers were read :

F. P. Dewey, of the Bureau of the Mint: The recovery of osmiridium

in the electrolytic refining of gold. Practically all bullion refining in the

Mint service is now done by the electrolytic process. After suitable

selection, gold anodes containing osmiridium are specially treated.

By hanging a beaker under the anode the slime is collected, and from it

the grains of osmiridium are washed out. Details of the older and

newer procedures were given by the speaker.

Discussion: Wells spoke of the need for more thorough work on

the chemical reactions of the platinum metals. Fitzgerald inquired

about the form in which the osmiridium separates, and about the per-

centages-of metals found therein. The iridium varies from 43 to 77

per cent of the alloy. Sosman compared the platinum content of the

Ural deposits with that of some ores discussed by Dewey, and men-

tioned that the recently advertised discovery of platinum in Westphalia

had turned out to be a fraud. Foster inquired about the settling of

osmiridium from a silver melt, and also about a reported discovery of

platinum at the Katahdin Iron Works in Maine. Dewey stated that

no information about this discovery had been published.

E. H. Walters, of the Bureau of Soils: The presence of primary

cleavage products of protein in soils. In an investigation of a water

extract and a dilute alkali (2 per cent sodium hydroxide) extract of a

sample of Norfolk sandy loam soil from Virginia, substances were obtained

which responded to the characteristic reactions of proteoses and peptones.

The color reactions obtained and the methods employed in making

a partial separation of these bodies showed that a complex mixture of

the various proteoses and peptones was present and persisted in the

soil for a considerable period. The experiments described show that

proteins undergo hydrolytic decomposition in soil in much the same

way as in digestion by enzymes, acids, or alkalines in the laboratory.

(Author's abstract.)

Discussion: Wells inquired about the precipitation of barium car-

bonate by carbon dioxide. Walteks stated that the barium is held in

solution by carbamino compounds.

A. Seidell: The excretion of thymol in the urine. Thymol has been

widely used in the treatment of the hookworm disease. Being a proto-

plasmic poison, and its absorption being promoted by the presence of

fats and oils, its use is somewhat dangerous. In order to find ^ safer

substitute, experiments have been made to determine the manner of

action of thymol in eliminating hookworm. Methods for the elimina-

tion of thymol in excreta were studied, and it was found that it can be

recovered by two steam distillations, one acid and one alkaline, and

then determined in the neutral water solution. Using this method, it

was found that no thymol is excreted in feces. It does pass out, how-

PEOCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 29

ever, in the urine, but in combination as glycuronate. It can be sepa-

rated therefrom by steam distillation from sulfuric acid solution, fol-

lowed by an alkaline solution containing certain salts which hold back

substances which might interfere with the subsequent bromine titration.

Experiments on dogs showed that the thymol excretion ends before 15

hours, but only about one half of the original thymol can be found by

the analyses. The remainder may escape in part through the lungs;

part of the loss may also be due to the first sulfuric acid distillation.

Discussion: Lubs inquired whether the glycuronate could be sepa-

rated from urine directly and afterwards decomposed. Alsberg sug-

gested that part of the thymol might be eliminated either in the

form of a decomposition product or as some other compound than the

glycuronate, and might not afterwards appear as thymol. Seidell

stated that the glycuronate is a very stable compound, and doubted

whether any other compound was formed. Alsberg also inquired

whether the product obtained and titrated might not be a derivative

and not thymol itself. Seidell replied that all the properties indicated

thymol and not a derivative. Studies of the excretion of phenol sug-

gest by analogy that the explanations advanced are correct. Menge

inquired what confirmatory tests had been made on the recovered

thymol; Seidell stated that no specific chemical tests were made, but

that dependence was placed upon its characteristic odor and physical

properties.

Robert B. Sosman, Secretary.

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 286th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club,

November 11, 1914.

Informal communications :

Clarence N. Fenner on Babingtonite from Passaic County, New

Jersey (See this Journal 4: 552-558, 1914).

F. C. Schrader: Mountain leather from Rawhide, Nevada.

T. Wayland Vaughan: Tectonic features of certain volcanic islands

in the West Indies.

Regular program :

N. L. Bowen: The iynportance of crystallization in the differentiation

of igneous rocks. Some experiments were described in which the sinldng

of olivine and pyroxene crystals was obtained in certain artificial silicate

melts. The importance of this process as a means of differentiation of

igneous rocks was pointed out. The results were discussed especially

in connection with the Palisade diabase still of New Jersey. Reasons

were given for considering Prof. J. Volney Lewis correct in his explana-

tion of the olivine-diabase ledge and also the general richness in heavier

minerals toward the base as due to the sinking of crystals.

Willis T. Lee : Relation of cretaceous formations to the Rocky Moun-

tains. This paper is a continuation of one presented a year ago under the

title, Use of physiography in the study of Rocky Moimtain stratigraphy,

30 proceedings: geological society

in which evidence was presented that seemed to prove that the Dakota

sandstone originally extended uninterruptedly over the area now occu-

pied by the Rocky Mountains in Colorado and New Mexico. The

present paper presents evidence that the marine Upper Cretaceous

formations also originally covered this area, and that the Cretaceous

sediments of the Rocky Mountain region came mainly from the con-

tinental land mass that lay west of the interior sea during Cretaceous

time. That this was the course of the sediments is indicated by the

prevalence of sandstone, some of which is conglomerate near the

shores of this western continent and by the prevalence of marine shale

farther east; and also by the thinning eastward toward the present

Rocky Mountains, of sandstones such as the Mesaverde in the San Juan

Basin and the Ferron sandstone of Utah and western Colorado, and by

the corresponding thickening of the marine shales in the same direction.

Comparison of published sections viewed in the light of personal

observation in the field indicates that the Cretaceous formations on

opposite sides of the mountains and in the intermontane basins are

comparable in thickness, character and stratigraphic succession. The

thickness of the Pierre shale, however, as reported from various locali-

ties, especially east of the mountains, varies by some thousands of feet.

This has been interpreted as due to local down-warps of the Cretaceous

floor with assumed corresponding up-warps in the present mountain-

ous area. But it is possible that these great differences in thickness

may be due in large part to crushing and other rock movements following

deposition rather than to original differences.

It seems probable that the interior Cretaceous Basin which includes

the present Rocky Mountain areas was a great geosyncline in which,

until near the close of the Cretaceous the main movement was down-

ward, with minor warpings. It also seems probable that there was no

effective barrier in the relatively small area now occupied by the moun-

tains to prevent the uniform spread of sediments derived from the

continental mass west of the Cretaceous sea. If this hypothesis endures

the test of future investigation it should lead to a readjustment of cer-

tain correlations that now seem discordant and should indicate definitely

that the Cretaceous-Tertiary unconformity represents a clearly defined

period of erosion, for the Cretaceous sedimentary rocks must have been

removed before the pre-Cretaceous rocks could supply the pebbles

found in the basal conglomerates of the Tertiary.

E. W. Shaw: A study of the Lafayette at and near the type locality.

Although the surface of Lafayette County, Miss., and much adjoining

territory is immediately underlain by a thin wash-creep-residuum

mantle made up principally of material derived from underlying strata

but containing certain elements not found in them, it is concluded from

recent studies that no formation such as the Lafayette is conceived and

described to be is present in the county from which it was named. On

the other hand, such a formation is present in the county just west of

Lafayette and in other places in the Coastal Plain, and it therefore

appears probable that the concept Lafayette, with certain modifica-

tions, will be retained.

proceedings: geological society 31

At the 287th meeting, November 25, 1914, informal communications

were presented by W. T. Schaller on:

1. So-called vanadic ocher.

2. The minerals of northern New Jersey which are now represented by

casts.

Regular program:

Edgar T. Wherry: A peculiar oolite from Bethlehem, Pa. The

grains in an oohte limestone show a division, parallel to the bedding,

into a light and a dark portion, the latter being the lower. Chemical

analysis showed the grains to be higher in dolomite, quartz, kaolin,

limonite, and carbon, and lower in calcite and siderite, than the matrix.

Microscopic study shows the nuclei to be imbedded in the dark material,

which is heaped up around them. It is concluded that the original

grains consisted of concentric layers of aragonite, containing more or

less carbon, and that, after solidification of the sediment, circulating

waters dissolved away the former, the carbon and the nuclei falling to

the bottom of the cavities. These were later filled up again by secondary

dolomite, the coarse crystallization of which is evident in the sections.

The carbon precipitated pyrite from iron sulphate-bearing waters, and,

finally, this was changed to limonite by weathering.

J. S. Diller: The recent eruptions of Lassen Peak. Although erup-

tions have occurred at Mt. Baker and St. Helens as late as 1842 and

1843 the great volcanoes of the Cascade Range are generally regarded as

extinct. Lassen Peak, the southern terminus of the Cascade Range,

has long been noted for its fumaroles and solfataras, but until recently

there has been no explosive action. On May 30, 1914, a series of explosive

eruptions began, and up to the middle of November of the same year

more than 60 eruptions had occurred.

Some of the various forms of ejected dust-laden vapors, rise more

than 10,000 feet above the mountain summit, and the progress of the

development of the new crater, from its starting point within the old

crater of Lassen Peak up to the western side, where it has broken through

the old rim, was illustrated by lantern slides.

Fine dust was scattered over the country in various directions for

nearly a dozen miles, and close to the crater the large rock fragments

ejected form a stratified rim 25 feet or more in thickness about the new

crater. So far as known none of the material was molten at the time of

its ejection. The ejected vapors which were almost wholly steam, were

sHghtly acid, with sulphurous odors. W. C. Wheeler treated the

ejected dust with water and found both sulphur and chlorine in the

resulting acid solution, showing that the ejected vapors were similar to

those of the solfataras in the region.

There was once vigorous solfataric action in the old crater, but it had

entirely ceased. Its rejuvenation and extension is a matter of special

interest. Flashes of light and fljdng luminous fragments have been

reported on good authority, and as the crater gets larger and deeper

hotter material is ejected.

32 ' proceedings: geological society

That there has been an influx of heat along the throat of the old

volcano is highly probable, but the limit is not yet evident.

H. S. Washington: The condition of the southern Italian volcanoes.

The speaker gave an account of the conditions of volcanic activity at

Vesuvius, Etna, Vulcano and Stromboli as observed by Dr. A. L. Day

and himself during the summer of 1914. The talk was illustrated by

lantern slides.

Vesuvius was in a fairly active, solfataric condition, with numerous

fumaroles. A descent into the crater permitted observation of the

mouth formed in May, 1910, in the southwestern part of the crater floor.

Two separate columns of brown and white smoke were issuing contin-

uously from an orifice near the bottom of this. No liquid lava was

seen, but there was recent pumiceous scoria, which analysis shows to be

like the recent Vesuvian lavas. The crater was filled with acid vapors,

chiefly SO3, SO2 and HCl.

Etna was in a state of mixed solfataric and strombolian activity,

though not violent. There was a constant emission of acid smoke, and

occasional outbursts from one or more of the five mouths seen at the

bottom of the crater, which sent up tall columns of dark smoke to a

considerable height. There was no emission of lava, but a constant,

though sKght, fall of fine ash. The "hocca^' of 1911 on the northeast

flank of the cone had increased in size and was fairly active, emitting

much smoke and some ash, but no lava.

At Vulcaiio the solfataric condition since the eruption of 1888-9 still

persists — fumaroles of two distinct types being abundant both within

the crater and in the outer slopes of the cone. Many samples of gas

were collected, as well as specimens of the very abundant salts covering

the upper parts of the cone. These are mostly sulphates of potash and

alumina, with some boric acid, for the most part quite free from chlorides.

At Stromboli five distinct small vents in the crater floor were emitting

smoke and lapilli, though the mode of activity of each was different.

The volcano seemed to be in a state of moderate and normal activity.

At the 288th meeting, December 9, 1914, the presidential address

was delivered by the retiring president:

Arthur Keith: Main features of Appalachian structure (illus-

trated). The address will be published on a later date.

At the twenty-second business meeting, which followed the address,

the following officers were elected for the ensuing year:

President, T. Wayland Vaughan ; Vice-Presidents, AnTUVRC. Spen-

cer, W. C. Mendenhall; Secretaries, Clarence N. Fenner, C. H.

Wegemann; Treasurer, C. A. Lesher; Members-at-large-of-the-Council,

R. S. Bassler, G. F. Loughlin, G. C. Martin, Eugene Stebinger,

J. B. Umpleby.

Frank L. Hess, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V JANUARY 19, 1915 No. 2

ASTROPHYSICS. — A comparison of siellar radio7neters and

radiometric measurements on 110 stars.^ W. W. Coblentz,

Bureau of Standards.

In this paper experiments are described showing that there is

but little difference in the radiation sensitivity of stellar thermo-

couples constructed of bismuth-platinum, and thermocouples

of bismuth-bismuth -f- tin alloy, which have a 50 per cent higher

thermoelectric power. Improvements in the method of main-

taining a vacuum by means of metallic calcium are described

whereby it will be possible to go to the remotest stations for mak-

ing radiation measurements without carrying an expensive

vacuum pump. With this outfit measurements were made on

the radiation from 112 celestial objects, including 105 stars.

This includes measurements on the bright and the dark bands

of Jupiter (also a pair of his satellites), the rings of Saturn, and a

planetary nebula. Quantitative measurements were made on

stars down to the 5.3 magnitude; and high grade qualitative

measurements were made on stars down to the 6.7 magnitude.

It was found that red stars emit from 2 to 3 times as much total

radiation as blue stars of the same photometric magnitude.

Measurements were made on the transmission of the radiations

from stars and planets through an absorption cell of water. By

this means it was shown that, of the total radiation emitted, the

' Detailed paper to appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

33

34 COBLENTZ: COMPARISON OF STELLAR RADIOMETERS

blue stars have about two times as much radiation as the yellow

stars, and about three times as much radiation as the red stars,

in the spectral region to which the eye is sensitive.

A stellar thermocouple and a bolometer were compared and

the former was found to be the more sensitive. The conclusion

arrived at is that, from the appearance of the data at hand,

greater unprovements are to be expected in stellar thermocouples

than in stellar bolometers.

The object of the investigation was to obtain some estimate of

the sensitivity required in order to be able to observe spectral

energy curves of stars. The radiation sensitivity of the present

apparatus was such that, when combined with a 3-foot reflecting

telescope, a deflection of 1 mm. would have resulted when ex-

posed to a candle placed at a distance of 53 miles. In order,

however, to do much successful work on stellar spectral energy

curves, a sensitivity one hundred times this value is desirable.

In other words, assuming that the rays are not absorbed in pass-

ing through the intervening space, the radiometric equipment

(radiometer aijd mirror) must be sufficiently sensitive to detect

the radiation from a candle removed to a distance of five hundred

miles. This can be accomplished by using a 7-foot mirror and

by increasing the sensitivity of the present radiometer (thermo-

couple and galvanometer) twenty times. This increase in sen-

sitivity is possible.

Measurements were made to determine the amount of stellar

radiation falling upon 1 cm- of the earth's surface. It was

found that the quantity is so small that it would require the

radiations from Polaris falling upon 1 cm^ to be absorbed and

conserved continuously for a period of one million years in order

to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1°G. If the total

radiation from all the stars falling upon 1 cm- were thus col-

lected and conserved it would require from 100 to 200 years to

raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1°C. In marked con-

trast with this value, the solar rays can produce the same effect

in about one minute.

WRIGHT: A NEW CRYSTAL-GRINDING GONIOMETER

35

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. — A new crystal-grinding goniometer.

Fred. E. Wright, Geophysical Laboratory.

In the measurement of the change of crystallographical and

optical properties of crystals with change of temperature or of

pressure it is essential that the crystal faces be flat and correctly

located; also that the optical sections and prisms be accurately

oriented and ground. Natural crystals with faces sufficiently

perfect for such work are exceedingly rare and the observer is

Fig. 1

usually forced to regrind and polish certain of the faces and often

to add new faces of definite orientation. This postulates an in-

strument of precision for the purpose. Several crystal-grinding

goniometers have been described heretofore/ and of these the

iWolz, M., Jahrb. f. Min., 2: 243-246. 1888.

Fuess, R., Jahrb. f. Min., 2: 181-185. 1889.

Wulfing, E. A., Zeitschr. f. Kryst., 17: 445-459. 1890; Jahrb. f. Min., 2:

1-22. 1901.

Tutton, A. E. H., Crystalline Structure and Chemical Constitution, 25-35:

1910; Phil. Trans., A, 185: 887. 1895; 192: 457. 1899; Proc. Roy. Soc. 67: 324.

1895.

Stober, F., Bull. Ac. Beige, (3) 33: 843-858. 1897.

Goldschmidt, V., Zeitschr. Kryst., 51: 358. 1912.

Wulff, G., Zeitschr. Kryst., 36: 22. 1902; 50: 14-16. 1913.

36

WRIGHT: A NEW CRYSTAL-GRINDING GONIOMETER

Goldschmidt two-circle type is the latest and best in principle.

The present instrument is also based on the theodolite principle,

but it is essentially different in design and construction from its

predecessors; certain features of the Goldschmidt design have, how-

ever, been incorporated in it. With the new grinding goniometer

crystal faces can be ground with a precision of 1' or greater, and flat

within a wave length of light; plane-parallel crystal plates can

Fig. 2

also be ground normal to any given optical direction, as an ellip-

soidal axis {a, iS, or y) or an optic axis. The instrument has

been in use for over half a year and has proved so satisfactory

in routine work that a brief description may be of interest.

The grinding goniometer was designed and constructed^ with

special reference to adjustment facilities and to precision. All

of the working parts are heavy and all bearing surfaces are wide

2 The instrument was built in the instrument shop of this Laboratory by Mr.

J. Jost, to whose skill and ingenuity much of its success is due. The writer is

also indebted to Dr. C. N. Fenner and Mr. J. H. Snapp for a thorough test of the

grinding and polishing devices and materials which are used on the goniometer.

weight: a new crystal-grinding goniometer

37

and accurately fitted. There are four essential parts, as indicated

in figures 1, 2, and 3: (a) telescope (fig. 3a) ; (b) two-circle theodo-

lite arrangement for holding and measuring crystals (fig. 2);

(c) grinding plate (fig. 2) ; (d) optical system of an axial angle

apparatus mounted on a special tripod (fig. 3b). A brief de-

scription of these parts will now be given.

The telescope (fig. 3a) is fitted with an autocollimating device^

which consists of a strip of thin cover-glass of the shape indicated

in figure 3e; this is placed

in the rear focal plane of

the telescope objective 0.

Light from a small tung-

sten lamp is sent through

the plate to the inclined

edge of the cover-glass,

where it is totally reflect-

ed and passes thence

through the objective

and prism to the crystal

plate, whence it is re-

flected back through the

lens system and appears

then, when viewed

through the eyepiece, as

a sharp bright line in the

dark field. Settings are

made by covering the bright line by the reflecting edge of the glass

slip, so that the field becomes practically dark. A transverse

etched line across the center of the reflecting edge serves as

reference point for the setting. In place of the transverse line two

short cover glasses, separated slightly and so mounted that their

reflecting edges form a straight line, have been used to advantage.

The images due to reflection from the faces of the telescope prism

{X, fig. 3a) are easily eliminated by mounting the prism in shghtly

tilted position so that the rays reflected from its faces reach the

image plane outside the field of the positive eyepiece E. The

3 F. E. Wright, this Journal, 4: 235. 1913.

Fig. 3

38 WRIGHT: A NEW CRYSTAL-GRINDING GONIOMETER

intensity of illumination secured by this device is similar to that

of the Abbe refractometer slit, while the accuracy of settings is

considerably better than that of the angular readings, namely, I'.

The telescope is mounted on a vertical rotating axis and can be

raised by means of a pin and ratchet movement. {X, fig. 2,

M, fig. 3a.) Enlarged signals are obtained by means of objective

0 with eyepiece E; reduced signals, by objective P and objective

0; images of the crystal surface, by means of objective 0 alone,

or by objective P + objective 0 + eyepiece E. This telecentric

arrangement of the optical system has been found well suited to

the purpose. The mounted crystal is held by the clamp S (fig. 2),

is adjusted by the ball and socket device R, is centered by the

sliding carriages Q, and is moved up and down by the screw P

which operates the triangular steel stem indicated in the figure.

The theodolite position-angles can be read directly to |' on the

circles Ci and C2.*

The grinding wheel (fig. 2) is driven slowly (200 r.p.m.) by a

small low speed | h.p. motor (400 r.p.m.), and is mounted on a

rotating axis W, supported between arms Y which allow the wheel

to be raised and lowered without tilting. The grinding wheel

itself is supported on an adjustable steel block. Experience has

shown that for grinding and polishing purposes block-tin wheels

are the most satisfactory. Three or more such wheels are in

constant use and are kept flat by grinding them, the one against

the other, in rotation. Pitch wheels have also been used for

polishing purposes but they are apparently not greatly superior

to the tin disks and are more troublesome to prepare. The

grinding disk is adjusted normal to its axis of rotation by means

of light rays reflected either from the upper surface of the wheel

itself or from a plane-parallel optical glass plate 3 inches in diame-

ter placed on top of the grinding disk. Only the finest abrasives

are used, crystolon or alundum 65 F of the Norton Company,

or washed emery M 303 of the American Optical Company.

Polishing powders are: washed rouge, putty powder, and chro-

mium oxide. These polishing powders are not equally good for

* These circles were specially graduated by Bausch & Lomb Optical Company;

no error approaching j' in magnitude has been detected in the graduations.

Wright: a new crystal-grinding goniometer 39

a given crystal and only an actual test can show which powder

is the best for a particular crystal. By use of the counter weight

Z (fig. 2) the pressure of the grinding disk against the crystal can

be regulated.

(d) The attachment for the orientation of optical sections is

the optical system of Wiilfing's axial angle apparatus mounted

on a tripod (fig. 3b) which fits in place on three hardened steel

points. The crystal or fragment from which a plane-parallel,

optically oriented plate is to be ground is mounted on a special

holder (fig. 3d) by means of which the fragment is first strapped

into place by a copper wire or belt and then cemented. On the

goniometer the crystal is immersed in a hquid of its refractive

index (8; this eliminates in large measure the disturbing reflections

at the irregular surfaces of the crystal grain. In this form the

grinding goniometer serves all the functions of an axial angle

apparatus and has the additional advantage that on it the angle

which a given optical direction includes with a given crystallo-

graphical direction can be obtained directly from the position-

angles of the two directions. After the crystal has been properly

set so that the desired optical direction is observed, the axial

angle apparatus is removed, the arm of the goniometer is rotated

90° on the horizontal axis Z), and the grinding disk is swung into

place.

Adjustment of the goniometer. The goniometer is in adjustment

when: (1) the horizontal and vertical axes of rotation (D D and

P S, fig. 2) are at right angles and intersect at a point; (2) the

axis of the telescope is vertical and intersects the above point;

(3) the axis of the grinding plate is vertical; (4) the axis of the

optical system of the axial angle attachment is horizontal, but

normal to the horizontal axis of the goniometer, and intersects

the above point.

In the adjustment of the goniometer it is essential that a

definite plan, like that outlined below, be followed so that each

successive adjustment does not interfere with those preceding.

The adjustment is facilitated by tke use of two small attach-

ments: (a) a mounted minute glass bead obtained by melting

the end of a fine glass thread, and (b) a plane parallel plate

40 WRIGHT: A NEW CRYSTAL-GRINDING GONIOMETER

mounted so that it can be rotated about a horizontal axis (fig.

3c). ^ The different possible lens combinations are: (A) For

mewing crystal surfaces: (1) Objective 0 alone; (2) objective

P+ objective 0+ eyepiece E. (B) For viewing reflection signals:

(1) Objective 0+ eyepiece E; (2) objective P-\- objective 0.

SYSTEMATIC ADJUSTMENT

(a) Adjustment of telescope. (Fig. 3a)

(1) Use lens combination Bl. Illuminate reflecting edge of cover

glass prism at H (fig. 3a) and center same by placing a flat glass plate

on telescope-mount above prism X and then bringing reflected image of

edge to coincidence with edge itself.

(2) Mount reflecting glass plate (fig. 3c) in S (fig. 2) so that edge of

plate is normal to axis D D. Adjust telescope axis normal to axis D D

by means of adjustment screws K and / and test adjustment by noting

that the image obtained by reflection from either side of the glass plate

coincides with the reflecting cover-glass edge. This is accomplished

by rotating the glas? plate about the horizontal axis D D.

(3) Center telescope by means of eccentric stop screw at H.

(4) Center and adjust in similar manner the reducing attachment

P to the positions just obtained. Use adjustment screws, Q, R, S for

the purpose,

(b) Adjustment of axis P S

(1) Adjust axis P S (fig. 2) normal to axis D D by means of mounted

glass plate (fig. 3c) so turned that its reflecting surface is normal to axis

P S. Axis is adjusted when signal observed in telescope (lens combina-

tion J51) remains stationary during rotation of glass plate about axis P

and coincides with reflecting edge of cover-glass prism. Adjustment

screws are Ki, K^ in conjunction with wedge shaped, hardened steel bar

/ which is moved forward by means of the flanged screw /.

The tilting is done on the steel axis at p. (2) Center axis P S

to intersection of axis D D by means of minute glass bead mounted on

pin inserted in *S (flg. 2). Use lens combination Al. When properly

centered by means of eccentric fitting on axis D D (clamped by screw

d, fig. 2) the centered glass bead remains stationary on rotation about

axis D D or axis P S.

(c) Adjustment of grinding plate

(1) Adjust grinding plate T normal to axis of rotation W by means

of screws y, figure 2. Adjustment is attained when a distant object, as

seen by reflection from the top surface of the plate, remains stationary

on rotation of the plate about axis W. In case the surface of the tin

grinding disk does not reflect light adequately, an optically plane-paral-

lel glass plate, 3 inches in diameter, is placed on top of the grinding

disk and furnishes a satisfactory reflection of the distant object.

6 Goldschmidt, V., Zeitschr. Krist., 29: 342. 1898.

graves: place of forestry among sciences 41

(2) Adjust axis W of grinding plate by means of three screws i in the

base-plate support (fig. 2). Adjustment is accomplished when a crystal

face ground and polished by the wheel is in the position indicated by

the telescope. This part of the adjustment usually involves the grind-

ing and poUshing of several crystal faces before the correct position is

attained, but, as the grinding and polishing of each face takes less than

10 minutes' time, the time loss is not serious.

(d) Adjustment of the axial angle apparatus

(1) Use glass plate (fig. 3c) so mounted that its edge is parallel to

axis P S and is vertical. The correct horizontal position is first ascer-

tained by means of telescope and lens combination Bl after which axis

P S oi goniometer is turned through 90° to vertical position.

(2) Place axial angle apparatus (fig. 36) in position and test direction

of axes by use of autocollimation at M. Adjust by means of screws C

and clamping screw F until axis of telescope is normal to glass plate.

Cross-hairs should be vertical and horizontal. Test by rotating glass

plate about vertical axis P S and horizontal axis D D.

(3) Center if necessary by means of mounted glass bead and screws C.

Retest adjustment after centering.

FORESTRY. — The place of forestry among natural sciences.^

Henry S. Graves, Forest Service.

In an old forest magazine, Sylvan, is a story about Germany's

great poet, Karl von Schiller. Schiller, taking rest at Illmenau,

Thuringen, met by chance a forester who was preparing a plan

of management for the Illmenau forest. A map of the forest was

spread out on which the cuttings for the next 220 years were

projected and noted with their year number. By its side lay the

plan of an ideal coniferous forest which was to have materialized

in the year 2050. Attentively and quietly the poet contemplated

the telling means of forest organization, and especially the plans

for far distant years. He quickly realized, after a short expla-

nation, the object of the work and gave vent to his astonishment:

I had considered you foresters a very common people who did little

else than cut down trees and kill game, but you are far from that. You

work unknown, unrecompensed, free from the tyranny of egotism, and

the fruit of your quiet work ripens for a late posterity. Hero and poet

attain vain glory; I would like to be a forester.

1 Paper delivered before the Washington Academy of Sciences on December

3, 1914.

42 graves: place of forestry among sciences

An opinion not unlike that held by Schiller before meeting

with the forester still commonly prevails in scientific circles in

this country. It is quite generally believed that foresters are

pure empiricists; something on the order of gardeners who plant

trees, of range-riders who fight forest fires, or lumbermen who

cruise timber, carry on logging operations or manufacture lumber

and other forest products; that for whatever little knowledge of

a scientific character the forester may need in his work, he de-

pends on experts in other branches of science; on the botanists

for the taxonomy of the trees, on physicists, chemists, and engi-

neers for the proper understanding of the physical, chemical,

and mechanical properties of the wood; on the geologist and soil

physicist for the knowledge of sites suitable for the growth of

different kinds of trees; upon the plant pathologist for the diseases

of trees; upon the entomologist for the insect enemies of the forest,

and so on.

Such an impression is undoubtedly strengthened when the

activities of such an organization as the Forest Service are con-

sidered. The placing under management of about 165 million

acres of forest land has been an administrative problem of enor-

mous magnitude. The administration of this vast public property

involves many large industrial and economic questions, and affects

intimately a number of varied and important interests : the lumber

industry, the grazing industry, water power development, naviga-

tion, municipal water supplies, agricultural settlement, mining de-

velopment, and the railroads. In launching this great public

enterprise, undertaken in the face of strong opposition, adminis-

trative activities appeared to overshadow research work. In this

way doubtless many scientific men have gained the impression

that forestry has little to do with science, which seeks for the

causal relationship of things and for the establishment of laws

and principles; that forestry is rather a patch work of miscella-

neous knowledge borrowed from other sciences and assembled

without particular system to help the practical administrator of

forest property.

My endeavor in this paper will be to show that this impression

is erroneous. While it is true that forestry as an art, as an applied

GRA.VES: PLACE OF FORESTRY AMONG SCIENCES 43

science, utilizes results furnished by the natural and engineering

sciences; while it is also true that the forester's activities —

particularly during the pioneer period of establishing forest

practice — may be largely administrative in character; there is

nevertheless a fundariiental forest science which has a distinctive

place. As with all others, the science of forestry owes its dis-

tinctive character to its correlation, from a certain point of view,

of parts of certain other sciences, such as mathematics, botany,

entomology, civil engineering, and chemistry. But these are only

auxiliary to the resultant science — forestry — which rests upon a

knowledge of the life of the forest as such, and which therefore

depends upon the discovery of laws governing the forest's growth

and development.

It is in this field chiefly that foresters may claim some scientific

achievement, some contribution to general science. Sciences do

not develop out of curiosity; they appear first of all because there

are practical problems that need to be solved, and only later

become an aim in themselves. This has been equally true of the

science of forestry. The object of forestry as an art is to produce

timber of high technical quality. In pursuing this object, the

forester very early observed that tall, cylindrical timber, com-

paratively free of knots, is produced only in dense stands, in for-

ests in which the trees exert an influence upon each other as well

as upon the soil and climate of the area occupied by them. He

further discovered that the social environment produced by trees

in a forest is an absolutely essential condition for the continuous

natural existence of the forest itself. If the forester had not

found forests in nature, he would have had to create forests

artificially in order to accomplish his practical purpose, since it

is only thi'ough the control and regulation of the natural struggle

for existence between trees in the forest that the forester is capable

of managing it for the practical needs of man. Thus from the

very nature of his dealings with the forest, the forester was forced

from the beginning to consider the forest not merely as an aggre-

gation of individual trees but as communities of trees — tree

societies — and first from purely utilitarian reasons, developed a

science upon which the practice of silviculture now rests.

44 graves: place of forestry among sciences

Forestry as a natural science, therefore, deals with the forest

as a community in which the individual trees influence one an-

other and also influence the character and life of the cormnunity

itself. As a community the forest has individual character and

form. It has a definite life history; it grows, develops, matures,

and propagates itself. Its form, development and final total

product may be modified by external influences. By abuse it

may be greatly injured and the forest as a living entity may even

be destroyed. It responds equally to care and may be so molded

by skillful treatment as to produce a high quality of product, and

in greater amount and in a shorter time than if left to nature.

The life history of this forest community varies according to the

species composing it, the density of the stand, the manner in

which the trees of different ages are grouped, the climatic and

soil factors which afl'ect the vigor and growth of the individual

trees. The simplest form of a forest community is that composed

of trees of one species and all of the same age. When several

species and trees of different ages occupy the same ground, the

form is more complex, the crowns overlapping and the roots occu-

pying different layers of the soil. Thus, for instance, when the

ground is occupied with a mixed stand of Douglas fir and hemlock,

the former requiring more light, occupies the upper story, and

because of its deeper root system extends to the lower lying strata

of the soil. The hemlock, on the other hand, which is capable of

growing under shade, occupies the under story, and having shal-

low roots utilizes largely the top soil.

These are forest communities, such for instance as those typical

of northwestern Idaho, where western larch, Douglas fir, western

white pine, white fir, western red cedar, and hemlock all grow

together. Such a forest is evidently a very complex organism,

the stability of which is based on a very nice adjustment be-

tween the different classes and groups occupying the same ground.

Any change in one of these classes or groups must necessarily

affect the other. If, for instance, in the Douglas fir-hemlock

forest, the Douglas fir is cut out, the remaining hemlock trees are

likely to die out because their shallow roots are left exposed to

the drying effect of the sun and wind. It is only by a thorough

graves: place of forestry among sciences 45

understanding of such mutual adjustments that the forester is

capable of intelligently handling the fojest. With the great

number of species that are found in this country, with the great

variety in climatic and other physical factors which influence the

form of the forest, it is self-evident that there are many forest

communities, each with distinctive biological characteristics,

which offer a wide field for scientific inquiry. Amid the great

volume of administrative phases of the work in the Forest Service

this main objective has never been lost sight of in handling the

National Forests. The Forest Service is now spending nearly

1300,000 annually for research work; it maintains eight forest

experiment stations and one thoroughly equipped forest products

laboratory, and is doing this work solely to study the fundamental

laws governing the life of the forest and their effect upon the final

product — wood.

Forestry may be called tree sociology and occupies among

natural sciences the same position as sociology among human-

istic sciences. Sociology may be based upon the physiological

functions of man as a biological individual. A physician, how-

ever, is not a sociologist, and social phenomena can be understood

and interpreted only in the light of sociological knowledge. So

also with forestry. Forestry depends upon the anatomy and

physiology of plants, but it is not applied anatomy and physiology

of plants. With foresters, anatomy and physiology of plants is

not the immediate end but enters only as one of the essential

parts without which it is impossible to grasp the processes that

take place in the forest.

As the science of tree societies, forestry really is a part of the

larger science dealing with plant associations, yet its develop-

ment was entirely independent of botanical geography. When

the need arose for the rational handling of timberlands, no

science of plant association was in existence. Foresters were

compelled to study the biology of the forest by the best methods

available; they used the general scientific methods of investiga-

tion and developed their own methods when the former proved

inadequate. I am frank to admit that the present knowledge of

plant associations in botany has not yet reached a point where

46 graves: place of forestry among sciences

foresters could leave wholly to botanists the working out of the

basic facts about the life of the forest which are needed in the

practice of forestry. When the general science of plant associa-

tions has reached a higher state of development, the two may

possibly merge, but not until then.

In developing the science of tree associations, the forester has

been unquestionably favored by the fact that the forests, being

the highest expression of social plant life, aiford the best oppor-

tunity for observing it.

The reason for the ability of forest trees to form most highly

organized plant societies lies in their mode of growth. Each

annual ring of growth, together with the new leaves that appear

every year, is in reality new colonies of cells. Some of the cells

'die toward the end of the vegetative season; others continue to

live for a number of years. When the conditions of life in a

forest have changed for a certain tree, when, for instance, from a

dominant tree it became a suppressed one, the new colonies of

cells formed during that year, and which sustain the life of that

tree, are naturally adapted to these new conditions. The same

is true when a suppressed tree, through some accident to its

neighbors comes into full enjoyment of light. The last annual

growth is at once capable of taking advantage of the new situa-

tion created in the forest. Therefore, as long as a tree can form

annual rings, it possesses the elasticity and adaptability essential

for trees living in dense stands. It is only when a tree is sup-

pressed to a point when it can not form new growth that it dies

and is eliminated from a stand.

Because of the fact that the forest is the highest expression of

social plant life, the foresters occupy the stragetic position from

which they command vistas accessible only with difficulty to other

naturalists. In this lies the strength of forestry, its peculiar

beauty, and the debt which natural science owes to it. It is a

significant fact, although, of course, only of historic importance,

that, according to Charles Darwin^ himself, it was ''an obscure

writer on forest trees who, in 1830, in Scotland (that is, 29 years

before the Origin of Species was published), most expressly and

^ Origin of species.

graves: place of forestry among sciences 47

clearly anticipated his views on natural selection in a book on

Naval Timber and Arboriculture," For the same reason it was

foresters, -who, long before the word '^ ecology" was coined, had

assembled a vast amount of material on the life of the forest as a

plant association — the basis of their silvicultural practice. Warm-

ing, Schimper, and other early writers on ecology, borrowed

most of their proofs and examples from the facts established by

the foresters, and the forest literature of today is still practically

the only one which contains striking examples of the application

of ecology to the solution of practical problems.

One discovery recently made at the Wind River Forest Ex-

periment Station in Oregon comes particularly to my mind.

In northwestern Idaho where the western white pine is at its

optimum growth and is greatly in demand by the lumberman;

our former method of cutting was to remove the main stand and

leave seed trees for the restocking of the ground. In order to

protect the seed trees from windfall, they were left not singly but

in blocks, each covering several acres. The trees left amounted

often to from 10 to 15 per cent in volume of the total stand, and

since they could not be utilized later they formed a fairly heavy

investment for reforesting the cutover land. A study of the

effect of these blocks of seed trees upon natural reforestation

has proved that they can not be depended upon, at least within a

reasonable time, to restock naturally the cutover land. The

distance to which the seed is scattered from these seed trees is

insignificant compared with the area to be reforested. Splendid

young growth, however, is found here and there on cutover land,

away from any seed trees, where the leaf litter is not completely

burned. It is evident, therefore, that the seed from which this

young growth originates must have come from a source other

than the seed trees. The study of the leaf htter in a virgin stand

showed that the latter contained on the average from one to two

germinable seed per square foot. Some of the seed found was

so discolored that it must have been in the litter for a long time.

Thus it was discovered that the seed of the western white pine

retains its vitality for years while lying in the duff and litter

beneath the mature stands, and then germinates when the ground

48 graves: place of forestry among sciences

is exposed to direct light by cutting. It was found similarly that

in old Douglas fir burns, where the leaf litter was not completely

destroyed, the young growth invariably sprung up from- seed that

had escaped fire and had been lying dormant in the ground.

Should a second fire go through the young stand before it reaches

the bearing stage, the land may become a complete waste, at

least for hundreds of years, although there may be seed trees left

on the ground. This conclusively proves that the young growth

comes from the seed stored in the ground before cutting took

place and not from the seed scattered after cutting by the seed

trees left.

The wonderful capacity of the leaf litter and duff of the cool,

dark forests of the Northwest to act as a storage medium for the

seed until favorable conditions for its germination occur is con-

fined not only to the Douglas fir and western white pine but to the

seed of other species which often grow together with them, such as

Noble fir, amabilis fir, western red cedar, and hemlock. The

subsequent appearance of other species in a Douglas fir or western

white pine stand depends apparently to a large extent upon the

seed stored in the ground at a time when the original forest still

existed. This discovery revolutionizes our conception of the

succession of forest stands, since it shows that the future com-

position of the forest is determined by the seed stored in the leaf

litter; and the appearance of seedlings first of one species and then

of another results simply from the differences in the relative

endurance of seed of the different species that are lying in the

ground. Besides being of scientific importance this discovery

has also a great practical significance. It accentuates the disas-

trous consequence of a second fire in an old burn because no more

seed remains in the ground while the capacity of the few seed

trees that may be on the burn is very limited in restocking the

ground. This discovery enabled the Service to change materially

the present methods of cutting in the white pine and Douglas fir

forests, to the mutual advantage of the Government and of the

logging operators.

I shall give briefly a few other illustrations of the life of the

forest which stamp it as a distinct plant society.

graves: place of forestry among sciences 49

The first social phenomenon in a stand of trees is the differen-

tiation of individuals of the same age on the basis of differences in

height, crown development, and growth, the result of the struggle

for light and nourishment between the members of the stand. A

forest at maturity contains scarcely 5 per cent of all the trees

that have started life there. Yet the death of the 95 per cent is

a necessary condition to the development of the others. The

process of differentiation into dominant and suppressed trees

takes place particularly in youth and gradually slows down toward

maturity. Thus, in some natural pine forests, during the age

between 20 to 80 years, over 4,000 trees on an acre die; whereas

at the age between 80 to 100 only 300 trees die. With some trees

this natural dying out with age proceeds faster than with others.

Thus in pine, birch, aspen, and all other species which demand a

great deal of hght, the death rate is enormous. With spruce,

beech, fir, and species which are satisfied with less light, this

process is less energetic. The growing demand for space with

age by individual trees in a spruce forest may be expressed in the

following figures:

At 20 years of age 4 sq. ft.

« 40 " " " 34 " "

a go " " " 110 " "

a 100 " " " 150 " "

If we take the space required by a pine at the age between 40

and 50 years as 100: then for spruce at the same age it will be 87;

for beech 79; and for fir 63. This process of differentiation is

universal in forests everywhere.

Another peculiarity that marks a tree community is the dif-

ference in seed production of trees which occupy different posi-

tions in the stand. Thus if the trees in a forest are divided into

five classes according to their height and crown development,

and if the seed production of the most dominant class is desig-

nated as 100, the seed production for trees of the second class will

be 88; for the third class, 33 ; for the fourth class only 0.5 per cent,

while the trees of the fifth class will not produce a single seed,

50 GEAVES :, PLACE OF FORESTRY AMONG SCIENCES

although the age of all these trees may be practically the same.

The same struggle for existence, therefore, which produced the

dominant and suppressed trees works toward a natural selection,

since only those which have conquered in the struggle for exist-

ence, and are endowed with the greatest individual energy of

growth, reproduce themselves.

In a forest there is altogether a different climate, a different

soil, and a different ground cover than outside of it. A forest

cover does not allow all the precipitation that falls over it to

reach the ground. Part of the precipitation remains on the

crowns and is later evaporated back into the air. Another part,

through openings in the cover, reaches the ground, while a third

part runs down along the trunks to the base of the tree. Many

and exact measurements have demonstrated that a forest cover

intercepts from 15 to 80 per cent of precipitation, according to

the species of trees, density of the stand, age of the forest, and

other factors. Thus pine forests of the north intercept only

about 20 per cent, spruce about 40 per cent, and fir nearly 60

per cent of the total precipitation that falls in the open. The

amount that runs off along the trunks in some species is very

small — less than 1 per cent. In others, for instance beech, it is 5

per cent. Thus if a certain locality receives 50 inches of rain,

the ground under the forest will receive only 40, 30, or 20 inches.

Thus 10, 20, and 30 inches will be withdrawn from the total

circulation of moisture over the area occupied by the forest.

The forest cover, besides preventing all of the precipitation from

reaching the ground, similarly keeps out light, heat, and wind.

Under a forest cover, therefore, there is altogether a different

heat and light climate, and a different relative humidity than in

the open.

The foliage that falls year after year upon the ground creates

deep modification in the forest soil. The changes which the

accumulation of leaf litter and the roots of the trees produce in

the soil and subsoil are so fundamental that it is often possible

to determine centuries after a forest has been destroyed, whether

the ground was ever occupied by one.

The effect which trees in a stand have upon each other is not

graves: place of forestry among sciences 51

confined merely to changes in their external form and growth;

it extends also to their internal structure. The specific gravity

of the wood, its composition, and the anatomical structure which

determines its specific gravity differ in the same species, and on

the same soil, and in the same chmate, according to the position

which the tree occupies in the stand. Thus in a 100-year-old

stand of spruce and fir the specific gravity of wood is greatest in

trees of the third crown class (intermediate trees) . The ratio of

the thick wall portion of the annual ring to the thin wall of the

spring wood is also different in trees of different crown classes.

The difference in the size of the tracheids in trees of different

crown classes may be so great that in one tracheid of a dominant

tree there may be placed three tracheids cells of a suppressed

tree. The amount of lignin per unit of weight is greater in domi-

nant trees than in suppressed trees.

Forest trees in a stand are thus influenced not only by the

external physical geographical environment, but also by the new

social environment which they themselves create. For this

reason forest trees assimilate, grow, and bear fruit differently

and have a different external appearance and internal structure

than trees not grown in a forest.

Forestry, unlike horticulture or agriculture, deals with wild

plants scarcely modified by cultivation. Trees are also long-

lived plants; from the origin of a forest stand to its maturity there

may pass more than a century. Foresters, therefore, operate

over long periods of time. They must also deal with vast areas;

the soil under the forest is as a rule unchanged by cultivation and

most of the cultural operations applicable in' arboriculture or

agriculture are entirely impracticable in forestry. Forests, there-

fore, are largely the product of nature, the result of the free

play of natural forces. Since the foresters had to deal with

natural plants which grew under natural conditions, they early

learned to study and use the natural forces affecting forest

growth. In nature the least change in the topography, exposure

or depth of soil, etc., means a change in the composition of the

forest, in its density, in the character of the ground cover, and

so on. As a result of his observations, the forester has developed

52 graves: place of forestry among sciences

definite laws of forest distribution. The forests in the different

regions of the country have been divided into natural types with

corresponding types of climate and site. These natural forest

types, which, by the way, were also developed long before the

modern conception of plant formations came to light, have been

laid at the foundation of nearly all of the practical work in the

woods. A forest type became the silvicultural unit which has

the same physical conditions of growth throughout and therefore

requires the same method of treatment. The manner of growth

and the method of natural regeneration, once developed for a

forest type, hold true for the same type, no matter where it occurs.

After the relation between a certain natural type of forest and the

climate and topography of a region has been established, the

forest growth becomes the living expression of the climatic and

physical factors of the locality. Similarly, with a given type of

climate and locality it is possible for the forester to conceive the

type of forest which would grow there naturally. The forester,

therefore, may speak of the climate of the beech forest, of the

Engelmann spruce forest, of the yellow pine forest. Thus, if in

China, which may lack weather observations, we find a beech

forest similar to one found in northern New York, we can be

fairly certain of the climatic similarities of the two regions. More

than that, a type of virgin forest growth may serve as a better

indication of the clunate of a particular locality than meteoro-

logical records covering a short nmnber of years. A forest which

has grown on the same ground for many generations is the result

not of any exceptional climatic cycle, but is the product of the

average climatic conditions that have prevailed in that region

for a long time. It expresses not only the result of one single

climatic factor, but is the product of all the climatic and physical

factors together. Similarly, the use of the natural forest types

for determining the potential capacity of the land occupied by

them for different purposes is becoming more and more appre-

ciated. When the climatic characteristics of a certain type of

forest, for instance those of Engelmann spruce in the Rocky

Mountains, is thoroughly established, the potential capacity of

the land occupied by it for agriculture, grazing, or other purposes

is also largely determined.

graves: place of forestry among sciences 53

Observations of the effect of climate upon forest growth natur-

ally brought out facts with regard to the effect of forests upon

climate, soil and other physical factors and led to the develop-

ment of a special branch of meteorology, known as forest mete-

orology, in which the foresters have taken a prominent part.

While there are some phases in forest meteorology which still

allow room for disagreement, some relationships established by

foresters are widely accepted. One of these is the effect which

forests have upon local climate, especially that of the area they

occupy and of contiguous areas. Every farmer who plants a

windbreak knows and takes advantage of this influence. Another

relation is that between the forest and the circulation of water on

and in the ground, a relation which plays such an important part

in the regimen of streams. Still a third one, as yet beyond the

possibility of a.bsolute proof, is the effect of forests in level coun-

tries, in the path of prevailing winds, upon the humidity and

temperature of far-distant regions lying in their lee.

If in the field of botany the forester has contributed to the

progress of botanical geography and in the realm of meteorology

has opened new fields of investigation, his influence in wood

technology has been in changing entirely the attitude of engineers,

physicists and chemists in handling wood products. The methods

of studying the physical, mechanical and chemical properties of

wood were, of course, those used in engineering by chemists and

physicists; but the forester has shown that wood, unlike steel,

concrete, or other structural material, is subject to altogether

different laws. Wood, he has shown, is not a homogeneous

product, but is greatly influenced by the conditions in the stand

from which it comes. Were it not, therefore, that mechanical

properties can be tied up with some definite forest conditions and

correlated with some readily visible expression of tree growth,

such as the number of rings per inch or the specific gravity of the

wood, timber would be too much of an indefinite quantity for

architects and other users of wood to handle with perfect safety.

To find such a relation is just what the foresters have been at-

tempting to do, and most of the studies of the strength of wood

have been with the view of establishing certain relations between

54 graves: place of forestry among sciences

the mechanical, physical, and amatomical properties of the wood.

Some of these relations I may mention here.

One of the earliest relations which foresters have established

with a fair certainty is that between the specific gravity of the

wood and its technical qualities. Some of the foresters even go

so far as to claim that the specific gravity of wood is an indicator

of all other mechanical properties and that the strength of wood

increases with the specific gravity, irrespective of the species and

genus. In other words, the heavier the wood, all other conditions

being equal, the greater its strength. Even oak, which formed

apparently an exception, has been recently shown to follow the

same law. If there is still some doubt that the specific gravity of

wood can be made a criterion of all mechanical and technical

properties of wood, the correlation between the specific grav-

ity and the resistance to compression end-wise (parallel to the

grain) is apparently beyond question. Thus by the specific

gravity the resistance to compression end-wise can be readily

detennined. The compression end-wise equals 1000 times the

specific gravity minus 70, when the moisture content of the

wood is 15 per cent, or (7= 1000 S — 70.

Since in construction work the most desirable wood is the one

which possesses the highest strength at a given w^eight, the ratio

between the compression strength and the specific gravity was

found to express most clearly the strength of wood. This ratio,

however, increases with the increase in the specific gravity, a

fact which further substantiates the law that the specific gravity

of wood determines its mechanical properties.

Another relation which has been fairly established is that be-

tween the resistance to compression end-wise and the bending

strength of timber. By the resistance compression end-wise,

therefore, the bending strength of timber can be determined.

One of the other properties of wood, namely hardness, was

found to have a definite relation to the bending and compression

strength of wood and this fact tempts the conclusion that by

hardness alone all other mechanical properties can be deter-

mined. The t^st for hardness is very simple: it can be made

even by a small manufacturer and therefore the whole problem

graves: place of forestry among sciences 55

of wood testing would be greatly simplified. Hardness was

also found to have a definite relation to the proportion of the

summer wood in the annual ring, and consequently to the specific

gravity of the wood. The specific gravity of wood is determined

by its anatomical structure, by the proportion of fibro-vascular

bundles, their thickness and length, the proportion of thick-

walled cells, medullary rays, etc. The anatomical structure in

its turn is probably determined by the combination of two

factors, — the amount of nourishment in the soil and the intensity

of transpiration. The mechanical properties of wood come,

therefore, within the control of the forester who raises and cares

for the forest.

There is another field of scientific endeavor in which foresters

in this country may claim some credit. This is in the field of

forest mathematics. One unfamiliar with forest growth can

hardly realize the difficulties in the way of measuring the forest

crop, the amount of wood produced in a forest composed, for

instance, of many different species, sizes, and ages. If a tree

resembled any geometric body, such as a truncated cone, or an

Appolonian paraboloid, it would be a simple matter to determine

its contents by applying the formula for such body. But a

tree's form does not coincide with that of any known geometric

body, so that it would seem that the only possible way of determin-

ing the contents of the trees forming a forest would be by measur-

ing each single tree. Evidently this would be an entirely im-

practicable task.

The common practice of determining the contents of trees

either in board measure or in cubic feet is to measure a large

number of trees of a given species in a given locality and apply

the average figures to the trees of the same diameters and heights

within that locality. Since there are, however, a great many

species of trees in this country, some of which have a very wide

geographic range, this method necessarily involves the prepa-

ration of a large number of local volume tables and hence the

measurement of hundreds of thousands of trees. The measure-

ment of tha taper of a larger number of trees has shown that

there are certain critical points along the stem of a tree, the

56 graves: place of forestry among sciences

ratio between which expresses thejorm of the tree in a sufficiently

accurate manner. It was found that trees having the same

total height, the same diameter breasthigh (4^ feet from the

ground) and the same ratio between the diameter at half the

height of the tree and the diameter breasthigh, must invariably

have the same cubic contents irrespective of the species of the

tree or the region in which it grows. Thus whether it be a Scotch

pine of northern Sweden, a yellow pine of Arizona, a mahogany

of the tropics, or a scrubby birch of the Arctic Circle, the volume

of the tree may be expressed by means of one simple relation-

ship. The discovery of this very simple relation provides, for

the first time, a basis for the construction of a universal volume

table. The mathematicians of the earlier period sought in vain

to find a formula by which the cubic contents of a tree could be

expressed. What the mathematicians failed to develop by the

deductive method, foresters have found by the inductive method.

With a reliable table for converting cubic measure into board

measure for trees of different sizes, the universal volume table

expressed in cubic feet could be translated into a universal

table expressed in board feet, which is the measure peculiar to

this country.

There is another contribution of which I am somewhat hesi-

tant to speak, for it is not a contribution to pure science, if by

science is meant only the physical or natural sciences. Since,

however, it touches the interests of a large number of people,

I may be forgiven if I say a few words about it. It is a contri-

bution to what one economist has aptly called the "science of

social engineering." The transfer of the forest reserves in 1905

to the Department of Agriculture marked a new departure in

the national economic life. It recognized the new principle

that the Nation's resources should be managed by the Nation

and directly in the interests of the whole people; it recognized

that these resources should be developed collectively rather

than individually and indirectly. Nearly ten years have now

passed since the inauguration of this policy. The record of what

has been accomplished and the manner in which many of the

problems have been approached and solved must unquestionably

STAND ley: a new GENUS OF CHENOPODIACEAE 57

be considered a contribution to the methods by which similar

problems may be handled by the Nation in the future. In the

administration of the National Forests there is being developed

gradually what I believe to be a truly scientific system for at-

taining a concrete economic end, a system of controlling certain

correlated industries tvith a single purpose in view — the maxi-

mum of the welfare of the Nation as a whole. In spite of many

mistakes which we have undoubtedly made and which we have

attempted to correct as we went along, in spite of the lack of

practice and experience in solving the problems at hand, this new

policy, it seems to me, has already proved to be entirely safe

and workable.

BOTANY. — A new genus of Chenopodiaceae,^ from Arizona.

Paul C. Standley, National Museum.

While examining some sheets of Chenopodiaceae from the

herbarium of the Missouri Botanical Garden not long ago the

writer came upon one consisting of specimens of a low shrub,

from northern Arizona, which in general appearance were exactly

like Grayia brandegei; and being only in flower they were so

labeled, although that species was not otherwise known from

Arizona. The specimens Vv^ere associated with this rare species

quite naturally, for the writer knew there was no other described

member of the Chenopodiaceae in the Southwest that was similar

.in general aspect.

More recently Mrs. Walter Hough has generously presented

to the U. S. National Museum an interesting collection of plants,

gathered chiefly in northern Arizona in 1896 and 1897. While

inspecting the sheets of this accession the writer's attention was

drawn to one which at once recalled the specimen just mentioned.

This second one, however, was in mature fruit and showed clearly

that the plant was no Grayia. Careful examination definitely

placed it as a member of the Atripliceae, but as scarcely refer-

able 'to any known genus. While, unfortunately, this curious

shrub is known only from pistillate branches, the staminate flowers

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

58 STAND ley: a new genus of chenopodiaceae

in this group of the Chenopodiaceae are of so little taxonomic

importance — being singularly uniform through all the genera

of the tribe — that the writer has no hesitation in making it the

basis of a new genus, named in honor of the discoverer. Its

characters are discussed below.

ZucKiA Standley, gen. no v.

Low erect shrubs, with a copious covering of whitish inflated trich-

omes. Leaves numerous, alternate, petiolate, the blades flat, entire.

Flowers dioecious, the pistillate ones sessile, solitary or in small glome-

rules forming short interrupted naked paniculate spikes, each flower

bibracteolate, the bractlets accrescent in age, united except for a small

aperture at the depressed apex, slightly inflated, thin, depressed

vertically, 6-carinate vertically, 2 of the keels broader than the others

and winglike; perianth none. Ovary depressed-globose; stigmas 2,

filiform, exserted, connate at the base. Utricle included in the

bracts, the pericarp membranaceous. Seed horizontal, the testa mem-

branaceous; embryo annular, surrounding the copious endosperm;

radicle centrifugal.

Type species, Zuckia arizonica Standley.

Zuckia arizonica Standley, sp. nov.

Plants 1.5-4 dm. high, fruticose nearly throughout, copiously

branched, the branches slender, erect, striate, the older ones gray or

brown, the younger ones stramineous and densely furfuraceous; leaf

blades oblong-oblanceolate or spatulate-oblanceolate, or the upper-

most hnear-oblanceolate, 10-20 mm. long, 1.5-7 mm. wide, obtuse to

acutish at the apex, attenuate at the base to a short stout petiole,

thick and somewhat coriaceous, grayish-furfuraceous; pistillate spikes

much interrupted, divaricate, forming nearly naked panicles 5-12 cm.

long and 2-6 cm. wide; fruiting bractlets 4-5 mm. broad, densely

furfuraceous, the 6 keels acute, two of them usually 1-1.5 mm. wide

and winglike; utricle furfuraceous; seed orbicular, compressed, 2 mm.

in diameter, yellowish brown, dull.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 694799, collected at

Chalcedony Park (the Petrified Forest), eighteen miles southeast of

Holbrook, Arizona, October 15, 1897,' by Miss Myrtle Zuck (Mrs.

Walter Hough). Also collected at Adamana, Arizona, in early August,

1903, by Dr. David Griffiths, no. 5085 (Mo. Bot. Card. no. 46127).

The type is in mature fruit and the second specimen in flower.

The genus Zuckia is a member of the tribe Atripliceae, subtribe

Atriplicinae, as defined by Volkens.^ It is difficult to tell to which

of the included genera it is most closely related. In the key given by

Volkens it would run to either Spinacia or Suckleya. Certainly

2 In Engl, and Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. 3^^: 62. 1893.

STAND ley: a new GENUS OF CHENOPODIACEAE 59

Zuckia is not very closely related to the species of Spinacia, which are

glabrous annuals with indurated bracts, 4 or 5 stigmas, and vertical

seeds. Suckleya, too, is an herbaceous plant with strongly obcom-

pressed bracts and vertical seeds. Only two other genera are included

in the subtribe Atriplicinae : Endolepis and Atriplex. Endolepis

has been included in Atriplex by most authors, but it seems to the writer

sufficiently distinct in having a perianth in the pistillate flowers, a

character which, along with its vertical seeds, also separates it from

Zuckia. ^

Apparently this new genus is most closely related to Atriplex, but

in the latter the bracts are never wholly united; at least the tips are

always free, and commonly the bracts are distinct at least to the

middle, often nearly or quite to the base. In Zuckia they are wholly

united, and at the depressed apex there is only a very small aperture

through which the styles are exserted. In only a small group of

Atriplex species — 'the subgenus Dichospermum Dum., which contains

the type of the genus, A. hortensis — ^are horizontal seeds found. In

these species there are two kinds of pistillate flowers on each plant:

some with vertical seeds inclosed by two distinct bracts, and others

with horizontal seeds mclosed in a regular herbaceous calyx. In

Zuckia all the pistillate flowers are alike, having the horizontal seed

included in the somewhat inflated bracts, with no calyx present. As

already noted, Zuckia bears a superficial resemblance to Grayia brand-

egei, the two being almost exactly alike in habit and leaf form; but the

species of Grayia have a copious pubescence of small branched hairs,

and, of course, the structure of the pistillate flowers and the fruit is

very different.

Zuckia is evidently a very distinct genus and one of the most re-

markable members of the whole tribe. That it was not found by some

of the earlier collectors who visited this region is rather strange, but

doubtless attributable to the circumstance that the two localities

whence it now comes are in a part of Arizona in which comparatively

little collecting has been carried on. This and the fact that so much crit-

ical attention has been given recently to the Chenopodiaceae, without

the discovery of this new generic type, lead to the belief that Zuckia is

generally wanting in herbaria. Its rediscovery and collection in ade-

quate amount for distribution will be a matter of much interest; for,

while many new genera have been proposed in recent years for United

States plants removed* from well known genera, the opportunity

rarely arises of establishing a genus of phanerogams upon a plant

previously quite unknown.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of oflScial publications should

be transmitted through the representative of thcbureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEOLOGY. — Carnotite near Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania. Edgar

T. Wherry. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 580-F. Pp. 147-

151. 1914.

The location, history, geology, composition, origin, and commercial

value of the deposit are briefly discussed. The results of a new

analysis are given, the potassium being much higher than the calcium

and the usual carnotite ratio of V: U = 1:1 being shown.

E. T. W.

MINERALOGY. — Notes on wolframite, heraunite, and axinite. Edgar

T. Wherry. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, 47: 501.

1914.

Analyses of two specimens of wolframite and the calculated mineral

compositions are given. The convenience of chemical prefixes for

the end members of isomorphous series is illustrated by the adoption

of the following nomenclature: Ferrowolframite, FeW04; manganowolf-

ramite, MnW^04; calcioscheelite, CaW04; magnesioscheelite, MgW04;

cuproscheelite, CUWO4; ferrotantalite, Fe(Ta03)2; manganotantalite,

Mn(Ta03)2; ferrocolumbite, Fe(Cb03)2; and manganocolumbite,

Mn(Cb03)2.

A ferric phosphate from Hellertown, Pennsylvania, showed wide

variations in composition, although it agreed in physical features with

beraunite. The variations may be explained by considering the

material a meta-colloid : In the original colloid condition it was an

adsorption compound of the constituent oxides and water; but, when

it attained its present form, the adsorbed constituents united as well

as they could into definite compounds, which formed mix-crystals.

A supposed new mineral from Avondale, Pennsylvania, proved to be

axinite containing intergrown zoisite.

E. T. W.

60

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V FEBRUARY 4, 1915 No. 3

FWY^ICS.^— Characteristic equations of tungsten filament lamps

and their application in heterochromatic photometry.^ G. W.

MiDDLEKAUFF AND J. E. Skogland. Coiiimunicated by the

Bureau of Standards.

The most difficult problem in ordinary photometry is the

comparison of the intensity of light sources differing widely

in color. In such comparisons it is practically impossible, even

for the most experienced observers, to agree in their measure-

ments, this disagreement being due principally to difference in

color vision and to difference in judgment as to when two colors

viewed in the photometer are of equal intensity. Hence, especi-

ally, to establish standards, a large number of observations by

different experienced observers must be taken to average out the

personal errors.

One of the most convenient methods of avoiding color dif-

ference in practical photometry is by the use of colored glasses

to bring the lamps to a color match; but by this method the

principal difficulties are merely shifted to the problem of cali-

brating the glasses, a large number of which are necessary to

meet the present requirements of colored light photometry.

By the method described in this paper, color differences are

avoided by the use of tungsten standard lamps which are ad-

justed in voltage to color match the light source to be measured,

and the candlepower values of the standards at the voltage

1 To be published in full as Scientific Paper No. 238 of the Bureau of Standards.

61

62 MIDDLEKAUFF AND SKOGLAND : EQUATIONS

corresponding to that color are computed from the voltage at

which the candlepower is known, this computation being made by

the use of the voltage-candlepower equation of the standards.

In order fully to realize the advantages of this method in

practice, it was necessary, first, to measure a large variety of

tungsten lamps to find the relation of candlepower to voltage, and

then to calculate the equation which would express this relation

over a wide range of voltage or efficiency. The results were far

more satisfactory than was at first anticipated.

It was found that all vacuum tungsten lamps, within a wide

range of wattage, have the same voltage-current-candlepower

characteristics regardless of the make or method of manufacture.

It was found also that, not only the voltage-candlepower relation,

but also the voltage-current, voltage-wattage, and voltage-watts

per candle, relations could be accurately expressed by one general

equation of the form y = Ax~ + B.t + C. In this equation

X = log voltage, y = log candlepower, log wattage, log current,

or log watts per candle, and A, B, and C are constants, the

values of which depend upon the significance of y. It is found

most convenient to express all these variables, except watts per

candle, in terms of the respective values of each at a chosen normal

efficiency. In this way the constant C disappears from the

equation except when y represents the watts per candle, in which

case C is the logarithm of the watts per candle chosen as normal.

The above general equation applies very exactly over the

whole range investigated, namely, from 0.7-ivpc to S.3-ivpc, the

latter limit extending somewhat beyond the watts per candle

corresponding to color match with 4i-wpc carbon lamps.

These equations are useful for two purposes. The international

candle is maintained at the Bureau of Standards by means of

4l-wpc carbon standard lamps. If for example it were desired to

establish a group of tungsten standards operating at 1.5 wpc.

these tungsten standards would be measured directly in terms

of the primary i-tvpc carbon standards with the voltage on the

tungsten lamps so adjusted as to bring them into color match

with the primary standards. Then, from the voltage and

corresponding efficiency of the tungsten lamps at this color, the

sanford: magnetic permeability 63

voltage, current, watts, and candlepower corresponding to an

efficiency of 1.5 wpc are computed by means of the above char-

acteristic equations.

Another use of these equations is in connection with tungsten

standards the values of which are known at some particular

efficiency (or color). In standardizing other lamps these stand-

ards are adjusted to a color match with the lamps to be measured

and the values of candlepower, current, etc., for each standard,

at the voltage corresponding to that particular color, are deter-

mined by means of the characteristic equations.

Although these equations are simple and easy to handle, their

use involves comparatively long and tedious computations. To

avoid the necessity of making such computations, there has been

computed a set of tables from which, with the aid of an ordinary

slide rule, correction factors to reduce values of candlepower,

current, etc., from one efficiency to another can be read directly.

By the method described above, the photometric difficulties

due to color difference are dealt with, once for all, in determin-

ing the characteristics of the tungsten lamp, and thereafter all

measurements are reduced to the photometry of lights of the same

color.

PHYSICS. — The temperature coefficient of magnetic permeability

within the working range.^ Raymond L. Sanford. Com-

municated by the Bureau of Standards.

Magnetic measurements at different temperatures within

the atmospheric range were made on wrought iron, cast iron,

and low carbon steel with different heat treatments. The

results of these measurements seem to warrant the following

conclusions:

I. The temperature coefficient of magnetic permeability

though small can not be neglected in magnetic measurements

of high accuracy.

II. On account of the wide variation in temperature coeffi-

cient, not only for different materials but also for the same

1 To appear in full in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards. ;'-'^#-''-

^/^^^^o

64 bastin: colloidal gold and silver

material with different heat treatments, correction cannot be

made to standard temperature from data obtained from other

materials.

III. Unless the temperature coefficient is known for the par-

ticular material under test, temperature control offers the only

means of avoiding the error due to temperature changes, at least

where errors as great as 1 per cent are to be avoided.

GEOCHEMISTRY. — Experiments with colloidal gold and silver.

Edson S. Bastin/ Geological Survey.

GOLD

In a series of preliminary experiments on the precipitative

action of metallic sulphides, arsenides, etc. on gold held in dilute'

solutions, the results of which were published in 1913, ^ it was

noted that chalcocite (CU2S) precipitated gold -from a dilute

aqueous solution of auric chloride (AuCls) as a dark brown dull

coating sometimes exhibiting moss-like protuberances, whereas

most other common metallic minerals precipitated it as a thin

lustrous yellow or orange coating. The brown gold coating

chalcocite when touched with the blowpipe flame becomes

orange-yellow and lustrous.

As the brgwn gold showed no indication of being anything but

pure gold and as brown gold of somewhat similar appearance is

known to occur in nature the suggestion presented itself that the

brown color was largely due to a very fine state of division of

the gold, its condition possibly approaching that of a coagulated

colloid. To test the accuracy of this supposition advantage

was taken of certain well known properties of colloidal solutions.

Colloidal solutions may be conveniently divided into two classes

according as the ''dissolved" substance is solid or liquid. If the

"dissolved" substance is solid, as in the case of a colloidal solution

of gold in water, the solution is termed a suspensoid. If the

''dissolved" phase is liquid, as in a solution of gelatine in water,

the solution, is termed an emulsoid. Even very small amounts

1 Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.

2 Palmer, Chase, and Bastin, Edson S., Metallic minerals as precipitants of

silver a,nd gold. Economic Geology, 8: 140-170. 1913.

bastin: colloidal gold and silver 65

of electrolytes added to suspensoids will cause the suspended

solid particles to coagulate, i.e. to assemble into larger groups

which settle out of the solution. Resolution after coagulation

is impossible without introducing entirely new conditions. If

on the other hand small amounts of an emulsoid (such as a

gelatine solution) are mixed with a suspensoid, coagulation may

be much delayed in spite of the presence of electrolytes in the

solution.

It seemed possible therefore that if the brown gold developed

on chalcocite was colloidal in character, its deposition might be

delayed by mixing an emulsoid with the gold chloride solution

before inserting the piece of chalcocite and that by this means

some of the gold might be obtained in colloidal suspension. This

was readily accomplished.

In the experiments first to be reported the solutions were heated

to boiling, since it has been determined that in reactions of

metallic minerals on gold chloride solutions, heating increases the

rate without as a rule greatly affecting the character of the

reactions. Much time was thereby saved. In the first experi-

ment a solution of gelatine in water and a ^ solution of auric

chloride were employed. Two solutions of equal strength as

regards gold were prepared by adding to one volume of AuCls

solution (1) in one case one volume of gelatine solution, and (2)

in the other case one volume of water. The solutions therefore

differed only in the presence in one of an emulsoid solution of

gelatine. Into each were introduced a few small pieces of

chalcocite a,nd both were then heated to boiling and kept there

until the reactions were complete. The solution without gelatine

rapidly changed from clear yellow to clear pale green-blue in

color as the auric chloride was replaced by cupric chloride. At

the same time a coating of brown gold formed on the chalcocite.

Upon further heating, after the yellow color had wholly disap-

peared, the solution again changed color becoming deeper blue

by transmitted and pale reddish by reflected light. After cool-

ing and standing for about an hour this pseudo-fluorescent color-

ation disappeared, the solution again showing the pale green-

blue of cupric chloride.. With the gelatine-bearing solution the

66 bastin: colloidal gold and silver

reaction proceeded similarly until the yellow color of the solu-

tion gave way to pale green-blue ; upon further heating, however,

the solution became deep blue by transmitted and bright brick red

by reflected light, due, as later proven, to the presence of gold in

colloidal solution. This solution remained unchanged for days.

To exclude the possibility of this very intense coloration being

due to the action of the copper salt formed, on the gelatine,

gelatine solution was added to the solution resulting from the

action of AuCls solution alone on chalcocite; even in prolonged

boiling there was no intensification of the pale coloration of this

solution To determine whether the brown gold once precipi-

tated can be '' dissolved" in an emulsoid, the piece of gold-coated

chalcocite obtained from the action of AuCls solution alone was

boiled in a gelatine solution. There was no noticeable change.

Although some metallic minerals such as smaltite precipitate

lustrous bronze-colored gold from auric chloride solution under

the conditions of these experiments, none known to the writer

precipitate dull reddish-brown gold, except chalcocite. It is

well known, however, that many metals precipitate dull brown

to black gold from AuCls solutions, and it was desirable to deter-

mine whether colloidal gold solutions could be obtained by the

aid of these metals. One part of ^ AuCls solution was mixed

with one part of dilute gelatine solution and to equal parts of

this solution in four test-tubes were added small amounts of

metallic zinc, copper, cadmimn and tin. The solutions were

then boiled. In each case dark-brown to nearly black gold was

precipitated on the metal. With zinc and copper colloidal gold

solutions were obtained which were identical in appearance with

that obtained with chalcocite. Cadmium yielded a colloidal

gold solution that was dark brick-red by reflected and purple

by transmitted light. ^ Tin yielded the well-known ''purple

of Cassius" solution.

' The appearance of colloidal gold solutions is so characteristic that there

could be no reasonable doubt upon this ground alone of the nature of the solutions

obtained. Several of them were, however, through the courtesy of Mr. George

Vinal of the Bureau of Standards, examined under the ultra-microscope and

found to show all the characteristics of colloidal suspensoids. Moreover they

deposit films of gold upon standing for several days.

bastin: colloidal gold and silver 67

To determine whether colloidal gold solutions could be obtained

with the aid of substances known to precipitate lustrous yellow

or orange gold from AuCls solutions, fragments of pyrite, chal-

copyrite, enargite, and galena were boiled with the same gelatine-

bearing solution of AuCls used in the previous experiments. In

each case lustrous yellow gold was deposited on the mineral,

the solution at the same time losing its yellow color; but gold

was not obtained in colloidal solution even on prolonged boiling.

Metallic bismuth, which unlike zinc, copper, and cadmiimi pre-

cipitates lustrous yellow gold from a gelatine-bearing AuCls

solution, also failed to yield a colloidal gold solution.

The experiments that have been described were conducted

at temperatures at or near 100° C. to speed the reactions, but

beautifully colored solutions of colloidal gold were also obtained

at ordinary room temperatures by the action of metallic copper

and of chalcocite on gelatine-bearing AuCls solutions. The

finely-divided gold first appears as a cloud over the surface of

the copper or chalcocite; this cloud, when the dish is jarred, de-

taches itself in streamer-like forms and finally becomes wholly

dispersed in the solution. The color of the solution gradually

changes from yellow to purplish red as these gold clouds disperse

through it. The facility with which the colloidal solutions can

be obtained at room temperatures is markedly dependent upon

the strength of the solutions and the most favorable conditions

have not been accurately determined by the writer.

A colloidal silica solution was prepared by dialysis of an aque-

ous sol of sodimn silicate that had been neutralized by sul-

phuric acid. This sol was used instead of gelatine sol in experi-

ments similar to those previously described and yielded colloidal

gold solutions with chalcocite and copper, and purple of Cassius

with tin.

It is well known that ferrous sulphate readily precipitates gold

from solutions of auric chloride. When dilute solutions of these

two compounds are mixed there results a solution that is blue

by tr,ansmitted light and brick-red by reflected light, due to the

presence of gold in very fine suspension. From the particular

solution prepared by the writer all of the suspended gold settled

68 bastin: colloidal gold and silver

after standing 1^ hours. If either gelatinous sihca or gelatine

is present in the solutions similar gold suspensions result, but

from these the gold settles only very slowly.

Summary for gold. From the foregoing results it is evident

that the readiness with which colloidal gold solutions may be

obtained under the conditions of these experiments bears a close

relation to the nature of the gold deposited. The dull brown or

black condition of gold is favorable and the lustrous yellow con-

dition unfavorable to their formation. In the experiments

conducted at room temperatures the colloidal gold appeared to

originate on the surface of the metal or sulphide, and to slowly

diffuse out into the liquid. These phenomena suggest that the

dull brown or black gold may be in a finely divided condition

approaching that of a coagulated colloid.

Brown gold occurs occasionally in nature usually if not always

in the oxidized zone. Lindgren^ states that the gold derived from

the oxidation of tellurides is commonly dull brown in color.

While it is very probable that the brown color of some natural

gold is due to impurity or to coatings, the possibility that some

of it is in a condition approaching the colloidal should not be

overlooked.

In the experiments with chalcocite and with ferrous sulphate

colloidal silica appeared to function similarly to gelatine in de-

laying the complete precipitation of gold, some being retained

in colloidal suspension. The possibility of gold being taken into

colloidal solution in the oxidized zone of ore deposits in the

presence of such emulsoids as colloidal silica appears to be worthy

of further investigation.

silver

In the preliminary paper by Palmer and Bastin already re-

ferred to, attention was called to the fact that certain metallic

minerals are capable of reducing silver sulphate in dilute aqueous

solutions. With some minerals the only silver mineral formed

was metallic silver, in other cases native silver and a compound

of silver fonned, and in still other cases only a silver compound.

^ Lindgren, W., Mineral Deposits, 434. 1913.

bastin: colloidal gold and silver 69

Some differences were noted in the crystal forms of the silver

developed on different minerals, but all was silver-white, lustrous

and metallic in appearance.

Following the experiments with gold, similar experiments

were conducted with silver using a solution composed of equal

parts of /o Ag2S04 and a dilute aqueous sol of gelatine.

In the first experiment small pieces of chalcocite were boiled:

(1) with gelatine-bearing Ag2S04 solution, and (2) with the same

strength Ag2S04 solution without gelatine. The gelatine-bear-

ing solution yielded a brown colloidal solution of petroleum-

like appearance evidently containing silver and possibly silver

sulphide;^ only a slight precipitate of metallic silver formed on

the chalcocite. The solution without gelatine yielded no colloi-

dal solution of silver but became pale blue from copper sulphate

formed, metallic silver being deposited in abundance on the chal-

cocite.

Colloidal solutions similar in general appearance to those ob-

tained with chalcocite were obtained from gelatine-bearing

Ag2S04 solutions with enargite, smaltite, maucherite (Ni4As3)

and niccolite. Some of the solutions carried presumably not only

silver but compounds of silver in colloidal suspension, but the

writer has had no opportunity to determine their composition.

In each case some metallic silver was precipitated on the mineral,

though in notably lesser abundance than when gelatine was not

present.

From chalcopyrite, a mineral which does not precipitate metal-

lic silver from neutral Ag2S04 solution, '^ there was obtained upon

boiling with gelatine sol and dilute Ag2S04 a yellowish-brown

colloidal solution, probably of a sulphide of silver and copper.

This solution was quite different in appearance from the pe-

troleum-like solutions obtained with minerals that precipitate

metallic silver. During the reaction the chalcocite becomes

5 Palmer has demonstrated the reaction CU2S+2 Ag2S04 = 2 Cu SO4+ Ag2S+ 2 Ag,

for a neutral electrolytic solution.

'■' In the preliminary paper already referred to some precipitation of metallic

silver by chalcopyrite was reported but it was subsequently learned that tarnishes

on the fragment used produced this effect and that the perfectly clean mineral

precipitated no metallic silver from a dilute Ag2 SO4 solution.

70 bastin: colloidal gold and silver

covered with peacock tarnish, due presumably to the formation

of some double sulphide of silver and copper.

When a colloidal silica sol prepared by dialysis was substituted

for the gelatine solution under the conditions of the experiments

described above colloidal solutions were obtained upon boiling,

with chalcopyrite and metallic tin. With metallic copper and

with chalcocite, and enargite, only fine suspensions of silver were

obtained with the comparatively dilute silica solution used, but

with a solution of sodium silicate^ much richer in silica true

colloidal solutions of silver were readily obtained with all these

substances.

Hydrogen sulphide gives with a dilute Ag2S04 solution a black

precipitate of Ag2S, the solution becoming very pale yellowish,

probably from the presence of minute amounts of Ag2S in colloi-

dal solution. In the presence of gelatine, however, no Ag2S

is precipitated, but the solution becomes deep brownish-yellow,

all the AgoS presumably going into colloidal solution. Entirely

analogous results were obtained with cupric sulphate solutions,

the gelatine-bearing solution yielding no precipitate, but a yellow-

ish-brown colloidal solution (presumably of sulphides of copper).

When a colloidal silica sol was substituted for the gelatine sol

in the above experiments, some sulphide was precipitated, but

some also went into colloidal suspension, strongly coloring the

solutions.

Summary for silver. The above experiments show that, in

the presence of an emulsoid such as gelatine, part of the metallic

silver or silver compounds that would otherwise be precipitated

from silver sulphate by certain metallic minerals is likely to be

retained in colloidal solution. Silica appears to function similarly

to gelatine in favoring the entrance of the silver or its com-

pounds into colloidal solution. Because of the fact that basic

rocks, particularly those rich in olivine, yield colloidal silica in

weathering more readily than acid rocks, it is in ores associated

wHh such rocks that we might expect to find the most evidence

of colloidal downward transport of these metals. The writer

" Sodium silicate in aqueous solution undergoes partial dissociation, yielding

sodium hydroxide and silica.

bastin: colloidal gold and silver 71

believes, however, that the transport of silver or gold in colloidal

solution is of very much less importance in downward enrich-

ment of ore deposits than their transfer as salts in true (electro-

lytic) solutions. In primary ore deposition colloidal transport

may be of much more importance.

General. The writer regrets that he has been unable to carry

out these experiments quantitatively, determining fully the prod-

ucts of the reactions. He has also had no opportunity to make

a careful search of the foreign literature to determine how much

of originality can be claimed for the results. In this country,

however, attention appears not to have been directed to the

possible geologic bearing of these phenomena. As the writer

will be unable for some time to continue these studies the pre-

liminary data are offered for whatever suggestiveness they may

have to those interested in the role of colloids in ore deposition.

As evidencing the occasional occurrence of gelatinous silica

in considerable amounts in mineral deposits, the following

statement by Mr. J. H. Levings^ may be of interest.

I was surprised to find that members could only instance one case of

silicic acid in the gelatinous condition. About four years ago, when

the writer was connected with the Great Austraha Mine, Cloncurry,

Queensland, a drive was beat out under the siliceous copper outcrop.

Water was continuously flowing through this ore body, which acted

as a drainage conduit for the surrounding country. Numerous vughs

were cut into, and silica in all stages of gelatinization was found, vary-

ing from a viscous fluid to veins which could be cut with a knife hke

cheese. The writer de-hydrated many samples; some were practi-

cally pure silica, some contained carbonate of lime and carbonates of

copper. In other samples, taken from solidified portions, a complete

gradation from silica to calcite could be followed. Apparently, silica

and calcite can be precipitated from the same solution in any pro-

portions. It may be mentioned that the lode occurs in diorite.

Some years previously, in Tasmania, some jelly-like substance was

brought for the writer to determine. It had been obtained from a

vugh in a siliceous copper lode, and contained some free slender quartz

crystals about 2 inches long, both ends of which terminated in prisms.

Some similar but better proportioned crystals about ^ inch long, were

also present. On examination the substance was found to be silica

in a gelatinous state. The lode occurred in old sedimentary rocks.

8 Trans., Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, 21 : 478. 1911-1912.

72 STAND ley: the generic name achyranthes

BOTANY. — The application of the generic name Achyranthes.'^

Paul C. Standley, National Museum.

The generic name Achyranthes was appHed by Linneaus in

1753 to a group of plants now placed in the family Amaranthaceae.

Linnaeus' genus included several species which are now referred

to three genera, only two of which need receive consideration

here. When, in working recently with the Amaranthaceae for

the North American Flora, it became necessary to determine

the type species of the genus, the writer was much surprised to

find it to be Achyranthes repens L,, a plant usually referred to

Alternanthera, a member of the tribe Gomphreneae. Achyran-

thes has commonly been applied to a quite different group of

species, of the tribe Achyrantheae. It thus becomes necessary

to reapply it in a sense historically correct, and to substitute

another name for the Achyranthes of recent authors. .

It is unfortunate that the name x^chyranthes must be used

in a sense other than that in which it has generally been employed

in recent years. The earlier botanists, however, placed most

of the species of Alternanthera in Achyranthes, so that at least

those botanists who urge the use of generic names according to

their original application cannot complain of the changes now

introduced. There seems, moreover, to be no doubt as to

the type of the genus Achyranthes, under the American Code of

nomenclature. Linnaeus' genera of the Species Plantarum are

to be typified by the citations in the Genera Plantarum of 1754.

In that work we find under the name Achyranthes a single cita-

tion,— Achyracantha Dill. Elth. pi. 7, f. 7. This illustration is

cited by Linnaeus under Achyranthes repens, which species

thus becomes the type of the genus. Furthennore, the generic

description given by Linnaeus applies better to this plant than

to those lately referred to Achyranthes. In all the editions of

the Genera Plantarum the Dillenian citation is the only one

listed. On the other hand, Stachyarpagophora VailL, which

is Achyranthes as recently accepted, is cited by Linnaeus under

Celosia.

^ Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

STAND ley: the GENERIC NAME ACHYRANTHES 73

Linnaeus himself was responsible for the later misinterpre-

tation of Achyranthes, for in 1762 he transferred A. repens to

the genus lUecebrum, renaming it lUecehrum achyrantha; a pro-

cedure which, however, does not change the nomenclatorial

type of Achyranthes. He was the first, apparently, to apply

the name Achyranthes to the group of plants of which Achy-

ranthes asjiera is typical, a group which other writers had referred

to Amaranthus.

Achyranthes, as here delimited, has several synonyms. Alter-

nanthera Forsk. (1775) was the first published. Others are:

Allaganthera Mart. (1814), Pityranthus Mart. (1817), Telan-

thera R. Br. (1818), Brandesia Alart. (1826), Mogiphanes Mart.

(1826), Bucholzia Mart. (1826), and Steiremis Raf. (1836).

Telanthera was maintained by many authors until recently,

being applied to the tall perennial species with pedunculate

inflorescence. If maintained at all, it could only be on these

habital characters. Some authors have attempted to separate

it upon the length of the stamen tube, amending the genus so as

to include some of the low annual plants with sessile inflorescence ;

but when this has been done Telanthera has included just as

diverse elements as the genus Achyi'anthes as here defined.

The form of the stamen tube and the length of the pseudostamino-

dia are not good generic characters, for all intermediate forms

can be found in species that are evidently of the closest relation-

ship. The genus Mogiphanes has some claims to generic rank.

It includes those species in which the flowers are manifestly

pedicellate inside the bractlets; but this character seems only

relative, when some of the species of other groups are examined.

The published species of Achyranthes which come within the range

of the North American Flora are the following: Achyranthes axil-

laris Hornem. {Alternanthera spinosa R. & S.); A. leiantha (Alter-

nanthera pungens H. B. K., 1817, not Achyranthes pungens Lam., 1783;

Alternanthera achyrantha leiantha Seub., 1875); A. repens L. ; A. poly-

gonoides (L.) Lam.; A. sessilis (L.) Steud., 1840, as synonym; A. martini-

censis {Telanthera martinicensis Moq., 1849); A. portoricensis {Alter-

nanthera portoricensis Kuntze, 1891); A. watsoni Standley, nom. nov.

{Telanthera stellata S. Wats., 1886, not Achyranthes stellata Willd., 1797);

74 standley: the generic name achyranthes

A. ficoidea (L.) Lam.; A. halimifolia Lam.; A. maritima {Alternanihera

maritima St. Hil., 1823; A, obovata (Bucholzia obovata Mart. & Gal.,

1843) ; A. urbani Standley, nom. nov. (AUernanthera geniculata Urban,

1912, not Telanthera geniculata S. Moore, 1895); A. olivacea (Telanthera

olivacea Urban, 1899); A. philoxeroides {Bucholzia -philoxer aides Mart.,

1826); A. mexicana {Brandesia rnexicana Schlecht. & Cham., 1832);

A. pycnantha {Brandesia pijcnantha Benth., 1844); A. gracilis {Gom-

phrena gracilis Mart. & Gal., 1843); A. jacquini {Mogiphanes jacquini

Schrad., 1834); A. ramosissima {Mogiphanes ramosissima Mart., 1826);

A. brasiliana {Gomphrena hrasiliana L., 1756) ; A. costaricensis {Alter-

nanihera costaricensis Kuntze, 1891).

The following are some of the better known South American species

of Achyranthes which have been described under other generic names :

Achyranthes albida {Telanthera albida Moq., 1849); A. aphylla {AUer-

nanthera aphylla Glaziou, 1911); A. bangii {Telanthera harigii Rusby,

1896); A. bastosiana {AUernanthera bastosiana Glaziou, 1911); A. boli-

viana {AUernanthera boliviana Rusby, 1895); A. chacoensis {AUer-

nanthera chacoensis Morong, 1893); A. cyclophylla {Telanthera cyclophylla

Seub., 1875); A. echinocephala {Brandesia echinocephala Hook, f., 1847);

A. elongata {Goinphrena elongata Willd., 1819); A. hookeri Standley,

nom. nov. {Bucholzia filifolia Hook, f., 1847, not Achyranthes filifoUa

Willd., 1819); A. flavicoma {Telanthera flavicoma Anderss., 1854);

A. frutescens {Illecebrum frutescens L'Her., 1785); A. galapagensis

{Telanthera galapagensis Stewart, 1911); A. geniculata {Telanthera

geniculata S. Moore, 1895); A. glaucescens {Bucholzia glauccscens

Hook, f., 1847); A. hassleriana {AUernanthera hassleriana Chod., 1903);

A. helleri {Telanthera helleri Robinson, 1902); A. lehmannii {AUer-

nanthera lehmannii Hieron, 1895); A. lorentzii {AUernanthera lorentzii

Uline, 1899); A. martii {Telanthera martii Moq., 1849); A. microphylla

{AUernanthera microphijlla R. E. Fries, 1905); A. minutiflora {Telan-

thera minutiflora Seub., 1875); A. morongii {AUernanthera morongii

Uline, 1899); A. nodifera {Telanthera nodifera Moq., 1849); A. nudi-

caulis (Bucholzia nudicaulis Hook, f., 1847); A. pilosa {AUernanthera

pilosa Moq., 1849); A. pinheirensis {AUernanthera pinheirensis Glaziou,

1911) ; A. praelonga {AUernanthera praelonga St. Hil., 1823) ; A. puberula

{Brandesia puberula Mart., 1826); A. reineckii {AUernanthera reineckii

Briq., 1899); A. rigida {AUernanthera rigida Rob. & Greenm., 1895);

A. paraguayensis Standley, nom. nov. {Mogiphanes rosea Morong,

1893, not Achyranthes rosea Spreng., 1827); A. rufa {Brandesia rufa

Mart., 1826); A. rugelii {Telanthera rugelii Seub., 1875); A. rugulosa

standley: the generic name achyranthes 75

{Telanthera rugulosa Robinson, 1902); A. snodgrassii (Telanthera

snodgrassii Robinson, 1902); A. strictiuscula {Telanthera strictiuscula

Anderss., 1854); A. seubertii Standley, nom. nov. {Alternanthera tomen-

tella Seub., 1875, not Achyranthes tomentella Zipp., 1841); A. vestita

(Telanthera vestita Anderss., 1854).

Since the generic name Achyranthes is to be used in the sense

above indicated, another name must be used for the genus which

has been passing under that name. The oldest synonym cited

by Dalle Torre and Hanns under Achyranthes is Amaranthulus

Heist., 1763. This, however, was cited by Fabricius^ merely as

a synonym, hence is not available. Centrostachys was published

by Wallich^ in 1824. The type species is C. aquatica Wall.

Moquin considered the genus distinct from his Achyranthes,

but later authors have merged it in the latter genus. The in-

cluded species seem to the writer to be congeneric with Achyran-

thes as defined by Moquin and more recent writers, and the

name Centrostachys may, therefore, stand for the genus. Rafin-

. esque subsequently (1836) proposed the name Cadelaria for this

group and that name would be a very appropriate one, for it

was used in pre-Linnaean botany. Another pre-Linnaean name,

Stachyarpagophora of Vaillant, was restored by Dr. Maza in

1897,'* but fortunately, because of the cumbroiisness of the word,

it is invalidated by the two earlier names which were properly

published.

Two species of Centrostachys occur in North America: C. indica

(Achyranthes aspera indica L., 1753; A. obtnsifolia Lam., 1783), and

C. aspera (Achyranthes aspera L., 1753).

A large number of other species of Centrostachys occur in the Old

World, chiefly in Africa and the East Indies. The following new

binomials should be made for some of the better known of these : Centro-

stachys abyssinica (Achyranthes abyssinica Nees, 1850); C. alba (Brand-

esia alba Mart., 1840); C. angustifolia (Achyranthes angustifolia Benth.,

1849) ; C. arborescens (Achyranthes arborescens R. Br., 1810) ; C. australis

(Achyranthes australis R. Br., 1810) ; C. avicularis (Achyranthes avicu-

2 Enum. PI. Hort. Helms, ed. 2, 358.

•'In Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2: 497.

^ Fl. Haban. 92.

76 CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS

la7'is E. Mey., 1849); C. bidentata (Achyranthes bidentata Blume, 1825);

C. breviflora {Achyranthes hreviflora Baker, 1897); C. canescens {Achy-

ranthes canescens R. Br., 1810); C. carsoni {Achyranthes carsoni Baker,

1897); C. conferta {Achyranthes conferta Schinz, 1896); C. elegantissima

{Achyranthes elegantissima Schinz, 1895); C. fasciculata {Achyranthes

fasciculata Schweinf., 1867); C. flabellifera {Achyranthes flabelUfera

Boerl., 1891); C. fruticosa {Achyranthes fruticosa Lam., 1783); C.

grandifolia {Achijranthes grandifolia Moq., 1849); C. heudelotii {Achy-

ranthes heudelotii Moq., 1849); C. involucrata {Achyranthes involucrata

Moq., 1849); C. schinzii Standley, nom. nov. {Achyranthes lanuginosa

Schinz, 1895, not A. lanuginosa Nutt., 1820); C. mauritiana {Achyran-

thes mauritiana Moq., 1849); C. moquini Standley, nom. nov. {Achy-

ranthes javanica Moq., 1849, not A. javanica Pers,, 1805); C. oblanceo-

lata {Achyranthes ohlanceolata Schinz, 1895); C. ovata {Achyranthes

ovata Ehrenb., 1867); C. schweinfurthii {Achyranthes SQhweinfurthii

Schinz, 1896); C. splendens {Achyranthes splendens Mart., 1849);

C. velutina {Achyranthes velutina Hook. & Arn., 1841); C. welwitschii

{Achyranthes welwitschii Schinz, 1895).

ZOOLOGY. — The baihymetrical distribution of the Arctic and Ant-

arctic crinoids.^ Austin H. Clark, National Museum.

In their bathymetrical distribution the crinoids of the Arctic

and Antarctic Oceans are most interesting. I have already^ pre-

sented the reasons for considering the crinoids of the Atlantic,

from the standpoint of their systematic interrelationships, and

of their geographical distribution, as representing merely the

fauna of an inland sea, derived from the fauna of the Indo-Pacific

as a parent, the crinoids of the Arctic Ocean representing also

an inland sea fauna derived in part from the Bay of Bengal

direct, and in part from the adjacent portion of the Atlantic.

The fauna of the Antarctic Ocean is merely the southerly ex-

tension of the deep water fauna of the Indo-Pacific Ocean.

Examining the diagram (fig. 1), we find that the line repre-

senting the Antarctic fauna, and that representing the Antarctic

and the Arctic faunas combined, are strikingly similar to the line

1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian

Institution.

2 Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie und Hydrographie, 1914.

CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS

77

representing the distribution according to depth of the genera

confined to the Atlantic (fig. 2). This is the more remarkable

when we remember that only one genus (Hathrometra) is com-

mon to the Atlantic and to the Antarctic, and to the Atlantic

and the Arctic, while in the polar seas the temperature is compar-

atively uniform from the surface to the bottom in contrast to

the Middle Atlantic where the surface temperature is very high.

It thus appears that essentially the same selective processes

have operated both in the Atlantic and in the Antarctic in weed-

12346678 9 10 U12

tso-

300-

350'

400'

4«0'

500'

SbO-i

600'

550

700

7tO-l

800-

850-

900-

950-

lOCO-

1100-

1200-

1300-

1400-

15C0-

leoo-

ncO'

1600'

1900'

LOOO-

usoo

50

100

150

200

250

300

360

400

450

5G0

660

600

660

700

750

800

850

900

■950

■lOOC

llOC-

■12(

■130d.,

•140C

■1S0(

•160(

•i7ec

-180(

•190C-

■200(

■a50(

-3001

>>

^

;■

S

>-^

/

0-50

60-100

100-150

160-200

200-250

260-300'

300-350

350-400

400-450

460-500

500-560

550-600

603-660

650-700

700-750

760-600

UOO-850

850-900

900-950

950-1000

1000-1100

1100-1200

1200-1300

1300-1400

Fig. 2

-) and Antartic (-

)

Fig. 1

Fig. 1. Bathymetricaldistributionof the Artie ( —

crinoids, and of the two combined ( ).

Fig. 2. The frequency at different depths of the crinoid genera confined to

the Atlantic.

ing out the less adaptable of the primarily Indo-Pacific genera;

but the results in each case are radically different, showing con-

clusively that the Atlantic could never have been populated by

passage from the Indian Ocean south of Africa, between Africa

and Antarctica.

An inland sea, biologically speaking, is a more or less enclosed

body of water which, connected with an ocean, has received all

78 CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS

of its fauna from that ocean. Its fauna, therefore, is composed

of the same types that occur in the ocean with which it is most

intimately connected, with the less plastic and adaptable weeded

out and the remainder modified in proportion to the difference

between the physics and chemistry of the inland sea and that of

the parent ocean.

All inland seas necessarily differ physically to a greater or

lesser degree from the oceans with which they are connected.

Their abyssal water cannot form a part of the general abyssal

circulation of the oceans, moving slowly anticlockwise about the

oceanic basins, and therefore tends to become more or less stag-

nant and, under certain conditions, either abnormally cold, as

in the x4.rctic, or abnormally warm, as in the Mediterranean.

Their surface water, no longer a part of the general superficial

oceanic circulation, unless there be an outlet sufficiently large

so that a continuous flow is maintained, increases in salinity

through an excess of evaporation, as in the Mediterranean and

in the Red Sea, or decreases in salinity through an excess of

rainfall in the tributary drainage area as in the Baltic. Either

of these changes is fatal to a certain percentage of the organisms

which enter inland seas, so that necessarily their fauna is com-

posed only of the more resistant and adaptable organisms of the

parent oceans.

On account of the physical alteration of the waters of an in-

land sea, through which they become less favorable than oceanic

waters for the support of marine organisms, inland seas never

serve as the cradle for new organic types; their fauna is entirely

derived from outside, though the component elements may be

forced to undergo a certain amount of modification in order to

meet the new conditions imposed.

An inland sea of the present epoch may be a derivative from a

much greater sea of the past, as in the case of the Mediterranean.

The restriction in size of any large portion of an ocean immedi-

ately alters and restricts the circulation of the enclosed water,

bringing it more and more under the influence of the local meteor-

ological conditions; the effect upon the fauna is therefore exactly

the same as though the sea arose through a sinking of the land

CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS 79

resulting in an inflow of oceanic water. The biological condi-

tions in an inland sea are not in any way concerned with the

question whether the sea originated by a sinking of the land, or

whether it arose by a restriction of a previously much larger body

of water. Both processes lead to a mean which is physically

and oceanographically the same, and therefore biologically the

same.

A number of curious types occur in enclosed seas which are

quite different from any types inhabiting the oceans with which

these enclosed seas were once connected. These types are mainly

to be interpreted as rehcs of a once generally distributed fauna

which, able to survive the changing conditions, have been pre-

served from extermination by the fact that none of the eco-

nomically more efficient types of later origin, through competi-

tion with which they have been extirpated from the oceans, have

been able to enter the enclosed basins, for the reason that these

basins became cut off from the oceans before the appearance of

these later types.

Such types are found in enclosed seas, but almost never in in-

land seas, for the reason that all types of later origin are ex-

cluded from the former; an animal type efficient and vigorous

enough to overcome and to exterminate competing types in the

oceans would, other things being equal, also be efficient enough

to extirpate them from all the inland seas.

Among the crinoids two such types occur in the Caribbean Sea,

Isocrinus and Holopus. These persist here not for the reason

that they originated here, but because the disruption of the con-

nection between the Caribbean region and the East Indies took

place before the evolution of the more efficient and vigorous types

now dominant in the Indo-Pacific littoral, through competition

with which they have there been extirpated.

It is a curious fact that the sea about the Antarctic continent

is more in agreement physically, chemically and biologically with

an inland sea than with an ocean or broad embayment like the

Arabian Sea or the Bay of Bengal. It might aptly be described

as a combination of the Arctic Ocean and the Mediterranean,

that is, a chilled Mediterranean; for the temperature is low,

80 CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS

varying little from the surface to the bottom, as in the more typi-

cal parts of the Arctic, or, farther from shore, with an intermedi-

ate warmer layer, also as in certain parts of the Arctic ; while the

salinity is high, varying but little from the surface to the bot-

tom, as in the -Mediterranean.

The Arctic and the Mediterranean are connected with the

Atlantic through geographically and bathymetrically restricted

channels. The Antarctic is connected with the oceans north of

it by a bathymetrically narrowly restricted thermal zone; for the

difference in temperature in the upper layers between the Antarc-

tic and the South Pacific, Indian and South Atlantic Oceans is

such as to preclude the entrance from any of the latter into the

former of all organisms excepting only those of the cold abysses.

The Antarctic, therefore, is a great thermally isolated sea,

directly connected with the oceans to the north only through the

abysses, corresponding very closely in its physical, chemical and

biological characters to a geographically isolated sea which is

connected with the adjacent ocean only by a shallow strait.

As the necessary corollary of oceanographic changes, all tend-

ing toward oceanographic simplicity, the more restricted an in-

land, or an isolated, sea becomes, the more featureless and the

more nearly vertical becomes the line representing the distribu-

tion of its crinoids in their relation to depth. Thus we are pre-

pared to find the line representing the bathymetrical distribu-

tion of the Arctic crinoids nearly vertical and almost straight,

although species of three quite different genera are involved.

Practically the same featureless vertical line represents the bathy-

metrical distribution of the crinoids of the Mediterranean, and

of the Okhotsk and Japanese Seas.

The crinoid fauna of the Arctic Ocean includes two species

{Helio7netra glacialis and Ilycrinus carpenterii) apparently derived

from the crinoid fauna of the Bay of Bengal, and one (Hathro-

metra prolixa) derived from the Antarctic by way of the Atlantic.

The Arctic fauna of the western part of the Sea of Okhotsk

and of the Sea of Japan includes one species {Heliomeira maxima)

derived from the Bay of Bengal, one -species {Thaumaiometra

tenuis) derived from the Pacific to the southward of Japan, and

CLARK : DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS

81

one species {Psathyromeira erythrizon) derived from the Pacific

to the northeastward.

The oceanographic conditions in both of these divisions of the

Arctic province are practically identical ; but the f aunal differences

are such as to suggest that they never have been parts of the

same fauna since the present distribution of land and sea became

established.

Hathrometra prolixa is probably an intruder into the Arctic

Ocean from the Atlantic under the present conditions, and the

same is undoubtedly true of Thaumatometra tenuis and Psathyro-

meira erythrizon in the Okhotsk and Japanese Seas.

Judging from what we know of the fauna of the great Russian

lakes, Aral, Balkash and Baikal, as well as of the lesser lakes be-

tween them, it appears not improbable that this region was the

original home of Heliomeira, which it reached from the southward,

and from which, long ago, it spread both northward and east-

ward to the Arctic Ocean and to the Seas of Okhotsk and Japan;

but there must always be kept in mind the very remote possi-

bility that Heliomeira reached the Okhotsk and Japanese Seas

from the Ai*ctic Ocean by way of the Bering Strait and the coast

of Kamchatka, by some means divesting itself on the way of its

inseparable Arctic companion, Haihrometra prolixa.

The bathymetric range of the three Arctic crinoids :

Heliomeira glacialis. .

Hathrometra prolixa.

fathoms

2-755

10-1088

I Iyer inns carpenterii.

fathoms

755-1563

The bathymetric range of the eighteen Antarctic crinoids:

fathoms

Thalassometra hispinosa 1600

Psathyromeira aniarctica 1430

Eumorphomeira hirsuia. 140

Eumorphomeira concin-

na 211-222

Promachocrinus kerguel-

ensis 10-222

Solanomeira aniarctica . 75-150

Anihometra adriani. . . . 124-500

Floromeira magellanica 17-782

Hathrometra exigua. . . . 50-140

fathoms

Trichometra remoia. . . . 1600

Isometra angusiipinna . 56-600

Thaumatometra ahyssor-

um 1600

Bathymetra carpenteri . . 2600

Thaumatocrinus renova-

tus 1347-1800

Ilycrinus australis 1375-2575

Ptilocrinus brucei 2485

Ptilocrinus antarciiciis . 266

Hyocrinus hethellianus . 1600-2575

82

CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS

The frequency of the Arctic and Antarctic crinoids at different

depths :

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEODESY. — -Precise leveling from Brigham, Utah, to San Francisco,

Cal. William Bowie. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Spe-

cial Publication No. 22. Pp. 67. 1914.

This publication gives the results of a line of precise levels run along

the Southern Pacific Railway, from Brigham, Utah, to San Francisco,

California, in 1911 and 1912. The line is 891 miles long and fixes the

elevations of 315 permanent bench marks. The elevation of the top of

rail in front of each of the railway stations along the line was also de-

termined. The elevations of the bench marks and of the top of rail

in front of the railway stations are given in meters and feet. As in all

precise leveling in the United States the datum used is mean sea level.

This line was fitted or adjusted to the elevations resulting from the

1912 adjustment of the precise level net of the country (Special Publi-

cation No. 18), hence the elevations given are standard, that is, they

will not be changed as the net is further extended. Included in this

report are discussions of the methods used and the accuracy attained

in precise leveling.

The result of a study of the errors of leveling is also reported on.

The basis for this study is the data for five level lines, giving the times

of the runnings of the different sections, with the weather conditions

prevailing at the time the observations were made. The data are ar-

ranged in eight tables in such a manner as to set forth various relations

between the errors of leveling and the conditions of weather, the time

of the observations and the grade. It is believed that, other things

being equal, the running in the afternoon gives, on an average, more

accurate results than the forenoon leveling; also that, other things be-

ing equal, a running in wind is more accurate, on an average, than one

in calm; and that, other things being equal, a running with a cloudy

83

84 abstracts: physics

sky will be more accurate, 'On an average, than one in sunshine. Hence,

the ideal condition would be an afternoon with a moderate wind and a

cloudy sky.

The line divides the long circuit between San Diego, California, and

Seattle, Washington, and completes another direct connection between

sea level on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. H. G. Avers.

PHYSICS. — Calibration tables for copper-constantan and platinum-plan-

tinrhodium thermo-elements. L. H. Adams. J. Am. Chem. Soc,

36: 65-72. 1914.

Thermo-elements, if they are to yield accurate readings of tempera-

ture, must frequently be recalibrated by determination of their electro-

motive force at a series of fixed points and subsequent interpolation.

The labor of interpolation is minimized by the aid of the tables presented

in this paper, which give temperatures and temperature differences for

each 100 microvolts up to the limit of usefulness of each thermo-ele-

ment, and are used in combination with the appropriate derivation curve

deduced for each element from the observations at the fixed points.

L. H. A.

PHYSICS. — T her mo-element installations, especially for calorimetry.

Walter P. White. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 36: 1856-1868. 1914.

Potentiometers for thermo-electric measurements, especially in calorim-

etry. Walter P. White. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 36: 1868-1885.

1914.

These two papers describe a type of auxiliary installation for thermo-

elements which in high-temperature measurement and other work of

moderate precision is valuable for its convenience, quickness, and com-

prehensiveness, and which is also capable of the very high precision

often desired for calorimetry.

When a thermo-element is used with its two ends at nearly the same

temperature, a condition easily provided in calorimetry, the relative

precision required in the electrical measurement falls to a value no

greater than that desired in the temperature reading, and the most

serious errors ordinarily affecting the electrical thermometer practically

disappear.

The absolute electrical precision required is also comparatively low.

With a convenient and easily made copper-constantan multiple thermo-

element of 24 couples, 0.0001°C. corresponds to 0.1 microvolt.

The satisfactory attainment of a precision of 0.1 microvolt demands

abstracts: physics 85

two, and only two, special electrical instruments. The first is an ar-

rangement for eliminating the effect of parasitic thermal electromotive

forces. A common copper knife-switch will perform this service ad-

mirably. The second special requirement is an appropriate potenti-

ometer, that is, one reliable to 0.1 microvolt.

The slide-wire and Feussner potentiometers of 1 volt range or more

now in common use are not thus reliable, and are otherwise unsuited

for thermo-element work. Split-circuit potentiometers are satisfactory

in this and all other important respects, and so are combination potenti-

ometers, or potentiometers having two otherwise separate, very simple

instruments in series in the same galvanometer cu-cuit. A very low-

priced split-circuit potentiometer is on the market; and the combination

potentiometer, on account of its mechanical and electrical sunplicity, is

an easy instrument to build to order.

The potentiometer system, either with or without the thermo-element,

is especially suited to simultaneous measurements of different and dif-

ferently varying electromotive forces. Its convenience for such meas-

urements can be increased by using a few pieces of hard-rubber sheet

as stops for the dial switches, and still further increased by arranging

a double potentiometer, with duplicate dials. One effective form of

double potentiometer, which employs a master-switch, can be arranged

at the cost of a few knife-switches and very little labor. An especially

suitable instrument to arrange in this way is the combination potenti-

ometer, all of whose dial switches are single, and free from contact re-

sistance error.

Another convenience especialty easy to obtain with the thermo-ele-

ment-potentiometer system is the power to take the last two figures of

any reading directly from the galvanometer scale. It increases speed,

simplifies manipulation, dimmishes errors, and gives calorimetric data in

a form specially convenient for further treatment.

For high-temperature measurements and much other thermo-element

work not calorimetric, though the required precision may often be less,

most of the features above described are desirable, especially the facility

for simultaneous and direct readings. W. P. W.

PHYSICS. — Leakage prevention by shielding, especially in potentiometer

systems. Waltee P. White. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 36: 2011-2020.

1914.

An insulation resistance of 5,000 megohms or more is often necessary

to prevent serious disturbance of thermo-electric measuring systems

86 abstracts: physics

from stray portions of power or lighting currents, and the frequently

more sensitive resistance-measuring system is of course in greater danger

still. All such trouble is absolutely prevented by an equipotential

shield, which is merely a connected system of metal plates, wires, etc.,

which interposes itself at every point of solid contact between the

measuring system and external bodies. This shield need not be, and

preferably should not be, "earthed."

Slight modifications of this shield are also useful in electric furnaces,

in the measurements upon power circuits, and within the potentiometer

circuit itself.

These arrangements are easy to install, most of them require no sub-

sequent attention, and all are easily tested. W. P. W.

PHYSICS. — T her mo-elements of 'precision, especially for calorimetry.

Walter P. White. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 36: 2292-2313. 1914.

Inhomogeneity, once a serious foe to precision in thermo-elements,

and still often supposed to be such, can without difficulty be rendered

practically negligible in copper-constantan thermo-elements used for

any precision up to 50 parts per million. Such thermo-elements, ac-

cordingly, may, except for imperfect insulation, easily preventable, be

free from all appreciable errors other than those (such as incomplete

depth of immersion) which are possible with all thermometers. To at-

tain this freedom from error the wire used must be tested, and the es-

sential though easily satisfied requirements peculiar to a thermo-elec-

tric system must be observed. These requirements this paper attempts

to consider m detail, and it also describes simple but important details

regarding the operations of construction, insulation, inclosure, calibra-

tion, etc., of the thermo-elements.

Constantan wire for thermo-elements has been so far improved that

continuous lengths are frequently obtainable which vary (in electro-

motive force against copper) less than 0.0002, making sensitive thermo-

elements with errors usually less than 20 per million.

The testing of wire enough for a thermo-element of maximum sensi-

tiveness takes but an hour or two, with simple apparatus.

On account of the ease with which thermo-elements can be constructed,

the more sensitive combination of several couples is generally prefer-

able to a single couple, even for cruder measurements. W. P. W.

ABSTEACTS: PHYSICS 87

PHYSICS. — Easy calorimetric methods of high precision. Walter P.

White. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 36: 2313-2333. 1914.

In the calorimetric method of mixtures, a precision approaching or

reaching 0.1 per mille, though somewhat unusual, is often desirable,

and is ordinarily not difficult to attain with appropriate apparatus.

Its attainment is especially easy with a two-calorimeter installation,

which secures the convenience and high precision of differential thermo-

electric temperature measurement. This is the only advantage of the

two-calorimeter arrangement; the diminution of heat-loss error, often

counted an advantage, turns out upon examination to be largely illu-

sory. By abandoning the twin calorimeters previously used to get this

supposed advantage, and using for the comparison calorimeter a vacuum-

jacketed flask, there is a gain in convenience and precision. A special

thermo-element coml^ination renders the necessary temperature obser-

vations as simple as with the twin arrangement. A completely inclos-

ing jacket of uniform temperature is necessary for this method, but this

is no loss, for such a jacket proves to be necessary for highest precision

with any other method. This method is quite as effective with two

jackets, one around each calorimeter, and therefore with adiabatic

methods.

Efficient complete jackets can be very easily realized according to

several methods, which are described.

As compared with others, the present method is specially advantage-

ous for observations of great absolute precision and wherever it is de-

sirable to secure the advantages which the thermo-electric system pos-

sesses in the way of rapidity and of facility in making varied observa-

tions. W. P. W.

PHYSICS. — A significant instance of galvanometer instahility. Walter

P. White. Phys. Rev. (2), 3: 491-492. 1914.

A radial-field moving coil galvanometer, very free from ordinary tre-

mors, was much deflected by various shocks occurring within the build-

ing, and this effect disappeared whenever the supporting shelf was fas-

tened to the wall with sufficient firmness. Apparently, a slight tipping

of the shelf was to blame. At any rate, if there had also been any

visible tremors of the galvanometer coil, these would have been sup-

posed to be responsible for the trouble. It follows that in other cases

where tremors are present, and are supposed to cause troublesome de-

flections, the real trouble may be due to some other, more easily remova-

ble cause. W. P. W.

88 abstracts: physical chemistry

PHYSICS. — Einige neue Doppelkompensatoren. Walter P, White.

Z. Instrumentenkunde, 34: 71-82; 107-113; 142-151. 1914.

This paper deals with the construction of potentiometers possessing

the high precision needed for accurate work with thermo-elements.

Two general features of value are: (1) The use of the partial deflection

method, where the quantity to be measured is largely compensated or

balanced, and the outstanding small difference read directly by some de-

flection instrument. Such methods usually combine all the precision

of null methods with almost the quickness of straight deflection methods.

(2) The use of neutral C 'anti-thermoelectric") contacts, especially in

the switches. This renders it possible to dispense with the very low

contact resistance required in many existing instruments, and also

brings other advantages. Neutral contacts are easily secured by sim-

ply using thin leaves of metal, adding blocks of the same metal in dial

switches.

Various electrical arrangements for high-precision potentiometers,

suggested by Wolff, Waidner, Hausrath, Diesselhorst, Wenner, and the

present writer, are examined in detail. The preference is given to a

"split-circuit" potentiometer (embodying features due to Wenner and

White) somewhat chfferent from previous spht-circuit designs, and to a

new type, the "combination potentiometer" (features due to Hausrath,

Diesselhorst, White), which requires two batteries, but is otherwise re-

markably simple and free from sources of error.

One advantage of the potentiometer is the ease with which it can

be adapted to almost simultaneous readings of different electrical quaii-

tities. A potentiometer with two sets of switches is especially eft'ective

in this respect, and practically does the work of two instruments. The

two sets of dials are controlled either by a master switch or by sliding

two sets of switch arms over a single set of central blocks. This latter

arrangement is easily secured in the "gridiron" potentiometer, by means

of a new and simple type of switch construction.

Instruments now in use in the Geophysical Laboratory are described

which iUustrate the above types of design and construction.

' W. P. W.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— r/ie ternary system CaO-AWiSiO^. G-

A. Rankin; with optical study by Fred. E. Wright. Am. Jour-

Sci. (4), 39: 1-79. 1915.

The purpose of this investigation was to ascertain the stability rela-

tions in the ternary system CaO-Al203-Si02, not only from a purely sci-

abstracts: physical chemistry 89

entific point of view, but also from the bearing of the facts thus dis-

covered upon a number of geological inquiries and upon the problem of

the nature of portland-cement clinker. Many papers on this general

topic have, of course, already been published, but the work recorded is

in the main fragmentary and of little avail in settling the large general

questions involved. The present investigation aims to treat the sys-

tem rather completely, to ascertain the equilibrium relations in the sys-

tem. To this end all the possible compounds which are found in dry

melts of the three oxides CaO, AI2O3, Si02 have been determined, es-

pecially those which are stable at the liquidus; this involves measure-

ments of the respective melting-points or dissociation temperatures,

and the determination of the invariant points, boundary curves (mono-

variant systems) , and fields of stabilit}^ (divariant systems) of the various

compounds.

This paper contains a summary record of the work performed; it is

the first thoroughgoing attempt, so far as known, to determine all the

compounds, both binary and ternary, of CaO, AI2O3, SiOo, and the mu-

tual relations of these compounds, many of which have, of course, previ-

ously been made synthetically by others. The data obtained are made

use of in a discussion of the nature and constitution of portland-cement

clinker and of the formation of certain natural minerals from the magma.

Three papers dealing with this system have already appeared from the

Geophysical Laboratory. The first two dealt with the binary systems,^

while in the third- provisional locations were assigned to ternary quin-

tuple points and boundarj^ curves and the new relations applied in a

discussion of the constitution of portland-cement clinker. In the pres-

ent paper a more exact location is given for the eutectics, quintuple

pomts, and boundary curves, together with the corresponding tempera-

tures. Because of the large amount of data it has not been possible to

give in a paper of this nature more than the mean values obtained from

a large number of determinations of the various points. But complete

tables of data and a much more complete discussion of methods and

apparatus and of the results obtained will be given in a later mono-

graph. F. E. W.

1 The lime-silica scries of minerals. A. L. Day, E. S. Shepherd, and F. E.

Wright. Am. Jour. Sci. (4), 22: 265. 1906. The binary systems of alumina, with

silica, lime, and magnesie. E. S. Shepherd, G. A. Rankin, and F. E. Wright.

Amer. Jour. Sci. (4), 28: 293. 1909.

- Preliminary report on the ternary system CaO-AUOj-SiOo. A study of the

constitution of portland-cement clinker. E. S. Shepherd, G. A. Rankin, and F.

E. Wright. Jour. Ind. Eng. Chem., 3: 1-43. 1911.

90 abstracts: physical chemistry

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— r/ie utilization of diffusion processes in

the preparatio7i of pure substances. John Johnston. J. Am. Chem,

Soc, 36: 16-19. 1914.

Many slightly soluble substances, when formed by precipitation in

the ordinary way, are very fine-grained and consequently contain oc-

• eluded impurities which are not easy to get rid of; but by taking advan-

tage of the slowness of diffusion in liquids, one can secure very slow

precipitation, and in. this way prepare such substances in relatively

large crystals free from impurity. By this means, for instance, one can

readily obtain crystals of calcium hydroxide (Ca(0H)2) in the form of,

hexagonal prisnis 3 mm. long with the base 1 mm. thick, or crystals

of barium sulphate as much as 2 mm. long. J. J.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— ne binary system MgO-SiO^. N. L.

BowEN and Olaf Andeksen. Am. Jour. Sci. (4), 37: 487-500.

1914.

Equilibrium in the binary system MgO-Si02 was studied by applying

the method of quenching.

There are two compounds, the orthosilicate Mg2Si04 and the meta-

silicate MgSiOs, capable of existing in contact with liquid in the binary

system. The former crystallizes in a form corresponding with the min-

eral forsterite and the latter forms crystals similar to enstatite in most

properties, but of monoclinic symmetry, clino-enstatite.

Clino-enstatite is the only stable form of MgSiOs encountered. It

has no true melting-point, but breaks up at 1557° C. (formerly consid-

ered the melting-point) into forsterite and liquid, and the temperature

must be raised to 1577° C. before complete solution of the forsterite

takes place.

In an earlier Geophysical Laboratory publication, crystals termed

a-MgSiOs were described as a high-temperature form of magnesium

metasilicate. They were considered to be the product of inversion of

clino-enstatite (/S-MgSiOs), but the crystals described have now been

proved to be a product of the dissociation at 1557° C. and to be the

orthosilicate forsterite, not a form of the metasilicate.

On account of the break-up of clino-enstatite into forsterite and

liquid there is no eutectic between the two compounds, and the liquids

show, on cooling, the partial or complete re-solution of forsterite at the

reaction-point, 1557° C, the liquid reacting with the forsterite crystals

to give clino-enstatite.

A discussion is given of the geological significance of this resorption

abstracts: chemistry

91

of the olivine forsterite, by reaction with the Hquid to give the pyrox-

ene cKno-enstatite.

Summary of invariant points^

SOLID PHASE

Periclase (MgO)

Forsterite (Mg2Si04)

Clino-enstatite (MgSiOs).

Clino-enstatite (MgSiOa).

Cristobalite (Si02)

Cristobalite (SiOa)

LIQUID PHASE

MgO, 100%

MgO, 14%Mg2SiO,, 86%...,

MgaSiO^, 100% ■.,

MgSiOa, 97.5%; Si02, 2.5%.

MgSiOs, 87.5%; SiOo, 12.5%.

SiOo, 100%

TEMPERATURE

2800° (Kanolt)

1850° ± 20°

1890° ± 20°

1557° ± 2°

1543° ± 2°

1625° (Fenner)

1 These points are, of course, invariant only when the system is considered as a condensed system.

N. L. B.

CHEMISTRY. — Determination of cuprous and cupric sulphide in mix-

tures of one another-. Eugen Posnjak. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 36:

2475-2479. 1914.

The reaction between cuprous sulphide and silver nitrate was con-

firmed in accordance with the equation

CuaS + 4AgN03 = AgoS + 2Ag + 2Cu(N03)2

It was found that silver sulphide only, and no metallic silver, is formed

by the reaction between cupric sulphide and silver nitrate, the equation

for this reaction being

CuS + 2AgT^03 = Ago + Cu(N03)2

Based on the difference between these reactions, a method is given

in this paper for the determination of cuprous and cupric sulphide in

mixtures of the two. The mixture is treated with silver nitrate and

from the product the metallic silver is extracted by means of ferric

nitrate. The amount of cuprous sulphide is calculated from the metal-

lic silver, while the cupric sulphide is calculated from the difference be-

tween the sUver in the silver sulphide and the metallic silver.

In mixtures containing the constituents in any proportion whatever,

the method was shown to be accurate within 1.5 per cent. E. P.

CHEMISTRY.- — A method for determining magnesium, in calcium salts.

J. C. HosTETTEE. Jour. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6: 392-396. 1914.

The usual methods for the determination of magnesium in the pres-

ence of calcium are not applicable when the latter element amounts to

92 abstracts: mineralogy

as much as 1,000 times that of the magnesium. The essential feature

of the method here presented is the concentrating of the magnesium

into a precipitate containing but a small amount of calcium. This

concentrating is effected by precipitating Mg(0H)2 with a slight excess

of solid Ca(0H)2. The magnesium in this precipitate is determined

as pyrophosphate after removal of the calcium by two oxalate precipi-

tations. Determinations in some 30 highest-grade calcium salts show,

generally, far more magnesium than reported by the makers. J. C, HV

MINERALOGY. — Das Studium der Mineralschmelzpunkte. Arthur

L. Day. Fortschritte der Mineralogie, 4: 115-160. 1914.

A critical review of the work of recent years in the determination of

the melting temperatures of the minerals, in which an effort has been

made to clear up some of the confusion which now prevails in this

field of research. Some attention has been given to the applicabihty

of the laws of solutions to the change of state of minerals and to the

criteria available for the definition and experimental measurement of

those changes of state which can be competently studied with the meth-

ods and apparatus thus far developed. The effect of disturbing factors,

such as viscosity and inertia, which frequently intervene to delay or pre-

vent the establishment of equihl^rium in the system, and so compel the

use of methods of approximation, has also been considered, together

with the effect of admixtures of minor mineral components in natural

mineral types. A sharp distinction is drawn between the characteristic

properties of single minerals and of groups of two or more in solid solu-

tion. The failure to recognize and properly to appraise this distinction

appears to have been the cause of a considerable part of the confusion

alluded to above.

Following these general considerations, several pages are devoted to

the description of the apparatus now in use in the various laboratories

for the determination of mineral melting-points, together with the limi-

tations encountered in its application to such studies and to the inter-

pretation of the results obtained with it. The effect of pressure upon

the change of state in minerals is also considered. The closing chapter

contains a table of all the melting temperatures of record, in which

appropriate attention has been given to the chemical purity of the

specimen studied. A. L. D.

abstracts: mineralogy 93

MINERALOGY. — The Stokes method for the determination of pyrite and

marcasite. E. T. Allen and J. L. Ceenshaw. Am. Jour. Sci.

(4), 38: 371-392. 1914.

The Stokes method for determining pyrite and marcasite, alone or in

mixtures, depends on the estimation of the iron dissolved when the

finely ground and purified sulphide is treated with a boihng standard

solution of ferric alum, The same pyrite or marcasite gives very con-

stant values and the influence of each in mixtures is additive, i.e., there

exists a linear relation between the iron dissolved and the composition

of the mixture. The sum of the errors usually amounts to about 1 per

cent, reaching a maximum of 2 per cent. There are two important

sources of error. First, there must be a sufficient excess of the sul-

phide, which is many times greater (7 to 15) than the amount required

by theory. With such an excess the percentage of the surfaces remains

on the average nearly the same as the percentage by weight, the basis

on which the mixtures are made up. About 1 gram is sufficient for

250 cc. of the standard solution. Secondly, the marcasite has a char-

acteristic tendency to flocculate and thus reduce its reacting surface.

This difficulty may be avoided by shaking the reacting mixture with

pure quartz and beads until the lumps of the powder are thoroughly

disintegrated. Different specimens of pyrite and marcasite give with

the Stokes reaction values which differ somewhat. The differences are

due in some cases, if not in all, to the presence of impurities. It is un-

fortunate that small quantities of impurities which will reduce ferric

ron or give up iron to the solution exercise a serious influence. It is

therefore not always possible to decide between a natural pyrite and a

pyrite containing several per cent of marcasite by the Stokes reaction

alone, nor to determine accurately the percentage of each in a natural

mixture. In an investigation on the conditions of formation of pyrite

and marcasite, this method has been very useful.

The results with the Stokes method plainly indicate that each mineral

behaves in a mixture of the two just as it does alone; each appears to

reduce a quantity of solution which is proportional to its surface; and

each appears to reduce the solution at practically the same rate. The

rates at which the sulphides are decomposed are quite different for the

two minerals, because more of marcasite than of pyrite is required to re-

duce a given quantity of ferric iron. The ratio of these rates is not far

from 1 : 2.5.

That ferric sulphate dissolves from pyrite a smaller quantity of iron

than it does from marcasite means simply that more reduction is effected

94 abstracts: mineralogy

by sulphur in the case of pyrite; in other words, that more of the sul-

phur in pyrite is oxidized. Stokes considered only the relation of />,

the percentage of sulphur oxidized, to y, the percentage of pyrite in the

sulphide mixture. We have shown that this curve is a hyperbola.

This characteristic behavior of pyrite and marcasite towards oxidizing

agents is probably general. It has been found by other observers that

nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide both oxidize more of the sulphur in

pyrite under the same conditions.

E. T. A.

MINERALOGY. — -Effect of tem'perature and acidity in the formation of

marcasite {FeS^) and wurtzite (ZnS); a contribution to the genesis of

unstable forms. E. T. Allen and J. L. Crenshaw. Microscopic

study by H. E. Merwin. Am. Jour. Sci. (4), 38: 393-431. 1914.

Our former results on the genesis of marcasite and wurtzite have

been reinvestigated, the former conclusions have been confirmed, and

new data determined. The specific influence of acidity and alkalinity

on the crystal form of the sulphides investigated has been much more

rigorously demonstrated. Only from acid solutions were the unstable

forms obtained. The sulphides were prepared by the action of hydro-

gen sulphide on acidic solutions of zinc salts and by hydrogen sulphide

and sulphur on acidic solutions of ferrous salts. The unstable forms

were usually mixed with the corresponding stable forms, viz., sphalerite

and pyrite, and the composition of the mixtures was determined, ap-

proximately for the zinc sulphides, by microscopic estimation; and with-

in 1 to 2 per cent by the Stokes method for the iron disulphides.

As previously found, the higher the maximum temperature of experi-

ment, other conditions remaining unchanged, the greater the quantity

of the stable form, pyrite or sphalerite, obtained in the product.

As previously concluded, the higher the percentage of acid in the

solution, other conditions remaining unchanged, the greater in general

the quantity of the unstable sulphide, marcasite or wurtzite. The re-

lation between the percentage of marcasite and the average acidity was

practically linear for maximum temperatures of 200° and 300°C. There

are also indications of a similar relation in the case of wurtzite. In the

case of wurtzite, however, the final acid was found to be the 'determining

factor, since at 300° and 325°C. wurtzite appears to change into sphal-

erite when heated with sufficiently dilute acid. The temperature-acid

field in the case of zinc salts may be divided by two boundary curves

into three subfields : a high-acid field in which only wurtzite is obtained,

ABSTKACTS: MINEEALOGY 95

a low-acid field where only sphalerite is obtained, and an intermediate

field where mixtures of the two are obtained.

No crystalline zinc sulphide could be obtained from the hydrochloric-

acid solutions, but the iron disulphides were crystallized from them,

and always contained much more marcasite for an equivalent quantity

of acid, i.e., hydrochloric acid has a much greater influence on the crystal

form than an equivalent quantity of sulphuric acid, which should be the

ease if the hydrogen ion concentration were the real determining factor.

The acid concentration required to give rise to pure marcasite or

pure wurtzite falls with the temperature and is close to neutrality for

marcasite at ordinary temperature, and probably so for wurtzite.

Several conditions other than acidity and temperature were varied

in the formation of wurtzite, where the process was necessarily more

complicated; these were zinc concentration, addition of sodium sulphate

to the solutions, and hydrogen-sulphide pressure. None of these had

any influence, except as they affected the acidity.

At temperatures of 25° and 200°C. from sulphuric-acid solutions and at

300°C. from hydrochloric-acid solutions we obtained a product containing

95 per cent of marcasite comparable with the purest natural marcasite we

have had in our hands. Since this determination depends on the quan-

tity of iron dissolved from the mineral under definite conditions, and

different natural specimens vary somewhat, it may be that this product

is pure synthetic marcasite.

Some new data on the genesis of the natural minerals are cited.

E. T. A.

MINERALOGY. — The siumltaneous crystallization of calcite and certain

sulphides of iron, copper, and zinc. A crystallographic study. H.

E. Merwin. Am. Jour. Sci. (4), 38: 355-359. 1914.

The study of three occurrences of the sulphides of iron and zinc has

established with certainty the deposition of marcasite, and with strong

probability the deposition of wurtzite contemporaneously with calcite.

The marcasite is definitely oriented with regard to the calcite and also

the accompanying pyrite. A close similarity between the crystallo-

graphic elements of pyrite and marcasite is shown. H. E. M.

MINERALOGY. — The optical properties of roscoelite. Fred. E.

Wright. Am. Jour. Sci. (4), 38: 305-308. 1914.

The optical data were obtained on unusually good material, kindly

loaned by Dr. W. F. Hillebrand for the purpose. Color, olive green.

96 abstracts: petrology

Luster, splendid, almost submetallic and bronze-like. Cleavage, 001,

perfect; 010, good. Hardness between 2.5 and 3. Pleochroism, 7 =

green brown, /S = olive green, a = olive green. Absorption, fairly

strong, 7 >^>a. Refractive indices, 7 = 1.704 ± 0.003, /3 = 1.685 ±

0.003, a = 1.610 ± 0.003. Birefringence strong. 2^Na = 42 to 69°;

2 Ei^ = 34 to 60°. Axial dispersion strong, 2Ev >2£'^. Optical orienta-

tion, 6 = 7, a : /3 = 0° or a small angle not over 4°. F. E. W.

PETROLOGY, — The composition of rockallite. Henry S. Washington.

Quart. J. Geol. Soc, 70: 294-302. 1914.

The paper is a chemical study of a unique aegirite granite from the

islet of Rockall, north of Ireland. Only three small specimens are

known, and that examined was generously given through Prof. J. W. Judd

by the Governors of the Imperial College of Science. A very complete

chemical analysis was made, which confirms in the general features one

made some years ago in England. It shows, in addition, the presence

of large amounts of zirconia and ceria — the amount of the latter being

next to the highest yet known for igneous rocks. By comparison with

the minerals present in the rock, it is shown that these two oxides be-

long to the pyroxenes, and the probability is pointed out that the pres-

ence of these two oxides is characteristic of acmite as contrasted with

their absence in the closely related aegirite. Further study of this

point will be undertaken when material from Norway, to be furnished

through the kindness of Professor Brogger, is received. H. S. W.

PETROLOGY.- — The occurrence of molybdenum in rocks, with special

reference to those of Hawaii. John B. Ferguson. Am. Jour.

Sci., (4), 37: 399-402. 1914.

This article deals with the unexpected discovery of traces of molyb-

denum in two basaltic lavas from Hawaii and the question of the dis-

tribution of this element in igneous rocks. Its presence in the two ba-

salts reopens the question of its occurrence, since it was thought to be

confined entirely to the more siliceous rocks. Tests were accordingly

made on a trachyte obsichan from Hawaii, on some sodic, and especially

on some nephehte-bearing igneous rocks from other localities. From

these it would appear that the presence of molybdenum is not correlated

with high soda or potash content. Except for its well-known tendency

to occur in the more siliceous rocks, it therefore seems to be influenced

by regional rather than by general chemical characters. J. B. F.

abstracts: botany 97

PETROLOGY. — The aimlcite basalts of Sardinia. Henry S. Washing-

ton. Jour. Geology, 22: 742-753. 1914.

At Monte Ferru and elsewhere in Sardinia lavas occur which show

in thin section small round isotropic areas, resembhng sections of leu-

cite, so that the rocks have been commonly held to be leucite basalts.

A careful study and three chemical analyses of these rocks, collected

during the author's trip to Sardinia in 1905 for the Carnegie Institution

of "Washington, show that the supposed leucite is in reality the hydrous

soda mineral analcite, and that it is of primary origin. Comparison

with similar rocks from other regions indicates that some so-called leu-

citic rocks are in fact analcite-bearing, and that rocks containing pri-

mary analcite in well-developed crystals are much more abundant than

has been supposed. Analyses are also given of the augite and olivine

which form nodules in one of the lavas, the optical study of which is

to be taken up later. H. S. W.

PETROLOGY. — I Basalti Analcitici della Sardegna. Henry S. Wash-

ington. Boll. Soc. Geol. Ital., 33: 147-167. 1914.

An Italian translation of "The analcite basalts of Sardinia" (J. Geol.,

22:742-753. 1914); abstracted above. An appendix is added which

gives a brief outKne of the quantitative classification of igneous rocks.

H. S. W.

BOTANY.^ — Mutation in Egyptian cotton. T. H. Kearney. Journal

of Agricultural Research, 2:287-302, pis. 17-25. July, 1914.

Four varieties of Egyptian cotton, each distinguished by numerous

well marked characters, have been developed during the last ten years

in Arizona. Two of the new varieties are here described for the first

time. Evidence is brought forward to show that these varieties, as

well as the numerous varieties of this type of cotton which have been

developed in Egypt, have arisen by mutation, their mode of origin pre-

senting many analogies to that of mutants of Oenothera Lamarckiana

described by DeVries.

Mutation among higher plants is defined in this paper as "a type

of variation manifesting itself in the sudden appearance of a distinctly

different individual, the characters of which are uniformly expressed by

its descendants when self-pollinated or cross-pollinated only among

themselves."

»

98 abstracts: forestry

In the case of Egyptian cotton, a type supposed to be of hybrid

origin, there is a strong presumption that the mutative tendency is due

to complex or remote hybridization, although the evidence is against

the conclusion that the mutants are immediate products of hybridiza-

tion between different types of cotton. T. H. K.

FORESTRY. — Yields from the destructive distillation of certain hard-

woods. L. F. Hawley and R. C. Palmer. Bulletin of the

U. S. Department of Agriculture 129. Pp. 16, with text figures.

1914.

The chief hardwoods used for distillation in this country are beech,

birch, and maple. Tests were made to determine the relative value

of these three species, as well as the amount of various products which

could be obtained from such soilthern woods as the oaks, red gum,

tupelo, and hickory. Various woods were distilled under similar con-

ditions and their products analyzed by the same methods. It was

found that the yields of alcohol and acetic acid vary a great deal among

the different species, more so for the former than for the latter. A

given species may rank low in its yield of alcohol and high in its yield

of acid. Thus, chestnut, which gives the lowest yield of alcohol,

is among the highest in the yield of acid; and hickory, which is among

the highest in alcohol yield, is among the lowest in acid yield.

The average yield from beech, birch, and maple wood grown in

Wisconsin and Indiana is somewhat higher for acid and considerably

lower for alcohol than for the same species grown in Pennsylvania.

The relative yield of the three species in either product does not change

with the locality. The order of yield for alcohol is beech, maple,

birch; for acid, birch, beech, maple.

Although slabs with a large amount of bark are usually considered

very poor material for distillation, the yields of alcohol and acetic

acid from slabs having as high as from 13 to 25 per cent bark by volume

were in most cases only slightly lower, and in some cases even higher

than from heartwood. This was not due to the bark, however, but to

the very high yields from the sap wood.

Assuming that the value of the charcoal and the cost of plant

operation per cord of wood is the same for all species, the differences

of the value of alcohol and acetic acid produced by the various woods

represent the differences of the value of these woods for distillation

purposes. The average value of the alcohol and acetate woods from

Indiana beech and Wisconsin birch and maple heartwood is $8.06 per

abstracts: zoology 99

cord. The values of these products from the heartwood of chestnut,

red gum, tupelo (slabs), and southern and northern oak are less than

this amount by $3.78, $1.14, $1.03, $1.30, and $0.54, respectively.

From hickory (factory waste) the products are $1.55 greater in value.

Since the average price paid for wood used in distillation is only about

$3.50 per cord, the use of chestnut for this purpose is out of the question.

Oak, tupelo, and red gum, under favorable conditions of supply and

cost, might be used profital)ly, while hickory should command a very

good price.

FiNDLEY Burns.

ZOOLOGY. — The Atlantic Ocean biologically an inland sea. Austin H.

Clark. Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie und

Hydrographie, Suppl. z., 6; 1-18. 1914.

An inland sea is defined in biological terms, and the faunal difference

between an inland sea and a true ocean is explained. A list is given of

all the genera of recent crinoids found in the Atlantic with their geo-

graphical ranges, together with a list of the corresponding Indo-Pacific

genera also with their geographical ranges.

There are no Atlantic genera which are not represented in the Indo-

Pacific basin, or as fossils about the shores of that basin. But in addi-

tion to representatives of all the Atlantic genera there are in the Indo-

Pacific basin fifty additional genera, and nine families, which do not

occur elsewhere. Thus since it possesses no genera which are not de-

rivatives from Indo-Pacific types, and none of the more specialized Indo-

Pacific types, the Atlantic fauna is in effect the fauna of an inland sea

tributary to the Indo-Pacific. The geographical and thermal distri-

bution of the crinoids found in the Atlantic point to four different paths

of migration from the Indo-Pacific, which are explained in detail. The

greater antiquity of the Caribbean fauna as compared with the Medi-

terranean and the east European fauna is pointed out, and its signifi-

cance indicated.

' A. H. C.

>

ZOOLOGY. — The porpoise in captivity. Chas. Haskins Townsend.

Zoologica, Scientific Contributions of the New York Zoological

Society, 1: 1-22, figs. 1-14. May, 1914.

This is an account of the first successful attempt to keep the porpoise

in captivity for any considerable length of time, five individuals having

lived in the New York Aquarium seven months. The species obtained

100

ABSTRACTS : BACTERIOLOGY

was Tursiops truncatiis, from Cape Hatteras. After two failures a sat-

isfactory method of handling the animals was found.

The paper contains an account of the methods of capture, transpor-

tation, and treatment in captivity, with some observations on their

habits, and notes on the porpoise fishery.

Among the illustrations are photographs showing porpoises rising to

breathe, and foetal porpoises of both sexes.

C. H. T.

BACTERIOLOGY. — The composition of Roquefort cheese fat. James

N. CuRRiE. Journal of Agricultural Research, 2:429-434. Sep-

tember 21, 1914.

Fat separated from Roquefort cheese representing four popular

brands of imported cheese was studied and compared with the fat

from cow's milk. Results are tabulated, together with Browne's^

figures for the fat of ^ ow's milk, as follows :

Attention is called to the much higher figures for caproic and capric

acids in the fat of Roquefort cheese, which is nearly pure sheep's milk

fat. It was shown by the author in a previous publication- that these

two acids are chiefly responsible for the peppery taste of Roquefort

cheese. It is concluded that a Roquefort cheese made from sheep's

milk will have more of this hot or peppery taste than one of the same

ripeness made from cow's milk. J. N. C.

* Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc, 21: 807.

- Journ. Agric. Research, 2: 1-14.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V FEBRUARY 19, 1915 No. 4

PHYSICS. — The accurate measurement of the refractive indices

of minute crystal grains under the petrographic microscope.

Fred. E. Wright, Geophysical Laboratory.

The principal refractive indices of fine crystal particles, meas-

uring 0.01 mm. in diameter or larger and of medium refrin-

gence and birefringence can be determined by the immersion

method with an accuracy of ± 0.001.^ In strongly birefracting

minerals and in deeply colored substances of high refractive

index this degree of accuracy is rarely attainable by the im-

1 For a discussion of the principles and details of practical application of

the immersion method to refractive index determinations under the petro-

graphic microscope see: Tschermak's Miner, petrogr. Mitteil., 20:239. 1901;

Am. Jour. Sci., (4), 17:385-387. 1904; (4), 35:63-82. 1913; Carnegie Insti-

tution of Washington, Pub. 158: 93. 1911; Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 270, 389.

1914. Since the publication of these papers a new procedure for the measure-

ment of the refractive indices of immersion liquids on the total refractometer

has been adopted by the writer and has proved so satisfactory that it may be

described briefly. Plane parallel disks (2 cm. in diameter, 2 to 3 mm. thick)

of high refracting glass (n > 1.74) serve in place of ordinary object glasses. The

refringence tests between mineral grain and immersion liquid are made in the

usual way under the microscope. The glass disk is then mounted directly on the

glass hemisphere of the total refractometer with a drop of highly refractive

liquid intervening (methylene iodide or Rohrbach solution), and the refractive

index of the liquid is measured through the glass disk. By this method, it is

possible to measure the three principal refractive indices of a biaxial mineral

grain without removing it from the liquid, the refractive index of the liquid

itself being laised or lowered the proper amount to match the different refrac-

tive indices of the mineral by the addition of a smaU drop of a suitable re-

fractive liquid. The danger of scratching the surface of the glass hemisphere

by mineral grains embedded in the refractive liquid is also eliminated.

101

102 WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF REFRACTIVE INDICES

mersion method and can only be approached by a careful ob-

servance of certain favorable conditions of observation. It is

the purpose of the present paper to consider these conditions

briefly and to ascertain their relative importance in accurate

work.

The methods for the detection of differences in refractive

index between crystal grain and immersion liquid are based pri-

marily on differences in intensity of illumination in different

parts of the grain. In order that these differences be readily

visible even for slight changes in refractive 'index it is essen-

tial that attention be given to the following factors: (a) the

source of light; (b) the optical condenser system of the micro-

scope for producing the different types of illumination — cen-

tral or oblique — of the crystal grain; (c) the optical system for

observing the differences in illumination thus produced.

(a) For accurate measurements intense, uniform, monochro-

matic light is essential. The most satisfactory light source is

the mercury lamp used in conjunction with either a dispersion

prism or the Wratten ray filters. It furnishes a very intense

green light (546.1 mm) and an intense orange-yellow light (576.9

and 579 mm)- The ordinary sodium, thallium, lithium, and

calcium flames, the helium and hydrogen tubes, and the cadmium

and iron arcs are also useful. The light source is placed in the

focus of a condenser lens, and either the light itself or the il-

luminated condenser lens is imaged in the object plane of the

microscope by means of the substage condenser. In case still

more uniform, but less intense, illumination is desired a finely

ground glass disk may be placed in the lower focal plane of the

substage condenser.

(b) Two types of illumination, central and oblique, are em-

ployed in refractive index determinations by the immersion

method. In central illumination a narrow cone of light whose

axis coincides with that of the optical system, is used and

is obtained either by closing the iris diaphragm below the sub-

stage condenser or by lowering the condenser. The angle which

the marginal rays of the central cone include with the axis

can be measured by means of a graduated apertometer scale

WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF REFRACTIVE INDICES 103

located in the lower focal plane of the condenser and imaged

in the eye-circle of the ocular. The angle ordinarily employed

with a 16 mm. objective (Zeiss apochromatic ; N. A. = 0.30) is

8° to 10°; under these conditions the diameter of the eye-circle

(compensating eyepiece 4) is 1.3 mm. This angle can be reduced

to 4° by closing the iris diaphragm as far as possible; but the

diameter of the eye-circle is then only 0.6 mm., the illumina-

tion of the field is weak and dust particles are troublesome.

In a high power objective (Zeiss apochromatic, E. F. = 4 mm.;

N. A. = 0.95) the angular aperture usually employed in central

illumination is about 15°; for this aperture the diameter of the

eye-circle is 0.5 mm. In case the smallest possible aperture,

4°, be used, the diameter of the eye-circle is reduced to 0.15

mm.; the field illumination is then so weak that a strong light

source is necessary; all lenses and also object cover glass must

be thoroughly cleaned to reduce, as far as possible, the dis-

turbing effects resulting from dust particles and from dif-

fraction. In oblique illumination a narrow pencil of obliquely

incident light is employed and is best obtained by means either

of a movable iris diaphragm or of a sliding metal strip in the

lower focal plane of the substage condenser. Experience has

shown that in the case of the sliding substage-stop the best

effects are produced when the stop is inserted past the axis to

a point midway between the center and the margin of the con-

denser opening. Under these conditions the inclination of the

incident rays in the 16 mm. objective ranges from 9° to 18°,

with an average inclination of 12.5°. This angle can be de-

creased by closing the substage iris diaphragm and withdrawing

the sliding stop a short distance; but then the intensity of

field illumination decreases rapidly and the disturbing effects

of dust particles become serious. With a 32 mm. objective

(N. A. = 0.10) the angular field measures 6° on a side and the

best results in oblique illumination are obtained for rays of

an average angular inclination of 4° (3° to 6°). With the 4

mm. objective it is difficult to obtain proper illumination by

this method because of the rapid decrease in definition of image

with oblique, one sided illumination.

104 weight: measurement of refractive indices

(c) Experience has proved that the effects produced by

central illumination are best observed under relatively high

magnifications (300 to 75 diameters; 4 mm. or 16 nmi. objective)

while in obhque illumination lower magnifications are more

favorable (75 to 30 diameters; 16 mm. or 32 mm. objective).

Refractive index measurements on birefracting grains. The

phenomena obtained by central illumination are different from

those resulting from oblique illumination; but the principle

underlying both types of illumination, namely that of the devia-

tion of transmitted hght waves by prismatic refraction, ^ is the

same. It is of interest to compare the results obtained by the

two kinds of illumination on irregular, birefracting crystal

particles. In a birefracting mineral the refractive indices

of the transmitted light waves vary with the direction of trans-

mission; the two methods of illumination are therefore subject

to correction factors because in both methods more or less

obliquely incident light is employed. In crystals of medium to

weak birefringence these factors are practically negligible and

experience has shown that the degree of accuracy attainable

by either method is about the same. But in strongly birefract-

ing minerals a slight change in the direction of transmission of

the • light waves may produce a decided change in refractive

index, and then the actual angle of inclination and the direction

of the waves may become an important factor in the accuracy

2 The method of central illumination is frequently called the Becke-line

method while that of oblique illumination is designated the Schroeder van der

Kolk method. The papers by Becke and Schroeder van der Kolk were of great

importance in emphasizing the significance of these methods in microscopical

petrography; but in view of the fact that both methods had been described

and applied by Maschke and Thoulet one or two decades earlier and also that in

ordinary microscope work (biological, etc.) these methods have long been used

and called by the above descriptive terms — central and oblique illumination —

it would seem better than these terms be employed in preference to the above.

The term Becke-line should be retained, however, for some of the relative re-

fringence determinations in rock thin sections; but in refractive index deter-

minations of crystal grains by central illumination the Becke-line constitutes

only part of the phenomena observed, the determination being based primarily

on the relative convergence or divergence of the light transmitted through the

mineral grain.

Wright: measurement of refractive indices

105

attained. This is well illustrated on plates of calcite which is

very strongly bu'efracting (co — e =0.172).

In Table 1 are listed the computed extraordinary refractive

indices (e') for light waves entering a calcite plate under dif-

ferent angles of incidence. In columns 1 and 2 the values

are given for a plate cut normal to the principal axis; in col-

umns 3 and 4 ,the values for a plate cut parallel with the prin-

cipal axis; in columns 5, 6, and 7, the values for a cleavage

plate of calcite. Each of the above plates is considered to be

so placed that its principal section is parallel to the plane of

vibration of the incident waves. In columns 1, 3 and 5 are

listed the refractive indices for extraordinary waves trans-

mitted along directions contained in the plane normal to the

•TABLE 1.

principal section; it may be noted that the refractive index for

each of these columns remains constant for the different direc-

tions of transmission. In columns 2, 4, 6, and 7 the refractive

indices are given for light waves whose lines of propagation

are contained in the principal section. In these columns the

refractive indices vary noticeably with change in direction of

transmission. In column 6 the refractive indices e' are listed

for different angles of incidence i in the principal section of

the cleavage rhombohedron on the side toward the emergent

optic axis; in column 7 the refractive indices are given for light

waves incident also in the principal section but on the side

away from the optic axis.

From this table it is evident that if a calcite cleavage flake

be immersed in a liquid of refractive index about 1.564, the

plate will appear to have approximately the same refractive

106 WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF REFRACTIVE INDICES

index for oblique waves transmitted in the vertical plane nor-

mal to the principal section (column 5) ; but a noticeably higher

refractive index than the liquid for light waves incident under

conditions of column 6, and a much lower refractive index for

conditions of column 7; also that the refractive index of a basal

section of calcite will appear, if observed under the condi-

tions of obhque illumination of column 2, to have a lower re-

fractive index than the maximum refractive index co; under simi-

lar conditions (column 4) a section parallel to the principal

axis will appear to have a higher refractive index than the mini-

mum refractive index e which it might be expected to show. It

may be noted, however, that, even under the most favorable

conditions, the rays incident on the mineral grain are not all

contained in the diametral plane normal to the principal section.

Of the cone of rays emerging from the condenser all but a small

segment is eliminated by the sliding-stop ; the marginal rays of

this segment include an appreciable angle with the diametral

plane, and are accordingly transmitted through the mineral grain

under conditions different from those in the diametral plane; the

phenomena which we observe are the result of the aggregate

action of all the rays and not solely of those of the diametral

plane, on which the determinations are based. This defect can

be remedied to a large extent by the use either of small circular

holes^ or of a narrow slit opening in the sliding-stop. Disregard

of this factOi"'fnay affect the accuracy of measurements on strongly

birefractirig I niinerals. These relations serve also to explain

the long-e'6tttinued appearance of colored fringes on the margins

of such crystal grains when observed in white light, these fringes

persisting over a much greater range of refractive indices than

might be expected were they due solely to the difference in dis-

persion between mineral and liquid.

In central illumination the inclination of the transmitted

rays is, in general, less than that in obhque illumination with

the result that the error introduced because of this factor is

proportionately less. Offsetting this advantage in part, however,

is the sensitiveness of central illumination to the character,

'Tscherm. Miner, petrogr. Mitteil., 20:240. 1901.

WRIGHT: MEASUREMENT OF REFRACTIVE INDICES 107

shape, and size of the grain and its edges. In many grains,

especially cleavage flakes, the phenomena are so masked by

local irregularities that it is difficult to determine whether the

grain has a slightly higher or slightly lower refractive index

than the immersion liquid. With central illumination the

differences, noted above, in refractive indices of the light waves

which emerge in the different quadrants find expression in a

noticeable difference in the behavior of the different sides of the

grain on raising the objective.

Experience has proved that the two methods furnish, in

general, results which are of the same order of exactness; in

special instances, however, central illumination is superior to

oblique illumination because of the smaller angle of inclination

of the cone of its incident rays; in other cases oblique illumi-

nation is preferable because the phenomena, which it produces,

are then more distinct. As a rule it is good practice to use

both methods and to verify the results of the one by those of the

second.

Summary. In the exact measurement of refractive indices

of minute crystal particles by the immersion method it is essen-

tial: (a) that correctly oriented sections be selected which are

normal to at least one principal optic section; (b) that in case

oblique illumination be used, only those pencils of light be

employed whose direction of propagation is included in the

plane normal to the principal optical section; in other words,

the metal sliding-stop should be so inserted that its front edge

is parallel to a principal section; (c) that with central illu-

mination special weight be given to the effects along those edges

of the grain, which trend approximately parallel to the prin-

cipal section. If these conditions be disregarded the value

obtained for the maximum refractive index will be too low,

the value for the minimum refractive index, too high, while

that of any intermediate refractive index, as /3, may be too

high or too low. Failure to recognize these factors may lead,

especially in the case of strongly birefracting crystal particles,

to refractive index determinations which are appreciably in

error.

108 CAPPS: AGE OF THE LAST GREAT GLACIATION

GEOLOGY. — An estimate of the age of the last great glaciation

in Alaska. Stephen R. Capps, Geological Survey.

For many years certain Alaska glaciers have been under

observation, and considerable material dealing solely with gla-

ciation in Alaska has been published. A large amount of data

on glacial conditions throughout the territory has also accu-

mulated incident to general geologic investigations, and has

been pubHshed in the reports which treat of the geologj^ of the

different districts. The pubhshed literature on glaciation in

Alaska is, therefore, so extensive that it can not be discussed in

this paper.

It is a generally recognized fact that the present glaciers of

Alaska are but the shrunken descendants of vastly greater

glaciers which at some former time reached a much more ex-

tensive development than they now have. Yet notwithstand-

ing the amount of attention which has been given to the sub-

ject by many observers, practically no attempt, based on trust-

worthy evidence, has been made to date the age of this last

great ice advance in Alaska, or to correlate it with any of the

glacial stages which have been so well established in the Mis-

sissippi Basin.

Quantitative studies of the variations of certain coastal

glaciers of Alaska, some of which have advanced or retreated

long distances within a comparatively short term of years, have

established a rather general impression that the greater por-

tion of the retreat of all Alaskan glaciers from the points of

greatest advance to their present positions has taken place

rather recently. Few men have been willing tQ hazard a guess

as to how many years ago a particular valley was bared of ice;

but that the time should be measured in centuries, rather than

in thousands of years, would probably have seemed reasonable

to most of those who have thought on the subject. The feeling

that the time should be measured in hundreds of years, rather

than in terms of greater magnitude, has also been strengthened

by the small amount of post glacial erosion which can be dis-

covered in many strongly glaciated valleys.

During the progress of a reconnaissance geological survey

CAPPS: AGE OF THE LAST GREAT GLACIATION 109

in the upper portion of the White River basin in the summer

of 1914 some facts were obtained which throw hght on the

problem of the length of time which has elapsed since Russell

Glacier, a large, vigorous glacier in which White River heads,

retreated to approximately its present position. Russell Gla-

cier draws its ice-supply from a high, rugged range of moun-

tains near the international boundary. The main body of the

glacier lies in a pass and a portion of its drainage goes to the Cop-

per River basin, although the main discharge is to the Yukon,

It gives abundant evidence of active movement, and although

its lower end is well covered by morainal material, the detritus

has a very fresh appearance, and vegetation has secured only

a scanty foothold upon it. It may fairly be considered as an

average example of the glaciers of the Wrangell Mountains

and it may be inferred that the major events of its history

have been roughly duplicated by the other similar glaciers in

the same general region.

At a point on the north side of White River about* 8 miles

below the source of that stream in Russell Glacier, the river

has eroded its bank to form a high blufT which for an east and

west distance of over a mile shows excellent exposures. Al-

though its height and the thickness of its constituent mem-

bers vary somewhat from place to place, a single section will

serve well to illustrate the conditions found there. The base

of the bluff at the point measured (fig. 1) shows 30 feet of typi-

cal, unconsolidated and unoxydized glacial till, with an un-

even, rolling surface. Above the till and extending to the top

of the bluff is 39 feet of fibrous, peaty vegetable material, full of

stumps and roots, but probably formed for the most part of

the remains of sphagnum moss (figs. 2 and 3). Seven feet

below the top of the bluff the peat is interrupted by a two-

foot layer of white volcanic ash. The surface of the ground

above the bluff is covered by a thick coating of sphagnum moss

and supports also a dense forest of spruce, with scanty under-

brush. The peat, ash and glacial till are permanently frozen a

few inches back from the face of the bluff, even though having

a south exposure, and subjected to the long hours of summer

no

CAPPS: AGE OF THE LAST GREAT GLACIATION

Peat 7 .

Volcanic Ash 2.

Peat iZ

sunshine, the Hght, fluffy waste from the peat acting as an

effective insulator. Even the surface moss was sohdly frozen

at a depth of 6 inches in early July. The cut bank, therefore,

shows generally a nearly vertical peat face, and erosion takes

place by the formation of great vertical cracks through the

peat, and the falhng outward of large, tree covered blocks which

tumble down to the stream level and are gradually thawed and

removed (fig. 4) . An

examination of this

section at once sug-

gested that if the

rate of accumulation

of the peaty mate-

rial could be deter-

mined, then a fairly

accurate estimate

could be made of

the length of the

time period whch

has intervened be-

tween the final re-

treat of the ice from

this locality and the

present.

The peculiar ap-

pearance of the roots

of the spruce trees

which grow on the

edge of the bluff, as

well as of the stumps

which make up a

considerable portion

of the peaty deposit,

suggested that it

might be possible to

determine approxi-

mately the rate of

Glacral Till

Fig. 1. Diagrammatic section of stream bluff on

White River, showing relations of glacial till, peat,

and volcanic ash. The process of peat deposition is

still going on at the surface. A, a normal spruce

stump with flat root base, growing on solid ground.

B, a spruce stump growing on rapidly accumulating

peat. Below the line of ground frost, which rises

with the growth of peaty material, the roots cease to

unction, and the tree is forced to throw out additional

oots in the unfrozen surface portion of the ground.

CAPPS: AGE OF THE LAST GREAT GLACIATION

111

accumulation of the peat at this place. The ordinary spruce,

growing upon solid ground, either frozen or unfrozen, sends its

roots out radially, parallel with the surface, the roots pene-

trating only a few inches below the surface of the ground

(fig. lA). The uprooted spruce tree, with its flat root base,

is a familiar object to all who have travelled through an Alaskan

spruce forest. In the White River locality, however, the roots

of the spruce trees, both those

growing at the edge of the

bluff, or recently overturned,

and those deeply buried with-

in the peat mass, showed quite

different characteristics (fig.

IB). Instead of a single, flat-

based set of radial roots, these

trees all show a central stem

often several feet long, from

which roots branch off at ir-

regular intervals, with an

upper set of roots near the

surface, corresponding to those

of the normal tree. An at-

tempt to dig out one living

tree for the purpose of ex-

amining its roots, resulted in

failure, for the ground was

found to be solidly frozen 6

inches below the top of the Fig. 2. Section of bluff, showing glacial

moss, and an excavation 18 till overUin by peat and volcanic ash.

inches deep did not reach to

the lowest roots. Below the frost line the roots were sound

and undecayed, but of a darker color than the live surface

roots, and were apparently not functioning.

From the above facts it seems evident that a seedling spruce,

having established itself on the mossy soil in this area of rap-

idly accumulating vegetation, sent out radial, flat-based roots

in a normal way, but the constantly thickening moss and fol-

lowing it the rising line of frozen ground cut off the food sup-

112 CAPPS: AGE OF THE LAST GREAT GLACIATION

ply from the lowest roots and caused the tree constantly to

throw out new sets of roots near the surface, in its efforts to

survive. If these premises are correct, then the vertical dis-

tance between 'the lowest horizontal roots of a tree and the

surface of the ground represents the thickness of the peaty

accumulation during the growth of the tree, and the rate of

accumulation can be determined by ascertaining the age of the

tree, as shown by the annual rings.

It is readily admitted that any figures for the rate of accu-

mulation of peat, obtained in the way outlined are subject to

Fig. 3. Close view of an overturned block of peat, with included spruce

stumps.

many uncertainties, and before they can be considered final

should be checked by a much larger number of measurements

than could be made in the single day which was available for this

study. Most of the qualifying factors, however, seem to fall

on the side of conservatism, and to give a minimum, rather

than a maximum figure. Among the unweighed factors the

following may be briefly mentioned:

1. The vegetable matter accumulating near the surface is

less compact than that deeper in the section, so that the ma-

CAPPS: AGE OF THE LAST GREAT GLACIATION

113

terial making up a layer a foot thick around a living tree would be

considerably less than that thickness after it became deeply buried.

2. Toward the edge of the bluff, where the roots could be

best examined, the accumulation near the surface contains a

considerable admixture of wind-blown dust from the bare sand

and silt flat below. The deeper portions of the peat bed are

comparatively free from such extraneous material, and it is

probable that at the time they were laid down they were at

some distance from the bare gravel plain of White River.

Fig. 4. Peat bluff, with angular, overturned blocks of peat and volcanic

ash. Photograph by F. H. Moffit.

3. A considerable period of time probably elapsed after the

retreat of the ice before vegetation had completely established

itself upon the bared area of glacial till. Similarly, the ejection

of the heavy layer of volcanic ash, while it failed to kill the

spruce forest, doubtless destroyed the surface covering of

sphagnum moss, and this moss cover may have been a long

time in reestablishing itself. Even now there are on the moun-

tain front to the south large areas of bare ash, on which there

is only scanty vegetation.

114 CAPPS: AGE OF THE LAST GREAT GLACIATIOIST

4. According to F. V. Coville, trees of very slow growth fail

during unfavorable years to form distinct annual rings, and

therefore the age of the tree, as shown by a count of the rings,

may be considerably greater than the figures obtained. From

the same authority comes the statement that during the first

years after germination the spruce tree grows very slowly, so

that a count of the rings made 4 feet above the present sur-

face, or say 6 feet above the lowest horizontal roots, would

fail to show the first 20 years or so of the tree's growth.

Sound trees so situated that their roots could be studied,

and ring counts made, were not easily found, and in only one

instance was the count made on a tree which seemed to have

developed under conditions which approached the average.

On this tree one count, made 6 feet above the present sur-

face of the ground, where the tree had a diameter of 7| inches,

showed 373 annual rings. At 8 feet above the ground another

count was made as a check and gave 362 rings. This tree had

an accumulation of 24 inches of vegetable matter above its

lowest horizontal roots. With an allowance of 27 years for

the growth of the tree up to the point where the count was

made, a rate of accumulation of the vegetable material of about

1 foot in 200 years was obtained. In the peaty material around

the roots of this tree there was considerably more wind-blown

sand and silt than in the peat exposed below. Another count,

made on a tree 5| inches in diameter, gave 133 rings, and the

roots had 16 inches of very sandy peat about them. The un-

usually sandy condition of the peat about this tree must indicate

an unusually rapid burial of the tree, and consequently the

figures of the rate of accumulation are too small to be gener-

ally applied. Emphasis is again placed upon the fact that the

surface peat is much less solidly compacted than that more

deeply buried, and the figure on which most confidence is placed,

namely 200 years to the foot of peat, is doubtless much less

than the actual number of years required for the average foot

of peat to accumulate at this place.

Disregarding, therefore, many unweighed factors, all of

which would tend to give a slower rate of accumulation, and

CAPPS: AGE OF THE LAST GREAT GLACIATION 115

assuming the rate of 200 years to the foot to be correct, we are

brought face to face with the conclusion that a period of at least

7800 years or in round numbers 8000 years has been required

for the formation of the 39 feet of peat exposed in this section,

and that the final retreat of the front of Russell Glacier to within

8 miles of its present position had taken place some 8000 years

ago. This figure of 8000 years is by no means to be consid-

ered as final, but is merely believed to express the proper order

of magnitude of the term of years since the disappearance here

of the glacial ice. The writer is inclined to believe that this

estimate falls considerably short of the time which has actually

elapsed. But if the estimate is within 25, or even 50 per cent

correct, it gives one a broader basis from which to consider the

geologic and physiographic history of Alaska since the with-

drawal of the last great glaciers. At the time of its maxunum

extension Russell Glacier, according to Brooks, reached as far

north as the mouth of Donjek River, about 130 miles beyond its

^present terminus. Its retreat over 90 per cent of this distance

had therefore been completed 8000 years ago.

This retreat of over 90 per cent of the distance must, how-

ever, not be considered to represent 90 per cent of the elapsed

time since the retreat began. The withdrawal of the ice was

probably a comparatively rapid one until the terminus with-

drew to somewhere near its present position, and the terminus

may have remained nearly stationary for a long while. This

glacier was first seen in 1891 and has been visited at intervals

since, and during the last 20 years its outer margin has changed

but little.

Various estimates have been made of the length of time since

the Wisconsin ice sheet began to retreat. Chamberhn and

Salisbury, after reviewing the evidence, place the time as some-

where between 20,000 and 60,000 years. The determination

made in the White River valley, at a point which was not bared

until a large part of the retreat had been completed, is of the

same order of magnitude as the figures gained from other widely

different sources, and it therefore now for the first time seems

safe to say that the last great ice advance in Alaska was con-

temporaneous with the Wisconsin continental giaciation.

116 cook: a new genus of palms

BOTANY. — A new genus of palms allied to Archonio'phoenix.

O. F. Cook, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Apart from the several species of Phoenix and Cocos, only

one pinnate-leaved palm is commonly planted in the open

air in California. This is usually known as Seaforihia ele-

gans, but has also been called Ptychosperma elegans, Archonto-

phoenix alexandrae, and Archontophoenix cunninghamiana. As

these names belong to other species they should not be applied

to the palm grown in California. Reference of the plant in

question to Ptychosperma or Seaforthia is excluded because

the seeds are not sulcate. In this respect there is agreement

with Archontophoenix, but other characters are divergent.

One cause of confusion is that characters given by Drude,

in Engler and Prantl's Natilrlichen Pflayizenfajnilien, as diag-

nostic of Archontophoenix are not found in the type of that

genus, A. alexandrae. These discrepancies relate to the form

of the pistillode and the structure of the fruit. Acquaintance

with the true Archontophoenix alexandrae was gained by the.

writer in 1905, at Cordoba, Mexico, fruit and seed of an in-

dividual there studied agreeing closely with Mueller's original

description and figures,^ but differing from those of the familiar

palm of California. For comparison with the genuine Seaforthia

elegans ample material was afforded by palms studied in 1914

at the Belize Botanical Station, British Honduras. The iden-

tification of the latter material led to a recognition of the fact

that ,the California palm was different from all of the species

to which it had been supposed to belong.

Taking into account the original description of Archonto-

phoenix and the characters of the type species, the pistillode

should not be described as short and pyramidal in Archonto-

phoenix, but as having the same slender, elongate form as in

Ptychosperma and Seaforthia. Nor does the seed of the true

Archontophoenix alexandrae have an adherent endocarp, as stated

by Drude. The endocarp is represented in Archontophoenix

by a firm, bony shell, rather thin, but hard and brittle, and

1 Fragm. Austr. 5: 47, pis. 43, U-

cook: a new genus of palms 117

readily separable from the seed. The raphe, instead of being

broad and adherent, is a narrow, superficial strand of fibers,

only slightly attached to the seed-coat.

The characters assigned by Drude to Archontophoenix — the

short pistillode, the thin adherent endocarp, and the broad,

adnate raphe — are in fact possessed by the palm grown in Cali-

fornia, and are among the features which interfere with its

assignment to Archontophoenix. Although Archontophoenix,

as originally described in 1875 by Wendland and Drude,- was

based upon Mueller's Ptychosperma alexandrae, Drude's later

diagnosis seems to have been drawn for a different palm, perhaps

the very species grown in California. The features of special

interest in this comparison are summarized in the following

key and diagnoses.

Archontophoenix Wendl. & Drude. Flowers white or greenish;

stamens 9-12, the anthers about twice as long as the filaments; pis-

tillode with long slender style exceeding the stamens. Pistillate

flowers with petals equal to the sepals and of the same form; sta-

minodes wantmg. Fruit elliptical, with a thin fleshy pericarp con-

taining rather narrow needle-like, simple or forked, longitudinal fibers,

adherent to the outer surface of a thin endocarp of bony palisade

tissue, distinct and readily separable from fhe seed-coats. Seed erect,

oval or elliptic, with pattern of the rumination apparent on the sur-

face of the seed-coats. Raphe represented by a narrow, vertical,

superficial strand of fibers, only slightly adherent to the seed-coats.

Loroma Cook, gen. nov.

Flowers purple or lilac, the staminate with strongly carinate sepals

and valvate petals; stamens 12-16, with anthers about half as long

as the filaments; pistillode conic-pyramidal, deeply trifid at apex,

much exceeded by the stamens. Pistillate flowers with sepals broadly

rounded, ecarinate; petals exceeding the sepals, very broadly imbri-

cate, unequal, with a broad angular emargination on each side of a

broadly triangular apex; staminodes present, represented by a circle

of six minute rudimentary filaments. Fruit subglobose, the pericarp

supported by a layer of broad, flat, strap-Hke, slightly anastomosing

fibers and an underlying layer of coarse-celled tissue closely adherent

to the surface of the seed except at the base and apex, with no indication

of a bony endocarp or shell of palisade tissue. Seed somewhat ob-

liquely depressed at apex, the raphe represented by a broad vertical

band of strongly adherent fibers, partially embedded in the seed-

coats. Albumen rather deeply and coarsely ruminate; embryo erect,

basal.

2 Linnaea 39 : 214.

118 cook: a new genus of palms

The derivation of the generic name refers to the strap-like form of

the fibers surrounding the seed. In addition to the type, Loroma

amethystina, known from cultivated plants in California, a second

species, Loroma cunninghamiana {Ptychosperma cunninghamiana

Wendl.), from northern Australia, is referable to this genus.

SYNOPTICAL KEY TO LOROMA AND ALLIED GENERA

Pistillode of the staminate flower similar to the fertile pistil, bearing

three distinct rudimentary stigmas, these much exceeded by the stamens;

seed protected by a layer of broad, strap-like fibers Loroma.

Pistillode unlike the fertile pistil, bearing a long filiform style, this

exceeding the stamens; seed with a coat of slender fibers 1.

1. Seeds oval, the surface even, without longitudinal furrows, en-

closed in a thin bony endocarp, readil}'^ separable from a distinct woody

seed-coat Archontophoenix.

1. Seeds with distinct longitudinal furrows, both endocarp and

seed-coats thin and membranous 2.

2. Trunk extremely slender; leaves with remote pinnae; filaments

shorter than the anthers; fruits oblong-oval, very strongly apicu-

late Ptychosperma.

2. Trunk moderately robust; leaves with crowded pinnae; filaments

longer than the anthers; fruit spherical or somewhat depressed, slightly

apiculate Seaforthia,

The type of the genus Loroma is L. amethystina, cultivated in Cali-

fornia, probably from Australia; of Archontophoenix, A. alexandrae

(Mueller) Wendl. & Drude, from. Australia , of Ptychosperma, P. gracilis

LabilL, from New Caledonia; of Seaforthia, S. elegans R. Br., from

Australia.

Loroma amethystina Cook, sp. nov.

* Trunk attaining a height of 8-10 meters and upward, the largest

trunks about 30 cm. in diameter at the base, tapering above to 15-20 cm.

Leaf sheath 96 cm. long, the outer surface reddish, with numerous

purplish-brown scales; texture rather thin, but tough and leathery.

Petiole 9 cm. long, 4 cm. wide. Blade 2 meters long and more, with

70-80 pinnae on each side, the basal and terminal pinnae much nar-

rower and shorter than the others. Lowest pinnae 24 cm. long, 0.4

cm. wide, or sometimes only 0.2 cm. wide; fifth pinnae 36 cm. long,

1.3 cm. wide; middle pinnae about 80 cm. long, 4.5 cm. wide; sub-

terminal pinnae about 30 cm. long, 1.4 cm. wide; terminal 1 cm. wide.

Midribs of pinnae with long coarse scales beneath. Rachis triangular,

convex below, sharply carinate above, the insertions of pinnae very

deeply folded. Tips of leaves very slender and drooping, usually

turned on edge (as in Attalea cohune or Phoenix canariensis) .

Inflorescences developed in the axils of living leaves, but not ap-

cook: a new genus of palms 119

pearing until the leaves fall, the spathes opening as soon as released

by the falling of the leaf, and the flowers soon after. Spathes 2, of

nearl}^ equal length, strongly compressed, white and of very thin

delicate texture, their protective function being performed by the

leaf-sheaths. Newly opened inflorescences deep purple in color, the

flower buds much more crowded than in Seaforthia elegans, the branches

covered with a short close pubescence or scurf, this at first creamy

yellow, changing to light sulphur yellow, then fading to white. Flow-

ering branches simple, about 60 cm. long, strictly pendent almost

from the first, not erect-spreading or merely drooping from the weight

of the fruits as in Seaforthia elegans and other allied genera.

Flowers purplish-pink throughout, including the petals, the fila-

ments and the connective of the anthers, and the pistillodes, but the

anthers and pollen uncolored. Sepals broadly imbricate, acutely

angled at apex and with a strong median carina, the fleshy basal por-

tion somewhat pinkish. Petals rather stiff and horny, translucent

when fresh, and with an abruptly thickened, transverse, fleshy pul-

vinus at base. Stamens 12-16, usually 13-15, often with some of the

filaments double. Pistillode about half the length .of the filaments,

not produced into a long filiform style, but with 2 or 3 divergent prongs,

these usually unequal (or only one, the others rudimentary) , sometimes

united with one of the filaments, inserted with the filaments at the

apex of a broad, turbinate cushion of loose, spongy texture.

Fruits subgloliose, coral pink, 12 mm. long, 11.5 mm. wide; stigma

subapical, borne on a slightly elevated rim; epidermis smooth or with

slight, scattered, raised points; pericarp fleshy, thin, less than 0.5

mm. thick, supported by a firmer layer containing numerous broad

band-like fibers adhering to form a shell-like coat separable with diffi-

culty from a less fibrous layer of marbled white and coarse red cells

underneath, this marbled layer strongly adherent to the thick brownish

seed-coat and often entering deeply into the ruminations. No layer

of bony palisade tissue under the fibers as in Archontophoenix.

Seeds subglobose, 10 mm. in diameter when fresh, somewhat ob-

liquely depressed or flattened above, slightly broader than long, not

sulcate, slightly flattened at the base, but not provided with adherent

basal and apical cushions as in Seaforthia. Surface of seed with an

adherent fibrous layer, the raphe represented by a broad band of ver-

tical embedded fibers. Albumen of rather soft, loose texture, with

deep and irregular ruminations, broader and less numerous than those

of Archontophoenix alexandrae, extending about half waj^ to the center

of the seed. Color of ruminations in fresh seeds pale yellowish brown,

becoming rusty brown, in dry seeds. Embryo erect, exactly basal.

The type specimen, no. 694813 in the U. S. National Herbarium,

was collected at Santa Barbara, California, by the writer, November

11, 1914, the type individual being one of several unusually fine palms

in the collection of Mr. C. B. Hale, under the care of Mr. W. H. Morse.

The specimen consists of branches of an inflorescence, with unopened

flowers and ripe fruits. The characters and measurements of the

120 cook: a new genus of palms

trunk, leaves, and the mature flowers were drawn from a palm stand-

ing at the side of the Court House in San Diego, CaHfornia.

This species, or at least a member of this genus, is represented

also in the Economic Herbarium of the U. S. Department of Agri-

culture by two vials of dried fruits from Australia, one from Baron

von Mueller, formerly director of the Botanical Garden at Melbourne,

and the other from Dr. J. H. Maiden, Director of the Botanical Garden

at Sidney, the latter received as Ptychosperma elegans (S. P. I. No.

1329). These two lots, which are very closely alike, differ from the

typical material in having the strap-like fibers somewhat narrower

and more frequently branched. Fruits from the Philippine Islands,

collected by Mr. H. Boyle, are somewhat smaller than those from

Australia.

Nothing has been learned regarding the introduction of Loroma

into California, but its botanical relationships indicate that it is a

native of northern Australia, along with the true Seaforthia elegans

and Archontophuenix alexandrae. Though both of these palms have

been reported very frequently from California, their existence there is

not certain; the confusion of names would naturally obscure the need

of introducing genuine examples of the species. The newly recognized

type is a distinctly larger and more robust palm than the true Sea-

forthia elegans, but smaller and more slender than the true Archonto-

phoenix alexandrae, which is more similar in general appearance to the

royal palms of the American tropics.

The habit of the inflorescences to remain enclosed in the leaf-bases,

and thus secure protection till the time of flowering, may be con-

sidered as an adaptive specialization. The very soft thin texture of the

spathes indicates that these have little or no protective function. In

the case in which it was possible to observe the sequence of events the

spathes opened on the same day that the old leaf fell off; the blade

of the leaf was dead, but the tissue of the basal sheath was still rather

fresh.

Flowers in alcohol showed on the next day a notable brown dis-

coloration of the petals and filaments, but the anthers remained white.

The change of color seemed to be dependent on exposure to the light,

or to the air in the bottle. Flowers on the under side of the mass were

scarcely changed, the delicate pink tint still appearing fresh. The name

chosen for the species alludes to the very attractive color of the flowers,

which is rather unusual among palms.

In attempting a specific identification of the cultivated palm just

described almost as many difficulties were encountered as with the

cook: a new genus of palms 121

generic designation. Its reference to Loroma cunninghamiana would

appear to be justified by some descriptions, but the type of this species

seems to have been a smaller palm and different in other respects.

The case is complicated at the beginning by the fact that the two

original accounts of this species, by Hooker and Wendland, do not agree.

Hooker's description and plate, published in 1857,^ under the name

Seaforthia elegans, indicate a relatively small, slender palm with a

broad flat crown of horizontal spreading leaves, and about 30 pinnae

on each side of the midrib. The form of the leaves appears to be

oblong, with little indication of the extreme reduction of the pinnae

at the base and tip, or of the tendency of the leaves to stand erect

and turn on edge, as shown in Loroma ameihijstina. This individual

had been raised at Kew from seed sent from northern Australia by

Allan Cunningham, but no definite locality was given.

The most obvious discrepancy is that Wendland, in proposing the

new name Ptychosperma cunninghamiana,'^ gives the number of pinnae

as 55-65 on each side of the rachis. It appears that Wendland had

a palm in his garden in Germany that had been considered as dis-

tinct from Ptychosperma elegans; but the new species was not named

until after Wendland had visited Kew and seen the palm that had

been raised from Cunningham's seed^ — ^the individual figured by Hooker

as Seaforthia elegans. In naming the species Ptychosperma cunning-

haryiiana and referring to Hooker's plate as the only published illus-

tration, Wendland must be considered to have adopted the Kew palm

as the type of his species. Yet it is difficult to believe that a botanical

drawing made at Kew would have failed to show an approximation

to the correct number of pinnae. The possibility that Wendland

studied a different palm in Germany and included some of its characters

in the description naturally suggests itself.

A color difference is indicated in Hooker's account of the flowers,

which are described as "a pale, dull lilac," instead of a rather bright

pinkish purple, as in L. amethystina. The staminodes also appear

much larger in Hooker's drawing than in the type of L. amethystina.

Hooker states that the palm was "said to attain a height of 30 feet

in its native country," while Wendland and Drude, in transferring the

species to Archontophoenix in 1875,^ give the height as 40-60 feet,

and add several other particulars that may not relate to the original

2 Curtis' Bot. Mag. III. 13: pi. 4961.

*Bot. Zeit. 16:46.

' Linnaea 39 : 214.

122 EVANS : BACILLUS ABORTUS IN MARKET MILK

cunninghamiana, and yet are not altogether in agreement with amethys-

tina. The pinnae are said to attain q, length of 80 cm. and a width

of 7 cm. The length of the pistillodes is given as 3-4 mm., and the

filaments 2-3 mm.; whereas in amethystina the filaments are about 4

mm. long and the pistillodes only 2-3 mm. The length of the inflo-

rescence is given as about 60 cm., with the ultimate divisions 30 cm.

long; while the inflorescences of amethystina are over a meter long, with

the flowering branches 60 cm. long. Wendland states that there are 18

stamens in cunninghamiana and Hooker's plate shows 18. The flowers

of amethystina collected at San Diego usually had less than 15; over

twenty flowers were examined without finding more than 16 stamens.

In view of these differences it has seemed desirable to recognize

the California palm as a distinct species, instead of attempting to base

the new genus on a species whose characters are so largely in doubt.

BACTERIOLOGY. — Bacillus abortus in market milk. Alice C.

Evans, Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. Com-

municated by L. A. Rogers.

An organism of considerable interest which occurs commonly

in. milk is that which causes contagious abortion in cattle. In

1911 Schroeder and Cotton^ reported this organism to be com-

mon in milk. They demonstrated its presence by the inoculation

of guinea pigs. Whenever Bacillus abortus was present in the

milk there was a slow development of lesions which resembled

those of tuberculosis. This organism has been shown to be

pathogenic for all kinds of laboratory and domestic animals.

Whatever may be its effect on human health is unknown; but in

view of its pathogenicity for animals it will naturally be re-

garded with some suspicion in its relation to human health until

its nonpathogenicity has been demonstrated. Interest in this

direction has been stimulated by the work of Larson and Sedg-

wick,' who reported a large percentage of positive results in a

^ Schroeder, E. C, and Cotton, W. E. The bacillus of infectious abortion

found in milk. U. S. Dept. of Agric. Bur. of Animal Industry, 28th Annual

Rpt. 1911.

2 Larson, W. P., and Sedgwick, J. P. Complement deviation reaction in the

blood of children using the Bacillus abortus as an antigen. Rpt. of the Annual

Meeting of the American Association of Medical Milk Commissions. 1913.

EVANS: BACILLUS ABORTUS IN MARKET MILK 123

series of complement deviation tests with the blood of children

in which the abortion bacillus was used as an antigen.

So far as the writer is aware, no bacteriological methods have

been described by which B. abortus can be demonstrated in milk,

and no data have been reported to show the numbers of these

organisms which may be present. Therefore, a detailed de-

scription of a method by which B. abortus may be isolated from

milk and identified may be useful at this time.

The milk is plated on ordinary lactose agar, to which there is

added just before pouring into the plate, at a temperature of

about 50°C., 10 per cent of sterile blood serum. After incu-

bating for four days at 37°C., a certain area of the plate, large

enough to include several colonies of B. abortus, should they be

present, is selected, and the colonies are transferred to a nutrient

broth containing 1 per cent of glycerine. Colonies from a

similar area are transferred to tubes of whole milk containing

litmus. The growth in the glycerine broth is quite characteris-

tic: There is a medium amount of growth in tiny, compact,

spherical masses which settles to the bottom of the tube and does

not cloud the broth. In litmus whole milk there is an abundant

growth in the cream layer, with a gradual development of acid.

Cultures in litmus milk from which the cream has been removed

grow sparingly, with no apparent effect. On plain infusion

agar slopes the growth is in very small, separate colonies, which

are scattered over the whole surface of the slope, if it happens to

be moist at the time of inoculation; or the colonies are confined

to a ribbon-like growth along the line of inoculation, if the agar

is comparatively dry when inoculated.

Cultures which were isolated by the above method agreed in

all essential points with the descriptions of B. abortus found in

the literature. This organism is a small rod-shaped bacterium

about 0.5 M in width, and with a length sometimes of 3 fx. But

the cells are often so short as to appear almost coccoid in form.

Growth in ordinary media is very sparing or may not take place.

The carbohydrates and Velated substances which many bacteria

ferment are not attacked, with the exception of glycerine, which

serves as a food, but is not broken down with the formation of

124 EVANS : BACILLUS ABORTUS IN MARKET MILK

appreciable amounts of acid. Five per cent bile added to or-

dinary media favors growth. Several cultures which have been

isolated from milk were sent to Dr. Lothe, of the University of

Wisconsin, who reported positive reactions to the complement

fixation test in the presence of B. abortus amboceptor.

In a study of the bacteria of the udder samples of milk which

were drawn aseptically have been examined from four herds.

Out of the samples of milk taken from 14 cows of one herd, B.

abortus was shown to be present in the milk from 5 of the cows,

in numbers up to 50,000 per cubic centimeter. Samples of

milk were taken from 40 cows of another herd. These cows

are under the constant supervision of a veterinarian, and it is

the aim of the dairyman in charge to supply to the institution

which owns the herd milk equal to that from the best certified

dairies. B. abortus was shown to be present in two out of the 40

samples; in both of which cases there were about 4,000 of these

bacilli per cubic centimeter. It is almost certain that the

results obtained from the milk from these two herds falls short

of showing the actual number of B. abortus present, for this

pB,rt of the study was made before the method which favors the

isolation of this organism was perfected, as described above.

Samples of milk from two certified dairies in another region were

studied according to the method given. Out of 22 samples

taken at one of these dairy farms, 7 were shown to contain B.

abortus in numbers ranging from 180 to 800 per cubic centi-

meter. Out of 24 samples taken at the other dairy farm, 7 were

shown to contain B. abortus in numbers ranging from 110 to

4,300 per cubic centimeter. Considering together all the samples

taken at these two certified dairies, 14 out of 46, or about 30

per cent, were shown to contain B. abortus.

Two bottles of certified milk were purchased in market, kept

at room temperature for about six hours, and then plated on the

serum agar. About 28,000 of the abortion bacilli were shown

to be present in the cream layer of one sample, and about 1,900

in the cream layer of the other sample. In both samples the

number of B. abortus was about 25 per cent of the whole number

of bacteria.

A simple experiment was planned to show whether the iJi-

CLARK: BATHYMETRICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS 125

creasing amounts of lactic acid in milk not carefully handled

might check the multiphcation of B. abortus. The results showed

that lactic acid added to the milk to bring the acidity to 0.4

per cent had no effect upon the multiplication of these organisms

in the cream layer.

Bacillus abortus is characteristically an organism infecting

cream. Since glycerine has been shown to be one of a very few

food substances which it can utilize, and inasmuch as growth takes

place slowly, with no apparent effect in litmus milk from which

the cream has been removed, but is abundant in the cream layer

of whole milk, with the production of acid, the facts suggest that

the butter fat is broken down to obtain the glycerine and that

the fatty acids thus liberated increase the acidity of the milk.

Chemical determinations will be made to prove or disprove this

theory, and the results will be included in a detailed report of

the various bacteria occurring in the udder.

ZOOLOGY. — On certain aspects of the bathymetrical distribution

of the recent crinoids. Austin H. Clark, National Museum. ^

In bridging the gap which lies between the conclusions deduced

from the facts gathered through the study of palaeontology —

which gives us a more or less detached series of instantaneous

flat views of local littoral conditions covering an immense period

of time — and the conclusions deduced from the facts accumulated

through the study of marine zoology — which permits a prolonged

examination of a single stereoscopic view — the two prime requi-

sites are: (1) to discover some means of adding geographical and

bathymetrical perspective to each of the palseontological pic-

tures, and (2) to discover some means of calculating geological

time based upon the internal characters of the recent animal

groups without reference to their fossil representatives.

The comparison between recent marine types and their fossil

representatives, while yielding results of the greatest value, is

open to two objections: (1) it necessarily takes no account of the

ability of many types to persist in specially restricted localities

where they stand little or no chance of preservation, yet where

1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-

tion.

126 CLARK : BATHYMETRICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS

there is possible an unbroken organic continuity extending

through long periods of geological time, as in the case of the

elasipod holothurians, certain anemonies, and many annelids,

known only from the Cambrian and from the recent seas; and

(2) it fails to emphasize the significance of the gradual differen-

tiation in the conditions

of marine life as a result

of which many organ-

isms , originally living

together under the same

oecological surroundings,

have during geological

time travelled gradu-

ally, and increasingly,

diverging paths, so that

now they have become

widely separated from

their original compan-

ions, like the phyllopod

crustaceans, certain

marine worms, and the

elasipod holothurians, all

of which lived side by

side in the Cambrian

seas.

As yet we have not

sufficient information at

hand to permit us to

state with certainty that

we' shall ever be able to determine time factors of palseonto-

logical value from the study of the recent marine animals alone;

but we have enough data to be able tentatively to suggest cer-

tain lines of procedure by which it may be possible in the future,

when our knowledge of the present marine fauna is more detailed,

to classify with more or less accuracy the various animal groups

according to their comparative geological antiquity.

In the following lists are given for the subfamilies and higher

groups of recent crinoids:

Fig. 1. Difference between the average range

in depth, expressed as a percentage of the total

range, and the average depth of habitat, ex-

pressed as a percentage of the mean depth of

habitat, together with the average range in

depth expressed as a percentage of the average

depth of habitat.

CLARK: BATHYMETRICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS 127

(1) The average range in depth expressed as a percentage of

^the total range in depth.

(2) The average depth of habitat expressed as a percentage

of the mean depth of habitat.

(3) The average depth of habitat expressed as a percentage,

of the average range in depth.

Average range

in depth ex-

pressed in per

cent of total

range.

per cent

Articulata 14

Pentacrinitid.e 15

Comatulida 15

Oligophreata 10

Comasteridse 18

Capillasterinse 23

Comactiniinae 62

Comasterinse 64

Zygometridse ! . . . 49

Himerometridse 54

*Stephanometrid8e 100

Mariametridse 53

Colobometridae 32

*Tropiometrid8e 100

Calometridse 42

Thalassometridae 25

Ptilometrinae 40

Thalassometrinae . ... 29

CharitometridflB 39

Macrophreata 24

Antedonidse 19

Antedoninse 58 .

Thysanometrinae . ... 61

Zenometrinse 24

Peronietrinse 63

Heliometrinae 39

Bathymetrinae 64

Pentametrocrinidae 71

Atelecrinidae 50

Pentacrinitida 47

APIOCRINIDiE 0

Phrynocrinid^ 0

bourgueticrinid^ 54

*HoLOPODID^ 100

Inadunata 41

Plicatocrinid^ 41

128 CLARK: BATHYMETRICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS

It should, perhaps, be emphasized that, strictly speaking, the

bathymetrical distribution of any animal type is of itself without

biological significance. The only factor correlated directly with

increase in depth, other than the decrease in illumination in the

upper strata, is the increase in pressure, and increase of pressure

has never been shown to exert any appreciable influence on the

distribution of the higher invertebrate types either directly, or

indirectly through the inhibition of the physiological processes.

The determining factor in the bathymetrical distribution of

marine animals is the decrease of temperature with depth, and

the study of the bathymetric distribution of any large group not

directly dependent upon plants for food is in reality the indirect

study of its thermal distribution. As our temperature observa-

tions in any one group are usually comparatively few, while our

bathymetrical records are numerous, we are able to discuss to

advantage the bathymetrical distribution of the component

types in any unit, while at the same time we are unable to con-

sider similarly the thermal distribution of the same types. But

we must always remember that in discussing the bathymet-

rical distribution of a subfamily or higher group we are really

considering its thermal distribution, and our bathymetric

records may be readily transposed into thermal records by means

of comparisons with tables showing the decrease in the tempera-

ture in the sea according to latitude and depth.

The average range in depth of the families of recent crinoids

(excluding the Stephanometridae, Tropiometridse and Holopo-

didse, monotypic, and the Apiocrinidae and Phrynocrinidse, in-

sufficiently known), calculated as the average of the ranges of

all of the included genera, represents a very varying percentage

of their total range — from 23 per cent in the Capillasterinse to

71 per cent in the Pentametrocrinidse.

The sequence of the families according to the relation of the

average to the total range in depth is as follows:

CLARK: BATHYMETRICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS 129

per cent per cent

Capillasterinse 23 Atelecrinidae •. . 50

Zenometrinae 24 Mariametridse 53

Thalassometrinse 29 Himerometridse 54

Colobometridse 32 Bourgueticrinidse 54

Charitometridae 39 Antedoninae 58

Heliometrinse 39 Thysanometrinae 61

Ptilometrinae 40 Comactiniinae 62

Plicatocrinidse 41 Perometrinae 63

Calometridae 42 Comasterinae 64

Pentacrinitida 47 Bathymetrinae 64

Zygometridae 49 Pentametrocrinidae 71

Average for all families 48 per cent.

From this list it is evident that there is no definite corre-

spondence between the relation of the average to the total range

and the systematic scheme, for closely related families, such as

the Capillasterinse and the Comasterinae in the Oligophreata, and

the Batkymetrinse and the Zenometrinae in the Macrophreata,

occur at opposite extremes.

But it is interesting to observe that it is within the interval

41 per cent to 54 per cent, a range of only 27 per cent, or a little

more than one-fourth, of the total range, that the families Pli-

catocrinidae, Calometridae, Pentacrinitida, Zygometridae, Atele-

crinidae, Mariametridae, Himerometridae and Bourgueticrinidae

fall, these eight families, the average range of which is 48 per

cent, or exactly that of all of the crinoid families together, includ-

ing not only all of the stalked types, but also the Zygometridae,

the only comatulid family satisfactorily represented as a fossil,

and the Atelecrinidae, the only comatulid family in which the

primitive basals persist in the adult. In other words, we find

here all of the families of which we possess any definite palaeonto-

logical history.

This would suggest that in ancient types still persisting the

normal condition is for the average range of all the genera in

any given family to be about one-half the total range of the

same family, while in the later types there is a departure toward

both extremes.

Within the first half of the list there are 7 oligophreate, 2

macrophreate and 2 stalked groups; within the second half 4

oUgophreate, '6 macrophreate and 1 stalked groups.

130 CLARK : BATHYMETRICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS

The families toward the beginning of the Hst are chiefly fami-

lies with a comparatively large temperature range; that is, in

which one genus has extended itself into water considerably

warmer or (usually) colder than the optimum for the family;

while those toward the end of the list are largely families which

cover a comparatively small temperature range, but which,

however, may be confined either to cold or to warm water.

A family confined either to very cold or to very warm water

would be in almost all cases a family of comparatively recent

origin, for the coldness of the abysses and the warmth of the tropi-

cal littoral are themselves of comparatively recent origin. Also

a family with a large temperature range would be of compara-

tively recent origin (or at least development) for the temperature

of the ancient seas was fairly uniform.

Thus we should expect the more ancient types to ocfur at or

near the centre of our series.

If we consider the families which are confined to a depth less

than 1000 fathoms in contrast to those which occur below 1000

fathoms we find that the two groups are as follows:

Not occurring below 1000 fathoms. Ranging to below 1000 fathoms.

per cent per cent

Capillasterinse 23 Zenometrinse 24

Colobometridse 32 Thalassometrinse 29

Ptilometrinse 40 Charitometrinae 39

Calometridae 42 Heliometrinae 39

Zygometridse 49 Plicatocrinidse 41

Atelecrinidse 50 Pentacrinitida 47

Mariametridae 53 Bourgueticrinidse 54

Himerometridse 54 Bathymetrinae 64

Antedoninse 58 Pentametrocrinidse 71

Thysanometrinae 61

Comactniiinae 62

Perometrinae 63

Comasterinae 64

Average 50 Average 45

Each group has approximately the same range, and approxi-

mately the same average, and neither appears to possess any

distinctive characters.

Similarly if we compare the families the total range of which

CLARK: BATHYMETRICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS 131

is less than 1000 fathoms with those in which it is greater we find

that neither group possesses any marked characteristics.

Ranging more than 1000 fathoms. Ranging less than 1000 fathoms.

per cent per cent

Thalassometrinae 29 Capillasterinse 23

Charitometridse 39 Comactiniinse 62

Zenometrinse 24 Comasterinse 64

Heliometrinse 39 Zygometridse 49

Bathymetrinse 64 Himerometridse 54

Pentametrocrinidse 71 Mariametridse 53

Pentacrinitida 47 Colobometridae 32

Bourgueticrinidse 54 Calometridse 42

Plicatocrinidae 41 Ptilometrinse 40

Antedoninse 58

Thysanometrinse 61

Perometrinse 63

Atelecrinidse 50

Average 45 Average 50

But if we consider the larger groups we are at once struck

by the fact that of two comparable types the more highly spe-

cialized always shows a much lower figure than the more primi-

tive, the figure for the former being only from 28 per cent to 41

per cent (with the average 35 per cent, or little more than one-

third) of the figure for the latter. In the following list four

strictly comparable groups are given:

More specialized More primitive

per cent per cent per cent

Articulata 14 Inadunata 41 (34)

Pentacrinitidse 15 Bourgueticrinidse. . . 54 (28)

Comatulida 15 Pentacrinitida 47 (32)

Oligophreata , . . 10 Macrophreata 24 (41)

This is due to the great predominance of the more specialized

and more recent types in the warm shallow water, from which

they have not as yet spread into the deep sea, but from which,

through their superior economic equipment, they have to a

greater or lesser extent extirpated the preceding less specialized

and more ancient forms which, persisting chiefly, therefore, in

the deeper and consequently cooler and more uniform water,

naturally show much greater generic ranges, and consequently

higher percentages representing the mean range as compared

with the total range of any one family.

132 CLARK: BATHYMETRICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS

In this connection it must be borne in mind that the crinoids

are confined to clear water of a comparatively slight range in

salinity and in composition, and with a very low maximum of

silt. They therefore are unable to exist in many of the locali-

ties in which other ancient types, such for example as Artemia,

Xiphosura and Lingula, find a safe refuge from more efficient

competitors, with the result that each succeeding type is neces-

sarily brought into direct and intimate contact with the greater

part, or even all, of its predecessors.

A comparison between the average depth inhabited by each

group (excluding the Stephanometridse, Tropiometridae and

Holopodidae, monotypic, and the Apiocrinidse and Phrynocrinidae,

imperfectly understood) calculated as the average of the mean

depth of all of the component genera (or higher groups), and the

mean depth of each group as represented by the mean between

its two extremes, expressed as a per cent obtained by dividing

the former by the latter, gives the following figures:

per cent per cent

Antedonidae 28 Zygometridifi 66

Capillasterinae 37 Charitometridse 69

Zenometrinse 39 Ptilometrinse 72

Thalassometrinse 42 Thysanomet rinse 72

Colobometridse 46 Himerometridae 73

Heliometrinse 48 Perometrina? 82

Antedoninse 61 Bourgueticrinidae 82

Calometridse 61 Pentametrocrinidse 87

Mariametridse 62 Bathymetrinse 90

Comactiniinse 62 Plicatocrinidse 97

Comasterinse 64 Atelecrinidse 125

Average 66 per cent

Contrasting older and less speciahzed with more recent and

more specialized groups, we have:

More specialized More primitive

per cent per cent

Articulata 41 Inadunata 97

Pentacrinitidse 28 Bourgueticrinidse 82

Comatulida 27 Pentacrinitida 63

Oligophreata 15 Macrophreata 46

The groups including stalked species show the following

relationship :

CLARK: BATHYMETRICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS 133

•

per cent

Pentacrinitidae 28

Pentacrinitida 63

Bourgueticrinidse 82

Plicatocrinidffi 97

It is evident from the preceding two tables that the average

depth of the habitat of all the genera of any group among the

more highly speciahzed types is only a comparatively small

fraction of the mean depth of the group as a whole, and that this

fraction increases with the age and with the progressive decrease

in the specialization of the group, reaching, in the chiefly palaeo-

zoic Inadunata, 97 per cent. It is, of course, also high in highly

specialized groups confined to a very small range in depth, such

as the Perometrinse, Himerometridse and Thysanometrinse.

Any new or very vigorous group continually gives rise to new

forms in the region most favourable for their existence, namely the

littoral or subhttoral zones. The existence of a number of such

juvenile types within a vigourous group therefore lowers the aver-

age depth of the group, which is consequently far less than the

mean depth. But in the older mature or senile groups the for-

mation of new types in the littoral is inhibited through group

senility, and prevented by the occupation of the available eco-

nomic territory by types derived from more specialized and

more efficient stock. Therefore, theoretically, the older and

less specialized the group the closer should the average depth

approach the mean.

In the Atelecrinidse the average depth exceeds the mean depth

by 25 per cent; but we know only two genera of this family, one

merely from a single specimen of a single species taken only

once, in 907 fathoms. This family should therefore be disre-

garded in forming general conclusions.

Putting aside the Atelecrinidse as insufficiently known, it

appears to be demonstrable that no crinoid type ever originated

in the deep sea, for if such had ever been the case the primarily

abyssal types should be unmediately disclosed through showing

an average depth of habitat considerably greater than the mean

depth.

The approximation of the average to the mean depth in the

older types, taken in connection with what we know in regard

134 CLARK: BATHYMETRICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CRINOIDS

to the association of genera in the older horizons, suggests

that the older types not only possessed a very limited range

of possible creative evolution and development, but that, in

contrast to the later types, the new forms which they gave off

were not adapted to meet special conditions, but rather to exist

side by side with the parent types, utilizing the excess of avail-

able food. As would be expected, a small number of the groups

of the present day (for instance the Comasteridse) appear to be

giving off, or attempting to give off, new types in this way.

The series of figures showing the average range expressed

as a percentage of the average depth suggest that in the older

and less specialized groups the tendency is for the average range

to equal or to exceed the average depth of habitat, but in the

more recent and more specialized types to be less. The figures

(which are given in the following tables) are, however, not

conclusive.

per cent per cent

Comasterinse 50 ColobometridsB 71

Comactiniinse 50 Calometridae 72

Antedoninae 52 Bathymetrinse 75

Mariametridse 58 Bourgueticrinidae 80

Heliometrinae 60 Capillasterinse 81

Thysanometrinae 64 Zenometrinse 82

Himerometridse 66 Perometringe 85

Zygometridse 66 Charitometridse 91

Pentacrinitida 67 Ptilometrinse 98

Thalassometrinse 67 Plicatocrinidae 145

Pentametrocrinidae 69 Atelecrinidae 244

Average 68 per cent.

Contrasting the more specialized with the less specialized

types:

per cent per cent

Articulata 144 Inadunata 145

Pentacrinitidse 77 Bourgueticrinidae 80

Comatulida 90 Pentacrinitida 67

Oliophreata 70 Macrophreata 96

Average 95 Average 97

Considering the groups including stalked forms:

per cpnt

Pentacrinitidse 77

Pentacrinitida 67

Bourgueticrinidae 80

Plicatocrinidae 145

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 746th meeting was held on November 21, 1914, at the Cosmos

Club, President Fischer in the chair; 31 persons present.

Mr. W. P. White presented a paper on Electric pendulums and

pendulum contacts. Most methods of driving a pendulum can be

adequately represented mathematically by supposing that the posi-

tion of equilibrium is shifted for a longer or shorter time. If the de-

vice acts by means of a spring, it may be necessary also to consider

that the periodic time of the pendulum is altered through part of its

vibration. The resulting effect upon the motion of the pendulum can

very readily be handled by means of the circle of reference. A change

in the position of equilibrium is then graphically represented by con-

tinuing the line along a new circle whose center is shifted accordingly.

By the application of this method it is possible to show that, while a

strong impulse communicated to the pendulum as it passes through the

equilibrium position is a satisfactory method of increasing its energy

without affecting its period, yet the variation of the effect upon the

period which may occur as a result of varying amplitude is often less

when the pressure is changed from an impulsive one to one acting

for half the time of the swing. The two best forms of electric drive

appear to be: (1) that in which the drive is purely electric and is due to

an induced current which can both be made almost strictly impulsive

and very constant; and (2) an electrically operated arrangement in

which the pendulum, as it swings, raises and lowers a light weight.

The paper was discussed by Mr. C. A. Briggs.

Mr. E. Buckingham then spoke on The principle of dimensional

homogeneity and the form of physical equations. Reasoning based on

the consideration of the ratios, in any two stages of a physical phenome-

non, of the quantities involved in it as variables, shows that the phys-

ical equation which describes the phenomenon by describing the

characteristic relation among the quantities, must necessarily have a

certain simple general form. This form is dimensionally homo-

geneous. No use is made of the other known relations among quanti-

ties of the kind in question, so that the result does not depend upon

the use of an absolute system of units but is true when the units of

measurement are all completely arbitrary and independent. If such

relations are utihzed and all measurements are made in terms of abso-

lute units, the necessary general form of a physical equation may be

still further specified, and it reduces to a form given by the speaker

135

136 proceedings: philosophical society

at a former meeting of the Society, when the principle of dimensional

homogeneity was assumed and used as a starting point. The paper

was discussed by Messrs. Hansen, Agnew, and Douglas.

The 747th meeting was held on December 5, 1914, at the Cosmos

Club, President Fischer in the chair; 70 persons present.

By invitation, Prof. W. S. Franklin, of Lehigh University, ad-

dressed the Society on Some 'phenomena of fluid motion and the curved

flight of a baseball. The steady curvature of path of a rapidly spin-

ning baseball was explained on the basis of the principle enunciated

by Daniel Bernoulli in 1726, viz., in a stream of water, or air, the

pressure is high where the velocity is low, and the pressure is low where

the velocity is high. The principle and its apphcation in fluid motion

were illustrated both by lantern slide diagrams and experiments. The

"spit-ball" was also explained by the same principle. In the course of

the lecture the speaker, in an interesting digression, raised question as

to the strict validity of the law of cause and effect. The paper was

discussed by Mr. Wiley, who cited several phenomena in his own

experience during wind storms that could be explained by Bernoulli's

principle, and by Mr. Humphreys, who asked as to the explanation

of the principle. Professor Franklin then discussed some of the limi-

tations of the principle. The best point of view in explanation is that

of conservation of energy.

The chair expressed to the speaker the thanks of the members and

guests for his interesting lecture and experiments.

The 748th meeting (44th annual meeting) was held on December

19, 1914, at the Cosmos Club, President Fischer in the chair; 24

persons present.

The report of the secretaries was read by Mr. Agnew, showing an

active membership of 144. Sixteen regular meetings have been held.

The report was ordered accepted. The Treasurer's report, dated De-

cember 16, 1914, was read by Mr. Sosman. The total receipts for the

year were $3078.77, including proceeds from sales of investments;

total expenditures, .$3151.20, including purchases of bonds of par

value $2500; total investments, $11,500; cash in hand, $454.72. The

report was ordered accepted. The report of the Auditing Committee,

consisting of Messrs. White, Kimball, and Ferner, was read by

Mr. White. This Committee reported the statements in the Treas-

urer's report to be correct. The report was ordered accepted. It

was moved and passed that the reading of names of members entitled

to vote be omitted. Messrs. F. J. Bates and C. A. Briggs were

appointed tellers. The following officers were dul}^ elected for the

ensuing year: President, W. S. Eichelberger; Vice-Presidents, L. J.

Briggs, Wm. Bowie, G. K. Burgess, and W. J. Humphreys; Secre-

taries, J. A. Fleming and P. G. Agnew^; Treasurer, R. B. Sosman;

General Committee, N. E, Dorsey, E. Buckingham, M. D. Hersey,

E. G. Fischer, R. L. Paris, H. L. Curtis, D. L. Hazard, R. A.

Harris, W. P. White. It was moved and carried that the Secretary '

. proceedings: philosophical society 137

communicate to the General Committee that it is the sense of the

meeting that the membership hst be revised, pubhshed, and distributed

more frequently. It was moved and carried that the plan of having

refreshments at the regular meetings be presented to the General

Committee for consideration. There was also informal discussion as

to the desirability of a revision of the by-laws and organization. It

was suggested that the General Committee empower the Executive

Committee to designate other meeting places than the Cosmos Club

when desired, and that the General Committee provide for taking of

votes by post when specific questions arise requiring prompt action.

The 749th meeting was held on January 2, 1915, at the Cosmos Club,

President Eichelberger in the chair; 20 persons present.

Mr. F. E. Wright spoke on The measurement of relative strain in

glass. The history" of researches with reference to the optical effects

resulting from strain in glass and to the methods suggested for meas-

uring such effects was reviewed. In the method used by the speaker,

the glass plate is examined in strong monochromatic light between

crossed nicols. The path difference of the emergent light waves at

any given point is measured by a bi-quartz compensator of special

type. The conversion of the optical retardations thus measured to the

corresponding elastic deformation data is accomplished by direct meas-

urements in the glass subjected to a series of mechanical loads of known

magnitudes. The paper was illustrated by experiments and projections

on the screen. The discussion was participated in by Messrs. Bauer.

White, C. A. Briggs, Marvin, Curtis and Sosman particular

inquiry being made with reference to applications in determining strains

in engineering constructions.

Mr. M. D. Hersey presented a paper on Some characteristics of

aneroid harometers. The speaker described briefly the general prin-

ciples and mechanical details of the aneroid barometer. The various,

types were illustrated by lantern slides and sketches. In the consid-

eration of relative merits and permissible limits of error account must

be taken of the proposed use. The different classes of error were dis-

cussed. The chief source of error appears to be in the construction of

the vacuum box. Mr. JMarvin discussed the paper, stating that his

experience confirmed the conclusion of the speaker and that undoubt-

edly the greatest improvement must be looked for in better material

for the vacuum box.

The 750th meeting was held on January 16, 1915, at the Cosmos

Club, President Eichelberger in the chair; 50 persons present.

The evening was devoted to the a'ddress of the retiring President,

Mr. L. A. Fischer, on Measurement of length. The speaker briefly

sketched the early history of the English yard and the origin of the

present metric standards of length. The earliest authentic copies

of both the yard and the meter "in the United States were brought

to this country by Ferdinand Hassler, the first superintendent of the

Coast Survey, and when he organized that service later on the meter

138 proceedings: philosophical society

was made the basis of that work. The causes which led to the estab-

lishment of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France,

and the prominent part taken by geodesists in the development and

preservation of standards of length up until very recent times, were

brought out. The progress made in the measurement of primary

base-lines by the U, S. Coast and Geodetic Survey during the period

while the speaker was connected with that service was then briefly

sketched, emphasis being laid upon the important part taken by mem-

bers of the Philosophical Society in the development of the subject,

not only in the United States, but throughout the world. The com-

pensated base bars of Schott, the simple steel bars used by Tittmann,

the duplex apparatus of Eimbeck, and the methods of Woodward of

measuring with the 5-meter iced bars, and steel tapes, were briefly

discussed and the advantages and the accuracy of the diff'erent methods

compared. Mr. Fischer also exhibited some very accurately measured

steel gauges to illustrate the progress in perfecting accurate manufac-

turers' standards.

The chair expressed to the speaker the thanks of the members and

guests present for his most interesting paper.

The 751st meeting was held on January 30, 1915, at the Cosmos

Club, President Eichelberger in the chair; 52 persons present.

Mr. W. F. G. SwANN presented a paper on The atmospheric-electric

work of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, illustrated with lan-

tern slides. A brief survey of the methods and uncertainties in atmos-

pheric-electric observations was given, and certain new instruments

and methods were described. A short discussion of the observations

made by Messrs. C. W. Hewlett and H. F. Johnston during the sec-

ond and last cruises of the Carnegie was given. Ocean observations

appear to show a curious diminution in the conductivity followed by

an increase as one passes from mid-ocean to land, and vice versa.

Reasons were given for believing that the specific velocity is the factor

responsible for this phenomenon. The rg-dioactive content was de-

termined by a modification of Elster and Geitel's method. By an

application of theoretical considerations, it has been possible to calcu-

late the approximate absolute radioactive content of the air. The

decay curves correspond to radium emanation, and the average ema-

nation content per cu. cm. is 107 curies, which is as much as is found

on land, and would be more than sufficient to account for the con-

ductivity observed if many of the ions produced were not ions of slow

velocity. In the discussion Mr. Humphreys referred to the chaotic

state of atmospheric-electric work until recent years; the prog-

ress being made results first from a thorough discussion of the un-

derlying principles and then a design of apparatus accordingly. Mr.

Bauer referred to his experience in planning for the atmospheric-

electrical work of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism in 1905,

and of the observational quarters being now provided on the Carnegie

for the coming cruise.

proceedings: geological society 139

Mr. C. R. DuvALL then presented a paper, illustrated by lantern

slides, on The recurring-series metliod of seeking hidden periodicities loith

applications. A generating function in the form of a general rational

proper fraction in x may be developed into a power series in two ways.

In the first, the coefficients satisfy a scale of relation, and in the second

the general coefficient is in the form of a sum of products of polynomials

by powers. Both processes being uniquely reversible, a general form is

determined of a sequence of numbers satisfying a scale of relation.

A sum of sine terms is transformed into a sum of powers; a particular

case of a sum of products of polynomials by powers. Hence, any

sequence of numbers which may be represented by a sum of sine terms,

satisfies a scale of relation, and its general term may be determined

and the periods, amplitudes, and phrases. Results of applications to

magnetic and sun-spot-number data were given, showing a striking

agreement in the two phenomena of three periods of about 11.4, 22, and

70 years, with some indications of a fourth period of 6 to 8 years.

Prof. E. W. Brow^n's diagram of fluctuations in the longitude of the

Moon, Earth, and Mercury, all compared with the sun-spot curve,

gave indications of a common period of about 70 years, and suggested

a connection between these fluctuations and changes in the Earth's

magnetic field, all possibly due to changes in the Sun's magnetic field.

The paper was discussed by Mr. Bauer, who gave a brief account of

recent work of others, particularly of Schuster and Michelson; Mr.

Sosman asked whether any groupings had been taken for periods asso-

ciated with that of the rotation of the Sun; Messrs. Humphreys and

Abbot made reference to the inaccuracy of data sometimes published.

J. A. Fleming, Secretary.

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 289th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos

Club, on January 13, 1915.

informal communications

H. M. Eakin, Effect of the earth's rotation as a deflecting force in

stream erosion. In 1909 the^ speaker gave a paper before the Geologi-

cal Society of Washington in which rotational deflection was discussed

as to its source, its variations with latitude and velocity, and its ex-

pression in torsional flow and selective lateral erosion in alluvial streams

as compared with that of the more familiar centrifugal force developed

on stream bends. It was shown that above latitude 60° N. a straight

stream has the same tendency to greater erosion on its right bank due

to rotational deflection as that directed to the ouier bank by centrif-

ugal force on a bend with a 6-mile radius of curvature. This meas-

ure of the erosional effect of rotational deflection lead to the conclu-

sions: That this force is sufficient to cause lateral migration of large

streams in high latitudes; that the Yukon River, in Alaska, has thus

migrated to the right side of its valley throughout the lower 800 miles

140 proceedings: geological society

of its course ; and that large rivers generally in high latitudes, especially

those of northern Siberia, should have characteristics similar to those

of the Yukon.

The first authentic data regarding the Siberian rivers has just be-

come available in Nansen's new book, Siberia the Land of the Future,

and both the data and the author's interpretations are in entire har-

mony with the conclusions cited in the earlier paper by the speaker.

Discussion. S. R. Capps and F. C. Schrader expressed the opinion

that, as regards the Yukon and Tanana, other factors than the earth's

rotation were of much importance. Such, for instance, was the for-

mation of delta deposits in streams entering from one side and not

from the other. Eakin agreed that this was a factor of importance

but did not beheve the whole effect could be ascribed to it.

E. W. Shaw, A unique coal mine gas explosion. At the time of the

unprecedented high water on the lower Ohio, in the spring of 1913, a

gas explosion occurred in a coal mine at Equality, Illinois, which was

unique in that the gas was ordinary air. As the water approached the

mine efforts were made to prevent ingress by throwing up a low dike

about the shaft, but when this dike had been raised to a height of about

5 feet the water broke through and rushed down the. shaft. The space

in the mine once occupied by the milhons of cubic feet of coal which

had been mined out was at this time occupied by air, and the water

rushed down in such volumes that it allowed no air to escape. After

several hours the reaction came with a roar. The water bounced out

again, geyser fashion, bringing with it all manner of debris, coal cars,

tools, etc., and throwing them high in the air. Perhaps the most

important fact concerning this remarkable occurrence is that the

owners of this mine, like most coal operators, had no map of their

workings, and the site chosen for a new shaft was not sufficiently

distant to avoid breaking through into the old mine. An expenditure

of thousands of dollars was necessary to pump the water out so that

the new shaft could be used.

«

REGULAR PROGRAM

Olaf Andersen, Mineral occurrences and associations in southern

Norway. The granitic pegmatite dikes form large bodies injected into

various types of pre-Cambrian rocks. The dikes are, as a rule, very

coarse-grained, some of the minerals (e.g., feldspars) forming huge

crystals. Graphic granites and various other graphic intergrowths

are very common. The main feldspar is always a microcline perthite.

Plagioclases (commonly oligoclase) are also present in considerable

quantities. Micas (biotite and muscovite) are found in most of the

dikes. Magnetite is commonly present in small amounts. With

respect to the associations of the less common minerals several types

may be distinguished: the beryl-bearing dikes, the tourmaline-bearing

dikes, the dikes rich in niobates and tantalates, etc. Each type has its

characteristic mineral association, but there are no sharp boundaries

between the types.

proceedings: geological society 141

The most interesting rare minerals of the dikes are the niobates,

tantalates, and titano-niobates (colmnbite, fergusonite, euxenite,

blomstrandine, etc.) and the siHcates containing rare earths (thorite,

orthite, gadoKnite, hellandite, thortveitite, etc.). The following are

some of the rare elements present in these minerals: yttrium, erbium,

cerium, scandium, thorium, uranium, tungsten, niobium, tantalum.

The cordierite-bearing pegmatites occur in small veins in gneiss, and

contain chiefly oligoclase (sunstone), cordierite, and quartz, with

small amounts of magnetite, apatite, etc. The epidote-bearing peg-

matites occur as veins in metamorphic rocks (altered quartz-porphy-

ries). They contain microcline and quartz as chief minerals, with con-

siderable quantities of epidote, apatite, and hematite, and some biotite,

muscovite, and titanite.

Discussion. E. S. Bastin spoke of the resemblance in structure

(rather than in mineralogy) which the Norwegian pegmatites show to

those of the United States, especially as regards the graphic inter-

growths. He thought that it was difficult to consider these inter-

growths as eutectics, because of the variable ratios in which the minerals

occur in them. He inquired as to Andersen's views on this matter.

Andersen said that he had not yet studied them thoroughly from this

standpomt, but he thought that simultaneous crystallization had been

a factor, and showed by a diagram that in a three-component system

the boundary curves might follow such a course as to give varying

proportions of two components which are simultaneously crystallizing

out.

E. T. Hancock, The history of a portion of Yampa River, Colorado,

and its possible hearing on that of Green River. The relation between

the main Uinta uplift and two minor uplifts known as Junction Moun-

tain and Juniper Mountain was first pointed out, also the relation in

origin of these uplifts to the Axial Basin anticline, which C. A. White

called "the inceptive portion of the Uinta fold." The views of some of

the earlier geologists regarding the origm of Green and Yampa Rivers

were briefly cited. The author of the paper then gave the evidence

to show that at one time both the Juniper and Junction Mountain

uplifts were covered by the overlapping Browns Park formation,

and that Yampa River, instead of being antecedent, as C. A. White

and others supposed, is superimposed, and that the entrenched me-

anders east of tbe Juniper Mountain uplift are due to the fact that

for a time the uplifted Paleozoic rocks of Juniper Mountain acted as a

barrier. After the river succeeded in cutting its channels down through

the hard rocks it then deepened its channels throughout that part

of its course where it had previously established its meanders. (To

be published in complete form in U. S. Geological Survey Professional

Paper No. 90, Chapter K.)

Discussion. C. W. Cross spoke of the earlier work done by S. F.

Emmons in this region and inquired if Emmons' reasons for believing

that the Green River had other than an antecedent origin had the same

basis as those of Hancock. Hancock replied that Emmons' conclusion

142 proceedings: anthropological society

was based on the fact that the antecedent hypothesis presented prob-

lems which no one had been able to solve. Probably also Emmons

suspected that the late Tertiary sediments had formerly overlapped

the Uinta Mountains. E. W. Shaw raised the query whether the

present elevated position of the Browns Park beds in certain places

might not be due to subsequent deformation. Hancock gave reasons

for doubting this. B. S. Butler spoke of a remnant of a mature

topographic form on the north side of the Uinta Mountains in the

'form of a gravel-capped plateau. A similar form occurs on the south

side of the range and one is impressed with the probability that at

one time they were connected and are parts of a mature topography

now dissected, and that a correlation can be made between the physio-

graphic stages represented in the Uinta region and those of the High

Plateau. C. J. Hares drew an analogy with the North Platte and

Sweetwater River systems and thought their history was similar to that

described by Hancock for the Green River- Yampa system.

G. F. LouGHLiN, Stratigraphy of the Tintic Mining District, Utah.

The sedimentary rocks of the Tintic district have a total thickness

of more than 13,000 feet, the lower half consisting of quartzite with

a narrow shale band at its top and the upper half consisting chiefly of

limestone and dolomite. These rocks were first described in 1897 by

Tower and G. Otis Smith, who assigned the quartzite and shale to the

Cambrian, and the limestone-dolomite series tentatively to the Car-

boniferous. In 1905 Weeks found Middle and Upper Cambrian

fossils in the lower 2000 feet of limestone. During a recent resurvey

of the district by the U. S. Geological Survey the overlying limestones

were found to include 2000 feet or more of Ordovician, 150 or more of

Devonian, and a minimum of 1800 feet of lower and upper Mississip-

pian. Two unconformities were recognized; one at or near the base

of the Ordovician, and one at the base of the Mississippian. No proof

of an unconformity in the Cambrian quartzite corresponding to that

in the Big Cottonwood Canyon section could be found. The Middle

Cambrian limestones are only about one-third as thick as those in the

House Range and Blacksmith Fork sections, but no evidence indicating

the cause of this difference was found.

Discussion by George Otis Smith and C. W. Cross.

C. N. Fenner, Secretary.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

At a special meeting of the Society held November 3, 1914, at the

Public Library, Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, of the Bureau of American

Ethnology, read a paper on Vanished races of the Caribbean, using lan-

tern slides to show characteristic artifacts found on different islands.

About 235 persons were present. The lecturer said that while it

has been frequently stated that there are races of men without his-

tory, by this must be meant that they have no written history; for

every race has had a cultural development worthy of study even if

proceedings: anthropological society 143

it has not been recorded in writing. Its earliest steps in culture,

those taken before the development of written history, can be traced

by a study of its archaeology and are important, even though they

represent only a small segment of its evolution. One of the most

instructive aboriginal types of man in pre-historic America is that

which in pre-Columbian times inhabited the West Indies, extending

from Trinidad on the coast of South America to Cuba, a few miles

south of the peninsula of Florida. These aborigines may be regarded,

from the cultural point of view, as members of a vanished race, for,

with the exception of very incomplete historical accounts and a few

highly modified living survivors, archaeological remains are all that is

left from which to determine its culture. A study of this limited ma-

terial shows that the Antillean culture belonged to the stone age,

and while it had attained a considerable development it was quite

unlike that of any other area in the New World. It is taken for granted

that these islands were originally peopled from the neighboring conti-

nent, and it is probable, from the peculiar types of stone objects which

occur on the islands, that the culture they represent originated where

it was found. In other words, the aborigines of the West Indies devel-

oped a cultural center distinct from that of any other region in the

world. There are archaeological evidences of a division in this cul-

ture into two types, one of which existed in the Greater Antilles and

the other in the Lesser, or the so-called Carib Islands. Each of these

had minor divisions, which also differed in details, although both had

the same general character. The two larger divisions differed mainly

in the forms of stone implements, pottery, and other artifacts. For

instance, 90 per cent of the stone implements of the Greater Antilles

have the form of celts pointed at one end and without grooves for

handles, while the large majority of implements from the Lesser An-

tilles are axes with blunt heads. Some of the latter have encircling

grooves for the attachment of handles, while others are notched on the

edges for the same- purpose. This difference in the culture of the

aborigines in the northern and southern islands was noticed by Co-

lumbus and is repeatedly spoken of by the early chroniclers, his im-

mediate successors. The inhabitants of the Lesser Antilles were

early designated by the name of Caribs, while those of the larger

islands were called Arawaks. The main difference in the characters

of the two peoples was recognized and described by early writers.

The Caribs were not the original inhabitants of the islands where

Columbus found them. They were preceded by an agricultural people

whom they had conquered in pre-Columbian times. There is evidence

showing that originally all the islands from Cuba to Trinidad had a

highly developed population which had been absorbed by Caribs in

the southern islands but still persisted in the Greater Antilles. The

former home of the earhest inhabitants of the West Indies is unknown,

but certain facts point to the conclusion that, while the remote ancestors

of the aborigines of the Lesser Antilles came from South Arnerica,

those of the Greater Antilles were from Central America. This dif-

144 proceedings: anthropological society

ference of ethnic origin no doubt led to differences in culture, each

modified in its development by its environment.

At a meeting of the Society, held November 17, 1914, in the Public

Library, Rev. Dr. John Lee Maddox, Chaplain in the United States

Army, read a paper on The Spirit theory in early medicine, based in

part upon a larger paper submitted as a thesis at Yale University.

After stating the general primitive theory, still more or less preva-

lent among the uneducated, that disease and death are abnormal,

the work of malevolent spirits or of witchcraft, he undertook to show

that many of our modern medical practices and remedies are the di-

rect descendants of old-time methods and drugs intended to cure the

patient by driving out the evil disease spirit through fear or disgust.

According to this theory, bitter medicines originated in the revolting

doses administered by the primitive medicine men in order to disgust

the disease demon with his human habitation; massage originated

in the beatings and poundings through which the evil spirit was fright-

ened out of the patient's body; and bleeding and cupping, as also

trephining, were originally intended to facihtate its exit. Through

long centuries of experience, even with an incorrect theory, it was

found that certain drugs and remedies had a beneficial effect upon

disease conditions indicated by certain symptoms, and that gentle

massage and limited blood letting also might be helpful. Thus the

correct practice developed long before the correct theory. As ex-

amples of recognized standard remedies derived from Indian doctors,

he instanced ipecac and quinine and traced their history from their

first introduction to European medical notice until their final accept-

ance. The paper was discussed by Dr. Fewkes, Dr. Moore, Dr.

E. L. Morgan, Mr. Mooney, and others. Dr. Fewkes drew illus-

trations from the Hopi Indians, Mr. Mooney from the Cherokee,

and Dr. Moore from the St. Lawrence Island Eskimo.

Daniel Folkmar, Secretary:

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V MARCH 4, 1915 No. 5

PHYSICS. — Length standards and measurements^ Louis A.

Fischer, Bureau of Standards.

Cognizant of the fact that my election to the presidency of

the Philosophical Society a year ago, obligated me to give an

address of some sort one year later, I confidently waited for the

inspiration that I felt would suggest a fitting subject for the

occasion. The expected inspiration did not, however, material-

ize, and when I was finally compelled a few weeks ago to select

a subject, I naturally selected the subject which is announced

on your program because that is the one with which I am most

familiar.

While many attempts have been made to trace the origin of

our earlier standards of length, and volumes have been written

upon the subject, I think it may be said that very little is known

about the subject, which for that very reason lends itself to

speculation. The Book of Genesis mentions the cubit as being

in use before the Flood; and in the early history of Egypt we

find mention of two different cubits which appear to have been

in use. The question as to the values of these standards at one

time engaged the attention of no less a personage than Sir

Isaac Newton, who in a dissertation on cubits gave it as his

opinion that the longer of the Egyptian cubits was equal to 20.7

English inches and that the sacred cubit of the Jews was equal

to 24.7 inches.

1 Presidential address before the Philosophical Society of Washington on

January 16, 1915.

145

146 FISCHER: LENGTH STANDARDS AND MEASUREMENTS

Later writers attempt to prove by the measurement made of

squared slabs of stone used in the buildings of Babylon that

the cubit of 20.7 inches was used in their construction, but a

little reflection will serve to show the improbability of our being

able to derive the length of any standard to a tenth of an inch

from such crude data.

Even when we come to our own yard, which is the earliest

standard of length now in use, we are in doubt. King Eadgar

is recorded to have decreed with the consent of his Wites or

council that ''the gird or yard kept at Winchester shall be the

standard" but all that can really be said as to the origin of the

yard is that it was probably brought over to England by the

Saxons.

When we consider the crude means which existed for the con-

struction and preservation of standards and the lack of facili-

ties for constructing accurate copies of them, there is little wonder

that their original values should be in doubt. There can be no

question but that the unavoidable diversity which must have

existed in the standards for the measurement of exchangeable

commodities in the early organization of civilized society was a

serious embarrassment to commerce. The necessity for standards

of reference for purposes of barter was no 'doubt very soon

felt by primitive man; and later on when the commercial idea

became developed, the need of such standards was greatly in-

creased. As social and political institutions became more fully

developed, the values of the units of these primitive systems not

only changed but also the relations of the units, until, at the

present time, there is no reason to believe that there survives

in any existing system of weights and measures a single value

of any unit identical with one in use two thousand years ago.

As a matter of fact, it is impossible to trace back with any degree

of certainty any of the standards, which are now in use, for even

a few hundred years.

In England the first attempts at scientific accuracy in matters

of measurement date from the beginning of the seventeenth

century when John Greaves, one of the earliest scientific metrol-

ogists, called attention to the dif'erence between the Roman and

FISCHER: LENGTH STANDARDS AND MEASUREMENTS 147

the English foot. He was followed by Edward Bernard, who,

in 1685, wrote a treatise on ancient weights and measures;

towards the end of the century the measurement of the length of

a degree by Picard and Cassini awakened the attention of the

French to the importance of rigorously exact standards of length.

In considering the development of length standards, we may

safely confine our attention to the English yard, the French

toise and the meter, since during the last two hundred years

they are almost the only standards that have been of any interest

to scientific men.

The present English measures of length, as I said before, are

supposed to have come down from the Saxons, but the oldest

existing standards are the exchequer yards of Henry VII (1490)

and Elizabeth (1588) . Both are brass end measures, very coarsely

made and rudely divided into inches and sixteenths of a yard.

Bailey, speaking of one of them in 1836, said that "a common

kitchen poker filed at the ends in the rudest manner by the

most bungling workman would make as good a standard. It

has been broken asunder, and the two pieces have been dove-

tailed together, but so badly that the joint is nearly as loose as

that of a pair of tongs. The date of this fracture I could not

ascertain, it having occurred bej'ond the memory or knowledge

of any of the officers at the Exchequer. And yet, within the

last ten years, to the disgrace of this country, copies of this

measure have been circulated all over Europe and America with

a parchment document accompanying them (charged with a

stamp that cost £3, 10s, exclusive of official fees) certifying that

they are true copies of the English Standard. "

In the year 1742, certain members of the Royal Society of

London and the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris proposed

that, in order to facilitate a comparison of the scientific oper-

ations carried on in the two countries, accurate standards of

the measures and weights of both should be prepared and pre-

served in the archives of each of these societies. This proposi-

tion having been approved, two substantial brass rods were

made at the instance of the Royal Society, and upon them three

English feet were laid off with the greatest care. These two rods,

148 FISCHER: LENGTH STANDARDS AND MEASUREMENTS

together with a set of Troy weights, were then sent over to the

Paris Academy, which body, in a hke manner, had the measures

of a French half toise laid off upon the rods, and keeping one as

previously agreed upon, returned the other, with a standard

weight of two marcs to the Royal Society. This, I believe, is

the first recorded instance where the standards of tw^o inde-

pendent nations were compared with one another.

In the year 1758 the House of Commons appointed a com-

mittee to inquire into the original standards of weights and

measures of England; under instructions from that committee,

two brass rods were prepared by the celebrated instrument

maker, John Bird, respecting which the committee reports as

follows :

And having these rods, together with that of the Royal Societj' laid

in the same place, at the Exchequer, all night with the standards of

length kept there, to prevent the variation which the difference in tem-

perature might make upon them, they were all the next morning com-

pared by means of beam compasses and found to agree as near as it

was possible.

The committee recommended that one of these standards

should be made the legal standard of England, but this was not

done. Instead; on December 1 of the same year. Parliament

created another committee on weights and measures, which, in

April, 1759, repeated the recommendation that the standard

made by Bird in 1758 should be legalized, and further recom-

mended that a copy of it should be made and deposited in some

public office, to be used only on special occasions. The copy

was made in 1760, but no legislation followed for sixty-four years.

When in 1824, Parliament at length took final action. Bird's

standard of 1760 was adopted instead of that of 1758. This

bar had been generally accepted as the standard for many years

by English metrologists and copies of it had been widely cir-

culated. One of these, an 82-inch scale made by the celebrated

instrument maker, Troughton, of London, was obtained by

Ferdinand Hassler of whom I shall have more to say later, and

the distance between the 27th and 63d inches of that bar, which

FISCHER: LENGTH STANDARDS AND MEASUREMENTS 149

was supposed to be equal to Bird's yard, served as the standard

for the United States until 1856.

On October 16, 1834 the Imperial standard (Bird's standard

of 1760) was destroyed by the burnmg of the House of Parlia-

ment, and very soon thereafter steps were taken to recover its

length; but it was not until 1855 that the new Imperial standards

were completed and accepted by Parliament.

Turning now to the French standards of length, there is evi-

dence that the earliest of these, the Toise of Paris, goes back

to the time of Charlemagne (742-814). It is stated that:

in 1668 the ancient toise was reformed by shortening it five lines (about

one-half inch), but whether this reformation was an arbitrary change,

or merely a change to remedy the effects of long use, is not known.

The old bar was made of iron with the two ends turned up at right

angles so as to form a matrix, and the testing of end measures was

effected by fitting them between the bent ends. Being placed on the

outside of some public building, it was exposed to wear from constant

use, to rust, and even to intentional injur3' by malicious persons.

The earliest use of the toise for scientific purposes was' by

Picard and Cassini in their measurement of a degree of the me-

ridian passing through Paris. This toise was made in 1668 and

would, no doubt, have become the scientific standard of France

if it had not disappeared. The second toise used for scientific

purposes was one used in the measurement of the Peruvian Arc.

This bar, which is known as the Toise du Perou and made m

1735, was made the legal standard of France by an order of Louis

XV, dated May 16, 1766, and is still preserved at the Observatoire

at Paris.

As is well known, the meter was intended to be equal to the

ten millionth part of the quadrant of the terrestrial meridian;

but that the measurements of the arc upon which it was based

were referred to the toise is a fact of less common knowledge.

The measurement of the meridian was entrusted to Mechain and

Delambre by the French Academy of Sciences, who carried it

on during seven years from 1791 to 1798. The unit of length

used by them was the Toise du Perou, and from the arc of 9°40'45"

actually measured, they inferred the length of an arc of the

150 FISCHER: LENGTH STANDARDS AND MEASUREMENTS

meridian extending from the equator to the pole to be 5, 130,740

toises, from which it followed that the meter was slightly greater

than the one-half toise or 0.513074 toise.

The actual construction of the new standards of length was

immediately begun. At first four brass end standard meters

were made, each very nearly equal to the computed length of the

meter. Then the bar which was found after several comparisons

to be nearest to the required length, was selected as the pro-

visional standard. Finally two platinum meters and twelve

iron meters were constructed and compared with the provisional

jneter and with one another by means of a comparing apparatus

which was capable of showing differences of 0.001 mm. Also,

the rates of expansion of all the meters were carefully deter-

mined between 0° and 32°C. The comparisons and adjustments

of the several meters were continued until no difference amount-

ing to more than 0.001 mm. could be found at the temperature of

melting ice. They were all consequently declared to be exact,

and one of the platinum meters, subsequently known as the meter

des Archives, from its place of deposit, was reserved as the new

prototype measure of length.

The other platinum meter was deposited at the observatory

at Paris, while the iron meters were distributed amongst the

countries which had cooperated with France in this work.

One of these iron bars was brought to the United States by

Ferdinand R. Hassler, who afterwards organized the U. S.

Coast Survey, or as it is now known, the Coast and Geodetic

Survey.

I am not familiar with what Hassler's purpose was in coming to

the United States, but it hardly seems possible that he should have

brought, with him the standard of length upon which was based

all the early work done by the Survey, unless he had in mind the

organization of that service, and yet the fact that he presented

this standard to the American Philosophical Society of Phila-

delphia shortly after his arrival contradicts this view. When

Hassler was placed in charge of the Coast Survey, he secured

the bar from the Philosophical Society and it remained in the

possession of the Coast Survey until the organization of the

I

FISCHER: LENGTH STANDARDS ANp MEASUREMENTS 151

Bureau of Standards in 1901. The bar is made of iron, with a

cross-section of 9 by 29 mm. and its length is defined by the end

surfaces, which are remarkably plane when one considers the

age in which the bars were made. The bar bears the stamp of

the committee, which had charge of its construction, namely,

a small ellipse, whereof three quadrants are shaded and the fourth

one clear, except for the number 10,000,000, which indicates the

number of meters in the length of a quadrant of the earth. It

also bears certain prick points which distinguish it from the other

meters made at the same time. In Mr. Hassler's report on the

construction of these meters, it is stated, on the authority of

Mr. Tralle, a member of the committee, from whom the bar was

obtained, that all the meters agreed with the true meter within

one-millionth part of the toise which is about one-half the

accuracy claimed by the committee.

This bar, which is known as the Committee Meter, served with-

out interruption as the standard to which all scientific work done

in the United States was referred from about 1807 to 1893, a

period of about 86 years, when it was superseded by the present

platinum-iridium line standard in the custody of the Bureau

of Standards. The new platinum-iridium meter not only super-

seded the Committee Meter, but it also superseded the British

yard, inasmuch as in 1893 the yard was defined in terms of the

meter, according to the ratio: one yard equals 3600/3937 meter.

In the early development of standards of length, the geod-

esist has played an important part and the reason for this is

at once apparent. His subject is the study of the size and form

of the Earth and, in order to make any progress, work has to be

done in different parts of his field. If arcs are measured in Europe,

Asia, or America, the length of the standards in which they are

expressed must be known before any deductions can be drawn

from them. In Prussia it is Bessel in 1823, who had a copy of

the Toise of Perou constructed by Fortin of Paris, in order that

he might express the results of his determinations of the length

of his seconds pendulum at Koenigsberg in terms of what was

then the generally accepted standard for geodetic work. The

Toise of Bessel was later to take an important part in the history

152 FISCHER: LENGTH STANDARDS AND MEASUREMENTS

of geodesy for the reason that it became the point of departure

of a large part of the triangulation made in Europe in the nine-

teenth century. Again it was the International Geodetic

Association composed of delegates from the leading countries

of Europe, which, meeting at Berlin in 1867, decided among other

things that the interests of science in general and geodesy in

particular demanded a uniform decimal system of weights and

measures throughout Europe, and recommended the metric

system without essential change.

The action of the Geodetic Association was echoed by the

St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1869, which in a communi-

cation to the Paris Academy of Sciences suggested that common

steps be taken towards the establishment of an international

metric system. Soon after the matter was brought to the atten-

tion of Napoleon III, who approved the idea of an international

convention, and the French government extended invitations to

the various governments to send delegates to Paris to discuss

the construction of a new prototype meter as well as a number

of identical standards for distribution to interested nations.

In response to an invitation of the French government, the

following countries sent representatives to a conference which

met in Paris on August 8, 1870:

Austria, Ecuador, France, Great Britain, Greece,

Italy, Norway, Peru, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Switzer-

land, Turkey, United States, Columbia.

At this conference, which was of short duration, on account of

the war then raging between France and Germany, the United

States was represented by Joseph Henry and J. E. Hilgard, two

former members of our Society.

A second conference was held two years later, at which 30

countries were represented, the United States again being

among this number. At this conference it was decided that

new kilograms as well as new meters should be constructed to

conform with the original standards, and a permanent com-

mittee was appointed to carry out tliis decision. The prepara-

tion of the new standards had advanced so far by 1875 that the

permanent committee appointed by the conference of 1872

FISCHER: LENGTH STANDARDS AND MEASUREMENTS 153

requested the French government to call a diplomatic conference

at Paris to consider whether the means and appliances for the

final verification of the new standards should be provided, with

a view to permanence, or whether the work should be regarded

as a temporary operation.

In compHance with thi^ request a conference was held in the^

spring of 1875, at which 19 countries were represented, the

United States as usual being of this number, and on May 20, 17

of the 19 countries represented signed a convention which pro-

vided for the establishment and maintenance of a permanent

International Bureau of Weights and Measures to be situated

near Paris and to be under the control of an international com-

mittee elected by the conference, the committee to consist of

14 members, all belonging to different countries.

In addition to the primarj^ work of verifj'ing the new metric

standards the bureau was charged with certain duties, the fol-

lowing being the most important:

(1) The custody and preservation, when completed, of the

international prototypes and auxiliary instruments.

(2) The future periodic comparison of the several national

standards with the international prototype.

(3) The comparison of metric standards with standards of

other countries.

It was agreed that the expenses of the bureau should be de-

frayed by contributions of the contracting governments, the

amount for each countrj^ depending upon the population and

upon the extent to which the metric system is in use in any

particular country. In accordance with the terms of the con-

vention the French government set aside a plat of ground just

outside of Paris, and upon this ground, which was declared to

be neutral territory, the International Bureau of Weights and

Measures was established. /

The construction of the meters was entrusted to a special

committee, and early in 1887 the committee completed its work

and the new meters were turned over to the international bureau

for comparison with the standards of the Archives and with one

another.

154 FISCHER: LENGTH STANDARDS AND MEASUREMENTS

It had been decided as early as 1873 that the new standards

should be made of an alloy of 90 per cent platinum and 10 per

cent iridium, and that they should be line standards. Alto-

gether 31 meters and 40 kilograms were constructed. By 1889

the entire work was completed and in September of that year a

, general conference was held at Paris, and by it the work of the

international committee was approved.

The meter and kilogram which agreed most closely with the

meter and kilogram of the Archives were declared to be the

international meter and the international kilogram. These two

standards, with certain other meters and kilograms, were de-

posited in a vault under one of the buildings of the international

bureau, where they are only accessible when three independent

officials with different keys are present. The other standards

were distributed by lot to the various governments contributing

to the support of the international bureau. Those falling to the

United States were meters Nos. 21 and 27, and the latter of these

two standards, which was accepted as the National Prototype,

superseded our earlier standards.

Practically all that has been said heretofore has had reference

to standards rather than to measurements made with them. In

deciding upon what measurements to select for discussion it

appeared to me, that none were more interesting than the measure-

ment of base lines. Perhaps my interest in them is due to the

fact that I was a witness to very radical changes in the method

of making them. When I entered the Coast and Geodetic

Survey over 30 years ago my first task was to assist in a very minor

capacity in determining the lengths of two base measuring bars

of a new design which will be found described in appendix No. 7

of the Report of the Survey for 1882.

These bars were supposed to be compensated for temperature,

the metals being two steel bars connected to the opposite ends

of a zinc bar in such a manner that the expansion of the two

different metals would compensate one another. They were

end standards and the method of using them in the field was the

well known one of supporting the bars on tripods and placing

them end to end. The standard with which they were com-

FISCHER: LENGTH STANDARDS AND MEASUREMENTS 155

pared consisted of five separate end meters, each one of which

had been carefully compared with the committee meter, the 5

meters being placed end to end on a suitable support and kept in

contact by the tension of springs. This apparatus was used to

measure the Yolo base in California, the probable error of which

was computed to be 1 part in 1,750,000.

The next bars used for this work were what are known as 5-

meter contact rods and consisted of a single bar of steel enclosed

in closely fitting wooden cases afterwards covered with padded

canvas. The temperatures of these bars were determined by

means of thermometers in contact with the bars some distance

from their ends which were read through windows in the wooden

case and convas covering. The method of using these bars in

the field was the regular method of mounting them on tripods

and placing them end to end. The accuracy of the measurements

of this style of bar in the hands of the party in charge of Mr. O. H.

Tittmann in 1891, was about 1 part in 1,700,000.-

At the same time that this base was measured with bars 13

and 14, apparatus of an entirely new design by Dr. R. S. Wood-

ward was tried out on the same base. This apparatus, which

was described by Professor Woodward before this Society some

years ago, consists of a 5-meter bar which, in use, is carried

in a steel trough and covered with crushed ice, the trough in

turn being supported upon two trucks which travel on a portable

track. Posts are placed in the ground 5 meters apart and upon

them micrometer-microscopes are mounted. The operation of

measuring consists in bringing the bar under the first two micro-

scopes and then setting the cross wires of the microscope on the

lines of the bar. Then without disturbing the reading of the

forward microscope the bar is displaced longitudinally until

the line on the rear end of the bar is brought under the forward

microscope while at the same time an observer at the forward

end of the bar points on the line at that end, this process being

repeated until the base is completed. A kilometer measured in

this way is estimated by Dr. Woodward to have an accuracy of

about 1 part in 3,000,000, but the method is extremely expen-

2 Appendix No. 8, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for ISQllti'

f^/^"-:

IL )■ RA ft

^«^V-.

<i^'^>-

156 FISCHER: LENGTH STANDARDS AND MEASUREMENTS

sive. The other method designed by Professor Woodward con-

sists in measuring the base with 100-meter steel tapes, equipped

with special stretching devices and standardized on the kilometer

measured in terms of the 5-meter iced bar. Very rapid progress

could be made in measuring with these tapes and the prepa-

ration of the ground was reduced to a minimum.

The tapes used were ordinary steel tapes and measurements

had to be made at night to avoid the direct radiation from the

sun; but the results were nevertheless so satisfactory that the

method at once attracted attention, the greatest objection to

the method was the necessity of carrying the iced bar in the

field for the purpose of laying out a hundred meter standard

with which the length of the tapes could be frequently checked.

While even then the tape method possessed certain obvious

advantages the base bar method still had its advocates. After

the measurement of the Holton, Md., and St. Albans, W. Va.,

bases two duplex base bars designed by Wm. Eimbeck were

constructed by the Coast and Geodetic Survey and a base line

was measured with them near Salt Lake City, Utah, in 1897,

with a probable error of 1 part in 800,000.^ A duplex bar con-

sisted of two concentric brass tubes in the inner of which were

mounted a steel and a brass measuring bar. Holes were pro-

vided in both the outer and inner tubes for the insertion of ther-

mometers, and the apparatus was so constructed that the inner

tube could be rotated 180° and thus equalize the temperature

of the brass and steel components if one side of the apparatus

should be more exposed to the direct radiation of the sun. Mr.

Eimbeck's idea was that if the bars were standardized under a

sufficiently wide range of temperature the length of either the

brass or steel component could be determined as a function of

the difference in the lengths of the bars, and consequently the

apparatus itself could serve as a thermometer. Subsequently

in measuring a base line the difference in the length of the base

as given by the two components would furnish data from which

the length of the base could be computed. As a precautionary

measure the temperature was observed when standardizing

' Appendix 12, Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 1897.

FISCHER: LENGTH STANDARDS AND MEASUREMENTS 157

and using the bars. It is probable that this form of apparatus

would have been extensively used and have superseded all other

base bars but for the introduction of tapes. In 1900 and 1901

a party of the Survey measured nine base lines along the 98th

meridian, using these bars and fifty- and one hundred-meter

steel tapes. The tape measures agreed so closely with the

bar results that the officials felt justified in discarding bars

altogether for base measuring, and in substituting tapes. Mr.

A. L. Baldwin who had charge of this campaign of base measure-

ments described his season's operations in an address before this

Society. An elaborate report on the work is contained in the

1901 report of the Survey.^

But the problem of an entirely satisfactory base measuring

apparatus was not solved until the discovery of the nickel-

steel alloy called "invar" with very small temperature coeffi-

cients. Tapes made of this alloy used during the day and sub-

ject to the usual temperature variations, when exposed to the

sun's rays, gave better results than the steel tapes used at nighty

and at a lower cost. All primary bases of the Coast and Geo-

detic Survey are now measured with invar tapes, and in each of

the other countries conducting geodetic surveys the base appara-

tus, which is nearly always in the form of tapes or wires, is made

of invar. A paper was read before this Society by Mr. O. B,

French in which he gave the results of various tests of invar

tapes made at the Bureau of Standards and in the field during

actual measurements.

What, may we inquire, were the industries doing for stand-

ards while they were in the hands of the geodesists, and before

the establishment of the National Standardizing Laboratories?

It would be impossible for one to cover the whole field in the

time at my disposal nor do I think the development in the

different countries was sufficiently different to require this.

The need of accurate and reproducible standards was no-

where felt sooner in the industries than in the United States,

* Other publications of the Survey which give the results of recent measure-

ments of bases are Appendix 5, Report for 1907; Appendix 4, Report for 1910

and Special Publication No. 19.

158 FISCHER: LENGTH STANDARDS AND MEASUREMENTS

since this country was the first to speciahze in the manufacture

of machinery the parts of which are interchangeable. As ex-

amples, I need only mention the early manufacturer of watches

and sewing machines whose success was absolutely dependent

upon the maintenance of one standard throughout their prod-

uct. That the manufacturer could not go out in the open mar-

ket and purchase the gauges that were needed is shown by a

statement of Prof. W. A. Rogers in 1878, who said:

I have a large collection of micrometers by different makers, both at

home and abroad; I have standards by Froment and Brunner of Paris,

and Merz of Munich; I have transfers from every well known precision

screw in this country, including such makers as Buff and Berger of Bos-

ton; Clark of Cambridge; Brown and Sharpe of Providence; Ruther-

ford of New York; Clement of London; Bianchi, Froment, and Per-

reaux of Paris. The investigation of these transfers is not yet quite

completed, but I feel safe in saying that no two of them agree at a given

temperature, and the errors of subdivisions are, in many cases, very

large, and in all cases easily measurable. Of the micrometers made

abroad, the best I have seen are by Powell and Leland. They are

superbly ruled, and the errors of the subdivisions are much less than

usual, but in the two plates measured, the unit was found to be nearly

1| per cent too long.

While anyone comparing the same class of apparatus at the

present time would still find differences, they would be of an

entirely different order.

Even as late as 1880 the very important relation of the yard

to the meter as given by different authorities varied from 39.3697

to 39.3708 or 0.0011 of an inch. This variation was reduced

to a little over two ten-thousandths of an inch at this time by

Mr. O. H. Tittman,^ by the apparently simple expedient of

referring all the observations to the British Imperial yard and

the committee meter at the temperatures at which these bars

are standard.

The United States has been fortunate in having two firms

who applied themselves to the task of supplying accurate tools

and gauges at the time when American industries began to

demand them. I refer to the firms of Brown and Sharpe of

Providence, R. I., and Pratt and Whitney of Hartford, Conn.,

^ Appendix No. 16, Coast and Geodetic Survey for 1890.

FISCHER: LENGTH STANDARDS AND MEASUREMENTS 159

whose work was so precise that they not only made it possible

for American manufacturers to lead in many lines, but they

also contributed in no small way to the spreading of uniform

manufacturers' standards throughout the world. So accurate

is their work that it is very often difficult even with our present

facilities to determine with certainty the differences in their

product. At the present time steel guages may be obtained

that are guaranteed by their maker to be correct to within the

1/100,000 part of an inch, and several sets measured at the

Bureau of Standards were certainly correct to within twice this

error. Roughly speaking the accuracy in their comparison

of length standards is about ten times as great as it was forty

years ago. At that period, neither the yard nor the meter

could be compared with greater accuracy than one part in

400,000, while at the present time it is no difficult feat to com-

pare them to one part in 5,000,000. The establishment of great

national standardizing laboratories with their corps of trained

metrologists and special apparatus is largely responsible for

this. At the present time practically every country has a labo-

ratory whose facilities are available to the manufacturer, while

40 years ago he could only secure reliable standards with great

difficulty and was compelled to devise his own means for dupli-

cating them.

I have said nothing whatever about the determination of the

distances between the planets nor of the units used by astrono-

mers in reckoning distances of the stars. Neither have I said

anything about the measurement of very small distances or

objects by interference methods or by means of the ultraviolet

microscope. They form, so to speak, other chapters of the

subject which I shall leave to some future ex-president of our

Society. I have confined my own discussion to measurements

that have been within my own experience. I do not claim to

have covered even this range with any completeness; but I

have merely attempted to give such facts as would interest

you, and in doing this it is possible that I have given more prom-

inence to what has been done in the United States and by mem-

bers of our Society than is justified by the title of this paper.

160 BASTIN AND HILL! ORE DEPOSITS OF GILPIN COUNTY

GEOLOGY. — Some features of the ore deposits of Gilpin County,

Colorado.^ Edson S. Bastin and J. M. Hill, U. S. Geo-

logical Survey. .

Gilpin County and the adjacent portions of Boulder and Clear

Creek counties constitute one of the oldest mining districts in

Colorado. Central City, the principal mining camp of the

region, was the site of the first discovery of lode gold in Colo-

rado, made by John Gregory in the spring of 1859. The period

of greatest prosperity in this region was the seventies and

eighties, but it has remained an important producer of gold and

silver down to the present time, and will doubtless continue

so for many years to come. The region lies in the Front Range

of the Rocky Mountains, 30 to 40 miles west of Denver. The

principal mining centers are Central City, Idaho Springs, Neder-

land, Alice, and Dumont.

The geologic groundmass of the region consists of pre-Cam-

brian rocks, both sedimentary and igneous in origin, and in part

dynamo-metamorphosed. The pre-Cambrian sediments are

mostly argillaceous and the igneous rocks granitic. Into this

groundmass Tertiary igneous rocks have been intruded as stocks

and dikes. Monzonite is the predominant rock type among these

intrusives, but many other rocks have been derived by mag-

matic differentiation from the monzonite magmas, titaniferous

iron ores and porphyry dikes representing the extreme products.

The Tertiary intrusives which are the ''porphyries" of the miners

are (with few exceptions) older than the ores.

The ore deposits may be classified according to the metals which

give them their predominant value as follows:

(1) Gold-silver ores. This class is the most widespread and

most productive and the only one that will be described in de-

tail in this paper.

(2) Uranium ores. These are confined to a small area on

Quartz Hill near Central City, and are beHeved to be a phase of

the gold-silver ores.

(3) Tungsten ores. These were not studied in detail by the

' Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.

BASTIN AND HILL: ORE DEPOSITS OF GILPIN COUNTY 161

authors. The tungsten district of Boulder County is the prin-

cipal producing district in the United States.

(4) Copper ores. Ores poor in silver and worked primarily

for copper occur in one mine, the Evergreen, near Apex. The

copper sulphides here are primary constituents of monzonite dikes.

(5) Titaniferous iron ores. These are products of magmatic

differentiation within the monzonite stock at Caribou. They

have no present or prospective commercial value.

Veins are the predominant structural type among the ore

deposits. These commonly follow fracture zones rather than

single fractures. The longest is the Mammoth vein near

Central City which has been traced continuously for 6000 feet.

The greatest depth to which a vein has been followed has been

2250 feet. The vein mineralization has been accomplished in

part by fissure-filling and in part by replacement, the latter

process being in general predominant. In addition to the veins

there are in the region a few stockworks, the best known being

the so-called "Patch" near Central City, a pipe-shaped mass of

brecciated rock formed at a place where a number of strong

vein fractures approach unusually close together. The miner-

alization of the ''Patch" is continuous with that of the veins

which enter it and is of the same mineral character. Chamber

stopes large enough to accommodate a three-story house have

been excavated in the ''Patch."

Gold-silver ores. These occur mainly as veins with a few

stockworks. The main values are in gold and silver; the sub-

sidiary values in copper, lead, or zinc. They may be classed,

on the basis of mineral composition, into the pyritic type, galena-

sphalerite type, composite type, and the telluride type. The

predominant minerals of the pyritic ores are pj^ite and quartz;

chalcopyrite and tennantite are usually present. They are

essentially gold ores. Their usual composition is as follows:

Au 1 to 3 ounces; Ag 4 to 8 ounces; Cu commonlj^ less than

1| per cent, but in some 15 to 16 per cent. Within a small

area near Russell Gulch a number of the pyritic veins carry

enargite in place of tennantite, and some of the veins in this

region also carry fluorite.

162 BASTIN AND HILL! ORE DEPOSITS OF GILPIN COUNTY

The galena-sphalerite type is less widespread than the pyritic.

The predominant minerals are galena, sphalerite and a carbon-

ate (usually calcite or siderite) ; pyrite, chalcopyrite, and quartz

are present in lesser amounts. In the region northeast of

Idaho Springs a number of the veins of this type carry rhodo-

chrosite. The metal content is more variable than in the pyritic

ores, the usual content being as follows: Au 0.1 to 5.5 ounces;

Ag 2 to 25 ounces; Cu commonly less than 1| per cent, rarely

exceeds 10 per cent; Pb 0 to 55 per cent; Zn 0 to 25 per cent.

The varieties poor in gold have, in many cases, undergone down-

ward enrichment in silver and constitute the typical silver ores

of the region. In contrast to these, certain veins, such as the

Klondike in the Topeka mine, are very rich in gold. The

Klondike locally carried free primary gold in large plates; an 88-

pound piece from this mine yielded upon smelting S5,500.

The composite ores are the result of dual mineralization, first

with ore of the pyritic type and then, after brecciation, with

ore of the galena-sphalerite type. The reverse relation of

pyritic ore filling brecciated galena-sphalerite ore was not ob-

served. Certain veins are pyritic at one end, composite in the

middle, and of the galena-sphalerite type at the other end.

Composite veins are in general most abundant between areas

characterized by pyritic ores and areas in which galena- sphalerite

ores predominate.

It is beheved that the ores of this region are genetically related

to the Tertiary igneous rocks. The copper and iron ores, being

products of magmatic differentiation, are obviously so related.

In the case of the veins, the agent of ore deposition is believed

to have been ascending thermal solutions of an alkaUne or neu-

tral character. That the composition of these solutions varied

in different parts of the region even at the same period is shown

by the presence of enargite in a locahzed group of the pyritic

veins, and the presence of rhodochrosite in a localized group

of the galena-sphalerite veins. The composition* of the solu-

tions also changed progressively during the mineralizing period,

the pyritic ores being deposited in the early part of this period

and the galena-sphalerite ores at a later time. From the extent

BASTIN AND HILL: ORE DEPOSITS OF GILPIN COUNTY 163

of erosion since the veins were formed it is estimated that they

were deposited at depths of from 7000 to 11,000 feet. The tem-

perature of formation can not be accurately determined. A

minimum may be placed at 100°C., for this temperature is

reached under the ''normal" increment of temperature at a

depth of about 9000 feet. A maximum may be placed at 575°,

for all of the quartz associated with the veins is of the low

temperature variety. It is believed that the temperature of

formation was probably between 150 and 300 °C. The minerals of

the veins are those characteristic of moderate depth and pressure.

Downward enrichment. This process has produced important

modifications in many of the gold-silver ore deposits. There

has been enrichment in one or all of the metals, gold, silver, and

copper; enrichment in lead and zinc is insignificant. The water

level, as in most mountainous regions, is irregular. In most

veins it originally stood 50 to 150 feet below the surface.

Gold enrichment appears to be confined to the oxidized zone

and has been accomplished largely by mechanical concentration

during weathering. Presumably there was also solution of gold

in the oxidized zone, but it is believed that the dissolved gold

was promptly reprecipitated within the oxidized zone or imme-

diately below it through the action of primary sulphides or

of ferrous sulphate. Careful sampling in a number of the mines

failed to show any relation between gold content and depth

after the oxidized zone was passed. Gold enrichment in the

oxidized zone is most conspicuous in certain so-called silver

veins. Where unaltered these carry only about 0.1 of an ounce

of gold, but in the oxidized zone this has in some mines been

increased to 1.5 or even 3 ounces.

In contrast with gold there has been impoverishment in silver

rather than enrichment, in the oxidized zone. The primary

silver minerals are silver alloyed with gold, silver-gold tellurides,

and possibly argentite. The secondary silver minerals are ce-

rargyrite, pearceite, polybasite, and proustite. The scarcity of

silver in the oxidized zone is readily understandable, for it is

well known that silver is more readily dissolved than gold and

is reprecipitated by fewer of the common sulphides. The silver

164 BASTIN AND HILL: ORE DEPOSITS OF GILPIN COUNTY

carried down below the oxidized zone is probably for the most

part in balance with the sulphate radicle SO4. It is redeposited

mainly in the form of silver-arsenic sulphides, as replacements

of the primary ore minerals or as filhngs of small fissures in the

primary ore. The chemistry of the process is not well under-

stood, but observations in this region fix certain limiting con-

ditions. It is notev/orthy that in the secondary minerals as in

the primary minerals arsenic greatly predominates over antimony.

Silver enrichment is practically confined to the veins of the

galena-sphalerite type and is absent from those of the pyritic

type. The most important cause of this restriction is believed

to be the presence of carbonates in the galena-sphalerite veins.

These carbonates neutralize the descending oxidizing waters and,

in the case of siderite, ferrous sulphate, an active silver precipi-

tant, is generated by reaction with sulphuric acid.

Nishihara- has compared the neutralizing effect of various

minerals on sulphuric acid and also their efficiency in reducing

ferric sulphate to ferrous sulphate. Pyrite, quartz, and chalco-

pyrite, minerals characteristic of the pyritic type of ores, are

ineffective in both respects. Galena, sphalerite, and, of course,

the carbonates are effective neutralizers and fairly active in

reducing ferric to ferrous sulphate. Moreover, galena and sphaler-

ite in contact with solutions carrying sulphuric acid or ferric

sulphate generate hydrogen sulphide. The composition of the

galena-sphalerite ores favors, therefore: (a) rapid neutraliza-

tion; (b) reduction of ferric to ferrous sulphate; (c) generation

of ferrous sulphate from siderite; (d) generation of hydrogen

sulphide. All these actions are beheved to favor the precipita-

tion of silver. The pyritic ores, on the other hand, have a min-

eral composition which favors persistence of acidity and per-

sistence of the iron in the ferric state. Dissolved silver de-

scending through such ore-bodies is likely to remain in solution,

to enter the general groundwater circulation, and to be lost so

far as the ore deposits in question are concerned.

2 Nishihara, G. S., The rate of reduction of acidity of descending waters by

certain ore and gangue minerals and its bearing upon secondary sulphide enrich-

ment. Econ. Geol., 9: 743-757. 1914.

swingle: a new genus of kumquat oranges 165

BOTANY. — A new genus, Fortunella, comprising four species of

kumquat oranges. Walter T. Swingle, Bureau of Plant

Industry.

The kumquat oranges are of very small size, usually less than

an inch in diameter. The two species commonly cultivated

differ from other oranges in having a relatively thick, fleshy^

sweet and edible peel and in having only 4 to 7 segments, con-

taining a small amount of acid pulp. Besides the round and

oval-fruited species common in culture, there is a third species

recently introduced into culture from China, and a fourth

occurring wild on the Island of Hongkong.

HISTORY OF THE KUMQUAT ORANGES

The kumquat oranges, though described by early Chinese

writers on agriculture, remained practically unknown to Euro-

peans until recent times. The kumquat is mentioned in many

early Chinese works and described in some detail by Han Yen

Chi in his treatise on the oranges, written in 1178. Later works

of both Chinese and Japanese authors treat of it fully, often

with fairly good illustrations.

The first vague notice of the kumquat oranges in European

literature was published by Ferrarius in 1646 in his Hesperides

and was based on reports made to him by the Portuguese Jesuit,

Alvaro Semedo, who lived 22 years in China. His successors,

Steerbeck, Volckamer, Risso and Poiteau, and other authors of

monumental illustrated works on the citrous fruits, add nothing

to our knowledge of the kumquat.

Rumphius in 1741 described and figured the round kumquat

in his Flora Amboinense. This was the first good account of

any kumquat orange to appear in European literature. In 1780

Thunberg assigned the name Citrus japonica to the round

kumquat, and in 1784 described it more fully in his Flora Japon-

ica, still later (in 1800) publishing a fairly good figure of it in

his Icones Plantarum Japonicarum. Loureiro, in 1790, in his

Flora Cochinchinensis named the oval kumquat Citrus margarita,

and also described the round kumquat under the name Citrus

madurensis.

166 swingle: a new genus of kumquat oranges

In spite of Rumphius' and Thunberg's excellent description

and illustrations, the kumquat was not known in Europe until

1846, when Robert Fortune, who was collecting in China for the

Royal Horticultural Society of London, brought back to England

the first kumquat plants. The kumquat did not become gener-

ally known on the continent of Europe until much later.

Full descriptions of the round and oval kumquats were pub-

lished by H. H. Hume,i but not until 1912 was a good account of

these plants published in Europe, when Dr. L. Trabut^ described

them and distinguished them from the so-called "chinois" or

"chinotto" (C Aurantium L., var.), with which they had been

confused by Volckamer and many subsequent European writers.

In 1914 Dr. Trabut^ published in Algeria a fuller illustrated ac-

count of these plants.

Perhaps because of their relatively late advent into Europe

the kumquat oranges have been but little studied by botanists.

Apparently no one has questioned the judgment of Thunberg

in referring them to the genus Citrus.

THE KUMQUATS NOT PROPERLY REFERRED TO THE GENUS CITRUS

The question of the true relationship of the kumquats to

other citrous fruits was forced upon the attention of the writer,

in the course of a survey of the plants related to Citrus, by a

study of a little known plant of Hongkong, called by botanists

Atalantia Hindsii (Champ.) Oliv. Good herbarium specimens of

this plant, collected by the Wilkes North Pacific Exploring Expe-

dition in 1842 and preserved in the National Herbarium at Wash-

ington, D. C, showed the unmistakable facies of a kumquat

orange. The thick, rigid leaves, pale and abundantly glandular-

dotted below, the angular twigs, small flowers, more or less angular

1 Hume, H. H. The Kumquats. Bull. 65, Fla. Exp. Sta., pp. 550-566, 3 figs.

1903; also, Citrus Fruits and their Culture, 3d ed., p. 18, pp. 53-58, pp. 129-131,

fiqs. Jt, 5, 10, 28. 1909.

2 Trabut, L. Chinois et kumquat. Rev. Hort. 84: 564-567, figs. 193-195.

1912.

'Trabut, L. Le kumquat. Bull. Agric. de I'Algerie et de la Tunisia II.

20:2-11,4^^8. 1914.

swingle: a new genus of kumquat oranges 167

in the bud, and the small prominently glandular-dotted fruits

all resembled most strikingly the round kumquat now commonly

cultivated in this country.

Later on other specimens of this plant were studied in the

herbaria at Kew Gardens and the British Museum, London,

and the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris; and through the

courtesy of the Superintendent of the Botanical and Forestry

Department of Hongkong viable seeds of this species were sent

to the writer in 1912. A study of the germination, as well as

of the foliar, flower, and fruit characters, showed that in reality

this plant is a very primitive kumquat. Thereupon the various

forms of the common kumquat in culture in Florida, California,

and Algeria were studied, as well as the material in the principal

herbaria of Europe and America. As a result of this study

the writer is convinced that the kumquats should be placed in

a new genus midway between Atalantia and Citrus.

The kumquats are the most primitive living true citrous

fruits. The Hongkong kumquat, the only species known in the

wild state, is the most primitive of the kumquats and consequently

the most primitive of the true citrous fruits. That is to say, it

is of all known existing species the most nearly like the ancestral

form from which the kumquats and the species of Citrus

originated.

On account of their many and important differences from Ata-

lantia and from Citrus it is proposed to create a new genus,

Fortunella/ to include the kumquats.

* Fortunella, Swingle, gen. nov. Cilro affinis, foliis unifoliolatis, staminum

numero petalorum quadruplo. A Ciiro differt floribus solitariis vel in panic-

ulis paucifloribus dispositis, numero loculorum ovarii niimero petalorum aequali

vel pauIo majore, ovulis collateralibus in loculo geminis, stigmate cavernoso

ob glandulis oleiferas profundas, foliis venis non prominentibus subtus palli-

dioribus punctis glandulosis viridibus numerosissimis instructis, alabastro in

sectione plus minusve polygono, fructu mesocarpio crassiore, carnoso et eduli.

Rami juniores novelli virentes triangulares, vetustiores teretes. Cotyledones

in germinatione ut in Cilro hypogeae, folia prima ovata subsessilia opposita.

Frutices vel arbores humiles. — Species typica, Fortunella margarita (Citrus

margarita Lour.). Colitur Cantone Sinarum.

168

swingle: a new genus of kumquat oranges

FoRTUNELLA Swingle. Shrubs or small trees; young branches angu-

lar, the older ones rounded; spines borne singly at one side of the bud

in the axil of the leaf, or wanting. Leaves unifoliolate, rather thick,

blunt-pointed or even retuse, acute or rounded at the base; veins evi-

dent above, scarcely showing beneath; lower surface pale green, densely

glandular-dotted; petioles narrowly winged or merely margined, some-

times not articulated with the blade. Flowers borne singly or in few-

flowered clusters in the axils of the leaves, hermaphrodite, 5-merous

(rarely 4-, 6-, or 7-merous) . Flower buds small,

8-10 mm. long, more or less angular in cross

section. Petals 5 (rarely 4 or 6), white, acute,

8-12 mm. long. Stamens 18 or 20, polyadel-

phous, cohering irregularly in bundles; filaments

broad but tapering at the tip. Pistil seated

on a well-marked disc; ovary subglobose, 3-7-

(usually 3-6-) celled, with two collateral ovules

in each cell; ovary merging gradually or abrupt-

ly into the short style, this usually shorter

than the ovary, sometimes shorter than the

stigma. Stigma capitate, symmetrical, cavern-

ous within because of the large deep-seated

oil-glands (fig. 1). Fruits small, 18-35 mm.

long, 18-25 mm. in diameter, oval or globose;

peel rather thick, fleshy and aromatic, sweet-

flavored, containing numerous large immersed

oil-glands. Segments 3-6, rarely 7 (figs. 2-5);

pulp vesicles small, fusiform or subglobose,

stalked, containing an acid juice. Seeds ovate in outline, smooth;

embryo pistache green. Germination with hypogeous cotyledons; first

foliage leaves broadly ovate, subsessile, opposite as in Citrus.

Type species, Fortunella margarita {Citrus margarita Lour.), culti-

vated at Canton, China.

Fig. 1. F. japonica.

Cross-section of stigma,

showing large oil glands

between stylar canals,

three of them double,

two single. Scale 25.

The genus Fortunella resembles Citrus in the general appearance

of the stems, twigs, spines, leaves, flowers, and fruits and in having the

polyadelphous stamens normally four times as numerous as the petals.

It differs from Citrus (1) in having an isomerous or hypomcrous ovary,

normally 3-5-celled (rarely 6 or 7-), not polymerous (8-15- or more

celled), (2) in having two collateral ovules in each cell (not 4-12),

(3) in having a cavernous stigma containing a few large, deeply im-

mersed, lysigenous oil glands (not asymmetrical and solid or nearly so),

(4) in having the under surface of the leaves pale green, nearly veinless

and with very numerous, small, deep green glandular dots, (5) in hav-

ing a sweet and edible, more or less pulpy skin, and (6) in having small

more or less angular flower buds.

swingle: a new genus of kumquat oranges 169

Fortunella approaches Atalantia and differs strikingly from Citrus

in having only two collateral ovules near the top of each cell, whereas

Citrus has 4-12 ovules to a cell. Fortunella differs from Atalantia

in having twice as many stamens (four times as many, instead of twice

as many, as the petals), and in its general agreement with Citrus in

twig, leaf, spine, flower, and fruit characters.

The capitate stigmas of all the species of Fortunella contain large

oil glands imbedded in their substance, which renders them cavernous.^

(See fig. 1.) The stigma of Citrus contains a few scattering oil glands,

sometimes one in every space between the radially arranged and ex-

panded stylar canals; but these glands are very near the surface and

relatively so small that the stigma lacks entirely the cavernous struc-

ture characteristic of Fortunella.^ The leaves show very many more

oil glands on the underside than in any species of Citrus, often ten times

as many.

In superficial fruit characters Fortunella agrees with the Australian

desert kumquat {Eremocitrus glauca) in many respects. The seeds

are very different, however, and the stem, twig, leaf, and flower char-

acters are so strikingly different that it is not possible to regard these

genera as closely related.

There are four species of Fortunella known at present. The two

commonly cultivated species, the round and oval kumquats of China

and Japan, together with the Meiwa kumquat, comprise the sub-

genus Eufortunella, distinguished by several important characters

from the Hongkong wild kumquat for which a new subgenus, Proto-

citrus, is described farther on in this paper.

THE SUBGENUS EUFORTUNELLA

The species of Eufortunella may be distinguished by means of the

following key:

Fruits globose, 20-25 mm. in diameter, 4 or 5-celled; seeds small,

bluntl}' rounded at tip; leaves pale and veinless below, blunt-

pointed 2. F. japonica.

5 This was noticed as early as 1784 by Thunberg (Fl. Jap. 293), who said,

"Stigma .... intus multilocidari," in describing the round kumquat;

since then no one seems to have observed this fact.

6 Penzig, O. A. J. Studi Botanici sugli Agrumi e suUe Piante Affini, pp. 53-75 ;

atlas, pi. 6. (Ann. di Agr. no. 116). 1887.

170 swingle: a new genus of kumquat oranges

Fruits oval or oblong, 5-7-celled; seeds more or less pointed at tip;

leaves narrowed toward the tip.

Fruits oblong, 25-33 mm. long, 20-25 mm. in diameter, usually

5 or 6-celled; petiole narrowly margined, not winged; pulp

vesicles fusiform 1 . F. margarita.

Fruits oval or subglobose, 28-35 mm. long, 22-30 mm. in diameter,

6 or 7-celled; leaves very thick; petiole plainly but narrowly

winged at tip; vesicles subglobose or oval 3. F. crassifolia.

THE OVAL kumquat

The oval kumquat has been referred by most botanists to Citrus

jayonica Thunb., which is based on the round kumquat. These two

kumquats are certainly very closely related, but as they show con-

stant differences of some taxonomic importance in nearly all parts of

the plant, it seems best for the present to consider them as constituting

two distinct species.

1. Fortunella margarita (Lour.) Swingle.

Citrus margarita Lour. Fl. Cochin. 2: 467. 1790.

Citrus aurantium olivaeformis Risso, ex Lo'sel.-Desl. & Michel, Nouv.

Duham. 7: 95. 1816.

Citrus aurantium var. japonica Hook. f. Curt. Bot. Mag. III. 30:

pi. 6128. 1874.

Citrus japonica var. fructu elliptico Sieb. & Zucc. Fl. Jap. 1:35.

pi. 15, fig. 3. 1835.

Citrus Aurantium subspec. japonica var. globifera subvar. margarita

Engl, in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 3^: 199. 1896.

Type locality: Canton, China (in culture).

The type specimen of Citrus margarita seems to have been lost, but

Loureiro's description is very good and can apply only to an oval

kumquat very similar to the one commonly cultivated today in all the

warmer parts of the world.

A lectotype {Swingle; C. P. B. No. 7955; February 18, 1915), con-

sisting of a branch of an oval kumquat tree growing in a greenhouse

of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, has been deposited

in the National Herbarium at Washington.

The oval kumquat differs from the round chiefly in the following

respects: (1) The leaves are larger, more acute at the base, less pallid

and more veiny below; (2) the ovary has usually 4 or 5 cells, very

rarely 3 or 6; (3) the fruit is oval, not globose; (4) the style is persistent,

not caducous; (5) the seeds are larger and especially longer, with a

rougher testa. (Fig. 2.) It differs also in being distinctly more

swingle: a new genus of kumquat oranges

171

vigorous and attaining a greater height (10-12 ft.); in the somewhat

brighter orange color of its fruits; and especially in the harsher, more

biting flavor of the peel, which evidently contains an etherial oil more

nearly resembling that of the common orange than does that of the

round kumquat.

Fig. 2. F. margarita. A, cross-

section of 5-celled fruit; B, seed; C,

seed in cross-section. All natural

size.

Fig. 3. F. japonica. A, cross-

section of 5-celled fruit; B, seed; C,

seed in cross-section, showing poly-

embryony. All natural size.

THE ROUND KUMQUAT

2. Fortunella japonica (Thunb.) Swingle.

O Q: Chin Kan, Yulgo Fune Tatsbanna. Malus Lunonia, fructu

pumilo aureo, medulla dulci. Kaempf. Amoen. Exot., fasc. 5,

801. 1712.

Limonellus madurensis Rumph. Hort. Amboin. 2: 110. pi. 31. 1741.

Citrus japonica Thunb. Nov. Act. Upsal. 3: 199. 1780.^— Fl. Jap.

292. 1784.— Icon. PI. Jap. 2: [pi. 5]. 1800.

Citrus madurensis Lour. Fl. Cochin. 2:467. 1790.

Citrus inermis Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3: 393. 1832.

Citrus inicrocarpa Bunge, Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersb. 2:84.

1833.

Citrus japonica var. fructu globoso Sieb. & Zucc. Fl. Jap. 1:35.

pi. 15, jig. 2. 1835.

Citrus Aurantium subspec. japonica var. globifera Engl, in Engl. &

Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 3^:" 199. 1896.

Type locality: Japan (in culture). — Native in China.

^ The original publication of this species by citation is on p. 199 as follows:

"Kin Kan, vulgo Fime Tats

banna, p. 801. , Citrus laponica."

Under the heading Characters of New Species it is given as follows, on p. 208:

'Citrus japonica: petiolis alatis, foliis

acutis; caule fruticoso."

The species is published by the citation on page 199, inasmuch as Kaempfer

identifies the plant not only by giving the Chinese characters never applied to

any other plant but also the Japanese common name and a short latin phrase

sufficient to distinguish it from any other Citrus.

172

swingle: a new genus of kumquat oranges

The differences between the round and oval kumquats have ah'eady

been enumerated under the latter species. (See figs. 2 and 3.)

No type specimen of this species exists, but the specimen figured by

Thunberg probably is to be found in the Upsala Museum and may after

critical examination prove suitable to be considered a lectotype.

The plants grown in Japan, United States, Europe and North Africa

are almost all grafted and consequently show great uniformity.

THE MEIWA, A NEW KUMQUAT, POSSIBLY OF CHINESE ORIGIN

About 1896 or 1897 a new kumquat appeared in Japan, apparently

imported from China. It seems to have been listed at first as the

Chinese large-fruited kumquat, but soon came to be known as the

spotted Mciwa kumquat,^ and

soon simply as the Meiwa kum-

quat.^

This variety is very prolific,

even small shrubs bearing an

abundance of fruit. The leaves

are decidedly different from those

of any other kumquat, being

much thicker and folded on the

midrib so as to be V-shaped in

cross-section. The fruits are

slightly oval, often nearly glo-

bose, decidedly larger than those

of the round kumquat, and dis-

tinctly broader at the equator

than those of the oval kumquat.

They show in cross-section 5, 6 or 7 segments, with one or two seeds

in each segment. (Fig. 4.) Upon close study these differences seem

to necessitate the recognition of the Meiwa kumquat as a new

species.^"

* Hidaka, Kwaji Yen, in Nippon yen gei zatto shi (Bull, de la Soc.d'Horti-

colture du Japon) 23: 44. May, 1911.

' Some nurserymen give also a variety Nei wa; others consider these synony-

mous, preferring Meiwa.

'■" Fortunella crassifolia Swingle, sp. nov. A speciebus ceteris Fortunellae differt

foliis crassioribus, canaliculatis, in sectione V-formibus, cellulis paliformibus in

4^6 stratis dispositis, fructibus majoribus ovoideis, 5-6-7-locularibus, vesiculis

ovoideis vel ellipsoideis nee fusiformibus. — Habitat in China?, cult, in Japonia et

America.

Fig. 4. F. crassifolia. A, cross-sec-

tion of 7-celled fruit; B, oval pulp vesi-

cles, growing into cell from inner wall

of ovary; C, seed; D, seed in cross-

section. A, C, and D, natural size; B,

swingle: a new genus of kumquat oranges 173

3. Fortunella crassifolia Swingle, sp. nov.

A dwarf tree or a shrub, often thornless, sometimes with short stout

spines 3-10 mm. long; twigs slender, 2.5-5 mm. in diameter, angled

when young, dark green, often tufted at the ends of the branches.

Leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, 4-9 (usually 6-8) cm. long, 1.5-4

(usually 2-3.5) cm. broad, tapering toward both ends, often rather

sharply, rarely rounded and emarginate at the tip, the base cuneate

(especially when not articulated with the tip of the petiole) , sometimes

more or less broadly rounded ; margin entire below the middle and some-

times nearly to the tip, but usually obscurely crenatein the upper third

or half; leaves very thick and rigid, folded along the midrib so as to be

more or less U- or V-shaped in cross section, on the upper surface

glossy dark green, or more or less yellowish green, with veins scarcely

visible, paler on the under surface, dotted with very numerous dark

green oil-glands and obscurely veined; petioles 7-10 mm. long, at base

subcylindric, 1-2 mm. in diameter, the tip narrowly winged, 2.5-4 mm.

wide, often not articulated with the blade, the winged petiole then

merging imperceptibly into the cuneate base of the leaf. Flowers

occurring singly or in pairs in the axil of the leaf, buds at first 5-lobed

at the tip, later more or less 5-angled in cross section. Fruits broadly

oval or ovate in outline, 25-35 by 25-28 mm., usually 5-7-celled with

one or two seeds in a cell, some of the cells usually without perfect

seeds. Seeds oval, 9-12 by 5-7 by 4-6 mm., blunt-pointed at both

ends; testa larger than the embryo and more or less wrinkled at the

projecting ends; embryos often several, green.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 694952, consisting of a

fruiting branch taken from a cultivated plant m the greenhouse of the

U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, Swingle (C. P. B.

No. 7496-C), February 17, 1915. Merotype,— flowering branch, M.

KeUerman, February 23, 1915. Additional specimens from nurseries

at Port Arthur and Alvin, Texas, are in the U. S. National Herbarium.

This species, although differing in many important characters from

the two commonly cultivated species of kumquats, may nevertheless

on more thorough study prove to be of hybrid origin or else a mutation.

The precocious and abundant fruiting and the presence of many good

seeds in the fruits would seem, however, to indicate that it can scarcely

be a hybrid between two very distinct species. Besides, it is not

easy to see what species could have been hybridized to produce such a

form.

In many ways the Meiwa kumquat shows a marked intensification

of the characteristics of the true kumquats. Such intensification may

result from hj^bridization or from mutation but may also be the result

of long continued, slow, evolutionary change. In any case, the present

form doubtless merits a distinctive name, such as is given commonly to

174

swingle: a new genus of kumquat oranges

hybrids between well marked species and to stable forms of mutative

origin.

The very thick and rigid leaves of the Meiwa kumquat show 4 or

5 or even more layers of palisade tissue on the upper side of the leaf.

The other two species show only 2 or 3 layers of palisade.

THE SUBGENUS PROTOCITRUS

The Hongkong kumquat, Fortunella Hindsii, differs from the round

kumquat (F. japonica), the oval kumquat (F. margarita), and the

Meiwa kumquat (F. crassifolia) in a number of morphological char-

acters, some of them of decided taxonomic significance in this group.

It may be regarded as constituting a new subgenus:

Protocitrus Swingle. ^^ Differs from Eufortunella (1) in having the

ovary hypomerous (3 or 4-celled, not 5-celled); (2) in the ovary wall

of the mature fruits having on the in-

side between the stalks of the pulp

vesicles a number of minute, wart-

like, pale yellow, cellular masses (fig.

5); (3) in having the dissepiments of

the fruit dry, and the peel thin and

not very fleshy; (4) in having shorter,

broader, more brachytic flowers; (5)

in having leaves with the veins more

prominent on both faces, and less

pallid below.

The two most important charac-

ters distinguishing the subgenus Pro-

tocitrus from Eufortunella are the

few-celled ovary and the dimorphic

emergencen from the ovary wall of

the fruit, viz.: ordinary pulp vesicles

and verruciform tufts of loosely aggregated more or less colored cells.

(Fig. 5, B.)

Fig. 5. F. Hindsii. A, cross-

section of 3-celled fruit, one cell

having 2 seeds, another showing a

few pulp vesicles; B, fusiform

vesicles and verruciform tissue

growing into cell from inner wall

of ovary; C, seed; D, seed in cross-

section, showing polyembryony.

A, B, scale 2; C, D, natural size.

"Protocitrus Swingle, subgen. nov. A Eufortunella differt ovariis hypomeri-

bus (3- vel 4- nee 5-locularibus) parietibus dorsalibus locularum fructus maturi

verrucosis, verrucis e cellulis luteolis compositis, dissepimentis membranaceis

non succosis, exocarpio tenuiori minus succoso, floribus brevioribus latioribus,

foliis subtus viridioribus, venis conspicuioribus.

swingle: a new genus of kumquat oranges 175

The Hongkong kumquat, which, as ah-eady indicated, is the sole

species of the subgenus Protoeitrus, may be described, as follows:

Fortunella Hindsii (Champ.) Swingle.

SclerostyUs Hindsii Champ. Hook. Journ. Bot. III. 3: 327. 1851.

Atalantia Hindsii Oliver ex Benth. Fl. Hongkong. 51. 1861. —

Journ. Linn. Soc. 5, Suppl. 2:26. 1861.

A spiny shrub or small tree; twigs slender, angled when young;

leaves oval-elliptical, tapering sharply at both ends, dark green above

and faintly venose, paler and venose below; petioles winged, often

merging into the lamina of the leaf without a separative joint. Flowers

short, broad, not opening very widely; pistil very short; style shorter

than the ovary; stigma large, cavernous; ovary 3 or 4-celled; ovules

2 in a cell. Fruits small, 1 .5-2 cm. in diameter, subglobose, bright orange

red when ripe, the color of a tangerine orange; pulp vesicles very few,

small, fusiform; seeds thick, oval or ovate in outline, plump, 9-11 by

7-8 by 5-6 mm., pistache green in section.

Type: Hongkong, R. B. Hinds, without number, 1841; a much

branched twig with spines, leaves, fruit pedicels, and one young fruit.^-

(Mounted on the same sheet are two twigs collected by Wright.)

Herb. Kew.

The Hongkong wild kumquat grows commonly on the dry hills

about Hongkong and on the mainland of China opposite.

Much other material from Hongkong and some from Kaulung, on

the mainland opposite Hongkong, has been examined by the writer

in the collections at Kew, British Museum, Museum d'Histoire Natur-

elle, Gray Herbarium, and U. S. National Herbarium. Living plants

grown in the greenhouses of the Department of Agriculture from seeds

from Hongkong have permitted a comparison of this plant at all stages

of growth with the other species of Fortunella.

UTILIZATION OF THE KUMQUATS IN BREEDING NEW TYPES

OF CITROUS FRUITS

In connection with the attempt to breed hardy citrous fruits the

attention of the writer was directed some years ago to the kumquat

oranges, which are particularly remarkable for their very small size

'2 A label in Bentham's (?) writing, reading "Atalantia monophylla DC.

Hong Kong, Hind's, 1841," is pasted across the base of the twic;, which shows it

to be without doubt the specimen cited by Bentham (Lond. Journ. Bot. 1: 480-

481. 1842). Some of the petioles of this twig exhibit the curious imperfections

in the articulation with the blade characteristic of this species; so it is possible

to identify this specimen beyond question.

176 swingle: a new genus of kumquat oranges

and for having a relatively thick, sweet, and edible peel. These

diminutive fruits, borne on correspondingly dwarfed trees or shrubs,

have been found to possess in very high degree winter dormancy, which

is so essential to hardiness in citrous fruits grown in the variable cli-

mate of Florida and the Gulf States. Recently the kumquat oranges

have also been found to be remarkably resistant to citrus canker, the

most dreaded of all the diseases affecting citrous trees in the United

States. Indeed, many investigators have not succeeded in finding

any canker infection on kumquat oranges, and believe them to be

immune. Furthermore, hybrids between the two commonly culti-

vated species of kumquat, the oval and the round-fruited, on the one

hand, and the common lime on the other, have proven not only to be

very resistant to cold, but to possess a considerable degree of resist-

ance to citrous canker.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

METEOROLOGY.— /^ros« protection. W. J. Humphreys. Monthly

Weather Review, 42: 562-569. 1914.

This paper deals entirely with the scientific or theoretical side of

orchard heating and other methods of frost protection. It is explained

that when frost is most likely to occur, that is, during still clear nights,

temperature inversions (increase of temperature with increase of ele-

vation) commonly obtain almost everywhere except on hills and moun-

tains at some elevation above the intervening valleys. This tempera-

ture inversion keeps any air that may be artificially warmed near the

surface where it may be effective in preventing frost. But for this

inversion that acts like a ceiling in restricting vertical convection, the

warmed air would rise quite above the tree tops and thus do but little

good.

Computations, based on the rate of loss of heat by radiation during

clear nights, show that the amount of petroleum necessary to protect

a large orchard from frost is, roughly, one liter per tree per hour. Air

drainage (so important to consider in locating an orchard), ground

covering, screens, sprays, smudges, dry heating and irrigation are all

considered. W. J. H.

CHEMISTRY.— T/?e reaction of coivs' milk modified for infant feeding.

William Mansfield Clark. Journal of Medical Research, 31:

431. 1915. '

By the use of the hydrogen electrode the hydrogen ion concentra-

tions of human and cows' milk have been compared with those of

various formulae of cows' milk modified for infant feeding. The addi-

tion of alkalies to modified milk for the purpose of neutralizing the

so-called "high acidity of cows' milk" is shown to be a practice not only

177

178 abstracts: physical chemistry

based upon wrong principles, but a practice which in- some instances

produces a reaction far too low for even favorable pancreatic digestion.

The addition of alkalies to modified milk for the purpose of preventing

firm clots of casein in the stomach is shown to be a procedure which

may not only be unnecessary to accomplish this purpose, but one which

may involve inhibition of gastric proteolysis and lipolysis. Finally,

the addition of alkalies to modified milk is criticized because of its

tendency to displace from the intestine a normal fermentative bac-

terial flora and to favor bacterial proteolysis or ''putrefaction."

W. M. C.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— r/^e ternanj system: diopside-forsterite-

silica. N. L. Bowen. Am. Jour. Sci. (4), 38: 207-264. 1914.

The results obtained in the investigation of the three binary systems

involved are first presented. The system diopside-silica shows the simple

eutectic relation, as does also the system diopside-forsterite. The sys-

tem forsterite-silica shows one intermediate compound, MgSiOs (clino-

enstatite), unstable at its melting-point.

In the ternary system it is found that clino-enstatite and diopside

form a complete series of solid solutions (monoclinic pyroxenes) and

therefore have a common field. As a further consequence of this un-

broken series of solid solutions there is no ternary eutectic, the lowest

point of formation of liquid in the system being the binary eutectic

diopside-silica.

A brief theoretical discussion of solid solution in ternary systems is

given. The course of crystallization in typical mixtures of the present

ternary system is described, and the value of certain lines termed three-

phase-boundaries is pointed out, especially their usefulness in determin-

ing the composition of mix-crystals separating at any temperature. In

considering crystallization it is shown that crystalhzation may proceed

according to two different methods: first, that in which the liquid is,

at any temperature, in equilibrium with all the crystals and all parts of

the crystals occurring in it, and second, that in which the liquid is in

equilibrium at any temperature only with the crystals separating at

that temperature. In a general way, crystallization of the second type

is favored by quick cooling.

The importance of distinguishing between the two types of crystalli-

zation is great in the present system. It is shown that the difference

between the conclusions arrived at in the present work and those ar-

rived at in an earlier investigation of the pyroxene series carried out at

this Laboratory is due largely to the fact that in the earlier work crys-

ABSTEACTS: MINERALOGY 179

tallization of the second type occurred in many of the mixtures, whereas,

if equihbrium is to be studied, crystalHzation of the first type must be

obtained.

In the optical part of the paper the optical properties of the various

crystalline phases are given. The properties of the series of monoclinic

pyroxenes extending from diopside to enstatite vary continuously with

composition. The artificial pyroxenes are compared with the enstatite-

augites of Wahl.

In considering the bearing of the results on petrologic problems at-

tention is called to the resorption of the olivine forsterite in the arti-

ficial mixtures and its probable relation to resorption of olivines in nat-

ural rocks. The consequences of the possible settling of crystals in a

fluid magma (crystallization-differentiation) are discussed in the light

of the facts known concerning the artificial mixtures. N. L. B.

MINERALOGY. — Hewettite, metahewettite, and. pascoite; hydrous cal-

cium vanadates. W. F. Hillebrand, H. E. Merwin, and Fred. E.

Wright. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc, 53: 31-54. 1914.

Two apparently different calcium vanadates are described, which

resemble each other very closely and have the same composition

(CaO • 3V2O5 • 9H2O) when holding their maximum water-content at

room temperatures. One of them, hewettite, occurs at Minasragra,

Peru, and has been noticed on a single specimen from Paradox Valley,

Colorado. The other, metahewettite, occurs at numerous localities in

western Colorado and eastern Utah. Both minerals are sparingly solu-

ble in water;

A third calcium vanadate, pascoite (2CaO • 3V205- 11?H20,) is

also described. This occurs with hewettite at Minasragra. It is very

soluble in water.

The first and second minerals are regarded as dehydrated acid hexa-

vanadates (CaH2VcOi7 • 8H2O), the third as a normal hexavanadate

(Ca2V60i7-ll?H20).

The reasons for specific separation of hewettite and metahewettite

are set forth in detail. The two minerals are so sensitive to changes in

atmospheric humidity that their water-content varies within wide limits

at different times of the year. The removal of all or nearly all the water

does not result in breaking down of the crystal structure, and until

this has occurred the water is wholly or in great part taken up again

when opportunity is ofi"ered.

The importance is emphasized of bringing all minerals that behave in

this way to a definite maximum water-content before analyzing them

180 abstracts: petrology

and of following carefully the course of dehydration under prescribed

conditions. Detailed directions are given for such tests and for avoid-

ing several sources of error.

Attention is also called to two fairly constant associates of metahewet-

tite. One of these (also a constituent of carnotite ores) is a gray hydrous

silicate of aluminum, trivalent vanadium, and potassium. The other

is elemental selenium, the existence of which as a mineral species seems

now for the first time estabhshed. W. F. H.

PETROLOGY. — An occurrence of pyroxenite and hornhleyidite in Bahia,

Brazil. Henry S. Washington. Am. Jour. Sci. (4), 38: 79-90.

1914.

The igneous mass occurs near Maracas, in the State of Bahia, intruded

into gneisses. The central part is a hornblendite and the outer a pyrox-

enite, both being exceptionally fresh. Complete analyses of the two are

given and their relations to other occurrences are discussed. Both

rocks are notable for the large amount of manganese which they con-

tain, which is correlated with the abundance of manganese ores in this

part of the State of Bahia. There is also a notable amount of copper.

H. S. W.

PETROLOGY. — The mode of formation of certain gneisses in the High-

lands of New Jersey. Clarence N. Fenner. J. Geology, 22:

594-612; 694-702. 1914,

The paper deals with certain geological phenomena which have been

observed in an area of ancient crystalline rocks in northern New Jersey,

and discusses the manner in which the structures in question have

originated. The manner of action of the processes is considered, not

only from the geological side, but also from physical and chemical stand-

points. A description is first given of the structural relations of the

gneisses as observed in the field, and evidence is presented leading to

the behef that at this locaHty the foliation of the gneisses can not well

be attributed to the squeezing-out of a partly differentiated magma or

to the shearing and recrystalHzation of a solidified rock, ]:)ut that its

origin must be looked for in a process involving the injection of a thinly

fluid granitic magma between the layers of an original rock of a lamin-

ated character. Evidence is found which indicates that the process of

injection was carried out in a most quiet and gradual manner, and pos-

sessed many of the characteristics of a substitution of the original ma-

terial by the magmatic solution rather than the features of a violent

intrusion. The observed relations are very similar to those which cer-

tain French geologists have described under the name of lit-par-lit in-

abstracts: geology 181

jection, and the mode of operation is believed to have been essentially

the same.

Certain features which were observed in the gneisses imply properties

of the magma which at first sight do not appear mutually consistent.

Thus the degree of viscosity imphed by the presence of thinly tabular

sheets of inclusions within the granite, standing nearly upright and un-

supported except by the magma on either side, does not harmonize

with the facility with which magmatic material has been transfused into

the original rock. In trying to reconcile these features inquiry has been

directed toward a consideration of certain of the physical and chemical

properties of magmatic solutions. The question of the critical tempera-

tures of volatile substances is discussed in its bearing upon their condi-

tion within the magma. Further, the question of the possibility of a

viscous magma penetrating the pores of the wall-rock is considered and

the problem of a possible differentiation of a magma when injected be-

tween the layers of a rock in a multitude of adjacent streams is taken

up. Certain inferences are drawn regarding the operation of such pro-

cesses and the conclusion is reached that under such conditions of in-

jection as prevailed at this locality, the advance of the main body of

magma would be preceded by that of a more dilute portion, which would

be able to impregnate the wall-rock with facility and initiate processes

of transformation and solution which the more concentrated body fol-

lowing would carry farther toward completion. C. N. F.

GEOLOGY. — The Shmumo Quadrangle, Grand Canyon District, Arizona.

L. F. Noble. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 549. Pp.

100. 1914.

The Shinumo quadrangle lies in the western part of Kaibab division

of Grand Canyon, Arizona. Geological formations that outcrop are

exposed in cross-section in walls of the mile deep canyon. They are,

in age: Archean, Algonkian, Cambrian, Devonian, and Carboniferous.

The Archean and Algonkian, and the Algonkian and Cambrian are

separated by profound angular unconformities of erosion. The Cam-

brian and Carboniferous are separated by an unconformity of erosion

without unconformity of dip. Devonian strata are present only here

and there; they were deposited in shallow depressions in the eroded

surface between the Cambrian and Carboniferous.

The Archean includes the Vishnu schist, made up of gneisses, schists,

quartzites, and plutonic intrusive rocks. In the region about the mouth

of Shinumo Creek it is a metamorphic complex of quartz, mica,

alnd hornblende schists which are invaded by a mass of quartz diorite

182 abstracts: geology

and injected by veins of pegmatite and aplite. Farther down the

river, gneisses are the prevaihng rocks. The schists are beheved to

be of sedimentary origin, the gneisses, igneous.

About 5000 feet of strata of the Unkar group, Algonkian, Grand

Canyon series, are present. They He in a wedge-shaped mass that is

inset in the Vishnu schist by block-faulting along the line of the West

Kaibab fault, and are intruded by a sill of diabase 1000 feet thick.

Five formations are differentiated: Hotauta conglomerate, overlain by

Bass limestone, Hakatai shale, Shinumo quartzite, and Dox sand-stone.

The Cambrian is divided into three formations: Tapeats sandstone,

overlain by Bright Angel shale and Muav limestone. The Carbonif-

erous comprises Redwall limestone, Supai formation, Coconino sand-

stone, and Kaibab limestone. These beds have a gentle southwesterly

dip of 100 to 200 feet to the mile. Plateau surfaces on both sides of

the canyon are developed on same hard formation, the Kaibab limestone.

Course of canyon is at right angles to dip of strata. Therefore the

land north of canyon slopes toward the brink, and the land south slopes

away; therefore the attitude of the canyon is like that of a trench dug

along a hillside. Drainage of plateaus on both sides of the canyon

runs southwesterly with the initial slope of the land; on south side of

canyon the heads of many plateau valleys are truncated by the southern

wall of the canyon.

The factors chiefly responsible in determining topographic form in

the canyon country are: the horizontal attitude of the beds; hori-

zontal continuity and vertical variation (alternation of hard and soft) ;

faults traversing them; great height of land above the sea; and aridity

of the climate. There is, however, another factor whose importance

has not been realized: this is the influence of minor joints and fractures

not associated with notable displacement. The courses of most of the

smaller side-gorges have been guided by these fractures and most of

the buttes and temples have been blocked out by them.

The Esplanade, a wide terrace which runs through the Kanab divi-

sion of the canyon, is not, as has been thought, a local base-level due to

a pause in the uplift of the region, but is a structural bench developed,

like the Tonto Platform of the Kaibab division, on one of the hard sets

of beds in the Paleozoic.

Examples of pre-Cambrian faults of which the West Kaibab fault

is the most notable, additional to those already known along which

movement has recurred in post-Paleozoic time, are described and the

wide prevalance of this phenomenon in the Grand Canyon region is

shown. L. F. N.

I

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The 94th meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences was held

in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club, the evening of December 3,

1914, with President David White in the chair, and about 40 persons

present.

Mr. Henry S. Graves, Chief of the U. S. Forest Service, gave an

interesting and instructive talk on The place of Jorestry among natural

sciences. (This Journal, 5: 41. 1915.)

The 95th meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences, a joint

meeting with the Botanical Society of Washington, was held in the

lecture room of the Cosmos Club, the evening of Januaiy 5, 1915. The

hall was crowded, and many were turned away.

Prof. J. C. BosE of India gave an illustrated lecture on The response of

plants. The lecturer dealt chiefly with his own extensive investigations

which have shown a remarkable parallelism between the response of

animals and the response of plants to a wide variety of stimuli. The

apparatus used and methods of work were explained, the conclusions

enumerated, and in one or two cases an actual plant response was shown

to the audience.

The 96th meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences, the 16th

annual meeting, was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club, the

evening of January 14, 1915, with President David White in the chair

and about 100 persons present. The following were elected officers for

the ensuing year: President, R. S. Woodw^ard; Corresponding Secre-

tary, George K. Burgess; Recording Secretary, W. J. Humphreys;

Treasurer, E. W. Parker; Vice-Presidents, representing the: Anthropo-

logical Society, F. W. Hodge; Archaeological Society, Mitchell Car-

roll; Biological Society, Paul Bartsch; Botanical Society, W. E. Saf-

ford; Chemical Society, Carl L. Alsberg; Electrical Engineers So-

ciety, E. B. Rosa; Engineers Society, William Bowie; Entomological

Society, W. D. Hunter; Foresters Society, G. B. Sudworth; Geographi-

cal Society, 0. H. Tittmann; Geological Society, Arthur Keith; His-

torical Societ,y, J. D. Morgan; Medical Society, Frank Leech; Philo-

sophical Society, W. S. Eichelberger; Non-Resident Vice-Presidents,

C. C. Nutting and E. C. Franklin; Managers, Class of 1918, L

Stejneger and W. H. Holmes.

183

184 proceedings: Washington academy of sciences

After the list of new officers was read the newly elected president,

Mr. R. S. Woodward took the chair, and the retiring president, Mr.

David White gave his address on Sotne relations in origin between coal

and ^petroleum. No review of this excellent paper need be given here

as it will soon appear in the Journal.

After this address the Recordiiig Secretary read the minutes of the

previous annual meeting and of the various other meetings, all of which

was approved. The report of the Corresponding Secretary showed the

total membership of the Academy to be 414, a net gain of 46 for the

year. It also reminded the Academy that while it had gained largely

in numbers it had also suffered severely in the loss by death during the

past year, of the following members: Resident, Henry Gannett,

Theodore Gill, Bernard R. Green, A. F. A. King, and F. W. True;

non-resident, W. L. Dudley, Frederick Forchheimer, John Muir,

D. E. Salmon, and Newton H. Winchell.

The Treasurer's report showed: Total receipts $4,937.69, dis-

bursements $3,340.38, cash on hand $1,597.31, investments $12,590.

The report of the Auditing Committee confirming that of the Treas-

urer, was also received.

The Board of Editors gave an interesting report in which they showed

by a number of diagrams the healthy and parallel growth of the Acad-

emy and its Journal.

The 97th meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences, a joint

meeting with the Biological Society of Washington, was held the eve-

ning of January 19, 1915, in the Auditorium of the National Museum.

Vice-President Paul Bartsch, President of the Biological Society was

in the chair and an audience of about 100 present.

Dr. Johan Hjort, director of the fisheries of Norway, gave a talk

on Migrations and fluctuations of the marine animals of western Europe.

The distances and prevailing directions of migration of fish were deter-

mined by setting free large numbers that had been properly tagged and

noting the times and places of their subsequent capture. This also

gave an idea of the ratio, not far from 1 to 10, of the catch of any given

year to the total number of fish available.

It was also explained that fish scales have rings indicative of annual

growth from which one can safely infer not only the age of any given

specimen but also, by the distance between the rings, the amount of

growth during any particular year of its life. By these means it was

learned, among other things, that fish, whatever their individual ages,

grow much faster during certain years than during others. Also that

there are great inequalities in the relative numbers of fish of different

ages, in some cases the number of one age exceeding the number a

year or even two years younger.

In addition to its scientific interest this investigation has already

greatly increased and rendered more profitable the enormous fishing

industry of Norway and, presumably, that also of adjacent countries.

W. J. Humphreys, Recording Secretary.

proceedings: geological society .185

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 290th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cos'mos Club,

on January 27, 1915.

INFORMAL communications

R. S. Bassler: Unconformities in limestone. At a previous meeting

remarks had been made to the effect that the Silurian limestones of a

certain area passed without break into the Devonian. This suggested to

the speaker the idea of citing examples where this was apparently so, but

where in reahty an unconformity of great extent was present. A fragment

of limestone, only a few inches thick, from Louisville, Kentucky, crowded

with Middle Devonian fossils on one side and Middle Silurian fossils

on the other, was exhibited to show that such unconformities exist in

what is now the same layer. Hand specimens of Ordovician limestone

preserving the unconformity between the lower Chazy and Black River

formations and taken from the same iDed were also exhibited. In fresh

fractures the unconformity can hardly be detected, but upon weath-

ered surfaces it is shown as a distinct wavy line.

Discussion: G. F, Loughlin remarked that Bassler's examples

were duplicated in certain occurrences in the Tintic District. T. Way-

land Vaughan spoke of the contact of Cretaceous and Eocene lime-

stones along the Frio River in Texas. The two formations were so

similar that it was only by fossils that the hiatus could be detected, but

after the necessity for it had been discovered a thin band of pebbles was

found at the contact.

REGULAR PROGRAM

E. S. Bastin and J. M. Hill: Ore deposits of Gilpin County, Colorado.

(Published in full on pp. 160-164 of this issue of the Journal.)

Discussion: F. L. Ransome inquired regarding the genetic connec-

tion between the different classes of ore-bodies, and if there were any

indication of the galena giving out with depth. Bastin replied that the

genetic connection was not entirely clear in all cases, but the uranium

ores are probably a local phase of the gold-silver ores. The tungsten

ores seem to be so localized as to indicate that an unusual phase of mag-

matic differentiation had been accompanied by an unusual phase of ore-

deposition. With regard to the second query — the deposition of ga-

lena-sphalerite ores followed a second period of fracturing and occupied

the spaces thus opened, and also partly replaced primary ores. The

natural consequence is that at ends of veins and bottoms of veins the

earlier minerals predominate. It is not certain, however, that some

galena-sphalerite veins may not persist. F. L. Hess said that his ex-

perience in a portion of the district indicated that tungsten ores, where

found, did not completely take the place of other ores. Bastin agreed.

J. B. Umpleby inquired regarding the sequence in time and space of the

pyritic veins and the galena-sphalerite veins. Bastin replied that this

brought up an interesting but complex problem. He referred to J.

186 proceedings: geological society

E. Spurr's conclusion that pyritic veins occurred nearer the igneous

source an^l the galena-sphalerite type farther away. The ores of the

Erzgebirge show somewhat similar relations. In the Colorado occur-

rence which he had described there were indications of a halt between

the periods of deposition of the two types. It was quite a problem to

account for this pulsation of deposition. G. F. Loughlin spoke of

analogous occurrences in the Tintic District.

Stephen R. Capps, Jr. An estimate of the age of the last great glacia-

tion in Alaska. (This Journal, 5: 108-115. 1915.)

Discussion: David White spoke of similar root-development ob-

served in connection with coal beds. He wondered if the top of the till

showed evidence of a milder climate (such as oxidation), also if there

had been a hiatus before the deposition of peat began. He also raised

the question of possible shrinkage in the bottom layers of peat. If

the peat had been constantly frozen at all periods probably not much

shrinkage had taken place. Capps replied that the actual contact of

peat and till was not well exposed at any place, but in the till itself

there was no evidence of oxidation. As to the frozen condition^ — proba-

bly decay had been checked by this. A. H. Brooks expressed the

opinion that the accumulation of frozen material over the till in this

place is comparable to that in other parts of the Yukon Basin and that

the frozen state had persisted since the glacial period. D. W. White

spoke on counting the growth-rings of the trees. He thought that in

that chmate this should give remarkable precision, as there was little

chance of a second ring forming in a year. W. C. Alden thought that

there was little likelihood of evidences of oxidation showing on top of

the till in that region, considering the small amount shown at top of

Wisconsin till in milder latitudes. T. Wayland Vaughan spoke of

an interesting calculation he had made in connection with the theory

that the submergence of the platforms on which coral reefs have grown

has been due to the melting of the glacial ice-cap. He had calculated

the time necessary for the Great Barrier Reef to grow to its present

thickness, and had made it 11,000 years, showing close agreement with

Capp's calculations.

E. DE K. Leffingwell: Ground ice wedges. The dominant form

of ground ice on the north shore of Alaska. The permanently frozen

ground contracts in the cold Arctic winter and cracks are formed which

divide the surface of the ground into polygonal blocks. In the spring

these frost cracks become hlled with surface water which immediately

freezes. In the expansion of the frozen ground with rise of tempera-

ture in summer the vein of ice, being more rigid than the country forma-

tion, forces readjustment to take place in the latter. The result is to

bulge up the enclosed block either bodily, or else locally along the

sides of the ice. During the next winter's cold wave a new crack

forms at the same locus, so that a continually growing wedge of ground

ice is formed. Thus the tundra becomes underlain by a network of

ice wedges, which enclose bodies of the original formation. The ice

wedges are constantly associated with the frost crack locus.

• proceedings: botanical society 187

The above theory was mdependently formed durmg the summer of

1914, after nine summers in the field. In reviewing the Hterature it

was found that von Bunoe in 1884 had proposed a similar theory for

the ground ice in Siberia. Frost cracks which divide the tundra into

polygonal blocks are mentioned by several other Siberian investigators.

Wedge-shaped and cylindrical earth inclusions are described and shown

in photographs and drawings of the same region. Parallel ridges en-

closing frost cracks and surrounding potls are also mentioned.

Polygonal surface markings underlain by ice are described in Spitz-

bergen, photographs of which might well serve for northern Alaska.

At Eschscholtz Bay in Alaska, pot-like earth-inclusions in the ice are

mentioned, as well as vertical dikes of ice and upturned muck beds.

Excellent photographs taken recently upon the Noatak River, Alaska,

show wedges of ice 8 to 10 feet wide, separated by from 50 to 100 feet

of silt or muck.

Discussion: H. M. Eakin said that in places in Alaska there are

actual strata of buried ice of considerable horizontal extent, although

the phenomena described by Leffingwell often gave a false impression

as to the prevalence of such strata. He thought the burial of snow-

accumulations under dunes would produce such buried lenses of ice.

A. H. Brooks thought that there might be different methods by which

buried wedges and strata of ice might be formed in different regions in

Alaska under different climatic conditions. F. L. Hess spoke of a 30-

foot mine shaft which had been sunk on one of these ice-wedges, and

described similar wedges, now empty of ice but filled with peat.

C. N. Fenner, Secretary.

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 100th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington

was held in the Crystal Dining Room of the New Ebbitt Hotel, at G

p.m., December 1, 1914. One hundred and four members and eight

guests were present. A dinner was served at which were featured

several dishes made from plants which have been introduced to this

country by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Drs. W. Ralph

Jones, J. S. Cooley, H. V. Harlan and Messrs. G. F. Gravatt,

G. H. Godfrey, L. M. Hutchins, Paul Popenoe and R. G. Pierce

were unanimously elected to membership. The remainder of the

evening was given to a special program deahng with the early his-

tory and growth of the Society with the following papers:

Mr. M. B. Waite, The Botanical Seminar and the early development

of plant pathology in Washington. The Botanical Seminar was founded

in 1893. The purpose of the members was to make the meetings as

informal as possible. The monthly meetings were held at the rooms

of the various members. There were no officers other than the speaker

of the evening who usually was the person entertaining the Seminar.

There was no constitution or by-laws. Refreshments were served

and very frank discussion and criticisms was encouraged. In 1901 the

188 proceedings: botanical society

number of candidates for membership became so great that this method

of holding meetings became impossible and the Botanical Seminar was

merged with the Washington Botanical Club to form the present Bo-

tanical Society of Washington. The speaker sketched briefly the

development of the work in plant pathology in Washington from the

early beginning, when the pathological work was a very small branch

of the botanist's duties, up to the present large body of investigators.

Mr. David Fairchild, Lettefs from the hoys in Washington. This

consisted in the reading of actual letters from various early workers

in plant pathology and physiology and brought home to those present

the actual condition of things at that time more vividly than could

have been done in any other way.

Dr. Edward L. Greene, The Washington Botanical Club. The

Washington Botanical Club was founded in 1898 with a very informal

organization quite similar to that of the Botanical Seminar. The

Botanical Club included more especially the workers in systematic

botany. Dr. Greene was the first president. In 1901 it was merged with

the Botanical Seminar to form the Botanical Society of Washington.

Mr. F. V. CoviLLE, Systematic botany. Mr. Coville gave briefly

some of the more important features of systematic botany in Wash-

ington from the early days up to the present time, emphasizing the use

of types of species, which was a direct contribution of the United States

Department of Agriculture.

Mr. Walter T. Swingle, Early history of physiological and plant

breeding work in the Department of Agriculture. This briefly sketched

the beginning of the now extensive work in plant pathology and plant

breeding in the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

On Tuesday, January 5, 19l£), at 8.30 p.m., the Botanical So-

ciety of Washington met in joint session with the Washington Academy

of Sciences in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. Prof. J. C.

BosE gave an illustrated lecture on The response of plants.

The 101st regular meeting cf the Botanical Society of Washing-

ton was held January 9, 1915, at 1.30 p.m., in the West Wing of

the new Department of Agriculture building. Thirty-four members

were present. Messrs. F. Tracy Hubbard, Howard S. Coe, Luther

P. Byars and Dr. L. O. Kunkel were unanimously elected to mem-

Ijership. The resignation of Mr. H. C. Gore as Treasurer of the Society

was accepted and Mr. C. E. Leighty was elected to that office. No

scientific program was presented.

Perley Spaulding, Corresponding Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V MARCH 19, 1915 No. 6

GEOLOGY. — Some relations in origin between coal and petroleum.^

David White, U. S. Geological Survey. ^

INTRODUCTION

It is my purpose this evening to present for your consider-

ation some features of the problem of the origin of petroleum

and natural gas. The plan followed is to view the question of

the origin of petroleum from the standpoint of the origin of

coal; to note how some of the fundamental conditions attending

the formation of coal and its differentiation in kinds may simi-

larly apply to oil; to call attention to some points both of differ-

ence and of agreement as to the paleontologic sources of these

two great mineral fuels; and to inquire whether certain of their

important characters, that are secondary in origin, are not con-

ditioned by common causes.

At the outset it will be assumed that petroleum, as it occurs

in a natural state in oil pools in most parts of the world, is the

product of the geodynamic alteration of certain types of organic

detritus buried in the strata of the outer shell of the earth; that,

in other words, it was produced in accordance with the so-called

organic theory. It will, however, not be denied that petroleum

may be, and in fact has, in some cases, possibly been formed

in accordance with the inorganic theory, which, in broad terms,

is that petroleum is made chemically from substances of mineral

^ Presidential address delivered before the Washington Academy of Sciences

on January 14, 1915.

* Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.

189

190 "WHITE: EELATIONS BETWEEN COAL AND PETROLEUM

origin, as, for example, by the contact of percolating waters

with deep-seated metalHc carbides. The observations presently

to be noted bear unfavorably on the theory of the inorganic

origin of petroleum. The arguments both for and against all

variants of the inorganic theory have been fully summarized

by many geologists, both American and foreign, ^ and will not

receive further attention in this paper, the aim of which is to

throw additional light, from the geological standpoint, on the

origin of petroleum.

THE INGREDIENT MATERIALS OF COALS AND OIL ROCKS

It is now almost universally agreed that coal of different kinds

had its beginning as relatively pure deposits of more or less

decomposed organic debris derived mainly from vascular plants.

Coals of the common or humic types had their beginning as

peats, mainly freshwater peats, those of the great coal fields

having been, for the most part, laid down in great swamps or

estuarine marshes."* The type of the coal — namely, whether it

be xyloid, ^'amorphous," cannel, etc. — depends on the kinds of

ingredient organic matter and on the conditions controlling the

deposition of this matter. The common types are, to a great

extent, composed of the remains of woody plants, portions of

which are readily visible to the unaided eye. The more dis-

tinctly xyloid coals are largely made up of somewhat altered,

but more or less readily recognizable wood, which may con-

stitute more than 80 per cent^ of the mass. Wherever the con-

ditions of decomposition have been favorable for a more advanced

disintegration of the debris through the action of micro-organ-

isms, of which the most important are the bacteria, megascopic

wood in the peat or coal is not so abundant; and where the

3 See: Peckham, S. F., Tenth Census Report, 10: 59. 1884; Orton, Edward,

Gaol. Surv. Kentucky, Report on the occurrence of petroleum, natural gas and

asphalt rock in western Kentucky, p. 31. 1891 ; Haworth, Erasmus, Kansas Univ.

Geol. Surv., 9: 187. 1908; Engler, C, and Hofer, Hans v., Das Erdol, 2: 59.

1909; Clarke, F. W., U. S. Geol. Surv.^ Bull. 491: 693. 1911; Hofer, Hans, Das

Erdol und seine Verwandten, p. 214, 1912; Redwood, Boverton, Petroleum, 3rd

ed., 1: 268. 1913.

* White, D., Bur. of Mines, Bull. 38: 62. 1913.

^ Thiessen, R., Log. cit., p. 221. 1913.

white: eelations between coal and petroleum 191

microbian action has progressed further the coal-forming sub-

stance consists more fully of the products of the biochemical

decomposition of the vegetal matter, in which the surviving,

often comminuted, structural fragments, consisting of the tis-

sues and plant products most resistant to the agencies of sub-

aqueous decay, are embedded. Coals originating in mature or

much decomposed peats and containing little coarse detritus

are sometimes called '^amorphous," although they are never

without vestiges of plant structures.

In many cases the decay of great amounts of resin-bearing

gymnospermous wood has, through the disintegration of the

woody tissue, set free and effected a concentration of large quan-

tities of resinous matter which was resistant to the decomposing

agents in the peat swamps or bogs. Also, under certain con-

ditions of deposition, especially where the water was too deep

for the growth of subaerial types of vegetation, and stagnant

or nearly so, the organic mass may have been largely or almost

wholly made up of the spore and pollen exines and grains of

resin, mingled in varying proportions with aquatic plant and

animal life of low orders, some of which is plankton. The latter

may include the remains of innumerable algae, with protozoans,

small Crustacea, insect eggs and larvae, small gastropods, etc.,

and even fish. More or less spore, pollen, and resin ingredients

enter into the xyloid and other coals of the ordinary types; but

whenever they become conspicuous in the composition of the

coal, they impart a so-called ''fatty" quality to it; and when

they form the greater part of it, being generally mingled with

increased amounts of plankton material, as is natural in an open

water habitat, they form cannels.

Between coals of the ordinary, or humic, types and the cannels

there is complete intergradation. Locally, according to the cir-

cumstances of deposition, the Paleozoic cannel coals contain

peculiar forms of organic remains that have, by most paleo-

botanists, been regarded as algae of very low groups.^ If the

so-called algae and other plankton remains predominate, com-

posing the greater part of the organic deposit, the latter is called

'Renault, B., Microorganismes des combustibles fossiles, p. 151. 1893.

192 white: relations between coal and petroleum

a boghead or an oil rock; although if the rock is sufficiently low

in mineral sediments, it is in -reality a type of cannel. On the

other hand, if mineral sediments are mingled in quantities too

high to admit the classification of the rock as a coal, it is known

as an oil shale, or a bituminous shale. Lesser amounts of such

organic matter ordinarily gain recognition only as rendering

the shale ''carbonaceous." Deposits of decaying spore and pollen

material, with both vegetal and animal debris, laid down as

organic oozes, slimes or muds, were designated by Potonie as

''sapropel."'

Coals, including cannels, and oil shales from many regions

and geologic formations have been examined in detail under the

high-power microscope, and the organic detrital remains which

compose and characterize the several types have been splendidly,

sometimes even elaborately, demonstrated by paleontologists^

both in Europe and America, though the botanical or zoologi-

cal classification of the fossil remains composing the deposits

may, in many cases, be subject to question. However, for our

present purpose, it is important only to note some of the qualities

or characteristics which certain among the different kinds of

organic debris impart to the deposits which contain them.

The woody matter which forms the large part, at least, of the

ingredient substance of ordinary peats and their alteration prod-

ucts, xyloid coals, laminated coals, etc., is largely composed of

cellulose, lignose, xylose, etc., comprising carbohydrates rela-

tively high in oxygen. These ordinary coals, including those

commonly (though really inappropriately) called ''bituminous,''

are therefore, as will be seen, characteristically high in oxygen.

They are, accordingly, characteristically rich in so-called humic

acid compounds. Hence, they have very properly been desig-

nated" as humic coals. On the other hand, the decay-resistant

elements, such as spore and pollen exines, seed envelopes and

7 Potonie, H., Die Entstehung der Steinkohle, 5th Ed., p. 3. 1910.

^Renault, B., Microorganismes des combustibles fossiles, 1893; Bertrand, C

Eg., Les charbons humiques et les charbons de pui-ins, 1898; Potoni6, H., Die

Entstehung der Steinkohle, 1910; Stopes, M. C, and Watson, D. M. S., Phil.

Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Ser.B., 200: 167. 1909; Thiessen, R., Bur. of Mines Bull.

38, 1913; Jeffrey, E. C, Economic Geology, 9: 730. 1914.

3 Potonie, H., Die Entstehung der Steinkohle, p. 95. 1910.

white: relations between coal and petroleum 193

certain cuticles, are generally provided with resinous, waxy or

oily protective substances. These, as well as the resin grains

with which they are in most cases mingled, are all character-

istically very high in hydrogen and low in oxygen. Thus it

happens that the rocks in which they are prominent are from

the start, as initial organic muds, more distinctly bituminous in

composition. As the fossil remains last named, mingled with

other fat-, oil- and albmninoid-produdng animal and plant

ingredients, predominate more and more, the contrast with the

ordinary — the humic — ^coals, becomes still stronger, the most

marked contrast being found in the so-called algal deposits,

which characterize many of the typical "oil shales.'^ Further,

as the high-hydrogen ingredients become prominent or predomi-

nate the fuel in general becomes richer in volatile matter and

higher in calorific value. Finally, it is to be noted: First, that

these deposits compose or characterize the oil rock series, as

has been pointed out by Renault, Bertrand, Potonie and others;

and second, that in succession the cannels, boghead cannels,

cannel bogheads and bogheads appear to yield, on artificial dis-

tillation, larger proportions of petroleum. A Reinschia boghead,

the so-called kerosene shale of New South Wales, is said to run

as high as 87 per cent in volatile hydrocarbons.

Deposits containing in large proportions such organic detritus,

characteristically high in hydrogen and low in oxygen, are typi-

cal mother rocks of petroleum. As the proportions of waxes,

exines and resins become greater in the deposit, the distillates,

obtained by the artificial distillation of the fuel, approach in

characters more nearly to the natural petroleums; and when they

constitute the greater part of the organic detritus, as in the

cannels, or .when, finally, the material is more distinctly ''sapro-

pelic," containing great numbers of, or even composed almost

wholly of the so-called algae, the artificial distillates are, in gen-

eral, not only much greater in volume, as is to be expected on

account of the composition of the original debris, but they form

petroleums of higher ranks. It would appear that, other things

being equal, the maximum yield of oils of high quality is obtained

from the supposed alga coals or bogheads.

194 white: relations between coal and petroleum

Organic remains of the spore or sapropelic type are found in

every bituminous shale or so-called oil rock that has yet been

examined. It is to the presence of such carbonaceous debris,

embracing sapropelic matter, all more or less disintegrated and

decomposed, that, in most cases, are due the dark tints of shales,

sandstones and limestones. The sufficiency of such matter to

produce the petroleum taken from the oil fields has been well

demonstrated. In this" connection, it will be recalled that, prior

to boring for underground oil in Pennsylvania, about 1848, oil

shales in several geological formations were distilled to obtain

the petroleum supplies of this country. Shales are now being

distilled for oil in Scotland and France.

In this discussion, the terms oil rock and oil shale are applied

only to those rocks that yield petroleums when the organic

matter deposited in them as sediments is decomposed by destruc-

tive distillation. The terms do not apply to sandstones, porous

limestones, or other rocks, in which petroleum is merely occluded

or held in the interstices of the grains of mineral matter.

To what extent the characters of the distillates obtained by

any given method from the different coals, cannels, bituminous

shales, and other oil rocks are due to differences in the composi-

tion of the original ingredient organic matter of the deposits is

not known. For my own part, I am inclined to attribute to

this factor certain differences in the characters of natural petro-

leums, such for example, as high sulphur or high nitrogen con-

tent, richness in asphalt or brownness, rather than any great

differences in the rank or grade of the oils. More probably

the principal differences in the actual rank of petroleums are.

in general, due to physical causes, as will later be indicated.

TWO PROCESSES IN THE ALTERATION OF THE ORGANIC DETRITUS.

The Biochemical Process

In the foregoing summary we have considered only those

differences in the types of coal and other sedimentary organic

desposits that were determined at the initial stage, that is, at

the time of the deposition of the vegetal and animal debris.

These differences between the types of detrital hydrocarbon

white: relations between coal and petroleum 195

deposits, humic coals, cannel, boghead, etc., are, as has been

indicated, dependent upon (1) the kinds of original contributary,

organic material, their chemical compounds and the varying

proportions of the latter; and (2) the character and extent of

the microbian action, whose work depends, both as to extent

and as to character, on the kinds of host detritus and the con-

ditions of deposition. The latter embrace all environmental

factors, such as temperature, moisture, access of air, concentra-

tion of toxic biochemical products, etc., and flushing by water

drainage, on which, to some extent, rests the conservation of

the varied biochemical decomposition products, especially those

that are liquid or that enter into aqueous solution. All this

concerns merely the accumulation and more or less complete

decomposition of the organic debris in the form of peat, organic

muds, calcareous oozes and so forth. As soon as the organic

debris is buried and the oxygen so far exhausted that bacterial

action is no longer possible, or when toxicity puts an end to all

micro-organic action in the deposit, there comes the end to this,

the first stage in the formation of coal. This is the hiochemical

stage of coal formation. The exact point at which the biochemi-

cal process terminates has not been accurately observed in any

single case, but it appears to correspond approximately to the

burial of the peat and the complete smothering of the organic

matter in the mud, beneath superposed deposits.

A fact which is most important is that, complicated and indis-

pensable as is this biochemical process, it appears to carry the

organic deposits little or no farther than the formation of peats

and organic muds, buried oozes, etc.

The Dynamo-chemical Process

Leaving now the work of the biochemical process in the for-

mation of coals and other carbonaceous sedimentary deposits,

we pass to the consideration of the alteratiqn of these deposits

to coals and hydrocarbon rocks of higher ranks, as a result of

geo-dynamic action. We have now to do with the changes in

the physical and chemical characters of the organic matter,

accomplished through the dynamo-chemical process or the sec-

ond stage in coal formation.

196 a\tiite: relations between coal and petroleum

This process covers the compression, the gradual dehydration,

Uthification and induration of carbonaceous rocks, including the

coals; the development of cleavage and even schistosity in the

deposits; and, simultaneously and progressively, the elimination

of the combined oxygen, the hydrogen, the nitrogen, and a part

of the carbon of the organic debris. By this process the peats

are gradually transformed to lignites, sub-bituminous coals,

bituminous coals, semi-bituminous coals, anthracites, and even

to graphites, while the associated organic muds are altered to

oil rocks or cannels, to carbonaceous shales, and finally to

graphites or graphitic slates. This alteration and reduction of

the carbonaceous deposits is most clearly marked by the progress

of the elimination of the ''volatile matter,"

The changes both in the physical features and in the chemical

composition of the deposit, as it is transformed from peat to

graphite, constitute in effect a metamorphism of the organic

matter. 1'' The extent of the transformation, that is, its progress,

varies with the extent of the dynamo-chemical action.

The study of the coals, in many coal fields, and of different

ages, shows that the alteration may be produced in two ways.

The first is through distillation, by local heat incidental to con-

tact with sills, dikes or flows of molten rock. Such contact

metamorphism, though frequent and conspicuous, is so closely

confined to the near vicinity of the igneous intrusives, that its

effects, from a regional standpoint, are practically negligible. ^^

The other dynamic cause of the alteration of the organic debris

is pressure.

The study of the stages in the alteration of the coal in differ-

ent regions shows, in general, a close relation between the extent

to which the rocks have been subjected to thrust pressure meta-

morphism and the degree to which the mother peats and sapro-

'" The chemical combinations actually existing in coals and petroleums of

different ranks and types are largely unknown. Portions of the coal leached by

reagents and extractions or separations from petroleums have bef>n chemically

identified, and products resulting from destructive distillation of both the solid

and the liquid fuels have been determined; but most of these probably are com-

pounds obtained by breaking up the huj^ly undetermined original chemical

combinations.

" Bureau of Mines, Bull. 38: lUl. 1913.

white: relations between coal and petroleum 197

pelic deposits have been altered. This relation has long been

recognized and is known to be regional in effect, though the

extent of the dynamic influences and the differences in the

dynamo-chemical results vary from one point to another within

the region. Coal appears to be more responsive to pressure

than are the environing strata. Its sensitiveness to dynamic

action makes it possible, through the changes in the fuel, to

recognize this action in regions where other indications are

obscure and difficult to detect. ^^

The explanation of the dynamic alteration of coals as the

result of thrust was long ago proposed and has been accepted

by most geologists, especially in America, though it has gained

fewer adherents in Europe, where the coal fields are smaller and

the strata of most of the basins containing higher rank coals

are folded and faulted. Anomalous variations in the carboni-

zation of the coals in folded and particularly in faulted strata,

and the presence of coal high in volatile matter near faults,

all of which at first seemed fatally opposed to thrust meta-

morphism as a hypothesis, have, on the contrary, been shown

to constitute essential proof of the validity of the theory. In

another place^^ I have shown that abnormally high percentages

of volatile matter sometimes found in coals lying in folds, and

generally to be observed near thrust-faults in coal fields, are

really due to compensation or neutralization of the thrust by

buckling of the beds and by the faults themselves. Through

the shortening of the crustal arc by folding or by over-thrust

of broken beds the stress is partially compensated and the coals

are enabled to escape the maximum pressure intensity. In the

regions of great coal alteration, the shortening by mere hori-

zontal compression, which gradually takes up the stress and

diminishes the pressure delivered at the far side of the arc, must

have been very considerable.

It is probable that, except in cases approaching graphitiza-

tion, the temperatures of coal alteration were never so high as

those necessary to accomplish the earliest effects of metamorph-

ism generally recognized by geologists in other rocks; yet the

'•- U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 150: 142-145. 1898.

1* Bureau of Mines, Bull. 38: 114-125. 1913.

198 white: relations between coal and petroleum

friction heat of molecular displacement caused by the stresses

of intermittent thrusts of progressive intensity was generated

throughout such an enormous thickness of rocks and through so

great an area as to produce sensible temperatures under con-

ditions necessitating long periods for their dissipation.

The effectiveness of thrust pressure as the cause of regional

coal alteration is well illustrated in most large areas of high rank

coal, but in no part of the world is it more clearly demonstrated

than in the great Appalachian coal field. To show in a general

way the progress of the regional alteration in this area, I have,

in preparing the accompanying map, first platted the ''fixed

carbon" (pure coal basis) of the coals at the localities from which

samples have been analyzed. ^^ Lines were then drawn through

the points of equal fixed carbon (or volatile matter). Such

lines, which were termed ''isoanthracitic" lines by Strahan^^

and Pollard, and which I have termed "isovols," are drawn to

mark each 5 per cent of increase in the fixed carbon in the pure

coal. The degree of accuracy of the representation will not

here be discussed. The "contouring" of the fixed carbons is

subject to minor revision.

A glance at the Appalachian coal field in this map shows the

position of the lowest rank coals to be in the western portion

of the area, while the highest rank coals, the anthracites, are

found at the extreme eastern border. The isovols show both

the extent of the alteration of the coals and the regional pro-

gressive character of that alteration toward the Atlantic; that

is, in the direction from which the great isostatic Appalachian

thrusts are known to have come. Small areas of coal with

slightly higher fixed carbon indicate, in most cases, points of

locally greater, perhaps of cumulative, stresses, while "islands"

of low fixed carbon probably mark areas of corresponding partial

immunity. The more important thrust faults, lying within or

" The use of the fixed carbons, though less satisfactory on the whole than

the C-0 ratios of the dry coals, makes it possible to employ tlic great volume of

proximate analyses illustrating coals in far greater geographical extent and

completeness of representation. In the regions of lower rank coals, it is neces-

sary to use some other method to show satisfactorily the rank of the fuels.

15 The Coals of South Wales Coal Field, p. 72.

i

white: relations between coal and petroleum 199

along the border of the coal field, are also shown on the map.

The character of the folding of the valley regions and the fault-

ing to the eastward is shown in the folios of the Geologic Atlas

of the United States and in the State geological maps.

SKETCH SHOWING COAL, OIL »-■> GAS FIELDS '"-"EASTERN UN ITED ST ATE5 p.y--.

(compiled from maps by M.R.CAMPBELL AND DAVID T. DAY) WITH GENERALIZED ■

REPRESENTATION OF THE EFFECTS OF REGIONAL DYNAMIC ALTERATION OF THE

ORGANIC DEPOSITS AS SHOWN BY THE FIXED CARBON IN THE PALEOZOIC COALS

AND THE GRAVITIES OF THE OILS.

t

/

'■\\

'■ 'If

I . f ■ ■ — ;-..5!i„ '>/^W,- fe.-l/-

le:g end.

Outline of coal fields

Productive oil pools-

Produchive gas pools

Lines shov/ing fixed

carbon in pure coal

Gravit-y of oil

( Baume' scale).

Principal faults in

or adjacent to the

coal fields.

Fig. 1. Regional alteration of coals and petroleums in Eastern United States.

200 white: relations between coal and petroleum

i

Without going further, at this time, into details as to the

effects of folding and faulting in neutralizing the dynamic stresses,

attention is called to (a) the larger volatile content in those parts

of the anthracite fields that extend into the region of closer fold-

ing; (b) the anomalous variations seen in the Broadtop, the Coosa

and Cahaba basins which lie in fault blocks; and (c) the rela-

tively low stage of the alteration of the coals behind the Poca-

hont.as, the Pine Mountain and the Elk Valley overthrusts.

Undoubtedly the greatest intensity of initial stress has, in most

cases, been exerted where the strata are most folded and broken.

Where the stresses have been equal, it has been competency

versus compensation. The gradual absorption of the energy

of the westward movement by compression in the horizontal

series is shown by the westward decrease of minor folding, as

well as by the westward increase of volatile matter in the coals.

There is no visible evidence that igneous rock metamorphism

has caused any regional alteration of the coals in the Appalachian

trough.

In the districts where high rank coals occur in the Cretaceous

and Tertiary formations of western America, the evidence of

the efficiency of thrust pressure, as the dynamic force causing

the chemical change of the coals, is hardly less evident than in

the Appalachian province, the phenomena being the same as

in the Paleozoic areas, though the ranges in rank are often greater.

In the western regions, the influence of igneous intrusives, which

are relatively numerous, is conspicuously restricted and ineffect-

ive in the regional sense,

THE "dEVOLATILIZATION" OF THE ORGANIC DEBRIS

In the laboratory methods of "approximate" analysis of coals

and other carbonaceous deposits, the oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen

and a part of the carbon of the organic debris are distilled by

a dry and semi-open air process, the matter, eliminated in the

form of gases, being known as ''volatile matter." It seems to

be assumed that, in the geologic processes also, the substances

eliminated are all in gaseous form and, accordingly the results

are frequently described as the " devolatilization" of the organic

white: relations between coal and petroleum 201

deposits. Nevertheless, when it is remembered that the organic

compounds actually present in coals and bituminous shales are

largely undetermined; that the conditions of geologic distillation

are fundamentally different from those provided in the labo-

V ratory, and that the residues obtained at all stages in the labo-

ratory process are widely different from those found in the earth,

doubt is cast not only on the assumed similarity in the states

and chemical composition of the eliminated matter but also as

to whether all the matter is expelled as gases. Furthermore,

it is probable that the natural distillates, generated under differ-

ent geological conditions (from organic matter which itself may

vary widely in chemical composition), vary both as to their

chemical compounds and as to their properties far more widely

than do the artificial distillates obtained from the same organic

deposits.

Attention has already been given to the differences between

the high-oxygen ingredient matter of the typical humic deposits

(coals) and the high-hydrogen ingredient material of the typical

cannels and oil rocks. Obviously, the volatile matter expelled

from the former contains larger amounts of oxygen in some one

or more combinations, while the volatile matter from the latter

is rich in hydrogen. The reduction of these organic deposits,

which intergrade one with another, will be discussed more fully

in a later report. The two most important facts to be noted

in passing are, first, that coals and oil rocks have yielded ''vola-

tile matter" products in different proportions and probably in

very different compositions and structures also; and, second,

.that in both cases the processes of " devolatilization" result in

the reduction of the solid residues through chemical changes

that accomplish, in eft"ect, their carbonization.

. regional alteration of organic debris and corresponding

regional differences in petroleums

Having briefly reviewed some of the effects of regional dynamic

influences, principally thrust pressure, in the progressive alter-

ation of the carbonaceous residues, represented by coals, oil

rocks, carbonaceous shales, etc., we will next inquire whether

202 white: relations between coal and PETROLEU]\r

the liquid distillates, the petroleums, found in different regions

reveal any differences corresponding to the stages in the regional

alteration of the carbonaceous residues.

In entering on the observations necessary to the comparison

of petroleums from regions of varying degrees of alteration of

the organic detrital deposits, many diifculties are encountered:

There is no adequate volume of chemical analyses of petroleums

from different oil fields and geologic formations. On the other

hand, we find fractionation, lacking as to uniformity of method,

and often made from deteriorated or unreliable samples, for

commercial information. In comparatively few cases is the pro-

portion of any single hydrocarbon determined. The only data

obtained by approximately standardized methods and covering

samples of geographic and geologic range, suli-cient for com-

prehensive inter-regional comparisons, consist of specific gravity

determinations. These, though they are the best criteria at

hand, are also far from satisfactory, for, while in general the

oils of lightest gravity are of the highest rank, containing the

largest amounts of light (saturated) hydrocarbons, with largest

proportions of hydrogen, and of lightest density, the gravity

records can not take the place of chemical determinations of

the hydrocarbon compounds in the study of the genetic features

and the chemical classification of the petroleums. Furthermore,

the gravity records contain unknown errors, due to the condi-

tions of the samples as well as to the sources of the latter. Many

of them represent shallow sand oils, from which the lighter ele-

ments have escaped up the dip or to the surface; which have

stood in tanks or in wells intermittently pumped; which are

affected by meteoric waters; or which were taken from mere

seeps, shafts or springs. On the whole, however, the gravities

of representative samples approximately show the rank of the

petroleums and may, therefore, be utilized in a rough compari-

son of the oils from different regions. In view of the present

lack of standardized analytic or fractionative criteria in sufficient

abundance from both the stratigraphic and geographic stand-

points for detailed studies, the conclusions which I have to offer

are to be regarded as a report of progress.

white: eelations between coal and petroleum 203

Conforming to the prevailing usage in this country, I have,

in the following discussion, used the Baume system, in which

the increase in the number of degrees is inverse to the increase

in gravity.

In most petroliferous regions of the world the oil pools lie

in or near (often beneath) formations carrying coals. Accord-

ingly, it is generally possible to learn the stage of the regional

metamorphism, approximately at least, by the extent of the

alteration of the coals where, as in most cases, analyses of the

carbonaceous shales in the oil-bearing strata are lacking. The

geographic relations of petroleum pools to the coal fields will

be at once seen if David T. Day's oil map of the United States,

recently pubhshed by the U. S. Geological Survey, be compared

with M. R. Campbell's coal map, pubhshed in Mineral Resources

for 1910. (See also Coal Resources of the World, Ottawa, 1914.)

occurrences of higher rank oils in regions of greater

alteration of carbonaceous residues

Is there any relation between the rank of the oils of any

region and the degree of the alteration of the carbonaceous

matter of the organic debris in the oil-bearing or in the overlying

formations? Do the petroleums show regional differences of

rank corresponding to or comparable with the differences in

the rank of the coals in the various provinces? Unsatisfactory

as the criteria employed in the comparisons may be, the answer

to these questions is not only affirmative but it is conclusively

so. A review of the data reported from the various oil fields

of the world leaves no room for doubt on this question.

If we examine the oils of the United States, we find that

in those formations and regions in which the carbonaceous

detrital deposits (coals) are but little altered by dynamic influ-

ence, the oils are heavy and of low rank; that is, they are of

high gravity. On the other hand, in regions of more advanced

alteration of the residual organic debris, the oils are in general

of correspondingly higher ranks (lower gravities), the highest

degree of alteration of the residues being, in general, noted in

the regions of highest rank oil pools.

204 white: RELATIONS BETWEEN COAL AND PETROLEUM

In the Coastal Plain regions of Texas and Louisiana, where

the coals of the Tertiary formations have not passed the stage

of brown lignites, the oils of the associated beds are low in rank,

with gravities falling, in most cases, between 17° and 24°, though

tests of samples from certain localities are reported to show a

gravity as low as 33° Baume. The Tertiary oils in California

are, on the whole, similar in gravity range. Some notable fluc-

tuations in the oils of this State are apparently to be accounted

for as due to deteriorated samples, to losses through porous

covering strata, to local dynamic action, etc. A number of

samples of oils of exceptionally low gravity from this State, as

well as from the Olympic region of Washington, may owe their

peculiarities to filtration or to greater local alteration of the

rocks in folded districts. These exceptions affect but slightly

the general average of the pools or fields. The Cretaceous rocks

in northern California, in which the alteration of the carbonace-

ous deposits is more advanced, appear to contain oils of dis-

tinctly higher rank, corresponding to the oils in sub-bituminous

areas or in regions of low rank bituminous coals. In the Coalinga

field, the middle Tertiary oils, many of which may have probably

suffered losses, average between 18° and 20° Baume, but a grav-

ity of 34° is reported for the oil in the Cretaceous underlying

the anticline at Oil City at the northern border of this field.

Similarly, the oils in the Texas Cretaceous, which carries sub-

bituminous coals, range from 32° to 39° in gravity; the still

higher grade oils, ranging from 39° to 43° in gravity, in the Caddo

field of Louisiana, are found in sands near the base of" the L^pper

Cretaceous."'^

In Wyoming the evidence is somewhat conflicting, apparently

on account of the nature of the samples tested, many of these

having been taken from springs or from wells of so light pro-

duction or of so shallow a depth as to be subject to the effects

of either evaporation or contamination. It appears, however, •

that the oils from rocks of the lignitic stage of alteration in this

State average about 22° to 24° in gravity, while the oils from

" Caddo Lake is probably over the westward trending Appalachian coal meas-

ures and may possibly have derived its oils from the latter.

WHifE: rely^lTions between coal and petroleum 205

Cretaceous beds, associated with or underlying sub-bituminous

coals, show gravities averaging about 35° or 36°. In the Evans-

ton region, where the oils range from 38° to 43°, the coals of

the overlying formation are reported to be of high sub-bituminous

rank.

In Utah and Colorado, the oils of the Green River formation,

in which the carbonaceous deposits have not passed the lignitic

stage, are of low rank, having gravities of 26° or less; but the

oils found in the Rangeley field, in Cretaceous strata beneath

rocks containing medium rank bituminous coal in the same basin,

show a gra^dty of 43° which corresponds to the stage of the

alteration of the coals. In the Florence oil field in Colorado,

oils averaging 30° or 31° are found in shales underlying coals

of very low bituminous rank. Oil of 39° gravity in the Boulder

coal field is said to occur in the Pierre shale at depths of more

than 2000 feet below the base of the Laramie of the region, in

which the coals, of high sub-bituminous rank at Marshall, appear

to be progressing in alteration westward toward the oil field.

The broad area of almost undisturbed upper Paleozoic strata

in the Mississippi Valley and middle States offers an unrivalled

field for the study of petroleum with reference to the regional

alteration of the carbonaceous deposits. In eastern Kansas the

oils, which occur in Pennsylvanian strata carrying coals of very

low bituminous rank, range, for the most part, from 32° to 34°

in gravity, though in passing southward to the O^ahoma line

and onward through the Osage Nation and beyond the Glenn

pool, the oils show an increase in average gravity;^' those in

the Osage region ranging, in general, from 33° to 36°. Farther

southeastward the gravities rise to 39° or 40° at the edge of the

developed field.

The Madill oil, found in the basal sands of the Cretaceous,

undoubtedly owes its low gravity, 47°, to its source in the imme-

diately underlying Pennsylvanian strata, which are tilted and

compressed in the Arbuckle uplift.

In the coal fields of Illinois and Indiana, where the coals are

of low bituminous rank, but somewhat better than those of

1- See R. H. Wood, U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 513: 36. 1913.

206 white: relations between coal and petroLeum

eastern Kansas, the oils in the Pennsylvanian rocks appear to

range from 29° to 39° Baume, averaging about 31° to 34° in

gravity. In this field there appears to be slight evidence of

betterment of the rank of the oil in passing southward, as is to

be expected in view of the southward improvement in the rank of

the coals, though the data examined are not really sufficient.

It is interesting to note that the oils of the "Trenton" in

eastern Indiana and northwestern Ohio, as well as those in the

Silurian and Devonian of eastern Michigan and western Canada,

though of gravities to be expected in regions where the nearest

coals in younger formations are of bituminous rank, are not of

so high rank as the oils in Carboniferous rocks in the regions

of greater alteration nearer the eastern border of the Appa-

lachian oil fields. This circumstance I believe to be due to the

diminution of the intensity of the post-Paleozoic thrusts in this

region, while the rocks of Trenton age and other pre-Carbonifer-

ous formations have not been subjected to dynamic stresses so

vigorous as those endured by the Carboniferous rocks in West

Virginia and western Pennsylvania. It is, however, to be noted

that the ''Trenton" oils are of higher gravity than the Carbonif-

erous oils in the bituminous coal regions of Indiana and Illinois

and it is almost certain that they are of higher rank than would

be found in overlying Pennsylvanian rocks were the latter present

in the "Trenton" region. It is also seen that the oils of the

"Clinton" s^nd districts of Ohio are but slightly better in gravity

than those of the Carboniferous nearest on the east.

In the great Appalachian oil field, the petroleums found in

the Carboniferous sands range, in general, from gravities of

38° to 44° on the western, to gravities of 46° to 48° Baume on the

eastern margin of the productive field. The best oils, showing

gravities of 49° and 50° or even 52° are found along or near the

eastern margin of the field, in northern West Virginia, western

Pennsylvania and western New York.'^

1^ The gravities of the oils in this region vary somewhat from point to point

and from sand to sand, the rank of an oil in a Devonian sand being locally infe-

rior to that in the overlying Carboniferous, though, in general, it appears that,

even in this region, the sands in the older or underlying formations contain oils

of highest rank.

white: relations between coal and petroleum 207

It is thus seen not only that the oils found in the regions of

higher alteration of the carbonaceous deposits are in general

higher in rank than are those in regions of lesser alteration, but

also that in a single region the rank of the oil increases, -pari

passu, in the same direction as does the alteration of the car-

bonaceous deposits. This is clear when reference is made to

the progressive alteration of the coals in passing eastward through

this region, as is indicated on the map. Doubtless some of the

local fluctuations are due to local variations in the intensities

of the dynamic stresses. Others may be due to unknown cir-

cumstances connected with the samphng, to variations due to

filtration, or to differences in the composition of the organic

debris in the mother rock.

A further examination of the map for the purpose of com-

paring the trend of the eastern border of the productive oil

region with the trend of the isovols (isoanthracitic lines) which

have already been described, shows a degree of parallelism which

is all the more surprising when it is known that the "contouring"

of the fixed carbons of the Coals was done long before the

inspection of the oil maps suggested a close comparison. It is

seen that, in general, the eastern border of the oil field falls near

the 60 per cent fixed carbon line, though small pools appear to

have been found near the 65 per cent line. Gas pools fringe the

oil field in a zone of higher alteration, but no pool of commercial

size appears to have been found anywhere in the Appalachian

trough so far east as the 70 per cent hne. In fact, it appears

probable that a revision of the isovol lines, based on more com-

plete data, may show no pools of oil in rocks of higher car-

bonization than 65 per cent fixed carbon. It will also be

noted that the eastward trend of the isovols in the southern

Virginia region, on account of fault compensation of the stresses,

finds a response in an eastward oil pool trend, which will prob-

ably be more clearly shown when the eastern Kentucky region

is more fully explored by the drill. Moreover it appears that

not only does the eastern border of the oil field swing eastward

in Kentucky, but the oils, even those in pre-Carbonif erous strata,

lying in the strike of the high gravity oil pools to the northeast

208 white: relations between coal and petroleum .

are of lower gravity corresponding to the lesser alteration of the

coals of the region in eastern Kentucky.

If now, turning to Oklahoma, attention be given to the south-

eastern border of the mid-continent oil field, it will again be

seen that the commercial pools, so far as discovery has gone,

appear not to reach the 65 per cent fixed carbon isovol, though

the marginal developments parallel this line.

In view of the eastward continuation of the oil-bearing for-

mations, including the oil sands both in the Appalachian region

and in Oklahoma and Arkansas, and taking into account their

porosity as ascertained from drillings, and the distinctly favor-

able structures, elevations, etc., of the beds — in short, in view

of the absence of any other visible geological reasons why com-

mercial oil pools do not occur in regions of higher carboniza-

tion of the residual organic debris — two questions arise. The

first is whether oils, in commercial pools, are anywhere found

in or beneath formations in which the regional alteration of the

coals is marked by fixed carbon percentages of more than 65

or 70. The second question is why the oil stops near this line.

As to the first, I can only say that the relations to be observed

in other North American oil fields conform to those found in

the Appalachian province. Further, that so far as I have had

the opportunity to gather the information concerning the oil

fields and the coals in other continents, no productive pools are

present in such areas of greater alteration.^-' In fact, though

the examination of the data is not yet fully completed, it has

been carried far enough to make practically certain the con-

clusion that commercial oil pools have never been found in

regions of further reduction of the carbonaceous detrital deposits,

and to establish with nearly equal assurance the conclusion that

productive oil pools do not exist in those regions.

Assuming, however, that variable intensities of thrust, due

perhaps to local structures, have permitted the escape of small

isolated areas from the more advanced alteration in regions of

higher rank carbonization, it may be more conservative, pro-

^^ Possible exceptions are to be sought in the K;italla field in Aiiiska and in

the provinces of Shansi and Shensi in China.

white: relations between coal and petroleum 209

visionally, to place the ultimate limit at the 70 per cent fixed

carbon line in the coals, though it is not probable that many

large pools will be found near this limit. As related to the oil

field limit, as here defined, mention may be made of the evi-

dence of the transformation and reduction of the lump resins

in the Tertiary and Mesozoic coals when these coals reach a

stage of about 68 per cent or 70 per cent of fixed carbon, as I

have described in another paper. "'^ It will also be recalled that

in the regions of more advanced alteration, as in the semi-

bituminous coal fields (75 per cent or more of fixed carbon),

the cannels appear to have lost their characteristic fatty char-

acters and to have become deadened so as to give essentially

the same analyses as the associated humic coals. Field exami-

nations indicate that deposits, once cannels, are as numerous

in the semi-bituminous g,nd antliracite coal fields as in the average

"bituminous" coal field.

According to the conclusions here given as to oil field limits

we appear to have at hand a basis on which to exclude large

areas of sedimentary strata from the provinces in which we

may, with any hope of success, undertake the costly search for

oil by the drill. No oil is reasonably to be hoped for in the

Paleozoic formations throughout the greater part, at least, of

the area of the Arkansas coal field nor for some distance beyond

the margin of this field on the sides toward which the fixed

carbon is increasing in direction. Similarly, the very low limits

placed on the distribution of oil pools by the regional alteration

of the hydrocarbon deposits show the hopelessness of any search

for oil in commercial quantities in the Carboniferous or older

formations of central and southern New England and of the

Appalachian region to the east of the 66 or 70 per cent fixed

carbon lines in the carbonaceous deposits. This does not pre-

clude the discovery of pools in the overlying Triassic deposits

wherever they are not too far altered, nor in the Coastal Plain

deposits to the eastward and southward. However, it is prob-

able that any commercial deposits of oil that may be found in

.-"Resins in Taleozoic plants and in coals of high rank, U. S. Geol. Survey,

Prof. Paper 85: 65-96. 1913.

210 white: relations between coal and petroleum

the Atlantic Coastal Plain formations will be of comparatively

low rank, and that those of the Tertiary will not be better than

25° or 27° Baume. On the other hand, in the Paleozoic areas

of the southern Allegheny region, oil pools of commercial value

may, if other geologic factors are favorable, be expected where-

ever the fixed carbon of the coals does not exceed 60 per cent

in the pure coal, with a less promising possibility of finding pools

as far east as the 65 per cent isovol.

The relations between the rank of the oils and commercial

oil field limits on the one hand, to the progressive alteration of

the organic detrital deposits on the other, appear to be as sig-

nificant in the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations of western

America and Mexico as in the eastern Paleozoic areas.

CONCLUSIONS

The comparison of the gravities of the oils in different for-

mations and regions, with especial reference to the stages of

the regional alteration of the mother rocks and other carbonace-

ous deposits found in the same formations or in formations

overlying the oil pools in the various regions, though it is some-

what unsatisfactory on account of the lack of better informa-

tion as to the chemical characters of the petroleums, leads to

the following conclusions:

(1) Petroleum is a product generated in the course of the

geodynamic alteration of deposits of organic debris of certain

types buried in the sedimentary strata.

(2) The quantity and characters of the oils generated are

determined by: (a) the composition of the organic deposit at

the beginning of its dynamo-chemical alteration; (b) by the

stage in the progress of the dynamo-chemical alteration of the

organic substances; (c) by the elimination, under certain con-

ditions, of the heavier and more viscous hydrocarbons through

filtration incident to migration. How far each of the above

mentioned factors is responsible for the characters of the petro-

leums remains to be determined by observation and investiga-

tion, both in the field and in the laboratory. It is probable

white: kelations between coal and petroleum 211

that the composition of the mother organic deposit largely regu-

lates the types of oils. It may account for the nitrogen, sulphur

content, color, etc., just as the nature of the ingredient debris

controls the types of the coals. On the other hand, we may

conclude that, further in parallelism with the residual coal

debris, the rank of the oils within each type is mainly governed

by the stage in the progressive alteration (really the natural

distillation) of the organic deposits.

(3) In general, it is seen that the lowest rank oils of each

type are found in the regions and formations in which the car-

bonaceous deposits are least altered; that the oils in formations

showing greater alteration of the organic debris, as in sub-

bituminous coals, are of higher rank, the oils being still more

clearly of high rank in the regions and formations of bituminous

coals; and that in regions of still further alteration the oils are

still better, the highest rank oils being, on the whole, found in

regions where the carbonaceous deposits in the same or in over-

lying formations have been brought to corresponding higher ranks.

(4) The effect of progressive regional dynamic alteration is

marked by a concentration of hydrogen in the distillates and a

concentration of carbon in the residual debris (coal, carbonaceous

shale, etc),

(5) Abnormally light oils, occurring sporadically in pools of

lower rank are, in most cases at least, probably due to filtration,

though it is not improbable that, in some cases, these oils are

migrates from underlying formations of more advanced alteration.

(6) In general, at a given point the oils found in successive

underlying formations or in stratigraphically lower sands in the

same formation are progressively higher in rank. In other words

the principle that the increase in the gravity of the oil is inverse

to the stratigraphic depth of the well, proposed by Engler, finds

its parallel in the downward increase in the carbonization of

coals, according to the law of Hilt.^i Occurrences of lighter

21 Oils found so near the outcrop or at such shallow depths as to have per-

mitted the evaporation of the lighter hydrocarbons or the intrusion of oxygen

in meteoric water should be regarded with suspicion.

212 vraiTE: relations between coal and petroleum

oils in sands overlying others, in the same geologic formation,

carrying heavier oils, may^ in many cases at least, be due to

differences in the mother organic deposits. However, the effects

of filtration are not to be overlooked.

(7) In regions where the progressive devolatilization of the

organic deposits in any formation has passed a certain point,

marked in most provinces by 65 to 70 per cent of fixed carbon

(pure coal basis) in the associated or overlying coals, commercial

oil pools are not present in that formation nor in any other for-

mations normally underlying it, though commercial gas pools

may occur in a border zone of higher carbonization. The ap-

proximate carbonization limits of the rocks containing or over-

lying oil pools may -be found to vary somewhat in different

provinces according to the characters of the original organic

debris, the circumstances attending its deposition and the

geologic structure.

(8) Wherever the regional alteration of the carbonaceous resi-

dues passes the point marked by 65 per cent or perhaps 70 per

cent of fixed carbon in the (pure) coals, the hght distillates

appear, in general, to be gases at rock temperatures. Occluded

oils may, in some cases, have escaped volatilization.

The observations and conclusions here offered suggest a wide

range of problems, both scientific and economic, that merit

thorough investigation with greater refinement of criteria as

well as of methods. A greater volume of detailed analytical

data concerning petroleums is needed for comparisons from the

geographic and stratigraphic standpoints. Detailed paleonto-

logical- investigations should be made of the detrital organic

deposits laid down under different conditions in marine and

fresh waters, and the decomposition products generated in the

biochemical process, as well as in the dynamo-chemical process,

should be chemically studied in detail.

Some of the features of the regional alteration of coals and

petroleums that are here lightly touched upon will be more fully

•discussed in a more extended paper now in preparation for

publication by the U. S. Geological Survey.

CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF UNSTALKED CRINOIDS

213

ZOOLOGY. — The hathymetrical and thermal distributidn of the

unstalked criniods, or comatulids, occurring on the coasts

of China and Japan. Austin H. Clark, National Museum.^

The fauna of the coasts of China and Japan includes 92 recog-

nized species and subspecies of comatulids, of which 2 are prob-

ably best considered as local aberrant forms, so that the actual

number may be placed at 90.

Of these 90, 61 belong to the Indo-Pacific fauna, characteriz-

ing the Southern Japanese division of that fauna, which ranges

from Hong Kong and Formosa to the Korean Straits and thence

eastward to Tokyo Bay; 22 are Malayan, wide ranging types,

each with a distribution different from that of the others; 4 are

Antarctic, reaching Japan from the northeastward by way of

Alaska and the Aleu-

O 16 c4 0.:. 4U

tian Islands; and 3

(plus varieties of one

of them — 5 in all) are

Arctic. One of these

last, Heliometra gla-

cialis maxima (with

Heliometra glacialis

biarticulata and Helio-

metra glacialis hrachy-

mera) is very closely

related to Heliometra

glacialis glacialis, _ i a., ^ . j-a- + , +. r

. Fig. 1. Ihe frequency at different depths oi

which occurs m the ^j^g comatulids of the coasts of China and Japan.

Arctic Ocean from The Species of the Indo-Pacific Fauna;

west of Greenland to TheSpeciesof the Malayan Fauna;

+ V. TT Q rl "^^^ Species of the Arctic and Antarctic Faunas;

the Kara bea, and The Total for all Species.

southward to Nova

Scotia and northern Norway, but the other two are of quite

different origin; Psathyrometra erythrizon was originally Antarc-

tic, like Psathyrometra fragilis, to which it is closely related, and

entered the Seas of Okhotsk and Japan from the northeastward ;

Thau7natometra tenuis is most closely related to species in the

' Published by the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

0-50

50-100

XOO-150

150-200

200-250

250-300

300-350

360-400

400-450

450-500

SOO-550

550-600

600-650

650-700

700-760

750-eCO

eoo-650 I'

660-900

900-950

950-1000

1000-1100

1100-3000

214 CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF UNSTALKED CRINOIDS

Balhymeiric and thermal ranges of the comatulids occurring along the coasts of

China and Japan

Depth

in fathoms Temperature

M Comatella stelligera 0-36 (24 + )

Comatella decora 95-106 13 . 28

M Capillaster macrohrachius 0 (24 + )

Capillaster rnaricB 0-59 16 . 72

M Capillaster multiradiata 0-160 (24 + )

M Comatula Solaris 0-14 (24+)

^^ ComatuHdes decameros 170 ?

M Comaster gracilis 0-30 (24+)

M Comaster fruticosus 19-58 24.28

Comaster serrata 30-106 13 . 28

Comantheria intermedia 83 ?

Comantheria grandicalyx 0 (24 + )

Comantheria imbricata 36-50 ■ ?

Comanthus (Bennettia) solaster. . 0-108 13.28-18.00

Comanthus (Bennettia) pinguis. . 21-125 14.33-15.89

Comanthus {Bennettia) jap onica. 0-140 11.28-16.72

M Comanthus (Vania) parvicirr a. .. 0-44 (24 + )

M Zygometra comata 0^9 (24+)

Eudiocrinus variegatus 60 ?

Catoptometra ruhroflava 14-100 16 . 72

Catoptometra hartlaubi 63-152 13.33

M Amphimetra schlegelii 0 (24 + )

M Amphimetra variipinna 0 (24+)

M Amphimetra sinensis 0 (24+)

M Amphimetra Icevipinna 0 (24+)

M Himerometra magnipinna 0-21 (24+)

M Craspedometra acuticirra 0 (24 + )

M Dichrometra flagellata 0-14 _ (24+)

Dichrometra dofleini 83 (24+)

Dichrometra doderleini 0-84 23 . 78

Mariametra subcarinata 22-59 16.72

Mariametra delicatissima 84 23.78

Liparometra grandis 40 ^ ?

M Lamprometra protectus 0-12 ' (24 + )

M Cenometrabella 0-20 (24 + )

Cyllometra albopurpurea 12-139 1 1 . 61-23 . 78

Decametra tigrina 8-34 (24+)

Prometra owstoni 55 ?

Oligometra japonica 5-8 ?

M Oligometra serripinna* 0-50 (24+)

Tropion.etra macrodiscus 0-50 ?

M Tropiometra encrinus 0 (24 + )

Neometra multicolor 1 1-333 13 . 28-15 . 89

Gephyrometra versicolor 53 16. 50

Gephyrometra propinqua 95 13 . 28

CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF UNSTALKED CRINOIDS 215

Depth

in fathoms Temperature

Pectinometra flavopurpurea 63-200 8 . 67-17 . 22

Calometra callista 107-139 11.61

Caloinetra separata 55-150 13 . 28-15 . 89

Asterometra macropoda 103 15.89

Asterometra anthus 103 15.89

Asterometra lepida 35 ?

Cosmiometra aster 369-405 4 . 44- 5 . 44

Cosmiometra conifera ? ?

Stenometra dorsata 52-170 11 . 28-15 . 89

Daidalometra hana 107-139 11 . 61

Parametra alhoflava 103 15.89

Parametra orion 71-170 10 . 78-15 . 89

Thalassometra latipinna 345 5 . 05

Thalassometra pubescens 440 5 . 44

Pachylometra septentrionalis ? ?

Glyptometra lata 361 5.95

Chlorometra garrettiana 95 13.28

Strotometra hepburniana 100-135 11 .28

Pcecilometra scalaris 361 5 . 95

Euantedon sinensis ? (24 + )

Compsometra serrata 8-35 ?

Iridometra adrestine 13-107 11 . 61

Iridometra psyche 30-107 11 . 61

Iridometra bnseis 59 16 . 72

Thysanometra tenelloides 70-197 8 . 67-13 . 50

Arc. Psathyrometra erythrizon 390-406 0 . 39

Ant. Psathyrometra fragilis 300-533 1.61- 2. 17

Perometra diomedece 39-139 11 . 61-20. 39

Erythrometra ruber 55-150 11 . 11-15.89

Arc. Heliometra glacialis maxima .... 32-428 — 1 . 22- + 1 . 72

Arc. Helioyjietra glacialis biarticulata . ? ?

KxG. Heliometra glacialis brachymera. [172] [1.05]

Ant. Florometra marice 70-337 4 . 83-13 . 50

Ant. Florometra rathbuni 533-587 2 . 17-383

Cyclmnetra clio 107 ?

Nanometra bowersi 139-191 9 . 67-13 . 33

Arc. Thaumatometra tenuis 80-620 ' 0 . 39-1 . 72

Thaumatometra isis 361 5. 95

Thaumatometra comaster 300-533 1 . 61- 2 . 17

Thaumatometra cypris 775 ' 3.11

Thaumatometra parva 120-265 ?

Ant. Bathymetra abyssicola 2900 1 .83

Thaumatocrinus borealis 361 5.95

Pentametrocrinus tuberculatus . ..169-333 8.89

M Pentametrocrinus diomedece 103-186 13 . 33-15 . 89

Pentametrocrinus japonicus 139-662 3 . 17-13 . 33

M Pentametrocrinus varians 361-1050 3.17- 5.95

216

CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF UNSTALKED CRINOIDS

The frequency at different depths of the comatulids occurring on the coasts of

China and Japan

Arctic and

Antarctic

Fathoms

0-50

50-100....

100-150....

150-200....

200-250....

250-300....

300-350....

350-400....

400-150....

450-500....

500-550....

550-600....

600-650. . . .

650-700....

700-750....

750-800....

800-850....

850-900....

900-950....

950-1000...

1000-1100...

1100-3000...

All

species

42

35

32

16

7

9

12

9

5

6

4

3

2

1

2

1

Fndo -Pacific

species

20

30

27

11

4

5

7

4

2

1

0

1

0

25-24

24-23

23-22

22-21

21-20

20-19

19-16

16-17

17-16

16-15

15-14

14-li

lJ-12

12-11

11-10

10- 9

9-8

8-7-

7-6

6-5

6-4

Malayan

species

21

2

0

12 Ifi CO Z\

species.

1

3

4

2

3

2

1

0

1

Fig. 2. The frequency at different temperatures of the comatulids of the

coasts of China and Japan. The Species of the Indo-Pacific Fauna;

The Species of the Malayan Fauna; The Species of the

Arctic and Antarctic Faunas; The Total for all Species.

CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF UNSTALKED CRINOIDS 217

The frequency ai different temperatures of the comatulids occurring on the coasts

of China and Japan

Southern Japanese division of the Indo-Pacific fauna, and proba-

bly reached the Sea of Japan through the Korean Straits.

In the foregoing Hsts are included all the comatulids known

from Chinese and Japanese waters, with their bathymetric and

thermal ranges. The fauna to which each belongs is indicated

as follows: M., Malayan; Arc, Arctic; Aiit., Antarctic; those

not especially marked belong to the Southern Japanese division

of the Indo-Pacific fauna.

In the diagram (fig. 1) on which are shown the bathymetric

ranges of the species of the different faunal units which collec-

tively constitute the comatulid population of the Chinese and

218 CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF UNSTALKED CRINOIDS

Japanese coasts it is interesting to note that the species of each

of these units show the same hne that the corresponding species

of the same units show in other parts of the world. The min-

gling of the faunas here, as elsewhere, has resulted in a distinctive

collection of individuals which, however, is easily resolved into

the original component units, and these component units are

found to retain all the distinctive features of the parent faunal

groups from which they were originally derived. In their re-

lation to temperature the three faunal groups are very different.

The Malayan species, which are mostly confined to the littoral,

almost all occur in water with a temperature above 23°, but they

are also represented between 12°, and 16°, and 2° and 7°. The

Indo-Pacific species have their maximum between 10° and 18°,

and especially between 13° and 14°; they are also numerous

between 5° and 6°. The Arctic and Antarctic types, which do

not occur in water warmer than 15°, are most numerous between

0° and 2°.

We get, therefore, the following optimum temperatures for

these three components of the Japanese and Chinese fauna:

Malayan 23 + ° 12°-16° 2°-7°

Indo-Pacific 23 + ° 13°-14° 5°-6°

Arctic and Antarctic . . . 0°-2°

The point 2° to 7° (including 5° to 6°) is characterized especi-

ally by the genera of Oligophreata with highly developed side-

and covering-plates along the ambulacra of the pinnules and arms

(included in the families Thalassometridse and Charitometridse)

which, occurring from 0 to 1600 fathoms, are most noticeable

between 350 and 400 fathoms; most of these belong to the Indo-

Pacific fauna, but a few are Malayan.

Although on the Japanese coast it is possible to take species

of the Indo-Pacific and the Antarctic, and of the Indo-Pacific

and Malayan, faunal units in one and the same dredge haul,

it is evident that this overlapping, which in some places is quite

extensive, does not mean that these faunal units here have lost

or are losing their identity.

swanton: institutional marriage 219

ANTHROPOLOGY. — Institutional marriage. J. R. Swanton,

Bureau of Ethnology.

Much of ethnological investigation consists in a study of

various manifestations of the conscious and the habitual, and

the determination of the relative influence exerted by them on

a certain people, a certain feature of their hfe, or a certain epoch

of their history. We have here to deal, however, not with indi-

vidual consciousness and individual habit, but with collective

consciousness and collective habit. A study of the manifesta-

tions of these two forces as exhibited in almost every depart-

ment- of primitive life, whether material, esthetic, social, or

reUgious, would be both interesting and instructive. Here it

is proposed merely to consider the part they play in the single,

albeit important, institution of marriage.

At all periods of the world's history and in all parts of the

world known to us man has exhibited a preference for marrying

among certain races, classes, or groups, and an aversion against

marriage in certain others. Broadly speaking there are two

different forms which the aversion takes — aversion towards mar-

riage between persons closely related by blood or supposed to

be so, and aversion toward marriage between those of very

diverse races, tribes, social status, behefs, and mentaUty gen-

erally. The origin of the latter is in some measure comprehen-

sible, but the origin of the former not so clear and it has been

the subject of considerable discussion. Yet the fact is well

known and may, for our present purpose, be assumed. Under

both of these aversions it must be remembered that we include,

not so much the aversion of certain persons to marry, as the

aversion to have them marry on the part of the entire com-

munity, the social aversion so to speak.

Aversion to marriage beyond certain hmits operated in primi-

tive society to prevent many marriages from taking place out-

side of the tribe, and at best such marriages were confined

within a relatively restricted area. As national units grew

larger and means of communication easier this area constantly

expanded; it was never larger than it is today, but is still in

evidence as applied to certain races, peoples and reHgious sects.

220 SWANTOX: institutional marriage

Where the aversion to close marriages obtains we should

expect the exogamous group to consist of the blood relations of

each individual, the number of such individuals within the

tabooed class being determined either by the intensity of the

opposition to intermarriage of blood kin or the abihty of the

people to trace relationship. Such a condition is found in mod-

ern white society, though it is not pressed to the extreme limit.

Among the primitive races of North America, to which I shall

particularly devote my attention, it is present among the Eskimo

of the Arctic shores and islands, among the northern Indians

in contact with them, among most of the Athapascan, Salishan,

and Shoshonean peoples from the ^Mackenzie and Yukon rivers

on the north to the borders of Alexico, and among most of the

tribes of Cahfornia. Here we may say that exogamy is con-

sciously, and to a certain degree intelligenth' applied to indi-

viduals related by blood. Exceptions may occur in cases of

adoption, and no doubt there are other exceptions, but they do

not modify the truth of this statement to any appreciable extent.

When we turn to the other portions of North America north

of ^Mexico, however, to the tribes of the North Pacific coast,

to the Pueblo Indians of New ^Mexico and Arizona, to the occu-

pants of the eastern and southeastern woodlands, some of the

peoples of the Plains, and one or two in Cahfornia, we find a

very different social condition. There the exogamous group,

instead of being determined almost uniformly by blood, is found

to be a conventional body which includes persons related by

blood and persons not related by blood and excludes persons

related bj' blood and persons not related by blood. Numerous

theories have been suggested to account for this apparently

anomalous state of affairs, some of which explain it as an insti-

tution or condition more primitive than that of the exogamous

group founded on blood and would derive the latter from it.

One who has carried on investigations among tribes of this class

with an unbiased mind, however, can hardly fail to come to

the conclusion that the recognition of consanguinity is an original

element, and that where an entire class of persons is called by

the same term as the true father, mother, uncle, aunt, brother,

swanton: institutional marriage 221

sister, son, daughter, nephew, niece, etc., it is rather that the

general appUcation is an extension of the particular than the

particular a speciahzation of the general. Such being the case

we have to inquire whence came the largest groups over which

these terms were extended. Although their origin may have

been various there is reason to beheve that in the majority of

cases these clans or gentes, as we now call them, have originated

in geographical groups or bands. At any rate the class of tribes

first considered is divided into just such geographical groups,

and on the north Pacific coast we find the tribes with clans

preserving geographical names for their minor di\'isions which

are in other respects analogous to the clans found elsewhere.

On the other hand, in the first class of tribes we find some in

which marriage rarely takes place within the band; not because

such marriage is prohibited, but because each band being com-

paratively small, considerably more than half may be recog-

nized as blood relations by most of its members. This condi-

tion of affairs is beUeved to have passed over into a tribal system

with clans or gentes through the tendency to marry outside of the

band, based on nothing more pronounced than blood relation-

ship, which made clan endogamy successively avoided, looked

down upon, tolerated, and finall}' prohibited. Be that as it

may, the terms of relationship originally based on consanguinity

came to be associated with social groups or clans which had only

incidental connection with blood relationship, and, so identified,

its original significance became obscured or lost; it became a

conventionalized institution in which was preserved to only a

shght degree the consciousness of its origin. This was the same

evolution as that gone through bj" the people in then' material

culture, arts, and ceremonial hfe. We will now turn to a con-

sideration of some of the different directions in wliich it was

developed.

In the first place tribes of tliis class may be divided between

those reckoning descent through the father and those reckoning

it through the mother. When the group into which marriage

is prohibited becomes stereotyped into an artificial body it is

evident that the particular body to which each child is to belong

222 swanton: institutional marriage

has to be determined in some definite manner. Conceivably he

might have rights of membership in two clans at the same time,

or he might belong to either in accordance with his own choice,

and we do indeed find just this condition among some of the

Sahsh tribes of British Columbia, notably the Lillooet. It is,

however, evident that such an arrangement would present cer-

tain practical difficulties. In the first place, it would be un-

stable and hkely to disintegrate or to change into something

else. Secondly, it would be difficult to preserve a balance

between the different groups, and we know that such groups

were usually jealous of losses. For this and probably other

reasons it came about that in almost all tribes with clans the

clanship of the child was determined at birth either into the

clan of the father or that of the mother. In the former case a

man considered his father's clansmen to all intents and purposes

as his family, and in the alternative case he so regarded his

mother's clansmen. This meant that marriage could not be

contracted by him in the one case into the clan of his father and

in the other case into that of his mother. Among some tribes

this appears to have been the sole marriage prohibition, but in

far more there was also strong opposition to marriage into the

clan of the other parent. The opposition was probably stronger

in very early times than later; but it is usually present in some

form or other, varying all the way from mild disapproval to

absolute prohibition. It is one of those indications that avoid-

ance of close marriage was, at root, the main object of the regula-

tions. Now, granted these two regulations in full force, a mar-

ried man would have peculiar relations to at least three clans,

those of his father, his mother and his wife, and in fact we find

that in certain tribes three classes of men and women of as

many different clans are fathers,, uncles, brothers-in-law, aunts,

mothers, and sisters-in-law to each married man.

Of course this is on the assumption that there were more than

two clans or exogamous groups in the tribe. We have a number

of cases, however, in which there were in fact but two such

groups, although then we usually call them ''phratries" or

"moities" instead of ''clans." In tribes of this description it

, swanton: institutional marriage 223

is evident that we have only one possible choice in marriage.

Each man or woman must mate in the other half of the tribe,

and theoretically all of the men and women of one-half are

fathers or mothers, and uncles or aunts, brothers and sisters,

and nieces and nephews or children, while those on the other

side are after marriage brothers-in-law, sisters-in-law, and the

complementary relations in the fathers' and children's genera-

tions. Practically, these terms were sometimes more limited

because in large tribes the two exogamous groups were sub-

divided and a man's attitude toward individuals of the minor

groups to which his blood or marriage relations belonged was

distinguished in some degree from the rest. This was, however,

only an occasional modification.

In tribes with three clans one clan would contain fathers,

aunts, brothers and sisters, another mothers, uncles, and per-

haps cousins, and a third brothers- and sisters-in-law. In other

words, as was the case with two-clan tribes, the whole nation

would bear some relation to each individual. Another thing

to be noticed is that with absolute exogamy enforced, as re-

spected the clans of both father and mother, there would be a

regular sequence of clans in each strain of blood. For if the

tribe consists of three clans, Wolf, Bear, and Panther and we

assume that marriage takes place between a Wolf man and a

Panther woman, descent being male the children will all be

Wolves. Now, as they cannot marry into either the clan of the

father or into that of the mother, they must marry into the

Bear. The children of the boys will belong to the Wolf, of

course, and when they marry must marry into the Panther.

The children of the girls will be Bear, but they also must marry

into the Panther. If we follow the male line we shall, indeed,

never have any other clan than the Wolf, but the clan of the

mother will alternate in every generation from Panther to Bear

and back again to Panther. If we follow the female line we

shall have a regular change in each generation from Wolf to

Bear, and then to Panther and back again to Wolf. If descent

is female the result will be just the converse of this but in its

practical results will differ none at all.

224 swanton: institutional marriage ,

Tribes with two exogamous divisions are fairly numerous.

Aniong such may be mentioned the Iroquois, the Choctaw and

Chickasaw, the Haida, and the Thngit, and there are traces in

other parts of North America. Tribes with three exogamous

divisions are rare, but perhaps further investigation would show

that the three Delaware totems were of this character.

In still other tribes we have several clans, but it must be

remembered that not all of these clans intermarried freely,

certain clans being linked together into phratries, and beyond

this each tribe with several clans often consisted of several towns

in which not all of the exogamous groups were represented.

Thus in the case of the Creek Indians it happened that there

were probably few towns which contained more than six or

eight exogamous groups and of these some were so insignificant

or so slimly represented that there were in most cases not more

than four or five exogamous divisions of real importance, and

it was between these that nine-tenths of the marriages took

place. Such being the case it is evident that in any line of

descent there would be a frequent repetition of certain exog-

amous groups, although the far greater number of clan names

would tend to obscure the fact.

Now, although we can not know positively it is possible that,

if we could plot the succession of exogamous groups, we should

have a somewhat regular alternation. If we assume four exog-

amous divisions represented by the clans Wolf, Panther, Bear,

and Deer, descent being in the female line, we would have the

husbands of Wolf women drawn successively from the Panther,

Bear, and Deer clans, while in the male line we might have the

regular sequence W^olf, Panther, Bear and Deer. It is probable

that something approximating this may have existed among the

tribes with many clans such as the Chippewa and other central

Algonquian peoples, the Creeks, the Pueblos, Navaho and

Tsimshian; but for lack of careful investigation, we cannot say

so with absolute certainty. Still we do know that such a

sequence was bound to occur with tribes of three exogamous

groups and something near it would happen with four, for it

must be for the women's husbands successively Bear or Deer,

swanton: institutional marriage 225

in the first generation and a choice of two only out of the four

every time afterward. In the case of the men the succession

would be to some extent determined along certain lines, though

of course there is no necessity that; the line should return regu-

larly to the beginning. Nevertheless, absolute regularity would

be attained if the repugnance to close marriages should extend

one generation back of that of the parents — on the male side

in case descent is matrilineal and on the female side in case

it is patriUneal. Supposing that this actually took place and

that the parents of self are Wolf and Panther, and the father's

father or mother's father (as the case may be) is Bear, there

would be, under the conditions laid down, but one clan into which

self could marry, viz.. Deer. Assuming male descent we should

then find that the wives of a succession of Wolf men were Deer,

Bear,, and Panther in order, this order being repeated over and

over indefinitely. In the case of a woman we should have

Wolf, Deer, Bear, Panther, back to Wolf again. With matri-

lineal descent we would have the converse.

Limitation of marriage in these cases would be due to the

extension of the repugnance toward marriage in related groups,

an exceptional distance from the parties concerned, and the

inevitable result would be that a man or woman must marry

into some particular clan, not because that clan was arbitrarily

picked out but because all others happened to contain persons

supposed to be too closely connected. Some of the complica-

tions we observe in Australian society may be due to this cause,

but many must be attributed to the segmentation of two or

four original major divisions or the affiliation of groups of four

or eight into two major divisions or moities. In any case the

direct result is to limit the choice of a prospective bridegroom

or bride to a small fraction of an already small tribe. In this

way there has grown up an artificial determination of marriage

which has become so much a part of the habitual life of the

tribe as to appear not merely right but necessary.

As if the limitations brought about in this way were not

sufficient we have in many tribes in addition separation into

castes. Besides dividing into or combining together several

226 swanton: institutional maeriage

coordinate groups social complexes resulted in many places in

which some were considered superior and some inferior — some,

in other words, with peculiar privileges which others did not

have. Thus, on the north Pacific coast of America we have

several small clans known by the opprobrious term "food

steamers," and among the Natchez there was a superior caste

and a crowd of commons beneath. The patricians and plebeians

of ancient Rome present a classic example. Except among the

Natchez, where conditions were peculiar, the almost uniform

accompaniment of a caste system was endogamy of the higher

castes, resulting in enforced endogamy of the lower castes. And

naturally where there were several grades as many degrees of

marriage preference tended to develop, until it came about that

the range of selection was reduced from this cause alone within

very narrow limits. A contributing cause particularly active in

societies divided into castes is the desire to hold together, and

perpetuate the property as well as the privileges of a certain

hmited group. Thus, on the north Pacific coast, although group

exogamy is strictly enforced, its effects are nullified by the

selective inbreeding of two or three clans of the same caste,

whereby practically the same bulk of property is kept within

the group and so transmitted.

There were of course various other artificial or institutional

limitations placed upon marriage, prominent among which may

be mentioned those set by religious creed and sect. While these

prohibitions and specifications have resulted from conscious de-

terminations at various times, they have become imbedded in

the institutional life of the tribe and produce almost instinctive

reactions.

The geographical limits set to intermarriage were and still

are to a considerable extent unavoidable; and the racial and

tribal limits are both unavoidable and, for the present at least,

necessary; but the artificial identification of relationship with

groups having no natural connection with it, and the further

limitation by caste lines reinforced by economic and rehgious

considerations have made marriage an artificial institution in

many countries of the civilized as well as the uncivilized world,

swanton: institutional marriage 227

and are bound to react injuriously upon their inhabitants. Under

such conditions natural sympathy is overridden and the sexes are

brought into unions on materiaUstic or institutional grounds which

result in an unstable combination. Secondly, legitimate procrea-

tion being impossible as the result of mutual regard it takes place

merely to satisfy the purely sensual appetites and is bound to

reacth armfully on the parents and to the detriment of the future

generations. Finally, law having proscribed as ''immoral" nat-

ural unions founded on sympathy and having prescribed as

moral those founded on convention, the perception of what

constitutes true morality is difficult if not impossible of appre-

hension, with the result that truly normal unions may take

place not recognized by society as moral, prostitutions occur

sanctified by law and by religion, while in the face of this gro-

tesque failure of society to recognize true values some will throw

over all belief in and practise of morality and will form and

break off unions to suit their every caprice, thus practically

throwing the whole marriage institution overboard. Yet in such

cases the first sinner is society itself, in prescribing unions from

irrelevant considerations of clan, caste, sect, propinquity, prop-

erty, and position.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

The 244th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Thursday,

January 21, 1915. The following resolution, presented by the com-

mittee, F. V{. Clarke, W. F. Hillebrand, and F. P. Dewey, was

adopted:

''Albert Charles Peale, geologist and paleobotanist, and since

1898 in charge of the paleobotanical collections of the U. S. National

Museum, died in Philadelphia on Saturday, December 5th, in the

65th year of his age. Dr. Peale was one of the original members of

the Washington Chemical Society, and was for several years its sec-

retary; for although he was not specifically a chemist, his interest in

chemistry was very strong. His one noteworthy contribution to chem-

istry was Bulletin No. 32 of the United States Geological Survey,

published in 1886, entitled "Lists and Analyses of the Mineral Springs

of the United States;" a valuable compilation of all the data then

accessible to the author, and very useful to chemists. He was also

a pioneer in studying the thermal waters of the Yellowstone National

Park. For more than forty years Dr. Peale was connected with the

scientific service of the United States, and his friends in Washington

are very numerous. The Washington Section of the American Chemi-

cal Society hereby expresses its appreciation of Dr. Peale as a man

and a scholar, and its sincere regret at his loss."

Waiver of jurisdiction, as a local section of the American Chemical

Society, was unanimously made in order to provide for the formation

of a Virginia section of the Society.

The following papers were read :

C. O. Johns, of the Bureau of Chemistry: Syntheses of methyl- and

methylamino-j)unnes. A resume of the work, conducted at the Sheffield

Laboratory by Johnson in conjunction with Johns and others on the

synthesis of pyrimidines and purines, was presented. In more detail

an account was given of the synthesis of the alkyl purines by the author

after many unsuccessful attempts had been made.

W. S. Hubbard and W. L. Mitchel, of the Bureau of Chemistry,

(presented by Mr. Hubbard) : The hydrolysis of sugar solutions under

pressure. The title might better be the hydrolysis of sugar solutions

at elevated temperatures, but to the manufacturer the present title

better conveys the idea of the process used. That bacteria, enzymes,

acids, salts, elevated temperatures, and pressures under certain con-

ditions bring about hydrolysis is quite well known. In this work high

228

proceedings: chemical society 229

temperatures were obtained by steam under pressure and the hydroly-

sis occurred without caramelizatibn. It is necessary to choose the

sugar and water with considerable care. A temperature of 124°C., cor-

responding to a pressure of 1.375 kg. above atmospheric, was found to

give the best results under the conditions of the experiment. (Author's

abstract.)

Discussion. Phelps pointed out the possibility that the change

in the rate of hydrolysis might be due to the change in H ion concen-

tration. Hudson spoke of CO2 under pressure as an agent for_ the

inversion of sugar and the fact that it is generally regarded as a strictly

mechanical effect. Johnston pointed out that the effect of pressure

alone on reacting solid or Kquid systems is greatly overestimated, the

temperature and concentration being the important factors. Accord-

ing to Phelps, in these experiments,, pressure increase alone had no

effect on the rate of hydrolysis. Hudson spoke of the work of Spring

as showing the effect of pressure on heterogeneous systems containing

no gas phases. Johnston said that Spring's evidence was very poor

and that the strictly pressure effects were verj^ small in cases of true

equilibria.

H. C. Gore, of the Bureau of Chemistry: The concentration of apple

juice by freezing. By freezing, centrifuging to remove the ice and

filtering through infusorial earth, apple cider was concentrated to 50

per cent total solids at a cost of 20 cents per gallon of concentrated

juice. This juice can be kept without adding preservative. Other

fruit juices have been concentrated in the same way.

Discussion: Hudson inquired whether the juice was filtered before

or after concentration. Speaker stated that the filtration could be

carried on as easily after as before and was generally done in that way.

Berg inquired as to the use of centrifugal filters. Speaker stated that

these were found lacking because no suitable clarifier had been found

while infusorial earth was entirely satisfactory.

The 245th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Thursday, Feb-

ruary 11, 1915. Dr. Johnston on behalf of the committee on com-

munications briefly announced a new policy in regard to the programs

for the meetings. The aim being to make the programs of wider

scope in their interest, the main material- is to be furnished on invi-

tation from the committee. In addition it is proposed to have short

informal communications, each limited to five minutes. As far as possi-

ble it is desired that these informal communications have some bearing

on the general topic under discussion.

Carrying out the above policy the following papers were presented :

F. E. Wright, of the Geophysical Laboratory: The petrographic micro-

scope in analysis. Attention was directed to the fundamental differ-

ence between a petrographic microscope and an ordinary microscope.

The latter is essentially a magnifier and serves to render visible minute

objects and details which are then recognized by their shape, size,

and color. In the case of bacteria the differences in behavior with

230 proceedings: chemical society

respect to certain stains aid in the diagnosis, while in other lines of

investigation micro-chemical reactions serve the same purpose. The

petrographic microscope, on the other hand, is not only a magnifier

but also, and essentially, a measuring instrument of precision for ascer-

taining the optical properties of minute crystal fragments and grains

a few hundredths, or even thousandths, of a millimeter in diameter.

After a description of the petrographic microscope, considerable stress

was placed on the fact that chemists had used, only to a very slight

degree, the quantitative aspects of crystals as a means of identifica-

tion. The various optical properties of crystals that offer possibilities

in this direction (refractive index, birefringence, optic axial angle, ex-

tinction angle, etc.), and their quantitative determination were briefly

described. The potential value of refractive index determinations for

identifi.cation of either pure substances as such or in crystalline mixtures

seems to be little realized among chemists. The method is applicable

to quantities (a few hundredths of a milligram) much smaller than can

ordinarily be subjected to chemical analysis and the time required is

hardly appreciable in comparison. Such measurements of the optical

properties of minute crystal grains have been used with great profit

at the Geophysical Laboratory in the identification of phases in crystal

mixtures and in the study of crystal growth. Of the possible lines of

application of petrographic microscope methods in the field of chemical

research some of the more important are : The identification and testing

of drugs, of poisons, of dyes, of chemical reagents in crystal form, of

chemical precipitates, baking powders, sugars and candies, spices, ce-

ments, abrasives; in short, of any solid material whether in powder form

or in larger masses, crystalline or amorphous. For homogeneity and

purity tests the preparation is immersed in a liquid of the refractive

index of the main crystal substance which then practically disappears

and any foreign material (adulteration or impurity) can be detected

at a glance. Methods are also available for estimating the relative

amounts of the different substances present in an aggregate. The

presentation was accompanied by interesting lantern projections showing

the appearance and behavior of minute crystals under the microscope.

Discussion: Many members of the Society took part in the discussion,

arising in connection with inquiries as to the application of the methods

in certain fields. Such methods have been in use in the study of soils;

and the multiplicity of places, in the work of the chemist, where they

might be applicable, was soon apparent. Special emphasis was put

upon their use in drug identification and in the study and synthesis

of organic substances. It was brought out that the practical appli-

cability and importance of the methods will be greatly enhanced when

investigators have determined the optical properties of the large num-

ber of substances that must be considered in their use in the different

branches of chemistry and chemical technology.

L. H. Adams, of the Geophysical Laboratory: Application of the

interferometer to the quantitative analysis of solutions. The principles

of working and use of the Zeiss portable interferometer for liquids were

proceedings: botanical society 231

described. The instrument has been found useful in the analysis of

aqueous solutions and is applicable to a large number of liquid binary-

systems. The sensitiveness in terms of refractive index is about 2

in the seventh decimal place, and therefore salt solutions, for example,

may be analysed with an accuracy of 0.0002 per cent. The possi-

bility of error resulting from the wandering of the achromatic fringe

was discussed together with methods for the avoidance of this difficulty.

Several possible fields of use for the instrument were mentioned.

Discussio7i: It was brought out in the discussion that the temperature

effects, in the comparison of liquids of different concentrations at

different times as in the determination of the fixed points of a series

of solutions, were not important, since the temperature coefficients of

refractive index of the solutions of about the same concentration were

nearly identical. The applicability of the instrument to the analysis

of alcohol-water mixtures was mentioned, in answer to an inquiry, as

being somewhat limited by the solubility of the cement used in making

the glass cell container and the difficulties in making up and maintain-

ing known solutions.

An informal communication was presented by E. G. Wherry of

the National Museum on The detection of certain elements by their'

absorption spectra. The spectra of the light reflected from minerals

and gems of certain kinds have been found of considerable importance

in the identification of these materials. Some 13 or 14 of the elements

in their compounds are capable of identification in this way. Most

of these belong to what are generally regarded as the rarer elements.

The methods developed, in which only the visible spectrum was used,

were described. The possible application to the detection of certain

elements in other materials was mentioned.

Discussion: The use of the invisible part of the spectrum so as to

give the method a greater range of applicability was suggested.

E. C, McKelvy, Secretary.

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 102d regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington

was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., Tuesday,

February 2, 1915. Fifty-two membeis and six guests were present.

Messrs. P. A. Yoder, Stephen Anthony, and James M. Shull were

elected to membership. The following scientific program was presented :

S. C. Stuntz: Bamboo possibilities in America. After a brief intro-

ductory statement outlining the past history of bamboo introduction

into the United States, and sketching the present condition of bamboo

planting in this country, attention was directed to the possible future

uses for bamboo. Furniture, basketry, especially for parcel post ship-

ments, Venetian blinds, and barrel hoops were suggested as probable

industries in which bamboo would find use, while the development for

ornamental planting, and as a possible stock for paper was especially

emphasized. Lantern slides of bamboo plantations and uses abroad

232 PEOCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY

and in the United States were shown, together with a considerable

exhibit of manufactured bamboo articles.

0. F. Cook: Botany of cacao and paiashte. The patashte tree is a

relative of the cacao, loiown to botanists under the name Theohroma

bicolor Humboldt and Bonpland. It has dimorphic branches like cacao,

the lateral branches being formed in whorls at the ends of the upright

shoots, but only 3 laterals in a whorl, instead of 5 or 6, as in cacao.

Many other differences in leaves, inflorescences and flowers were shown.

The inflorescences of patashte are confined to new growth at the ends

of the lateral branches, while cacao is caulocarpous, with all of the

flowers produced from the old wood on the trunk and larger limbs of

the tree. The various features were explained with lantern-slide illus-

trations, and the paper was followed by a brief discussion of the ques-

tion whether trees with such numerous and definite differences should

be classified in the same genus.

W. E. Safford : Rediscovery of Lignum nephriticiwi. Lignum nephri-

ticum is a remarkable Mexican wood which was celebrated through-

out Europe in the 16th, 17th, and the early part of the 18th centuries,

not only for its reputed medicinal properties, but on account of the

wonderful fluorescence of its infusion in spring water. Scarcely a

fragment of this wood is now to be found in drug collections, and its

very name has disappeared from encyclopedias. It is celebrated as

the substance with which the Hon. Robert Boyle made his first inves-

tigations in the phenomenon of fluorescence. After giving a history

of the literature on the suljject Mr. Safford called attention to the

confusion surrounding the origin of the wood, and the causes which

prevented its botanical identification. For the first time specimens

of the wood accompanied by herbarium material of the plant from

which it was obtained have been the subject of critical study. The

heartwood produced the characteristic fluorescence described by Robert

Boyle, and the botanical material corresponded with Hernandez' original

description of the plant yielding lignum nephriticum. This proves to

be EysenhardtJa polystachya (Ortega) Safford (Viborquia polystachya

Ortega, Eysenhardtia amorphoides H. B. K.). The lecture was illus-

trated by lantern slides, specimens of the wood and botanical material,

photographic enlargments of sections of the wood made by Dr. Albert

Mann, plant morphologist; and also by exhibition of the fluorescence

of the extract of the wood in the rays of an arc light by Dr. Lyman

J. Briggs, physicist. Bureau of Plant Industry, with remarks as to the

value of lignum nephriticum as an indicator in titrimetric determina-

tions. (Author's abstract.)

Perley Spaulding, Corresponding Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V APRIL 4, 1915 No. 7

PHYSICS. — Characteristics of radiation pyrometers.^ George K.

Burgess and Paul D. Foote, Bureau of Standards.

Although this investigation, which is largely made up of

instrumental details, does not readily lend itself to a brief sum-

mary, yet the following conclusions of a general nature may be

mentioned.

The Stefan-Boltzmann law E = {T^ — T\) is not, in general,

except by accident, obeyed in its exactness by any of the pyrom-

eters examined. The similar equation E = a. T\ V'-\ in which

h is slightly different from 4 (usually neglecting the T^ term)

is, however, obeyed with sufficient exactness by all total radia-

tion pyrometers.

The main factors influencing the value of the exponent h

are the geometry and mechanical construction of the instrument ;

the value of h for* 20 thermoelectric pyrometers ranged from

about 3.5 to 4.5. The same instrument of the Fery type may

have a different exponent according to its use with or without

the sectorated diaphragm for increasing the temperature range.

In general, a radiation pyrometer behaves not as a "black" or

total receiver of energy, but as a ''gray" receiver for the ordi-

nary range of temperatures. For the Fery pyrometer with a

gold mirror, for example, the effect of selective reflection of the

gold mirror does not become practically appreciable until above

2500°C. but may cause an error of 500°C. at the temperature of

1 To appear as a Scientific Paper of the Bureau of Standards.

233

234 BURGESS AND FOOTE : RADIATION PYROMETERS

the sun. The auxiUaiy apparatus, galvanometer or potentiome-

ter, and recording devices, can be constructed so that their er-

rors will be practically negligible. For the work of the highest

accuracy the potentiometric method of measurement is to be

preferred with thermoelectric radiation pyrometers.

The principal errors to which the several types of radiation

pyrometers are subject are shown to lie in the design and me-

chanical construction of these instruments, and certain of these

inherent errors, such as lag or slowness in reaching an equilib-

rium reading, require for satisfactory results, that the pyrometer

be calibrated and used under similar conditions of time of ex-

posure, distance from and aperture of source. Wide variations

in the lag effect exist among apparently similar instruments,

ranging from a few seconds to an hour or more. These and

other errors of appreciable magnitude, such as stray reflection,

convection currents, intervening atmosphere, size of source,

tarnishing of receiving mirror, etc., should be considered in

accurate work. It is shown that errors greater than 100°C.

may readily be caused by dirt on, or oxidation of, mirror. The

magnitude of errors due to varying the focusing distance, may

amount to several hundred degrees if suitable precautions are

not taken.

A convenient method for the rapid comparison of different

types of pyrometer, and for determining the effects of size of

aperture and focusing distance was devised, consisting of a

wide nickel (oxide) strip heated electrically, a series of circular,

water-cooled diaphragms, and an optical bench.

The methods in use at the Bureau of Standards for the calibra-

tion of radiation pyrometers by means of especially designed

experimental "black bodies" are described in detail and methods

of extrapolation outlined, as well as methods of use of radiation

pyrometers, including methods of obtaining approximately

correct temperatures for the case in which a source of insufficient

size is sighted upon. The application of the radiation pyrometer

to the determination of the total emissivity of non-black sub-

stances and to the measurement of temperatures is also discussed

in detail.

TITTLE AND ISAACS: SULPHUR IN RUBBER 235

PHYSICS. — A study of some recent methods for the determination

of total sulphur in rubber.^ J. B. Tuttle and A. Isaacs,

Bureau of Standards.

This investigation was undertaken to learn whetiier or not

the methods recently published for the determination of sulphur

in rubber were any improvement over the Waters and Tuttle

method, the one now in use at the Bureau of Standards. The

methods investigated were those of Spence and Young; of

Deussen, of Alexander, of the Joint Rubber Insulation Com-

mittee, of Kaye and Sharp; of Frank and Marckwald, and of

Waters and Tuttle. These were subdivided, according to the

method of attack, into three classes: direct solution, direct

fusion, and solution and fusion methods. A large number

of determinations was made on a number of samples, two of

the latter being of known composition which were specially

prepared by one of the authors.

The methods which have been compared may be divided

into two classes, viz. those for the determination of the total

sulphur and those for the determination of sulphur other than

that present in the insoluble sulphates. It was found that the

methods of the second class could not be relied upon to give ac-

curate results.

The direct solution methods, those of Spence and Young,

and of Deussen, involve the use of concentrated nitric acid. This

was first suggested by Henriques but is objectionable because

it gives rise to low results.

The direct fusion methods, those of Alexander, of the Joint

Rubber Insulation Committee, and of Kaye and Sharp, are

reliable only when the free sulphur content is low, and are there-

fore not applicable to routine analysis.

The solution and fusion method of Frank and Marckwald

was found to be unreliable when the free sulphur was high. The

Waters and Tuttle method was found to give satisfactory re-

sults and is recommended for general use.

A new suggestion is offered, namely, to determine separately

' Detaile<l puixT to appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

236 cook: glaucothea, a new genus of palms

the free sulphur and the sulphur remaining after the extraction,

reporting the sum of the two quantities as the total sulphur.

This procedure eliminates the troublesome effect of the free

sulphur upon the determination of the total sulphur.

BOTANY .^r-Glaucothea, a new genus of palms froin Lower Cali-

fornia. O. F. Cook, Bureau of Plant Industry.

The type of the new genus is Glaucothea armata (S. Wats.),'

commonly known in cultivation as the "blue palm," on account

of its extremely glaucous foliage. The peculiar color is due

to the presence of an unusually thick coating of wax, and may

be considered as an adaptive specialization to desert condi-

tions. Glaucothea is known in a wild state only from the

interior of the northern part of Lower California, about sixty

miles below the international boundary. It is the nearest neigh-

bor of Washingtonia filifera, the only native palm of California,

found in the canyons along the eastern base of the San Jacinto

Mountains, in the Salton Basin.

The new genus is separated from Erythea, whose type is

Erythea edulis (Wendl.) S. Wats., a native of Guadelupe Island,

off the coast of Lower California. The difference in habitat

appears significant when Erythea and Glaucothea are observed in

cultivation. Erythea, being a maritime palm, is entirely at home

in the cool climate of the Coast Belt of California, flowering and

fruiting with great regularity after the proper age has been

reached. Glaucothea makes rather slow growth in the Coast

Belt, seldom produces flowers, and does not fruit, probably for

lack of sufficient heat. Though planted in large numbers in

California, the supply of seed is still limited and precarious,

being obtained only from the wild palms in the canyons of Lower

California. But there is no apparent reason why seed should

not be produced eventually by the palms that have been planted

in recent years in the drier and warmer interior districts of

southern California and Arizona, as at Riverside and Phoenix.

^ Brahea (?) armata S. Wats. Proc. Am. Acad. 11: 146. 1876.

Erythea armata S. Wats. Bot. Calif. 2: 212. 1880.

cook: glaucothea, a new genus of palms 237

Glaucothea appears to be well adapted to these arid regions,

and as hardy as Washingtonia filifera, which produces fruit in

abundance in the Salt River valley of Arizona, as well as in

southern California, though not near the coast.

Glaucothea shares with Washingtonia the habit of not pro-

ducing flowers when young, or until the trunk has attained a

height of 15 or 20 feet, while Erythea edulis commonly flowers

at 5 or 6 feet. Another point of agreement between Wash-

ingtonia and Glaucothea is the production of very long slender

inflorescences, extending far beyond the leaves. These are in

striking contrast with the inflorescences of Erythea edulis,

which hardly exceed the petioles of. the leaves. The massive

trunk and heavily armed petioles of Glaucothea afford further

analogies with Washingtonia and obvious contrasts to Erythea.

Though more closely allied in its botanical characters to

Erythea, the new genus may be distinguished at once, in any

stage of development, by the color of the foliage. The floral

structures are similar to those of Erythea, but definite speciali-

zations are shown. As in many desert plants, the flowers are

reduced in size and of thicker texture, and the buds are pro-

tected by relatively larger and more fleshy sepals. The petals

are attached close to the rim of the staminal cup and are not

opened widely at the time of flowering, which no doubt reduces

the danger of drying the stigma and thus preventing pollination.

These and other differences are summarized in the following

diagnosis :

Glaucothea Cook, gen. nov.

Distinguished from Erythea by the very robust trunk, strongly armed

petiole, thin, papery ligule, decurved midrib, narrow median segments

and glaucous, wax-covered leaf -surfaces ; inflorescences slender, elon-

gate, greatly exceeding the leaves, the lower primary branches sub-

tended by spathes, the others without spathes; sepals thick and fleshy;

petals broadly triangular, rounded at the apex, attached close to the

broadly sinuate rim of the staminal cup.

The type species, as already stated, is Glaucothea armata (S. Wats.),

from the northern part of Lower California. The generic name was

suggested by the relationship with Erythea, though not derived in

the same manner. Glaucothea means "Gray Goddess," and may be

238 cook: glaucothea, a new genus of palms

considered as allusion to Minerva, whose familiar Greek n^me was

"Athene Gray-eye." The olive tree, with its glaucous foliage, was

sacred to Athene, and this palm has a similar claim to distinction among

the members of its order. The foliage is of a very peculiar, pearly

grayish-green, sometimes with a slight tinge of purple. Well-grown

individual^ are extremelj^ beautiful, and strikingly different from

any other fan-palms that have been introduced into the United States.

Following are more extended descriptions of Glaucothea and Ery-

thea, with the contrasting characters stated in greater detail.

GENERIC DESCRIPTION OP GLAUCOTHEA

Trunk large and very robust, tapering gradually from a thick,

somewhat bulbous base.

Leaves very numerous, nearly circular in general form, composed

of many numerous deeply divided segments; leaf-sheaihs recurved

only near the end; petioles armed along the margins with numerous

strong, hooked spines, ligule thin, without cushions of tomentum;

midrib distinctly developed, decurved somewhat as in Inodes, and

with several of the median leaf-segments reduced in size; leaf surfaces

rendered glaucous by a thick coating of wax.

Inflorescences slender, erect, greatly exceeding the leaves, the axis

enclosed in numerous, slender, naked spathes, 3 to 5 of these borne on

the elongated base of the inflorescence, below the branches; primary

branches of two classes, the lower 4 or 5 large and subtended by spathes,

the others small, numerous and without spathes, together forming

a terminal panicle like one of the large primary branches; flowering

branchlets simple, very long and slender, with the flowers solitary or

in clusters of 2 or 3.

Flowers minute, dull purplish, only slightly opened; sepals thick and

fleshy to the end, scarious only on the margins; petals broadly tri-

angular, with a rather blunt apex, strongly thickened within, the

stamens accommodated by deep excavations; staminal cup with en-

tire, broadly sinuate margins between the abruptly broadened bases

of the filaments, bearing the petals near the rim of the cup; pistils

set compactly together. Fruit rather small, with a thin pericarp.

SPECIFIC DESCRIPTION

The following details may be added to Watson's brief description

of the species, which gave no information regarding the inflorescence

or flowers.

cook: glaucothea, 'a new genus of palms 239

Glaucothea armata (S. Wats.) Cook.

Trunk in robust specimens attaining a circumference of about 11

feet, or a diameter of over 3 feet, the height said to attain 40 feet and

upward in the wild state, but most of the cultivated individuals still

under 20 feet.

Leaves very numerous, forming a large crown, the basal sheath

becoming everted only near the end, but much farther up than in

Erythea, the petioles thus appearing shorter; surface of petioles beset

with small deep purplish-brown scales, these more numerous in the

lower part, but much less abundant than in Erythea; margins of petioles

indurated, ivory white, armed with strong, curved white teeth, these

extremely variable in form and distribution; ligule thin and papery,

not densely tomentose-spongy as in Erythea; rachis evident, distinctly

decurved; several of the median segments distinctly narrowed, and

also some of the basal segments, but much fewer than in Enjthea echilis.

Spathes green and glaucous when young, without pubescence or

scurf except on narrow lines along the margins; lowest spathe about

2 feet long and 3 inches broad, split on both sides at apex, the others

split on only one side.

Flowers dull purplish in color instead of creamy white as in Erythea

edulis, smaller in size and much less conspicuous at the time of flower-

ing, not opened widely; buds also of different shape, more rounded

at apex and relatively wider at base because of the large fleshy sepals;

flower-clusters subtended by minute bracts less conspicuous than those

of Erythea.

The descriptions of the inflorescences and flowers are based on

material taken from a living palm in the collection of Mr. C. B. Hale

at Santa Barbara, California, July 7, 1913. The specimens are in the

U. S. National Herbarium, under numbers 694866 and 694867.

CONTRASTING CHARACTERS OF ERYTHEA^

Trunk rather slender, in comparison with Glaucothea, columnar,

scarcely thickened at the base.

Leaves fewer and broader than in Glaucothea; leaf-sheaths recurved

well below the end, the recurved portion distinguished by the fibers

along the margins, functioning with the petiole and increasing its ap-

parent length; margins of petiole denticulate near the base, often

2 For the original description of Erythea, see Watson, S.,. Botany of California,

2:211. 1S80.

240 cook: glaucothea, a new genus of palms

smooth above; ligule with large, spongy cushions of tomentum; mid-

rib rudimentary, scarcely decurved, only a few of the median segments

narrowed; leaf-surfaces vivid green, not concealed by a covering of

wax.

Inflorescences robust, spreading, shorter than the leaves, the main

axis enclosed in short, robust, shaggy, scale-covered spathes; primary

branches 9 to 11, each subtended by a spathe, and with 1 or 2 additional

spathes at the base; flowering branchlets simple, rather long and

robust, the flowers in clusters of 3 to 6.

Flowers larger, more conspicuous and more widely opened than in

Glaucothea; sepals fleshy at base, the upper half thin and scarious,

with a reddish costa; petals triangular, with a rather thin, tapering

and sharp-pointed apex, spreading wide apart at the time of flower-

ing; staminal cup with deep sharp incisions between the broadly slop-

ing bases of the filaments, each alternate filament subtended by a

strong vertical carina on the inner face of the staminal tube.

Fruits large, the seed surrounded by a thick, firm pericarp, fleshy

and edible when mature.

comparison of inflorescences

Perhaps the most striking differences between the two genera are

those that determine the forms of the inflorescences. With respect

to these characters Erythea might be compared with Inodes, while

Glaucothea is more like Washingtonia, both with respect to the greater

length of the inflorescences as a whole and the more elongate form

of the individual spathes. In Erythea the flowers are borne on rather

stiff, spreading branches and appear in large billowy masses inside the

crown of leaves, while in Glaucothea they are carried out beyond

the leaves and suspended on long drooping, tassel-like panicles. The

inflorescence of Erythea is relatively unspecialized, with the numerous

primary branches each subtended by a spathe, while the inflorescence

of Glaucothea is specialized in two \^ays. Instead of having a short

base with only one or two empty spathes below the branches, as in

Erythea, there is a long, slender, stalk-like base with 4 or 5 tubular

spathes. Following these are 4 or- 5 other ensiform or spathulate

spathes, subtending a like number of large primary branches. The

remaining primary branches, to the number of 15 or more, are left

without spathes; but they are much smaller than the others and all

together form a large drooping panicle, like one of the larger branches

that are provided with spathes. The total number of spathes is about

cook: glaucothea, a new genus of palms 241

the same as in Erythea, but the spathes do not stand in the same re-

lation with the branches. At the base of the inflorescence there are

several spathes without branches, and at the end of the inflorescence

many branches without spathes. The number of primary branches

is greater in Glaucothea, not being limited by the number of spathes.

OTHER RELATED PALMS

The relationships of Erythea and Glaucothea lie on the one side

with the fan-palms of the Pacific islands and on the other side with

those of Mexico and Central America. In its very large fruits and

thick exocarp, Erythea represents the extreme of the American series,

and the nearest approach to the Pacific island fan-palms. The foliage

is somewhat similar, and the very abundant scaly tomentum of the

petioles and spathes is another common feature; but the sepals of the

American genera are not thick and woody nor completely coalesced

to form a deep cup, as in the Pacific island genus.^

The genus Brahea may be considered as the nearest Mexican rela-

tive of Glaucothea. It shares with Glaucothea the slender exserted

inflorescence, with several empty spathes below the branches. But

the species of Brahea are smaller and more slender palms, with small

narrowly oval fruits, and the albumen grooved on one side like that of

the date palm.

* It has long been known that the name Pritchardia is incorrectly applied to

the Pacific Island palms, but no satisfactory substitute seems to have been

proposed. To supply this deficiencj" the new name Styloma is suggested, in

allusion to the large indurated styles. The type species is Styloma pacifica

{Pritchardia pacifica Seem. & Wendl.), from the Fiji Islands. Fifteen other

species are known, as recognized in Beccari's revision of the genus (Webbia,

4: 220-240. 1913), nine of these being from the Hawaiian Islands, and six from

other parts of Polynesia; all were described originally under Pritchardia. The

Hawaiian species of Styloma are as follows : S. hillebrandi, S. gaudichaudii,

S. martii, S. arecina, S. rockiana, S. lanigera, S. eriostachys, S. eriophora and

S. minor. The remaining species are: S. thurstonii, from Fiji; S. vuylstekeana

and S. periculariun, from Pomotu; S. remota, from Bird Island; S. maideniana

dottbtfuUy reported from Melanesia; and S. insignis, of unknown origin. Bec-

cari also unites with Pritchardia the Cuban genus Colpothrinax, but this should

be retained as distinct from Styloma.

ABSTRACTS

Autliors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of oflScial publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

METEOROLOGY.— r«/?;es of storms of the United States and their

average movements. Edward H. Bowie, and R. Hanson Weight-

man. Washington, 1914, 37 pages; 114 charts (U. S. Weather

Bureau, Monthly Weather Review, Supplement No. I).

The authors have classed the storms (lows) of the United States

according to their point of apparent origin. In this classification they

have wisely followed the geographic divisions adopted by an earlier

investigator of the subject.

The period covered includes the twenty-one years 1892-1912, and

the total number of lows considered was 2597. The authors have

departed from the traditional way of portraying storm paths. In-

stead of indicating by a single continuous line the average path of a

group of storms they have taken as the geographic unit of movement

the successive five-degree squares across the country, from the Pacific

to the Atlantic, and have computed for each five-degree square the

mean direction and 24-hour travel, based on the total number of lows

of the group under consideration that temporarily occupied the square

during the entire period. The results have been expressed by a series

of arrows, one for each square. Each arrow shows, first, the number

of lows that have temporarily occupied the square, and upon which

the computations have been based; second, the mean direction and

24-hour travel of the lows, the length of the arrows being proportional

to the average number of miles covered by the lows. Notwithstanding

the very large number of lows used, not a few squares are represented

by less than five lows, but such deficiency is incident to a work of this

character, especially in those regions where lows pertaining to a certain

group seldom penetrate.

The advantage of this system lies in the fact that it shows at a glance

242

abstracts: meteorology 243

the scattering which takes place in the distribution of the several

groups of lows in latitude. Thus, the North Pacific group, which is

essentially a storm moving in high latitudes, has on the average for

Januarjr, Ijeginning with latitude 55°, along the 95th meridian and pro-

ceeding southward by five-degree steps, seven, six, seven, and four lows,

respectivelj^ The corresponding numbers for July are three, one,

four, and one. The senior author concludes the paper with a number

of precepts collected by him during his service as a forecaster.

W. J. H.

METEOROLOGY. — The thunderstorm and its phenomena. W. J.

Humphreys. Monthly Weather Review, 42:348-380. 1914;

Journal of the Franklin Institute, 178: 517-560, 751-776. 1914.

The Simpson theory, that the great amount of electrical separation

in a thunderstorm is due to mechanical rupture of raindrops, the best

supported and most consistent theory of this phenomenon, is explained

in detail. From this theory it follows, as was already evident from

other considerations, that thunder and lightning are neither storm-

originating nor storm-controlling factors, but themselves the result of

those violent winds that obtain beneath and within large cumulo-

nimbus clouds.

Hence those conditions essential to the production of cumulus clouds,

that is, abundant humidity and that temperature distribution which

induces strong vertical convection, are also essential to, and likewise

sufficient for, the genesis of the thunderstorm. This in turn explains

why, over land areas, these storms are more frequent in the afternoon

than at night, more frequent in summer than in winter, and more fre-

quent in equatorial regions than in higher latitudes.

According to the distribution of barometric pressure and surface

temperatures, thunderstorms are divided into five distinct classes, and

each class illustrated by a group of three meteorological charts. One

of each group gives the typical conditions in question. The other two

show respectively the 12 hour antecedent and the 12 hour subsequent

conditions.

The abrupt and marked changes in temperature, pressure and wind

velocity that accompany the onset of a thunderstorm are all discussed

in detail, as are also the downrush of cold air and the uprush of warm,

the genesis of hail, the formation of "thunder heads," roll scud, and

other details of the storm.

The various forms of lightning, streak, rocket, ball, sheet, beaded.

244 abstracts: botany

return and dark, are described, in part by the aid of photographs

obtained by rotating cameras, and are in a measure explained. The

question as to whether the hghtning discharge is direct or alternating

is discussed and reasons offered for believing it to be usually if not

always direct.

In addition to the above such subjects as the spectrum of lightning,

duration of discharge, length of streak, chemical effects and danger;

cause of thunder, distance heard, rumbling, etc., are all briefly dis-

cussed. W. J. H.

BOTANY. — A text-hook of grasses. A. S. Hitchcock. The Macmillan

Co. Pp. 1-276. September, 1914.

The work consists of two parts, the first being devoted to economic

agrostology, the second to systematic agrostology. Part I includes

an elementary account of such subjects as pastures, meadows, lawns,

reclaiming sand-dunes, and the grass-crop areas. Part II is devoted

to morphology and taxonomy, with a chapter on ecology and another

on nomenclature.

The morphology of the vegetative and floral organs is discussed in

considerable detail. The classification adopted is essentially that of

Hackel in Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien. Although this ar-

rangement, especially of the tribes, is in some respects unsatisfactory

and artificial, it is, according to the author, the best system yet pro-

posed. There is a key to the 13 tribes and, under each tribe, keys

to the genera found in the United States. Paragraphs are devoted

to those genera that include economic species, and the more impor-

tant of these are described and illustrated. Special paragraphs are

devoted to such subjects as the origin and classification of the wheats,

the cultivated varieties of sorghum, and the weedy species of Bromus.

Appended to Part I is a list of government publications referring

to forage crops and special uses of grasses; and to Part II a list of

books and articles relating to taxonomic agrostology.

A. S. H.

REFERENCES

Under this heading It Is proposed to include, by author, title, and citation, references to all

scientific papers published In or emanating from Washington. It is requested that autiiors cooperate

with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style U33d below. These references are

opt Intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal.

METEOROLOGY

Abbe, Cleveland, Jr. Washington and Paris loinlers. Monthly 'Weather

Review, 42: 626-628. 1914. (An interesting comparison of the winter tem-

peratures of these two cities. — W. J. H.)

Abbot, C. G. Extracts from the annual report of the Smithsonian Astrophysical

Observatorij. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 621-623. 1914. (Discusses the

recent work at W'ashington and in California of the Smithsonian Astrophysi-

cal Observatory. — W. J. H.)

H AXEMAN, H. Influence of meteorological conditions on the propagation of sound.

Monthly W-'eather Review, 42: 258-265. 1914. (A convenient summary of

what is known on this subject, with many references. — W. J. H.)

Beals, E. a. Frost forecasts and protection in Oregon, Washingto7i and Idaho.

Monthly Weather Review, 42: 587. 1914.

liE.ssoN, L. The halos of November 1 and 2, 1913. Monthly Weather Review,

42: 431-436. 1914. (Translated by C. F. Talman. Describes and explains

an unusually complex halo that was seen in many portions of the central

and eastern United States. For criticism see Monthly Weather Review,

42: 619. 1914.— W. J. H.)

Besson, L. The different forms of halos and their observation. Monthly Weather

Review, 42: 436-446. 1914. (Translated by Cleveland Abbe, Jr., from

Bulletin de la Societe astronomique de France, mars, avril et mai 1911.

A description of many forms of halos that have been reported. — W. J. H.)

Uezold, W. Von. Theoretical meteorology: more particularly the thermodynamics

of the atmosphere. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 453-455. 1914. (Com-

municated to the International Meteorological Congress at Chicago, Aug.,

1893.)

iiLAiR, W . R. The diurnal system of convection. Bulletin Mount Weather Obser-

vatory, 6: 221-243, 1914.

liLAiR, W. R. Free air data at Mount Weather from July 3, 1913, to May 7, 1914,

071 "International Days." Bulletin Mount Weather Observatory, 6: 244-252.

1914.

Blair, W. R., and Gregg, W. R. Free air data in southern California, July and

August, 1913. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 410-426. 1914. (A discus-

sion of the meteorological portion of an investigation undertaken jointly

by the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution and the

Mount W'eather Observatory of the Weather Bureau. The data consist Of

245

246 references: meteorology

observations taken by free balloons sent up from Avelon, and of captive

balloons and mountain observations obtained on and near Mount Whitney.

— W. J. H.)

Bowie, E. H , and Weightman, R. H. Types of storms of the United States and

their average movements. Monthly Weather Review Supplement No. 1, 1914.

(Divides American storms into ten types according to region of origin, and

gives on full page charts, the distribution and average 24-hour movement

of each type for each month. — W. J. H.)

Briggs, R.. R. Frost -protection in Arizona. Monthly Weather Review, 42:

589-590. 1914.

Brooks, C. F. The distrihition of snowfall in cyclones of the eastern United

States. Monthly Weather Review, 42:318-330, with 11 full page charts.

1914.

Carpenter, F. A. Flood studies at Los Angeles. Monthly Weather Review,

42: 385-389. 1914.

Carpenter, F. A. Utilization of frost warnings in the citrus region near Los

Angeles, Cal. Monthly Weather Review, 42:569-571. 1914. (Discusses

practical work in connection with the protection of citrus groves from frost. —

W. J. H.)

Carpenter, F. A. and Garthwaite, J. W. Memorandum on air drainage in

the vicinity of the Corona district, Cal. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 572-

573. 1914.

Cline, J. L. Frost protection by irrigation in southern Texas. Monthl}^ Weather

Review, 42:591-592. 1914.

CoBERLY, E. D. The hourly frequency of precipitation at New Orleans, La.

Monthly Weather Review, 42:537-538. 1914.

CoBLENTZ, W. W. The exudation of ice from the stems of plants. Monthly

Weather Review, 42:490-499. 1914. (An interesting account with abun-

dant illustrations, of the formation of ice fringes on the stems of plants

rich in sap tubes, analogous to the formation of the familiar columns of

"ground-ice."— W. J. H.)

Ekholm, Nils. Influence of the deviating force of the earth's rotation of the move-

ment of the air. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 330-339. 1914. (Communi-

cated to the International Meteorological Congress at Chicago, August,

1893. Discusses a well known phenomenon with simple mathematics. —

W. J. H.)

Erskine-Murray, J. The function of the atmosphere in [wireless] transmission.

Monthly Weather Review, 42: 534-537. 1914. (Reprinted by request

from Year Book of Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony, 1914. Regards the

atmosphere as divisible into a lower nonconducting layer and an upper

conducting layer. — W. J. H.)

FuJiwHARA, S. The horizontal rainbotv. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 426-

430. 1914. (Revised and reprinted from Jour. Metr. Soc. Japan, March,

1914. A mathematical discussion of an unusual optical phenomenon. —

W. J. H.)

Garthwaite, J. W. Letter on frost and frost protection. Monthly Weather

Review, 42: 571-572. 1914. (Comments on frost protection by a practical

citrus grower. — W. J. H.)

references: meteorology 247

Hall, M. Photometric measures of the zodiacal light. Monthly Weather Re-

view, 42: 311-317. 1914.

Hall, M. Notes on observing the zodiacal light. Monthly Weather Review,

42: 521. 1914.

Hann, J. Daily march of the meteorological elements in the Panama Canal Zone.

Monthly Weather Review, 42: 526-534. 1914. ^Translated from Sitzungsb.

d. Kaiserl. Akad. d. Wissens. in W ien, Math.-naturw. KL, Jan. 1914.)

Hann, J. Remarks on the nature of cyclones and anticyclones. Monthly \A'eather

Review, 42: 612-615. 1914. (Communicated to the International Meteor-

ological Congress at Chicago, 1893. Discusses objections to the con-

vectional theory of storms. — -W. J. H.)

Harrington, M. W. Systematic exploration of the upper air ivith estimates of

costs. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 619-621. 1914. (Read before the

International Conference on Aerial Navigation, Chicago, August, 1893.

Interesting in the light of subsequent events. — W. J. H.)

Hastings, C. S. On halos. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 617-619. 1914.

(Extract from his book "Light," supplemented by recent remarks. — W.

J. H.)

Henry, A. J. Artificial deepening of the Arkansas at Wichita, Kans. Monthly

Weather Review, 42: 391-393. 1914. (Bed of river has been lowered five or

six feet during the past ten years. — W. J. H.)

Herbertson, a. J. The thermal regions of the globe. Monthly Weather Re-

view, 42: 286-289. 1914. (Reprinted from the Geographical Journal,

London, Nov., 1912.)

Herrmann, C. F. von. Protection against frost in Georgia. Monthly Weather

Review, 42:585-586. 1914.

Humphreys, W. J. The planets and the weather. Monthly Weather Review,

42: 346-347. 1914. (Computes the possible temperature changes caused

by the planets and the moon, amounting at times to 0.01 °F. to 0.02°F. —

W. J. H.)

Humphreys, W. J. The thunderstorm and its phenomena. Monthly Weather

Review, 42:348-380. 1914. Journal of the Franklin Institute, 178:517-

560, 751-776. 1914. (Discusses the origin of thunderstorm electricity, the

kinds and nature of lightning, the mechanics of the thunderstorm and con-

ditions favorable to its development. — W. J. H.)

Humphreys, W. J. Frost protection. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 562-569.

1914. (A discussion of the scientific principles that underly artificial protec-

tion against frost. — W. J. H.)

Killam, S. D. Graphical integration of functions of a complex variable with

applications. Monthly ^^'eather Review, 42:277-283. 1914. (An entirely

mathematical paper. — W^ J. H.)

Kimball, H. H. Relation between solar radiation intensities and the temperature

of the air in the Northern Hemisphere in 1912-1913. Bulletin Mount Weather

Observatory, 6: 205-220. 1914. (Discusses the decrease in the intensity

of direct solar radiation that followed the eruption of Katmai in June,

1912.— W. J. H.)

Kimball, H. H. Solar radiation intensities at Mount Weather, Va., during

April, May and June, 1914. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 310-311. 1914.

248 references; meteorology

Kimball, H. H. The total radiaiion received on a horizontal surface from ike

sun and sky at Mount Weather, Va. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 474-487.

1914. (Total radiation is divided into two parts, direct solar and diffuse

sky radiation, and values by decades through the year given for all hours

of the day.— W. J. H.)

Kimball, H. H. Solar radiaiion intensities at Mount Weather, Va., during

July, August and September, 191 J^. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 520. 1914.

Kirk, J. M. Halos and precipitation at Wauseon, Ohio. Monthly Weather

Review, 42:616. 1914.

Lyman, T. The abiorpiion of the atmosphere for ultra-violet light. Monthly

Weather Review, 42:487-489. 1914. (A summary, with references, of all

that is known on this subject. — W. J. H.)

Marvin, C. F. Are lightning flashes unidirectional or oscillating electric dis-

charges? Monthly Weather Review, 42:499-501. 1914. (Questions the

adequacy of recent observations by De Blois to answer this question. —

W. J.H.)

Marvin, C. Y. Air drainage explained. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 583-

585. 1914. (Explains the phenomenon in a different manner from that of

the text-books. — \\ . J. H.)

Mitchell, A. J. Frost and frost protection in Florida. Monthly \\ eather Re-

view, 42: 588-589. 1914.

Moller, Max. Mechanics of atmospheric air within cyclones and anticyclones.

Monthly Weather Review, 42: 265-270. 1914. (A paper communicated

to the International Meteorological Congress at Chicago, August, 1893,

' and therefore, while still good, open to considerable revision and extension.

— W. J. H.)

Nakamura, K. Observations of horizontal rainbows. Monthly \\ eather Review,

42:430-431. 1914. (Reprinted from Jour. Metrl. Soc. Japan, June, 1914.)

Okada, T. Notes on the formation of glazed frost. Monthly Weather Review,

42: 284-286. 1914. (Reprinted from Jour. Metrl. Soc. Japan, May, 1914.

Contains a mathematical discussion of the cooling of rain drops. — W. J. H.)

Palmer, A. H. Halos and their relation to weather. Monthly Weather Review,

42:446-451. 1914.

Reed, C. D. Drought at Neiv York City. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 629-

631. 1914. (Tabulates data concerning the principal droughts at New

York City during the years 1871-1914.— W. J. H.)

Reed, W. G. Meteorology at the Lick Observatory. Monthly Weather Review,

42:339-345. 1914. (Discusses a continuous record of the meteorological

elements of approximately 34 years' length. — -W. J. H.)

Rover, W. H. A mechanism for illustrating certain systems of lines of force and

stream lines. Bulletin Mount Weather Observatory, 6: 195-204. 1914.

Sandstrom, J. W. Influence of terrestrial rotation on the condition of the atmos-

phere arid ocean. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 523-526. 1914.

Smith, G. W. Forecast distribution. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 541-545.

1914.

Smith, J. Warren. Frost warnings and orchard heating in Ohio. Monthly

Weather Review, 42: 573-583. 1914. (Discusses the practical application

of orchard heating in Ohio. — W. J. H.)

references: entomology 249

Sprague, M. Frosi and frost protection in Texas. Monthly Weather Review,

42:590. 1914.

Thiessen, a. H. Protection from frost in Utah. Monthly Weather Review,

42:586-587. 1914.

VooRHEES, J. F. Notes on frost protection in the vicinity of Knoxville, Tenn.

Monthly Weather Review, 42:587. 1914.

Ward, R. De C. Land and sea breezes. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 274-277.

1914. (Communicated to the International Meteorological Congress at

Chicago, August, 1893. A summary of what was then known about these

winds, to which not much has since been added. — W. J. H.)

WiNSLOW, C. E. A., and Browne, \V. W. The microbic content of indoor and

outdoor air. Monthly Weather Review, 42: 452-453. 1914.

ENTOMOLOGY

Back, E. A., and Pemberton, C. E. Life history of the melon fly. Journal of

Agricultural Research, 3: 269-274. December 15, 1914.

Caudell, a. N. Orthoptera of the Yale-Dominican expedition of 1913. Proceed-

ings of the U. S. National Museum, 47: 491-495. October 24, 1914. (Lists

all of the material collected and describes 2 new species. — J. C. C.)

CoAD, B. R. Feedings habits of the boll weevil on plants other than cotton. Journal

of Agricultural Research, 2: 235-245. June 15, 1914. (Gives results of ex-

periments of feeding on Sphaeralcea lindheimeri, Callirrhoe involucrata, C.

pedata, and Hibiscus syriacus; also results of experiments showing that it

is possible for the boll weevil to breed in the buds of Hibiscus. — J. C. C.)

Davidson, W. M. Walnut Aphides in California. Bulletin of the U. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, No. 100. Pp. 1-48, plates 1-4, figs. 1-18. August 31,

1914. (A professional paper containing descriptions of the species, together

with the natural enemies and artificial means of control. — J. C. C.)

Davis, J. J. The oat aphis. Bulletin of the LT. S. Department of Agriculture,

No. 112. Pp. 1-16, figs. 1-9. August 21, 1914. (Gives a description, to-

gether with description of species likely to be mistaken for the oat aphis;

give its life history and discusses depradations and remedial measures.^

J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. The larvae of some Lepidoptera from Mexico. Insecutor Inscitiae

Menstruus, 2: 113-117. August, 1914. (Describes the larvae of 9 species. —

J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Utetheisa in Porto Rico. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus, 2: 129-

131. September, 1914. (Describes 2 new varieties. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Descriptions of new species and genera of Lepidoptera from Mexico.

Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, 47: 365-409. October 24, 1914.

(In this paper the author describes the new genera Nudur in the Lithosiidae ;

Neomanobia, Calocea, Cacofota, Gorgora, in the Noctuidae; Zaparasa in

the Cochlidiidae; Cosmothyris in the Thyrididae; Tippecoa, Cromarcha,

Balidarcha, Anemosella, Myolisa, Zaboba, Shacontia, Deuterolia, Euparolia,

Mildrixia, Pseudodivona, Cactobrosis, Moodnopsis in the Pyralidae; together

with 141 new species and one new subspecies. — J. C. C.)

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 752cl meeting was held on February 13, 1915, at the Cosmos

Club, President Eichelberger in the chair; 48 persons present. Mr.

F. B. LiTTELL presented a paper on The Washington-Paris longitude

by radio signals. Transit instruments used were of recent type. The

observatory standard Riefler clocks were used and ran so well as to

justify interpolation over intervals of several days, thus permitting

utilization of all the radio work. The lags of clock signals in passing

through relays, which in some cases amounted to one-half second,

were measured frequently and resulting corrections were applied. The

radio signals from the over-sea station were usually extremely faint

and oftentimes unobservable. The errors and personal equations due

to the radio work were of the same order of magnitude as those due

to the astronomical work. From the work of 39 nights, when radio

observations in both directions were secured, the double transmission

time, free from the errors of clock corrections, was found to be

0!0437 ± 0^0039. The preferred resulting value for longitude is

5^^ l?-" 36?66 ± 0?003. This agrees well with the adjusted value for

4 cable determinations, viz., 5'^ I?'" 36!69. The paper was discussed

by Messrs. Paul, Bowie, Abbot, and Pauling.

Mr. A. J. LoTKA then spoke on Efficiency as a factor in organic evolu-

tion. Using the rate of increase per head, r, of a given species of or-

ganisms as an index of its adaptation to existing conditions, the func-

tional relationship between r and the efficiency of the organism was

investigated by analytical methods, making use of the objective stand-

ard of values developed by the speaker previously. This efficiency

depends on the errors of observation, operation, and mentation of the

type-individual, and on the errors of valuation of the representative

individual. An expression was obtained for the partial differential

coefficient of r with regard to a suitable parameter capable of serving

as an index of the imprecision of the organism in a given activity.

A separate expression was obtained for the partial differential coeffi-

cient of r with regard to errors of valuation. The paper was discussed

by Mr. Abbot with reference to applications to economic questions,

and by Mr. Burgess.

The 753d meeting was held on February 27, 1915, at the Cosmos

Club, President Eichelberger in the chair; 54 persons present.

250 '*'

proceedings: philosophical society 251

Mr. C. G. Abbot presented a paper entitled, Experiments in meas-

uring solar radiation from halloons. The author stated that close agree-

ment had been obtained in spectro-bolometric determinations of the

solar constant of radiation at four stations; the mean result of about

700 independent determinations is 1.93 calories per sq. cm. per minute.

Although these results depend on estimates of the transmission of the

atmosphere, the diversity of the circumstances of the observations

is such that the agreement of results strongly indicates their accuracy.

It is, however, maintained by some that the work is wholly unsound,

and that the real solar constant value is 3.5 calories per sq. cm. per

minute or more. Accordingly, a recording pyrheliometer has been

devised for use with sounding balloons. It is modified from the silver-

disk pyrheliometer now in general use. A blackened disk, lying hori-

zontally, is alternately exposed to the sun and shaded by a conical

reflecting shutter at four-minute intervals. A thermometer whose

reading is photographically recorded measures the rise and fall of the

temperature of the disk. A barometric element records pressure of

the atmosphere. Five ascents were made from Avalon, California, in

1913, and three ascents from Omaha in 1914, by cooperation with

the United States Weather Bureau. All instruments were recovered.

The most successful flight, at noon on July 11, 1914, reached an altitude

well above 20,000 meters. Three excellent records of solar radiation

were secured near maximum elevation, where the barometric pressure

is less than -jV of that at sea-level. These results are in good agreement,

and (reduced to mean solar distance) yield a mean value of 1.85 calories

per sq. cm. per minute. It is thought that about 2 per cent should

be added for the efl"ect of the remaining air, making the value 1.89

for this day. Its probable error is about 3 per cent. The paper was

discussed by Mr. White as to the effect of the downward current of

air in balloon w^ork; by Mr. Woodw^ard, who questioned the usual

method of estimation of the quantity of the atmosphere above any

level; and by Mr. Lambert with reference to the grounds upon which

certain investigators base a value pf the solar constant at a value near

4 calories.

Mr. R. S. Woodward then presented a paper on The compressibility

of the earth's mass, in which he considered the problem of the radial

compressibility of the earth's mass due to change in internal or to

surface stress. Assuming this mass to be spherical and that its den-

sity is a function only of distance from the center, the variation in

length of the radius due to condensation (or dilatation) was shown

to be equal to the volume-integral of the condensation divided by the

area of the sphere. Application was made of the law of condensation

defined by Laplace's hypothesis connecting density and stress in any

mass. Using round numbers, this hypothesis leads to the conclusion

that if the pressure of the atmosphere were doubled, the radius of the

earth would be diminished by two meters. The importance of this

conclusion in geology especially was emphasized.

J. A. Fleming, Secretary.

252 proceedings: geological society

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 291st meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club

on February 10, 1915.

INFORMAL COMMIJNICATIONS

■ S. R. Capps: A71 unusual exposure of a great thrust-fault. A remark-

able exposure of a great thrust-fault in the canyon of Nizina River,

Alaska, near the mouth of West Fork, was described. A photograph

was exhibited, showing a great cliff, about 5,000 feet high, in which

the fault is developed in almost diagrammatic perfection. The rocks

involved are the Nicolai greenstone (probably Carboniferous), and the

Triassic Chitistone limestone and McCarthy shales. A displacement

of about one-half mile has taken place; the Chitistone limestone has

been reduplicated to almost twice its normal thickness. The crumpling

of the overridden beds and the drag of the overriding beds were well

brought out.

D. F. Hewett: Calculation of the thickness of strata represented in

a series of outcrops of varying dip. A formula was presented for cal-

culating the thickness of folded beds between two horizons of widely

diverse inclination. The formula was based upon the assumption of

parallel folding, and the degree of accuracy of the various factors in-

volved in the calculation was stated.

Discussion: M. I. Goldmann inquired more particularly as to the

basis on which the calculations had been made, and this was explained

by Hewett. C. E. Lesher mentioned a graphical method which had

been proposed for the solution of the problem.

REGULAR PROGRAM

F. C. Schrader: Some features of the ore deposits in the Santa Hita

and Patagonia Mountains, Arizona. The deposits are exposed in about

a thousand mines and prospects scattered throughout the mountains.

They occur in two sharply contrasted groups that differ considerably

in age and represent two distinct periods of mineralization. The earlier

and more valuable group occurs in association with the Paleozoic sedi-

mentary rocks and the Mesozoic granular intrusives, and is referred

to the late Mesozoic epoch of metallization.

The later group belongs to the great group of metalliferous deposits

formed near the surface in the Tertiary volcanic rocks throughout the

West by ascending thermal solutions, and in genetic connection with the

associated rocks. It is referred to the Miocene and to the late Tertiary

epoch of metallization. Its deposits occur chiefly as copper-, silver-,

lead-, and gold-bearing fissure veins, in which the filling is mainly

quartz, fluorite, and calcite.

The older deposits contain the metals or minerals of gold, silver,

copper, lead, zinc, tungsten, and molybdenum. They were apparently

deposited at considerable depths, chiefly by ascending thermal solu-

tions that circulated as a close after-effect of the intrusion of Mesozoic

proceedings: geological society 253

magmas. They comprise three main classes: contact-metamorphic,

fissure-vein, and replacement deposits.

The oldest are the contact-metamorphic deposits. Their formation

was accompanied by mineralization and the development of the usual

garnet zone containing a dozen or more contact-metamorphic minerals.

The ferruginous or metallic constituents of these minerals, as andradite,

gedrite, and others, were derived chiefly from the magmatic or ensuing

solutions of the intrusive rock and not from the host limestone. The

deposits are mainly copper-bearing; the chief primary ore minerals

are chalcopyrite and cupriferous pyrite. From these two minerals,

copper carbonates, oxide, and secondary sulphides, constituting the

present workable ore bodies, were formed by oxidation and secondary

enrichment.

The fissure veins are numerous and widely distributed. They are

about 6 feet in average width. Some are a mile long, and have a known

vertical range of nearly a thousand feet. The filling is chiefly quartz,

fluorite, and barite. The ore minerals are chiefly argentite, cerargyrite,

bromyrite, native silver, gold, pyromorphite, pyrargyrite, various

lead, copper, and zinc minerals, molbydenite, wolframite, and scheelite.

The replacement deposits are associated with the contact-meta-

morphic deposits and some of the vein deposits described above. They

occur chiefly in limestone in association with the intrusive rocks. Their

principal metallic constituents are lead and silver. To this class appar-

ently belong in large part the deposits at the Mowry mine and at the

Total Wreck mine. The Mowry deposits occur on a steeply north-

ward-dipping fault-contact between quartz monzonite on the south

and Paleozoic limestone on the north, with altered gabbro underlying

the limestone and forming the hanging wall in the deep part of the

mine. They are opened to the depth of 500 feet, and for 600 feet

longitudinally along the fault, and they extend laterally 100 feet or

moi'e back from the fault into the limestone. They consist mainly

of lenses or chimney-shaped, nearly vertical bodies, standing or lying

parallel with the fault plane, and are composed chiefly of argentiferous

ore minerals, cerusite, coarse galena, anglesite, and bindheimite, all

contained in a manganiferous and ferruginous gangue consisting prin-

cipally of psilomelane and massive pyrolusite and hematite. The ore

is mostly oxidized to the depth of 300 feet. The deposits are thought to

be genetically connected with the gabbro, which seems best able to have

supplied the iron and manganese constituents found in the gangue.

They were probably deposited in the sulphide form as metasomatic

replacements; from the sulphide minerals the present ore minerals and

gangue were derived by processes of oxidation. They seem to be sim-

ilar in character and origin to the Leadville, Colorado, deposits recently

described by Philip Argall. (A fuller account is to appear in the forth-

coming U. S. Geol. Survey Bulletin 582).

Discussion: N. L. Bo wen referred to the analysis of the gabbro

as exhibited on the blackboard, and pointed out its remarkable com-

position, referring to the 7.25 per cent of alkalies and the 1.29 per cent of

254 proceedings: geological society

MgO. He inquired as to the mineral composition, remarking that

with such a large amount of alkalies, alkaline pyroxenes should be ex-

pected. ScHRADER had no description of the mineral composition at

hand. G. F. Loughlin spoke of the difference between the specimen

of quartz monzonite exhibited and the Leadville porphyry. The Arizona

specimen appeared more like the quartz monzonites of Utah. He also

called attention to the chemical affinities between the analyses of

gabbro and quartz monzonite shown, and thought it quite probable

that the ores might have been derived from the gabbro.

F. E. Matthes. Studies on glacial cirques in the Sierra Nevada.

The better preserved cirques of the central High Sierra, especially those

hewn in fairly massive igneous rocks, are found to consist of two dis-

tinct and contrasting parts, a lower bowl with smooth, concave slopes,

in many instances holding a tarn, and an upper chff rising from the

periphery of the bowl, with rough, hackly face, arid nearly vertical

profile. The relative proportions of bowl and cliff are by no means

the same in all cirques; but the bowl is in every case the dominant fea-

ture, constituting the main part of the cirque, while the cliff is distinctly

accessory in character, although occasionally assuming considerable

height.

The riven, hackly face of the cliff clearly bespeaks frost action.

The verticahty of its profile and the tendency to overhang, moreover,

point to basal sapping; that is, they show that the locus of most intense

frost action is situated at the base of the wall. The conspicuous smooth-

ness of contour and the striated and polished surface of the concave

bowl-slopes, on the other hand, attest corrasion, principally abrasion —

by moving ice. This abraded appearance sets in immediately below

the base of the cliff, showing that at that line frost action ceases abruptly

and that there is no transition zone in which the two processes blend

their effects. The Imse of the chff accordingly constitutes a well-de-

fined and conspicuous boundary line, which is interpreted as indicating

the depth to which the bergschrund of the ancient glacier opened and

to which frost action was permitted to penetrate. (Willard Johnson

and Gilbert have referred to it as the "sap line.") If this interpreta-

tion is correct, it necessarily follows that the entire cirque bowl — the

major part of the cirque — is elaborated through the corrasive action of

the ice masses contained in it. Mass corrasion, accordingly, would

appear to be the dominant cirque sculpturing process, while bergschrund

sapping, as T. C. Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury have suggested,

is merely a peripherally working, auxiliary process. The two processes,

while associated, do not necessarily work at the same rate. In many

instances cliff sapping appears to have outstripped mass corrasion, l)e-

cause it was aided by the development of joints in the upper parts of

the rock mass through weathering at the preglacial surface of erosion.

In such cases the cliff stands back from the bowl rim and is separated

from it by a narrow shelf. Abrasion by snow shod with rocks fallen

from the chff smooths the shelf and transforms the bowl rim into a

rounding curve.

proceedings: geological society 255

«

That the ice masses accumulating in a cirque are competent to gen-

erate through corrasion alone a bowl characterized by smooth, concave

slopes, and hollowed out so as to hold a lake basin, can be demonstrated

by analysis of the mechanics involved. Similarly it can be shown that

the ice masses flowing out of the cirque are competent by their corrasive

action alone to produce a U-shaped trough. Frost sapping, it is true,

does take place along the margins of the outflowing glacier, but it does

not contribute to the elaboration of the U-trough any more than it

contributes to the elaboration of the cirque bowl. It is effective only

to the shallow depth to which the marginal crevasses open, and gives

rise to special marginal features above the edges of the U-trough;

namely, to a shelf or shoulder, and a cliff or scarp. In fact, the mar-

ginal shoulder and scarp of the outflow canyon are but the continuations

of the shelf and cliff of the cirque, while the U-trough, properly speaking,

is the continuation of the cirque bowl. It is not contended that these

sculptural features are characteristic of cirques and outflow canyons in

all parts of the world. They can acquire prominence only in cirques

and canyons carved from prevailing massive rocks, such as those of the

Sierra Nevada, for such rocks do not lend themselves well to plucking,

and in them mass corrasion must perforce consist mainly of abrasion,

which is productive of smoothly curving surfaces, contrasting strongly

with the hackly faces of frost-riven cliffs. In densely jointed rocks,

on the other hand, mass corrasion may consist of both plucking and

abrasion, and the surfaces produced by it are likely to be more or less

hackly and therefore not greatly different in appearance from those

resulting from frost sapping. In cirques laid in thin-bedded, finel}''

jointed sedimentary rocks, accordingly, one should not expect to find

an}^ pronounced contrast in appearance between the bowl slopes and

the cliff.

Again, the features of some Sierra cirques are particularly^ clean-cut

because the uniformity of the rock structure makes for uniformity and

continuity of the individual sculptural units, and as a consequence the

boundary between those units — between bowl and cliff — is sharply

defined and regular. Local variations in structure and in resisting

qualities, on the other hand, commonly occur in the rocks of most moun-

tain regions. As a consequence, irregularities in cirque sculpture are

the rule. Rocks of locally varying structure and resistance, further,"

are likely to develop ragged surfaces, giving rise to several successive,

and more or less discontinuous bergschrunds, and in them clean-cut,

simple cirque forms can not be realized. No doubt it is the prevailing

irregularity of the cirque forms, due to interfering structures, that has

prevented observers in most mountain regions from clearly apprehend-

ing the relative importance of the two processes involved in cirque

erosion — mass corrasion, and bergschrund sapping. Another circum-

stance, finally, that appears' to have favored the production of a pro-

nounced sap line in the cirques of the High Sierra is indicated by a

study of the level reached in the cirques and canyon by the ice of each

of the two pleistocene glacial epochs that have occurred in the Sierra

256 proceedings: botanical society

Nevada. The earlier glaciation was much more extensive than the

later one, and the ice levels of the two consequently lie several thousand

feet apart in altitude on the middle flanks of the range. As the levels

are traced upward, however, they are found to converge until in the

immediate vicinity of the Sierra crest they cannot be distinguished from

each other. Evidently, then, the ice of the two epochs reached prac-

tically the same height in the crestal cirques, and the later glaciers

started from substantially the same sap line as did the earher ones. Fur-

thermore the moraines indicate that the glacierets of recent historic

time, many of which were less than one mile long, also started from the

sap line left by the Pleistocene glaciers. It is to be inferred, therefore,

that at all stages of glaciation the ice filled the crestal cirques to approxi-

mately the same depth, and that consequently every glacial episode

has reaccentuated the sap line, and has resumed the modeling of the

cirques essentially along the lines established by its predecessors.

Discussion: S. R. Capps said that it was not entirely evident to him

why the sap-line should have had the same level at different 'glacial

epochs. Matthes replied that he had come to his conclusion on this

matter not by analytical reasoning but by following to their converg-

ences the trend of the ice-lines or markings on the rocks made at

different epochs. Capps favored the idea that the position of the

sap-line was due to the height to which snow could accumulate before

flow-movement began. Matthes thought this explanation might

well be consistent with his idea.

W. C. Alden said that his experience in glacial studies had been

chiefly in regions of sedimentary rocks, and spoke of the phenomena

in Glacier National Park. In the development of the fine cirques in

thin-bedded sedimentaries there shown he believed plucking had been

a very great factor. He had not observed Matthes' sap-line in these

cirques. There was good evidence of plucking-efl"ects but not much

of abrasion-effects.

R. H. Chapman said that in his opinion the great variety of profiles

in cross-sections of cirques in the Glacier Park regions could be as-

cribed to difl"erences in dip of sedimentary beds.

C. N. Fenner, Secretary.

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 103d regular meeting of the Society was held in the Crystal

Dining Room of the New Ebbitt Hotel, at 6.45 p.m., Tuesday, March

2, 1915. Eighty-two members and seventy-eight guests were present,

this being the regular annual open meeting for the President's address.

The retiring President, Dr. C. L. Shear, delivered an address on

"Mycology in relation to Phytopathology."

Mr. a. S. Hitchcock addressed the Society concerning the pro-

posed publication of a local flora, covering the flowering plants and

vascular cryptogams of Washington and vicinity, which is being pre-

pared by Washington botanists under the leadership of Mr. Frederick

proceedings: botanical society 257

V. CoviLLE and himself. The flora, as planned, is to include an intro-

duction, a key to the families, keys to the genera of each f amity, keys

to the species of each genus, and statements concerning the habitat,

abundance, and local distribution of each species, with suitable refer-

ences to outside range. Formal descriptions will be omitted, but

statements may be given concerning useful or poisonous qualities,

economic value, }^cuharities of structure, or other points likely to be

of interest to the users of a local flora. The area to be covered by

the Flora is approximately a circle of 15 miles radius with the capi-

tol as a center, this territory being practically that covered by Ward's

Flora of Washington, though it is not intended to exclude from con-

sideration localities that lie a short distance outside of the 15 mile

circle. The formal list is to include all indigenous and introdu^^ed

plants and those that have escaped from cultivation. In addition

there will be brief references to the common species of cultivated plants.

All the species listed in Ward's Flora or its supplements are to be ac-

counted for, even though they can not now be verified by specimens.

It is proposed to pubhsh in the spring of 1916, if practicable, a pre-

hminary edition of the Flora which shall include the flowering plants

and ferns. This will allow one intervening collecting season for

collating data and confirming previous records. It is hoped that

later editions may be published which shall include the cryptogams.

In 1906 a list of the vascular plants of the District of Columbia and

vicinity was compiled by Mr. P. L. Ricker, and copies were struck

off by mimeograph. This list was based upon Ward's Flora and its

supplements. Mr. Ricker has prepared and placed on file a card

index of additions to the above-mentioned fist. At the National

Herbarimn the District Flora, consisting of all specimens from the

area mentioned, has been segregated and can be readily consulted.

There is also accessible a detailed outUne of the plan of the 'Flora and

a sample illustrating the form to be followed in preparation of manu-

scripts. Man}^ botanists have been consulted in relation to the pro-

ject and 29 have signified their wilHngness to contribute manuscript

of particular families or genera.

It is regarded as very desirable also that work should be started this

season upon the cryptogams, and it is hoped that as many botanists

as possible will cooperate in collecting material or in preparing manu-

script for the crj^ptogams to be included in future editions. All per-

sons interested in the general project of a District Flora are invited to

consult with Mr. Frederick V. Coville at the Department of Agri-

culture or with the speaker at the National Herbarium.

The Society also passed resolutions of regret upon the death of Dr.

Charles E. Bessey.

Perley Spaulding, Corresponding Secretary.

258 proceedings: society of American foresters

THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS

MEETINGS

Nine open and six executive meetings of thie Society of American

Foresters were held during 1914. The following list gives a program

of the meetings: first open, then executive:

Open Meetings. January 8: Herman H. ChA'man, Methods of

studying yields per acre on the basis of age for all-aged stands. February

5: D. T. Mason, The management of lodgepole pine. March 5:

Franklin W. Reed, The proper basis for land classification. April 2:

Bristow Adams, J. H. Foster, and F. F. Moon, New developments in

the eastern woodlot problem. May 7: Earle H. Clapp, The National

Forests of Alaska. October 22: G. A. Pearson, Forest planting in

Arizona and N ew Mexico. November 19: C. J. Blanchard, Reclama-

tion and Forestry. December 17: Karl W. Woodward, Administra-

tion of the National Forests in the Southern Appalachians.

Executive Meetings. January 22: Annual executive meeting. May

16: Executive meeting to consider report of executive committee.

June 17: To adopt resolutions on the death of Overton W. Price,

active member. July 29: To adopt resolutions on the death of Louis

Margolin, active member. November 7: To adopt resolutions on

the death of Henry Gannett, associate member. November 20:

To consider question of meeting places.

The .fifteen meetings of the year represent the largest number held

so far in a twelve-month.

The average attendance at open meetings was 50, also the largest

average attained, due in part to the open meeting at Cornell in May,

attended by 256. The lowest attendance was 8; the average leaving

out these two extremes was 27. At the executive committee meetings

the average attendance was 16, with the largest at Cornell in May

with 31 members present.

Membership. During the year the Society lost, by death, three

members, two active and one associate — Overton W. Price and Louis

Margolin, and Henry Gannett.

A general reorganization of membership in accordance with the

revised constitution is in progress, but has not been completed at this

date.

During the year 18 active and 8 associate members were added. The

present membership is 299, divided as follows: Active 240, Associate 58,

Honorary 1, Total 299.

Annual Election. In the annual election closed January 8, 1915,

the following candidates were elected: President, W. B. Greeley;

Vice President, Raphael Zon; Secretary, Karl W. Woodward; Treas-

urer, Louis S. Murphy; Executive Committee: R. S. Hosmer, Filibert

Roth, H. 0. Stabler, F. A.-Silcox, R. Y. Stuart.

Karl W. Woodward, Secretary.

proceedings: biological society 259

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 525th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, Saturday, April 4, 1914, with Vice-President Hay

in the chair and 35 persons present. The following program was

presented :

Notes on the hatching of a local terraphi, Kinosternon pennsylvanicus,

William Palmer.

An account of a visit to some of the smaller museums, O. P. Hay.

The fishes of the Lahontan Basin, Nevada, J. 0. Snydee.

The 526th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, Saturday, April 18, 1914, with Vice-President Rose in

the chair and 40 persons present . The following program was presented :

Notes on Bermuda birds, Titus LTlke.

Reactions of corals to food and to non-nutrient particles, and the nature

of the food of corals, T. Wayland Vaughan.

The plankton resources of some Massachusetts ponds, A. A. Doolittle.

The 527th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, Saturday, May 2, 1914, with Vice-President Hay in

the chair and 46 persons present. The following program was presented :

A journal of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition, W. P. Hay.

The home and country of Linnaeus, S. M. Gronberger.

Exhibition of lantern slides of Washington wild flowers, L. D. Halleck.

W. L. McAtee, Acting Recording Secretary.

The 528th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, Saturday, October 17, 1914, with President Bartsch in the

chair and 36 persons present. The president announced the death

of Theodore N. Gill, a founder and a former president of the Society,

and asked the secretary to read the following resolutions which had

been adopted by the council:

Whereas, it has pleased Divine Providence to remove our friend,

fellow member, and former president. Dr. Theodore N. Gill from the

scene of his earthly labors,

Wherefore, be it resolved: That his profound erudition, devotion

to research, long continued industry, and voluminous publications on

various branches of science justly entitled Dr. Gill to especial distinc-.

tion as a zoologist, while his kindly nature and generous devotion of

his time and thought to the assistance of yomiger and less experienced

students will ever remain a cherished memory among us;

Also, resolved: That to his surviving relatives we tender our sincere

sympathy, and the secretary of the Society is requested to communi-

260 proceedings: biological societi'

cate to them this expression of our regret for the loss sustained by

them and by the scientific world.

Wm. H. Ball, ]

L. O. Howard, [ Committee.

L. Stejneger, j

The program was then taken up. Under the heading Brief Notes,

Book Reviews, etc., L. 0. Howard referred to the report that ar-

senical spraying in connection with the destruction of gipsy moths in

New England had destroyed many birds, and stated that investiga-

tions had failed entirely to show that any birds were killed. Dr.

Peters had suggested to him that the absence of birds in the region of

spraying operations was probably due to the fact that the absence

of insect food had led them to leave the district. Paul Bartsch

reported that English sparrows were seen feeding freely on the army

worm in the Smithsonian grounds during the recent invasion of that

insect.

The regular program consisted of three communications:

A mouse which lived in tree-tops, Vernon Bailey. The speaker gave

an account of the history and habits of Phenacomys longicauda, a little

known arboreal mouse which inhabits the deep Douglas spruce forests

of the Cascade region of the northwest. Personal experiences in hunt-

ing the nests of the species and climbing to them were related, and

a perfect specimen obtained last summer at Eugene, Oregon, was

exhibited. The communication was discussed by W. H. Osgood,

Botanical collecting in the Northwest, A. S. Hitchcock. The speaker

gave a general account of his summer's collecting trip to the north-

western part of the United States and British Columbia. His itinerary

included Nebraska, the Black Hills, Glacier Park, Banff, Mt. Baker,

Mt. Ranier, and Mt. Hood, in all of which places interesting species

of grasses were obtained.

The present state of fox-farming, Ned Dearborn. Last spring the

speaker was sent by the Biological Survey to investigate the methods

and progress of this industry in Prince Edward Island and elsewhere.

He gave a history of fox-farming and its development to the present

time, together with personal observations among the fox ranches.

The financial inflation of the business and the methods of some of the

promoters of fox companies were not commended, but it is his opinion

that the industry can be developed into commercial importance. The

communication was discussed by T. S. Palmer and by J. Walter

Jones, of Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island.

The 529th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, Saturday, October 31, 1914, with President Bartsch in the

chair. One hundred and ten persons were present. Five persons were

elected to active membership.

The secretary read a letter from Herbert A. Gill acknowledging

receipt of resolutions of the Society relating to the death of his brother,

Dr. Theodore N. Gill.

proceedings: biological society 261

Two communications were presented, the first being Pelage varia-

ations of American moles, by Hartley H. T. Jackson. The speaker

classed the variations as generic, geographic, seasonal, senile, and

individual, and showed under each class the tendencies of the different

genera to show differences in pelage. Under geographic variation he

noted that, unlike the eastern moles which are lightest toward the

south, Neurotrichus is darkest toward the south, and that Parascalops

darkens southward along the coast, while in the mountains it darkens

toward the north. The seasonal variations are especially marked by

differences in the location on the body of the animal where the moult

begins. Scalopus has great seasonal changes and the moult starts

on the central line of the body. In Scapatius the moult begins at the

head and is completed at the posterior. In Condylura the moult starts

on the flank; in Neurotrichus in the head. The remarks were illus-

trated by specimens which showed the variations under discussion,

as well as interesting mutations. In discussing the paper D. E. Lantz

spoke briefly of a possible market for mole fur in the United States.

The second communication was by R. L. Garner, who related some

of his experiences during twenty-five years' study of the great apes of

western Africa. He told how he first came to engage in his experi-

ments in investigating the speech of monkeys and how he finally under-

took researches in the wilds of the French Congo. His experiences

and observations during hiany years residence at LTbesoille and other

places, during which he had many opportunities of studying gorillas

and chimpanzees at close range, were related. He showed many

lantern slides depicting natives and their houses, as well as physical

features of the country and the tropical vegetation. Pictures of the

large gorilla kept at Breslau for seven years and of ''Susie," the chim-

panzee trained by Mr. Garner, were also shown. At the conclusion

of his remarks he answered many questions from the interested audience.

The 530th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, Saturday, November 14, 1914, with President Bartsch

in the chair and 37 persons present. Three persons were elected to

active membership.

Under the heading Brief Notes, etc., M. W. Lyon stated that he had

recently seen a specimen of the American coot which had been killed

on the top of a mountain and inquired whether the occurrence of the

species in such localities was common. General T. A. Wilcox remarked

that he had seen a similar case. L. O. Howard exhibited a canine of

the saber-toothed tiger which he recently picked up in the asphalt

desposits near Los Angeles, California. A. D. Hopkins told of cypress

wood from the same locality which showed borings of insect larvae.

W. H. Osgood told of a well preserved tree which he had seen in the

same deposit.

The first communication of the regular program was by William

Palmer, on Certain Miocene fossils. The fossils under consideration

were obtained in the Miocene cliffs below Chesapeake Beach, Maryland.

262 proceedings: biological society

Owing to the very scanty material from which Cope and others had

described the types in the Museum of the Philadelphia Academy of

Natural Sciences it was extremely difficult to identifj^ the material

collected by the speaker. He had collected the skulls of three species

of porpoises but no vertebrae of the same individuals. As Cope's

type specimens of these animals from the Miocene consisted only of

a few vertebrae the speaker was not able to determine which name to

apply to these skulls. Mr. Palmer exhibited teeth like those which

had once heen the basis for the false statement that the Hippopotamus

was among the early animals of America. Leidj^ had described similar

teeth as those of a porpoise, but the speaker thought thej^ belonged to

another animal because of their peculiar structure. The communica-

tion was illustrated by many specimens, among which was the skull

of a small Zeuglodon. Many of these Miocene fossils are similar to

Pliocene types from the cliffs near Antwerp, Belgium, and a compari-

son of the American and European material is extremely desirable.

The communication was discussed by M. W. Lyon.

The second communication was by Paul B. Popenoe who pre-

sented an account of Arabic zoology. After a short sketch of the rise

of Arabic zoology he gave some curious extracts from the writings of

Kamal al Din Muhammad ibu Musa al Damiri, whose encyclopedic

work, Hayat al Hayawan or the Lives of Animals, finished in 1371,

has since beerf the standard authority among the Moslems. The

amusing extracts related to the elephant, the cat, the gorilla, and

other species.

The third communication, by Wells W. Cooke, was an account of

the National Bird Census taken last July by the Biological Survey in

cooperation with the ornithologists of the United States. The objects

of the census and methods employed were given, together with results

based on the reports that had been obtained. An account of the

speaker's personal enumeration of the birds near Viresco, Virginia,

and results were exhibited by figures on the blackboard. Several

persons took part in the discussion which followed.

The 531st meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, Saturday, November 28, 1915, with President Bartsch in the

chair and 31 persons present. One person was elected to active

membership.

Under the heading Brief Notes, etc., C. W. Stiles gave a short

account of certain results of his efforts at sanitation in relation to

intestinal parasites. Messrs. How'land and Lyon, took part in the

discussion. Wm. Palmer exhibited some interesting fossils from the

Miocene deposits of the Chesapeake collected by him during the

present week.

The regular program consisted of three comnumications:

A porcupine skull shoiving an extra pair of upper incisors: M. W.

Lyon, Jr. The specimen under consideration was the skull of a half

grown porcupine collected in Borneo by Dr. Abbott which, so far as can

proceedings: anthropological society 263

be learned, is unique in character in liaving two upper incisors instead

of one on each side. The speaker considered it a milk incisor that

has persisted. He showed lantern slides of the specimen. Messrs.

GiDLEY and Howland participated in the discussion, both agreeing

with the theory advanced by the speaker.

Notes on soine fishes collected by Dr. Mearns in the Colorado River:

J. 0. Snydek. The species found in the Colorado basin are distinct

from species found elsewhere. The faunas of the river basins of the

West show the same feature. From the evidence shown by genera

obtained in the different river basins, the speaker concluded that

communication must have been at a very remote period. He exhibited

specimens collected by Dr. Mearns.

Azotes on some birds observed on the Florida Keys in April, 191 4-'

Paul Bartsch. The speaker gave an account of observations on

birds made during an eight-day cruise among the Florida Keys in

April, 1914, and showed by means of lantern slides most of the species

in their natural surroundings. Most of the time was spent at Bird

Key. Pictures of frigate birds and various species of terns were also

used in illustration.

The 35th annual meeting and 532d regular meeting was held in

the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, December 12, 1914,

with President Bartsch in the chair and 18 members present.

The minutes of the 34th annual meeting were read and approved,

and the annual reports of the officers and connnittees were presented.

The election of officers for the year 1915 took place, resulting as

follows: President, Paul Bartsch; Vice-Presidents, A. D. Hopkins,

W. P. Hay, J. N. Rose, Mary J. Rathbun; Recording Secretary,

M. W. Lyon, Jr.; Corresponding Secretary, W. L. McAtee; Treasuer,

W. W. Cooke; Members of Council, Hugh M. Smith, Vernon Bailey,

Wm. Palmer, N. Hollister, J. W. Gidley.

President Paul Bartsch was selected to represent the Society as

Vice-President in the AVashington Academy of Sciences.

The President appointed as the Committee on Publication: N.

Hollister, W. L. McAtee, and W. W. Cooke.

D. E. Lantz, Recording Secrefary.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

At the 478th meeting of the Society held December 1, 1914, in the

Public Library, Dr. George S. Duncan, of Johns Hopkins University,

delivered an address on The Sumerian people and their inscriptions.

About 140 persons were present. The land between the lower Tigris

and Euphrates in very ancient times was inhabited by a non-Semitic

people called Sumerians. Their oldest inscriptions antedate 3000 B.C.,

but the beginning of Sumerian civilization are far older than any in-

scriptions. The Enlil temple in Nippur dates back probably to 6000

B.C. Semites from Arabia conquered the Sumerians and by 2100 B.('.

264 proceedings: anthropological society

ruled over the whole land from Babylon as the capital. Of the Sumerian

cities only Lagash and Nippur have been thoroughly excavated. These

have yielded most important finds. The Sumerians had a pointed,

narrow nose with a straight ridge and narrow nostrils. The cheek

bones were high, the mouth small, the lips narrow and finely rounded.

The lower jaw was very short, the pointed chin not extending far for-

ward. The eyes were ahnond shaped. The forehead was rather low,

and extended far back from the root of the nose. The face was flat,

and the head short. The head and face were shaved. The people

were apparently short in stature and thick-set. There is a general

agreement that the Sumerians were neither Semites nor Indo-Euro-

peans. A majority of scholars would class them among the Mongolians.

Sumerian is an agglutinative language. The only garment worn by

the Sumerians was a rough woolen skirt fastened around the waist by

a girdle. Agriculture was a common occupation. Great crops of

cereals, such as wheat, barley, millet, and vetches, were grown. The

chief fruit tree was the date palm. Many persons were employed

as fishers, hunters, weavers, fullers, dyers, brickmakers, potters, smiths,

carpenters, boat-builders, goldsmiths, jewelers, sculptors, and carvers

in wood and ivory. The learned professions included priests, teachers,

librarians, scribes, publishers, notaries, physicians, astronomers, and

musicians. The country was divided up into a large number of city

states ruled by kings. The oldest Sumerian art is very crude. The

highest artistic development was reached about the age of Gudea, circa

2600 B.C. The Sumerians were very rehgious. The three chief

divinities were Anu, god of the sky, Enlil, god of the earth, and Enki,

god of the water. The Sumerian religion was a kind of nature wor-

ship. The temples consisted of a complex of buildings, the most promi-

nent part of which was the temple tower, a solid strucutre in the shape

either of a square or of a parallelogram rising in platforms, one above

the other. The temples seem to have had departments for religion,

business, administration, law, education, and a library. The priests

were the learned men of the time. There were orders of priests and

priestesses. The inscriptions of the Sumerians mainly consist of his-

torical records, laws, contracts, epics, and various kinds of religious

texts. The oldest records of a paradise, a fall, and a flood are found

in Sumerian tablets.

Daniel Folkiviar, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V APRIL 19, 1915 No. 8

PHYSICS. — Some notes on the theory of the Rayleigh-Zeiss inter-

ferometer. By Leason H. Adams, Geophysical Laborator3^

Communicated bj^ Arthur L. Day.

In the course of some work on the freezing point of dilute

aqueous solutions in which a Zeiss interferometer was employed

as a means of determining the concentration of the equilibrium

solutions, 1 some trouble was experienced at first in obtaining

thoroughly concordant readings; this was found to be due to

an alteration of the achromatic reference fringe produced by

differences in optical dispersion. In order to guard against

error from this source it proved necessary to investigate the re-

lationships in order to derive formulae from which the exact

amount of shift of the achromatic fringe could be predicted.

The appropriate formulae for this type of instrument have

apparently not been worked out heretofore ;2 consequently it

has seemed worth while to call attention to these relationships

and to put the formulae on record so as to save trouble to future

users of this most useful type of instrument.

1. The optical path-differences resulting from the tilting of a

plane-parallel glass plate. In the form of interferometer under

consideration the difference in optical path-length of the two

interfering beams of light is compensated by tilting one of two

1 L. H. Adams, J. Am. Chem. Soc, 37, 481 (1915). A paper dealing with the

use of this form of interferometer in the analysis of solutions is in course of

publication in the J. Am. Chem. Soc.

^ Except, possibly, in part by Siertsema in 1890 in a Groningen dissertation,

a copy of which I have been unable to secure.

265

266

ADAMS : RAYLEIGH-ZEISS INTERFEROMETER

L, P,

C,

R,

R.

O

Fig. 1. Diagram of optical arrangement of interferometer; the two inter-

fering beams are separated and reunited in (a) by two lenses, in (h) by a single

lens.

»■

f

ly

[

I

Ifl

R2

M

Fig. 2. Drawing in plan (below) and elevation (above) of the Zeiss Water

Interferometer.

ADAMS : RAYLEIGH-ZEISS INTERFEROMETER

267

interposed glass plates (Pi, -P2, fig. 1); the amount of this tilting

is then a measure of the path-difference between the two sides

and hence of the difference in refractive index of the contents

of the pair of cells Ci, Co. The compensator plate is fastened

at an angle of about 45° to a movable arm parallel to the direction

of the light and is tilted by means of a micrometer screw which

bears against the arm and moves in a fixed direction perpendicu-

lar to the arm when in its zero-position (see fig. 2) . The optical

path-difference resulting from the

tilting of the plate through a certain

angle 9 may be calculated as follows :

Consider a certain path, of length

K, traversed by a beam of light, and

introduce into this path a plane-

parallel glass plate (fig. 3) . ' Let 45°

+ 6 he the angle of incidence, h the

thickness of the plate, n its refrac-

tive index and no that of the surrounding medium (air)

may easily be shown that the air-path of the beam

Fig. 3. Diagram to illustrate

path of light beam through com-

pensator plate.

It

ki + /v3 = K

h

V2

and that the glass-path

COS d -f sin d -\-

rioil - sin20j

V2n^-nli\ -sin 2 5).

V2 n h

V2n'' -7il (1 -sin 2^)

Now the optical path-length P is by definition equal to 2 k n.

Accordingly,

h

P=''^^- V2

V2 ^2 - rio (1 - sin 2 0 - no (cos 6 + sin 6)

Ordinarily no — 1 is very small compared to n — 1 ; consequently

we may put no == 1 . Then if we write H -= 2n^ — 1 , we have

(1)

P ^ K -

h

V2

V H + sm2d - (cos d + sin d)

268 ADAMS: RAYLEIGH-ZEISS INTERFEROMETER

In the initial position (angle of incidence = 45°) d = 0°, and

therefore

(2) n = if-;^(Vi7-l)

Hence, the optical path difference p resulting from the tilt-

ing of the plate through an angle d is .

'3) P-Po-P-^^

Vh - 1 - VH + sm2e + cosd-\-mid\

This formula may be applied in a number of ways. For a

compensator plate of given thickness and refractive index one

can calculate the sensitiveness of the instrument by differentiat-

ing with respect to 9; moreover its range for given values of 6

may be readily computed. •

It is interesting to note the relation between sensitiveness and

refractive index of the plate. For 6=0°

dp h / 1 \

The values of dp/d 6 for plates of unit thickness are shown below.

sensitiveness

dp/dd

0.34

0.44

0.51

0.54

Inspection of this table shows the comparatively small influence

of refractive index on the sensitiveness of the compensator plate.

In a modified form it maj^ also be used to obtain a small cor-

rection to the reading (on the drum D of the micrometer screw)

such that the ''corrected reading" will be strictly proportional

to the refractive index difference {v) of the solutions or mixtures

under investigation. Thus if R is the travel in mm. of the

screw and a the length in mm. of the arm — that is the con-

stant perpendicular distance between the center of rotation and

T>

the line of motion of the screw — then 6 = tan —. Hence

a

ADAMS: RAYLEIGH-ZEISS INTERFEROMETER 269

eliminating e from equation (3) we have

which reduces with sufficient approximation to the power series

(5) V

V'2

1_^ 1_J__ J:^_l

R ^-^ - R—-r^^ + ^'-^^-^^3 —

a 2 a a^

Now let R'~^ be a quantity such that

a / I

hi

then

1

(6) R' = R-R' , , - + R

J_ 1_ _ 1

^1.5 „ Vh 2

2a(l-4^^ a^(l- '

V'hJ ^ V H/

As an example, in our instrument (the Zeiss Water-Interferom-

eter) a = 110 mm. and 7ij) = 1.514; moreover, if r represents

the number of divisions on the drum corresponding to a given

value of R, r = 200 R (also r' = 200 R') ; for these values formula

(6) reduces to the expression

in which the last term is almost entirely negligible. Values of R'

(and hence also of r') calculated in this way are proportional to

the decrease in optical path resulting from the tilting of the

compensator plate, and therefore strictly proportional to the

quantity p, the refractive index difference of the solutions.

Another use to which fornmla (3) may be put is the calculation

of the variation with refractive index ?i of the path difference

p corresponding to a given angle 6. Thus by differentiation,

270 ADAMS : RAYLEIGH-ZEISS INTERFEROMETER

dp ^^ I \ 1 \

(7j

dn- ^^^'''Wl{~ V

dn ^^""Wh VH+sm2d/

whence by combination with (3), we have

1 1

,o\ dp ^ J Vh Vh + sin 2 e

(8; -i = 2 n dn . . ^=

V V i7 - 1 - y/E + sin 2 0 + sin 0 + cos ^

For small values of Q (the usual case) we may write sin 6 = 0

and cos 6 = 1. The above expression then reduces with suf-

ficient approximation to the following:

Ap 2n An

(9) ^

P hW H - I)

For ordinary crown glass n = 1.52 and the above formula

reduces to

(9a) -^ = 0.94 An

Now for the change of path p, caused by the insertion of suc-

cessive plane-parallel plates perpendicular to the direction of

the light, pi = h{n — 1) and therefore dpi/p = dn{n— 1).

But dn/{n — 1) is the ordinary ''relative dispersion." Hence

if we write (9) in the form

(lOA)

where

(lOB)

q is then the factor by which we must multiply the relative dis-

persion of the glass plate in order to obtain the proportional

change of path (Ap/p) resulting from a given increase (An)

of the refractive index of the plate. The value of q for ordinary

ADAMS: EAYLEIGH-ZEISS INTERFEROMETER

271

crown glass (n = 1.52) is 0.48. We shall have occasion to use

formula (10) when we come to the subject of the alteration of

the achromatic fringe in white light.

As a check on the above relations some observations with

monochromatic light (obtained by means of a Monochromatic

Illuminator) of several wave lengths were made on the relation

between the number of divisions on the drum and the number

of fringes crossing the field. For wave lengths 0.5876 and

0.5461 He and Hg tubes respectively were used, and an arc lamp

for wave-lengths 0.6396 and 0.4861, the slits of the Illuminator

in the latter case being very narrow, in order to obtain sufficiently

homogeneous light. The character of the results is shown by

Table I for wave-length 0.5876 — .

Average = 0.8

The first and second columns give respectively the number

of fringes N and the corresponding observed number of scale

divisions r. The third column gives the values of r' calculated

by equation (6 a) and the fourth, the quotient r'/N' which in-

spection shows to be practically constant, as it should be. The

least square mean value of this quotient is 22.447; the differences

between this mean and the individual observations, when com-

puted back in terms of r, are given in the last column, which

shows that this discrepancy is no larger than the error of reading

(1 division, which is less than 1/20 of a band).

272

ADAMS : RAYLEIGH-ZEISS INTERFEROMETER

The values of r' /N for the other wave-lengths, determined

similarly are shown in the second column of the table 2.

These values of r'/N were used to caluclate the values of N^

in the fourth column, Nx being the wave-lengths for various

numbers of fringes corresponding to r = 3000 (and hence to

r' = 2634). The next, column contains the values of A^^X,

which is equal to p^, the path difference (for 3000 divisions)

for the given wave-length, while the sixth and seventh columns

contain respectively the proportional variation of pj. (that is,

Ap/pj), and the change (n) of refractive index of the compen-

sator plate calculated from Ap/p^ by means of formula (9 a).

The values of An calculated in this way agree satisfactorily with

the direct measurements (shown in the last column) of the re-

fractive index of the plate for the various wave-lengths.

2. The shift of the achromatic fringe in white light. This shift-

ing of the achromatic fringe relative to the original central

reference fringe is common to all compensation interferometers

when used with white light. We may best understand what

happens by supposing that the concentration of a solution in

C (figs. 1 and 2) is increased slowly and continuously from zero

onwards and that at the same time the original achromatic

band is kept central by appropriate movement of the com-

pensator. We would then in most cases observe, that the

original achromatic band gradually becomes colored at the edges,

while the adjacent bands to right and left become respectively

more and less strongly colored; with further increase of concen-

tration the central band becomes identical in appearance with

the band on the left, and at length the latter is achromatic while

ADAMS : RAYLEIGH-ZEISS INTERFEROMETER 273

the central band is now particolored like the right hand band was

originally. The comparison band has thus apparently shifted

one band to the left; with further increase of concentration the

same sequence of events occurs, and the apparently correct

comparison band is shifted one additional band to the left for

a certain concentration difference, this difference being (on

our instrument) about 0.07 per cent (300 divisions) for KCl while

for KNO3 this concentration interval is considerably less. Now,

since in making readings on a series of solutions of a substance

we must obviously always make the final setting upon the same

band, we shall err if the setting is made each time upon the

most nearly achromatic band; and there will be one discontin-

uity for each such ^'concentration interval." The explanation of

this shift of the achromatic band is found in the relative optical

dispersion of solution and water, on the one hand, and of glass

(of the compensator plates P,, P2) and air, on the other hand;

for it is to be noted that in the type of instrument under con-

sideration the lengthening of the optical path due to replace-

ment of water by solution is compensated by the shortening of

the sa7ne path by decreasing the effective thickness of an inter-

posed glass plate. We shall now proceed to develop a formula

by the aid of which errors arising from this source can be readily

obviated.

This equation may be derived by making use of the principle

that in general the position of the achromatic fringe is determined

not by the condition (as in the case of the central fringe in mono-

chromatic light) that the geometrical path difference shall

be equal to the optical path difference, but by the condition that

at the center of the achromatic fringe the change of phase with

respect to wave-length shall be a minmium.'' Accordingly if the

combined effect of a decrease p in optical path-length due to

the movement of the compensator and of an increase in path-

length due to the replacement of a thickness I of water by solu-

tion is to displace the central bright band to a point 0', this

displacement N-^, in terms of fringes for the wave-length X, is

given by

3 See R. W. Wood, Physical Optics, 2nd Ed., 1911, p. 140.

274 ADAMS : RAYLEIGH-ZEISS INTERFEROMETER

-> - f

D being the geometrical (and also the optical) path difference

at 0'. The achromatic fringe will similarly be displaced N^

fringes (again of wave-length X) to a point (say Q), where

^ X

Now if the refractive indices of solution, water, and glass are

represented by ni, n2 and n respectively and if we put v = ni — n^

(with appropriate subscripts attached to v and n to denote the

wave-lengths to which they refer), then

D = vl-p

Consequently since v, n, and hence p are all functions of X we

may write

D = /(X)

We next determine D' in terms of /(X). Now the phase differ-

ence ^ at Q is

0 = 27r(Z)'-Z))/X;

Applying the necessary condition, d(t)/dX = 0, we find

i)' = /(X)-X/'(X)

where /'(X) -- df{X)/d\. Accordingly

D' D

iVx-A^x=Y- ^ =-/(X)

To evaluate /'(X) we write for the variation of refractive index

with wave length, according to the simple dispersion formula

B

n = A +

also

and

ADAMS: RAYLEIGH-ZEISS INTERFEROMETER 275

Therefore

Eliminating dp by formula (10) we obtain finally

(11) iV(- iVx= ^ [(5i -B,)l- qP:^

This expression gives the position of the achromatic fringe

relative to the central fringe for any wave-length X. Now if

by the combined effect of the change in concentration of the

solution and of movement of the compensator the position of

the fringes for wave-length X remains unchanged — that is, if,

as in actual practice, the solution has shifted these fringes Nt

fringes to the left and the compensator an equal number to the

right — then iV^ = 0; moreover

Nt = — and obviously must also = -

Combining these relations with (11) we have

It will be convenient to take for X that wave-length which cor-

responds to maximum luminosity in the spectrum of the light

source (a tungsten lamp) ; this was found to be X = 0.58. Now

since m- - Uc. = B [l/(.486)2 - l/(.656)2] ^ 1,91 b, it follows

that

B 3"

Tin- I 1.91

where /3" is the ordinary relative dispersion of the glass plate,

and similarly if we define the dispersive power^ ((3')

^ It is to be noted that /8' is not the same as the difference in relative disper-

sion of the solution and water; i.e.,

riiu — 1 n2D — 1

is not equal to (j'f-j'c)/»'d. Values of 0' and 0" can be found, or calculated

from data, in tables of constants.

276 ADAMS : RAYLEIGH-ZEISS INTERFEROMETER

of the solution with respect to water by the relation

vp- vc

/3 =

then {B, - B^jv = /S'/l-Ql- Finally therefore

iV^ 2(^'-g/3") &'-q^"

(13)

N^ (.58)2 X 1.91 0.320

This expression gives the numbers of fringes iV( through

which the comparison band apparently shifts, in relation to the

total number of fringes N t corresponding to the position of the

compensator; in actual practice it is more convenient to put

jV"^ = r Ir^ where r^ denotes the number of divisions on the drum

corresponding to one fringe in white light. Making this sub-

stitution, and putting N'y^ = 1, we find the corresponding read-

ing ri to be

(13 a) ri = 0.320 r^jifi' - q&")

in other words, for each interval of 0.320 rj/{^' —q^") divi-

sions the achromatic fringe will have shifted one fringe to the

left of the original bright band. Consequently for any solu-

tion or mixture for which ^' is known, the amount of shift can

be accurately calculated in advance;^ the shift can therefore

be allowed for, and any error from this source obviated.

In conclusion it may be remarked that in two of the three

forms of Zeiss instrument — viz., in the portable gas interferom-

eter and the water interferometer — the light passes twice

through the compensator plate and hence the right hand member

of equations 1 to 7 inclusive must be multiplied by 2 when

applied to these instruments. Only slight modification of the

formulae is required to enable them to be applied to any form

of compensation interferometer.

^ Examples of the application of this formula may be found in the paper

already referred to, now in course of publication.

SOSMAN AND HOSTETTER: A VACUUM FURNACE 277

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— A vacuum furnace for the measure-

ment of small dissociation pressures. R. B. Sosman and

J. C. HosTETTER, Geophysical Laboratory.

The study of those sUicate systems which contain iron requires

the measurement of a wide range of oxygen pressures. The

first problem in this connection is the study of the dissociation

pressures of the oxides of iron themselves. For this purpose

the apparatus described below has been developed.

Vacuum furnaces in considerable variety have already been

described, but none of these was exactly suited to the work in

hand. Furnaces like those of Arsem, Ruff, and numerous others,

in which the heating element is of graphite or carbon, are of

course out of the question when iron and oxygen are to be studied.

Tungsten and molybdenum furnaces, like that of Birnbrauer,

cannot be used with oxygen. Slade's platinum tube furnace is

designed for a horizontal heating tube, which is not suitable for

the quenching of silicate melts by dropping them into mercury.

Another disadvantage of Slade's furnace is the softness of plati-

num at high temperatures, permitting the heating tube to be

easily deformed.

Our furnace and accessory apparatus are shown in somewhat

diagrammatical section in figure 1. The design could no doubt

be improved, as some parts are the product of evolution rather

than of original design, but the description covers the apparatus

as it is actually being used for the measurement of small disso-

ciation pressures. In principle, the furnace is similar to that

of Slade.^ It consists essentially of two parts: (1) the furnace

tube, which serves both as the furnace wall inclosing the "inside

vacuum" and as the heating element; (2) the water-cooled jacket,

which surrounds the furnace tube and incloses the ''outside

vacuum." ^

An alternating current at low voltage is sent through the

furnace tube, which is made of an alloy of 80 parts platinum and

^ R. E. Slade, An electric furnace for experiments in vacuo at temperatures

up to 1500°. Pr. Roy. Soc. London. 87 A : 519-524. 1912.

278

SOSMAN AND HOSTETTER: A VACUUM FURNACE

O

u

<

z.

q:

D

3

D

U

<

>

IL

<F=

Zl

^

-^^

CD c

[i>

fo^

fa

SOSMAN AND HOSTETTERI A VACUUM FURNACE 279

20 rhodium. 2 The tube is 15 mm. inside diameter and 200 mm.

long, with walls 1 mm. thick. The current is carried in by water

cooled terminals; the upper terminal is fixed to the furnace jacket,

while the lower terminal moves with the expansion and con-

traction of the furnace tube. The cooling water is led into the

lower terminal by lead pipes, and the current is carried by a

sheaf of flexible copper strips. The lower leads are insulated

from the furnace jacket by the stone base of the jacket, and are

prevented from accidentally touching the walls bj^ mica sheets

around the inside of the jacket.

The platinum-rhodium alloy has the great advantage over

pure platinum of great mechanical strength and stiffness. Plati-

num-iridium alloys are even stronger mechanically, but the vola-

tility of the iridium forbids its use where thermoelements are

to be used. The stiffness of platinrhodium is shown by our

experience with the nitrogen thermometer, which had a 200 cc.

bulb made of the alloy containing 20 per cent rhodium. At

1100°, one atmosphere outside with about 200 mm. pressure

inside produced no observable change in the volume of the bulb

after cooling, although a difference of 0.05 cc. or 1 part in 4000

could have been easily detected. The strength of the platin-

rhodium tube was put to the test when during some measure-

ments at 1300° a glass connection was broken, allowing air at

atmospheric pressure to rush into the inside of the furnace tube

while the outside was still evacuated; we could detect no bulging

of the furnace tube resulting from the accident.

The lower end of the platinrhodium tube is extended by a

steel tube, capped with a screw cap and sealed with kollolith.^

The upper end is likewise extended by a steel tube into which

a glass tube is sealed, by the method of Kraus. This is an

extremely useful type of joint, now being used in the manufac-

ture of X-ray tubes, and should come into much wider use in

vacuum apparatus.

^ The tube was made by Dr. Heraeus of Hanau, to whom we have several times

had occasion to express our indebtedness for his interest in the forwarding of

high temperature investigations.

^ A Canada balsam substitute of constant melting point and low vapor pres-

sure, made by Voigt & Hochgesang.

280 SOSMAN AND HOSTETTERI A VACUUM FURNACE

Branches from the glass tube connect with the Gaede molecular

vacuum pump on the one hand and with the pressure gages on

the other. These connections are made with wide bends ^to take

up stresses due to movements of the furnace and gages with

changing temperature. All the glass tube connections are large,

to facilitate rapid pumping to low pressures. The molecular

pump delivers into a Gaede oil box pump, with which it is con-

nected by a wide glass tube. The glass connection from the

furnace to the molecular pump is provided with a removable

conical ground cap (as shown in fig. 1), so that the pump can

be washed without interference with the rest of the apparatus.

A stopcock is also attached here, so that the pump can be used

for other work. A CaCl2 drying tube connected between the

molecular and box pumps allows the pumps to be filled with

dry air before stopping. The interior of the furnace and gages

is kept dry by a tube of P2O5 in the bottom of the steel extension

of the furnace tube.

The charges are contained in a small platinum crucible sus-

pended by two platinum wires sealed into a glass cap, which is

attached to a ground glass conical joint at the top of the tube

' above the furnace. The two wires of the platinum-platinrhodium

thermoelement are also sealed through this glass cap, and the

four wires are insulated from one another by transparent fused

silica or Marquardt porcelain capillaries. The two suspension-

wires may also be used as the leads for the determination of

melting points, et cetera, by the quenching method.

There are three pressure gages: (1) a McLeod vacuum gage

of 500 cc. capacity from Leybold (shown at Mi), (2) a similar

gage of 50 cc. capacity made in this laboratory (Mo), (3) a mer-

cury manometer read by means of parallel knife edges and a

vernier, and reading to 0.01 mm. The latter is the manometer

used in previous work on the nitrogen thermometer.^ It has

an excellent scale, calibrated throughout its length to 0.01 mm.

by the Normal-Aichungs-Kommission in Charlottenburg. We

removed the fixed level point used with the gas thermometer,

* Am. J. Sci. (4) 26: 415. 1908. Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. No. 157,

* p. 19.

SOSMAN AND HOSTETTERI A VACUUM FURNACE 281

connected this arm across to the vacuum apparatus by a wide

glass tube, and evacuated and sealed the open arm, thus making

a closed U-tube manometer of the apparatus. The three gages,

compared against one another at various pressures within their

ranges, agreed within the error of their readings. We have in

this combination of gages a range of pressure measurement from

0.000 001 mm. mercury up to about 2.5 atmospheres.

The furnace jacket is an inverted iron pot, closed at the bottom

by a disk of Alberene stone through which pass (1) the two

conductors in parallel which carry the current to the lower end

of the platinrhodium tube, together with the tubes for the cool-

ing water, and (2) the steel extension of the platinrhodium tube.

The latter is surrounded by a water-jacketed steel tube and cap.

A little mercury is placed in the bottom of the steel tube to insure

good thermal connection with the furnace tube, so that the lower

end of the latter will always be kept cold. The joint between

the stone base and the flange of the jacket is made tight by

means of a plastic cement made bj^ Mr. J. Jost of the instrument

shop of this Laboratory.

The jacket is evacuated independently of the inside vacuum

by means of a May-Nelson pump. There is no connection

between the inside high vacuum and the outside ''ordinary"

vacuum. No insulation or refractory material is used excepting

a magnesia tube surrounding the platinrhodium tube. The out-

side vacuum removes any danger of collapsing the hot furnace

tube at high temperatures, and also provides an efficient heat

insulation. The furnace jacket is cooled by a coil of lead pipe

on the outside carrying cold water. An observation window

permits optical temperatm*e measurements to be made from

without as a check on the thermoelectric measurements within

the tube.

The magnesia tube does not greatly affect the loss of heat

from the furnace tube at the lower temperatures, where the

loss by radiation is not great, but does have a noticeable effect

on the efficiency at higher temperatures. For instance, 386

amperes raised the temperature to 790° without the tube, and

to 809° with the tube in place. 510 amperes, however, which

282 sosMAN AND hostetter: a vacuum furnace

produced only 1100° without the tube, gave 1308° when the tube

was in place.

The uniformity of temperature was not tested by direct meas-

urement, as a complicated arrangement of apparatus would have

been necessary to permit of moving the thermo-element up and

down in the completely sealed furnace. An equally sensitive

test was made, however, by taking a series of measurements of

the oxygen pressures produced by 0.5 gram charges of Merck's

ferric oxide, heated under similar conditions but at various levels

in the furnace. In our preliminary measurements of dissocia-

tion pressures the thermo-element junction was always placed

3 to 5 mm. above the top of the charge of oxide, so that the

change in weight of the charge could be determined without

uncertainty due to oxide adhering to the wires. It is obvious

that near the top of the furnace the thermo-element, under

these conditions, will be colder than the bottom of the charge,

whereas near the bottom of the furnace the reverse will be true.

Hence if the temperature of the thermo-element is set to the

same value in both positions, the temperature of the charge,

and therefore the pressure obtained, will be greater near the top

than near the bottom of the furnace. If two or more pressures

obtained near the middle of the furnace agree within the range

of reproducibility of these pressures, proof is afforded that there

is a space of uniform temperature equal to the distance between

the highest position of the thermo-element and the lowest posi-

tion of the bottom of the charge. Measurements can there-

fore be made on charges set in this part of the furnace with the

assurance that the temperature of the charge is uniform and

is represented accurately by the temperature of the thermo-

element. This condition is further assured by packing deep

charges into the crucible with a polished steel plunger which

shapes the surface with a central well, so that the thermo-element

can be placed actually within the charge without coming into

contact with it.

The result of the uniformity tests is shown in Table I. The

distance from the top of the furnace tube to the top of the

crucible in millimeters is given in the third column, and the

SOSMAN AND HOSTETTER: A VACUUM FURNACE

283

pressure in millimeters of mercury in the fourth column. The

degree of reproducibility of the pressures is shown by the second,

third, fourth, and fifth measurements^. The pressures at depths

of 85, 92, and 95 mm. are practically constant. Since the depth

of the crucible is 18 mm. there seems therefore to be a range

of about 25-30 mm. in which the temperature is uniform within

one degree, judging from the variation of pressure, which is of

the order of magnitude of 0.01 mm. per degree under the con-

ditions of the tests. For subsequent measurements the crucible

was always placed in the middle of this zone, and the thermo-

element brought near the center of gravity of the charge as

explained above. The charges varied in depth from 5 to 10

mm.

TABLE I

Pressures obtained from Merck's FeiOz at 1100° at various levels in furnace

Glass stopcocks are the most troublesome part of a vacuum

apparatus. We have found Gundelach's large right-angle stop-

cocks (Schiff's form) satisfactory for the present work. A

stiff rubber-parafRne-vaseline stopcock grease must be used,

however, to prevent the atmospheric pressure on the large sur-

face from causing the cock to stick fast. The grease should

be renewed occasionally, also, as it becomes gummy after use

for a long time in a vacuum.

As Professor Morley has well said, a stopcock is usually nothing

more than a located leak. It is necessary, then, to shut off the

located leaks in the connections to pumps and oxygen supply

by a mercury cutoff, shown at C in figure 1. Its construction

284 ' SOSMAN AND HOSTETTER! A VACUUM FURNACE

is evident from .the drawing. This cutoff, like the gages, is

operated by a plunger instead of a movable reservoir. The

glass traps on either side prevent mercury from being shot into

the furnace or the. pumps by any accidental rush of gas.

With, the mercm-y cutoff closed and the joint of the crucible

suspension sealed with kollolith the apparatus is absolutely

free from leaks. It has stood 27 days without showing a pres-

sure greater than 0.0052 mm. of mercury. This pressure seems

to have been produced by the slow evolutiom of gas from the

large surface of glass exposed. This matter will be discussed

more in detail in a later paper on the iron oxides.

The plunger-lift for the large McLeod gage, Mi, consists of a

steel plunger in a smooth wrought-iron pipe, as the necessary

dmiensions are too large to permit of the use of glass. The

dimensions need to be carefully proportioned, since the dis-

placement of mercury by the plunger must be equal to the volume

of the gage plus the volume of mercury in the annular space

between plunger and cylinder when the gage is at its highest

reading. The greater the clearance between plunger and cylin-

der, therefore, the greater must be the diameter of both. Ours

consists of a plunger 50.5 mm. in diameter and 100 cm. long

in a cylinder 53 mm. inside diameter and 102 cm. long. The

steel plunger is just floating in the mercury when the gage is

nearly filled, so that the mercury columns can be set accurately

by a slight pressure on the plunger. The use of a plunger-lift

of this kind does away with the raising and lowering of an awk-

ward mercury reservoir, with its accompanying rubber tubing,

leaks, and sulfur contamination of the mercury.

Oxygen is admitted by way of one or both of the calibrated

bulbs at the right of the apparatus. We have made no provision

for exact measurement of the amount of oxygen to be admitted,

as it can be just as exactly measured by its pressure after ad-

mission to the apparatus. It is possible to get any desired

amount of oxygen by expanding slowly from either the small or

large bulb. These bulbs also serve, together with the space

between the mercury cutoff and the pump stopcock, for the

withdrawal of known amounts of oxygen from the apparatus.

NORTON: SPRING FLO^^TERS IN THE FALL 285

The oxygen is stored over mercury in the glass gas-holder at the

right.

To hold the temperature at 1450°, the furnace requires 580

amperes at about 1.8 volts. Its power consumption is therefore

no greater than that of an ordinary wire-wound furnace, when

the loss of heat in regulating-rheostats in connection with the

latter is taken into account.

The current is supplied to the fm-nace from the secondary

of a small 25 : 1 transformer. The primary of the transformer

is supplied by a motor generator of 60 cycles and a voltage

range from 0 to about 300 volts. The generator voltage is regu-

lated by means of its field current, which is supplied by a 110

volt storage battery and passes through rheostats alongside the

potentiometer. Bj^ regulation of the field current the furnace

current can be regulated without any waste of electrical energy,

and if the voltage applied to the motor of the motor-generator

is reasonably constant, the temperature can be held constant

without difficulty to one degree at 1500°. This degree of con-

stancy is very often necessary for accurate measurements of the

dissociation pressures of hon oxides, as these pressures change

quite rapidly with changes of temperature.

BOTANY. — Spring flowers in the fall. J. B. Norton, Bureau

of Plant Industry.

To the ordinary observer of living things in their natural

surroundings the various evidences of evolution have appealed

in a more or less remote way as something that happened in the

distant past. The modern experimental methods of hj^bridiza-

tion and of stud}^ of mutating strains do not appeal with the

necessary force to make us reahze that evolution is potent now,

as it was in the Carboniferous age. ^^^lile these researches are

interesting as showing means of preserving new characters once

they originate, the average layman wants to see the actual ap-

pearance of a new character. The origin of some characters and

their progressive development b^^ gradual accumulation to a

point at which the new element is of value to the organism

286

NORTON: SPRING FLOWERS IN THE FALL

not

In

the

has always been more or less of a stumbling block to many

students.

At the present season the varying blooming time of related

species always has a direct interest from its evolutionary mean-

ing. As an example, take our native and cultivated maples and

magnolias. Some species bloom early in the spring before the

leaves appear, while others wait

until the foliage is developed

and then bloom well on into

summer. From our observa-

tions on other groups of plants

or on the individuals in one

species, this change does

seem hard to account for.

another case, however,

blooming period offers more

serious difficulty. The common

witch-hazel in this region

blooms late in the fall, and yet

shows by its behavior that it is

a typical spring flowering tree,

its fruit developing normally

the next season. It seems as

though this change must have

happened all at once by a big

mutation because the winter

months would so seriously affect

the young flowers and develop-

ing fruit that the evolution by

slow change would not be able

to take place.

Many other spring flowers have been known to bloom in the

fall ; but most of these cases are caused by a moist period follow-

ing the summer drought, this alternation of drought and moisture

serving the same purpose as that of cold and warmth. It is an

interesting thing that this fall or winter blooming is associated

with many of our weeds and ornamental plants introduced from

Fig. 1. Flower buds of Cornus

Mas, March, 1912, showing fruits of

the previous fall. In the lower

branch the bud scales have been re-

moved. (X H)

cook: tribroma, a new genus of trees 287

the Old World. Among them are some that are unusually inter-

esting in that they perhaps throw some light on the problem of

the origin of fall blooming in witch-hazel. On the Agricultural

Grounds in Washington there is a specimen of Cornus Mas with

a peculiar blooming habit. Every fall this tree blooms more

or less abundantly and in many cases sets good fruit. An inter-

esting feature is that not all the buds in an umbel covered by

the same set of bud scales will necessarily develop into fall

flowers. Many umbels hold some of the buds until spring, so

that we have fall fruit and spring flowers existing in the same

umbel (fig. 1). Apparently the tree is in a satisfactory trans-

sition condition between spring and fall blooming from which

the development of a fall blooming form could be easily accom-

plished by gradual changes in future generations. This perhaps

sheds some light on the development of the fall flowering of

witch-hazel without the necessity of a sudden mutation or with-

out the necessity of moving its blooming period gradually through

the winter months. .

BOTANY. — Trihrojna, a new genus of tropical trees related to

Theobroma. O. F. Cook, Bureau of Plant Industry.

In connection with a study of the branching habits of llieo-

broma cacao, attention has been given" to a related tree known

in Guatemala as patashte, which afl"ords a still more striking

example of the phenomenon of dimorphism of branches. ^ The

patashte tree has been placed with the cacao hitherto as another

species of Theobroma, under the name Theobroma bicolor, but

after a somewhat detailed comparison of the two trees in eastern

Guatemala in 1907 it did not appear reasonable to assign them

to the same genus. This opinion was strengthened during an-

other visit to Guatemala in the spring of 1914, and it is now

proposed to treat the patashte tree as the type of a new genus.

The distinctive characters are stated in the following description:

1 Cook, O. F., Dimorphic Branches of Tropical Plants: Cotton, Coffee, Cacao,

the Central American Rubber Tree, and the Banana. U. S. Department of Agri-

culture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 198. Pp. 39. 1911.

288 cook: tribroma, a new genus of trees

Tribroma Cook, gen. nov.

Slender, erect trees, with strong upright shoots, each ending in a

whorled cluster of 3 lateral branches; leaves of upright shoots with long

petioles and broadly ovate-cordate blades, palmately veined, naked

above, clothed underneath with a very fine dense appressed stellate

pubescence, like the surfaces of the branches and petioles; leaves of

lateral branches broadly ovate-oblong, subsessile, the petioles very

short, representing only the confluent pulvini; inflorescences with

pseudodichotomous branching, with bracts at the articulations, form-

ing a broad, loose panicle or dichasium, produced near the ends of the

lateral branches, above the axillary buds of the young leaves, entirely

confined to the new growth; flowers small, inconspicuous, dark-colored,

dull reddish purple, the petals minute and the sepals only partly opened;

sepals broadly triangular, inflexed; petals much shorter than the sepals,

the basal hood with a single median rib, the limb rudimentary, repre-

sented by a minute oval, reflexed, nearly sessile appendage; staminodes

robust, clavate, clothed above with short pubescence, naked below;

ovary 5-angled, finely pubescent like the pedicels, sepals, petals and

staminodes, but none of the pubescence glandular; fruits ellipsoid, with

a very hard woody shell, the surface broken by deep irregular lacunae.

Type, Tribroma bicolor {Theobroma bicolor Humb. & Bonpl., PI.

Equinox. 1: 94, ph. 30a, 30h.).

•

The generic name Tribroma alludes to the fact that the lateral

branches are always produced in whorls of three. In Bernouilli's mono-

graph of Theobroma the name Rhytidocarpus was used for the section

that included T. bicolor; but to advance this name to generic rank

seems inadvisable, in view of the previous applications of closely simi-

lar names, such as Rhytidocarpaea and Rhji^icarpus, in other groups

of plants.

The patashte tree is probably of South American origin, though the

original habitat has not been determined. In Central America it is

widely but rather sparingly cultivated by the Indians. The seeds are

used for the same purpose as those of the cacao tree, though generally

considered inferior in quality. The comparison of cacao and patashte

was made at a locality called Cacao or Secacao, on the Trece Aguas

Estate of Don Ricardo Fickert-Forst, in the Senahii District of the

Department of Alta Verapaz, eastern Guatemala. Specimens collected

at Cacao in May, 1914, are in the U. S. National Herbarium, the

sheets bearing numbers 862202-5.

The contrasting characters of the genus Theobroma, as represented

by its type species, T. cacao, may be stated as follows:

cook: tribroma, a new genus of trees 289

Low, shade-tolerant trees of tropical undergrowth, the lateral branches

formed in terminal clusters of 5, rarely 4 or 6; leaves elliptrc-obovate,

narrowed toward the base, pinnately veined, naked on both surfaces,

the petioles and young shoots hirsute with stiff erect bristles; leaves of

lateral branches of the same form as those of the upright shoots, the

petioles somewhat shorter, but the pulvini distinct at each end; inflo-

rescences reduced to minute fleshy twigs, only the terminal joints

distinct and these shorter than the pedicels of the flowers, produced

from adventitious buds on old wood of the main trunk or the larger

branches, long after the leaves; flowers larger than in Tribroma, the

sepals and petals both conspicuous, light colored, widely expanded;

sepals narrow, tapering and reflexed; petals longer than the sepals,

strongly curved or folded in the bud, the basal hood with two strong

parallel ribs, the hmb longer than the hood and with a slender base

folded down around the end of the hood; staminodes slender, naked

and tapering above, laterally compressed below, with bands of long

hairs on the lateral faces; ovary rounded, covered with glandular

pubescence like the sepals and the pedicel; fruits obovate or fusiform,

with a thick fleshy rind, longitudinally ridged and furrowed, the sur-

face smooth or tuberculate.

A more detailed account of the differences between the two trees,

with special reference to their habits of branching and their floral

biology, illustrated by photographs, is being offered for publication in

the Contributions from the United States National Herbarium.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 533d meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club,

Saturday, January 9, 1915, with President Bartsch in the chair.

About 40 members were present. Waldo Schmitt of the U. S. National

Museum was elected to active membership.

Under the heading Brief Notes and Exhibition of Specimens L. 0.

Howard made remarks on the meetings held at Philadelphia during

convocation week. Dr. Pilsbry discussed certain aspects of the Hawai-

ian land shell problem, stating that early collecting was done in the

valleys, but that recent work showed the chief home of species to be

on the ridges. The distribution of forms occurred in groups and there

were many instances of Mendelian inheritance between different forms

carried out on a large natural scale.

The first paper on the regular program was by Wm. Palmer: An

unknown fossil. Mr. Palmer exhibited the specimen from the Calvert

Cliffs of Chesapeake Bay and hoped members would express views as

to its nature. His own view was that it might represent the lower

jaw of an unknown turtle. From same locality other fossils were

shown that had previously proved very difficult to identify. Mr.

Palmer's communication was discussed by Professor Hay.

The second paper was by Professor Hay: An albino terrapin. The

unique specimen was exhibited; it was hatched near Beaufort, N. C;

an attempt was made to raise it, but it lived only a few months.

Professor Hay took occasion to show excellent lantern slides of cer-

tain interesting crustaceans especially of Limnoria lignoriim,, a wood

boring Isopod, and of Xylotria, a wood boring mollusk. The com-

munication was discussed by Messrs. Bartsch, Wilcox, Palmer,

■ Smith, and Hopkins, and by Miss Rathbun.

The last communication was by M. W. Lyon Jr.: Notes on the

physiology of bats. The speaker stated that little was known of the

exact physiology of bats, but discussed the subject from the broad

standpoint of their physiology of locomotion, of food, of adaptation,

and of special senses. The need of careful experiments on use of, and

modern histological work on structure of noseleaves was pointed out.

The paper was discussed by Messrs. Howard, Bishop, Hunter, Wm.

Palmer and Stiles; Mr. Bishop giving an account of a bat roost near

San Antonio, Texas, erected with the idea that bats would consume

large numbers of malarial mosquitoes; Mr. Hunter stating that an

examination of stomach contents of bats showed that the food of

Nytinomus mexicanus consisted of 95 per cent moths, the rest being

carabid beetles, hymenopterous insects, and a few crane flies — the

only Diptera found, no mosquitoes being observed.

290

proceedings: biological society 291

On Tuesday, January 19, 1915, at 8.30 p.m., the Society held a joint

meeting with the Washington Academy of Sciences in the Auditorium

of the National Museum. Dr. Johan Hjort, Director of Fisheries of

Norway, delivered an illustrated lecture on Migrations and fluctuations

of the marine animals of western Europe. About 200 persons were

present.

The 53-lth meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club,

Saturday, January 23, 1915, with President Bartsch in the chair and

75 persons present. Mr. R. A. Ward was elected to active membership.

Under heading Brief Notes etc., Dr. Johan Hjort, Director of

Fisheries of Norway, called attention to the large numbers of herring

caught in Norwegian waters during the last few years, most of them

belonging to what he termed the " 1904 Class." Dr. Hjort attributed

the great success of the "1904 Class" to the known lateness of season

when it had been spawned and when the plankton was abundant.

Early in spring the sea is practically barren of plankton and fish hatch-

ing at that time have little food.

The regular program consisted of an illustrated paper by Mrs. Agnes

Chase on Developing instincts of a young squirrel. Mrs. Chase had

made careful observations and notes on the bringing up of a young

gray squirrel during the spring and summer of 1914. The animal was

very young when received, needing to be fed on milk with a medicine

dropper. Mrs. Chase described its growth and its acquisition of

squirrel-like habits and instincts. It was not brought up as a pet, but

was given every freedom to develop its natural traits. At maturity

it met with wild members of its own species, at first returned home, but

finally remained away.

The rest of the evening was given over to an exhibition of lantern

slides on biological subjects. W. W. Cooke showed views of bird life;

H. M. Smith, of the Japanese silk industry; Wm. Palmer, of seals and

birds of Pribilof Islands; Paul Bartsch, of local birds.

The 535th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club,

Saturday, February 6, 1915, with Vice-President Hopkins in the chair

and 35 persons present.

Under heading Book Notices and Brief Notes Dr. Ransom called

attention to a new biological journal under the editorship of Professor

Ward, of the University of Illinois, to be devoted to animal parasites.

Mr. CooKE read a letter from Dr. B. W. Evermann, now of San Fran-

cisco, a former president of the Society.

The first paper of the regular program was by T. Wayland Vaughan :

Remarks on the rate of growth of stony corals. Dr. Vaughan reviewed

the work done by previous investigators and gave results of his own

carefully conducted experiments at Tortugas. The paper was fully

illustrated by lantern slides showing apparatus and methods employed

in planting corals and results of one and of several years' growth of

various corals.

292 proceedings: biological society

The second paper was by J. N. Rose: Botanical explorations in South

America. Dr. Rose spoke concerning a botanical exploration on the

western coast of South America, which he made during the summer

and fall of 1914. He stated that when he took up the study of the

Cactaceae for the Carnegie Institution of Washington, it was with the

understanding that it should embrace not only herbarium and green-

house studies, but extensive field work in all the great cactus deserts of

the two Americas. His going to the west coast was therefore simply

part of a large scheme for botanical exploration. He further stated

that plans had been made for similar field work in the deserts of the

east side of South America during the coming summer. He gave de-

tailed accounts of his work in the deserts of Peru, Bolivia, and Chile,

and the peculiar Cacti which he found, described particularly the cli-

matic conditions in those countries, and told of the remarkable crescent-

shaped sand dunes of southern Peru. On this trip Dr. Rose collected

more than a thousand numbers, obtaining not only herbarium and

formalin specimens, but also living material. His collection of living

plants, which was very large, has been sent to the New York Botani-

cal Garden. Dr. Rose's communication was illustrated by maps of

the regions traversed, by apparatus used in collecting specimens, and

by preserved specimens. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Hitch-

cock, Vaughan, Goldman and Townsend.

The 536th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club,

Saturday, February 20, 1915, at 8 p.m., with President Bartsch in the

chair and 65 persons present.

Dr. Charles Monroe Mansfield, of the Bureau of Animal Industry,

was elected to active membership.

Under the heading of Brief Notes, Gen. T. A. Wilcox made obser-

vations and inquiries concerning the color of the eyes of certain turtles.

His remarks were discussed by W. P. Hay. Dr. L. 0. Howard de-

scribed the successful campaign carried on against mosquitoes in New

Jersey.

Under the heading Exhibition of Specimens, Wm. Palmer exhibited

the tip of the tongue of a sulphurbottom whale and considered the

probable utihty of its peculiar shape. Messrs. Bartsch, Hay, and

Lyon took part in the discussion.

The regular program consisted of an illustrated lecture by H. C

Oberholser entitled: A naturalist in Nevada. Mr. Oberholser gave

an account of a biological survey of parts of Nevada made by himself

and others some years ago, and described the geologic, geographic, and

climatic characters of the route traversed by his party. He mentioned

in particular the plants, mammals, birds, and reptiles observed and

collected by the expedition, and pointed out how they were influenced

in kind and numbers by the unusual geographic and climatic conditions

found in Nevada. He showed many excellent views of the country

and of the animals and plants encountered.

Mr. Oberholser's paper was discussed by Messrs. Hay, Bartsch,

Bailey, Lyon, Goldman, Wetmore, and Wm. Palmer.

]M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary.

^ >

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Y may 4, 1915 No. 9

PHY'SICAL CHEMISTRY.— r/ie reduction of iron oxides by

. platinum, with a note on the rnagnetic susceptibility of iron-

bearing platinum. R. B. Sosman and J. C. Hostetter,

Geophysical Laboratory.

In the course of an investigation on the dissociation pressures

and melting temperatures of the oxides of iron, we have repeatedly

observed that the platinum crucibles used gained in weight and

became stiff, evidently through the absorption of iron from the

charges.

Proof of the reduction of magnetite. The following experiment

demonstrates the absorption of iron from magnetite by plati-

num under a very low oxygen pressure. About 1 gram of nat-

ural crystalline magnetite from Mineville, N. Y., was heated to

500° in a new platinum crucible (Heraeus ''extra rein," dimen-

sions 18 mm high, 8-10 mm diameter) in a platinrhodium tube

vacuum furnace, ^ and then cooled. A small amount of gas was

given off and was not reabsorbed. This gas produced a pressure

of 0.045 mm in a volume of 1300 cc, and was probably nearly all

gas ''adsorbed" by the magnetite. This gas was pumped out,

and the charge then heated to various temperatures between

600° and 1200°. The temperatures were measured by a platinum-

platinrhodium thermo-element and potentiometer, and the pres-

sures were read on a 500 cc McLeod gage. A condensed record

1 This Journal, 5: 277-2S5. 1915.

293

294 SOSMAN AND HOSTETTER.* REDUCTION OF IRON OXIDES

of the first series of heatings is given in Table I. The furnace

was then cooled, and the residual gas pumped out. The charge

was again heated as recorded in the second part of Table I.

The results are shown graphically in figure 1.

TABLE I

First Series

Second Series

It is evident from the figures of Table I that a reaction is going

on at 1000° and higher which is supplying gas at a fairly steady

rate, and that this rate is greater, the higher the temperature.

The changes in weight of charge and crucible, given in Table II,

indicate that this reaction consists in the liberation of oxygen

and the solution of metallic iron in the platinum. When heated

in air after cleaning, the crucible showed on the inside the char-

acteristic reddish black color which appears on heating platinum

contaminated with iron.

It is also evident that a small amount of gas absorption takes

place as the temperature is lowered, since the pressure decreases

more than can be accounted for by the cooling of the furnace

SOSMAN AND HOSTETTERI REDUCTION OF IRON OXIDES 295

tube, but that there is no approach to a complete reabsorption

of the oxygen. This decrease of pressure on cooling probably

represents the re-oxidation of a small amount of dissociated mag-

iO 40 60 80 lOO -ttd 140 160 ISO ZOO 220 2+0 260 2BQ

TIME IN MINUTES

Fig. 1. Evolution of oxygen from magnetite heated in platinum (see Table I).

netite; the dissociation product is as yet unknown. No metallic

iron was found in the charge either by solution in hydro-

chloric acid, which yields bubbles of hydrogen if metallic iron is

present, or by the more sensitive copper sulphate test under the

microscope.

TABLE II

Charge and crucible

Crucible alone

Charge alone

INITIAL WEIGHT

mg.

4265.8

3261.4

1004.4

FINAL WEIGHT

mg.

4264.7

3263.2

1001.5

CHANGE IN

WEIGHT

mg.

-1.1 (loss)

+ 1.8 (gain)

-2.9 (loss)

The gain in weight of the crucible, shown in Table II, has been

caused partly by the absorption of metallic iron from the oxide,

and partly by the absorption of rhodium and also platinum-

2 The analysis of the crucibles shows that the combined weight of rhodium

and iron is less than the total gain in weight. No appreciable amounts of other

metals seem likely to be present, nor were any found by the analysis. Heating a

part of crucible No. 1 in hydrogen for an hour at about 600° produced no

measurable loss of weight, showing that no oxide of platinum or iron is present.

Some platinum must therefore have been carried from the furnace tube to the

crucible, either on account of a temperature gradient between furnace and

crucible, or by some disintegrating effect due to the current, or by both causes

combined.

296 SOSMAN AND HOSTETTER: REDUCTION OF IRON OXIDES

from the furnace. The amount of iron absorbed, as calculated

from the amount of oxygen evolved and remaining in the appa-

ratus after coohng to room temperature, making no allowance

for any permanent thermal dissociation of the magnetite, is

found to be 0.9 mg. This is one-half of the total gain in

weight.

Magnetite is also reduced by platinum at high temperatures

in the open air. 6.608 grams of Merck's reagent Fe203 was

heated to a maximum of 1612° in an open platinum crucible

(No. 509) in a 25 mm vertical-tube platinum wire furnace. The

charge melted down at about 1582°, yielding black crystalline

"magnetite" on cooling. The crucible, which "originally weighed

9517.3 mg, increased in weight to 9521.2 mg, a gain of 3.9 mg.

Certain points on the bottom of the crucible attracted a light

magnetic needle.

Reduction of ferric oxide. Products containing more ferric

oxide than magnetite, as well as magnetite itself, seem to be re-

duced by platinum under a low pressure of oxygen. This action

is evident even in products which are practically pure Fe203.

One crucible (No. 2) used in our work on the system Fe203-Fe304,

after 18 series of measurements, had increased in weight from

2851.8 mg to 2863.0 mg, a gain of 11.2 mg or 0.39 per cent.

About one-fourth of this gain is found to be due to iron absorbed.

At the close of the measurements this crucible showed the usual

iron coloration, produced by cleaning and heating for a few min-

utes in a flame. Various points on the crucible also attracted a

light magnetic needle.

Under 10.2 mm oxygen pressure at 1200°, under which con-

ditions the magnetite is nearly completely oxidized to Fe203,

•this crucible gained 1.6 mg. Another similar crucible contain-

ing Fe203 gained 1.0 mg under 18.3 mm oxygen pressure at 1200°.

A part, at least, of these gains must be due to absorbed iron. In

order to estabhsh definitely the presence of iron in the crucibles,

and to determine its amount, we have made both chemical

analyses and magnetic tests on the crucibles in question.

Methods of analysis. For the analysis of one portion of crucible

No. 2 the platinum metals were separated from the iron by pre-

SOSMAN AND HOSTETTER: REDUCTION OF IRON OXIDES 297

cipitating the former with hydrogen in sulphuric acid solution.^

For the other portion of crucible No. 2, and for crucible No. 1,

the method of MyHus and MazzuccheUi,'* by which all metals

present could be determined, was employed. In addition to

iron, this method showed the presence of rhodium in both cruci-

bles, and this latter metal was also determined. The order of

agreement between the two methods for iron is shown in Table

III, in which the results of the analyses are given. To test the

determination of iron by the method of Mylius and Mazzuc-

chelli, a solution containing 977 mg platinum and 5.00 mg iron

was subjected to analysis; 4.83 mg iron was recovered.

TABLE III

Magnetic properties of iron-bearing platinum. The apparatus

for the magnetic tests was suggested by Dr. C. W. Burrows, of

the Bureau of Standards, to whom we are greatly indebted for

advice and information in connection with these tests. The

procedure consists essentially in weighing the pull exerted

on the specimen by a strong electromagnet. In paramagnetic

and diamagnetic bodies the force is practically independent of

the shape of the specimen.

Since we wished to obtain only comparative figures, we did not

attempt to determine the field strength or field gradient. With

our apparatus, as set up, 870.2 mg of ferrous ammonium sulphate

gave a pull of 1.74 mg, equivalent to 2.00 mg per gram. The

pull can be determined to about 0.02 mg by the method of swings.

^ For the details of this method and for many helpful suggestions, we are

indebted to Dr. E. T. Allen of this Laboratory.

^ Zs. anorg. Chem., 89: 1-38. 1914.

298 sosMAN AND hostetter: reduction of iron oxides

The mean of two sets taken with reversal of the current ehminates

a small correction due to the steel parts of the balance.

One-half of crucible No. 2 had already been dissolved for

analysis. The other half was tested magnetically and gave a

pull of 0.20 mg. This was so much smaller than the effect which

we expected on the basis of preliminary results obtained by

Burrows and Burgess at the Bureau of Standards, that we experi-

TABLE IV

mented further on the magnetic effects produced by known

percentages of iron added to pure platinum. For this purpose

a new 10 x 18 mm platinum crucible (Heraus ''extra rein") was

first tested and found to give no measurable magnetic pull.

Iron was deposited in the crucible electrolytically from oxalate

solution, and it was then heated in the vacuum furnace, first at

1200°, later at 1400°, in order to dissolve the iron in the platinum.

The results are recorded in Table IV.

SOSMAN AND HOSTETTER: REDUCTION OF IRON OXIDES 299

Nearly twice as much iron was deposited in the same way in a

similar crucible, which was similarly treated and tested. In

this case the iron was deposited chiefly on the inside of the cruci-

ble near the bottom, whereas the iron of Table IV was distributed

uniformly over inside and outside. The results of the second

test are given in Table V.

TABLE V

TREATMENT

Crucible tested alone

Iron deposited electrolytically

Heated at 1400° and 0.001 mm,

for 5 min

Heated at 1400° and 0.001 mm

for 5 min

Cleaned in HCl, dried

Heated at 1400° and 0.001 mm

for 10 min

Heated at 1400° and 0.0005 mm

for 10 min

Heated at 1400° and 0.0007 mm

f(5r 10 min

TOTAL

WEIGHT

mg.

3235.6

3285.9

WEIGHT OF

IRON IN

CRUCIBLE

3280.4

3280.3

3278.8

3279.2

3279.55

3279. 6^

mg.

0

44.8

44.7

43.2 54

MAGNETIC

PULL,

43.2

mg.

0.0

1110.

80.

60.

2.56

1.57

1.46

REMARKS

Deposit weighs

50.3 mg. but con-

tains hydfogen,

carbon, and

moisture.

Unabsorbed iron

near bottom.

Thin unabsorbed

film remains.

Film removed.

Crucible stuck to

furnace tube.

Crucible stuck to

furnace tube.

Figure 2 shows that the magnetic effect is very nearly pro-

portional to the weight of the deposit of iron, before heating has

driven it into the platinum. (The first point of the curve

represents a preliminary plating of crucible No. 3) .

The immediate drop in the magnetic effect as soon as the iron

diffuses into the platinum is very evident from Tables IV and V,

'" The crucible stuck to the furnace tube ; the gain in weight is probably due

to rhodium absorbed.

300 sosMAN AND hostetter: reduction of iron oxides

10

20 30

AMOUNT OF IRON IN MG

Fig.

Relation of magnetic pull to weight

of unabsorbed iron.

and from figure 3, which repre-

sents graphically the data of

Table V. The surprising part

of the result is that practi-

cally the same ultimate mag-

netic pull is attained, although

one crucible contains nearly

twice as much iron as the

other. Furthermore, the iron

of Table V is concentrated in

a smaller area of platinum

surface than that of Table IV,

which might be expected to

make its magnetic effect more

than proportional to the

amount of iron, instead of

which it is found to be independent of the amount. The position

of the dissolved iron in the magnetic field is without any important

effect, since turning the

crucible upside down

makes only a few hun-

dredths mg difference

in the final magnetic

pull.

The summarized fig-

ures showing the

amounts of iron in the

various crucibles re-

ferred to, and their

magnetic effects, are

given in Table VI.

It is evident from

Table VI that the mag-

netic pull must depend

not only upon the

amount of iron present,

but also upon other

TIME IN MINUTES

Fig. 3. Relation of magnetic pull to time of heat-

ing iron-plated platinum at 1400° (see Table V).

SOSMAN AND HOSTETTER: REDUCTION OF IRON OXIDES 301

factors, perhaps its concentration, distribution in the platinum,

heat treatment, impurities, or other variables. As we were not

prepared to make any extensive study of the questions opened

by these results, we have been forced to conclude for the present

that the magnetic test alone gives only a qualitative indication

of the presence of iron, but no quantitative measure of the amount

present.

TABLE VI

The work of Isaac and Tammann^ indicates the cause of the

small magnetic effect produced by a considerable percentage of

iron when dissolved in platinum. They have found that the

magnetic transformation point, which is about 770° in pure iron,

is rapidly lowered by the addition of platinum, until at 50 weight

per cent platinum it is near 100°. Near pure platinum it would

seem to be below room temperature. It is possible, though not

proven by their results, that the magnetization of the alloys be-

tween 30 and 0 per cent of iron is due to an "a form" of solid

solution crystals, with an inversion curve which falls rapidly

with increasing iron content, just as the inversion curve of the

a-form of pure iron and of the iron-rich alloys falls rapidly with

increasing content of platinum.

Cause of reducing action of platinum. We have shown that

platinum acts on both hematite and magnetite at 1200° under

low pressures of oxygen, absorbing iron and -giving off oxygen.

^ Isaac and Tammann. Zs. anor";. Chem., 55: 63-71. 1907.

302 SOSMAN AND HOSTETTERI REDUCTION OF IRON OXIDES

It also reacts with magnetite in the same way at 1600° and at

the usual atmospheric pressure of oxygen. (Hematite is not

stable in air at 1600°, but goes over into magnetite). On the

other hand, it is well known to analysts that platinum crucibles

in which Fe203 is ignited in air for weighing in analytical pro-

cedures take up no such amounts of iron as we have described in

previous paragraphs. The reason for these differences of be-

havior is readily found in the phase rule and the relations of iron

and platinum in their alloys.

The system contains 3 components : platinum, iron, and oxygen.

Iron and platinum form a continuous series of solid solutions.

The oxidation of the iron causes it to separate from the platinum

as an oxide. If we now have present the three phases: iron-

platinum alloy, solid oxide, and gaseous oxygen, and assume a

certain concentration of iron in the platinum (say 0.01 per cent),

and a certain temperature (say 1200°) then there must be a

definite oxygen pressure in equilibrium with this system. If

the existing pressure of oxygen is less than this equilibrium pres-

sure, the oxide will dissociate and metallic iron will be absorbed

by the platinum. If the pressure of oxygen be greater, on the

other hand, iron from the platinum solution will be oxidized, the

oxide will separate on the surface of the metal, and the concen-

tration of the iron in the platinum will be reduced.

It is evident from the fact that melted magnetite is reduced by

platinum in air that at 1600° the oxygen pressure of the air (about

152 mm) is less than the oxygen pressure in equilibrium with

dilute solutions of iron in platinum. Similarly, at 1200°, 18 mm

oxygen is less than the equilibrium oxygen pressure, and at this

temperature and pressure iron is absorbed by platinum from all

oxides between re203 and FcsO,. The 152 mm oxygen, however,

is greater than the oxygen pressure of any but the most extremely

dilute solution of iron in platinum at 1200°, and at this tempera-

ture, which is seldom exceeded in igniting iron oxide precipitates

for analysis, there is no appreciable reduction of FciOa by plati-

num in the open air.

These considerations explain the very common occurrence of

small amounts of iron in platinum, since platinum will exercise

lewton: the Australian fugosias 303

its reducing action on any material containing iron oxides with

which it comes in contact, provided the temperature is sufficiently

high. At low temperatures, on the other hand, and with abun-

dant access of atmospheric oxygen, no appreciable reduction is

to be expected.

BOTANY. — The Australian Fugosias.^ F. L. Lewton, National

Museum.

While engaged in a critical study of the species of Gossypium

the writer has become convinced that the Australian shrubs

assigned by von Mueller and by Todaro to that genus and placed

by Bentham under the name Fugosia should be given another

designation, as in his opinion neither of the genera named is

represented on the Australian continent except by cultivated

plants.

A study of the relationships of the twelve species of Fugosia,

so called, which have been described from Australia is rendered

very difficult by the incomplete description of many of the older

species and by the meager representation of plants in American

herbaria. The writer has, however, received herbarium speci-

mens of three species directly from Australia and in addition has

studied carefully all the material belonging to this group to be

found in the United States National Herbarium, the herbarium

of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, the com-

bined herbaria of the New York Botanical Garden and Co-

lumbia University, the Gray Herbarium of Harvard Univer-

sity, the Field Museum of Natural History and the herbarium

of the Missouri Botanical Garden. His conclusions as to the

relationships, names and synonymy of these twelve Australian

plants are here presented.

As already pointed out by Garcke^ and by Todaro,^ the name

Fugosia was proposed without any justification by Jussieu^ in

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

^Bonplandia 8: 148. 1860.

' Relazione sulla cultura dei cotoni in Italia, pp. 86-87. 1878.

* Gen. PI. 274. 1789.

304 lewton: the Australian fugosias

1789 as a substitute for Cienfuegosia, published three years

earlier by Cavanilles,^ who gave the name in honor of Bernard

Cienfuegos, a Spanish botanist of the sixteenth century, to a

plant collected by Adanson in Senegal. In spite of a partial

restoration of the older name by Willdenow'' and by Sprengel,'

and its complete restoration by Bartling;^ Persoon,^ DeCan-

dolle^^ and Endhcher" used Jussieu's abridged form of Cava-

nilles' name and were followed by later systematic writers, espe-

cially Bentham, Hooker, and von Mueller.

The Australian shrubs described by von Mueller and by

Bentham as species of Fugosia, when compared with the Amer-

ican and African plants assigned to that genus, appear so distinct

in habit and gross anatomy as to warrant their being excluded

from the genus, the type species of which is, as above stated, a

native of Africa. Furthermore, the Australian species are easily

divisible into two groups, already indicated in the Flora Aus-

traliensis. Even a very cursory examination of the plants is

sufficient to convince one that these two groups have very little

in common. In the writer's view they represent two distinct

genera, here discussed separately.

THE GENUS NOTOXYLINON

The larger group of Australian Fugosias comprises eight

species: F. australis Benth., F. flaviflora von MuelL, F. lati-

folia Benth., F. populifolia Benth., F. robinsonii von MuelL, F.

thespesioides Benth., F. punctata Benth., and F. pedata Bailey;

which have all, at one time or another, excepting the last, been

placed in the genera Hibiscus, Cienfuegosia, or Gossypium. They

differ from the African and American species of Fugosia, as the

genus is commonly defined, in having the involucre 3-bracted and

the black oil glands not restricted to the sepals and capsules but

6 Monodel. Classis Diss. Decern. 174, pi. 72, fig. 2. 1786.

« Sp. PI. 3: 723. 1800.

^Syst. Veg. 3: 64. 1826.

8 Ord. PI. 346. 1830.

9Syn. PI. 2: 240. 1807.

'» Prod. Syst. Veg. 1: 457. 1824.

" Gen. PI. 983. 1840.

lewton: the austealian fugosias 305

found in all parts of the plant except the cotyledons. In all the

American and African species assigned to Fugosia the black

glands are arranged in rows on the sepals, while these Australian

plants agree in having the black glands scattered promiscuously

over the surface of the calyx and involucre. From the genus

Gossypium they differ, principally, in the total absence of the

black oil glands from the cotyledons.

In 1875 Ferdinand von Mueller^^ stated that these species

should in his judgment be placed in the genus Gossypium, and

three years later Todaro'^ placed them in subdivisions of Gos-

sypium which he named Thespesiastra and Hibiscoidea. The

species of the first group were characterized as having small

deciduous bracts and a 5-toothed calyx, and those of the Hibis-

coidea as having linear, persistent bracts and the calyx 5-parted.

The distinctions between deciduous and persistent bracts and

between a 5-toothed and a 5-parted calyx can hardly be re-

garded as of primary importance in this case, since between

species which must undoubtedly be classed as true members of

Gossypium these same differences actually occur. ^^

It seems to the writer, therefore, that the eight species above

mentioned constitute a well-marked group of generic rank for

which the name Notoxylinon'^ is appropriate; the new genus to

include Todaro's two sections, Thespesiastra and Hibiscoidea.

The type of Notoxylinon will be Gossijpium australe F. von

Mueller, 16 which was the first of the included species to be de-

scribed and is probably the most common in herbaria.

Notoxylinon Lewton, gen. nov.

Shrubs or undershrubs with the habit of Gossypium, glabrous,

except on young parts, or tomentose throughout, more or less glandu-

lar-dotted. Leaves entire, lobed or pedately parted, with a nectary

below near the base of the mid vein. Flowers borne on short, extra-

axillary branches; peduncle thickened upwards with 3 nectaries at its

summit. Involucre of 3 distinct bracteoles, these linear-lanceolate

i^Fragm. Phyt. Austr. 9: 127. 1875.

13 Relazione sulla cultura dei cotoni in Italia, pp. 97-98. 1878.

" Compare Gossypium harknessii, G. irenaeum and G. hirsutum.

1* From voTos, the south wind, and ^vKivov, the cotton plant.

i«Fragm. Phyt. Austr. 1: 46. 1858.

306 lewton: the Australian fugosias

or subulate, sometimes reflexed or deciduous. Calyx 5-lobed or 5-

parted, conspicuously gland-dotted. Corolla large and showy, yellow

or pink, usually with a reddish-purple spot at the base of the petals.

Ovary 3- or 4-celled, with 3 or more ovules in each cell. Style undi-

vided, thickened upwards, slightly 3-lobed; stigmas sulcate. Capsule

woody, orbicular or ovate. Seeds woolly.

The genus Notoxylinon may be distinguished from Hibiscus by the

undivided style and the presence of black glands; from Cienfuegosia

by the irregular distribution of the black glands and the 3-bracted invo-

lucre; from Gossypium by the absence of the black glands from the

cotyledons.

The species of Notoxylinon may be recognized by means of the

following key:

Calyx truncate; lobes or teeth small.

Plant glabrous; bracteoles persistent 1. N. pojndi folium.

Plant more or less tomentose; bracteoles de-

ciduous.

Leaves orbicular-ovate, acute entire;

bracteoles subulate 2. N. thespesioides.

Leaves rhomboid, 3-lobed; bracteoles

setaceous 3. N.flaviflorum.

Calyx 5-parted or deeply lobed ; lobes acuminate.

Plant glabrous or slightly tomentose.

Leaves 3-lobed 4. A^. robinsonii.

Leaves ovate, entire.

Petioles less than 1 inch long 5. N. punctatum.

Petioles 1 inch or more long 6. A'^. latifolium.

Plant soft hairy or tomentose.

Leaves entire or 3-lobed, densely short

tomentose 7. N. australe.

Leaves pedately 5-parted, coarsely stel-

late hairy 8. N. pedatum.

1. Notoxylincn populifolium (Benth.) Lewton.

Fugosia popuUfolia Benth. Fl. Austr. 1: 22L 1863.

Gossypium populifolium F. von Muell. Fragm. Phyt. Austr. 9: 127.

1875.

Hibiscus populifolius Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. 1: 69. 1891.

Cienfuegosia popuUfolia Hochr. Ann. Conserv. Jard. Bot. Geneve

6: 57. 1902.

2. Notoxylinon thespesioides (Benth.) Lewton.

Hibiscus thespesioides R. Br. in herb.

Fugosia thespesioides Benth. Fl. Austr. 1: 220. 1863.

Gossypium thespesioides F. von Muell. Fragm. Phyt. Austr. 9: 127.

1875.

Cienfuegosia thespesioides Hochr. Ann. Conserv. Jard. Bot. Geneve

6: 58. 1902.

lewton: the Australian fugosias 307

3. Notoxylinon flaviflorum (F. von Muell.) Lewton

Fugosia flaviflora F. von Muell. Fragm. Phyt. Austr. 5: 44. 1865.

Gossyphmi flamflorum F. von Muell. op. cit. 9: 127. 1875.

Hibiscus flaviflorus Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PL 1: 69. 1891.

Cienfuegosia flaviflora Hochr. Ann. Conserv. Jard. Bot. Geneve

6: 56. 1902.

4. Notoxylinon robinsonii (F. von Muell.) Lewton.

Fugosia robinsonii F. von Muell. Fragm. Phyt. Austr. 9: 126. 1875.

Gossypiufn robinsonii F. von Muell. loc. cit.

Hibiscus robinsonii Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. 1: 69. 1891.

Cienfuegosia robinsonii Hochr. Ann. Conserv. Jard. Bot. Geneve

6: 57. 1902.

5. Notoxylinon punctatum (Benth.) Lewton.

Hibiscus punctatus A. Cunn. in herb.

Fugosia punctata Benth. Fl. Austr. 1: 220. 1863.

Gossijpium cunninghamii Todaro, Relaz. Cult. Cotoni Italia, 110,

1877.

Cienfuegosia benthamii Hochr. Ann. Conserv. Jard. Bot. Geneve

6: 55. 1902.

6. Notoxylinon latifolium (Benth.) Lewton.

Fugosia latifolia Benth. Fl. Austr. 1: 221. 1863.

Gossypium costulatuni Todaro, Relaz. Cult. Cotoni Italia, 109.

1877.

Hibiscus latif alius Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. 1: 69. 1891.

Cienfuegosia latifolia Hochr. Ann. Conserv. Jard. Bot. Geneve

6: 57. 1902.

7. Notoxylinon australe (F. von Muell.) Lewton.

(rossypium australe F. von Muell. Fragm. Phyt. Austr. 1: 46.

1858.

Sturtia hibiscoides F. von Muell. op. cit. 3: 6. 1862.

Fugosia australis Benth. Fl. Austr. 1: 220. 1863.

Cienfuegosia australis K. Schum. in Engl. & Prantl. Nat. Pflanzen-

fam. 3«: 50. 1890.

Hibiscus australis Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. 1: 69. 1891.

8. Notoxylinon pedatum (Bailey) Lewton.

Fugosia pedata Bailey, Queensland Agric. Journ. 25: 286, pi. 28,

flg.l. 1910.

THE GENUS ALLOGYNE . ,

The two species of succulent seaside shrubs constituting the

smaller group of the Flora Australiensis, Fugosia hakeaefolia and

F. cuneiformis, have been placed at different times in at least

three genera, but at no time were they in agreement with the

other species of these genera as regards several of their easily

observed taxonomic characters. In 1863, Dr. Friedrich Alefeld

308 lewton: the Australian fugosias

proposed the genus Allogyne'^ for Fugosia hakeaefolia, and al-

though mistaken in stating that the involucre is wanting, he was

correct in separating this species form Hibiscus, where it had

been placed when first described by Giordano^^ in 1834. With

F. hakeaefolia are to be associated three nearly related species,

Hibiscus multifidus Paxton, H. lilacinus Lindley, and Fugosia

cuneiformis Benth., the four constituting the genus AUogyne.

Aliogyne Alefeld.

Succulent, glabrous seaside shrubs, sometimes gland-dotted. Leaves

cuneate or spatulate and entire or lobed, or deeply divided into terete

or flattened, sometimes deeply toothed segments. Flowers borne on

thickened peduncles, showy, not evanescent, persisting several days.

Involucre a shallow 5- to 7-toothed cup, situated 3 to 5 mm. below

the calyx, the ovary thus appearing stipitate. Calyx deeply 5-parted,

its base (within the involucre) covered with nectar-secreting hairs.

Sepals lanceolate, not completely valvate, only partially enclosing

the bud. Corolla white, blue, or lilac, usually with a crimson-purple

eye in the throat. Ovary 4- or 5-celled; style 1; stigma 1, slightly 4-

or 5-lobed. Capsule 4- or 5-celled, usually covered with appressed

silky hairs. Seeds bristly with spreading hairs, not downy.

The genus Aliogyne may be distinguished from Hibiscus by the un-

divided style, the aestivation of the sepals, and the presence of black

glands; from Notoxylinon by its succulent character, epidermal cov-

ering, and extra-floral nectary; from Cienfuegosia by the distribution

of the black glands and the extra-floral nectary; from Gossypium by

the absence of black dots from the cotyledons ; and from all the above-

named genera by the form of the involucre and the persistent character

of the flowers.

The species of Aliogyne may be recognized by the following key:

Leaves undivided or occasionally lobed, cuneate

or spatulate; flowers white 1. A. cuneiformis.

Leaves bipinnate or deeply parted; flowers blue,

lilac, or purple. .

Leaf segments flat; corolla without crimson-

purple eye 2. A. UJacina.

Leaf segments terete; corolla with crimson-

purple eye.

^^ Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr. 13: 12. 1863. (Here the name of the genus is

spelled Alyogyne and on the opposite page Alyogone, both evidently printed

in error for Aliogyne, from aXXos, different, and ywr], stigma.)

^■^ Atti del real instituto d'incoraggiaraento alle scienze naturali, 5: 252. 1834.

CLARK: CORRELATION OF PHYLOGENETIC SPECIALIZATION 309

Involucre conspicuous; corolla lilac-

purple 3. A. hakeaefolia.

Involucre almost wanting; corolla azure-

blue 4. A. multijida.

1. AllogyTie cuneiformis (DC.) Lewton.

Hibiscus capriodorus A, Cunn. MSS. in Herb. Hook.

Hibiscus cuneiformis DC. Prod. 1: 454. 1824.

Lagunaria cuneiformis G. Don. Syst. 1: 485. 1831.

Fugosia cuneiformis Benth. Fl. Austr. 1: 219. 1863. — Curt. Bot.

Mag. pZ. 5^13. 1863.

Fugosia cuneifolia F. von Muell. Fragm. Phyt. Austr. 9: 127.

1875.

Cienfuegosia cuneiformis Hochr. Ann. Conserv. Jard. Bot. Geneve

6: 56. 1902.

2. Allogyne lilacina (Lindley) Lewton.

Hibiscus lilacinus Lindley, Edwards' Bot. Reg. pi. 2009. 1837.

Lagunaria lilacina Walpers, Bot. Rep. 1: 311. 1842.

Hibiscus coronopifolius Miquel in Lehm. PI. Preiss. 1: 239. 1845.

Fugosia hakeaefolia var. coronopifolia Benth. Fl. Austr. 1: 220.

1863.

Fugosia lilacina G. Don, ex Loud. Encyc. PI. Suppl. 2: 1426. 1866.

Cienfuegosia hakeaefolia var. lilacina Hochr. Ann. Conserv. Jard.

Bot. Geneve 6: 56. 1902.

3. Allogyne hakeaefolia (Giordano) Alefeld, Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr.

13: 12. 1863.

Hibiscus hakeaefolius Giordano, Att. Real Inst. Sci. Nat. 5: 252.

1834.

Fugosia hakeaefolia Hooker, Curt. Bot. Mag. pi. 4.261. 1846.

Alogyne hakeifolia Alefeld, Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr. 13: 12. 1863.

Cienfuegosia hakeaefolia var. genuina Hochr. Ann. Conserv. Jard.

Bot. Geneve 6: 56. 1902.

4. Allogyne multifida (Paxton) Lewton.

Hibiscus rnultifidus Paxton, Mag. Bot. 7: 103. pi. 1840.

ZOOLOGY. — The correlation of phylogenetic specialization and

bathymetrical distribution among the recent crinoids.^ Austin

H. Clark, National Museum.

In the recent crinoids there are thirty-seven pairs of obvious

contrasted characters which are commonly employed in distin-

guishing the various genera and families, and which are simi-

larly used in their fossil representatives.

The two contrasted characters in each pair always differ in

that one represents a higher grade of phylogenetic specialization

^ Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

310 CLARK: CORRELATION OF PHYLOGENETIC SPECIALIZATION

of development than the other; and the one representing the

greater degree of speciahzation ajways differs from the more

primitive in the partial or complete suppression of some struc-

tural feature, indicating that phylogenetic progress in the crin-

oids has been along the line of progressive structural degener-

ation, resulting in a constantly increasing structural simplification.

If in each contrasted pair we place under each of the two con-

trasted characters the crinoid families in which it is manifested

it is evident that, although in nearly every case the families will

be differently divided, an examination of the bathymetrical range

of all of the entries under the more speciaUzed characters taken

together, contrasted with that of all of the entries under the less

specialized characters taken together, will enable us to ascer-

tain with a greater or lesser degree of accuracy the relationship

between phylogenetic development and depth.

The number of contrasted pairs in each of the divisions of the

crinoid body, and the number of separate items or entries in

each of the divisions — that is, the number of citations of families

under all the subheadings taken together — are as follows:

Number of

Number of separate

headings items

Calyx 10 68

Arms 9 63

Column 7 42

Pinnules 5 35

Disk 5 28

General 1 7

Total 37 243

Being composed of the greatest number of structural units — ■

each a group of similar structural elements — all of which vary-

more or less independently, the calyx is naturally the most

changeable division of the crinoid body.

The arms, through their differentiation into phylogenetically

very distinct distal and basal portions, and through the close

interdependence of the latter upon conditions in the calyx, form

the next most changeable division.

CLARK: CORRELATION OF PHYLOGENETIC SPECIALIZATION 311

The column, in spite of being fundamentally a simple linear

series of similar ossicles, shows very great diversity; and it is

chiefly as a result of this diversity in the column and the conse-

quent necessity for a compensating mechanical readjustment

that the calyx exhibits such a great amount of variation.

The pinnules and the disk, owing to their intimate connec-

tion with the gathering of the minute organisms which serve as

food, are able to vary but little from a fixed optimum type.

If we take all of the entries under all of the more primitive

characters (1) in all of the thirty-seven contrasting pairs, and

similarly all of the entries under all of the more specialized

characters (2), and determine their frequency at different depths,

we get the following table. Under the heading ''General" is

included only the number of component ossicles in the skeleton,

which decreases greatly more or less in correlation with phylo-

genetic progress along other lines.

TABLE 1

312 CLARK: CORRELATION OF PHYLOGENETIC SPECIALIZATION

The same, expressed as percentages of the whole number in

each category:

CLARK: CORRELATION OF PHYLOGENETIC SPECIALIZATION 313

Calyx

1

1800-1900 16 28

1900-2000 16 28

2000-2500 16 28

2500-3000 13 28

Averaging all of the more primitive characters (in the columns

numbered 1) and all of the more speciahzed characters (in the

columns numbered 2) we get the following table.

314 CLARK: CORRELATION OF PHYLOGENETIC SPECIALIZATION

The averages given in the preceding table are plotted in

figure 1.

In this we see that the more speciahzed characters outnumber

the more primitive down to 250 fathoms, but from that point

downward the more primitive characters outnumber the more

speciahzed.

Unfortunately the course of the lines in figure 1 is so irregular

as to render difficult a true appreciation of the interrelationships

0-&0

50-100

100- IbO

150-i:00

200-:<:50

250-300

300-550

350-400

400-450

450-500

500-!f0

550-600

600-650

650-700

700-750

750-800

aoo-eeo

650-900

900-950

950-1000

1000- U 00

1100-1^00

lEOQ-1300

1300-1400

1400-1500

1500-1600

1600-1700

1700-ieoo

ieoo-1900

19 00 -2000

2000-2500

2500-3000

25 3;:

36 40

44_ 46

Fig. 1. The bathymetrical distribution of structural characters in the recent

crinoids; , the more primitive characters, including those under the head-

ing "General;" — . — , the more primitive characters, without those under the

heading "General;" , the more specialized characters, including those

under the heading "General;" , the more specialized characters, with-

out those under the heading "General."

of the two sets of characters. This difficulty may best be over-

come by ascertaining the excess of the primitive or of the spe-

cialized characters at the various depths. The figures repre-

senting this are given in the following table.

Plotting these (fig. 2), we find that above 250 fathoms the

specialized characters predominate; if we include the characters

under the heading "General" we find a well marked node at 50-

CLARK: CORRELATION OF PHYLOGENETIC SPECIALIZATION 315

100 fathoms, lying in a zone of higher temperature than the

optimum for these animals.

Disregarding the characters under the heading ''General,"

we see that the primitive characters are always in excess below

250 fathoms; this excess reaches a maximum at 550-600 fathoms,

slowly rising to only one-third as much at 2500-3000 fathoms.

Including the characters under the heading "General," we

316 CLARK: CORRELATION OF PHYLOGENETIC SPECIALIZATION

note a maximum development of primitive characters between

850 and 1400 fathoms, beyond which point there is a sharp rise

so that from 1500 to 3000 fathoms the speciahzed characters

are in excess.

In regard to the . characters under the heading ''General" we

should remember that, while the number of component ossicles

in the skeleton is of considerable phylogenetic significance in

shallow water, it decreases rapidly in importance with depth,

for the conditions in the

abysses are typically such

that, chiefly on account of

the very hmited food sup-

ply, no crinoid can grow to

the phylogenetically nor-

mal size, and hence all the

species are necessarily

dwarfs, unable to* develop

to the full the skeleton

normal to their type. In

other words, in the deeps

we find a semi-pathological

condition inducing degen-

eration along the same lines

taken by normal phylogen-

etic advance. It is this

semi-pathological degener-

ation simulating phylogene-

tic advance which causes

the rise in the line repre-

senting the figures without

those under the heading ''General" from 550-600 to 2500-3000

fathoms. This occurs in all the differential characters, but its

importance in the skeleton as a whole is here exaggerated for

the reason that in "this feature we have included only one con-

trasted pair.

Probably in the present study we are most nearly correct if

we take above 250 fathoms the line representing the characters

Fig. 2. The excess among the recent

crinoids of primitive (1) or specialized (2)

characters at different depths, including

( ) and without ( ) those un-

der the heading "General."

CLARK: CORRELATION OF PHYLOGENETIC SPECIALIZATION 317

including those under the heading ''General," and below 250

fathoms the line representing those without.

If we do this, we find the highest degree of specialization in

the recent crinoids above 250 fathoms, and especially between

50 and 150 fathoms, which represents a zone above the optimum

temperature for the group.

The least degree of specialization is reached between 550 and

750 fathoms, and this is possibly the maximum depth to which

a crinoid can ordinarily descend without undergoing semi-

pathological degeneration.

Below 750 fathoms the excess of primitive characters beco^ies

slowly less and less pronounced through semi-pathological changes

simulating true phylogenetic advance, so that at 2500-3000

fathoms it is only slightly less than the excess of specialized

characters at the surface.

If the' preceding deductions are justified,

(1) The most marked phylogenetical advance, which is always

evidenced bj^ a greater or lesser suppression of some structural

feature, occurs not under optimum conditions for the type

under consideration, but under the more or less unfavorable

conditions of the warm littoral.

(2) Progressively more and more unfavorable conditions induce

a correlated phylogenetical conservatism, and finally a phylo-

genetical stagnation.

(3) Very unfavorable conditions induce a progressively in-

creasing semi-pathological degeneration which, though usually

very different in the details of its manifestation, is biologicall}^

the equivalent of phylogenetical advance under the optimum

conditions.

(4) Many deep sea types, or types living under similarly

unfavorable conditions, which exhibit an extraordinary mixture

of very primitive and very highly speciaHzed characters, are to

be interpreted as primitive types upon which is superposed a

pseudo-specialization induced by the pathological effect of their

environment.

318 bushnell: textiles from ozark caves

ANTHROPOLOGY. — Fragmentary textiles from Ozark caves.

David I. Bushnell, Jr., Bureau of Ethnology,

Throughout the Ozarks, from the banks of the Mississippi to

the western foothills, and through the northwestern part of

Arkansas, caves and smaller rock shelters are to be found in the

cliffs bordering the numerous streams as well as in the adjacent

valleys. These, with few exceptions, show evidence of long

occupancy by Indians. Masses of wood ashes and charcoal,

intermingled with fragmentary pottery, some objects of bone

and stone, bones of animals, shells, etc., have accumulated near

the openings of the caverns, but nothing has been discovered to

indicate great antiquity. Many caves within this area have

been partially excavated, but unfortunately no complete de-

scription of the contents of any one has been published.

It is reasonable to suppose that various pieces of basketry,

cloths, and other textiles, all of a perishable nature, have at

different times been recovered from masses of ashes in the dry

caves, but only two such discoveries can be traced, one in Mc-

Donald County, Missouri, the other in Benton County, Arkansas,

adjoining it on the south. The specimens are in the United

States National Museum and are now described for the first time.

The cave in McDonald County, ^ in which the specimens were

found, is described as being ''in the valley of Little Sugar Creek,"

in the southern part of the county not far from the Arkansas

line. Little Sugar Creek is about forty miles west of James

River, formerly known as the Great North Fork of White, down

which valley Schoolcraft passed during the autumn of 1818 and

there "saw many of the deserted pole camps of the Osages, none

of which appeared, however, to have been recently occupied,""

This was the hunting ground of the Osage as it had been for many

generations, and for this reason the greater part of the material

met with in the caves should undoubtedly be considered as being

1 This was evidently the cave later partially examined by C. Peabody and W.

K. Moorehead and briefly described by them in Bulletin I, Dept. of Arch., Phillips

Academy, Andover, Mass., 1904.

2 Schoolcraft, H. R-., The Indian in his wigwam. Buffalo, 1848, p. 62.

bushnell: textiles from ozark caves

319

of Osage origin. However, one piece from the ashes in the cave

on Little Sugar Creek probably came from the far Southwest, as

there is no evidence of coiled basketry having been known to the

Osage or neighboring tribes. This is shown in figure 1. (U. S.

N. M. 230,529). It is a fragment of a coiled basket or shield,

probably the former. The average diameter of the outer edge

is about 20 cm. The diameter of each coil is about 1 cm. The

coils are formed of bunches of grass which, on account of the con-

dition, cannot be identified. The other element, which serves

Fig. lb. One-halt nat-

ural size

Fig. la. One-fourth natural size

to bind the coils, is black or a very dark brown, very hard, and

with a glossy surface; it resembles the fiber obtained from the

seed pods of Martynia louisiana, known commonly as the unicorn

plant or Devil horn. This often attains a length of 35 cm. and

was used by the Apache and other tribes in basket work.^

The finding of this example of coiled basketry far from its

probable place of origin may be accounted for by the fact that

the tribes of the southern plains carried on an extensive trade

with the Pueblo Indians, while the Osage were their neighbors

to the eastward. The trade between the various tribes occupy-

^ Coville, F. v., Plants used in Basketry; in, Aboriginal American Basketry,

by O. T. Mason, in Report of the United States National Museum for 1902, ^^ ash-

ington, 1904, p. 207.

320

bushnell: textiles from ozark caves

ing the vast territory from the Mississippi to the Rio Grande

was evidently quite extensive, and long journeys were often

undertaken by individuals or large parties. The coming of a

trading party from the Pueblos, is the event recorded in the winter

count of the Kiowa for 1872-1873:

"Teguago Tsdn-de Sai, 'Winter that the Pueblos came.' In

this winter, while most of the Kiowa were encamped on the

Washita near Rainy Mountain, a party of Pueblo Indians and

Mexicans visited them to trade biscocho, or Pueblo bread, and

eagle feathers for horses and buffalo robes. "^

The following four specimens were likewise found in the cave

''in the valley of Little Sugar Creek."

Fig. 2. Natural size

Figure 2. (U. S. N. M. 230,534). Border of a mat or basket.

The upper line of the drawing represents the finished edge. Each

element is about 5 mm. in diameter, but the material is badly

decomposed and cannot be identified.

Fig. 3. One-half natural size

Figure 3. (U. S. N. M. 230,536). A loosely twisted cord of

Indian hemp, Apocynum caymahinum.

Figure 4. (U. S. N. M. 230,538). A fragment of a piece of

cloth which at the time of its discovery is said to have been about

'' Mooney, James, Calendar history of the Kiowa Indians, in Seventeenth

Ann. Rept. Bureau of Ethnology, \N ashington, 1898, p. 336.

bushnell: textiles from ozark caves

321

^^7,

45 cm. square, but unfortunatelj^ it was cut. The horizontal

elements, as shown in the drawing, are about 1 cm. apart; the

strands passing in the other direction are rather compact. The

former are made of Indian hemp, Apocynum cannahinum, dyed

red and black, the colors being used alternately. The other

strands are hard and brittle and the material was probably de-

rived from the outer sur-

face of a nettle, Urtica-

ceae, used at the present

time by the Osage. Ac-

cording to Mr. Francis

LaFlesche this is un-

doubtedly of Osage ori-

gin. The blue-black

dye used in coloring the

strands of Indian hemp

resembles the dye even

now made by them. It

is prepared by boiling to-

gether, in water, a quan-

tity of maple bark and

red ocher, the latter hav-

ing first been roasted. To this liquid is added a certain quantity

of grease, the result being a blue-black dye or paint.

This specimen at once suggests a piece of cloth recovered from

a rock shelter on the bank of Cliff Creek, Morgan County, Ten-

nessee, in 1885. The technique of the two is the same, but the

latter measures about 115 cm. by 60 cm. and is made entirely of

Indian hemp. This, and other objects were "Found in a grave

3 1 feet below the surface in earth strongly charged with niter

and perhaps other preservative salts. The more pliable cloths,

together with skeins of vegetal fiber, a dog's skull, some bone

tools, and portions of human bones and hair, were rolled up in a

large spUt-cane mat."^ These are among the most interesting

specimens in the National Museum collection.

» Holmes, W. H., Prehistoric textile art of the Eastern United States, in

Thirteenth Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, p. 30.

Fig. 4. Natural size

322

bushnell: textiles from ozark caves

Figure 5. (U. S. N. M. 230,533). Fragment of a loosely

woven mat or bag. The technique is similar to that of the pre-

ceding example. The material has

not yet been identified.

Figure 6. (U. S. N. M. 230,714).

This was recovered ''From a rock

shelter on the farm of Mrs. Hardin.

The shelter is below a high bluff,

known as Eden Bluff, on the north

bank of White River and 1 mile south

of the town of Monte Ne, Benton

County, Arkansas. It was found in

a mass of dry ashes, intermingled

with fragments of limestone. Above

the ashes, to a height of 5 or 6 feet,

and extending for a distance of 60 or

70 feet, were numerous pictographs

in red paint. Other objects found in

the shelter were grains of charred

corn, corncobs, a strand of coarse

grass with a knot, hickory nuts,

charred oak, stone implements, bones,

shells, etc.""

This piece, of unknown use, is about 35 cm. in length. It is

made of the inner bark of the basswood, Tilia americana. At

each end the strands of fiber have been formed into rather tightly

wrapped rolls, which, however, do not contain any other sub-

stance. The strands extending between the rolls are loose. The

fiber is in a remarkably perfect state of preservation.

The Osage at the present time make use of the barks of the

basswood, the slippery elm, and the pawpaw.

The, discovery of fragments of basketry in a cave within the

« Quoted from the notes by E. H. Jacobs, by whom the material was collected.

The rock shelter at Eden Bluff is mentioned in the article by Peabody and Moore-

head (op. cit.): "The rock-shelter was used in early times for burials, and five

or six skeletons have at different times been exhumed; a feature was the 'wild hay,'

dried, found in connection with the burials." Unfortunately the 'wild hay'

was not identified, and it may, in reality, have been basswood bark.

Natural size

bitshnell: textiles from ozark caves 323

former Osage area, at once suggests a well-known statement by

Hunter^ when referring to the art of making pottery vessels:

"Another method practiced by them is to coat the inner sm'face

of baskets made of rushes or willows with clay to any required

thickness, and when dry, to burn them. ... In this way they

construct large, handsome, and tolerably durable ware, though

latterly, with such tribes as have much intercourse with the

whites, it is not much used, because of the subsitution of cast-

iron ware in its stead." This referred primarily to the Osage.

Fig. 6. One-fourth natural size

Very large pottery vessels have been discovered on different

sites in the eastern part of Missouri near the Mississippi, impor-

tant sites being located near Kimmswick, in Jefferson County,

and at the mouth of the Saline, in Ste. Genevieve County. Two

distinct forms of ware are met with, one bearing the imprint of

textiles on the outer surface, the second being smooth on both

the outer and inner surfaces. Of these the former is the older. ^

Among the fragments of pottery recovered from these ancient

sites are many bearing the imprint of textiles sunilar to certain

pieces from the McDonald County cave. Although at no time

since the discovery of the Mississippi valley have the Osage occu-

pied villages in the eastern part of their territory, which ex-

tended to the Mississippi, nevertheless they undoubtedly did so

at an earlier day. Consequently the Osage were probably the

makers of the large cloth-marked vessels which represent the

earlier of the two periods of occupancy, while the smooth ware

may be attributed to some Algonquian tribe of a later time.

^Hunter, John D., Manners and customs of several Indian tribes located

west of the Mississippi, Philadelphia, 1823, p. 297.

^Bushnell, D. I., Jr., Archeological Investigations in Ste. Genevieve County,

Missouri. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 46: 662. 1914.

REFERE^XES

Under this heading it is proposed to Include, by author, title, and citation, references to all

scientific papers published in or emanating from Washington. It Is requested that authors cooperate

with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are

not intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal.

MAMMALOGY

Allen, G. M. A new bat from Mexico. Proceedings of the Biological Society

of Washington 27: 109-112. July 10, 1914. (Describes RhyncMscus naso

priscus, subsp. nov. — N. H.)

Allen, J. A. The generic names Speothos and Iclicyon. Proceedings of the

Biological Society of Washington 27: 147. July 10, 1914. (Icticyon is

shown to be the proper generic name of the South American bush-dogs. —

N. H.)

Bailey, V. Eleven new species and subspecies of pocket gophers of the genus

Thomomys. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 27: 115-

118. July 10, 1914. (Brief diagnoses in advance of a monograph nearing

completion. — N. H.)

Clark, A. H. Two interesting mammals from the island of Tobago, West Indies.

Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Ser. 8, 13: 68-70. January, 1914.

(Notes on specimens of Marmosa and Dasypus. — N. H.)

CoPELAND, M. Pipistrellus in Maine. Proceedings of the Biological Society

of Washington 27: 227. December 29, 1914. (Records of Pipistrellus .sub-

flavus obscurus from Maine. — N. H.)

Grinnel, J. A neiv race of Microtus montanus from the central^ Sierra Nevada.

Proceedings of the Biological Society of \\ ashington 27: 207, 208. Octo-

ber 31, 1914. Describes Microtus montanus yosemite, from Yosemite Valley.

— N. H.)

Hanna, G. D. Interesting mammals on the Pribilof Islands. Proceedings

of the Biological Society of W ashington 27 : 218. October 31, 1914. (Records

of polar bears, walrus and sperm whale. — N. H.)

Heller, E. New subspecies of mammals from equatorial Africa. Smithsonian

Miscellaneous Collections 63': 1-12. June 24, 1914. (Describes 15 new

subspecies of carnivores and rodents. — N. H.)

HoLLiSTER, N. Descriptions of four new mammals fro7ti tropical America. Pro-

ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 27: 141-144. July 10,

1914. (Describes one new form each of Ateles, Procyon, Mustela, and Lon-

cheres. — N. H.)

HoLLisTER, N. A systematic account of the grasshopper mice. Proceedings

of the U. S. National Museum 47: 427-489, pi. 15, text figs. 1-3. October

29, 1914. (Monograph of the genus Onychomys, with description of one new

subspecies from Mexico. — N. H.)

324

references: mammalogy 325

HoLLiSTER, N. New manunals from Costa Rica and Mexico. Proceedings of

the Biological Society of Washington 27: 209, 210. October 31, 1914. (A

new brocket, Mazarna tema cerasina, and a new two-toed anteater, Cyclopes

mexicanus, are described. — N. H.)

HoLLiSTER, N. The systematic name of the Brazilian crah-eating raccoon. Pro-

ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 27: 215. October 31, 1914.

(Procyon nigripes Mivart antedates P.cancrivorusbrasiliensis Von Ihering. —

N. H.)

HoLLiSTER, N. The technical names of the common skunk and mink of the east-

ern states. Proceedings of the Biological Society of \A ashington 27: 215.

October 31, 1914. (The skunk known as Mephitis putida becomes M. nigra

and the mink known as Mustela visoji lutrcocephala becomes M. v. mink,

both dating from Peale and Beauvois, 1796. — N. H.)

HoLLisTER, N. On the systematic names of the cheetahs. Proceedings of the

Biological Society of Washington 27: 216. October 31, 1914.

HoLLiSTER, N. The spotted tiger-cat in Texas. Proceedings of the Biological

Society of Washington 27: 219. October 31, 1914.

HoLLisTER, N. Two ncw South American jaguars. Proceedings of the U. S.

National Museum 48: 169, 170, pi. 5. December 16, 1914. (Describes Felis

paraguensis, from Paraguay, and F. notialis, from Argentina. — N. H.)

Howell, A. H. Revision of the American harvest mice (genus Reithrodontomys) .

North American Fauna No. 36. Pp. 1-97. June 5, 1914. (Complete synop-

sis of the known forms, seven of which are described as new. — N. H.)

Lantz, D. E. Economic value of North American skutiks. U. S. Department

of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin 587. Pp. 1-22. June 4, 1914. (Discusses

the value of skunks to agriculture, their value as fur bearers, and the pos-

sibilities of raising them for their fur. — N. H.)

Lyon, M. W., jr. Tadarida Rafinesque versus Nyctinomus Geoffroy. Pro-

ceedings of the Biological Society of \\ ashington 27: 217,218. October

31, 1914. (Tadarida apparently antedates Nyctinomus. — N. H.)

Lyon, M. W., jr. Lichtenstein' s plural distributive generic names Bubalides,

Connochaetes and GazeUae. Proceedings of the Biological Society of \A ash-

ington 27: 228, 229. December 29, 1914.

Merriam, C. H. Descriptions of thirty apparently new grizzly and broivn hears

from North America. Proceedings of the Biological Society of \A ashing-

ton 27: 173-196. August 13, 1914. (Preliminary descriptions to be fol-

lowed in the near future by more complete accounts in monographic form. —

N. H.)

Miller, G. S., jr. Directions for preparing specimens of mammals. Fourth

edition, revised. Part N of Bulletin No. 39, U. S. National Museum. Pp.

1-24. August, 1914.

Miller, G. S., jr. Two new North American bats. Proceedings of the Bio-

logical Society of \A ashington 27: 211, 212. October 31, 1914. (Describes

Myotis longicrus interior, from New Me.xico, and M. I. amotits from \'era

Cruz.— N. H.)

Miller, G. S. jr. The generic name of the collared peccaries. Proceedings

of the Biological Society of Washington 27: 215. October 31, 1914. (Dico-

tyles Cuvier replaces Pecari Reichenbach. — N. H.)

326 EEFERENCES: ENTOMOLOGY

]MiLLER, G. S., JR. The generic name of the common flying-squirrels. Pro-

ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 27: 216. October 31, 1914.

(Pteromys Cuvier, 1800, replaces Sciuropterus. — N. H.)

Miller, G. S., jr. A new hat from Cuba. Proceedings of the Biological

Society of Washington 27: 225, 226. December 29, 1914. (Separates the

Cuban specimens of Chilonatalus as C. macer. — N. H.)

Miller, G. S., jr. Further note on the generic name of the collared peccaries.

Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 27: 229. December

29, 1914. (Pecari is here considered the correct name, instead of Dicotyles. —

N. H.)

ScHEFFER, T. H. The common mole of the eastern United States. U. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin 583. Pp. 1-10. May 14, 1914. (An

economic paper, with instructions for destroying the animal when this be-

comes desirable. — N. H.)

Stejneger, L. En ny sten til den skotsk-norske landbro. Naturen (Bergen) 38:

50-52. February, 1914. (Recently discovered living mammals furnish

additional evidence of a former Scoto-Norwegian land bridge. — N. H.)

Stejneger, L. The systematic name of the Pacific lualrus. Proceedings of the

Biological Society of Washington 27: 145. July 10, 1914. {Odobenus dicer-

gens replaces 0. obesus, shown to be a nomen nudum. — N. H.)

ENTOMOLOGY

Dyar, H. G. Note on Hemihyalea and soiyie species of Amastus. Insecutor

Inscitiae Menstruus, 2: 146-151. October, 1914. (Gives a key to the spe-

cies of Hemihyalea, describing one new species; also a key to some of the

species of Amastus, describing one new species. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Lepidoptera of the Yale-Dominicanexpeditionof 1913. Proceedings

of the U. S. National Museum, 47: 423-426. October 24, 1914. (Lists all

of the material collected and describes 7 new species and one new sub-species.

—J. C. C.)

Gates, B. N. The temperature of the bee colony. Bulletin of the U. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, No. 96. Pp. 1-29, figs. 1-8. July 22, 1914. (A pro-

fessional paper detailing the methods used in the work and results obtained,

together with certain phenomena observed in connection with various dis-

turbances of the colony. — J. C. C.)

Heinrich, C. a new Californian Coleophora on plum. Insecutor Inscitiae

Menstruus, 2: 145. October, 1914.

Hunter, W. D. The pink bollworm. Circular of the U. S. Department of Agri-

culture, Bureau of Entomology. Pp. 1-6, figs. 1-5. August 7, 1914. (An

account of an insect injurious to cotton and likely to be introduced into

this country. — J. C. C.)

Kelly, E. O. G. A new sarcophagid parasite of grasshoppers. Journal of Agri-

cultural Research, 2: 435-445, plate 40. September 21, 1914. (An account

of a new species of Sarcophaga, described in this paper by J. M. Aldrich,

together with notes on the other species of the genus known to parasitize

grasshoppers. — J. C. C.)

references: entomology 327

Knab, F. Simuliidae de Chile sej)tentrional . Anales de Zoologia Aplicada.

1: 17-22, plate 1. April, 1914. (Describes one new species. — J. C. C.)

Knab, F. The oriental trtgonomclopine flies. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus,

2: 131-133. September, 1914. (Describes Diplochasma, new genus, and

one new species. — J. C. C.)

Marlatt, C. L. The periodical cicada in 1914. Circular of the Bureau of Ento-

mology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Pp. 1-3, figs. 1-3. May 27, 1914.

Myers, P. R. Results of the Yale-Peruvian expedition of 1911. Addendum to

the Hymenoptera Ichneumonoidea. Proceedings of the U. S. National Mu-

seum, 47: 361-362. October 24, 1914. (Describes one new species. — J. C. C.)

Parker, W. B. Quassiin as a contact insecticide. Bulletin of theU. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, No. 165. Pp. 1-8, fig. 1. December 31, 1914. (An

account of experiments indicating this preparation has possibilities as a

commercial insecticide of moderate cost. — J. C. C.)

QuAiNTANCE, A. L., and Baker, A. C. Classification of the Aleyrodidae. — Part

II. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, Technical

Series, No. 27, Part II. Pp. 95-109, plates 35-48. September 9, 1914. (Gives

a table of the genera and describes Aleuroplatus, Dialeurodoides, Pealius,

Bemisia, Aleurocybotus, Aleurotullus, Aleurocanthus, Aleurotrachelus, Aleu-

rothrixus, Aleuroparadoxus, Aleurotithius, Aleurolobus, new genera of the

authors, together with one new species and the new genera Dialeurodes and

Tetraleurodes, Cockerell.- — J. C. C.)

QuAYLE, H. J. Citrus fruit insects in Mediterranean countries. Bulletin of the

U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 134. Pp. 1-35, figs. 1-2, plates 1-10.

October 7, 1914. (Gives an account of the various insects, including their

life history, and of species likely to be mistaken for the injurious ones;

discusses natural enemies of the various injurious insects and methods in

use for the control of these insects. — J. C. C.)

RoHWER, S. A. Vespoid and sphecoid Hymenoptera collected in Guatemala by

W. P. Cockerell. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, 47: 513-523.

October 24, 1914. (Lists all of the species collected in these groups and

describes 11 new species. — J. C. C.)

Scott, E. W., and Paine, J. H. Lesser bud-moth. Journal of Agricultural Re-

search, 2: 161-162. May 25, 1914.

Scott, E. W., and Paine, J. H. The lesser bud-moth. Bulletin of the U. S. De-

partment of Agriculture, No. 113. Pp. 1-16, fig. 1, plates 1 and 2. August

22, 1914. (A professional paper giving description, life history, distribution,

food plants and recommendations for control. — J. C C.)

Townsend, C. H. T. NeiD muscoid flies, mainly Hystriciidae and Pyrrhosiinae

from the Andean Montanya. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus, 2: 123-128 (con-

tinued). August, 1914. (Describes the new genera Eusignosoma and Uru-

huasia, together with 5 new species. — J. C. C.)

White, G. F. Destruction of germs of infectious bee diseases by heating. Bulletin

of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No; 92. Pp. 18. May 15, 1914.

(Gives a short account of the four bee diseases now known to be infectious

and the minimum temperatures that can be emj^loyed for their destruction

by means of heat. — J. C. C.)

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 292d meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club,

on February 24, 1915.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATIONS

M. R. Campbell, Movement of sand-dunes on the California coast.

The dunes described occur near Monterey. Ordinarily they are

not in motion, but are covered with a growth of chaparral, and the

impression first produced was that their present stationary condition

might denote a change of climate since their formation. Later it

was observed that occasional breaches are formed, from which the

sand is swept forward in long tongues. After a certain period movement

at such a location ceases and the newly formed dunes become covered

with chaparral. Thus movement is occurring only here and there

at any one time, but after a certain period the material of the whole

dune has become shifted.

Discussion: A. C. Spencer inquired as to the cause of the primary

breach. Campbell believed this might be due to a severe storm or

an extraordinary wind.

REGULAR PROGRAM

C. J. Hares: Correlation of sotne of the Cretaceous and Eocene

formations of Central Wyoming. The uniformity of the Cretaceous

formations over much of Wyoming indicates that sedimentation was

unobstructed and that the present mountain chains contributed

little, if any, of those sediments. The Cretaceous sediments were

probably derived in great part from farther west. The mountains

rose later, though movement was probably initiated in late Cretaceous.

The best comparison of these formations may be obtained by using

the Niobrara as a datum plane. The Niobrara is composed of 200

to 1,700 feet of calcareous shale and limestone, bearing the distinctive

Ostrea congesta fauna, and marks the maximum extension of deep ma-

rine water. The Niobrara is succeeded in Natrona County by 2000

to 3000 feet of dark, marine shale, which is equivalent to the Steele

shale of Carbon County. The Steele and underlying formations,

except for a narrow outcrop of a White River formation, are continuous

from Carbon to Natrona County, but the overlying formations have

been eroded. The Steele formation in Carbon County is overlain

328

proceedings: geological society 329

by the Mesaverde, which is composed of 1500 to 3000 feet of sand-

stone, shale, and coal, generally forming two prominent ridges. The

lower ridge-forming sandstone of the Mesaverde corresponds to the

Parkman sandstone, and its upper ridge-forming sandstone repre-

sents the Teapot sandstone of Natrona County. The Parkman and

Teapot, with the intervening shaly sandstone, are from 800 to 1500

feet thick. The Mesaverde roughly corresponds to the Judith River

of Montana and marks the maximum withdrawal of the Montana

sea. Succeeding the Mesaverde in Carbon County is from 600 to

3000 feet of marine shale (Lewis) and marine sandstone in the base

of the Lower Laramie. This marine series above the Mesaverde

is equivalent to the 1000 ± feet of marine shale and sandstone in Natrona

County between the Teapot sandstone and the Lance. It probably

includes within its upper portion beds which are equivalent to the

Fox Hills of northeast Wyoming. The Lewis is approximately the

time equivalent of the Bearpaw and marks the last great incursion of

the Cretaceous sea, which, receding, laid down the Fox Hills sandstone.

The upper limit of the marine beds in this area serves as another datum

plane. The marine deposits in Carbon County are overlain by 1000

to 6000 feet of continental deposits (Lower Laramie), which are iden-

tical in Hthologic character, manner of bedding, and topographic ex-

pression (moderate ridges) with the 2000 to 3000 feet of Lance beds

in Natrona County, which are only 36 miles away. In both there

is an entire absence of conglomerate and both have taken part fully

in the orogenic movements affecting all the lower formations. The

Lance in Natrona and adjacent counties is overlain by 2400 to 4500

feet of Fort Union. The Lance and Fort Union are structurally con-

formable, as are the Lower Laramie and parts of the Upper Laramie.

The peculiar irregularity of structure in the lower Fort Union })eds

gives them a rough appearance and they form a pronounced ridge

in the topography. They are precisely like the basal part of the Upper

Laramie in Carbon County. In both Natrona and Carbon Counties

these beds contain cherty conglomerate and at Alkali Butte and at

Whiskey Peak in Fremont County they contain fragments of Mowry

shale, which is a formation in the Colorado group stratigraphically

about 10,000 feet below either the L^pper Laramie or Fort LTnion.

The first appearance of these fragments of Mowry in any overlying

formation is indicative of important orogenic uplifts, and the signifi-

cance of the evidence cannot be disregarded. This lithologic evidence

has been interpreted by Veatch to indicate the existence of an uncon-

formity between the Lower and Upper Laramie, but the remark-

able relations of overlap on older beds inhibited by a part of the Upper

Laramie may be interpreted as due to an unconformity within the

Upper Laramie. At Alkali Butte in Fremont County the Fort Union

is only 250 feet above the marine beds, indicating either an unconform-

ity below the Fort L^nion or an extraordinary thinning of the Lance.

The unconformity described by Veatch is not stratigraphically at

the place of the assumed unconformity at the top of the Fox Hills.

330 proceedings: geological society

The fossil evidence is partly in harmony and partly at variance.

The Lance contains a Triceratops fauna, but the Lower Laramie has

been supposed to be entirely barren of dinosaur remains; however,

dinosaurs occur in it. Fragments of bones collected near the mouth

of Little Medicine Bow and west of Rawlins, about 2000 feet above the

top of the Lewis and near the same horizon as some of the Triceratops

zones in Natrona County, were identified in one case as ceratopsian

bones and in the other as dinosaurian. Triceratops has been collected

from the lower 1000 feet of the Upper Laramie. This is evidence

that the Lance is equivalent in age to the lower part of the Upper

Laramie, or perhaps that Triceratops has a greater stratigraphic range

than hitherto assigned, or that faunal zones do not coincide with litho-

logic boundaries. The invertebrates, Tulotoma thompsoni and other

fresh or brackish water shells, occur in the Lance and the Lower Lar-

amie. The plants in the Lance as well as in the Upper Laramie are

stated to be of Fort Union age, and those in the Lower Laramie of Cre-

taceous age. The Fort Union flora of the Lance has come chiefly

from the upper half of the formation in the Dakotas and Montana,

but not from the type Lance in Converse Count}'' or the Lance of

Natrona County, while that from the Lower Laramie in Carbon County

has come in most cases from the very base or from the lower 2000 feet

of the formation. This may make some difference in our views regard-

ing the character of the flora, because this series of beds may range

up to 6000 feet thick. Most of the leaves that have been collected in

Natrona County from the base of the Lance have Cretaceous affinities.

Some leaves collected 600 feet above the base of the Lower Laramie

have Fort Union affinities. With so much of the Lower Laramie

removed by erosion from the syncline east of Walcott, it is easy to see

that the Fort Union species which exist elsewhere in the upper part

of the Lower Laramie and the Lance may have been missed at that

place. The present status of facts does not warrant correlating beds

mapped as Lance in Natrona and Converse counties wholly with

the Upper Laramie, but, on the contrary, they should for the most

part, if not entirely, be correlated with the Lower Laramie.

W. B. Heroy: The relation of the Upper Cretaceous formations of

southern Wyoming and northeastern Colorado. The upjjer part of

the Upper Cretaceous section in Carbon and Sweetwater counties

in southern Wyoming has been described as containing the following

formations: Steele shale, 4000 feet; Mesaverde formation, 2000 feet;

Lewis shale, 500 feet; Lower Laramie, 1000-6500 feet. The Steele

shale is correlated with the upper part of the Mancos shale of Colo-

rado and Utah and with the lower part of the Pierre shale of the Great

Plains region. The Mesaverde formation consists generally of two

prominent sandstone members separated by a series of softer shaly

beds, the lower being approximately equivalent to the Parkman sand-

stone and the upper to the Teapot sandstone of central Wyoming.

, The Lewis shale is widely distributed over southern Wyoming and

northwestern Colorado. It has been recognized by Hares in his work

proceedings: geological society 331

in central Wyoming as the shale which lies above the Teapot sandstone

and below a- marine sandstone which is correlated with the Fox Hills

of northeastern Wyoming and of the type locality in South Dakota.

The Fox Hills of central Wyoming is represented in the southern

Wyoming section near Rawlins by the lower 800 feet of the ''Lower

Laramie," a series of sandstones which yields a marine Cretaceous

fauna. In Carbon County, as mapped by Veatch, this zone is found

in the upper part of the Lewis, the base of the Lower Laramie hav-

ing been drawn at the top of the marine beds. .It thus appears that

the Fox Hills sandstone of the type locality is represented in southern

Wyoming by a marine sandstone which overlies or forms the upper

part of the Lewis. If the Mesaverde of Carbon County, Wyoming,

is traced eastward into the Laramie Basin, it is found that the lower

member (Parkman) forms the conspicuous "Pine Ridge" near Rock

River Station, the upper portion of the Mesaverde (Teapot) having

been either entirely removed or obscured by overlying beds. The

Lewis shale is not recognized in the Laramie Basin, and together with

the overlying marine sandstone member of the Laramie (which is

correlated with the Fox Hills), appears now not to extend east of the

Medicine Bow. In the Laramie quach'angle, as mapped by Darton

in the Laramie-Sherman folio, Steele shale is overlain by Mesaverde

sandstone, while the corresponding section east of the Laramie Moun-

tains on Horse Creek, shown on the Sherman quadrangle, consists

of Pierre shale overlain by "Fox Hills" sandstone. Darton regards

the base of the Mesaverde as mapped on the Laramie quadi'angle as

the approximate stratigraphic equivalent of the base of the "Fox Hills"

of the Sherman quadrangle, and this view is confirmed by Lee, who

visited and collected from both localities in 1914. The base of the

"Fox Hills" as mapped on the Sherman quadrangle would thus be the

same as the base of the Mesaverde (Parkman) This horizon is about

4000 feet lower stratigraphically than the Fox Hills of central Wyoming,

which overlies the Lewis shale.

The "Fox Hills" of the Sherman quadrangle as exposed on Horse

Creek has heretofore been regarded as the stratigraphic equivalent of

the "Fox Hills" of the Denver Basin, which has been traced by Darton

northward from the original locality near Platteville to the Wyoming

line. The "Fox Hills" of the Denver Basin corresponds with the "Fox

Hills" of the Colorado Springs region as describecl by Richardson and

others. If the "Fox Hills" of the Denver Basin is the same as that of

the Sherman quadrangle, then it appearig probable that the term "Fox

Hills" as used in the Denver Basin relates to a much lower stratigraphic

horizon than that occupied by the Fox Hills of northeastern Wyoming

and in the type locahty in northern South Dakota. The "Fox Hills"

of the Denver Basin is apparently equivale^nt to the lower Mesaverde

(Parkman) of southern Wyoming, while the Fox Hills of the type lo-

cality is equivalent to the basal "Lower Laramie" of southern Wyom-

ing, the top of the Lewis as mapped by Veatch.

332 proceedings: geological society

G. H. Ashley : The physiography of the Rockies in the Cretaceous-

Tertiary period. The speaker first outlined the physiographic history

of the region, pointing out that during Upper Cretaceous time and

before the Rocky Mountain region had been the scene of slow, per-

sistent, crustal depression, during which from 1 to 3 or more miles of

sediments were laid down. The period closed with movement that

stopped sedimentation in the Gulf area and over most of the Rocky

Mountain area, though sinking and sedimentation continued in the

center of the old basin, resulting in the laying down of the Laramie,

Lower Laramie, Black Buttes and possibh' Lance rocks'. Pronounced

uphft followed, resulting in mountain building and the subsequent ero-

sion that cut through the supermontane deposits and base-leveled the

elevated Piedmont areas. Then came a period of renewed depression

and sedimentation, in which were laid down the Fort Union and pos-

sibly Lance formations at the north and many local deposits at the

south, including the Raton, Denver, Puerco, Ohio Creek, Upper Lara-

mie, Evanston, and other associated deposits, which were derived

from the recently uplifted lands and overlie unconformities in the Pied-

mont regions but not awaj'- from the mountains. Renewed uplift and

erosion preceded the deposition of the Wasatch of early Eocene age.

The position of the Lance in this physiographic outline was dis-

cussed in some detail from both the stratigraphic and paleontologic

sides, the conclusion being reached that while many facts suggest cor-

relation with the Laramie, and that while the formation was laid down

before the first mountain-uplift, the evidence as a whole strongly points

to the post-Laramie age of the beds.

Comparison was then made between the ph3'siographic history of

this period in the Rocky ^Mountain province and that in the Gulf

province, the comparison seeming to show that the sea withdrawal in

the Gulf region corresponded to the sea withdrawal and the first period

of mountain building in the Rockies, and that the return of the sea in

the Gulf region and the laying down of the Eocene Midway and Will-

cox formations in that region corresponded in time with the deposition

in the Rock}' ^Mountain region, of the Fort L^nion, and possibly Lance

formations at the north and with the local sediments referred to at the

south, and that on that basis those formations must have been of Ter-

tiary age.

Discussio7i of the papers of Hares, Heroy, and Ashley: W. T. Lee

spoke in confirmation of the correlation of the Mesaverde of the Lara-

mie Basin with the socalled Fqx Hills of the Sherman quadrangle east

of the Laramie ^fountains. His opinion was based on stratigraphic

succession and on marine fossils collected in both regions. T. W.

Staxtox said that as regards the correlation of the ]\Iesaverde of Lara-

mie Basin with the Fox Hills sandstone of Horse Creek, Wyoming, as

advocated by Lee and Heroy, the views expressed might possibly be

correct. The section at Horse Creek is obscured by overlap of the

White River group. The highest fossils from Cretaceous beds in the

neighborhood are certainly older than Fox Hills. But even if the sand-

PROCEEDIXGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 333

stone mapped as Fox Hills at Horse Creek should prove to be ]\lesa-

verde, this would not have any necessary bearing on the correlation of

the Fox Hills sandstone of northern Colorado. The area from Fort

Collins and Greeley south to Boulder has recenth' been examined with

care, and full collections of fossils have been obtained from the Fox

HiUs. The Fox Hills fauna of this area corresponds closelj' '^Ndth the

typical Fox Hills fauna of northern South Dakota, and the identifica-

tion of the same formation in the two areas is as complete as can be

expected over such a great distance. While it is true that the Fox

Hills fauna may be considered the littoral facies of the Pierre fauna,

and that in a broad sense it began long before Fox Hills time in the

Eagle and was repeated in the Claggett, yet each of these recurrences

has its distinctive species, so that when the fauna of the whole forma-

tion is considered it is not difficult to distinguish Fox Hills from Claggett

and Eagle, though they have a good many species in common.

The true Fox Hills fauna of the type area is distinguished from all

the earlier faunas of the region by the presence of the ammonite *Sp/?e/z-

odiscus instead of Placentoceras, bj' a group of Scaphites including .'^.

conradi, S. nicolleti, S. cheyenneiisis, S. mandanensis, by a number of

gastropod genera and species, and by the absence of Baculites, Inoce-

ramus, etc. In all these respects the Fox Hills fauna of northern Colo-

rado is identical. Heroy's proposed correlation of the Fox Hills of

northern Colorado with the ]\Iesaverde of northern Wyoming cannot

be accepted because the detailed paleontologic evidence is opposed to

it, and because there are several important lower sandstones within

the Pierre shale of northern Colorado which probably represent Mesa-

verde sedimentation. Time was lacking for an adequate discussion of

the papers by Hares and Ashley. Concerning the latter, Stanton re-

marked that many of the opinions expressed could be characterized as

"interesting if true."

C. X. Fenner, Secretary.

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHIXGTOX

The 537th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club,

Saturday, ^larch 6. 1915, at 8 p.m., with Ex-President Stejneger

in the chair and 60 persons present.

Under the heading Brief Xotes A. S. Hitchcock called attention to

the plans and methods of work in preparing a new Flora of the Dis-

trict of Columbia, which it is hoped, will be completed within a year.

It will contain analytical keys to the genera and species of ferns and

flowering plants found within a radius of 15 miles of the citj^ of Wash-

ington, but will not include descriptions.

The first paper of the regular program was by J. W. Gidley: Xotes

on the possible origin of the bears. After the examination of much fossil

and living material the speaker had arrived at the conclusion that

the bears, constituting a small homogeneous, widely distributed group.

334 proceedings: biological society

are not closely related to the Carnivores. From a consideration of the

tooth structure, the bones of the feet, and the basal cranial foramina,

Mr, GiDLEY concluded that the bears were probably derived from the

Claenodon group of the Creodonts, and that the Carnivores were de-

scended from the Miacidae, a family of Creodonts not distantly re-

lated to the Claenodon group.

The second communication was by the sculptor, H, K. Bush-Brown:

The evolution of the horse. The speaker was present by special invi-

tation of the President and was introduced to the Society by Ex-

President Stejneger. He discussed briefly the geological evolution

of the horse, and then spoke at some length on the evolution of mod-

ern breeds of horses, particularly the Arab, the effects of breeding it

with other races, and its development in this country. His paper

was well illustrated by lantern slides showing anatomical character-

istics of various horses, as well as external appearances.

On Thursday, March 11, 1915, at 8.30 p.m., the Biological Society

held a joint meeting with the Washington Academy of Sciences in the

Auditorium of the National Museum. Mr. Wilfred H. Osgood, of

the Field Museum of Natural History, and a member of the special

commission for investigating the fur seal question for the Department

of Commerce during the summer of 1914, delivered a lecture illustrated

by stereopticon and motion pictures of the fur seals and other animals

of the Pribilof Islands. All phases of the life of the seals on the islands,

methods of kilhng, skinning, salting, etc., and the introduced herds

of reindeer, the Steller's sea-lions, and the native birds were shown

in motion pictures. About 350 persons were present.

The 538th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, Sat-

urday, March 20, 1915, with President Bartsch in the chair and 45

persons present.

Under the heading Brief Notes, General Wilcox called attention to

a Cedar of Lebanon near Jackson's statue in Lafayette Square.

The first paper of the regular program was by T. S. Palmer, Notes

on the importation of foreign birds. The speaker discussed the subject

with special reference to canaries, parrots, and game birds. He stated

that about 500 permits for importation of birds are issued annually

by the Department of Agriculture, the number of birds imported in a

year amounting to about half a million, as many as 17,000 birds arriv-

ing in a single day. The number of species imported is about 1500,

though canaries constitute by far the largest number brought in.

Methods of breeding birds abroad, caring for them in transit, and se-

lecting and teaching singers and talkers were explained. Dangers of

importing contagious diseases, as the "quail disease," and methods of

quarantining were pointed out. The effect of the European war on

the importation of birds was commented upon. The paper was dis-

cussed by Messrs. Bartsch, Stiles and Goldman.

proceedings: anthropological society 335

The second paper was b}^ Ned Dearborn, Notes on the breeding of

■minks in captivity. Among the habits of the mmk attention was called

to their profound diurnal sleep, cries emitted, polygamous nature, and

cat-like character of food. The speaker stated that the period of ges-

tation was found to be 42 days; number of young at birth 1 to 8; eyes

of young remain closed for one month after birth ; young may be weaned

at 6 weeks; minks breed when a year old; their fur is suitable for mar-

ket at a year and a half; experiments showed that different types of

diet had no effect on quality of fur. The speaker concluded that breed-

ing of minks for commercial purposes was possible. The paper was

discussed by Messrs. Wetmore, A. B. Baker, and Cooke.

The third paper was by M. W. Lyon, jr., Endamoeba gingivalis and

pyorrhea. The speaker discussed the cause of pyorrhea or Rigg's dis-

ease, the Endamoeba gingivalis, recently discovered bj'- Dr. Allen J.

Smith and others. He called attention to the pathologic lesions pro-

duced by the Endamoeba and by the various bacteria associated with

it; mentioned the amoebicidal action of emetin hydrochlorid adminis-

tered systemically or locally; and reviewed some of the early references

to the Endamoeba before it was considered the cause of pyorrhea.

The paper was illustrated by lantern slides of Gros' original drawing

of the organism, and of several photomiLTOgraphs and drawings of

living and stained Endamoebas, bacilli, and spirochaetes from a case of

pyorrhea. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Stiles and Goldman.

M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 479th meeting of the Society was held Tuesday evening, Decem-

ber 15, 1914, in the lecture hall of the Public Library. The speaker of

the occasion was the distinguished German scholar, Geheimrat Dr.

Felix von Luschan, director of the Museum fiir Volkerkunde in Ber-

lin and for a number of years in charge of the archeologic excavations

carried on under the auspices of the German government in Asia Minor.

Doctor von Luschan had been a delegate in attendance at the Austra-

lian meeting of the British Association in September, but owing to the

outbreak of the war has been compelled to make a somewhat extended

stay in this country before endeavoring to return home. He is utiliz-

ing this time in a study of race mixture in the American negro, having

already visited for this purpose a number of points in the southern

states, including Tuskegee, and traced out for future analysis several

hundred pedigrees of mixed Afro-American origin. He is accompanied

by Mrs. von Luschan, who is herself a competent authorit}^ and an

efficient helper in his anthropological investigations.

In his lecture before the Society Doctor von Luschan chose for his

subject, The excavation of a Hittite capital, dwelling chiefly upon his

work at Boghaz-Keui, the site of the capital of the ancient empire of

the Hittites, who, fifteen centuries before the birth of Christ, occupied

the central portion of Asia Minor and for hundreds of years held the

336 proceedings: anthropological society

balance of power between Egypt and Babylonia, until finally over-

thrown by Sargon, King of Assyria, in 717 B. C. They were variously

known as Hethites, Hittites, Hatti, Khiti, etc., and, from their sculp-

tures, appear to have been a broad-headed people of rather short stat-

ure and irregular features, of the physical type represented by the

modern Armenians, although their linguistic affinity is not yet estab-

lished. Their inscriptions are recorded both in hieroglyphic and in

cuneiform characters. Their sculptural art is crude but strong, the

winged lion, winged sun, and double eagle motifs being of frequent oc-

currence. Facsimiles in plaster of a number of the more important

sculptures taken out under Doctor von Luschan's supervision are now

in our own National Museum by courtesy of Berlin. The lecture was

illustrated with a fine series of lantern slides.

At the 480th meeting of the Society, held January 5, 1915, in the

Pul)lic Library, Dr. John R. Swanton, of the Bureau of American

Ethnology, read a paper on the Ethnologic factors in international

competition. About 25 persons were present. Dr. Swanton reviewed

the different factors tending to bring about union and disunion between

human societies. He showed that these had been operative in all

parts of the world and stood for two great complementary principles

which were probably necessary to the best development of the race as

a whole. At the same time it is not necessary or desirable for the

principle of disunion to extend to open war. The end of warfare may

be confidently predicted from the constant increase in size and decrease

in number of political units, from the progressive weaving of the world

more closely together by means of transportation facilties and other

means of communication, not to mention the gradual international

bankruptcy which war entails. Next, the evolution of a standing army

was traced and its copartnership noted with an aristocratic ruling

class. The integration of smaller states into larger was shown to be

brought about in two ways; by the alliance of coordinate units, and

by combinations in which- some were subordinate and some dominant.

States of the latter class have resulted largely from war; and it was

shown that two kinds of subordination took place, subordination of

peoples as a whole without the entire break up of their internal organi-

zation and subordination of classes. It was stated that this latter kind

of subordination was largely responsible for slavery and serfdom suc-

cessively; and it was alleged that it has left its stain upon modern society,

in which subjection has been transferred to the economic field and has

been accomplished by an extension of the laws of property enabling

one class to levy a heavy toll for the use of things which another class

needs. There can be no permanent peace until exploitation of one

nation or class by another comes to an end and the principle of "home

rule" is extended with due relativity down to the smallest political

and industrial groups.

Several members discussed the paper.

Daniel Folkmar, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V MAY 19, 1915 No. 10

PHYSICS. — An aneroid calorimeter.'^ H. C. Dickinson and N.

S. Osborne, Bureau of Standards.

The term "aneroid calorimeter" is applied to a type of calo-

rimeter in which equalization of temperature is secured by means

of the thermal conductivity of copper instead of by the con-

vection of a stirred liquid. The calorimeter consists of a thick

walled cylindrical vessel of copper, in the walls of which is

embedded a coil of resistance wire to supply heat electrically,

and of a platinum resistance coil for use as a thermometer; it

has been found useful over a wide range of temperatures and is

applicable to a variety of problems.

For use at low temperatures the calorimeter is mounted in a

jacket surrounded by a bath of gasoline the temperature of

which can be controlled thermostatically to within a few thou-

sandths of a- degree at any temperature between —55° and

+40°C., or it can be changed rapidly in order to keep it the

same as that of the calorimeter when heat is being supplied

to the latter. Differences in temperature between the surface

of the calorimeter and that of the jacket are measured by means

of multiple thermocouples which have ten junctions distributed

over the surface of each, thus making it possible to apply accu-

rate corrections for thermal leakage between calorimeter and

jacket even when the temperatures of both* are changing rapidly.

1 To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

337

338 DICKINSON AND OSBORNE: SPECIFIC HEAT OF ICE

The platinum resistance coil (for use as a thermometer) em-

bedded in the calorimeter shows slight irregularities in its behav-

ior, probably due to the difference in expansion between the

platinum and the copper which surrounds it. Uncertainties on

this account, while in general negligible, can be avoided by-

measuring the temperature of the outer bath with a standard

resistance thermometer, using the thermo-couples to measure

the small difference, usually not more than a few thousandths

of a degree, between the calorimeter and the jacket. The

thermometer could probably be improved by changing the

construction.

Results of a series of experiments give the constants of the

resistance thermometer and the heat capacity of the calorimeter

including a tin lined cell for use in determining the specific heat

of ice and water and the latent heat of fusion of ice.

A series of check experiments on the specific heat of water

show the order of reproducibility of results, which can be ob-

tained with this calorimeter, to be 1 part in 2000. Measurements

made at temperatures between 0° and 40°C. gave results which

agree to within the limits of experimental accuracy with the

unpublished results of a long series of experiments made in the

usual form of stirred water calorimeter. The results are also in

satisfactory agreement with the most probable values deducible

from the data of the most careful investigations published by

other observers.

PHYSICS. — The specific heat and heat of fusion of ice.^ H. C.

Dickinson and N. S. Osborne, Bureau of Standards.

Results of previous determinations of the specific heat of ice

by certain observers have indicated a rapid increase in the

specific heat on approaching the melting point; whereas A. W.

Smith^ has found the heat capacity of ice to be practically con-

stant up to temperatures very close to zero, provided great care

and refinement are used to insure the purity of the ice, and that

1 To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

2 Physical Review 17: 193. 1903.

DICKINSON AND OSBORNE: SPECIFIC HEAT OF ICE 339

sensible increases in the apparent heat capacity with ice samples

of only ordinary purity are accounted for by the assumption of

incipient fusion caused by the lowering of the melting point by

the dissolved impurities.

The present investigation has been undertaken with the object

of securing further evidence as to the thermal behavior of ice

at temperatures near the freezing point, and of obtaining reliable

data for the construction of tables of total heat of ice and water

in the range of temperature with which refrigerating engineers

are concerned.

The measurements were made by means of a calorimeter of

aneroid type (i.e., without stii-red liquid as calorimetric medium)

which is described in detail in the foregoing paper. Briefly

described, the tin lined metal cell containing the specimen is

enclosed within a shell of copper, the copper acting as the calori-

metric medium for transmission and distribution of heat elec-

trically developed in a coil built into the shell. The caloruneter

is surrounded by air and enclosed in a metal jacket which is

surrounded by a stirred liquid bath, the temperature of which

can be controlled within a few thousandths of a degree at any

temperature between — 55° and +40°C. Measured amounts of

heat are supplied to the calorimeter electrically by means of the

built-in heating coil. The calorimeter temperature is measured

by means of a platinum resistance thermometer also built into

the shell. DifTerences in temperature between the calorimeter

and jacket surfaces are measured by means of multiple thermo-

couples distributed on the surfaces. During an experiment

thermal leakage is minimized by keeping the temperature of

the jacket nearly equal to the changing temperature of the

calorimeter.

The samples used were from 400 to 470 grams each. Three

samples were of redistilled water of fairly high purity, while a

fourth, which was distilled directly into the container, appeared

from the experunental results to have a much higher degree of

purity.

In the determinations of specific heat it is found that over

the range of temperature covered by the experiments, i.e., —40°

340 DICKINSON AND OSBORNE: SPECIFIC HEAT OF ICE

to 0?050C., the specific heat, S, in 20° calories at any temperature

6, of the four ice samples is represented within the limit of experi-

mental error by the equation:

S = 0.5057 + 0.001863 9 - 79.75 -

in which the constant I is assumed to represent the initial freez-

ing point of the specimen and has the following values:

Sample I

1 0 . 00125

2 0 .00120

3 0.00095

4 0.00005

From the fact that the term which represents the departure

of the specific heat from a linear function of the temperature

is found to depend on the purity, being less the purer the ice, it

is concluded that the specific heat of pure ice in 20° calories may

be closely represented by the equation:

S = 0.5057 + 0.001863 d

Determinations of the heat of fusion made upon three of the

samples used for the specific heat determinations gave the fol-

owing values:

Sample Heat of Fusion

No. Calzo/g

1 79 . 68

2 79.85

4 79.75

Mean 79 . 76

The results of a previous investigation at the Bureau of Stand-

ards, using very different methods to determine the heat of fusion

of ice, give when corrected for the newly found value for specific

heat a mean value of 79.74 20° calories per gram. The mean

for the two investigations is: 79.75 20° calories per gram. For

the use of engineers a table of total heats of ice and water is

given expressed in B.t.u. per pounds at temperature from— 20°F.

to +100°F.

merwin: chromatic reflection in covellite 341

PHYSICS.- — Covellite: A singular case of chromatic reflection. H.

E. Merwin, Geophysical Laboratory.

To describe and to account for some striking color changes in

covellite when it is immersed in colorless inert liquids of different

refractions is the object of this study.

Covellite, crystalline cupric sulphide, in finest powder is very

dark blue; brilliant crystal surfaces or polished plates, whether ob-

liquely or vertically illuminated, are lighter, and vary noticeably

in color with differences in crystallographic section. In obliquely

incident daylight a plate, parallel to the cleavage, immersed in

alcohol (refractive index, n = 1.36) appears brilliant purple, 1=*

in benzene {n = 1.50) it appears reddish purple, ^^ and in methy-

lene iodide (n = 1.74) it appears red.i° A plate perpendicular

to the cleavage changes only to purple in methylene iodide.

Natural crystals have not yielded flakes thin enough to transmit

sufficient light for optical study but some synthetic crystals

prepared in this laboratory by E. G. Zies and by Eugene W.

Posnjak were found suitable for microscopic study. These

crystals are hexagonal scales or piles of scales reaching 0.5 mm. in

diameter, and 0.002 mm. in maximal thickness. The thicker

plates transmit scarcely perceptible amounts of light even when

illuminated by direct sunlight, the thinner ones are yellowish

green- to dark olive. By both a spectrometer eye-piece and a

prism monochromatic illuminator the yellowish green color was

found to be caused by less transmission of the red and violet than

of the middle of the spectrum. The fall in relative transmission

from green to violet — at least as far as 410/x/x — is not apparently

very great; it is greater in the red from about 630 to TOO/x/x mm.

The transmission is shown in a general way in figure 1 .

Plates probably not exceeding 0.0005 mm. in thickness served

1 The colors were compared with Ridgeway's standards. Although the stand-

ards are less brilliant approximate matches were made, (a) Between violet-

purple and true purple, (b) Near rhodamine purple, (c) Between spectrum

red and rose red.

* E. Weinschenk prepared similar plates and noted the red color reflected

after mounting in Canada balsam. Z. Kryst., 17: 497. 1890.

342

merwin: chromatic reflection in covellite

for deterniiiiations of refractive index. ^

values are plotted in figure 1 :

The following observed

Different directions in the plane of the plate give the same value.

Between crossed nicols, flat-lying plates appear dark and ex-

hibit no distinct interference figure. Yet tilted plates are

a doubly re-

fracting and

pleochroic.

One raj' vi-

brates in the

plane of the

plates and is

darker for all

colors. For

both rays

there appear

to be regions

of much

stronger ab-

sorption at both ends of the visible spectrum. These are closer

together for the ray vibrating in the plane of the plates.

* Practically opaque plates, measured with the micrometer caliper, were

only 0.002 mm. thick. Moderately transparent plates were so thin that the

displacement of the bright border of light produced in determining the refractiA^e

index was so slight that high magnification and a very perfect fine adjustment

screw were required to make the displacement e\adent. Even then differences

of less than ±0.03 in refractive index could not be detected, owing partly to

diffraction. In many plates the diffraction bands entirely obscured the phenom-

ena of refraction. The method finally pursued involved the use of a monochro-

matic illuminator. Only such plates were used as showed a pronounced reversal

of the position of the bright border for wave-lengths about 10 jx greater or less

than that for which the determination of refractive index was made.

Fig. 1

MERWIN: chromatic reflection IX COVELLITE 343

Absorption is so strong that the color of covelHte even in the

finest powder is due to Ught reflected directly from the surfaces

of grains. Yet differences in absorption of different colors are

not sufficient to cause marked differences in the reflection of

these colors. Therefore we look to the refractive index and

reflective power to explain the color effects akeady described.

I have estimated that for light from orange to violet which enters

the surface at normal incidence about one-fourth is transmitted by a

plate 0.5 M thick. For these colors the absorption index, k, is of the

order of 0.1; for red it may have twice^ this value. Absorption has,

therefore, very little effect upon the reflective power of the mineral in

the visible spectrum. The reflecting power, R, represents the reflected

fraction of the normall}' incident light as given b}^ the equation

nV.2 + (n + ly

in which n is the refractive index for the wave-length having the ab-

sorption index (extinction coefficient) k. The following equations de-

fine k:

— iirriKd —iTTKd

I = Iie~^^~~ ; or / = I^e >^^~ (1)

The intensity of the light entering the surface is 7i. After traversing

the distance d the intensity is /. The wave-length of the incident

light in the ether is X. The other symbols have their usual signifi-

cance. Xi, is the assumed wave-length within the absorbing medium.

If 7 and /i represent amplitudes of vibration then the exponent of e

becomes — ^^- . These equations define k aqcording to the usage of

A

most of the recent writers. Yet in the foflowing phj^sical tables both

the name and the definition of this sjmibol vary. In Tobies Annuelles

Internationales, page 133, for 1912, names and definition are as above;

in Landolt, Bdrnstein and Roth, page 966 (1912) the symbol k, called

the absorption index, = nx above; in Smithsonian Physical Tables, page

195 (1914) first two equations, k, called the absorption index, = k.

Also in Wood's Physical Optics (1911) in the chapter on the optical

properties of metals a: is named and defined as above, but in the chapter

on the theory- of dispersion = nK above.

For values oi n < 3 the reflective power increases much faster

than n. For w^hite light incident from air at an angle of 60° on

plates cut parallel to the cleavage about 20 per cent of the blue

* Or several times, for W. W. Coblentz found very high reflecting power in

the near infra-red on an inclined section (Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 97).

344 merwin: chromatic reflection in covellite

and violet light is reflected;^ 15 percent of the green; 12 of the

yellow; 5 of the orange; and none of the red. The resulting

color is blue. At angles less than 60° the colors are reflected in

about the same proportions as at 60°. At larger angles blue and

violet are less dominant.

Light incident at 60° from water has a little more than half as

much of its green, blue, and violet reflected as in case of air; and

all of the red and about half of the orange is entirely reflected, be-

cause the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.

Yellow is reflected scarcely at all because for it, water and covel-

lite have nearly the same refractive index. As the angle of

incidence decreases orange and then red cease to be totally re-

flected, but the relative proportions of the other colors do not

change greatly. For more oblique rays total reflection extends

a little further into the orange. The total color effect is purple.

Similarly, oblique reflection from covellite in benzene (n =

1.50) contains still more of the colors of the red end of the spec-

trum and less of the violet end, and in methylene iodide {n = 1.74)

orange is the predominating color. In the latter at 60° only

about 5 per cent of the blue and violet are reflected as against

20 per cent in air.

The light reflected in air from surfaces perpendicular to the

cleavage is blue, but brighter than from those parallel to the

cleavage. This stronger reflection indicates higher refraction

for at least the red end of the spectrum. Red is totally reflected

at large angles of incidence in liquids of higher refraction than

1.64. Therefore the index of refraction €Li is about 1.5. A

large amount of blue is also reflected (not totally) in liquids

of even higher refraction, indicating that e for blue must be

considerably higher than 1.75. Thus throughout the visible

spectrum e>co. The differences in color of the light reflected

parallel and perpendicular to the cleavage are independent of

the pleochroism observed in transmitted light.

* Calculated by the formula for transparent substances, for it has already

been shown that absorption in this case effects the reflection of different colors

about the same amount. The fraction reflected

_ 1 jsin- {i — r) tan^ (i — r))

~ ^ I sh^(i + r) "^ tan2~(T+7y }

where i and r are the angles of incidence and of refraction, and sin i = n ain/'-

WASHINGTON: CALCIUM ORTHOSILICATE IN ROCKS 345

GEOLOGY. — The calculation of calcium orthosilicate in the

norm of igneous rocks. Henry S. Washington, Geophys-

ical Laboratory.

When the calculation of the norm from the analysis of an

igneous rock was first worked out some fifteen years ago in con-

nection with the Quantitative System, provision had to be made

for magmas so low in silica that there remained a deficit for the

femic minerals, after salic potash, soda and hme had been as-

signed their minimal amounts to form leucite, nephelite and

anorthite respectively. Nearly all melilite-bearing rocks and

some nephelinites fall under this category. At that time the

physical chemistry of the calcium silicates had been scarcely

studied and, though the use of calcium orthosilicate was consid-

ered, the normative calcium silicate molecule selected was

4Ca0.3Si02, as it corresponded to the slag mineral akermanite

of Vogt, which is apparently isomorphous with and related to

melilite. Equations for the calculation of this molecule in the

norm were accordingly given in the publication of the quantita-

tive system.

Subsequently, investigations in the Geophysical Laboratory^

showed the non-existence of 4Ca0.3Si02 but the existence of

a compound of the formula 3Ca0.2Si02. It seemed probable

that this last formula, rather than Vogt's, represented the com-

position of akermanite. Consequently the new formula was

adopted, and a corresponding modification of the norm and its

calculation was proposed. ^

Very recently the study of the ternary system CaO-Al203-Si02

has been completed by Rankin and Wright,-^ who show that the

compound 3Ca0.2Si02 is unstable and occupies only a small

field, while the orthosilicate, 2CaO.Si02, exists in three stable

forms, depending on the temperature, and occupies a large field;

that is, the orthosilicate may be formed within a much wider

/

1 A. L. Day, E. S. Shepherd and F. E. Wright, Am. J. Sci. (4) 22: 280. 1906;

E. S. Shepherd, G. A. Rankin and F. E. W right, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 3: 214. 1911.

2 Cross, Iddings, Pirsson,\\ ashington, J. Geol., 20: 558. 1912.

3 G. A. Rankin and F. E. Wright, Am. J. Sci., 39: 1. 1915.

346 WASHINGTON: CALCIUM ORTHOSILICATE IN ROCKS

range of conditions than the 3:2 siHcate. It has therefore been

thought best by the authors of the quantitative system to

substitute the calcium orthosihcate molecule for that of

3Ca0.2Si02. This seems the more advisable, since calcium

orthosihcate exists in the mineral monticellite, and is analogous

chemically to the ferrous and magnesium orthosilicates, fayalite

and forsterite, while 3Ca0.2Si02 is unknown in nature .

This change necessitates new equations for the calculation of

the norm, and, though these may be figured out by anyone

acquainted with the principles involved, it would seem to be

advisable to present them. It will, however, be rarely necessary

to use them, for among nearly six thousand rock analyses already

assembled for a new edition of the Collection of Rock Analyses,

of which the norms have been calculated, only about 80 are of

such low silicity and other chemical characters as to demand

the calculation of calcium orthosihcate. It may be remarked

that, judging from the cases in which I have had to calculate

calcium orthosihcate, the substitution here proposed changes

the classificatory position of very few rocks. This is to be ex-

pected, as it amounts only to the shifting of a very small amount

of silica, and affects only the relation of pyric to olic normative

minerals. The present opportunity also permits the illustration

of a simplified procedure in calculating the norm which I have

finally adopted as most economical of time and labor.

It will be assumed that a preliminary study of the mol numbers

and successive trials have shown a deficiency in silica, that is, an

amount insufficient to form leucite, nephelite, anorthite, acmite,

diopside, and olivine, so that there must be a readjustment of

the silica assigned to diopside (and wollastonite), and a certain

amount of calcium orthosihcate must be calculated.

The most frequent case is that in which there is no wollasto-

nite, or its amount is insufficient to satisfy the deficit in silica.

Here, after allotting Si02 to form leucite, nephelite, anorthite, and

possibly acmite, the amount thus used is deducted from the total

(molecular) amount, the residue being the "available silica." Let-

ting d = molecules of diopside (CaO.(Mg,re)0.2Si02),/ = molecules

WASHINGTON: CALCIUM ORTHOSILICATE IN ROCKS 347

of olivine (2(Mg,Fe)O.Si02), and c = molecules of calcium

orthosilicate (2CaO.Si02)/ we have the equations:

(l)2d+f + c = available silica.

(2) d + 2f = amount of MgO and ''residual" FeO.^

(3) d + 2c = amount of ''residual" CaO.«

These equations can be solved, of course, in several ways, but.

that which I have adopted is as follows: Subtracting (1) from

the sum of (2) + (3), we get the value of f + c. Substituting

this in (1) d is found and then from (2) and (3) f and c are found

successively.

In the second case, where there is sufficient tentative wollas-

tonite to meet the deficiency in Si02, the total amount of silica

in the rock is subtracted from the sum of the silica which has been

allotted to leucite, nephelite, anorthite, diopside, and to tentative

wollastonite. The deficit thus shown is the number of molecules

of necessary 2CaO.Si02, and also the amount of silica to be

assigned for it. This requires twice as much CaO. The rest of

the CaO remains in wollastonite and takes an equal amount of

Si02, while the diopside remains unchanged.

Two examples will be given of the calculation of norms con-

taining calcium orthosilicate, the figures being placed in the

positions which they uniformly occupy on the backs of the cards

on which the analyses of my collection are written (pages 348, 349).

Regarding the mechanical procedure of calculation, it may be

observed that a columnar arrangement and the writing down of

all the constituent oxides in the minerals of fixed composition,

the feldspars and lenads, acmite, magnetite and ilmenite, recom-

mended in the original publication on the Quantitative System,

are time-consuming, and needless after a little practice. I have

also, to save time, slightly altered the order of procedure, though

this does not depart, in any respect, from the principles on which

the calculation of the norm is based. The various molecular

'' This is represented by the sjonbol cs, and has a molecular weight of 172.

* This is the FeO + MnO remaining after the formation of magnetite and

ilmenite.

* This is the CaO remaining after the formation of anorthite and apatite (and

rarely perofskite).

348

WASHINGTON: CALCIUM ORTHOSILICATE IN ROCKS

amounts of the minerals (mostly minor constituents), of fixed

composition, as apatite, acmite, magnetite and ilmenite, are first

written down, and then the salic K2O, Na20 and CaO are assigned

to orthoclase, albite and anorthite. Diopside is then formed

from the balance of the CaO with an equal amount of MgO +

FeO, and the rest of these last two oxides, which are usually in

excess over CaO, are assigned to hypersthene, care being taken

to have their relative proportions the same in both femic minerals.

A slide rule is very useful for this, and for obtaining other ratios.

It is to be remembered that only the FeO (+ MnO) remaining

after the formation of magnetite and ilemite is to be used, as is

seen in the lower left hand corner.

The various amounts of Si02 assigned for these various mole-

cules are written down on the right and the sum is compared with

the total Si02 of the rock. If there is an excess it is calculated

as quartz and the other mineral molecules are calculated directly

from their molecular amounts by the use of the regular tables.

If there is a deficit in Si02, the Si02 of the tentative hypersthene

is subtracted from the sum total of used Si02, the balance sub-

tracted from total Si02, and hypersthene and olivine formed by

A. Nephelinite, Vosges, France. A. Michel-Levy, C. R., CXLVIII, p. 1530,

1909. Aa = mol numbers.

B. Nephelinite, Etinde, Kamerun. E. Esch, Sb. Pr. Ak. W., 1901, p. 415.

Ba = mol numbers.

WASHINGTON: CALCIUM ORTHOSILICATE IN ROCKS

349

di

CaO 75 = 8.70

MgO 67 = 6.70

FeO 8 = 1.06

16.46

Si02 150

CaO"= 95

MgO = 468

FeO = J7

525

= 1.01

ol

MgO 401 = 28.07

FeO 49 = 5.00

33.07

Si02 225

cs

CaO 20

SiOz 10

\ = 1.72

mt 20 = 4.64

il 38 = 5.78

SiO,

d = 75, f = 225, c= 10

an 33 = 9 . 17

Ic 40 = 17.44

ne 97 = 27.55

di

CaO 111 = 12.88

MgO 111 = 11.10

23.98

SiO. 222

CaO for wo

49

B

ap

fP205= 1.68

CaO 17

wo

CaO 5'

Si02 5,

= 0.58

cs

CaO 44^

SiO. 22,

= 3.78

-22

350

WASHINGTON: CALCIUM ORTHOSILICATE IN ROCKS

the equations on page 194 of the book on the system. If there

i? still a deficit, all the remaining FeO and MgO are assigned to

olivine, and the salic Na202 and Si02 divided between albite and

nephehte by the equations in (a) on the same page. If there is

still not enough Si02 to form albite, orthoclase and leucite are

calculated, the salic Na20 being all assigned to nephehte; and if

there is not enough Si02 for orthoclase, the equations described

above are resorted to.

This procedure may seem to be lengthy and comphcated, but

in reality, after a httle experience, knowing the mineral compo-

sition of the rock and the amount of Si02, it will often happen

that a simple inspection will lead one to adopt at once the correct

stage of process. Excess Si02 is present in the norm of most

rocks, except those with modal lenads, occurring not infrequently

in those with modal olivine, so that its presence can usually be

assumed in such rocks as diorites, andesite, and even not a few

basalts. But if, for example, the rock is a nephehte-syenite,

tinguaite or tephrite, the presence of normative nephelite may be

assumed as probable, and all the excess MgO and FeO assigned

at once to olivine. Such facts permit short cuts in the calcula-

tion of the norm, and any errors in the assumptions are detected

in the calculation.

A table is here given for the calculation of calcium orthosihcate

which may be "cut out and pasted over that for akermanite in

the book, which it replaces.

palmer: bornite as silver precipitant 351

MINERALOGY. — Bornite as silver precipitant. ^ Chase Palmer,

Geological Survey.

In an introductory chapter of their studies in silver enrich-

ment Palmer and Bastin- by quantitative experiments have

shown that chalcocite (CU2S) is decomposed completely by a

dilute solution of silver sulphate. As a result of this reaction

all the copper of the chalcocite enters the solution as cupric

sulphate, while free silver and silver sulphide in equivalent

amounts are deposited. Many years ago R. Schneider^ recorded

a similar observation on the conduct of cuprous sulphide (CU2S)

with dilute silver nitrate solution, but inasmuch as other obser-

vers have issued conflicting statements concerning the products

of the reaction, it seemed advisable to study the reaction anew

with silver sulphate solution. According to these recent experi-

ments the proportions of the substances appearing in the re-

action between chalcocite and silver sulphate solution may be

expressed by the abbreviated equation:

CuoS + 2Ag2S04 = 2CUSO4 + 2Ag + AgoS.

Anthon* had observed that by interaction with silver nitrate

solution pure cupric sulphide (CunSn) is changed completely to

silver sulphide and soluble cupric nitrate without deposition of

free silver and this observation has been repeatedly confirmed

by others. As a precipitant of silver ore, therefore, one gram of

pure covellite is capable of depositing 2.26 grams of silver in

the form of silver sulphide. On the other hand, one gram of

pure chalcocite is capable of precipitating 2.7 grams of silver,

one-half of which is combined with sulphur as silver sulphide

and the other half is free silver.

Conspicuous among the more complex sulphides commonly

associated with native silver is bornite. The mineral contains

copper, sulphur and iron, but its chemical composition has

1 Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geological

Survey. '

2 Palmer, Chase, and Bastin, Edson S., Metallic minei'als as precipitants of

silver and gold. Economic Geology, 8: 140-170. 1913.

3 Pogg. Annalen der Physik, 152: 471. 1874.

^Journal f. prak. Chemie, 10: 353. 1837.

352 palmer: bornite as silver precipitant

not been definitely settled. Analyses of bornite from different

sources have led to several empirical formulas for it, such as,

CugFeSa, Cu5FeS4, and CuioFeoSg.

The constitution of bornite has been a favorite subject of

speculation. The views of Rammelsberg and Groth illustrate

the vacillations and uncertainties likely to follow sole reliance

on compovsition as indicative of constitution. In 1841 Rammels-

berg assigned to bornite the constitutional formula, 3Cu2S.Fe2S3,

by which all the copper is represented as present in the cuprous

state. Later he considered all the iron of bornite to be ferrous

iron and the copper to be partly cuprous and partly cupric,

and to express these supposed conditions he ascribed to bornite

the constitutional formula, Cu2S.CuS.FeS. Groth has con-

sidered bornite to be strictly a cuprous substance and has adopted

the formula, 3Cu2S.Fe2S3 which Rammelsberg had abandoned.

It has been known for a long time that bornite immersed in

a silver nitrate solution quickly develops on its surface a crop

of silver crystals, but beyond the mere appearance of silver on

bornite this striking phenomenon seems to have received no

attention from mineralogists. Believing that a study of the

capacity of bornite as a silver precipitant might throw light

not only on the chemical composition of the mineral, but also

on the intramolecular relations of its constituents, the reaction

of a specimen of bornite from Virgilina, Virginia, and dilute

silver sulphate solution has been studied quantitatively. The

specimen was massive, its freshly broken surfaces having a

uniform color. Metallographic examination of polished sur-

faces showed the presence of a few small grains of chalcopyrite

and a few gashes of a dark grey mineral suggestive of chalcocite.

The mineral was broken into small fragments, and from these

were chosen only those pieces in which, under the magnifier,

no chalcopyrite could be detected. The granular pieces were

washed with alcohol, and from these a second selection of bornite

was made. In this way, it was believed, material representative

of the true bornite in the specimen was obtained. An analysis

of the material selected for study gave the content

palmer: bornite as silver precipitant 353

Atomic ratios

Copper 62. 50 per cent 62.50 H- 63.4 = 0.9S6 4.74

Iron 11. 64 per cent 11.64 -i- 56 =0.208 1.00

Sulphur 25.40 per cent 25.40-^32 =0.794 3.81

99.54

These results agree fairly well with the requirements of the

empirical formula Cu5FeS4. The relatively high proportion of

iron suggests the presence of a small quantity of chalcopyrite

which in preparing the sample for study had escaped detection.

EXPERIMENT WITH SILVER SULPHATE SOLUTION

The finely ground mineral (0.5926 gram) was digested first

on the steam bath for 6 hours and afterwards at room tempera-

ture. After 12 hours the solution was filtered from the insoluble

material. From the deposit were obtained 0.5983 gram of

free silver and 0.6037 gram of combined silver. Traces of copper

were present in the residue which also yielded

0.0643 gram iron = 10.85 per cent of the mineral.

0.1478 gram sulphur = 24.94 per cent of the mineral.

and from the solution were obtained

0.3615 gram copper = 61.00 per cent of the mineral.

0.0053 gram iron = 0.89 per cent of the mineral.

Atomic proportions of the copper dissolved by the silver

solution and the iron and sulphur recovered from the residue :

Per cent

Copper 61 .00

Iron 10.85 ^ 56.0 = 0.193

Sulphur 24 .94

and

63.4 = 0.962

32.0 = 0.780

Cu Fe S

0.962 : 0.193 : 0.780 = 4.98 : 1.0 : 4.04.

The results obtained by this chemical reaction approximate

the requirements of the empirical formula, CusFeS^, more closely

than do the results obtained by a gross analysis of the sample.

Atomic proportions of the dissolved copper and the precipitated

silver products:

354 palmer: bornite as silver precipitant

Per cent

63.4 = 0.962

Dissolved copper 61 .00

Free silver 100.9 4- 107.9 = 0.935

Combined silver 101.8 -^ 107.9 = 0.943

and

Free Combined

Copper silver silver

0.962 : 0.935 : 0.943 = 1.00 : 0.97 : 0.98

This experiment shows that for every atom of copper dissolved

by the silver sulphate solution one atom of free silver and one

atom of combined silver in the residual material are deposited.

It is apparent, therefore, that the copper of this bornite is cuprous

just as it is in chalcocite and to express the cuprous nature of the

copper it is convenient to use for this bornite the formula

SCuoS.FeoSs after the dualistic system. This formula may be

considered a constitutional formula for the mineral under ex-

amination, and its corresponding molecular formula becomes

CuioFe2S8.

The proportional amounts of the substances participating

in this reaction of bornite may, therefore, be expressed by the

equation :

CuioFeoSs + 10AgoSO4 = lOAg + Ag^oFcsSs + IOCUSO4

Thus one gram of this bornite is capable of precipitating 2.15

grams of silver as silver and silver sulphide. In strong contrast

with the reactivity of its cuprous constituent is the inertness of

the sulphoferric portion of the bornite.

Inasmuch as the group, Fe^Ss, is not known to exist as an inde-

pendent mineral, the formation of a silver ferric sulphide as one

of the products of the reaction of bornite with silver sulphate

solution may be presumed. Moreover, from the stability of

the compound residual products it seems not improbable that

in regions abounding in silver deposits associated with bornite

some silver sulphoferric mineral as a secondary product may

yet be found. It is hoped that further study of the conduct

of copper iron sulphide minerals with silver salt solutions will

shed light on the chemical relations which sternbergite and its

allied minerals bear to one another.

safford: new bull-horn acacias 355

BOTANY. — New or imperfectly known species of hull-horn acacias.

William Edwin Safford, Bureau of Plant Industry.

In 1914 the writer published a preliminary paper on the

myrmecophilous acacias of tropical America commonly called

bull-horns. 1 The present paper is intended as a supplement to

it. Additional material has been received from various sources,

including specimens from the herbarium of the Missouri Botan-

ical Garden collected in Mexico by Dr. Josiah Gregg in 1849,

and others from the Isthmus of Panama, collected recently by

Mr. Henry Pittier.

An undescr!bed species very clo ely related to Acacia Standleyi

and to A. hirtipes must be assigned to the section Clavigerae.

The fact that the large spines of this new species are quite glabrous

makes it advisable that the group name Hebacanthae, which

includes these species, be changed; and the name Mesopodiales

is therefore proposed herewith as a substitute for it. As modi-

fied the group may be redescribed as follows:

Group V. Mesopodiales {Hebacanthae Safford, op. cit., p. 366).

Involucel borne at or above the middle of the peduncle of the flower

spike. Interfloral bracteoles not peltate, but composed of a fan-shaped

or ovate limb with a hairy margin, borne upon a blender pedicel and

forming an imbricated pubescent covering over the flowers before

anthesis.

Of the three additional species discussed one belongs to the

group Ceratophysae and two to the Globuliferae.

Acacia dolichocephala Safford, sp. nov. Group Geratophysae, sec-

tion Dolichocephalae. A shrub or small tree resembling A caaasp/iaer-

ocephala Schlecht. & Cham., but readily distinguished by its elon-

gate flower-heads and fusiform receptacle, as well as by the occasional

presence of nectar glands on the leaf-rachis at the base of the terminal

and subterminal pairs of pinnae. Young growth puberulent, at length

glabrate. Stipular spines ivory white, tipped with brown, broadly

divergent and slightly curved outward, terete, tapering gradually to

a point, the bases flattened and more or less cuneate, the spines 4 to

5 cm. long, 10 to 12 mm. broad along the line of union of the connate

bases. Leaves of vegetative branches composed usually of 10 pairs

of pinnae; rachis puberulent, 10 to 14 cm. long, with an elongated

1 Safford, W. E., "Acacia cornigera and its allies." Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci.

4: 356-386. 1914.

356 safford: new bull-horn acacias

crater-like nectar gland on the petiole a little below the first pair of

pinnae, often a second, tubular gland below the second pair, and some-

times a gland at the base of the terminal and subterminal pairs of pin-

nae; leaflets 22 to 26 pairs, assuming a reddish bronze color when dry,

oblong-linear, 8 to 10 mm. long, 2 mm. broad, unequal at the base,

rounded at the apex and mucronulate, those from which apical food

bodies have fallen retuse; midrib prominent beneath, obhque; lateral

nerves inconspicuous. Leaves of the flowering branchlets composed

of 2 to 5 pairs of pinnae; leaflets 8 to 14 pairs, 3 to 4 mm. long; rachis

of leaf with a conspicuous raised nectar gland just below the lower-

most pair of pinnae, and frequently a smaller gland at the base of the

terminal pair of pinnae. Flowers in ovate-oblong heads or spikes 11

to 15 mm. in length and 8 mm. in diameter at anthesis, usually in clus-

ters of 2 or 3, rarely solitary or in clusters of 4; peduncles graduated

in length, thick and fleshy, dark reddish brown, the longest equal in

length to the fusiform axis of the head or exceeding it, the shortest

less than half as long; involucel 4-toothed, calyx-like, situated at or

near the base of the peduncle, puberulent without. Flowers ferrugine-

ous, tubular; calyx 1.9 to 2.1 mm. long, 0.5 to 0.6 mm. in diameter,

densely puberulent about the margin, obtusely and shallowly 5- or

6-lobed; corolla scarcely exceeding the calyx; stamens numerous, with

ferrugineous filaments and pale tan-coloi;ed anthers; pistil filiform.

Pedicelled bracteoles between the flowers with obtuse ovate ciliate

laminae, these' puberulent on the upper surface; pedicels 1.4 mm.

long, when young clothed with sparse short diaphanous hairs, at length

glabra^te. Pods resembling those of other Ceratophysae, inflated,

indehiscent, thin-chartaceous, 3.5 to 4 cm. long, 1 cm. in diameter,

wine-colored when mature, cylindrical, often slightly oblique, termin-

ating in a sharp spine-like beak, and contracted at the base into a

short stipe-like neck.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History,

no. 189552, including flowers and mature seed-pods, collected along

the shore north of the city of Vera Cruz, Mexico, January 24, 1906,

by Dr. J. M. Greenman (no. 87). A specimen of the type collection

with less perfectly developed spines and without seed-pods, is in the

United States National Herbarium, no. 692164.

Acacia chiapensis Safford, sp. nov. Group Globuliferae, section

Ramulosae. An erect shrub or small tree 3 to 5 meters high, resem-

bling Acacia Donnelliana but distinguished from that species by the

absence of interpinnal nectar glands on the larger leaves and by the

more numerous glands at the base of the leaf rachis (petiole) . Young

growth puberulous. Flower heads globose, borne in axillary clusters

on special flowering branches (only very young flower heads observed

in the type specimen), covered before anthesis by the imbricate pel-

tate limbs of the pedicelled interfloral bracteoles. Fruit (immature

in the type materfal) a flat strap-shaped legume, somewhat thickened

at the sutures, 7.5 to 7.8 cm. long, 7 to 8 mm. broad, terminating in

safford: new bull-horn acacias ■ 357

an obtuse point and narrowing at the base into a stipe-like neck, sev-

eral legumes radiating from the indurated torus; fruiting peduncle

1.5 to 2 cm. long and (in the type) as thick as the flowering branch

bearing it; seeds 12 to 14. Large spines dark brown, V-shaped, terete,

tapering gradually to a sharp point, minutely puberulous near the

base, at length glabrous and glossy, 50 mm. long, 5 mm. thick near

the base, usually perforated and inhabited by stinging ants. Small

spines scarcely exceeding 1 mm. in length, puberulent at the base,

terminating in a polished reddish point, in the type not acicular as in

A. Donnelliana. Leaves of the vegetative branches composed of

20 to 26 pairs of pinnae, these 46 to 60 mm. long, sometimes subopposite;

leaflets 34 to 44 pairs, linear-oblong, approximate or contiguous, 5

to 5.5 mm. long, 1 to 1.4 mm. broad, usually rounded or obtuse at the

apex, unequal at the base, puberulent when young, often spreading

nearly at right angles with the rachis of the pinna ; main rachis grooved

above, puberulent, devoid of nectar glands except at the base, the

groove here broader and bearing 10 to 12 irregularly disposed nec-

taries, some of them apparently geminate. Leaves of flowering branches

varying greatly in size, the larger ones resembling the vegetative leaves

but with fewer pinnae, and like them devoid of interpinnal nectar

glands, the succeeding ones sometimes with interpinnal glands be-

tween the uppermost pinnae, and the smallest bearing 4 to 6 pairs of

more or less rudimentary pinnae, nearly all of them with interpinnal"

nectar glands; all floral leaves with a row of 4 to 6 prominent nectar

glands at the base of the rachis, and with minute stipular spines sub-

tending the calyx-like buds from which issue the flower heads.

Type in the United States National Herbarium, no. 692157, col-

lected near San Fernandino, between Tuxtla and Chicoasen, state of

Chiapas, Mexico, January 12, 1907, by Guy N. Collins (no. 164), in

association with Acacia Collinsii Safford. At the time of collection

(the dry season) nearly all the plants were entirely leafless.

This species, which appears to be intermediate between A. Donnel-

liana of Honduras and A. multiglandulosa of Panama, has thin fiat

pods, and its spines are uniformly quite straight. On the specimen

collected nearly all the spines were punctured, but very few of them

contained ants. Those that were secured occurred not in colonies

but as individuals in the spines.

Acacia multiglandulosa Schenck, Repert. Nov. Sp. Fedde 12: 362.

1913.— Bot. Jahrb. Engler 50: 480. 1914. Group Globuliferae, sec-

tion Ramulosae. A shrub or small tree with Very long narrow bipin-

nate leaves, some of them provided with large stout polished dark-

colored connate stipular spines, these perforated and inhabited by

ants, others with minute inconspicuous subulate spines. Large spines

(when living) maroon or dark wine-colored, glossy, widely divergent,

straight or very slightly curved outward, stout, terete, somewhat flat-

tened at the base, 40 mm. long, 8 to 10 mm. broad at the base. Small

spines at the base of equally large leaves scarcely 2 mm. long, minutely

358

safford: new bull-horn acacias

puberulent at the base (when young) , glabrous at the blood red point.

Leaves of vegetative branches composed of 23 to 31 pairs of pinnae;

rachis 20 to 38 cm. long, broadly grooved, with the raised edges of the

groove puberulent, and with a single small nectar gland at the base of

each pair of pinnae ; groove

broadening at the base of

the rachis and enclosing 20

to 25 small nectar glands,

these arranged approxi-

mately in 3 rows, truncate-

conoid in form, with a

central pore-like opening;

rachis of pinnae 30 to 58

mm. long, bearing 25 to

31 pairs of leaflets, these

linear-oblong, 5 to 7 mm.

long, 1 to 1.1 mm. broad,

with only the midrib con-

spicuous beneath, unequal

at the base, and usually

obtusely pointed at the

apex. Leaves of the

flowering branches rudi-

mentary, reduced to small

bracts about 1 cm. long

subtending the peduncles,

bearing minute stipular

spines and 4 nectar glands

but devoid of pinnae.

Flower heads 7 mm. long, 6 mm. in diameter, solitary or in pairs,

borne in the axils of the bracts on long erect branchlets composed of

many nodes; peduncles 8 mm. long, 0.75 mm. thick, provided with a

basal involucre of 4 connate bracts; form of interfloral bracteoles not

observed. Fruit lacking.

Type in the Berlin Herbarium, collected at Porto Bello, Panama,

in 1825, by J. G. Billberg. It consists of a flowering branch with

several flower heads and two disintegrated leaves, but without en-

larged stipular spines. Since the publication of Dr. Schenck's paper

upon this group fine specimens of vegetative branches with large

spines were collected at the head of Gatiin Valley, Panama, in 1914,

by Mr. Henry Pittier (no. 6745). The latter are now in the United

States National Herbarium, sheets no. 716560 and no. 716561.

In its large leaves, composed of many pinnae, this species resembles

Acacia Cookii; but the presence of many small glands at the base of

the rachis separates it at once from that species, and the arrangement

of its flower heads on specialized branches instead of in clusters in the

axils of large spines places it in the section Ramulosae.

Fig. 1. Acacia multiglandulosa Schenck: a,

enlarged stipular spines, with base of vegetative

leaf attached showing numerous extrafloral nec-

tar glands; h, leaf base, with minute stipular

spines; c, nectar gland. Specimen from Panama

{Pittier 6745). a and b, natural size; c, scale 3.

safford: new bull-horn acacias 359

Acacia gladiata Safford, sp. nov. Group Mesopodiales, section

Clavigerae. Flower spikes club-shaped, resembling those of Acacia

Standleyi but much smaller, 10 to 16 mm. long, 4 to 5 mm. thick, densely

pubescent before anthesis; peduncles in clusters of 2 to 6, the longest

observed 13 mm. in length, pubescent with short straight cinereous

hairs both above and below the involucel, the latter normally calyx-

like composed of 4 acute ascending teeth, at first densely pubescent

on the outside, at length subglabrous and glossy, usually situated at

or above the middle of the peduncle; axis of spike not exceeding the

peduncle in thickness. Flowers much darker than those of A. Stand-

leiji, but apparently yellow after anthesis, on account of the mass of

crowded anthers; calyx broadly tubular, shallowly lobed, tan-colored,

hairy about the margin and on the sides; corolla maroon or dark wine-

colored, obtusely 5- or 6-lobed, about twice as long as the cslyx; sta-

Fig. 2. Acacia gladiata Safford. Enlarged stipular spines of vegetative

leaf, with base of rachis showing solitary nectar gland. Cotype {Rose 3792).

Natural size.

mens exserted, very numerous, the filaments ferrugineous, the anthers

pale strawcolored; style filiform, longer than the stamens. Fruit not

observed. Large spines very long and widely divergent, usually flat-

tened and sword-like, linear-lanceolate in outline, somewhat con-

stricted at the base, resembling certain forms of the spines of Acacia

cochliacantha H. & B. but connate instead of separate at the base and

never split or inflated, gradually narrowed toward the apex to an

acute point, 35 to 52 mm. long, 5 to 8 mm. broad, glabrous, reddish

or wine-colored when young, at length brown or tan-colored. Leaves

with pubescent or minutely hairy rachis and usually with a nectar

gland at its base and just below each pair of pinnae, those of vegetative

branches 7 to 10 cm. long, composed of about 20 pairs of pinnae, these

23 to 27 mm. long; leaflets about 20 pairs, oblong-linear, 3.5 to 4.5 mm.

long and 1 to 1.2 mm. broad, unequal at the base, rounded at the

apex, often mucronulate or tipped with a waxy apical body, as in the

true myrmecophilous acacias, the margin at first fringed with small

stiff hairs, at length subglabrate. Leaves of flowering branches with

short subulate stipular spines and 10 to 16 pairs of pinnae; nectar

glands circular or oval, with a raised annular margin.

360 lotka: efficiency in organic evolution

Type, bearing flowers and old spines, in the herbarium of the Mis-

souri Botanical Garden, no. 46838, collected in the vicinity of Rosario,

state of Sinaloa, Mexico, in 1849, by Dr. Josiah Gregg (no. 1135).

It is mounted on the same sheet with specimens of the spoon-thorn

acacia, A. cochUacantha H. & B.

Cotype, a young branch with spines and leaves but without flowers

or fruit, in the United States National Herbarium, no. 716563, col-

lected near Acaponeta, Territory of Tepic, Mexico, July 30, 1897,

by Dr. J. N. Rose (no. 3792.)

This species is closely allied to Acacia Standleyi and to A. hirtipes,

but differs from them both in its smooth, flattened, sword-shaped

spines, and in the form and color of its flowers. Though many of the

leaflets of the flowering branches are tipped with food bodies, as in

the true myrmecophilous acacias, the spines are much compressed

and, in the specimens observed, not inhabited by ants.

ECONOMICS. — Efficiency as a factor in organic evolution. I.^

Alfred J. Lotka.

In an earlier issue of this Journal' the writer published a

paper on Evolution in discontinuous systems. In the first portion

of this paper the treatment of the subject was quantitative, and

made use of analytical methods. In the concluding section cer-

tain phases of the subject were touched upon, for which at that

time no method of quantitative analytical treatment could be

suggested.

In the present paper it is proposed to resume the thread of

the former discussion, and to show how the qualitative analysis

of the problem then suggested has since fulfilled the author's

hopes in furnishing the basis for quantitative treatment.

To recall briefly the point of view adopted in the paper cited,

we note that r, the rate of increase per head of a given type or

species of organisms, under given conditions, may be regarded

as a quantitative index of the fitness of such species, or of its

adaptation to the conditions given.

The value of this index r of the fitness, depends, of course,

on the one hand, on the external conditions; on the other hand

1 Paper read before the Washington Philosophical Societj^ on February 13,

1915.

2 This Journal, 2: 2, 49, 66. 1912.

lotka: efficiency in organic evolution 361

it depends on the properties or characteristics of the type of

organism.

These properties may be divided into two classes, viz., those

which influence r through h, the birthrate per head, and those

which do so through d, the deathrate per head.

The latter set of properties can be further subdivided into a

class which we may group together collectively as constituting

the means of passive resistance of the organism,^ as exemplified,

for instance, by such defensive structures as the shell of the

tortoise; and another class which we may similarly denote col-

lectively as the means of active opposition to circumstances un-

favorable to the life of the individual and the species. These

latter means comprise that system of sense and motor organs,

with a controlling and coordinating nerve-apparatus, which is

characteristic of animals, especially of the higher animals, and

notably of man.

These facts are summarized in tabular form below:

Index of Fitness

r = (b - d)

depends upon

External conditions Characteristic prop-

erties of organism

Properties which Properties which

determine b, the determine d, the

birthrate deathrate

Passive resistance Active opposition

For the purposes of our present discussion we shall regard the

external conditions as given, and shall concern ourselves only

with the properties of the type of organism under consideration.

' For details the reader must be referred to the previous paper cited.

362 lotka: efficiency in organic evolution

Moreover, we shall not, on this occasion, discuss those properties

which relate to the birthrate.^

And again, of the properties which determine the deathrate,

we shall suppose the passive resistance of the type of organism

under consideration as given, and shall devote our attention solely

to the analysis of that mechanism or, to use a phrase that does

not invite fruitless controversy, that system, which constitutes

the individual's means of active opposition to unfavorable influ-

ences. We shall study the relation which the efficiency or pre-

cision of this mechanism or system bears to the fitness (gauged

by r) of a given type of organism.

As regards this mechanism or system, it was pointed out in

the paper cited above, that all the actions of the organism form

part of a cycle, the so-called sensory-motor cycle, or, better,

receptor-effector cycle.

For, every action is more or less directly conditioned by sense

impressions received by the organism. Between the mipression

or impressions received and the action or actions conditioned

thereby various steps may intervene. In the simplest case a

reflex action may be the direct and immediate result of a sense

impression. In other cases the action may lag far behind the

impression or impressions to which it is referable, and among

the intervening steps that lead from the impression to the action

may be certain phenomena which form objects of the individual's

consciousness, phenomena of wilP (desire, choice or selection)

and phenomena of mentation (logical deduction, etc.)

The efficiency of the receptor-effector system, and hence the

^ It is hoped to develop this phase of the subject at a later date along lines

which have been suggested by the method here laid down.

5 It is not intended here to open up a discussion regarding the question ot free

will. All that is meant to be implied by the expression "selection" is that the

individual has a consciousness, a sensation or a belief of making use of a specific

faculty commonly denoted by the word will, in determining which of two or more

seemingly possible courses presented to him is to be followed. We are not here

concerned with the nature of this faculty of will, but only with the comparison,

as regards their fitness, of two or more types of organisms, alike in all other

respects, but differing in the particular manner in which they effect their selection;

that is to say, differing in the particular type of their will; or, in other words,

differing in their sense of 'value.

lotka: efficiency in organic evolution

363

fitness of the individual, it was pointed out, depends on the

various errors to which he is prone in each of the three funda-

mental steps of the receptor-effector cycle:

1. In the receptor step:

2. In the intermediate step:

3. In the effector step:

Errors of observation.

a. Errors of mentation (errors against

logic, etc.)

b. Errors of valuation, i.e., errors in the

choice among several (seemingly)

possible actions, i.e., departures from

that choice which would make r a

maximum.^

Errors of operation.

Qualitatively our analysis may be said to be completed when

we have thus recognized the several factors that enter into

^ On this point the reader is referred to the author's paper "An Objective

Standard of Value Derived from the Principle of Evolution," this Journal, vol-

ume IV, 19U, pp. 409, 447, 499.

The writer wishes to take this opportunity to correct an error which has crept

into the paper cited — an error which does not, however, in any way affect the

main conclusions of that paper, as applied to our present purposes.

A constant has by an oversight been dropped out of equation (27), pp. 448 and

449. For, after k' had arbitrarily been made equal to unity (equation (20)) we

were no longer at liberty to select labor as the standard commodity; or, vice versa,

if it is deemed convenient so to select our standard commodity, then k' cannot

be made unity, but must appear in equation (27), which should thus read

= k'

^1

(27a)

This unfortunately means that the indirect method suggested in the paper

cited, for establishing the actual numerical ratio between the theoretical (objec-

tive) and the practical standard of value, fails, and we are driven back to the

resort of actually determining - for at least one commodity. The prospects

of this being accomplished in the near future seem somewhat slender, though

there is one special case in which something can perhaps be done. The writer

may have occasion to return to this point in a later communication.

In point of fact it is more convenient to adopt the first of the two alterna-

tives mentioned above, to discard the use of labor as the standard commodity,

and to put k' = l, so that

Vx = —

(27b)

This is the convention here followed.

364 lotka: efficiency in organic evolution

pla}^ in the operation of the receptor-effector system, and have

grasped their bearing upon the fitness of the organism.

Quantitatively our problem may be stated in this form:

If r is the rate of increase per head per annum of a given type

or group of organisms, it is required to find a mathematical

expression, in terms of suitably chosen characteristic properties

of the organism and of the system of which it forms part, for

"■ ■ (1)

d

e

where e denotes an error of a specified kind, either of observa-

tion, operation, mentation or valuation.

At the time when the tabular statement of the qualitative

analysis recapitulated above was first given, this was done in

the hope that such a provisional analysis might be found to

furnish the basis for a quantitative treatment of the subject.

This hope has since been realized, although it has been found

that in a sense the analysis had been carried too far. In order

to make any headway we must now in a measure retrace the

steps of our analysis, and recombine some of the threads which

we had unraveled.

Let us note first of all that it is not so much isolated and

perhaps peculiar actions which interest us, but rather those

systematic actions which are of a more or less regular or routine

occurrence and which are aimed to meet some more or less

permanent demand. In such case, we can say in mathematical

terms that the actions in question serve to maintain a certain

parameter Xj at a value Xi (for example X] may be the annual

production and consumption of wheat, or the deathrate from

malaria etc., etc.).

Disregarding, then, isolated and peculiar actions (which upon

reflection are found to constitute at most only a small proportion

of the activities of the organism), we may describe in a clear

quantitative way the general scope of the activities of a given

type of organism, such as man, by stating that the represen-

tative individual of that type so distributes his labor, that

lotka: efficiency in organic evolution 365

labor Li is spent in maintaining a parameter Xi at the 1

value Xi

labor Lo is spent in maintaining a parameter X2 at the |

value Xo } {2)

etc., etc., etc., etc., etc.

labor Lj is spent in maintaining a parameter Xj at the 1

value Xj J

Now it will immediately be seen that the fitness of the indi-

vidual, his adaptation to his environment, in so far as it depends

upon the activities defined as above, will depend on two factors :

1 . On the manner in which the individual distributes his labor

among the several pursuits indicated or, in other words, on the

proportion

Li : Lo : . . . iL, (3)

2. On the productivity or productive efficiency of the individual

in each pursuit, as measured by

Ej = ^f^' (4)

Xj — Cj^ being the increment in Xj produced by labor Lj per unit

of time.^

It will be seen that the factors (1) and (2) correspond in a

way to certain points in our tabular analysis of the influence of

various errors on the efficiency of the individual. But instead

of considering individual errors we have lumped them together

in a statistical way, so that errors of observation and operation

find their expression in the corresponding values of the pro-

ductive efficiencies (which are of course diminished by every

such error), while errors of valuation find their expression in

the proportion

L/i '. L/o '....' L/j

^ The constant Cj is introduced because for some commodities (and for most

discommodities) Xj is not zero when Lj is zero, i.e., some of the commodity

"grows" spontaneously without the intervention of the interested individual.

8 In case Xj is of the nature of a "discommodity," Ej is of course negative,

as in the case of the example cited above, namely, if Xj is the deathrate from

malaria.

366 lotka: efficiency in organic evolution

While we have thus lost something of the detail of our first

analysis, we have gained this point, that the quantities with

which we are now dealing are clear cut, measurable and, in

principle at least, determinable by statistical methods. By

their aid we can attack the problem before us by analytical

methods; and furthermore, when we have taken the first steps

in this direction, we can, if we wish, restore to our analysis

some of the detail which we had temporarily sacrificed.

ERRORS OF observation, OPERATION, AND MENTATION

We shall deal with these three types of error under one gen-

eral head, since they have this in common: that they all exert

their, influence upon r through the productivity or productive

efficiency of the individual.

We have, quite generally,

r = r {xi, X2, ■ ■ ■ ■ Xj, ' • •) (5)

so that

dE.^bxj' bEj

In the particular case that the parameter X, is of the nature

of mass produced (and consumed) per unit of time (e.g. the

br

annual production and consumption of wheat), — - is the objec-

dXj

tive value ** v, per unit mass of the commodity Xj. In any case,

we can, with obvious economic significance, write

Also, from (4) we have

so that (6) becomes

(7)

(8)

(9)

dEj ' '

9 This Journal, 1914, loc. cit.

lotka: efficiency in organic evolution 367

We have obtained this result by lumping together in a sta-

tistical way errors committed by the individual, and dealing not

directly with variations in these errors but with corresponding

variations in the productive efficiency E^. There is now no

difficulty in carrying our analysis farther, so as to make it corre-

spond in matter of detail more nearly with the qualitative

analysis from -sYhich we started. We may proceed as follows:

Let I be some suitable parameter which can serve as an index

of the imprecision of a particular type of observation or oper-

ation. (Thus / may be the .mean error made in a particular

type of observation or operation; or it may be, for example, the

strength of the correcting lens worn by a short-sighted person;

or yet again it may be a suitable index measuring the acuity of

the logical faculties of the type under consideration, say, some-

thing of the nature of a refined Binet test).i°

Then if i is the value of the parameter /, we have

E; = ^ (i) (10)

8r= — di (11)

^^ ^^^8i (12)

^ bEj bi

the summation being carried over all those parameters X, for

which the productive efficiency is affected by the imprecision /.

Hence, by (9)

5r = y vj Lj ^ bi (13)

^^ bi

or

which we interpret, in view of (7) as

/

V, = V ., Lj ^ (15)

^^^ bi

" Compare C. B. Davenport, Heredity in Relation to Eugenics, 1911, p. 9.

368 lotka: efficiency in organic evolution

The quantity Vi in equation (15) has an interesting economic

significance. It is the (negative) value, per unit, of the impre-

cision denoted by the parameter /. Thus if / is short-sighted-

ness, measured, say, in dioptries of the correcting lens, then

Vi di is the (annual) loss in values (commodities) which would

be suffered, per head, if all individuals had their short-sighted-

ness increased by a small increment 8i, all other .things remaining

the same.

Or, putting it in another way, Vi di is the /air compensation^^

which should be paid, per head, to a community in which each

individual had his eyesight injured by the (infinitesimal) incre-

ment 8i, in order to restore to them the total earnings (measured

in real commodities) which they made prior to the injury.

Equations (9), (14), and (15) represent the solution of the

problem of finding an expression for the differential coefficient

(1), so far as errors of observation, operation and mentation are

concerned.

" To prevent any possible misunderstanding, it must here be pointed out

that we cannot, along the lines here given, establish an exact expression for the

fair compensation corresponding to an injury di for the case of one individual so

injured and competing with others not injured.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of oflScial publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEODESY. — Triangulation in Alabama and Mississippi. Walter F.

Reynolds, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Publication

No. 24. Pp. 71. 1915.

This publication contains the positions and descriptions of nearly

600 triangulation stations in Alabama and on the Gulf coast of Missis-

sippi. The primary stations included in the volume are a part of the

Eastern Oblique Arc, the field work of which was completed in 1898.

The results of that triangulation appeared in Special Publication No.

7 in 1901, the positions being on the same datum as that used for the

Transcontinental Triangulation, the results of which appeared in Spe-

cial Publication No. 4. Since that time the United States Standard

Datum, now called the North American Datum, was adopted and it

became necessary to change the old positions to that datum.

The field work of the triangulation was done between the years 1848

and 1911. Many of the stations of the early surveys are lost, but from

time to time tertiary triangulation has been done along the coast to

supplement the triangulation of the Oblique Arc.

The elevations of the triangulation stations in Alabama appeared in

Special Publication No. 7, but the elevations of several of the stations

have since been determined by precise leveling and are now held fixed

in a rigid adjustment since made of all the elevations. In this adjust-

ment are also included the elevations of a number of stations in Georgia

and Tennessee. On account of the new adjustment of the net, the

elevations appearing in this publication will differ slightly from those

in Special Publication No. 7.

As a full discussion of the errors and the accuracy of the triangulation

of the Eastern Oblique Arc appeared in Special Publication No. 7, it

was not considered necessary to give any discussion of these subjects

in the new work. There is a table comparing the accuracy of the tri-

angulation in this volume with that of the entire Oblique Arc.

369

370 abstracts: zoology

Aside from its scientific interest this volume has a large practical

value, as it offers to the engineer a large number of points determined

trigonometrically and correlated on one geodetic datum. If the engi-

neer wishes to extend this triangulation or to base other surveys upon

it, the positions, descriptions, and sketches given in this volume will

supply the data that he will need. W. F. R.

GEOLOGY. — A gold-platinu7n-palladium lode in southern Nevada.

Adolph Knopf, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 620-A. Pp. 1-18. 1915.

The ore of the Boss gold mine in the Yellow Pine mining district,

Clark County, Nevada, has recently been shown to be rich in platinum

and palladium. The deposit consists of a fine-grained quartz mass,

which constitutes an irregular siliceous replacement of Carboniferous

dolomites along a series of vertical fractures. The main ore shoot, in

which from 1000 to 2000 tons had been developed at the time of

visit, averaged in ounces to the ton: Gold, 3.46; silver, 6.4; platinum,

0.70; iDalladium, 3.38. The precious metals are especially associated

with the rare mineral plumbojarosite, Pb [Fe (0 H)2]6 (S04)^; pockets

of this mineral carry 100 or more ounces of palladium and platinum

and several hundred ounces of gold to the ton. The only sulphide so

far found in the mine is chalcocite, and this is probably of secondary

origin. The occurrence of platinum and palladium in this Nevada

gold ore is of some interest, inasmuch as a review of the known distri-

bution of platinum in veins shows that the Boss vein is one of the few

primar}^ deposits in which metals of the platinum group are present

in more than traces, and, with one possible exception — the New Ram-

bler deposit in Wyoming — is the only primary deposit of economic im-

portance in which these metals are the constituents of predominant

value. A. K.

ZOOLOGY. — The crinoids collected by the Endeavour between Fremantle

and Geraldton {Western Australia). Austin Hobart Clark.

Records of the Western Australian Museum and Art Gallery, 1^:

113-129. 1914.

A detailed description is given herein of the specimens of each of the

twelve species of crinoids which were obtained by the "Endeavour"

off southwestern Australia. Of these twelve species one (CapiUaster

sentosa) was not previously known from Australia, while two {Neo-

nietra gorgonia and N. conaminis) represent a family (Calometridae)

heretofore not reported south of the Sunda Islands. A. H. C.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 539th meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was

held at the Cosmos Club, Saturday, April 3, 1915, with President

Bartsch in the chair and 65 persons present.

On recommendation of the Council, Mr. Ben Miller was elected to

active membership.

Under heading Brief Notes, L. 0. Howard called attention to a

wasps' nest he had lately seen which was marked by a conspicuous

blue streak. In making this nest the wasps had evidently made the

blue streaked part out of a blue building paper, instead of making

their pulp from the natural wood. Messrs. Bartsch and Lyon re-

ferred to the red-headed woodpeckers in the grounds of Freedmen's

Hospital, stating that a few birds had remained during the winter of

1914-15, though none had wintered during 1913-14. The species is

abundant in the hospital grounds this spring. Messrs. Bartsch

and Bailey commented upon the scratching of the gray squirrels in

the city parks, which Mr. Bailey said was due to infestation with

fleas from their winter boxes. Suitable insect powder placed in the

boxes would drive out the fleas but was not relished by the squirrels.

The first paper on the regular program was by Dr. A. H. Wright,

of Cornell University. The snakes and lizards of Okefinokee Swamp.

Seven snakes of the dry open sandy fields or pine forests of south-

eastern United States were absent on the Okefinokee Swamp islands.

None of the truly Floridan ophidians and saurians were represented.

Some forms occurred on the outskirts of the swamp but were wholly

wanting within the swamp. The 21 species of snakes and 6 lizards

were very variable in scutellation and coloration. Whether the re-

stricted cjuarters and the incessant warfare and struggle for place

caused the wide range of variation is not yet answerable. We had

expected to find fixed peculiar stable races or subspecies because of

the isolated nature of some of the islands, but segregation has not yet

placed a local stamp on any of the reptihan forms. The swamp is

the common source of the Atlantic coastal stream, the St. Mary's,

and the Gulf affluent, the Suwannee. This factor may have had its

influence on the turtles and possibly on the snakes and lizards. The

swamp does not appear to be a barrier or boundary line between two

decided faunal areas. It is rather a melting pot for many of the sup-

posed cardinal characters of distinction in snakes and lizards.

371

372 proceedings: biological society

Some of the interesting systematic observations are: the non-

trustworthiness of the temporal scutellation and coloration in the

Elaphe group; the need of further study in the Tropidonotus fasciatus

assemblage; the presence of the Osceola elapsoidea and the Lampro-

peltis doliatus coccineus characters in one and the same specimen;

the reduction of Diadophis amahilis stidogenys to D. punctatus: the

non-recognition of Opkisaurus ventralis compressus; the presence of

white-bellied adults and young of Farancia; the possibility of Heterodun

niger as an end phase of coloration and a query as to the loss of the

azygous in Heterodon hrowni; the overlapping in scale rows and ocular

formulae in Storeria occipitomacidata and S. dekayi; the fact that no

two heads of the Sceloporus undulatus specimens had the same plate

arrangements; and the unreliability of the mental characters in Plestio-

don, our specimens of P. quinqiielineatvs falling into two of Cope's

major groups, if determined on mental scutellation. {Author^ s abstract.)

Dr. Wright's paper was illustrated by lantern slides showing views

of the swamp, of its reptile inhabitants, and of the variations found in

certain of the species. His communication was discussed by the Chair

and by Messrs. Wm. Palmer and Hugh Smith.

The second and last paper of the program was by Dr. Arthur A,

Allen, of Cornell University, The birds of a cat-tail 7narsh.

Observations on the food, nesting habits, and structure of marsh

birds showing the limitations of specialized species as to food, distri-

bution, and power of adaptability and the dominance of generalized

forms were made.

Specialization in birds goes hand in hand with a high develoj^ment

of the instincts but with a low degree of intelligence and little adapt-

ability. Generalization of structure on the other hand, occurs with a

weaker development of the instincts, greater intelligence, and greater

adaptability. The generalized, adaptable species persist through the

ages while the specialized, non-adaptable are first to go. This is seen

in the birds of a cat-tail marsh.

Seven stages are recognized in the formation of a marsh, represented

in the inature marsh by zones of typical vegetation or plant associations,

these associations following one another in regular succession. Similar

associations and succession can be recognized among the birds, if we

group them according to their nesting range in the marsh. Most

species are not confined to one association, although reaching their

maximum of abundance in it. The generalized, adaptable species

have the widest range.

The various associations with their typical birds follow:

I. The Open-water Association: important in suppljdng forage

but with no nesting birds.

II. The Shoreline Association, with the pied-billed grebe, a special-

ized non-aclaptable species.

III. The Cat-tail Association, with the least bittern, coot, Florida

gallinule, Virginia rail, sora rail, and red-winged blackbird finding

optimum conditions.

proceedings: anthropological society 373

IV. The Sedge Association, with the long-billed marsh wren, bittern,

swamp sparrow, short-billed marsh wren, and marsh hawk.

V. The Grass Association, with the song sparrow and Maryland

yellowthroat.

VI. The Alder- Willow Association, with the green heron and alder

flycatcher.

VII. The Maple-Elm Association, with the black-crowned night

heron and great blue heron, of the marsh birds, and a great variety

woodland species.

Of all these species the most generalized in habit and structure is

the red-winged blackbird. It, too, is the most adaptable and is the

dominant species in the marsh. (Author's abstract.)

Dr. Allen's paper was illustrated by numerous lantern slides from

photographs of the marsh, its bird inhabitants, and their homes, and

by motion pictures of the least bittern and of the canvas-back and

other ducks. It was discussed by Dr. L. O. Howard.

M. W. Lyon, Jr;, Recording Secretary.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

At the 481st meeting of the Society, held January 19, 1915, at the

Public Library, an address on The ancient civilization of India was de-

livered by Sarath Kumar Ghosh, a member of the ancient princely

house of Ghoshpara, India. About 260 persons were present. The

lecturer said that the Aryans settled in India between 6000 and 4000

B. C. There, shut off from hostile neighbors by the mountains on the

north and finding a fertile soil, they adopted agriculture, the beginning

of civilization. Aryan civilization first began in India. In Europe,

much later, the Greeks were the first to become civilized, because they

too were protected by mountains. Primitive man had no distinct do-

mestic hfe. A woman was not even the chattel of a particular man,

but common to the community. Later, the man accepted the responsi-

bilities of husband and father. That stage had been already reached

when the Aryan race came to India, but it was there that the family

became a distinct unit. The mode of government was patriarchal.

Later, the heads of famihes made the laws; the community became a

republic. Next, a group of elders were acknowledged as the leaders of

the community, constituting an oligarchy. Still later, a man of su-

preme valor and ability was elected as king, probably at some crisis.

Finally, monarchy became hereditary when the Aryans evolved a caste

system.

Man first worshipped his tools and weapons; later, the forces of na-

ture. The worship of nature was intensified when the Aryans became

agriculturists, as their food depended upon the clemency of nature.

The Aryans of the West, even the Greeks and Romans, never pro-

gressed beyond this stage. The Hindus, however, evolved a higher

religion, worshipping a supreme and omnipotent Deity above the

forces of nature. This x^as about 2500 B.C. By this time the Hindus

374 proceedings: anthropological society

had brought their language to the highest perfection. The Vedas, or

hymns in praise of the Deity which were then composed, stih remain

the most exalted poetry in all literature. Some of the composers of

the Vedas were women. The Hindus, seeing the dual form, male and

female, pervading all the works of Deity, attributed a dual form to

Deity itself, and regarded all its gentle qualities as feminine, such as

the joy of creation. That was the apotheosis of womanhood. Not

only was marriage exalted to a sacrament, but woman's part in it was

greater than man's. Upon woman's good will were made dependent

man's good deeds (karma), hence, his very salvation. The building of

the temple was the beginning of architecture. The priest designed his

altar stones after the regular forms in nature — which was the beginning

of geometry. Astronomy began when the priesthood designed some

star-deity to shine on the altar stone through an orifice in the roof at '

the moment of sacrifice. In Sanscrit literature the age of life on the

earth is estimated to be four million years. Because of this habit of

"thinking in millions" European critics brought the charge of gross

exaggeration against the Hindus. A code of war was enunciated in the

Mahabharata which enjoins upon a combatant to discard a superior

weapon if his enemy has an inferior one, and forbids him to take advan-

tage of an enemy in toil — in comparison with which the Hague Confer-

ence itself is but a code of savage warfare. Hindu civilization reached

its zenith about 600 B. C. Thereupon Manu codified the laws, cus-

toms, institutions, and even the canons of art, thus unconsciously

sowing the seeds of stagnation and decay.

The Aryans found in India several Turanian races whom they con-

quered and ultimately allowed to enter their political and social system

as a subordinate caste. Only the high-caste Hindus of today are of

pure Aryan descent; the masses are generally of mixed descent, in the

South, almost entirely Turanian (Dravidian). Long continued immi-

gration from Europe has caused a mixture of blood among the higher

castes. Megasthenes, an early Greek ambassador, accorded the high-

est testimony to Hindu civilization. He noted with admiration the

chastity of the women, the valor of the men, and the three stupendous

facts that slavery, locks, and falsehood were unknown in India. Still

later India taught the arts, philosophy, and religion from Java to Ja-

pan. Java and Siam elected Hindu priiices as their kings. The pres-

ent king of Siam is of direct Hindu descent. -In the Philippines many

words of higher meaning are of Sanscrit origin. There is a possibility

of early Hindu influence having reached America, or Fatal Desha, the

Land of the Antipodes. Further research in Central America and Feru

is needed to establish this point.

At the 482d meeting of the Society, held February 2, 1915, Dr. C.

L. G. Anderson, of the Medical Reserve Corps, U. S. A., read an obitu-

ary on Dr. A. F. A. King, a member of the Anthropological Society,

who died in Washington December 13, 1914. Dr. Kinc; was born in

Oxfordshire, England, January 18, 1841, and came to Virginia with

proceedings: anthropological society 375

his parents when but ten years of age. He received degrees in medi-

cine from the National Medical College, now merged with the George

Washington University, and from the University of Pennsylvania.

Beginning practice in Virginia, he helped treat the Confederate wounded

after the battle of Bull Run. Soon after, he served as Acting Assistant

Surgeon, U. S. A., at the Lincoln Hospital, in Washington. In 1870

he became assistant, and later, professor in obstetrics in the National

Medical College, and in the University of Vermont, which positions he

filled until his death, through a period of 43 years. He is survived by

his widow and three children. He belonged to the Anthropological,

the Medical and other scientific societies of Washington and also to

foreign societies, and made many contributions to medical and scien-

tific hterature. His best known work is A manual of obstetrics. Among

his papers of interest to anthropologists are those on Hysteria and

functional reversion. He read a paper before the Anthropological

Society in 1881 on The evolution of marriage ceremony and its import.

The following year he was elected a member of the Council. He was a

man of charming personality, and lived an exceptionally happy, nor-

mal, and complete life.

At the 483d meeting of the Society, held February 16, 1915, at the

Public Library, a paper was read by Mr. William H. Babcock on The

races of Britain, and brief reports were made by Messrs. W. H. Holmes,

J. W. Fewkes, Truman Michelson. and J. N. B. Hewitt on Recent

field research in anthropology and ethnology. Mr. Babcock pointed out

that three native languages are spoken in the island of Great Britain —

English over the greater part of it, Welsh in parts of the western moun-

tains, and Gaelic in the northern mountains — a situation which was the

same in the latter part of the sixth century, excepting differences in

the area of each. These languages represent three distinct waves of

invasion by people who were blond when of pure blood ; yet the present

population contains a great number of brunets or persons of medium

tint, and brunetness seems to be gaining on blondness. The best ex-

planation seems to be that the blond conquerors found in Britain a

long established and thoroughly acclimated darker population, which

perhaps remained more numerous than the newcomers and certainly

was better adapted to permanently transmit its characteristics. This

was composed mainly of a fairly advanced neolithic race, probably from

southern Europe, with whatever paleolithic stocks may have been ab-

sorbed by them. The historic conquests of Great Britain — Roman,

Saxon, Danish, and Norman — have not changed the essential result,

which consists of a darker substratum gradually gaining on superim-

posed Celtic and Teutonic layers.

Professor Holmes outlined the work done recently in California by

himself and Dr. Ales Hrdlicka. The Panama-California Exposition

had assigned funds to Dr. Hrdlicka for the preparation of an exhibit

illustrating the physical history and present status of man, and to

Professor Holmes for another illustrating the practice of certain Indus-

376 proceedings: anthropological society

tries of the American aborigines. The materials gathered by Dr.

Hrdlicka form, it is beheved, the most important exhibit within this

particular field that has ever been brought together. They were col-

lected lai-gely through expeditions conducted by Dr. Hrdlicka per-

sonally. The exhibits cover, in as many halls, man's evolution, the

life cycle of man, man's variations, and human pathology, with dissolu-

tion. A large room is fitted out as an anthropological laboratory, lec-

ture room, and library. The exhibit prepared by Professor Holmes

includes six lay-figure groups illustrating: Copper mining on Isle Royal,

Michigan; iron and paint mining in Missouri; quarrying and working

of soapstone and of obsidian in California ; flint arrow makers ; and stone

cutters of Mitla, Mexico. These are supplemented by collections of

the products of aboriginal handiwork and by two cases of casts of the

sculptural work of North and South America. The exhibits, which

are shown in the Arts and Crafts Building, will probably become part

of a permanent museum in San Diego.

Dr. Fewkes made a trip last month primarily to examine two of the

possible trails by which prehistoric cultural interchanges between Mex-

ico and our Southwest were effected. These were the valleys of the

Santa Cruz in Arizona and of the Mimbres in New Mexico, both ex-

tending north and south. The ruins from Tucson to the Mexican bor-

der along the Santa Cruz are of the Casa Grande type. The old mis-

sion of Tumacacori, south of Tucson, preserved as a national monu-

ment, must be attended to within a few years or its walls will fall.

The Papagueria, or desert home of the Papagos, is one of the most in-

structive unexplored regions in the Southwest. In the valley of the

Mimbres are ruins showing cultural resemblances between Old and

New Mexico. From this valley he brought back a collection of more

than 800 specimens, including 250 pieces of painted pottery which, to-

gether with specimens brought back last year, open up a new culture

area, the character of which was practically unknown before.

Dr. MicHELSON gave an account of his researches among New Eng-

land Indians now in Wisconsin. There are 600 Stockbridges adjoin-

ing the Menominee reservation, for the most part showing mixture of

white or negro blood. Perhaps a dozen of these know genuine Stock-

bridge words. One old man could dictate texts. The material ob-

tained showed that Stockbridge belongs to the Pequot-Mohegan and

Natick division of Central Algonquian dialects, sharing one or two points

with Delaware-Munsee. Their ethnology is forgotten. Among the

250 or more Brothertowns near Lake Winnebago, not one was found

who could remember a word of his own language. No full bloods were

found.

Mr. Hewitt reported concerning his trip last December to Canada

on which only one survivor was found who preserved any knowledge

of the Nanticoke dialect, a woman taken from the eastern shore of

Chesapeake Bay. A particular investigation was liiade of the purpose

and part of song in the ceremonial of an Iroquois lodge.

Daniel Folkmar, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V ■ JUNE 4, 1915 No. 11

PHYSICS. — The emissivity of metals and oxides. IV. Iro7i oxide.^

George K. Burgess and Paul D. Foote, Bureau of

Standards.

This paper is a continuation of the study of the radiometric

properties of metals and oxides. By the use of radiation py-

rometers and the method of microscopic melts described in

the earlier papers, the total and monochromatic emissivity

(X = 0.65 yu) of iron oxide formed by heating iron in air has

been determined at high temperatures.

Iron oxide in the spectral region X = 0.65 ^ is almost ''black,"

having an emissivity varying from 0.98 to 0.92 in the range 800°

to 1200°C. The corrections necessary to apply to the readings

of an optical pyrometer in this temperature range vary from 0°

to 10°C. The total emissivity of iron oxide increases from

0.85 at 500°C. to 0.89 at 1200°C. The corrections necessary to

apply to the readmgs of a radiation pyrometer in this tempera-

ture range vary from 30° to 50°C.

The temperature of the outside of the oxide layer is consid-

erably different from that of the inside in contact with the metal,

as a result, in part, of the low thermal conductivity of the oxide

and, in part, undoubtedly, of the actual separation of the outside

oxide layer from the metal, thus forming an air gap between the

two surfaces or between two surfaces of oxide, the outer one

thick and the inner one thin. The drop in temperature through

1 To appear in full in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

377

378 BURGESS AND SALE: QUALITY OF PLATINUM WARE

the oxide layer is approximately constant for various sized sam-

ples from small iron tubes to 100 pound rails, and increases rapidly

with temperature, rising to about 100° at an outside temperature

of 1100°C.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— A study of the quality of platinum

ware.^ George K. Burgess and P. D. Sale, Bureau of

Standards.

There has been devised a simple, thermoelectric method

suitable for the determination of the purity of platinum ware.-

This method of analysis does not mar the article tested and

gives data for the classification of platinum in terms of its equiv-

alent iridium (or rhodium) content.

There were examined by this thermoelectric method 164

pieces of platinum ware of which 26 per cent contained less

than 0.5 per cent iridium and 67 per cent less than 2 per cent of

iridium. Of 84 crucibles 36 per cent contained less than 0.5

per cent iridium and 87 per cent less than 2 per cent iridium.

A method has been developed for determination of the exact

loss on heating of platinum crucibles, by means of a suitable

electric furnace containing no heated metal parts.

Fourteen crucibles of various makes and grades were examined

for loss in weight on heating and after acid treatment following

each heating. Their magnetic susceptibilities were also deter-

mined. The susceptibility of pure platinum is zero and the

range of susceptibility of seven '' platinum" crucibles was found

to be 1 to 125. The value usually given for the magnetic sus-

ceptibility of pure platinum is about 20 in the same units.

A summary of the results on losses in weight of a series of

crucibles is shown' in figure 1 in which each letter refers to a

crucible. As abscissae, are plotted the losses in mg. per 100 cm.^

for 6 hours at 1200°C. and as ordinates the EMF developed

against pure platinum at 1100°C.; there is also indicated on the

^ To appear in full as a Scientific Paper of the Bureau of Standards. Read

before the American Chemical Society, April 2. 1915.

" This Journal, 4: 282. 1914.

BURGESS AND SALE: QUALITY OF PLATINUM WARE

379

scale of ordinates the iridium and rhodium contents of platinum

corresponding to these EMF's. It is seen that for practically

pure platinum the loss in weight is about 1 mg. per hour per

100 cm- at 1200° (crucibles a, b, c, d, e). For platinum contain-

ing 7.5 per cent rhodium (crucibles m and n) the loss is about

0.5 mg. per hour, while 2

per cent iridium in plati-

num (crucible i) increases

this loss to 2.5 mg. As

shown, the heating losses

may be taken as approxi-

mately proportional to the

iridium or rhodium con-

tent for crucibles that are

practically free from iron.

Iron appears to lessen

somewhat the loss of

weight on heating (see

crucibles g, h, j, k, 1, of Lc,b m «. IMb) per lOO c«2 per e hr. he^t.

Fig. 1) but its presence is Fig. i

objectionable on account

of the soluble oxide formed on the crucible surface. The chem-

ical analysis and magnetic measurements place the crucibles in

only approximately the same order as to iron content; the

magnetic susceptibility is not, however, proportional to the iron

content.

A microscopic examination of a crucible that has been heated

will oftentimes aid in deciding whether it contains rhodium or

iridium as the principle impurity, the latter usually showing

heavier crystal boundaries and the former imparting a char-

acteristic skew structure.

It appears, therefore, to be possible, from thermoelectric and

microscopic exaixiinations of a crucible, to predict its probable

loss of weight on heating within limits close enough for analytical

purposes.

Whether crucibles have been long in use or not, after the first

two or three heatings and acid washings, appears to make little

380 ransome: the ray quadrangle

or no difference on their behavior as to losses on heating and

washing.

The nature of the process of disintegration of platinum and

its alloys is briefly discussed in the complete paper, and sug-

gestions are there offered concerning the specifications of highest

grade platinum crucibles, including the substitution of rhodium

to 5 per cent for iridium, and the practical elimination of iron.

GEOLOGY. — The Paleozoic section of the Ray quadrangle, Ari-

zona. F. L. Ransome, Geological Survey.

Introduction. The geologic mapping of the Ray quadrangle,

for folio publication as part of the Geologic Atlas of the United

States, was completed in 1911. A year or more is likely to

elapse, however, before the folio can be published, and as in the

meantime there will be occasion in other publications to refer

to the Ray geologic section, it appears desirable that a brief

preliminary statement regarding this section and its nomen-

clature should be placed on record.

Pre-Cambrian. The fundamental rocks of the region are the

Pinal schist, commonly a thinly laminated sericitic variety, and

granitic rocks intrusive into the schist. The Pinal schist con-

sists in the main of metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. Both

the schist and the granitic rocks are pre-Cambrian. Whether

they should be classed as Algonkian or Archean is a question as

yet undecided.

Scanlan conglomerate. Resting as a rule directly on the worn

surface of the pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks is the Scanlan

conglomerate. The first description of this basal conglomerate

appeared in the Globe report^ where it was assigned a thickness

of from 1 to 6 feet and was characterized as being composed of

imperfectly rounded pebbles of white quartz, with occasional

flakes of schist, in a pink arkosic matrix. The name was de-

rived from Scanlan Pass in the northwestern part of the Globe

quadrangle. The conglomerate has since been found to present

considerable variation in character and thickness. In parts of

> U. S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper No. 12, pp. 30-31. 1903.

ransome: the ray quadrangle 381

the Ray quadrangle it is 15 feet thick and contains abundant

well-rounded pebbles, some of which are quart zite. In the

vicinity of Roosevelt, 35 miles northwest of Ray, the conglomer-

ate rests on granite and is 30 feet thick with well-rounded pebbles

up to 9 inches in diameter. The same conglomerate has been

recognized in the Santa Catalina Range about 45 miles south-

southeast of Ray, where its thickness at one locality was esti-

mated at about 12 feet. The original distribution of this basal

conglomerate over an area at least 85 miles from northwest to

southeast and at least 40 miles wide is well established. In some

places weathered, disintegrated, and recemented granitic detritus,

or arkose, lies between the conglomerate aitd the pre-Cambrian

granite.

Pioneer shale. Overlying the Scanlan conglomerate conform-

ably is the Pioneer shale, its type locahty being Pioneer Moun-

tain in the northeastern part of the Ray quadrangle, although

the name was first applied in the Globe report.-

As a rule the Pioneer formation consists of dark reddish brown,

more or less arenaceous shale composed largely of fine arkosic

detritus with little or no calcareous material. At many places

the shale grades downward into arkosic sandstone and in the

Apache Mountains, northeast of Globe, 200 feet of this sand-

stone intervenes between the Scanlan conglomerate and the

typical shale. Near Roosevelt the lower part of the formation

consists of alternating beds of sandstone and shale. Abundant

round or elliptical spots, of light-buff or greenish color, are

highly characteristic of the shale. The average thickness of

the Pioneer formation in the Ray quadrangle is about 150 feet.

It is 200 feet thick, however, in the northeastern part of the

quadrangle. In the canyon of Salt River, below the Roosevelt

dam, the formation has an estimated thickness of 250 feet.

Barnes conglomerate. The Barnes conglomerate, first described

in the Globe report^ takes its name from Barnes Peak in the

northwest part of the Globe quadrangle. In its typical develop-

ment it consists of smooth pebbles of white quartz and of hard

2 Op. cit., p. 31.

^ Op. cit., p. 31.

382 ransome: the ray quadrangle

vitreous quartzite, in an arkosic matrix. The pebbles are gen-

erally less than 6 inches in diameter although there are some

8 inches across. Although beautifully rounded, they are not

rotund but are flat ellipsoids or round-edged disks. Small frag-

ments or pebbles of bright red jasper, while nowhere abundant,

are a very characteristic and constant feature of this conglom-

erate. The only rocks known that might have furnished these

red fragments are certain hematitic jaspers associated with schist

in the northern part of the Mazatzal Range, about 70 miles

north-northwest of Ray. The matrix of the conglomerate pebbles

is arkosic.

In the Ray quadrangle the Barnes conglomerate varies from

10 to 40 feet in thickness. Near Roosevelt it is from 15 to 20

feet thick.

This conglomerate is very constant in character and has a

wide distribution. It has been identified in the Sierra Ancha

to the north, and in the Santa Catalina Range to the south, the

two localities being about 80 miles apart.

Th ^ occurrence of a deposit of this character overlying shale

is itself indicative of unconformity. Beyond the inference that

may be drawn from this relationship however, no evidence of

unconformity has been detected.

Dripping Spring quartzite. Confoimably overlying the Barnes

conglomerate is a formation of quartzite and quartzitic sand-

stone from 400 to 500 feet thick in the Globe-Ray region. In

the Globe report the name Dripping Spring quartzite was applied

not only to this formation but also, through error, to a similar

stratigraphically higher quartzite whose distinctness from the

lower quartzite was not recognized in the intricately faulted

area of the Globe quadrangle. The name Dripping Spring

quartzite is here redefined as that formation which overlies the

Barnes conglomerate and underlies what will presently be

described as the Mescal limestone.

In the Ray quadrangle, approximately the lower third of the

formation consists of hard fine-grained arkosic quartzite which,

as seen in natural sections, shows no very definite division into

ransome: the ray quadrangle 383

distinct beds but does exhibit a pronounced striping, due to the

alternation of dull red and dark gray or nearly black bands

parallel with the planes of stratification. These as a rule are

less than one foot thick. About midway between the top and

bottom of the formation the striped beds are overlain by fairly

massive beds, up to 6 feet thick, of even-grained buff or pinkish

quartzite associated with flaggy, variegated, red, brown and

gray beds and with some layers of red and grayish shale that

are suggestive of the Pioneer shale. In the upper part of the

formation the beds become thin, flaggy, and rusty. The Drip-

ping Spring quartzite, as may be seen from fossil ripple-marks,

sun-cracks, and worm-casts, visible on exposed surfaces of the

beds, was deposited in shallow water. It contains, however, no

pebbles in the Ray cjuadrangle, and their absence, together with

the banding of the lower beds as seen in section, serves to dis-

tinguish it from the pebbly cross-bedded Troy quartzite to be

described later. The formation is in most localities in the Ray

quadrangle closely associated with intrusive masses of diabase,

usually in the form of sheets. Some of the characteristics of

the quartzite are probably due to the effect of these intrusions.

Mescal limestone. The Mescal limestone conformably overlies

the Dripping Spring quartzite and in the Ray quadrangle is well

exposed in the Mescal Mountains from which the formation takes

its name. It is represented in the Globe quadrangle in a numT3er

of small fault blocks and as inclusions in diabase, but when the

Globe report was written the limestone of these isolated masses

was not known to be distinct from and older than the Devonian

and Carboniferous limestones. It w^as consequently included in

the ''Globe limestone" of that report.

The Mescal is composed of thin beds that have a varied range

of color but are persistently cherty, the siliceous segregations as

a rule forming irregular layers parallel with the bedding planes.

On weathered surfaces these layers stand out in relief and give

to the limestone the rough gnarled banding that is its most

characteristic feature. The general hue of the formation is gray

or white, but some beds are j^ellow, some buff and some rusty

384 ransome: the ray quadrangle

brown. Most of the Mescal limestone is magnesian and a part

of the formation is dolomite, as may be seen at the Roosevelt

dam where the beds are well exposed in the spillway cuts.

Between the limestone and the overlying Troy quartzite is a

layer of decomposed vesicular basalt whose maximum observed

thickness is from 75 to 100 feet. Although the basalt in places

is much thinner than this, the flow was apparently coextensive

with the Mescal limestone throughout the Ray and Globe quad-

rangles, and has been recognized as far north as Roosevelt. This

basalt, owing to its small thickness, has been mapped with the

Mescal limestone in the Ray quadrangle although it is not in-

cluded in the definition of that formation. The average

thickness of the Mescal limestone is about 225 feet in the Ray

quadrangle.

The Mescal limestone has been recognized in the Sierra Ancha

and in the Santa Catalina Range. It is in part lithologically

identical with and is probably the stratigraphic equivalent of

the Abrigo limestone of Bisbee and Tombstone, which contains

Middle Cambrian fossils. This correlation, however, is not re-

garded as sufficiently well established to justify definite appli-

cation of the name Abrigo in the Ray area.

In all of the regions where it has been identified the Mescal

limestone has been extensively invaded by intrusive sheets of

diabase and has suffered dismemberment as an effect of the

intrusion. In parts of the Ray quadrangle the formation is

represented only by detached masses of strata included in diabase.

Troy quartzite. The name of this formation, which lies above

the Mescal limestone, is derived from Troy Mountain in the

Dripping Spring Range. Everywhere in the Ray quadrangle it

is separated from the limestone by the basalt flow and this may

possibly indicate some slight unconformity. No evidence of

erosion, however, has been detected either below or above the

basalt, which may have flowed under water.

The beds of the Troy quartzite range from thin flaggy or shaly

layers to cross-bedded pebbly strata from 25 to 50 feet thick.

On the whole the thicker beds are characteristic of the lower

and middle portions of the formation. The upper part is invari-

ransome: the ray quadrangle 385

ably composed of thin generally yellowish to rusty, worm-

marked, shaly quartzite indicative of a change in sedimentation

preparatory to the deposition of the succeeding Devonian lime-

stone. The most characteristic material of these upper beds

is a fine-grained, unevenly colored, pink and green quartzite in

layers an inch or two thick separated by films of olive-gray

shale, whose cleavage surfaces are ridged and knotted with

numerous worm casts. The most noteworthy features of the

thicker beds are their generally pebbly character, which is a use-

ful means of distinguishing isolated exposures of the Troy quartz-

ite from the, locally at least, pebble-free Dripping Spring quartzite,

and their conspicuous cross bedding. While the Dripping Spring

quartzite is arkosic the Troy quartzite shows little or no feld-

spar. In the Ray and Globe quadrangles the name quartzite is

generally apphcable to this formation, but farther north, near

Roosevelt and in the Sierra Ancha, it is essentially a sandstone.

The average thickness of the Troy quartzite in the Ray quad-

rangle is estimated at 400 feet.

General comment on preceding for7natio7is. The formations just

described, from the Scanlan conglomerate at the base to the

Troy quartzite at the top, constitute an apparently conformable

series. The name Apache group was applied to these beds in

the Globe report, although at that time the Troy quartzite was

not distinguished from the Dripping Spring quartzite and con-

sequently did not figure as an individual unit in the group.

Moreover, the Mescal limestone, supposed then to be above

all of the quartzite, was grouped with the Devonian and Car-

boniferous limestones of the ''Globe limestone." As revised

the Apache group now includes, from the base up, the Scanlan

conglomerate, the Pioneer shale, the Barnes conglomerate, the

Dripping Spring quartzite, the Mescal limestone, and the Troy

quartzite.

No identifiable fossils have been foi^nd in the beds of the

Apache group, but from the facts that it underlies the Devonian,

overlies schists and granitic rocks, and appears to be equivalent

at least in part to the known Cambrian of the Bisbee District

and of the Grand Canyon, it is provisionally classed as Cambrian.

386 ransome: the ray quadrangle"

If the Mescal limestone is the same as the Abrigo limestone, the

Troy quartzite of course may represent Ordovician or Silurian

time, but in the absence of fossils or distinct unconformities it

appears safer to consider this quartzite as provisionally of Cam-

brian age. The entire group has been considered Algonkian,^

partly because of a supposed resemblance to the Algonkian

rocks of the Grand Canyon and partly because the quartzites

at Roosevelt were erroneously thought to be unconformably

overlain by the Carboniferous limestone. A. B. Reagan"^ also

appears to have included a part of the group in the Algonkian

while calling what is here designated the Troy quartzite, Tonto

(Cambrian) .

It is possible of course that a part of the group may be pre-

Cambrian, but the apparent conformability of the whole group

with the overlying Devonian, taken in connection with the great

unconformity between the basal Cambrian of the Grand Canyon

with the Algonkian (Unkar and Chuar), lends little support to

this view. Additional improbability is cast upon it by the dis-

covery in 1914 that a series of quartzites and shales in the

northern part of the Mazatzal Range, hitherto undescribed, are

unconformably overlain by some of the formations of the Apache

group. The results of this reconnaissance will be brought out

more fully in another paper. The hard quartzitic pebbles in

the Barnes conglomerate evidently came from the erosion of

these older quartzites of the Mazatzal Range. As at present

defined therefore the Apache group embraces the apparently

conformable series of supposedly Cambrian sedimentary rocks

of central Arizona. Should some of the beds turn out to be

other than Cambrian the group name will have to be corre-

spondingly restricted or may perhaps be abandoned as no longer

a convenient designation for a major stratigraphic unit.

Martin lirnestone. Conformably overlying the Troy quartzite

is a series of limestone beds, some of which carry abundant and

* Lee, W. T., Underground waters of Salt River Valley, Arizona. U. S. Geol.

Survey, Water-Supply Paper No. 130, p. 96, and fig. 11 on page C7. 1905.

* Geology of the Fort Apache region, Arizona. Amer. Geologist 32: 277.

190.3.

ransome: the ray quadr.\ngle 387

characteristic Devonian fossils. These Hnk the formation so

closely with the Martin limestone of the Bisbee region as to

warrant the extension of the name Martin limestone into the

Ray-Globe region.

In the Ray quadrangle the formation is comparatively thin-

bedded and is divisible into two nearly equal parts, recogniz-

able in natural sections by a difference in color. The prevailing

hue of the lower division is hght yellowish gray, while the upper

division, less uniform in tint, displays alternations of deeper

yellow and darker gray. No identifiable fossils have been found

in the lower division which consequently can not be regarded as

unequivocably Devonian. The top bed of the formation is a

yellow calcareous shale, which breaks up on exposure into minute

thin flakes and which consequentlj^ has no prominent outcrops.

The yellow color is characteristic of all natural exposures, al-

though before weathering the shale is gray. Being overlain by

thick-bedded chff-making Carboniferous limestone, the bed of

shale is in many places concealed by talus and^its thickness has

not been exactly determined. It may be from 15 to 20 feet.

The average thickness of the Martin hmestone in the Ray quad-

rangle is 325 feet, which compares closely with the 340 feet found

at Bisbee.

Devonian, presumably the Martin limestone, has been found

by Prof. C. F. Tolman Jr.,^ in the Santa Catalina Range. The

presence of the Martin limestone has been fully established also

in the Roosevelt section by the finding, in 1914, of sufficient

fossils to confirm a lithologic and indecisive paleontologic identi-

fication made a year earUer, A list of the fossils, as determined

by Dr. Edwin Kirk, and a fuller discussion of the extent and

correlation of the Devonian will be published later.

Tornado limestone. The Devonian Martin limestone is con-

formably overlain by thick-bedded light gray limestone that is

nearly everywhere a prominent cliff -maker in the Ray-Globe

region. The name here used is derived from Tornado Peak, in

the Dripping Spring Range. The Tornado hmestone as exposed

^ Unpublished manuscript of Tucson folio.

388 ransome: the ray quadrangle

in the Ray quadrangle has a maximum thickness of at least

1000 feet. As its upper limit is a surface of erosion dating in

part frcm early Mesozoic time, the limestone was probably at

one time much thicker than at present. It is of Carboniferous

age. The basal division is about 75 feet thick and forms the

lower part of the scarp that in this region is so prevalent a fea-

ture of the Carboniferous outcrop. Under the action of erosion

this division behaves as a single massive bed, but in reality it

is made up of alternating dark and light gray layers, a foot or

two thick, which in cliff faces give a banded appearance. This

member with a few transitional beds at its top is succeeded by

a very massive member, fully 100 feet thick, within which, as

exposed in cliffs, there is as a rule scarcely more than a sugges-

tion of divisional bedding planes. These two members together

constitute the principal cliff-forming part of the Carboniferous

limestone. The third division consists of beds generally thinner

than those in the other two divisions but not separable from them

by any marked lithological distinction. Thin layers of calcare-

ous shale separate some of the beds but these are a very subordi-

nate part of the formation.

The beds of the two lower divisions carry many fragments of

crinoid stems and less abundant rugose corals, with long-winged

spirifers and Rhipidomella. In the upper division appear differ-

ent species of Productus and Spirifer, Derbya crassa, Composita

suhtilita, and Fusulina. According to Dr. George H. Girty two

faunas are represented, one Mississippian and the other early

Pennsylvanian. Had it proved practicable to map separately

the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian portions of the formation

the corresponding names Escabroso limestone and Naco lime-

stone, used in the Bisbee quadrangle, might have been appli-

cable in the Ray quadrangle.

By far the greater part of the formation as exposed in the Ray

quadrangle belongs to the Mississippian.

WASHINGTON AND MERWIN! NEPHELITE CRYSTALS 389

MINERALOGY. — Nephelite crystals froin Monte Ferru, Sardinia.

H. S. Washington and H. E. Merwin, Geophysical

Laboratory.

A trachytic phonolite forms the upper part of a rounded hill

immediately south of Monte Enzu, the culminating point of

Monte Ferru. 1 This rock is dense, light gray, aphyric, and

composed essentially, as shown by the microscope, of tables of

soda-orthoclase, with interstitial nephelite, and small amounts

of minute diopside crystals. There are numerous small miaro-

litic cavities, in which are found small (1-2 mm.) well-formed

nephelite crystals, the walls being lined with minute tables of

orthoclase and crystals of pyroxene and titanite.

More than one hundred crystals were picked out for examina-

tion, twenty-five being selected for the crystallographic and optical

examination, and the balance for chemical analysis, the former

being undertaken by Merwin and the latter by Washington.

The nephelite crystals are stout, almost equant, prisms,

from 1 to 2 mm. in diameter and weighing, on the average, 3 mg.

each. They are fresh and clear, except for inclusions of minute

augite and titanite crystals.

Usually not more than 4 faces giving satisfactory signals

were found on a crystal. The prism appeared vertically striated;

the base in all cases gave multiple signals, possessed a pearly

luster, and showed grooves parallel to the edges in some cases.

The unit pyramid (1011), and the pyramids (1012) and (2021)

gave good signals. 12 angles (1010) A (1011) from excellent

signals varied between 45°39' and 45°58', average 45°49'. 13

other angles from less accurate settings varied between 45°30'

and 46°15', average 45°51'. 7 angles (1010) A (1012) varied be-

tween 26°55' and 27°18', average 27°10'. Between (1010)

and (2021) 4 angles varied between 63°30' and 64°20', average

64°10'. The complements of these observed angles and the

corresponding calculated crj^stallographic constants appear be-

low. With them are placed those for nephelite from Monte

^ For a description of the lavas of this volcano, see H. S. Washington, Am. J.

Sci., 39: 513. 1915.

390

WASHINGTON AND MERWINI NEPHELITE CRYSTALS

Somma (Vesuvius), the only other nephelite for which crystal-

lographic constants have been established; and also 4 angles

which are fairly consistent with each other measured by Striiver^

on two crystals from the Alban Hills.

Monte Ferru

obs. calc.

c(OOOl) AP(lOTl) = 44°10' 44°11'

A q(10T2) = 62°51' 62°47'

A z(202l) = 25°50' 25°55'

c = 0.841

Differences in c are not surprising in view of the differences

in composition shown later.

Refractive indices were determined on fragments of several

crystals of the nephelite. e = 1.529, co = 1.532-3. From in-

dependent measurements on two crystals w - e = 0.0026. Com-

parison witti other nephelites of determined composition is made

in Table 1. The refracti^^e indices are considerably lower than

have been observed in other nephelites. A systematic investi-

TABLE 1

Monte Ferru

Artificial Soda Nephelite^

Artificial Soda-Lime Nephelite^.

Monte Somma^

Magnet Cove, Ark.^

1.532-3

1.537

1.5421

1.5468

gation of the relation of composition to optical properties is

being undertaken. Available results are as yet too few for

discussion.

A complete chemical analysis was made on a batch of 60

crystals weighing in all 0.1865 gram. These were dried at 110°

2 Zeitschr. Kryst. 1 : 240.

' Koksharov, quoted by Dana, gives 0.8389; Baumhauer gives 0.8383, Zeitschr.

Kryst., 18: 613.

^ N. L. Bowen, Am. J. Sci. 33: 566. 1912.

'Average of 4 accordant determinations. See "Rock Minerals," Iddings;

and Zeitschr.. Kryst., 22: 333; 53: 426.

« See "Rock Minerals," Iddings.

standley: north American amaranthaceae 391

and dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the analysis was conducted

by the ordinary methods. Magnesia was not determined owing

to lack of material. The optical study of the insoluble portion

showed that the augite and titanite crystals had not been at-

tacked, so no correction is needed for impurities introduced from

this source. The results are as follows, an average of four out

of many fairly accordant analyses of Vesuvian nephelite being

given for comparison.

A B C Ba

Si02 40.27 43.34 42.93 0.722 0.722 2.26

AI2O3 31.05 33.45 33.84 0.320 0,320 1.00

FesOs 2.42 2.60 0.40 0.016

MgO - - 0.15

CaO 0.81 0.87 2.08 O.OlSl

NasO 15.11 16.28 15.39 0. 263 [ 0.315 0.99

K2O 3.22 3.46 5.08 0.037]

H2O - - 0.18

Insol 7.51 0.12

100.39 99.99 100.17

A. Nephelite. Monte Ferru, Sardinia. H. S. Washington analyst.

B. Same, calculated free from insoluble.

C. Nephelite. Monte Somma. J. Morozewicz, analyst. Bull. Acad. Sci.'

Crac. 8:979-983. 1907.

Ba. Molecular ratios of B.

BOTANY. — The North American tribes and genera of Amarantha-

ceae.^ Paul C. Standley, National Museum.

The North American representatives of the family Ama-

ranthaceae have received little attention from Amerfcan botanists

in either early or recent years. This may have resulted from

the unattractive aspect of most of the plants composing the

group, but more probably from the circumstance that their

generic and specific characters are based chiefly upon very

minute floral structures. Because of the small size and often

complicated structure of their flowers the plants have, indeed,

been considered a ''difficult" group, when, as a matter of fact,

they are remarkably easy of recognition, and of disposition,

provided that generic limits are agreed upon. The species, as

a rule, are sharply differentiated. Confusion as to generic limits

' Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

392 standley: north American amaranthaceae

has resulted largely from an attempt to recognize in certain

tribes too large a number of genera, these based upon vegetative

or inconstant characters.

The only monograph of the North American Amaranthaceae

is that of Uline and Bray, which appeared about 20 years ago

in the Botanical Gazette.^ The conclusions reached by these

authors need scarcely be modified now except for certain changes

of names necessitated by modern systems of nomenclature. The

species treated, however, included only a small part of those

found in tropical North America. Moquin had in 1849^ de-

scribed all the North American Amaranthaceae then known, in

his monograph of the whole family, but naturally many addi-

tional species have been discovered in the intervening 66 years,

about 155 species being known in North America at the present

time. Several of the tribes, particularly the Amarantheae, reach

their highest development on this continent. The family being

chiefly tropical, South America possesses a larger number of

species than North America. Many species are to be found

also in Africa and Australia, and a few in Europe and Asia.

The following arrangement of tribes and genera is proposed

by the writer for use in a monograph of the family now in prep-

aration for the North American Flora:

I. Celosieae. Differentiated from all other tribes of the family

by the presence of 2 or more ovules in the ovary, instead of a single

ovule. Only 6ne genus, Celosia, occurs in North America, being repre-

sented by 6 species.

II. Amarantheae. Five genera are represented in North America:

Lagrezia, Chamissoa, Amaranthus, Acnida, and Acanthochiton. .

1. Lagrezia has not been reported previously from outside of Africa,

nor has it always been referred to the Amarantheae. Moquin placed

it in this tribe, but Dr. Schinz in his treatment of the famly in Engler

and Prantl's NaturUchen Pflanzenfamilien considered it a synonym of

Celosia. There is no doubt that Lagrezia is closely I'elated to that

genus, but it seems to be quite distinct in having only a single ovule

in the ovary. If the Celosieae and Amarantheae are to be maintained

2 19: 267-272. 1894; 20: 155-161, 337-344, 449-453. 1895; 21: 348-356 1896.

3 In DC. Prodr. 13^: 231-424.

standley: north American amaranthaceae 393

as separate tribes, Lagrezia must be therefore placed in the latter. In

Dr. Schinz's key to the tribes there is no means of telling to which of

them a plant with a 1-seeded utricle should be referred. In 1895 Dr.

J. N. Rose described a new plant from Manzanillo, Mexico, which

he called Celosia f monosperma.^ This should be referred to the genus

here discussed, and maj^ be known as Lagrezia monosperma. The

few other species of the genus are natives of Madagascar and southern

Africa.

2. Chamissoa is represented in tropical North America by two

species, the widely distributed Chamissoa altissima, and C. maximiliani,

known within our limits only from Costa Rica. Chamissoa macrocarpa

H. B. K. has been reported frequently from the West Indies and Cen-

tral America, but the specimens so determined are C. altissima.

3. Amaranthus seems to have its center of distribution in the south-

western United States and northern Mexico. A large number of species

are found in the somewhat similar region of Argentina, a number that

doubtless will be increased when that country is better explored botani-

cally. About 40 species are known from, North America. Most of

these are common weeds of cultivated land, but several species are

loiown only from the southwestern mesas and foothills.

Several segregates from Amaranthus have been proposed by different

authors, notably Mengea, Euxolus, and Scleropus. With our present

knowledge of the group it seems impossible to maintain any of these

genera, for the characters depended upon to separate them will not

hold when all the species of the genus are taken into consideration.

4. Acnida is a wholly North American genus. Five species are

found in salt marches along the eastern and southern coasts of the

United States, on the southwest coast of Mexico, and in the West

Indies. Three others occur in the central and southwestern United

States. The genus is very closely related to Amaranthus, differing

only in the absence of a perianth in the pistillate flowers. Acnida

tuberculata is so closely allied to Amaranthus torretji that it is practically

impossible to distinguish staminate plants of the two species, whose

ranges largely overlap.

5. Acanthochiton consists of a single species, a native of the sand-

hills of western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and northeastern Mexico.

It is distinguished fi'om Acnida only by a vegetative character — the

large size and peculiar form of the bracts ; but it has always been accepted

as a valid genus.

* Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 1: 352.

394 standley: north American amaranthaceae

III. Centrostachydeae. Two genera of this tribe occur in North

America, Centrostachys and Cyathula. The group has always been

known as the Achyrantheae; but since the name Achyranthes must

be apphed to a genus of the Gomphreneae, as explained recently by

the writer/ it is necessary to form a new tribal name, typified by the

best known genus of the group.

The Centrostachydeae reach their highest development in Africa,

the East Indies, and Australia. Two Old World species of Centro-

stachys have become established in tropical and subtropical North

America. Two species of C3^athula are found in the same region, C.

prostrata, a native of the Old World, being established in Jamaica and

Panama; while C. achyranthoides, an American species, occurs in the

Greater Antilles, where it may be adventive, and ranges from southern

Mexico to Panama, Brazil, and Chile.

IV. Brayulineae. This is a new tribe, here proposed for the genus

Brayulinea, better known by thfe name Guilleminea, which, unfor-

tunately, is a homonym. The genus is related to the Gomphreneae,

with w^hich it has usually been placed, but is distinguished by the

perigynous androeciura. Apparently Dr. Schinz at one time con-

sidered this segregation, for in his key to the tribes of the Amarantha-

ceae in Engler and Prantl's Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien^ he separates

the tribe Guillemineae. When the text for this part of the family ap-

peared, at a later date than the key, we find no mention of such a

tribe, the genus Guilleminea being referred to the Gomphreneae.

In general appearance the species of Brayulinea are quite similar

to those of Gossypianthus. One species is found in North America.

V. Froelichieae. It seems desirable to place the genus Froelichia.

in a tribe separate from the Gomphreneae, to which it has always

been referred. The group is characterized by the gamophyllous peri-

anth which becomes indurated and variously appendaged in fruit,

characters which are not found in any Gomphreneae.

The genus is an American one, seven species occurring in southern

North America, with others in South America. Most of the species

are closely interrelated and are separated with difficulty. It is still a

matter of doubt how specific limits are to be determined with precision

in the genus.

VI. Gomphreneae. Half of the North American genera of the

family fall into this tribe, which is, however, best represented in north-

6 Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 5: 72-76. 1915.

«3i'': 97. 1893.

standley: north American amaranthaceae 395

ern South America. Different authors have proposed very different

divisions of genera for tlie group, but the characters used often have

been vegetative or else they proved unrehable as additional species have

been discovered. Martins, who was perhaps the most careful student

of the group, proposed a large number of genera, based chiefly upon

Brazilian species, but scarcel)^ any of his genera are recognized today.

The treatment here proposed follows closely that suggested by Otto

Kuntze,^ which was later adopted by Dr. Schinz, 4ind very recently

by Dr. Stuchlik.^ It is based almost wholly upon flower structure,

and chiefly upon the characters of the gynoecium and androecium.

The North American genera are ten in number, as follows.

1. Cladothrix is closely related to both Gossypianthus and Achy-

ranthes and is distinguished principally by the form of the inflores-

cence, the flowers being glomerate rather than spicate or capitate.

Three species occur in the southwestern United States and in northern

Mexico.

2. Gossypianthus is wholly North American, four species being

known. One is confined to Cuba, a second is common to Hispaniola,

the southwestern United States, and northeastern Mexico, while the

other two are found in Texas and Oklahoma.

3. Pfaffia consists of a large number of South American species of

diverse habit, some of them resembhng the better known species of

Gomphrena, while others are tall shrubs or vines. In Mexico and

Central America there is a single species which closely resembles some

of the species of Iresine. Hebanthe of Martins must be considered a

synonym of Pfaffia, although not all the plants described under He-

banthe are true Pfaffias. One plant described by Hemsley as a He-

banthe is to be referred to an older species of Iresine. The proper

place of two other Mexican species described by Hemsley is still un-

certain. Dr. Watson in 1883 applied the name Hebanthe palmeri^ to

another Mexican plant which is not a Pfaffia, but should be known as

Iresine palmeri.

4. Achyranthes has been discussed by the writer very recently^"

and need not be treated further here.

5. Woehleria is one of the so-called ''monotypic" genera. It is

endemic in Cuba and is apparently very rare. In general appearance

' Rev. Gen. PI. 2: 534-545. 1891.

8 Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 12: 350-359. 1913.

5 Proc. Amer. Acad. 18: 144.

"> Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 5: 72-76. 1915.

396 standley: north American amaranthaceae

the plant is similar to some species of Achyranthes, but the androecium

consists of only a single stamen, and the stigma is bilobate rather than

capitate.

6. Gomphrena is represented in North America by some fifteen spe-

cies. Thirteen of these are low plants, with usually large, sessile, and

globose heads, closely related to the cultivated globe amaranth, Gom-

phrena globosa. The other two are tall plants with narrow, long-

pedunculate, cylindric heads, closely simulating certain forms of Achy-

ranthes. A large number of species of Gomphrena have been described

from South America, no less than 66 being reported from Brazil 40

years ago.

7. Iresine is one of the most interesting genera of the Amaranthaceae,

chiefly because the plants are of an attractive rather than a ''weedy"

appearance. About 30 species are known within our limits. The

segregates Trommsdorffia and Rosea were proposed bj^ Martins, but

it seems impracticable to maintain them as distinct genera.

8. Dicraurus is distinguished from all other genera of the Gom-

phreneae by the alternate leaves; otherwise it is too closely related to

Iresine, and, indeed, it seems probable that ultimately it may be

united with that genus. Two species are known, D. leptodadus and

D. alter nijolius. The first, a plant of western Texas and northeastern

Mexico, has all its leaves alternate; but in the second, a native of

Lower California, while most of the leaves are alternate, the lower

ones frequently are opposite.

9. Lithophila was based by Swartz upon a plant which is common

on the seashores of the West Indies. Some authors have referred the

genus to Iresine, but it may be maintained because of the strongly

compressed perianth and 2 rather than 5 stamens. Besides the type

species, three others, of somewhat diverse habit, are known, all inhabi-

tants of the Galapagos Islands: Lithophila radicata (Alternanthera

radicata Hook, f., 1847), L. rigida {Alternanthera rigida Rob. & Greenm.,

1895), and L. subscaposa {Alternanthera subscaposa Hook, f., 1847).

10. Philoxerus was proposed by Robert Brown in 1840. The plants

of this group have usually been referred to Iresine and Lithophila.

Philoxerus seems, however, a valid genus, distinguished from Iresine

not only by habit but by the compressed perianth, and from Lithophila

by the different structure of the androecium and by the stipitate flowers.

Many species of the genus have been proposed, but how many of them

are valid is an unsettled question. In North America only a single

one is known.

LOTKA : EFFICIENCY ' IN ORGANIC EVOLUTION 397

ECONOMICS. — Efficiency as a factor in organic evolution. 11.^^

Alfred J. Lotk.\.

ERRORS of valuation

There remains to be discussed the effect upon r or errors of

the sense of values, or errors of valuation. We must here apply

a different method from the one employed m the case of errors of

observation, operation, and mentation, since errors of valuation

influence r not through the productive efficiencies of the indi-

vidual in several activities but through the manner in which

the individual distributes his efforts among different activities.

We may proceed as follows:

If an individual had a perfect sense of values he would arrange

his affairs, distribute his labor, so that r, the rate of increase

per head of the race, were a maximum. ^^

Let Xi, Xo . . . be quantities of commodities pro-

duced and consumed per head

per unit of tune

(16)

L], L2 . . . the labor spent on each commod-

ity per head per unit of time

/i, /2 . . . the fatigue produced per head per

unit of time by labor Li, Lo per

unit of time.

Then the individual with a perfect sense of values would, for

each commodity, make

l^L.^^^M)dL,^0 (17)

for any arbitrary small cIL^.

— is in general a minus quantity).

^^Part I of this paper appeared in this Journal, Vol. 5, no. 10, May 19, 1915,

pp. 360-368.

"Compare this Journal, 1914, loc. cit.

398

lotka: efficiency in organic evolution

Let us write (17) in the form

(vE + v'E')dL = 0

vE + v'E' = 0

(18)1*

(19)

The problem before us is, Suppose the individual values the

commodity not at v per unit, but 2bi v + be, what will be the

effect upon r?

We have:

(20)

5r = —be

be

dr dx

bx be

be

(21)

Fig. 1

Consider a graph (see figure 1) :

y = vE + v'E'

y' = {v + be) E + v'E'

If the individual acted in accordance with the curve y, the

true curve, he would consume

(24)

(22)

(23)

X = OP

dx

"The quantity E=--t in equation (18) measures marginal efficiency and

thus differs from Ey in equation (4), which measures total efficiency.

lotka: efficiency in organic evolution 399

Instead of this he acts in accordance with the sUghtly erron-

eous curve y' , and hence consumes

x' = OP' (25)

so that we may write

5 X = x' - X = OP' - OP = PP' (26)

This, because he makes an error in

y = vE -^ v'E' (22)

making it y' = {v + be) E + v'E' (23)

so that y' - y =- E 8e = PQ (27)

8e=^ (28)

^ = l^E = -e/^ (29)

de PQ / dx

Substituting in (21) we have:

■^ = -^E — {vE + v'E') (30)

de bx / dx

= -vE/— {vE + v'E') (31)

/ dx

which is the desired expression for the differential coefficient

^7*

— for the case that e denotes an error of valuation

limitations of the method here developed

In conclusion the writer wishes to consider the limitations of

the method presented above and to point out their significance

and to indicate at what points there is room for further devel-

opment.

1. We have restricted our attentions to routine or habitual

activities, in particular to such as have a definite economic

significance.

On reflection it is found that this restriction in practise is

ahnost no restriction at all, that only a vanishingly small pro-

400 lotka: efficiency in organic evolution

portion of our activities fall outside the scope thus circumscribed.

If we actually consider one by one our various activities of a

common working day, or for the matter of that of a holiday, we

find that, almost without exception, even the most trivial of

them are either bought or sold. My breakfast is bought at the

butcher's and grocer's. I pay rent for the privilege of sitting

at table in my dining room. I pay carfare to be conveyed from

my house to my office. Every hour spent at the office is paid

for in salary. At night there is again the item of carfare, food,

rent, amusements, etc. It is difficult or impossible to find an

action ever so trivial which has not a definite money value.

2. A seemingly more serious limitation than the one just

considered might seem to lie in the fact that much of the argu-

ment presented has been sketched out on a background of exam-

ples taken from the special case of the human species. A well

developed economic system among living organisms is peculiar

to civilized man. It might therefore appear at first sight as if

arguments and conclusions involving economic concepts could

in no sense be applied to such organisms as those higher animals

which in their general habits and characteristics do more or

less resemble man.

It must be admitted that in practise this restriction has a real

significance. But the difference between the actions of man

and those of some of the highly developed species of animals is

not so much that the one possesses a sense of values and the

others do not, as, that in the case of the one — man — we have in

market prices a definite and readily accessible standard of meas-

urement of the values attached by him to various commodities,

while in the case of the others — the animals — we have no such

readily accessible standard of measurement. To argue that

because we have at present no ready means of ascertaining the

value set by a given animal upon a given material of consump-

tion, therefore no such value exists, would be parallel to the

contention that because men were at one time unable to measure

the distance from the earth to the moon, therefore there was

no such distance. In the matter of the measurement of values

we have not yet reached the epoch where the means for meas-

lotka: efficiency in organic evolution 401

uring values of materials to animals have been devised. But

there is nothing inherently impossible about the solution of the

problem of measuring these values, and, in fact, if it seemed

worth while, suggestions could be made at this juncture as to

how the first crude steps at any rate in this direction might be

taken.

Furthermore, since an objective standard of value has been

furnished in a previous communication, a standard which is

quite independent of the subjective estimate of values and which

applies with absolute impartiality to any species, there is in

principle no difficulty whatever involved in extending our argu-

ment from man to other members of the animal kingdom. The

difficulties which arise are only those of translating our results

into concrete practical examples.

3. Several restrictions in the scope within which our argu-

ments are strictly applicable are introduced through the fact

that we have made use of Jevons' equation for the distribution

of labor in different pursuits, or its equivalent. The first of the

limitations thus introduced is that our arguments strictly apply

only to a community in which there is absolutely free competi-

tion and no kind of a monopoly.

In the case of animals this condition is probably in most cases

approximately fulfilled.

In the case of a highly developed industrial community of the

human species this assumption is very far from the truth. The

case of such a community requires special consideration by more

complicated methods, and further work in this direction will

have to be done to complete the discussion. The writer hopes

that perhaps he may be able to take up this phase of the prob-

lem on another occasion. In the meantime the simple case

here considered illustrates the principles at work just as well

as a more complicated case.

4. Another limitation introduced by the use of Jevons' equa-

tion is the fact that our arguments apply only to a steady state,

in which consumption equals production.

As a matter of fact conditions in nature in all probability

approach a steady state in most cases. This is almost inevitable,

since a persistent excess of production over consumption would

402 lotka: efficiency in organic evolution

lead to an ultimately unbounded accumulation of stock. It is

of course imaginable that there might be periods of excessive

production alternating with periods of excessive consumption.

But there are good reasons to believe that such fluctuations, in

so far as they do occur, do not exceed certain limits, so that

as a first approximation, at any rate, conditions may be regarded

as steady. The steady state is a permanent state. Other states

in general are transient. For this reason a particular interest

attaches to the steady state, which fully justifies any special

attention paid to it. At the same time it presents the simplest

problem and should therefore receive j^rsi attention. A precisely

similar state of affairs to that which confronts us here is familiar

to every student of thermodynamics in connection with the

theory of Change of State.

5. Certain limitations are introduced by an incompleteness

of the Jevons' equation. This equation takes account of only

two kinds of terms, those relating to pleasure derived from con-

sumption, and those derived from displeasure bound up with

production. Many activities are sufficiently covered by two

such classes of terms, but there are certain notable exceptions.

For the individual may labor without any definite calculation

of reward, for the mere love of the labor, under the impulse of

the instinct of loorkmanship, production itself being a source of

pleasure. A flippant disciple of modern industrialism might

perhaps remark that cases of this kind are so rare that little

error is introduced in leaving them out of account. The writer

believes that this is a misconception; that the instinct of work-

manship fulfils a very definite function in the scheme of nature:

The individual can assist in preserving the species by acts

aimed at self preservation; certain egoistic instincts take care

of that.

Or, he may assist in preserving the species by acts of service

to other individuals of his species. Another set of instincts,

altruistic instincts, have been evolved to take care of this. They

take various shapes and manifest themselves in different phases

of the life of the individual. One of them is the instinct of work-

manship, which is found not only in man, but also in other species

possessing a definite social system, such as the bee.

lotka: efficiency in organic evolution 403

There would probably be no difficulty in overcoming this

limitation of the Jevons' equation by introducing additional

terms into it. We shall not carry this out on the present occasion.

6. Lastly, Jevons' equation is built up on a plan which seems

to involve the assumption that the individual is a perfectly

rational being, weighing all his actions and selecting some definite

course after having considered all avenues open to him and the

consequences to which they lead.

In point of fact this is far from being the truth even for far-

seeing man. Not only are there many circumstances beyond

our ken which would enter into the determination of the actions

of a more perfect being, but even many of the facts plainly known

to the individual may fail to be weighed by him in framing his

actions, simply because no man can possibly have the entire

contents of his mind consciously before him at all times, or even

at any time. In other cases the individual may be aware of

certain remote consequences of his actions, but the lure of the

immediate gratification derived from such actions may so com-

pletely outweigh the promptings arising from a consideration

of remote consequences as to induce him to follow a course which

yields him a net result of pain rather than pleasure, loss rather

than gain. Indeed, nature tricks us into actions of this kind

to fulfil her own ends, which are to benefit the species, at the cost

of the individual if need be.

Without going into details it may be suggested that this

limitation also is, in principle, at least, not as serious as at first

sight appears.

In so far as it relates to the inability of the individual to fully

realize all the factors which might with advantage be taken into

account in framing his actions, it can probably be taken care of

under the heading of errors of observation, mentation, and

operation.

On the other hand those errors which a man commits in giving

undue weight to immediate gratification when in conflict with

the prospect of more remote benefits these are plainly errors

of valuation and as such fall within the scope of the method here

developed.

REFERENCES

Under this heading It Is proposed to Include, by author, title, and citation, references to all

scientific papers published in or emanating from Washington. It la requested that authors cooperate

with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are

not Intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere In this Journal.

ZOOLOGY

Hansen, H. J. The Crustacea Euphausiacea of the U. S. National Museum.

Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum 48: 59-114, plates 1-4. January 19,

1915. (Primarily an enumeration of the localities with remarks on distri-

bution for every species represented; with descriptions, and in some cases

figures as well, of several forms. — W. S.)

Harring, H. K. Report on Rotatoria from Panama, with descriptions of new

species. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 47: 525-564, plates 16-

24. December 15, 1914. (Describes nineteen new species; also contains notes

on distribution, and hints on preservation. — W. S.)

KoEHLER, R. A contribution to the study of ophiurans of the U. S. National Mu-

seum. Bulletin84, U. S. NationalMuseum. Pp. i-vii, 1-173, 18 plates. April

9, 1914. (Deals chiefly with littoral and deep-sea forms from the Caribbean

Sea; twenty-four new species are described; an extended and well illustrated

treatment of the genera Amphiura and Ophiacantha is included; also, "to

complete the published records of West Indian ophiurans in the National

Museum, a list is appended of specimens identified by the Hon. Theodore

Lyman, but never reported on." — W. S.)

OsHiMA, H. Report on the holothurians collected by the U. S. Fisheries Steamer

"Albatross^' in the Northwest Pacific, during the summer of 1906. Proceedings

of the U. S. National Museum 48: 213-291, plates 8-11. February 11, 1915.

(Describes forty-six new species, and extends the range of eleven others. —

W. S.)

Pearse, a. S. Habits of fiddler crabs. Smithsonian Report for 1913, pp. 415-

428, 10 text figures. 1914. (With bibliography.)

Rathbun, Mary J. A new genus and some new species of crabs of the family Gon-

eplacidae. {Scientific results of the Philippine cruise of the Fisheries Steamer

"Albatross," 1907-1910, No. 32.) Proceedings of the U. S. National Musemn

48: 137-154. December 16, 1914. (A new genus Homoioplax is founded on

an old species; eighteen new species ai'e described. — W. S.)

Rathbun, Mary J. New fresh-water crabs (Pseudothelphusa) from Colombia.

Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 28: 95-100. April 13,

1915. (Describes four new species. — W. S.)

Rathbun, Mary J. Stalk-eyed crustaceans collected at the Monte Bello Islands.

Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, pp. 653-664, plates 1 and 2,

September, 1914. (Describes three new species and gives one new name;

makes discovery that at least one of the marine crabs, Naxioides serpulifera,

404

references: entomology 405

undergoes transformation to adult form while still within the brood pouch of

the mother.— W. S.)

Wilson, C. B. North American parasitic copepods belonging to the Lernaeopodi-

dae, with a revision of the entire family. (Describes twelve new genera and

twenty-one new species; gives full notes on ecology and morphology. — W. S.)

ENTOMOLOGY

Barber, H. S. The breeding place of Dermestes elongatus Leconte. Proceedings

of the Biological Society of Washington 27: 146. July 10, 1914. (Records

the species breeding in the nest of the black-crowned night heron, in the

vicinity of Washington, D. C. — J. C. C.)

BoviNG, A. On the abdominal structure of certain beetle larvae of the campodei-

form type: A study of the relation between the structure of the integinnent and

the muscles. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 16:

55-61, pis. 3-6. Juiie 12, 1914. (In this paper the author defines the various

areas and sclerites and also gives the muscles causing the boundary lines of

the different areas in these larvae. — J. C. C.)

BuscK, A. Seven new species of Ethmia from tropical America. Insecutor Insci-

tiae Menstruus, 2: 53-57. Aprfl 24, 1914.

BuscK, A. New genera and species of Microlepidoptera from Panama. Proceed-

ings of the U. S. National Museum 47: 1-67. April 30, 1914. (Describes the

new genera Fortinea, Atoponeura, Belthera, Besciva, Galtica, Aroga, Pavo-

lechia, Promenesta, in the Gelechiidae; Hamadera, Costoma, Rhindoma, An-

cipita, in the Oecophoridae; and Harmaclona in the Tineidae, together with

123 new species. — J. C. C.)

BuscK, A. On the classification of the Microlepidoptera. Proceedings of the En-

tomological Society of Washington 16: 46-54, pi. 2. June 12, 1914.

Caudell, a. N. Some bromeliadi colons Blattidae from Mexico and Central America.

Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 2: 76-80. June 8, 1914. (Describes three new

species from Panama and gives notes on other species found in Bromeliaceae.

—J. C. C.)

Caudell, A. N. The egg of Pseudosermyle truncata Caudell. Proceedings of

the Entomological Society of Washington 16: 96, fig. 1. June 12, 1914. (Il-

lustrates this egg from material collected in Arizona. — -J. C. C.)

Cook, F. C, Hutchinson, R. H., and Scales, F. M. Experiments in the de-

struction of fly larvae in horse manure. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of

Agriculture, No. 118, Pp. 1-26, pis. 1-4. July 14, 1914. (A professional

paper giving details of experiments and suggesting the use of borax as satis-

factory in the destruction of the fly larvae. — J. C. C.)

Crawford, D. L. A monographof the jumping plant-lice or Psyllidae of the New

World. U. S. National Museum Bulletin 85. Pp. 1-186, pis. 1-30. June 3,

1914. (In this paper the author describes the new genera Aphalaroida, Het-

eropsylla, Leuronota, Hemitrioza, Uhleria, Tetragonocephala, Katacephala,

Mitrapsylla, and the new subgenus Anomoura, together with 62 new species.

—J. C. C.)

Crawford, J. C. Hymenoptera, superfamilies Apoidea and Chalcidoidea, oj the

Yale-Dominican Expedition of 1913. Proceedings of the U. S. National

Museum 47: 131-134. April 30, 1914. (Four new species of bees are de-

scribed.—J. C. C.)

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 293d meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club,

on March 10, 1915.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATIONS

J. W. Spencer: Results of recent soundings at Niagara, and their in-

terpretation. In October, 1914, the speaker made a re-survey of the

crest-line of the Falls and made additional soundings. In the light of

these and of previous work an analysis of certain conclusions in the

Niagara Folio of the U. S. Geological' Survey was given. The folio

adopts, in f].nding the rate of recession, a condition where most of the

water temporarily passes over about two-thirds the width of the Falls.

This is used as the mean rate for the full breadth. This factor under-

lies all calculations. The Falls were lately higher than now, as shown

by soundings, by borings at the Whirlpool Rapids Narrows, and from

the historic records (of Kalm in 1750) ; and this increased the rate of

recession. While the errors made by neglecting these factors are op-

posing, they do not lead to the correct determination of the age of the

Falls. A vertical section under the Falls is given in the folio, showing

a depth of water in the gorge of about 200 feet, although the evidence

mentioned proves it to be less than 100 feet. Nearly the same amount

of work should be performed by the same volume of water, acting on

the same set of rocks (height and breadth of the Falls being the same)

in the five sections adopted. Yet from the speaker's interpretation,

one-quarter the volume (in descending the same height) is made to dig

four times as deeply at one point as the full volume at another — a vari-

ation in efficiency of IGGO per cent. Between other sections, similar

variations appear, while not more than 10 to 25 per cent would be ad-

missible. The age of the Falls as estimated by the speaker is believed

to be based on an excessive rate of recession, modified by unsupported

opinions to avoid implication of attempts at precision. Thus if we ap-

ply calculations alone to his data, the age would be 26,100 years, yet

the speaker gives as the sum of his components 19,500 to 30,000 years.

The effects of the variable height of the Falls are not considered by

him; if these be taken into account the time would be reduced to 14,700

years. The great importance of the age of Niagara lies in its being a

chronometer of many geological events, and therefore it should be de-

termined with the greatest precision. The re-survey of the crest-line

40(5

proceedings: geological society 407

made by the speaker reduced the estimated rate of recession from the

former figure of 4.2 feet a year to 4 feet. This rate would increase the

age of the Falls to 41,000 years.

David White: The occurrence of transported hoivlders in coal beds.

The discovery of stray bowlders in the midst of coal seams is a rare

event, but often where one is discovered others are found in the same

locality. Several occurrences in the Appalachian field were mentioned,

in Tennessee, Pennsylvania, etc. A late discovery in the New River

coal field of West Virginia has been reported to the Survey, and a speci-

men from this find was exhibited. The bowlder was of quartzite, well

rounded, and lacquered with coal. The speaker suggested that the

character of the rounding seemed to indicate fluviatile action. In ex-

planation of the occurrence of the bowlders it was considered probable

that a more or less open lane through the coal swamp had existed, per-

mitting the transportation of bowlders by floating drift.

REGULAR PROGRAM

B. S. Butler: Relation of ore deposits to different types of intrusive

bodies in Utah. The larger intrusive bodies of Utah are of two types,

laccoliths and stocks. The laccoliths occur in the sandy and shaly

sediments in the southeastern part of the state; the stocks in the

quartzites and limestones in the western part of the state. The stocks

may be subdivided into those truncated near the apex and those trun-

cated at greater depth. The deeper truncated stocks are uniformly

more siliceous. The apically-truncated stocks are monzonitic to dior-

ritic in composition, the deeper truncated stocks have the composition

of granodiorite to granite. The ore deposits associated with the lacco-

liths and deeper truncated stocks have been of comparatively slight

commercial importance, while associated with the apically-truncated

stocks are deposits of great value. It is believed that the lack of

large deposits associated with the laccoliths is due to the fact that after

intrusion they were sealed oft' from their deep-seated source and that

the amount of material in the laccoliths themselves was too small and

the differentiation on solidifying too incomplete to furnish large de-

posits. It is believed that in the stocks the differentiation was greater

at depth and that the mobile constituents of the magma, as the water

and other mineralizers, with silica, metals, sulphur, etc., in solution,

rose toward the surface, while the heavier minerals that crystallized

early sunk to greater depth. When the mobile constituents reached

a point where the magma was sufficiently solidified to fracture they

were guided by the fractures or fissures, and on reaching favorable

physical and chemical environments began to deposit the metals in

solution. The deeper truncated stocks are regarded as probably rem-

nants from which the portion in which the metals were concentrated

has been eroded.

Discussion: Sidney Paige said he was interested in the speaker's

views regarding mineralization around laccohths. In the Black Hills

the laccoliths had been fractured vertically, and these fractures

408 proceedings: geological society

("pipes") had been loci of rich minerahzation. There was reason to

suppose that a large bathoHth underlay the region, from which, Paige

believed, the ore-minerals had been distilled. S. R. Capps inquired

regarding the field criteria for distinguishing between the several forms

of intrusive bodies; laccoliths, apically truncated stocks, and medially

truncated stocks. Butler replied that this would be difficult in some

cases, but in the region he had described the stocks show distinct cross-

cutting characteristics, while the laccoliths had produced evidences of

doming in the associated sedimentaries. The boundary between api-

cally and medially truncated stocks is somewhat arbitrary, l)ut often

the age of the associated formations gives a basis for judgment as to

the depth to which erosion has been carried. For example, if the wall-

rocks are of pre-Cambrian strata, erosion is believed to have reached

a great depth in the stock. A. C. Spencer thought Butler's ideas

regarding association of minerals with character of stock and depth

of truncation very valuable. He believed that analyses of small,

undifferentiated sills or laccoliths for ore minerals should give basis of

estimation of the original content of the magma in such minerals, before

the differentiation which had been effective in larger bodies had resulted

in concentration in some parts and impoverishment in others. F. L.

Ransome was inclined to differ with Spencer's opinion on this matter

and doubted if such analyses would be of value in drawing conclusions.

J. B. Umpleby referred to the Idaho districts with which he was

familiar. They did not seem to conform with Butler's ideas regarding

relation between mineral deposition and depth of truncation. J. T.

SiNGEWALD, Jr., referred to the tin deposits of the Erzgebirge. There

was a similar association there to what Butler had described. Tin

veins were found around the apices of granitic stocks, while more

deeply eroded stocks showed no accompaniment of veins. N. L. Bowen

brought up the question of the probable degree of solidification sup-

posed to have been reached in the stocks at the time of ore-deposition.

If the apices had reached a condition of complete solidification there

was no apparent reason why they should serve as channels for ore-

bearing solutions. Umpleby thought that in such cases solidification

had not l)een complete at time of ore-deposition.

Bailey Willis: Physiographic provinces of South America. The

speaker described in some detail the broader physiographic features

of the continent, such as the delta of the Amazon, the chain of the

Andes, the pre-Andean depression, and the plains of Argentina, and

explained the processes to which their origin and present condition

are due. In many places over broad areas very recent movements

of depression or elevation have occurred and may still be continuing.

Discussion: Keith inquired whether the Argentine plain which had

been described was simple or whether it was made up of two or three

or several plains which were more or less distinct. Willis replied that

in the broad expanse from the pre-Andean depression to the Atlantic

there is no evidence of faulting, but warping has produced irregularities

of surface. C. H. Wegemann inquired as to conditions of sedimenta-

proceedings: biological society 409

tion in the great, down-warped, synclinal areas in South America in

comparison with similar areas of the United States. Willis thought

them very similar. In many places the areas are covered with woody

or reedy vegetation and in some instances the conditions ar? appar-

ently favorable for the formation of flat deposits. A. H. Brooks

inquired whether the sketch of the southern Andes made by Willis was

intended to imply the presence of a peneplain on top of the Andes.

Willis thought that a moderately developed peneplain had existed,

although it had not been brought to such a stage but that considerable

irregularity had survived. Moreover, a good deal of warping had

occurred during elevatory doming. Sidney Paige referred to Lowthian

Green's theory of a tetrahedral earth, and thought that the general

unit character of elevation recently undergone by South America tended

to support Green's view. A. H. Brooks inquired as to the origin of

fiords along southern coasts. Willis thought they were located in zones

of softer rocks which had been cut into by rivers and glaciers. David

White inquired whether continental shelves were a marked feature

along the southeastern coast where Willis had spoken of recent warping.

Willis replied that they were present in some degree of development.

C. N. Fenner, Secretary.

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 540th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of

the Cosmos Club, Saturday, April 17, 1915, with Vice-President Rose

in the chair and 50 persons present.

Under the heading Brief Notes, L. O. Howard called attention to

the development of mosquito larvae and adults in pools of water formed

by melting snow in the mountains of New York state, the eggs having

been laid on the ground the previous summer in places where pools

would be formed.

The iirst paper of the regular program was by J. D. Hood, Sovie

features in the morphology of the insect order Thysanoptera. Mr. Hood

gave a general account of the Thysanoptera, called attention to the

large amount of systematic work that had been done in it during recent

years, and said that it was estimated that about 25,000 forms would be

found to exist in the order. He called particular attention to the struc-

ture and mechanics of the foot, and to the asymmetrical mouth parts,

illustrating the peculiarities of each by diagrams. Mr. Hood's paper

was discussed by Dr. Howard.

The second paper was by E. A. Goldman, Biological explorations in

eastern Panama. Mr. Goldman gave an account of his work in con-

nection with the Smithsonian Biological Siirvey of the Panama Canal

Zone, in 1912, in extreme eastern Panama with a view to determining

the faunal relations of that section to the Canal Zone and to western

Panama. Very little zoological collecting had previously been done in

this region which was scarcely better known than in the 16th Century,

410 proceedings: biological society

at the time of the Conquest. It proved to be mainly Southern Ameri-

can in faunal characters, with a shght admixture of North and Middle

America,n elements. Many South American species apparently reach

their northern limits here. The collections of birds and mammals have

been identified, and about 40 of the mammals and 30 of the birds have

been described as new. Among the birds are three new genera, two of

them of humming birds. No new genera of mammals were taken, but

several had not previously been reported from Panama. A new species

of Capyhara was among the more notable mammals. Spiny rats of the

genus Proechimys were found to be common. The tail, normally long

in this animal, is lost through some pathological condition in many

individuals, and owing to this circumstance the natives believe in thie

existence of two species.

Goldman's paper was illustrated by lantern slide views of the country

explored, and of objects pertaining to its natural history. It was dis-

cussed by Messrs. Wetmore and Lyon.

The third paper was by Vernon Bailey, Notes on variation, distri-

bution, and habits of the pocket-gophers of the genus Thomoinys. Mr.

Bailey said these rodents, constituting a genus of the peculiar Ameri-

can family Geomyidae, are distributed over the western United States,

extending from Alberta and British Columbia to southern Mexico.

They range from the Arctic-Alpine to the Tropical zonal areas and are

generally abundant in the regions they inhabit. They are burrowers,

live almost entirely underground, and are probably more restricted in

their individual habitats than any other of our native mammals. This

to some extent accounts for their great range of variation and the large

number of recognizable forms, nearly 90. Almost every change in cli-

mate, soil, and environment is reflectedby some change in the color, size,

proportions, or cranial characters. There is wonderful adaptation in

their color to that of the soil inhabited by them, varying from creamy

white on the light sands of the lower Colorado River flats to dark browns

on the volcanic plateaus of Mexico and Arizona, and almost black along

the humid Pacific coast region of northwestern California. There is

also a pure black form on the coast of Oregon which may be an extreme

case of dichromatism, as there are several species with a well marked

black phase.

Their habit of burrowing enables the gophers to escape many ene-

mies and to adapt themselves to rigorous climatic conditions. In the

past this habit was useful in keeping the soil upturned and "ploughed,"

but under artificial cultivation by man this habit renders the animals

a pest. They are very destructive to root crops, clover, alfalfa, and

grain. By cutting roots they often do much damage to orchards, nur-

series, and vineyards. They may be destroyed by trapping or on a large

scale by placing poisoned food in their burrows. In a revision of the

genus just submitted for publication as a number of the North American

Fauna a general discussion of the habits is given, as well as descriptions

of species and subspecies, and maps showing distribution.

proceedings: biological society 411

Mr. Bailey's communication was illustrated by lantern slides from

photographs of living animals and of their work. Messrs. Cooke, Wil-

cox, Howard and others took part in the discussion.

The 541st meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall

of the Cosmos Club, Saurday, May 1, 1915, with Vice-President Rose

in the chair and 26 persons present.

On recommendation of the council. Admiral G. W. Baird was elected

to active membership.

Under the heading of Brief Notes and Exhibition of Specimens, Dr.

O. P. Hay made remarks on the extinct ground sloths of America and

called attention to the existence of a specimen of N othr other ium from

North American Pleistocene, in Baylor University, Texas. Wm. Pal-

mer announced that he had lately seen an apparently wild specimen of

the European skylark in nearby Virginia. He also exhibited the jaws

of a ray, R.hinoptera honasus, collected at Chesapeake Beach, Mary-

land. E. W. Nelson called attention to the newspaper notoriety at-

tained by the San x^ntonio (Texas) bat roost erected under the miscon-

ception that bats were destructive to mosquitoes. He said there was no

evidence that the species of bats (Nyctinomiis mexicanus) in these roosts

consumed mosquitoes, and that they foraged so far from these roosts

that there would be little likelihood of their consuming insects in the

vicinity of San Antonio.

The first communication of the regular program was by C. W. Gil-

more, Observations on new dinosaurian reptiles. The speaker discussed

briefly some of the more important discoveries of dinosaurian fossils

made in North America during the past two or three years, referring

especially to the explorations conducted by the American Museum of

Natural History and Canadian Geological Survey in the Edmonton

and Belly River formations in the province of Alberta, Canada. He

stated that the recent finding of several specimens, with which were

preserved impressions of considerable parts of the epidermal covering,

leads us to hope that the time is not far distant when the external ap-

pearance of these animals will be as well known as the internal skeleton.

Lantern slides of many of the more striking specimens were shown,

the speaker confining himself to brief explanatory remarks regarding

their systematic position and their more striking characteristics. The

following forms were discussed: Saurolophus and Corthyosaurus of the

trachodont dinosaurs; Ankylosaurus, an armored reptile; M onodoniiis ,

Anchiceratops, Ceratops, Styracosaurus , and Brachyceratops, all of the

Ceratopsia or horned dinosaurs. In conclusion, life restorations of

Brachyceratops, Thescelosaurus, and Stegosaurus, modelled by the

speaker, were exhibited for the first time. (Author's abstract.)

Mr. Gilmore's communication was discus^sed by Messrs. O. P. Hay,

Nelson, and Lyon.

The second paper was by William Palmer, The basic facts of bird

coloration. The complex and varied coloration of birds was explained

as due to several causes which were grouped as pigmental, structural,

412 proceedings: biological society

•

chemical, and a mixture of two of these. The basic pigmentation was

considered as composed of blackish, reddish, and yellowish cells, the

latter being much subdued and principally diluting the others. This

coloration group was classed as physiological, in contradistinction to

all other tints, colors, and glossiness, which were considered as psycho-

logical results due to semi-consciousness, especially to eyesight, food, and

certain phases of light.

This arrangement was based on the experience of the speaker on the

forest slopes of Mt. Gede, in western Java, where it was found that

non-glossy, dark and dingy colored birds were confined almost entirely

to a habitat of damp dense ground-cover vegetation, while those clothed

in more or less brilliant colors were inhabitants of the intermediate areas

above the ground cover and below the dense canopy of the branches of

the tall forest growth.

In the tops of the forest trees a different type of coloration was evi-

dent; glossy blacks, whites, and grays were exclusively characteristic,

or predominant. These types of coloration were continued down into

the lowlands in the same order but with different species or genera, and

with the tree-top spreading through the more open and drier areas of

the lowlands to near and on the ground.

Less definite intermediate areas between the ground cover and the

tree tops, less dense, or with a different vegetation, were shown to be

habitats of birds largely green or yellow, the res-ult being that the gen-

eral and special coloration of a bird clearly indicates its habitat, appar-

ent exceptions having been greatly influenced by other factors.

A correlation was made of these distributional results with the birds

of eastern North America, which were considered as governed by the

same influences, though forest changes in recent times have compli-

cated the question.

The coloration of other animals is governed by the same laws with

similar results, so that where white, glossy black, bright and highly

colored areas exist on animals, it is due to psychological progressive

adaptations, based on a less complex and simpler dull coloration to be

considered as basic, primitive, and thus more purely physiological in

contrast. (Author's abstract.)

Mr. Palmer's communication was discussed by E. W. Nelson and

Hon. George Shiras 3d.

M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V

JUNE 19, 1915

No. 12

GEOLOGY. — Factors in movements of the strand line.^ Joseph

Barrell, Yale University.

Within recent years new points of view in regard to present

and recent movements of the sea level have been developed by

a number of geologists. Johnson, Daly, Vaughan, and Davis

have made important contributions. The writer has not en-

tered upon this subject as a special problem for research but

in the pursuit of other investigations has several times come into

contact with it. But coming unexpectedly upon a subject from

an angle is apt to give new suggestions and somewhat novel

points of view. In the brief treatment which is necessary here,

the purpose is to outline controlling factors, putting the emphasis

upon those aspects which have presented themselves as some-

what novel. It is not the plan to demonstrate fully any single

thesis, nOr to treat in proper proportion all the composite factors.

The interpretation of composite rhythyns. The movements of

the strand show a rhythmic character. Smaller undulations

are superposed upon larger oscillations. In the interpretation

of these rhythms attention has generally been focused upon the

marks of previous inroads of the sea, not upon the limits of its

retreats, for these are now concealed. The record of a descend-

ing series measures only the sequence from the last maximum

of a greater rhythm and does not in itself tell the present trend

of the oscillations.

1 Abstract of a paper presented before the Geological Society of Washington,

March 24, 1915. To be published in full in the American Journal of Science.

413

414 barrell: movements of the strand line

Since the Oligocene the strand line has, on the whole, been

retreating, the continents rising higher, the climates growing

colder. In the Pleistocene there seems to have been a culmi-

nation of crustal and climatic oscillations, followed by a descend-

ing series. From these facts the ice age has been looked upon

as past and the Quaternary revolution as closing, but at several

times within the Pleistocene that view would have been better

justified on the basis of a descendin^series than it is at the present

moment.

Indications of oscillations given by subaqueous profiles. From

a study of present shore action made some years previously as

a basis for the development of "Some distinctions between

marine and terrestrial conglomerates,"- it appeared that recent

movements of the strand line may be elucidated by a method

of study which analyzes the place and character of marine ero-

sion and sedimentation. Both rivers and sea work with respect

to a base level. Their first effort is to bring a profile to a graded

slope and the nature of the work shows the direction, amount,

and relative duration of recent changes of level. In order to

study the water bottom the writer has made use of hydrographic

charts of soundings. Profiles at right angles to the submarine

contours have been obtained by projecting upon the given sec-

tion all soundings within a certain width. A smoothed curve

is then drawn through the soundings. Thus minor irregulari-

ties and possible errors tend to be eliminated. Such profiles

show for many coasts that the present profile of wave-action is

about 20 fathoms above a previous stand, this conclusion being

in accord with the results reached by both Daly and Vaughan.

Professor Daly has been following independently the same line

of investigation and he states in a personal communication

that he has reached the conclusion that effective wave-action

stops much above the conventionally accepted 100-fathom line.

With this conclusion the writer is in accord, and as an impli-

cation it appears that the outer flats of continental shelves are

wave-built terraces constructed mostly from river detritus and

laid down during lower stands of the sea. Drowned river val-

2 Abstract, Bull. Geol. Society of America, 20: 620. 1908.

bareell: movements of the strand line 415

leys point in the same direction, but the method of investigation

here suggested is of independent value and should give much

information for regions such as oceanic islands where the embay-

ments do not give the depth nor duration of submergence.

Pliocene and Pleistocene marine terraces. A second line of

investigation which has brought the writer to an intersection

with the problem of recent movements was in connection with

areal geologic work in southern New England. The topog-

raphy in this region indicated a series of descending base

levels. The methods applied in their study and the results

have been pubhshed in abstract.^ Each base level would be

recorded in the interior by surfaces of subaerial denudation,

on the seaward side by surfaces of marine planation. The

latter were cut as benches across the harder rocks and are conse-

quently better preserved than the former. A method of pro-

jected profiles, looking along the line of the shore, restores these

ancient levels, gives the appearance of a wide flight of giant stairs,

and hides the effects of later dissection. It is thought that the

Goshen level, reaching to the height of 1380 feet in western

Connecticut, dates from the earlier Phocene. The terraces

below descend by steps many miles broad and lying approxi-

mately at 1140, 920, 730, and 520 feet. The Pleistocene terraces

below were, in comparison, very imperfectly developed, but a

number can be traced. They show briefer periods of crustal

rest and appear to represent an acceleration of the diastrophic

rhythm in Pleistocene time. This crustal unrest is continued

to the present, and the present is diastrophically as well as cli-

matically a part of the Pleistocene. *

The broader Tertiary rhythm shown by these wide terraces

must have been complicated in the Pleistocene by special effects^

such as the weight of the ice-sheets, the changes in volume of

ocean water related to glaciation, and minor diastrophic move-

ments. These complications, however,' do not hide the facts

which lead to the conclusion that on the Atlantic coast an ab-

normal crustal unrest beginning in the Phocene has marked

especially the entire Pleistocene period.

3 Bull. Geol. Society of America, 24: 688-696. 1913.

416 barrell: movements of the strand line

Turning attention next to the other side of the rhythm of

movement, that of the record of submergences, we are led to

the conclusion that the emergent phases of the oscillations are

relatively rapid and brief, the submergent phase prolonged, and

marked by a slowly rising level of the sea.

The combination of evidence from Maryland and New Jersey

suggests strongly that certain early Pleistocene stages of cold

climate and glaciation occurred when the ocean level stood at

the higher parts of the phases of cyclic oscillation. The impor-

tant point is that the development of the cold climates culminat-

ing in glaciation does not appear to have required a low level

of the sea or high elevation of the land of this region. The

evidence of the region marginal to glaciation leans toward the

view that the amount of water abstracted for the formation of

the ice-sheets was not a major factor in the control of Pleistocene

sea levels. It would seem necessarily to have been an impor-

tant factor, but the diastrophic rhythm continuing with acceler-

ated movement from the Pliocene constituted apparently a

factor of more control.

Post-glacial emergent cycle marginal to the glaciated areas. A

third line of investigation is that connected with the Strength

of the Crust, a subject now in progress of publication in the

Journal of Geology. If the hypothesis set forth there is valid —

that a thick and strong lithosphere rests upon a thick zone of

comparative weakness, an asthenosphere — then the weight of

a continental ice-sheet should tend to depress the crust into this

weak zone. As this subcrustal zone is not a fluid it can not trans-

miit the excess pressures to unlimited distances. Broad and low

pressure ridges would therefore tend to be raised beyond the

limits of the ice-sheets. With removal of the ice-load the

pressure ridges might rise at first with the central part and then

subside.

This theory has been applied to the data regarding water

levels during the retreat of the ice, as given by Woodworth for

the Champlain and Hudson valleys.^ The data permit the

•* New York State Education Department, Bull, 84. 1905.

barrell: movements of the strand line 417

determination of the sea level in latitude 40° for each stage of

the ice retreat. This represents the movements in a belt be-

yond the terminal moraines. The figures obtained indicate

that the Coastal Plain was higher than at present and rising,

the sea sinking, during the retreat of the ice. These effects are

of an opposite character to that produced by the addition of

water to the ocean during deglaciation.

This argument by itself rests upon a structure of hypothesis

and carries but little weight, but independent lines of evidence

pointing in this direction will now be considered. Analysis of

the data obtained from borings in the channels of the Hudson

shows that a cycle of emergence and subsidence has occurred

since the retreat of the ice, but not over 200 feet as a maximum

above present level. Evidence that a minor cycle of emergence

and submergence has occurred along the shores of southern

New England and the South is also found. The evidence for

a rapid cycle of post-glacial emergence of considerable amount,

involving a tract beyond the limits of glaciation, now drowned,

is perhaps best given by the distribution of plants along the

Atlantic shore from New Jersey to Newfoundland. From the

work of Britton, Hollick, and especially Fernald, it is shown that

118 species of plants belonging to the southern Coastal Plain

floras are known from widely isolated outlying stations along the

coastal strip of New England and the iMaritime Provinces.

Newfoundland, however, furnishes the most remarkable and

convincing evidence. Fernald shows that neither winds nor

currents nor migrating birds can be competently invoked in

explanation. A remaining hypothesis is that for a time after

the last retreat of the ice the Coastal Plain stood higher, margined

the continent as far at least as Labrador, and permitted the

spread of the Coastal Plain flora. The character of the flora

suggests that the migration to the present isolated localities

must have taken place during a period of climate even warmer

than the present and therefore at a time after the ice-sheets

had given up their water. The hypothesis that the emergence

was due to withdrawal of w^ater during glaciation must there-

fore be ruled out.

418 barrell: movements of the strand line

Somewhat similar evidence is found, on the shores of north-

western Europe, of land emergence above the present level

involving regions beyond the limits of glaciation and occurring

in a warm stage following the retreat of the ice. Submergence

to a level a little below the present stand of the sea then took

place. This is presented in comprehensive form by W. B. Wright,

of the Geological Survey of Ireland, in his recent book on the

Quaternary Ice Age. Wright considers the breadth of this move-

ment as indicative of a general lowering of sea level, possibly

by a recrudescence of the Antarctic ice-sheets, but either of two

other hypotheses is preferable.

One of these is that the movements represent a diastrophic

cycle entirely unrelated to glaciation. The other hypothesis

is that the weight of the ice-sheets caused crustal depression

directly below the load, but moderate elevation in a wide zone

beyond. Upon the removal of the ice-load the first isostatic

upwarping carried up higher this marginal upwarped zone with

it. This broad regional movement carried it up to a level where

it became unstable and a slow settling-back occurred as an af-

ter-effect. The close association of these movements with the

close of glaciation appears to favor a genetic connection with

deglaciation.

Possible effects of radial shrinkage. Calculations made by the

writer as to the quantitative effect of earth shrinkage in pro-

ducing an increased speed of rotation, and consequently a rise

of ocean waters toward the equator and a depression in the

polar regions, suggest that it may be a very real factor. A

shrinkage of a mile, if taken up wholly by adjustment of ocean

level and not by internal earth adjustment (a supposition which

can be true to only a limited degree), would raise the water

level at the equator about 35 feet and depress it at the poles about

60 feet.

Such great folding and thrusting movements as have occurred

in the later Tertiary suggest that earth shrinkage is an impor-

tant factor. Schuchert has called attention id the greater

persistence of equatorial epeiric seas and the readvance of waters

more frequently from lower toward higher latitudes. It is pos-

barrell: movements of the strand line • 419

sible also that a slight change in slope of the sea level at the time

that river courses were established on a newly emerged coastal

plain may be at least a partial cause of the southward deflections

of rivers which were established along the Atlantic margin in

late Tertiary time.

Conclusions. First, we must recognize the special factors

connected with Pleistocene climates. These consist in the

abstraction of vast quantities of ocean water during the develop-

ment of the ice-sheets; the direct depression under the load of

ice; a possible compensatory elevation in a broad zone beyond;

a deferred, intermittent, and possibly oscillatory readjustment

upon the removal of the burden of ice.

But these factors must not be used alone. The second group

of causes includes the isostatic factors. They tend to main-

tain the equilibrium of large sections of the crust, affect the whole

ocean level, and locally warp the lands, but do not involve earth

shrinkage. The general rise of lands which has marked the

later geologic times may most probably be placed in this cate-

gory. The movements are due either to changes of external

load or to changes in crustal density. Continental rejuvenation

is the chief effect, but they include a possible enlargement or

deepening of portions of the ocean basins.

The third group of causes is thought to be found in great com-

pressive movements in the lithosphere which seem to be due

in turn to a shrinkage of the centrosphere. Locally they may

work against isostasy, more broadly they may start isostatic

movements. As their ultimate expression is in mountain build-

ing along lines of weakness, they may be classed as orogenic

causes.

Fourth are the planation factors, working in opposition to

isostasy. They tend to erode the lands, fill the seas with sedi-

ment, and raise their surface level. The combination of iso-

static and compressive forces has operated through geologic

time. The causes are complex and the result is seen in the

composite diastrophic rhythms.

To sift apart the factors comprehensive investigations must

be prosecuted over different parts of the earth. The sequence

420 ■ swingle: a salt-tolerant citrous plant

and amount of oscillations in the tropics must be linked to those

of higher latitudes. Changes of sea level must be separated

from local changes in the level of the crust. Multiple working

hypotheses must be tested by the application of new and sig-

nificant facts.

BOTANY. — Merope angulata, a salt-tolerant plant related to

Citrus, from the Malay Archipelago. Walter T. Swingle,

Bureau of Plant Industry.

In the course of a survey of the wild relatives of the commonly

cultivated citrous fruits, in the hope of finding new material for

use in breeding, the writer was struck by accounts of a curious

thick-leaved plant said to grow in tidal swamps in the Malay

Archipelago at Noessa Kambangan, in southern Java, where it is

called ''kigerukkan." A search for descriptions has revealed

a curious and involved nomenclatorial history, and a surprising

lack of information as to the occurrence, nature, and possible

economic value of this curious salt-tolerant plant. As early

as 1801 it was described by Willdenow as Citrus angulata, with

a citation of Rumphius' illustration of Limonellus angulosus

in the Herbarium Amboinense (1741). In 1834 Wight and

Arnott noted that the Citrus angulata of Willdenow was undoubt-

edly a Limonia, and Miquel later (1859) made the transferas

Limonia angulosa. In 1872 Kurz described this same plant as

a new species under the name Atalantia longispina. Two years

later he decided to create a genus, Gonocitrus, for the Citrus

angulata of Willdenow, making his Atalantia longispina a synonym.

In 1875 Hooker described the plant as Paramignya longispina;

and in 1876 Kurz abandoned his genus Gonocitrus and trans-

ferred the Citrus angulata of Willdenow to Paramignya as P.

angulata.

The nomenclatorial vicissitudes outlined above, however, tell

only half the story!

In 1825 Blume created a new genus, Sclerostylis, to receive

five species, regarded by him as new. Among them was the

kigerukkan, which received the name S. spinosa. Although

it is the first species listed by Blume, it cannot properly be con-

swingle: a salt-tolerant citrous plant 421

sidered the type of the genus. The name Sderostylis, meaning

hard style, must of course have appUed to some species the styles

of which were seen, whereas the type specimen of Sderostylis

spinosa has no flowers,^ and the original description does not

describe the flowers. Very probably Blume had only a single

specimen of this plant from which to draw his description of the

species. He had, however, flowering specimens of some, if not

all, of his other species of Sderostylis, now considered as belong-

ing to Glycosmis, which have very short, thick styles that

might easily have given occasion for the generic name. Material

of S. trifoliata and S. lanceolata in the herbarium of the Museum

in Paris, labeled in Blume 's hand, shows styles characteristic of

Glycosmis and suggestive of the name Sderostylis.

Finally, characteristically spiny material from the type local-

ity (it should be noted that the other four species of Blume 's

Sderostylis are inermous) shows the plant in question to be very

difl"erent from Blume's genus in flower and especially in style

characters.

Sprengel, in 1827, referred the Sderostylis spinosa of Blume to

the genus Limonia, and Dietrich in 1840 referred it to Glycos-

mis. In 1846 Roemer created a new monotypic genus, Merope,

based on Blume's Sderostylis spinosa. There is every reason to

believe that Roemer did not see actual specimens of the plant,

but drew the characters of his new genus exclusively from

Blume's description. In 1912 Koorders^ records this plant from

Noessa Kambangan under the name Atalantia spinosa, giving

"Hook., Index Kew. II. 849" as authority.^

A photograph of Blume's original type specimen at Leiden,

obtained through the kindness of Dr. Th. Valeton, and a subse-

quent study of the specimen itself show beyond question that

the Sderostylis spinosa of Blume is the same as Willdenow's

1 "Comme vous voyez le spec'men (I'original de Sderostylis spinosa de Blume)

n'a ni fleurs ni fruits." Valeton, Th. Letter dated Leiden, 10 October, 1910.

In February, 1912, I had an opportunity of seeing the specimen myself in the

Rijks Herbarium at Leiden.

2 Exkursionsfl. Jav. 2: 427.

^ The reference in Kew Index under Sc'erostylis is as follows: "spinosa Blimae,

Bijdr. 134 (Atlantiae sp.)"

422

swingle: a salt-tolerant citrous plant

Citrus angulata. Under the name Paramignya angulata Kurz,

Valeton in 1912* published a Latin description of this plant,

accompanied by an excellent figure, giving fruits and flowers.

Here, as a result of a suggestion made by the writer to Dr.

Valeton in 1909, attention is first

called to the identity of Sclerostylis

spinosa and Citrus angulata. At the

request of the writer a native collec-

tor was sent by Dr. Valeton to Noessa

Kambangan on the south side of Java

in 1910 and he succeeded in securing

specimens of the kigerukkan and later

on a considerable quantity of viable

seeds.

A study of these specimens and of

living plants growing in the green-

houses of the U. S. Department of

Agriculture at Washington, D. C,

has convinced the writer that this

plant cannot be referred to Para-

mignya but constitutes a distinct

genus (figs, 1 and 2). Since Sclero-

stylis must be considered a synonym

of Glycosmis, as shown above, the

oldest available name for this plant

is Roemer's Merope. This genus dif-

fers rather widely from any other

plant in the subfamily Citratae, but

is doubtless most nearly related to Paramignya and Lavanga,

which also have fruits lacking in pulp vesicles. It differs from

Paramignya in the character of the seeds, which are very long

and flattened, in the triquetrous fruit (see fig. 2), the paired spines,

the simple, short petiole (not long and twisted), and the thick,

leathery leaves. It differs from Lavanga in the simple (not

trifoliate) leaves, the simple, short petiole, and the straight

(not curved) spines.

Fig. 1. Merope

Flowering branch,

half.

angulata.

Scale one-

« Icones Bogorienses, 4: 159-161. pi. S48. 1912.

swingle: a salt-tolerant citrous plant 423

The name of the kigerukkan, the only species known in this

genus, becomes:

Merope angulata (WiUd.) Swingle, comb, nov.^

Citrus angulata Willd. Sp. PI., ed. 4, S^: 1426. 1801.

Sclerostylis spinosa Blume, Bijdr, Fl. Ned. Ind. 1: 134. 1825.

Limonia spinosa Spreng. Syst. Veg., ed. 16, 4^: 162. 1827.

Ghjcosmis spinosa Dietr. Syn. PI. 2: 1409. 1840.

Merope spinosa Poem. Syn. Mon. Hesp. 1: 44. 1846.

Limonia angulosa Wight & Arnott; Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. 1-: 521. 1859.

Atalantia longispina Kurz, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, 41^: 295. 1872.

Gonocitrus angulatus Kurz, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, 42-: 228, pi. 18.

1874.

Paramignya longispina Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1: 511. 1875.

Paramignya angulata Kurz, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, 44^: 135. 1876.

Atalantia spinosa Hook, f . Index Kew. 4: 849. 1895. (vide Koorders,

Exkursionsfl. Jav. 2: 427. 1912.)

Leaves coriaceous, inconspicuously veined, alternate; petioles simple.

Twigs with very strong spines, often in pairs. Flowers borne singly or

in pairs (rarely in few-flowered clusters) in the axils of the leaves; ovary

stalked on a rather tall disk, 3-5-celled, with 2-4 pendulous ovules in

each cell; stamens 10, free; anthers linear oblong. Fruits strongly

angled, triangular in cross section; cells filled with a sticky mucilaginous

fluid (without true pulp vesicles) ; seeds very large, flattened, reniform,

caudate at the tip where attached. Cotyledons in germination aerial,

not increasing in size; first fohage leaves alternate, broadly ovate.

A large shrub or small tree (not a climbing shrub), growing on the

seashore in tidal forests or mangrove swamps from the mouth of the

Ganges to the Moluccas.

MEROPE RESISTANT TO SOIL SALINITY

This plant, which has not received the attention it merits,

either from botanists or horticulturists, was discovered in the

Moluccas and has since been found in Java, at Malacca, in upper

Tenasserim and lower Pegu (Burma), and in the Sunderbuns

(the mouth of the Ganges in India). These regions represent

a range of nearly 3000 miles, and it will doubtless be found

to be widely distributed throughout the Malay Archipelago.

It is likely to have escaped most collectors, however, because

of its restriction to inaccessible coastal swamps.

The fact that Merope angulata grows only along the seashore

* The following pre-Linnaean name is referable to this species: Limonellus

angulosus Rumph. Herb. Amboin. 2: 110. pi. 32. 1741.

424

swingle: a salt-tolerant citrous plant

in mangrove swamps and tidal forests would naturally lead us

to expect that it possesses high powers of ''alkali resistance,"

since sea water contains over 3 per cent of dissolved salts and the

mangrove and other plants growing in the niangrove swamps

are able to withstand large quantities of dissolved salts in the

• Fig. 2. Merope angulata. A, flower; B, pistil; C, stamens; D, seed; E, fruit;

F, longitudinal section of fruit; G, cross section of fruit. A-C, scale 1.5 ; D-G

natural size.

substratum. Experiments carried, on with seedling plants in

the greenhouses of the Department of Agriculture at Washing-

ton have shown that it is indeed very resistant to salt. One

plant which was watered exclusively with a normal salt solution

showed no ill effects for two months. The treatment was con-

tinued and the plant finally died, the soil containing at the time

of its death 1.34 per cent salt (computed from readings by

electrolytic bridge). Another plant was given 1.5 oz. normal

CLARK: RECENT CRINOIDS 425

salt solution every fourth day (ordinary water being used in

addition for any further moisture needed by the plant) from

August 31, 1914, to January 20, 1915. At this latter date the

foliage was yellowing and the roots were beginning to decay.

Other plants of this species, however, which were given small

amounts of normal salt solution from time to time, actually

made better growth than those not receiving any salt.

POSSIBLE UTILIZATION OF KIGERUKKAN FOR STOCKS

When we remember that the orange is one of the most sensitive

to alkali among the fruit trees, it can readily be seen that Merope

angulata is a plant of decided interest for trial as a stock for

other citrous plants, and experiments are now being carried on

under greenhouse and field conditions to determine whether

it can be so used. So far Citrus has not been grafted success-

fully on this stock; but a seedhng kigerukkan grafted on a seedhng

grapefruit grew rapidly and after some months flowered, having

developed a strong swelling at the point of union of the stock

and scion in the meantime. It is therefore hoped that recipro-

cal grafting of the kigerukkan and the cultivated species of

Citrus will ultimately be successful.

ZOOLOGY. — The relationship between phylogenetic specialization

and temperature in the recent crinoids.^ Austin H. Clark,

National Museum.

In a previous paper- I discussed the relationship between

phylogenetic specialization and bathymetrical distribution in the

recent crinoids. In the present paper I shall consider in the

same way the relationship between phylogenetic specialization

and the temperature of the habitat.

Unfortunately temperature records for the crinoids are com-

paratively few, and for many of the families very unsatisfactory;

yet, incomplete as they are, they bring out certain features which

are not without interest.

" Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

2 Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 5: 309-317, May 4, 1915. .

426 CLARK: RECENT CRINOIDS

The frequency of the characters in the contrasted pairs (which

are the same as those described in the preceding paper) at differ-

ent temperatures are as follows; as before, the columns headed

^'1" represent the more primitive characters, those headed "2"

the more specialized.

TABLE 1

Degrees Calyx Column Disk Arms Pinnules General

Expressed as percentages of the whole number in each category

these figures are as follows:

The average for all the columns headed "V and for all of

those headed "2" with and without the column headed '^ Gen-

eral," are as follows:

CLARK: RECENT CRINOIDS

427

Plotting the averages of all the less speciaHzed (1) and the

more specialized (2) characters with and without the averages

under the heading ''General" (fig. 1), we find that the more

80-75

75-70

70-65

66-60

60-55

55-50

50-45

*5-40

40-J6

35-30

30-25

Fig. 1.

specialized characters predominate above 45°, and the less spe-

cialized below, down to 30°-25°, where the more specialized are

again in the majority.

Plotting the excess of the more primitive (1) or of the more

specialized (2) at different depths (fig. 2), we find that the more

specialized predominate above 45°, and the more primitive be-

tween 45° and 30°, while below 30° the more speciaHzed again

predominate.

428

CLARK: RECENT CRINOIDS

Within the optimum temperature range (55°-65°) we find a

region of conservative phylogenetic advance, where the special-

ized characters, though predominant over the primitive, are not

markedly so. The greatest predominance of specialized over

primitive characters occurs equally in very warm and in very

cold water, representing an acceleration of phylogenetic degen-

eration induced by phylogenetically unfavorable conditions.

80-75 r

75-70

Fig. 2.

A statistical study of the crinoid characters on the basis of

contrasted pairs thus bears out what I wrote in 1914 (Bull. No.

294, Institut Oceanographique, Monaco): ''Les especes de I'eau

ties froide ressemblent pour cela aux especes de I'eau tres chaude

par la possession d'une construction fondamentalement aber-

rante, car elles conservent et exagerent certains caracteres tres

primitifs, mais en meme temps elles montrent une condition de

developpement tres grande le long de lignes differentes. . . .

Quelque extraordinaire que cela paraisse, dans tout ce grand

developpement les comatules de I'eau la plus froide se mettent

d'accord plus intimement avec les especes d'eau tres chaude,

qui appartiennent toutes a I'autre sous-ordre Oligophreata,

qu'avec aucune des especes des eaux interm^diares."

HOPKINS: NEW SCOLYTOID BEETLES 429

ENTOMOLOGY.— A new genus of scolytoid beetles.^ A. D.

Hopkins, Bureau of Entomology.

There is in North America a group of beetles which inhabits the

young cones and, in rare cases, the twigs or shoots of different

species of Pinus. A representative of this group has been in

the Fitch collection since 1850; another in the Hubbard and

Schwarz collection since 1877; two species in Dr. W. H. Harring-

ton's collection, Ottawa, Canada, since 1885; one species in the col-

lection of Dr. J. Hamilton, Allegheny, Pa., since 1893; and dur-

ing the past thirteen years many species have been added to the

Forest Insect Collection of the Bureau of Entomology,, in the

U. S. National Museum. It has been found that some of the

species are exceedingly common and often so destructive to the

young cones of Pinus strobus in the East, Pinus scopulorum in

the Rocky Mountain region, and Pinus ponderosa and Pinus

lambertiana on the Pacific Slope, as to reduce the crop of seed

fifty per cent or more below the normal during a single year.

The species which inhabits the cones of Pinus strobus was de-

scribed by Mr. E. A. Schwarz^ as Pityophthorus coniperda.

The first reference to the habits of a representative of the

group was published by A. S. Packard in the fifth report of the

U. S. Entomological Commission, 1890, page 810, under the

name Dryocoetes affaber Mann., and later Dr. Harrington^

and Dr. Hamilton* pubhshed notes under the names Dryocoetes

affaber, D. autographus, and Pityophthorus coniperda.

The other species, while recognized by the writer as ^new and

as representing an undescribed genus, have not been described,

because it was intended to include them in one of the parts of

a monograph. 5

1 Contribution from the Branch oi' Forest Insects, Bureau of Entomology

U. S. Department of Agriculture.

2 Proc. Entom. Soc. Washington, 3: 143-145. March 28, 1895

'Canad. Entom. 23: 26-27. 1891. Also, Ibid. 34: 72-73. 1902.

*Ibid. 25: 279. 1893.

^ Contributions toward a monograph of the scolytoid beetles, of which have

been published: Tech. Series No. 17, Part I, 1909, and Part II, 1915, Bureau of

Entomology, U S. Dept. Agric; Proc. U. S. National Museum, Vol. 48, pp.

115-136, 1914; and Report 99, Office of the Secretary, U. S. Dept. Agric, 1915.

430 HOPKINS: NEW SCOLYTOID BEETLES

A bulletin (No. 243) of the U. S. Department of Agriculture

is now in press giving the results of investigations on the habits

and seasonal history of two of the undescribed species, which

renders it necessary to publish these brief descriptions without

further delay.

Conophthorus Hopk., gen. nov.

(Order Coleoptera, Superfamily Scolytoidea)

Pronotum with sides broadly rounded from near base to apex, slightly

constricted beyond middle with the base margined ; antennal club

compressed, not thickened at base; abdominal sternite 7 with posterior

margin procurved; pygidium vertical when in contact with posterior

margin 'of sternite; pronotal rugosities extending toward or to lateral

margin; tarsi with joint 5 not as long as joints 1 to 4 united; antennal

club with three sutures on anterior and two on posterior face, sutures

1 and 2 without septum; eyes acutely emarginate.

Type of genus, Pityophthorus coniperda Schwarz, from Marquette,

Michigan, Hubbard and Schwarz, collectors. Type in U. S. National

Museum.

The genus Conophthorus is at once distinguished from Pityoph-

thorus Eichh. by the absence of sutural septa in the antennal club.

SYNOPSIS

Elytral declivity with striae 1, 2 and 3 punctured ; interspace 3 smooth.

Division I.

Elytral declivity with stria 1 not punctured, 2 and 3 approximate and

faintly punctured; interspace 3 rarely without granules . . .Division II.

V

DIVISION I

Head, prothorax, base of elytra, and ventral area dark; remainder of

elytra red. Trinidad, Fort Garland, and Buena Vista, Colorado and

Las Vegas, New Mexico, in cones of Pinus edulis. Length, 1.25-

2.75 mm. Length, female type, 2.65 mm.; Las Vegas Hot Springs,

New Mexico, on Pinus edulis, August 13, 1901, Barber and Schwarz,

collectors. Type, Cat. No. 7472, U. S. N. M. . ..C. edulis, sp. nov.

DIVISION II "

Elytra with strial and interspacial punctures equal or subequal in size

and density on dorsal and lateral areas Subdivision A.

Elytra with strial and interspacial punctures unequal in size and den-

sity, those of the interspaces smaller and sparsely placed, especi-

ally on the dorsal area Subdivision B.

HOPKINS: NEW SCOLYTOID BEETLES 431

SUBDIVISION A

Elytral punctures fine, not impressed.

Black, shining; declivity with interspaces 1 granulate. Norfolk,

Virginia, probably in cones of Pinus taeda. Length, type, 2.70 mm.,

(head missing); Hubbard and Schwarz Collection; Fortress Mon-

roe, Virginia. Type, Cat. No. 7473, U. S. N. M.

Section al; C. taedae, sp. nov.

Elytral punctures coarse, impressed Section a2.

SECTION a2

Interspaces 3 of elytral declivity with distinct granules, the declivity

not strongly impressed Subsection bl.

Interspaces 3 of the elytral decUvity without granules, or obscure

Subsection b2.

SUBSECTION bl

Elytra with strial punctures confused on dorsal area Series cl.

Elytra with strial punctures in obscure to distinct rows on dorsal area.

Series c2.

Series cl

Declivity with interspace 1 granulate:

Light to dark brown, West Virginia, in cones of Pinus virginiana.

Length 2.70-3.05 mm. Length, female type, 2.70 mm.; Huttons-

ville. West Virginia, in Pinus virginiana, September 20, 1910,

author, collector; Hopk. U. S., No. 8644a. Type, Cat. No. 7482,

U. S. N. M C. virginianae, sp. nov.

Dull black. Maine, New Hampshire, Ontario, Canada, in cones

and shoots of Pinus resinosa. Length, 2.75-3.25 mm. Length,

female type, 3.15 mm.; in cones of red pine; Harrington Collection.

Type, Cat. No. 7483, U. S. N. M C. resinosae, sp. nov.

Series c2

Declivity with interspaces 1 smooth, 3 granulate.

Pronotum dark, elytra reddish. Oregon, in cones of Pinus ponder-

osa. Length, 3.50-3.85 mm. Length, female type, 3.62 mm.;

Ashland, Oregon, in Pinus ponderosa, May 29, 1913, P. D. Sergent,

collector; Hopk. U. S., No. 10807a. Type, Cat. No. 7479, U. S.

N. M C. ponderosae, sp. nov.

SUBSECTION b2

Elytral declivity not strongly impressed.

Pronotum dark; elytra reddish brown; front broad. Colorado,

New Mexico, and Arizona, in cones of Pinus scopulorum. Length,

3.2-3.55 mm. Length, female type, 3.55 mm.; Flagstaff, Arizona,

in Pinus ponderosa, May 26, 1904, author, collector; Hopk. U. S.,

No. 2740b. Type, Cat. No. 7480, U. S. N. M.

C. scopulorum, sp. nov.

432 HOPKINS: NEW SCOLYTOID BEETLES

Elytral declivity strongly impressed.

Pronotum dark; elytra dark reddish. Chiricahua Mountains,

Arizona, in cones of Pinus apachecae (?) Length, 3.50-3.90 mm.

Length, male type, 3.90 mm.; Chiricahua Mountains, June 6,

Hubbard and Schwarz Collection. Type, Cat. No. 7484, U. S. N!

M C. apachecae, sp. nov.

SUBDIVISION B

Elytra with strial punctures in obscure rows on lateral area

Section a3.

Elytra with strial punctures in distinct rows on lateral area

Section a4.

SECTION a3

Pronotum with punctures of posterior area fine Subsection b3.

Pronotum with punctures of posterior area coarse Subsection b4.

SUBSECTION b3

Punctures of elytra fine, obscure and sparse Series c3.

Punctures of elytra distinct, those of the striae rather dense. . .Series c4.

Series c3

Declivity with interspace 1 obscurely granulate.

Black; length 3 mm. Fitch collection C. clunicus, sp. nov.

Series c4-

Declivity with interspaces 1 granulate; pubescence moderately long,

erect.

Black, shining, front; narrow. Michigan, Ontario, Canada, New

Hampshire, Massachusetts, Maine, Rhode Island, and Virginia,

in cones and twigs of Pinus strohus. Length 2.50^2.90 mm.

C. coniperda Schwarz.

Black, shining, front broad. Monterey County and Pacific Grove,

California, in cones of Pinus radiata. Length 2.40-3.60 mm.

Length, female type, 3.45 mm.; Pacific Grove, California, in Pinus

radiata, November 14, 1913, J. M. Miller, collector; Hopk. U.

S., No. 10861a. Type, Cat. No. 7481, U. S. N. M.

C. radiatae, sp. nov.

Declivity with interspace 1 smooth, except toward apex, pubescence long.

Blackish brown, shining. Newport, Oregon, in cones of Pinus

contorta. Length, female type, 3.10 imn.; Newport, Oregon, in

Pinus contorta, April 30, 1899, author, collector; Hopk. U. S.,

No. 88. Type, Cat. No. 7476, U. S. N. M. . . C. contortae, sp. nov.

Pronotum black; elytra black to reddish brown. Priest River,

Idaho, and Cowitche Lake, Canada, in cones of Pinus monticola.

Length 2.95-3.45 mm. Length, female type, 3.45 mm.; Priest

River, Idaho, in Pinus monticola, October 19, 1906, R. L. Fromme,

collector; Hopk. U. S., No. 6541a. Type, Cat. No. 7477, U. S. N. M.

C. monticolae, sp. nov.

townsend: generic name musca 433

SUBSECTION b4

Elytra with punctures of dorsal area fine, not impressed.

Declivity with interspaces 1 smooth; black shining. Ventura

County, California, in cones of Pinus monoyhijlla. Length,

2.95-3.20 mm. Length, female type, 2.95 mm.; Ventura County,

California, in Pinus monophylla, June 5, 1904, author, collector;

Hopk. U. S., No. 2784. Type, Cat. No. 7474, U. S. N. M.

C. monophyllae, sp. nov.

Elytra with punctures of dorsal area coarse, impressed.

Dull black. Boulder and Manitou, Colorado, in cones of Pinus

flexilis. Length 2.95-3.30 mm. Length, female type, 3.L5 mm.;

Mount Manitou, Colorado, in Pitnis flexilis, January 25, 1914,

W. D. Edmonston, collector; Hopk. U. S., No. 12400a. Type,

Cat. No. 7475, U. S. N. M C. flexilis, sp. nov.

SECTION a4

Black, shining; declivity with interspace 1 smooth. Northern Cali-

forftia and southern Oregon, n cones of Pinus Jamhertiana. Length

2.85-3.95 mm. Length, female type, 3.50 mm.; Hilt, California, in

Pinus Jamhertiana, September 20, 1913, P. D. Sergent, collector;

Hopk. U. S., No. 10833a2. Type, Cat. No. 7478, U. 8. N. M.

C. lambertianae, sp. nov.

ENTOMOLOGY. — Correction of the misuse of the generic name

Musca, with description of two new ge7iera. Charles H. T.

Townsend, Bureau of Entomology.

For almost a century the generic name Musca has, by misuse,

been perverted from its rightful application. It is, nomen-

clatorially, one of the most important in the order of flies, or

Diptera, the superfamily name Muscoidea being derived from it;

hence, the correction of its misuse is especially important. The

present paper deals with the proper application of the name and

includes also descriptions of two new muscoid genera.

In 1810 Latreille^ designated Musca vomitoria F. ( = Musca vomi-

toria Jj.y as type of the genus Musca. The designation is valid and

can not consistently be set aside. Calliphora RD.^ (1830) falls to

1 Consid. 444.

'^ Bezzi & Stein (Kat. Pal. Dipt., 1907) indicate Musca vomitoria F. as a synonym

of Musca mortuorum L. This is manifestly incorrect. Both the description and

the bibliographic references given by Fabricius under vomitoria fix his species

as vomitoria L. It must be pointed out that Latreille, in designating genotypes,

customarily accredited Linnean species to Fabricius when such had been treated

by the latter author.

3 Myod. 433.

434 townsend: generic name musca

Musca; its tj^pe is Musca vomitoria RD. (nee. L.) = Musca erythro-

cephala Meigen, which species is congeneric with vomitoria L.)

Musca domestica L. and the species that have long been classed with

it under the name Musca require fresh generic reference. At least

three genera have been confused here, outside of Byomya and Plaxemya,

The type of Plaxemya is Musca vitripennis Meigen, according to well-

established synonymy. Musca violacea RD.^ is hereby designated as

the genotype of Byomya RD. (1830).^

Eumusca Townsend (1911) was founded on Musca corvina F. (re-

stricted). The new genus Promusca is here erected for Musca doriies-

tica L., and the new genus Viviparomusca for Musca bezzii Patton &

Cragg. Musca tempestiva Fallen is not typical of Promusca on ex-

ternal adult characters. It may form an atypical subgenus under

Promusca, provided reproductive and early-stage characters are

found to agree. Credit belongs to Portchinski*^ for suggesting, from

the reproductive standpoint, some thirty years ago, the distinctness

of the genotypes of Promusca, Eumusca, and Viviparomusca,

Promusca Townsend, gen, nov.

Genotype, Mwsm dofnestica Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, no. 54. 1758.

The genus is to be distinguished from all the forms hitherto confused

with it by the frontalia of female widening out to fill practically or nearly

the whole front, and the eyes of male being widely separated. There

are about sixty to eighty ovarioles in each ovary. The uterovagina

is provided anteriorly with a pair of inflatable pouches or sacs named

by Hewitt the accessory copulatory vesicles. Small macrotype, sub-

cylindrical, unpediceled, unmodified and unincubated eggs are de-

posited. The ovaries mature simultaneously an egg for each ovariole,

the whole product being normally ejected by the fly during one ovi-

position period. Puparium reddish-brown,

' Ibid. 393.

* Coquillett's designation (Type Spp. No. Amer. Dipt., 1910) of Ahisca tem-

pestiva Fallen as type of Byomya is invalid, since he mentions by name no origi-

nally included species. Were we to accept as valid a designation of an origi-

nally included species by number with omission of the name, the designation in

question would still remain invalid since it designates two of the originally

included species. The use of the term "supposed species" does not affect the

status of the case. The logical interpretation of the International Code is that

one, and only one, of the originally included names of species can be validly

designated as genotype, since this is the only course that can insure stable results.

Synonymy is always subject to revision. Two names supposed to be synonymous

may at any time prove to be distinct.

6 Hor. Soc. Ent. Ross. 19: 210-244. 1885.

townsend: generiq name musca 435

EUMUSCA Townsend

Genotj^pe, Musca corvina Fab.; Towns, restr., Proc. Entom. Soc.

Washington, 13; 167-170. 1911.

Syn. Musca corvina F.; Port., 1885-1892 (form depositing two

dozen large eggs with pedicel).

Musca ovipara Port., Bur. Entom. Comm. Sc. Minist. Agr.

St. Petersburg, 8, No. 8: 13, footnote.

1910.

Musca corvina F.; Schnabl & Dziedz., Die Anthomyid. 128.

1911.

Parafacialia of female about one and one-half times as wide as third

antennal joint, slightly narrowing below; those of male slightly widen-

ing below. Parafrontalia of female narrowest in middle, a little over

half the width of frontalia at that point. Cheeks of male less than

one-third eye-height, those of female not much over two-sevenths of

same. Palpi of both sexes only faintly thickened apically, not flattened.

Both sexes with only one pair of weak ocellars. Front of female

distinctly less than eye-width. Only one discal pair of scutellars in

both sexes. Penultimate joint of hind tarsi in both sexes hardly or

but slightly longer than broad, the tarsal joints in general shortened.

Male claws not heavy, strongly curved, slightly longer than last tarsal

joint. Vein M] hardly at all or only faintly bent in after origin.

This genus has from one to two dozen ovarioles in each ovary. The

utero vagina is without copulatory vesicles, so far as known. The

eggs are large macrotype, subcylindrical, with long petiole. The whole

product of both ovaries, being one egg for each ovariole, is apparently

deposited at one oviposition period. Puparium white.

Musca pattoni Austen, M. gihsoni Patton & Cragg, and M. convexi-

frons Thoms. appear to belong in this genus, either as typical or as

atypical forms.

Viviparomusca Townsend, gen. nov.

Genotype, Musca hezzii Patton & Cragg, Indian Journ. Med. Re-

search, 1: 9-14; pis. If. and 5. 1913.

Differs from Eumusca as follows: Parafacialia of female very broad,

equilateral, fully twice as wide as third antennal joint; those of male

much narrower above, broadening conspicuously below. Parafrontalia

of female in middle fully three-fourths the width of frontalia at same

point. Cheeks of male over one-third eye-height, those of female

about two-fifths same. Palpi of female much widened and flattened

apically, those of male distinctly enlarged at tip but not much flattened.

Female with three or four pairs of rather strong ocellar bristles, male

with weak ones behind the front pair. Front of female in middle

greater than eye- width. Two discal pairs of macrochaetae on scutel-

lum. Penultimate joint of male hind tarsi fully twice as long as wide,

the tarsal joints in general elongate rather than shortened. Male

436 FEWKES: PREHISTORIC CULTURAL CENTERS

claws long and strong, those of front and middle legs fully as long as

last tarsal joint. Vein Mi usually deeply bent in after origin.

This genus is remarkable for having practically the same type of

female reproductive system as Glos'sina. There is only one ovariole

in each ovary. The ovaries mature an egg alternately; one at a time

being hatched, and maggot carried to third stage, in the uterus. The

uterus is merely the much distended utero vagina, functioning as uterus;

it bears no copulatory vesicles anteriorly. Puparium dirty-gray to

yellowish.

Musca larvipara Portchinski'^ (syn. Musca corvinoides Schnabl &

Dziedz.^) evidently belongs to this genus.

ANTHROPOLOGY. — Prehistoric cultural centers in the West

Indies.^ J. Walter Fewkes, Bureau of Ethnology.

When the West Indies were discovered by Europeans the

inhabitants of these islands were ignorant of the metals, iron and

bronze, which have played such an important part in elevating

the condition of prehistoric man in the Old World. Stone,

clay, wood, bone, and shell were employed by the natives for

utensils and implements ; gold and copper for ceremonial purposes

or for personal decoration. The Precolumbian aborigines of the

West Indies, like those of the rest of America, were practically

in what Professor Hoernes has aptly called the infancy of our

race culture, to which the name Stone Age is commonly applied.

This period of race history seems to have been universal; it was

nowhere of brief duration. Successive steps in cultural advance-

ment were slow and in certain localities were retarded by un-

favorable environmental conditions.

It has been estimated that the Stone Age in the Old World

lasted from the year 100,000 to 5000 B.C." The American

Indian was practically in the Stone Age when he was discovered

at the close of the 15th century, and the inhabitants of a few of

the Polynesian Islands were still living in this epoch a little

over a century ago. There is every reason to suppose that the

^ Bur. Ent. Comm. Sc. Minist. Agr. St. Petersburg, 8, no. 8: 13, footnote. 1910.

8 Die Anthomyid. 128. 1911.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

^ Practically another way of saying that the length of the Stone Age far ex-

ceeded, the age of metals .

FEWKES: PREHISTORIC CULTURAL CENTERS 437

parentage of the American Indian dates as far back as that of

the Europe-Asian man, provided both sprang from the same

original source. It is known from evidences drawn from differ-

ences in implements that during the protracted Stone Age epoch

man in Europe passed through distinct phases, which have been

designated the Earliest, the Old, and the New stone epochs,

before he entered that of metals. The American Indian had

developed into the New or polished Stone Age when he came to

America, and had not progressed beyond it when America was

discovered by Columbus.

Although the Stone Age still survived in America when it

was discovered, this epoch in the Old World had long before been

superseded by one of metals, showing that, the Age of Stone in

the Old and New Worlds does not correspond in time; when the

New World was discovered Europe had been in possession of

metal implements for several thousand years. The highest

development of stone technic, other things being equal, would

naturally be looked for where it had been practised the longest

time, and it is to be expected that the prehistoric stone objects

found in America would be superior to the European, known to

have been made before the discovery of bronze and iron.

Individual specimens of stone implements from the Old and

New Worlds are so similar in form and technic that it is very

difficult to determine which continent can show the better ex-

amples, but comparing the majority of implements from the

Stone Age in America with those made before the discovery of

bronze and iron now exhibited in Europe, it has been found that

the former are, as a rule, superior to the latter. In Stone Age

architecture we find a like superiority. The buildings con-

structed in the American Stone Age excel those of the same epoch

in Europe, as will appear when we compare the stately temples

of Peru, Yucatan, or Central America with the megalithic

monuments and other buildings ascribed to the latest Stone Age

of Europe. 3

' I have based my judgment on the probable form and character of the ancient

houses of the Stone Age in Europe, from "house urns" or burial urns shaped like

houses, or from the reconstructions made of walls as indicated by post holes

and floors. These buildings of the European Stone Age were certainly inferior

to those of the same epoch in America.

438 FEWKES: PREHISTORIC CULTURAL CENTERS

Character and decoration of pottery is also a fair indication of

cultural conditions reached in the Stone Age in different regions

of the globe. The ceramics of this epoch in America reached a

higher development than those of the polished Stone Age of the

Old World, as may be readily seen by comparisons of the beauti-

ful prehistoric American Stone Age pottery and that of man

before the use of metals in the Old World. ^

It thus appears that, if we base cultural advancement on

pottery or house building, America had reached a higher stage

of development than Europe, even though man in the former was

ignorant of the metals, bronze and iron. The implication is

that the human race, found in America in 1500 A.D., had lived

in a Stone Age longei^than man in Europe, where metals had been

introduced fully 6000 years before Columbus.

The implements found in the West Indies are among the

highest developed examples of this Stone Age. Many of them

are the most perfect of their kind and rank with the polished

stones of Polynesia, of Africa and Asia. In architecture, the

branch of the American race inhabiting the West Indies in pre-

historic times had not made great progress, although the cognate

ceramic art was well developed.

While there is httle in prehistoric America to show a serial

succession of stone implements based on method of manufacture,

as indicated by chipping, polishing, or other superficial char-

acters, the variations in their forms are great. They indicate

geographical rather than historical cultural distribution. Cer-

tain characteristic forms of stone artifacts are confined to

certain areas, but these characteristics are not of such a kind

as to make it difficult for us to readily arrange them in a sequence.

The first step to take in explanation of different types of stone

implements is naturally to define the areas that are typical.^

■^ These examples show the weakness of relying solely on stone, bronze and

iron in classification and the futility of basing the degree of human culture on

any one form of artifacts.

^ The culture historian is concerned with the distribution of archaeological

objects in time and space or in history and geography. It is for the geographer

to interpret geography in relation to history and of the historian to translate

history by the interpretation of the geographer.

FEWKES: PREHISTORIC CULTURAL CENTERS 439

While the different known types of stone objects found in

the West Indies may be considered geographically rather than

historically, this manner of assembling specimens in large col-

lections brings out many facts which will make it possible later

to determine a definite chronology, and to associate types of

implements with local conditions, thus affording an instructive

study of the interrelations of environment and human culture.

We can believe that certain of the stone implements found on

these islands are old, but it cannot be proved that the oldest

of them extend back to the earliest polished stone epoch. Stone

implements made by chipping, or those having unpolished sur-

faces, are rare in the West Indies; they have not been reported

in sufficient numbers to enable us to say that they indicate the

former existence in these islands of an epoch when chipped im-

plements were the only ones employed. A few chipped axes

have been reported from Santo Domingo and other islands, but

neither there nor in other islands are the flint chips numerous

enough to afford conclusive proofs of an epoch, notwithstanding

these implements and their chips closely resemble similar ob-

jects picked up on the sites of work shops in the Old World.

The discoverers of the West Indies early recognized that the

aborigines of different islands differed in their mode of life, their

culture, and their language. In early accounts we find two

groups designated as Arawak and Carib, accordingly as their

life was agricultural or nomadic. It was stated by the early

travelers that these groups inhabited different islands, the

former being assigned to the Greater Antilles, the latter to the

Lesser.

The large collection of artifacts characteristic of the aborigines

of the West Indies now available shows that the stone tools,

pottery, and other, objects found on the islands inhabited by

the Caribs are radically different from those from islands on which

the so-called Arawaks lived. Students of prehistory did not at

first connect this difference with any racial dissimilarity, but

ascribed all these implements to Caribs. This conclusion does

not necessarily follow, for it fails to take into account the sig-

nificant fact that the stone objects found on the so-called Carib

440 FEWKES: PREHISTORIC CULTURAL CENTERS

islands may have been made by a people inhabiting them before

the Caribs came. Moreover, this interpretation does not give

sufficient weight to the evidence furnished by the implements

themselves, for they imply a culture quite different from that

of the Caribs as made known by historical accounts, as flourish-

ing at an earlier date on the Carib islands. In other words,

there is good evidence of a prehistoric race inhabiting the Lesser

Antilles before the arrival of the Europeans.

One characteristic of the prehistoric objects found on the

islands inhabited by Caribs when discovered may be mentioned

in this connection. It is well known that the Arawak, like all

agricultural peoples, are great potters, and that the ancient

Caribs, like nomads, from necessity were not. The two races

probably preserved these characteristics in the West Indies;

and the fact that we find pottery objects of high excellence on

all the islands inhabited by the Caribs leads to the natural in-

ference that they were made by a people allied to the Arawak

who anciently lived on these same islands.

Archaeological remains left by the aborigines of the West

Indies reveal three cultural epochs, grading into each other,

which may indicate a sequence in time or distinct cultural stages.

These epochs were the cave dwellers, the agriculturalists, and

the Caribs. The most primitive culture is represented by ob-

jects found in the floors of caves or in the numerous shellheaps

scattered from Cuba to Trinidad. A second stage is more ad-

vanced and is agricultural in nature, represented on all the

islands but surviving at the time of discovery on the larger —

Cuba, Hayti, and Porto Rico; while the third, or Carib stage,

had replaced the agricultural in certain of the Lesser Antilles,

especially on the chain of volcanic islands extending from Guade-

loupe to Grenada.

Although the three stages above mentioned are supposed to

follow each other chronologically, not one of them had com-

pletely died out when Columbus discovefed America. The

cave dwellers still survived in western Cuba and in Hayti, and

according to some authorities they spoke a characteristic Ian-

FEWKES: PREHISTORIC CULTURAL CENTERS 441

guage. The Arawak inhabited Porto Rico, Hayti, Cuba, Ja-

maica, and the Bahamas.

The customs of the aborigines who left the great sheelheaps

found throughout the West Indies were apparently not very-

different from those of the natives of prehistoric Florida, or north-

ern South America. These people, essentially fishermen, lived

on fishes, mollusks, or crabs, eking out their dietary with turtles,

birds, and other game captured along the shores; fruits and

roots were also probably collected and eaten, but their main food

came from cultivated crops of yuca planted in the neighborhood

of their settlements. The nature of their food supply confined

them to the seashore or to banks of rivers where village sites

occur in numbers. It is probable that the shellheap people

of the West Indies were likewise cave dwellers and resorted

at times to rock shelters for shelter or protection. We know

from excavations .in caverns that they buried their dead in

"these caves which later came to have a religious or ceremonial

significance.

We may suppose that a life devoted to fishing would make

men good sailors, and it is probable that the prehistoric Antil-

leans manufactured seaworthy canoes, hollowing out logs of

wood with the live ember and the stone axe. It is also evident

from objects found in the floors of caves that the women of this

epoch manufactured pottery, and as reptilean figures in relief

or effigy vases representing this animal occur constantly, we

may suppose that some reptile as the iguana or turtle was highly

prized for food. Some of the bone needles, whistles, and orna-

ments of shell or wood found in shellheaps show that those who

camped in the neighborhood were advanced in culture, while

other objects found in the West Indian shellheaps are, so far

as technic goes, equal to that of the highest of the Stone Age

culture. It is probable that this form of culture reaches back

to a very early date in culture development.

One important consideration presents itself in relation to the

shellheap life in the West Indies as compared with that of the shell-

heaps in Florida and Guiana in South America. From the very

existence of the shellheap culture on the continents and con-

442 FEWKES: PREHISTORIC CULTURAL CENTERS

necting islands they would seem to shed light on the earliest

migrations of West Indian aborigines. Unfortunately, however,

the objects manufactured by all primitive people in this stage

are so crude that they are not distinctive; there is often a paral-

lelism in their work. For example, pottery from widely sepa-

rated regions often bears identical symbols, even where the

people who manufactured it have had no cultural connection.

Consequently, although we find certain common features in

decorated coastal pottery of Florida and that of Porto Rico,

this similarity implies rather than proves cultural contact.

The highest prehistoric culture attained in the West Indies

was an agricultural one. It was based on the cultivation of

the yuca {Manihot manihot), a poisonous root out of which

was prepared a meal, from which the so-called cassava bread

was made. At the time of the discovery the cultivation of this

plant had attained its greatest development and so completely

had it developed that Porto Rico and Hayti are said to have been

practically covered with farms of this plant. In fact, when sorely

pressed by the Spaniards to furnish them gold for tribute one of

the caciques offered to cultivate, for the conquerors, a yuca farm

extending across the island of Hayti. Both Porto Rico and

Hayti appear to have been densely populated, and the failure

of the population to advance into a higher stage of development

was limited by the perishable character of the root or food plant

cultivated. Corn and other cereals'' were not extensively used

and there was no domesticated animal. It is evident that this

culture was built on a root food supply which was clearly a prod-

uct of environment, and on account of this dependence merits

careful study by the culture historian and anthropo-geographer.

The development of this culture varies on different islands

or groups of islands, forming cultural centers of which the fol-

lowing can be recognized by the character of the pottery: (1)

^ Corn {Zea mays) was introduced into the West Indies as a food plant shortly

before the advent of the Spaniards. If sufficient time had elapsed it would

have rep'aced this unique form of cultural development based on root agriculture,

unless as in the Lesser Antilles it had been destroyed by Caribs who were pressing

in upon it with uch force that it could no' survive.

FEWKES: PREHISTOEIC CULTURAL CENTERS 443

Porto Rico, (2) Jamaica, (3) eastern Cuba and Bahamas, (4)

St. Kitts, (5) St. Vincent, (6) Barbados, (7) Trinidad. The

differences in artifacts characteristic of these culture centers of

the Antilles are sometimes small; thus, the Porto Rico area,

which includes also Hayti and Santo Domingo on the one side

and the Danish islands on the other, is clearly allied to the

eastern Cuba and Bahama area. In the former we have the

three types of stone implements — stone collars, elbow stones,

and three pointed idols — none of which has yet been found

in Cuba, the Bahamas, or Jamaica. Pottery from these islands,

except the last mentioned, bears rectilinear or curved lines end-^

ing in enlargements,^ a decorative feature which is absent in

Jamaica. This feature does not occur in the Lesser Antilles

from St. Thomas to Trinidad, where four different regions of

decorated pottery can be differentiated.

An adequate account of the characteristic features that dif-

ferentiate the seven Antillean culture centers of the West Indies

would swell this article to undue proportions, but will be con-

sidered at length in a report on the magnificent Heye collection

of West Indian antiquities.

Test the author may be thought to have confused the ancestral

cavern culture with a secondary cave life due to an adaptation

to environment, it may be added that the former is that discussed

in this article.

' This characteristic feature of Porto Rican pottery decoration appears on

characteristic pottery found by Mr. Clarence Moore in mounds of northern

Florida.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 294th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos

Club on March 24, 1915.

SYMPOSIUM ON THE FACTORS PRODUCING CHANGE IN POSITION OF STRAND-

LINE DURING PLEISTOCENE AND POST-PLEISTOCENE

T. Wayland Vaughan: Introductory remarks. Before introduc-

ing the speakers, the President of the Society called attention to the

geologic importance of the factors producing change in the position

of the strand-line, and stated that the subject is perhaps brought more

forcibly to the consciousness of those who are studying present-day

shore lines. As instances of phenomena which demand explanation,

the succession of terraces and the general character of the shore line

within the Coastal Plain of the eastern United States between New

Jersey and Mexico were mentioned. The so-called "coral-reef" prob-

lem was cited as furnishing other instances of phenomena which have

not been satisfactorily explained.

It appears safe to say that the coral-reef platforms are due to plana-

tion processes, operating partly above and partly below sea-le"\^el.

It has been possible to make correlations in some of the West Indies

between the length of geologic time planation processes have been

operative and the width of the platform. The deduction that such

platforms were formed and have been submerged is so firmly estab-

lished tliat it may be accounted a geologic fact. How were they

submerged, why do some show vibratory oscillation while others

do not, why has there been in some areas marked tilting or warping

while in other areas such phenomena are not exhibited, why does the

depth of water in the principal atoll and barrier lagoons of the Pacific

so nearly accord, and why is the depth on the extensive platforms in

the Caribbean Sea and around many of the West Indian Islands the

same as on similar platforms in the Pacific? Are there causes of world-

wide as well as others of only local effect? If causes of the two classes

are operative, how much of the resultant effect is to be assigned to each?

The ultimate answer to these questions largely depends upon detailed

investigations of numerous tropiotil and sub-tropical areas, but defi-

nite results can not be expected unless the fundamental principles

involved have been ascertained, and unless these principles are properly

444

proceedings: geological society 445

applied in the elucidation of the phenomena. After referring to the

important work of American geologists, geodesists, mathematicians,

and physicists in contributing to our knowledge of the fundamentals

of geology, he introduced the speakers of the evening.

Joseph Barrell, Factors in strand line movement and their results

during Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene. (Published in brief in Journ.

Wash. Acad. Sci., 5: 413^20. 1915.)

W. J. Humphreys, Changes of sea-level due to changes of ocean volume.

Obviously anything that changes the amount of water in the oceans

also changes the sea-level at all parts of the world. Hence to this

extent changes in the positions of strand lines are not referable to dif-

ferential crustal movements. It will be interesting, therefore, to con-

sider how greatly and by what means the amount of water in the ocean

probably has varied in recent geologic times. There have been at

least three factors effecting such changes: (a) Annual accumulation

and melting of snows, — negligible in its effect on sea-level; (6) change

in vapor content of the atmosphere due to differences in world tempera-

tures—also negligible in its effect on sea-level; (c) epochal changes in

the amount of glaciation — effect on sea-level probably very important.

It will be convenient to consider these factors separately :

a. — During northern winters snow accumulates to a greater or less

extent over, roughly, one-tenth of the earth's surface, or over all land

areas beyond latitude 40° N. Between this latitude and 60° N. the

annual precipitation averages about 500 mm., the largest portion occur-

ring during "summer. At higher latitudes the precipitation appears to

be less. A snow accumulation, therefore, equivalent to 50 mm. of

water over all this area would seem to be a conservative estimate. If

this estimate is approximately correct, it follows, allowing for the

5 to 12 ratio of land to water, that northern snows lower the sea-level

some 7 mm., an amount which, geologically, is negligible. This

assumes, though it is only approximately true, that the northern and

southern hemispheres compensate each other in their temperature

effects on the volume of the oceans and on the moisture content of the

atmosphere.

b. — If we assume that the average surface temperature of the world

is 5°C. warmer now than it was at the time of the last maximum glaci-

ation, it follows that the atmosphere must now hold more water vapor

than then to the extent of a layer of water about 7 mm. deep. This

would imply that from this effect alone the ocean level is about 10 mm.

lower than it otherwise would be. On the other hand, the correspond-

ing temperature change of the oceans themselves has produced an

opposite effect, probably several (10, perhaps) times as great.

c. — The fact that the average thickness bf the ice-cap during the

last glaciation can be only roughly estimated renders any calculation

of its effect on ocean level correspondingly doubtful. It does not

seem probable, however, that they could have averaged much if any

thicker than the present caps of Greenland and of Antarctica, which

446 proceedings: geological society

a number of good observers have estimated to be about 1000 meters.

Taking this value and assuming the deglaciated area to be equal to

one-fifteenth the area of the ocean, or, roughly, twice the glaciated

area of North America, we estimate the change in sea-level to have

been about 67 meters. As already stated, this is only an estimated

change, but perhaps it is a conservative estimate.

In this connection it is interesting to note that the complete de-

glaciation of Greenland and Antarctica, if their ice caps average 1000

meters thick, would raise the sea-level about 40 meters, of which Green-

land would contribute about 6 and Antarctica 34. Presumably these

changes in sea-level which must have occurred as a result of glaciation

and deglaciation are best preserved in equatorial regions. The change

of load was more evenly distributed here than in the higher latitudes,

and therefore local warping was probably much less.

Discussion: President Woodward of the Carnegie Institution of

Washington had been expected to lead the discussion of the papers

which had. been presented, but was unable to be present. President

Vaughan called upon Dr. William Bowie of the Coast and Geodetic

Survey for some remarks. Dr. Bowie said that in his opinion the

oscillations of the strand-line spoken of by Professor Barrell, involving

movements over large areas, could hardly be accounted for by the

theory of isostatic adjustment. Deposition of sediment on ocean

floors, continued over long periods of time, would be expected to cause

eventually a sinking of the floor on which they rested, and islands which

were surrounded by such areas of loading would naturally participate

in the downward movement; but a subsequent rise or oscillation of

level, such as had frequently been noted, could not be explained by

isostasy, and other physical and chemical forces must be invoked.

Likewise the unloading of land areas by erosion would be expected to

result in upward movements, but oscillations could not be explained

as effects of isostatic adjustment. He thought that as regards this

question as a whole geodesists should not be expected to advance theo-

ries in explanation of the movements which geologists have recognized.

The primary purpose of the geodetic work in making measurements of

gravity is to determine the shape Of the geoid. The results thus ob-

tained give quantitative data which geologists may employ in explaining

the phenomena observed.

J. W. Spencer spoke of the great submergences which he had for-

merly believed were shown in the West Indian region. He was now

somewhat doubtful about the evidence on this matter, but was more

certain regarding the region of the Great Lakes. He had traced

several low terraces around Lake Ontario, and their parallelism with

the present water-surface showed that the region had undergone no

deformation during the time taken by the St. Lawrence River to cut

its channel 15-20 feet deeper. He spoke also of the work of D. W.

Johnson as tending to establish the lack of recent deformation along the

Atlantic Coast. At the same time various observers have found evi-

proceedings: geological society 447

dences of the presence of platforms submerged to a great depth along

several of the continents — one at 3000 feet and the trace of another

at 6000 feet. Spencer did not believe that the phenomena in Norway-

justified De Geer's estimate of 10,000 years for the period which had

elapsed since the end of the ice-age. There has been too much subse-

quent erosion. From the phenomena shown at Niagara 40,000 years

seemed a probable estimate.

Bailey Willis spoke of the delta plain of the Yellow River in China.

He did not believe that the explanation which some had advanced,

attributing its origin to submarine planation, was correct. He believed

that it has been maintained as a very fiat plain because of subsidence

of its inner portion, and that therefore the low gradient is to be attrib-

uted to warping. The delta of the Amazon likewise has a very low

gradient in spite of the great quantities of sediment which are being

deposited upon it. Here also the phenomena must be explained by

postulating a subsiding area. Along the Argentine coast there are

evidences of warping on an extensive scale. Such phenomena cause

a rise in one area and sinking in another, and complicate the strand-

line problem.

Arthur Keith expressed his agreement with Professor Barrell in

considering that there are evidences of many successive terraces along

the Atlantic Coast, but disagreed with the view that attributed to them

a submarine origin. He asked for Barrell's criteria. Barrell replied

that the terraces along the broad river-valleys were, in his belief, sub-

aerial, and were to be attributed to river erosion at the periods corre-

sponding to stages of sea-level at which marine planation had formed

the platforms whose inner margins were essentially parallel to the

present coast-line. The evidence regarding the marine origin of the

latter terraces was too extensive for presentation at the moment, but

would appear later in published form.

Sidney Paige inquired as to Barrell's reasons for believing that

along the Atlantic coast an oscillatory movement of the strand-line

had occurred just previous to the development of each platform. Bar-

rell replied that in every case the coast-line was very sinuous at the

time of platform development. Analysis of the features showed that

just prior to the long stand of the sea represented by each platform there

had been an elevatory movement, resulting in the carving of stream-

valleys, followed by a slight re-submergence, with drowning of the

valleys; and a long stand, resulting in the development of a submarine

plain. President Vaughan thought that all those who had been engaged

on coastal plain work would be in essential accord wdth Barrell's views.

E. W. Shaw spoke of the evidence of movements in the southern

coastal plain region during Quaternary time. The effects observed

could not be explained by river-work, as Chamberlain and Salisbury

had attempted to do. President Vaughan spoke of the great impor-

tance of the study of the nature and character of submarine profiles

which Barrell had made.

C. N. Fenner, Secretary.

448 proceedings: biological society

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 542d meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, Saturday, May 15, 1915, with President Bartsch in the chair

and 43 persons present.

On recommendation of the Council, Francis N. Balch, Boston,

Massachusetts, and Ernest P. Walker, Wrangell, Alaska, were

elected to active membership.

Under heading exhibition of specimens, L. O. Howard showed lan-

tern slides from photographs of a moth, Ceratomia amyntor, bringing

out its protective coloration while at rest on bark.

The first paper of the regular program was by C. H. T. Towtstsend,

Two years' investigation in Peru of verruga and its insect transmission.

The four stages of verruga are defined as incubative, fever, quiescent

and eruptive. The most important symptom of the fever stage is the

presence of the bacilliform bodies (Bartonia bacilliformis Strong et al.)

in the erythrocytes. The histology of the eruptive papules is not yet

sufficiently defined for positive diagnosis in the absence of the clinical

history, but its chief feature is a marked proliferation of angioblasts.

Verrugas Canyon is the best known and probably one of the strongest

endemic foci of the disease. Extended investigations were carried

on there both day and night at all seasons of the year. The result

was an ecological demonstration of Phlehotonms verrucarum Town-

send as the vector of the disease. This demonstration is built on the

unique etiological conditions already known. Verruga can be ac-

quired only by direct inoculation into the blood, is only contracted at

night, is confined to very restricted areas within which it is almost

universally contracted at any time of year by non-immunes who re-

main from 7 to 10 consecutive nights. These conditions necessitate

a blood-sucking vector which is abundant, active only at night but

throughout the year, and whose distribution is coterminous with the

infested areas. The above Phlehotomus is the only bloodsucker which

meets these requirements.

Clinical verification of the vector was obtained from the history of

numerous cases of verruga observed by Dr. Townsend. Transmissional

demonstration in laboratory animals lacked completeness only by rea-

son of the impossibility of positively diagnosing verruga eruptive

tissue, papules having been produced in animals by injection of the

crushed Phlehotomus.

A biting experiment was carried through, resulting in what appeared

to be a light infection. This was the case of McGuire, who exhibited

all the symptoms but with a paucity of the bacilliform bodies in the

erythrocytes. Papules appeared sparingly after the subject had been

discharged. Dr. Townsend's assistant, Mr. Nicholson, accidentally

received many Phlehotomus bites, thereby furnishing a clean experi-

ment with two checks. The checks were Dr. Townsend and his as-

sistant, Mr. Rust, both of whom were subjected to exactly the same

conditions as Mr. Nicholson except that they did not receive the

proceedings: biological society 449

bites. They did not contract the disease, while Mr. Nicholson showed

a well marked case, with both the bacilliform bodies in the erythrocytes

and the characteristic eruption.

Lizards were suggested as a possible reservoir of verruga, from the

fact that were the only vertebrates aside from man, domestic or wild,

at Verrugas Canyon, whose blood showed bacilliform bodies. The

lizards inhabit the numerous loose rock walls which everywhere in the

Andean region take the place of fences, and these are the favorite diurnal

hiding places of the Phlehotomus swarms. Injection of the lizard

blood into guinea-pigs resulted in similar bodies in the erythrocytes

of the injected animal.

The unity of verruga was insisted on, in opposition to the thesis of

Dr. R. P. Strong and his associates. The entire Peruvian medical fra-

ternity concur in this view. The facts given in support of it appear

to be irreconcilable with the opposite view.

Prophylactic measures were outlined; and the remarkably perfect

climatic conditions of the verruga zones, unequalled for sanatoria,

were dwelt on. (Authors ahstnict.)

Dr. Towtstsend's paper, which will be published in full in the Ameri-

can Journal of Tropical Diseases and Preventive Medicine, was illustrated

by lantern slides made from photographs of BartoniahaciUiformis,

of clinical cases, of the micro-pathology, of the Phlehotomus, and of

Verrugas Canyon, etc. It was discussed by Admiral C. W. Baird

and Medical Inspector H. E. Ames.

The second paper was by W. Dwight Pierce, The uses of weevils ami

weevil products in food and medicine. Mr. Pierce described in particular

the trehala manna of Syria which is the cocoon of the large weevil

known as Larinus nidificans. These cocoons are used by the natives

as a food similar to tapioca and are commonly sold in the drug stores

for use in making a decoction said to be efficacious against bronchial

catarrh. The cocoons are made by an abdominal excretion of the

larvae and contain a large percentage of sugar known as trehalose, as

well as a carbohydrate, a little gum, and a small amount of inorganic

mineral matter. (Author's abstract.)

Specimens of the trehala manna and of the weevil were exhibited.

The third communication was by L. 0. Howard, Some observations

on mosquitoes and house flies. Dr. Howard spoke of the work which

is being done in New Jersey against mosquitoes, describing the organi-

zation of county inspectors which was effected at Atlantic City in

February at an " antimosquito convention." He showed a series of

lantern shdes illustrating the very effective work done by the Essex

County Commission in the vicinity of Newark, New Jersey. He then

spoke of the work done by Mr. Hutchinson; of the Bureau of Ento-

mology, in regard to trapping the maggots of the house-fly, illustrating

his remarks with lantern slides showing a large out-door maggot trap

in use during the summer of 1914 under Mr. Hutchinson's directions

at College Park, Maryland. The illustrations in question appear in

U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 200. (Author's abstract.)

450 proceedings: biological society

The last communication was by A. L. Quaintance, i?ewa7'fcs on some

little known insect depredators. Mr. Quaintance called attention to

certain species of insects which have but recently come into prominence

as of economic importance and to other species which, although long

known to entomologists as occasional pests, have recently attracted

attention in view of local outbreaks. A species of Jassidae, Typhlocyha

obliqua, is at the present time seriously destructive to apples in portions

of the Ozark mountain region and in Kansas. These insects occurred

in countless numbers in some orchards, infesting the lower surface of

the leaves, causing the foliage to drop with subsequent injury to the

fruit crop and the trees. A tineid insect of the genus Marmara was

reported to have caused a good deal of injury to certain apple orchards

in Albemarle County, Virginia. The caterpilla«i' makes long serpentine

mines under the skin of the apple, resulting in blemishes. The keep-

ing quality of the fruit is also lessened. The common walking stick,

Diapheromera femoraia, while often the cause of more or less local

defoliation in forests, occasionally becomes a serious pest in orchards,

especially in orchards adjacent to woodlands. These walking sticks

have recently been complained of on account of important injuries to

apple and peach orchards in Virginia and West Virginia. Rhabdopterus

picipes, a chrysomelid beetle, has recently been discovered as damag-

ing cranberries. The insect is a near relative of the grape root worm,

Fidia viticida, and the larvae work on the roots of the cranberry, feed-

ing principally on the fibrous roots, but also stripping the bark from the

older roots. Investigations of the insect by Mr. H. B. Scammell

indicate that it is restricted in cranberry bogs to the higher and sandier

soils. Nezara hilaris, one of the stink bugs, and long known to feed on

vegetation of various sorts, has recently become very abundant and

destructive to peaches in the Marblehead district in northern Ohio.

These plant bugs in feeding insert their beaks in the developing fruits,

causing the peaches to become knotty and misshapen as they grow, and

many of which fall from the trees. Parandra hrunnea, better known

as the chestnut telephone borer, following investigations by Mr. Snyder

has been determined by Mr. Fred E. Brooks to be very generally

present in the heart wood of old apple trees and as a result of its work

the trees are often so weakened that they are easily broken or blown

over by winds. Various species of Cecidomyidae are known to be

serious crop pests, as the sorghum midge, the pear midge, etc. A

new midge pest, Contarina johnsoni, has during recent years come into

prominence on account of its injuries to grapes in the Chautauqua

and Erie grape belts. The adults oviposit in the blossom buds, which

may contain from 10 to 70 maggots, though the average number is

much less. Many blossoms are thus destroyed, resulting in very

ragged and imperfect bunches of grapes.

This paper was illustrated by lantern slides showing the insects and

their work from photographs prepared mostly by Mr. J. H. Paine.

At 10.15 the Society adjourned until October.

M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretanj.

proceedings: anthropological society 451

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

At the 484th meeting of the Society, held March 2, 1915, in the Pub-

he Library, an address was given on Confuciamsrn,t}ie State Religion of

China, by Mr. E. T. Williams, of the State Department, who spent

26 years in China and supplemented his personal observations by a

study of the Institutes of the Manchu Dynasty and the Manual of the

Ministry of Rites. The interpretation of the ritual he takes from the

Chinese classics, particularly the Book of History and the Book of

Rites. Confucianism for two thousand years has been the state re-

hgion of China. It existed long before Confucius was born, but is prop-

erly called by his name, since its sacred scriptures were in large part

edited by him and he has become one of the chief objects of worship in

the system. While the lofty character of its ethical teaching is char-

acteristic, it is a mistake to say that Confucianism is merely a system

of ethics. The teaching of the Book of Rites and the ceremonies ob-

served in the offering of sacrifices to the Supreme Being and to lesser

deities and saints, makes its rehgious character clear. By an edict in

1907 the Empress Dowager raised Confucius to equal rank with the

Supreme Deity in the pantheon.

At the service in the temple of Confucius at the spring and autumn

equinoxes, the worship of the sage does not consist merely in making

obeisance before his tablet, as has sometimes been said, but in making

offerings of incense and food, hbations of wine (more properly, rice

spirits), and sacrifices of oxen, sheep, and pigs, together with a burnt

offering of silk. The worship is conducted by the chief official of the

county. There are kneelings and prostrations and a chanting of hymns

to the accompaniment of an orchestra consisting of a great variety of

wind and stringed instruments, drums, bells, and musical stones. The

services in the Temple of Heaven in Peking are held at the winter sol-

stice. The Temple of Heaven is a large park situated in the southern

suburb of the capital. It is enclosed by a strong wall and is divided

into a number of courts. Even the Emperor could not enter the inner

court except on foot. Within this court is a most holy place, the court

of the altar. There has never been at any time in China more than

one recognized altar to the Most High. The principal altar is of white

marble and consists of three circular terraces. It is open to the sky,

and the offerings made here are presented by the head of the state two

hours before dawn on the longest night of the year. Three, and its mul-

tiple, nine, are the important numbers in the construction of the altar,

while four and eight are those represented at the altar to the earth, north

of the capital; for odd numbers belong to heaven and even ones to earth.

Near the marble altar there is also an altar of burnt offerings constructed

of green, glazed tiles. One young bullock, black and without blemish,

was consumed on this altar as a sacrifice to Shangti. The Emperor,

after donning his priestly robes, washed his hands and ascended the

marble altar, facing the north. There he worshipped Shangti and his

imperial ancestors. There are some striking analogies between this

ritual and that of the ancient Hebrews.

452 proceedings: anthropological society

Since the revolution of 1911 the state sacrifices have been quite gen-

erally suspended. Last September, however, President Yuan Shih-kai,

participated in the worship of Confucius at the temple erected to him

in Peking, and in December offered sacrifice to Shangti in the Temple

of Heaven. The whole burnt offering heretofore sacrificed to Shangti

was omitted and simple bows were substituted for the kotow. Sacrifices

to ancestors are made by all classes in their homes at the winter solstice,

and at eastertide all visit the family tombs and set out gifts of rice and

wine.

The apparent failure of this religion to satisfy the longings of the

human heart is shown by the popularitj^ of Buddhism, particularly the

modified form prevalent in China, which instead of Nirvana holds out

the hope of immortality in the "Western Heaven." The restoration of

the state religion by the President does not mean the abolition of re-

ligious liberty; for the Chinese government holds that, as Great Britain

allows freedom of worship and yet supports one state church in England

and another in Scotland, so China may have its official religion and yet

grant toleration to other faiths.

Daniel Folkmar, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V JULY 19, 1915 No. 13

PHYSICS. — A direct-reading device for use in computing charac-

teristics of vacuum tungsten lamps.^ J. F. Skogland, Bureau

of Standards.

It has been shown in a previous paper- that the ordinary char-

acteristic relations of vacuum tungsten lamps can be expressed

with high precision by a set of characteristic equations, each in-

volving two variables; or solutions can be made more quickly

by employing tables computed from the equations. For example,

having given observed values of voltage, candle-power, and watts

per candle, the values of Cp and wpc at any other voltage are

obtained from the equations or tables as follows:

1. From the observed values of voltage and Cp their normal

values, that is, their values at normal wpc (1.20), are computed.

2. The ratio of the desired voltage to the normal voltage just

found is computed.

3. Substitution of this voltage ratio in the proper equations,

or reference to the corresponding point in the tables, gives a Cp

factor and the actual wpc.

4. The normal Cp is multiplied by the Cp factor to obtain

the desired Cp.

' Communicated by the Bureau. To appear in full as a Scientific Paper of the

Bureau of Standards.

2 Middlekauff and Skogland, Characteristic equations of tungsten filament

lamps and their application in heterochromatic photometry, Journ. Wash. Acad.

Sci. 5: 61. 1915; Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 235.

453

454 skogland: vacuum tungsten lamps

This process though smiple, requires considerable time before a

solution is obtained. The direct reading device here described

and presented ready for use solves directly and without prelimi-

nary reduction all problems introducing as variables the volt-

age, candlepower, and wpc of vacuum tungsten lamps. Its con-

struction depends directly upon the characteristic equations

mentioned above.

This device consists of volt, watts per candle, and per cent

candlepower scales. The wpc and per cent Cp scales are fixed in

their relation to each other. The volt scale is arranged to be

detached from the plate, so that it may be applied to the fixed

scales at the point corresponding to observed values of wpc and

voltage. From a single setting of the volt scale to observed

values within the range of from 0.70 to 2.05 wpc can be read

values of any one of the variables at any other point within this

range. The volt scale has a range of from 94 to 166 volts. The

chosen limits of wpc and voltage are considered sufficient to

include settings and solutions for 105-130 volt lamps in standard-

izing and life test-work.

A test of the device, illustrated in part by examples, indicates

that, on an average, values of per cent Cp and of wpc read

therefrom deviate from those obtained by use of Tables 20 and

22 of the paper just referred to by amounts not exceeding 0.10

per cent and 0.05 per cent respectively; also that values read

from the scales agree with observed values nearly as closely as

those computed by use of the tables. All of the points (referred

to horizontal and vertical scales of equal parts) through which

lines of the scales of this device were' drawn have been tabu-

lated, so that similar scales of the same or different range can be

constructed directly from these values. Sufficient discussion of

the derivation of these values and of the relative position of the

scales has been given to direct the construction of scales not .in-

cluded within the wpc range here employed. By the general

method of this paper any related functions of exponential form

and of the same degree as the characteristic equations can be

represented and used as scales of a similar device.

miller: resistance and inductance of wires 455

The chief merits of the device when compared with other

methods of characteristic evaluation seem to be its simpUcity and

precision, and the saving of time resulting from its use. Sohitions

are made directly, without reference to normal wpc, voltage

ratios, exponents, etc. These considerations should recommend

it to testing and standardizing laboratories.

PHYSICS. — The effective resistance and inductance of iron and

bimetallic loires.^ John M. Miller, Bureau of Standards.

When a current of electricity flows through an iron wire, the

lines of magnetic force and the resulting magnetization of the

iron are circular. From measurements of the self-inductance

of the wire with direct current an exact permeability curve for

circular magnetization can be obtained. As ordinarily measured,

the permeability for axial magnetization is obtained. A compari-

son of the two kinds of magnetization shows that for some wires

the permeability curves are similar, but that for others the

circular permeability may be considerably less than the axial.

The differences are due probably to lack of homogeneity or iso-

tropy of the iron caused by drawing and by heat treatment.

A method based upon Anderson's modification of the Max-

well bridge for measuring inductances is used to measure the

effective resistance and inductance of six samples of iron tele-

graph and telephone wires and three samples of copper-clad steel,

bimetallic wires. The measurements are made at frequencies

up to 3000 cycles per second and with currents up to 10 amperes.

The results are given by tables and curves. The so-called Steel

telephone wires are considerably poorer conductors at low

frequencies and low current strengths than the grade called

''Extra Best Best, " but at higher frequencies and current strength

the Steel wires may be better conductors. At the higher fre-

quencies the resistance and inductance of the copper-clad wires

become practically independent of the current flowing through

the wire.

^ Detailed paper to appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

456 grover: calculation of force between currents

From considerations of bimetallic wires as two circuits in par-

allel, formulas are obtained which permit the computation of

effective resistance and inductance of the wires. The core is

treated as one circuit and the shell as another; the self inductance

of each is computed, as well as the mutual inductance of one on

the other. Assuming no skin effect in the shell and introducing

the effective resistance and inductance of the core for a given

frequency, the resistance and inductance of the whole wire can

be computed for that frequency from the expressions for the

equivalent resistance and inductance of two circuits in parallel.

The measured values of the copper-clad wire for low current

strengths are compared with the computed values, and the agree-

ment is very satisfactory. The formulas are also used in com-

puting wire tables for copper-clad steel wire. Values of effec-

tive resistance and inductance are tabulated for the even sizes

from No. 0 to No. 12 A. W. G. for conductivities of 30, 40, and

50 per cent of hard drawn copper and for frequencies up to 1000

or 3000 cycles per second.

PHYSICS.- — The calculation of the maximum force between two

parallel, coaxial, circular currents.^ Frederick W. Grover,

Bureau of Standards.

The force of attraction or repulsion between two currents

flowing in parallel, coaxial, circular paths of unequal radii,

increases as the distance between their planes is increased, until

a maximum value of the force is reached, and then, as the dis-

tance is indefinitely increased, decreases toward zero as a limit.

It was shown by Maxwell that the distance for which the force

is a maximum bears a ratio to either of the radii, which is a func-

tion of the ratio of the radii alone, and depends in no way on their

absolute values. Further, the maximum value of the force,

with unit current in each circuit, is also a function of the radii

alone.

These facts have been utilized in the current balance, first

used by Lord Rayleigh, in which is measured the force between

^ Detailed paper to appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards

grovee: calculation of force between currents 457

two parallel circular coaxial coils, one fixed, and the other at-

tached to one end of the beam of a balance, the distance between

the planes of the coils having been adjusted until the force

exerted between the currents in the coils is a maximum. From

the observed weights, which must be added to the other arm of

the balance to restore equilibrium, the value of the current flow-

ing through the two coils in series may be calculated, provided

the ratio of the radii is known. The latter may be determined

experimentally by an electrical method, without measuring the

individual radii, and with an accuracy not attainable from direct

measurements of the dimensions of the coils.

The calculation of the constant of the balance is based on the

theory for two circular filaments to which the coils may be re-

garded as equivalent. The corrections necessary to be taken

into account, because of the finite cross section of the coils, have

been derived by Rayleigh, Lyle, and others, and reference may

be made to the paper on the "Determination of the International

Ampere in Absolute Measure," by Rosa, Dorsey, and Miller,

for a treatment of this question and for other details concerning

the theory and methods of manipulation of the balance.

The force between two parallel, circular coaxial currents of

given radii, situated with any desired distance between their

planes, may be calculated by the formula of Maxwell in elliptical

integrals, or by the formulas of Nagaoka which involve q series.

Previously, the value of the maximum value possible of

the force between any two such circular currents, of given radii,

has been obtained bj^- calculating the force directly (by means

of the formulas just mentioned) for a number of chosen distances

of the coils in the neighborhood of the critical distance, which

was supposed to have been approximately determined before-

hand. The final value of the maximum force was determined

by interpolation from this series of calculated values. This

process is indirect and laborious.

In the detailed paper to be published a formula is derived for

calculating the value of the critical distance from the assumed

ratio of the radii. By substituting the distance thus found in

458 WOLFF, SHOEMAKER, BRIGGS : RESISTANCE STANDARDS

one of the above general formulas for the force, the maximum

value of the force can at once be determined. In some cases

the maximum force can be calculated directly from a formula

given here in which this substitution has been made once for all.

The formula for the critical distance is, unfortunately, not

simple enough to allow of the direct calculation of the critical

distance from the given ratio of the radii. It is, however, not

difficult to obtain the desired value with great accuracy by a

method of successive approximation, provided a first approxi-

mation is at hand.

The latter part of the paper is devoted to the development of

methods for facilitating this process. The formulas derived are

fully illustrated by numerical examples, and tables are given of

the critical distance and the value of the maximum force for such

values of the ratio of the radii as are likely to occur in practice.

It is further shown how the constants for coils, whose dimensions

differ slightly from one of the exact ratios given in the table,

may be derived from the latter values with little trouble and labor.

To test the new formulas ' the complete calculations of the

constants of the coils of the Bureau of Standards current balance

have been carried through, and the results were found to be in

agreement with the values obtained by the interpolation method

within less than a part in a million. .

PHYSICS. — On the construction of primary mercurial resistance

standards.'^ F. A. Wolff, M. P. Shoemaker, and C. A.

Briggs, Bureau of Standards.

This paper deals with the construction of four one-ohm mer-

cury standards of resistance in accordance with specifications

adopted by the International Conference on Electrical Units and

Standards (London, 1908). The London Conference defined the

international ohm as the resistance offered to an unvarying elec-

tric current by a column of mercury at the temperature of melt-

ing ice, 14.4521 grams in mass, of a constant cross-sectional area

and of a length of 106.300 cm.

' To be presented in full as a Scientific Paper of the Bureau of Standards.

WOLFF, SHOEMAKER, BRIGGS: RESISTANCE STANDARDS 459

Because of the impossibility of exact realization of the above

conditions, principally because of the impracticability of securing

glass tubing of strictly uniform bore, certain specifications were es-

sential. Those adopted specified that the tubes used must be made

of a glass the dimensions of which change little with time; that

they be well annealed and straight ; that the bore be as nearly as

possible uniform and circular ; that the area of cr©ss-section of the

bore be approximately one square millimeter; and that the mer-

cury have a resistance of approximately one ohm. It was also

specified that each tube be accurately calibrated, and that no

tube have a caliber correction greater than 5 parts in 10,000.

The length of the tube, the mass of mercury the tube contains,

and the electrical resistance of the mercury must all be determined

at a temperature as near to 0°C. as possible, all measurements

being corrected to 0°C.

The four tubes used at the Bureau were selected from a large

number of tubes of Jena 59 III glass, specially drawn by Schott

and Gehossen, and were straightened, annealed, and graduated by

M. Baudin in Paris.

At the Bureau of Standards, they were very carefully cali-

brated, their caliber factors, ranging from 1.000047 to 1.000096,

being determined to an accuracy of about one part in a million.

The tubes were cut at points giving a resistance, including the

end correction, of approximately one ohm, the cuts being located

at points for which the cross-section could be most accurately

calculated. The ends were ground and plane polished. The

tubes were tapered at the ends to fit into the end bulbs, used in

making electrical measurements, and into the glass cleaning and

drying fittings.

The Reichsanstalt method was employed for the determination

of Mo, the mass of mercury required to just fill a tube at 0°C.

A tube was exhausted, filled with mercury and placed vertically

within a double walled ice bath, the lower end of the tube being

sealed by a plane polished plate, and the upper end, carrying a

slight excess of mercury, being protected by a ground glass cap.

The excess of mercury was removed by stroking off with

a plane polished glass plate in a gimbal mounting, the conden-

460 WOLFF, SHOEMAKER, BRIGGS : RESISTANCE STANDARDS

sation of moisture being eliminated by a current of cooled and

dried air directed at the end of the tube and at the stroking off

plate. Weighings were made in a special balance room, on a

StiJckrath balance sensitive to a hundredth of a milligram. Six

fillings of each tube were made, the mean of the average devia-

tions of the individual fillings from their respective means being

but ± 4 parts per million.

The problem of determining Lo, the length of the axis of a

tube at 0°C., was reduced, through the use of suitably ruled end

pieces of platinum-iridium, from one of comparing end standards

to that of comparing line standards. Comparisons were made

directly with corresponding known intervals on a nickel-steel

meter. The length constant added, due to the end pieces, was

determined by abutting the end clips and measuring the interval

between the lines on them by comparison with a subdivided

decimeter standard. The probable error in the lengths as de-

termined, all things couvsidered, did not exceed five ten-thou-

sandths of a millimeter.

Electrical comparisons of the mercury units were made by the

Thomson bridge method, the mercury units and five sealed

manganin standards being substituted in turn in the same bridge

arm. The ratio coils and the manganin standards were contained

in a thermostatically controlled oil bath, while the mercury units

were in the ice bath adjoining. Connections from the tubes to

the bridge were made by inserting heavy copper conductors in

the glass terminal protecting tubes of the end bulbs employed,

the tubes being partly filled with mercury.

Seven fillings of each tube for electrical comparison were

made in 1911. The international ohm as defined by the four

mercury standards was found to be 25.5 millionths smaller than

the international ohm as represented by the manganin coils at

that time. The average deviation of the four tubes from their

mean was but =t 5 parts per million.

A second and third series of electrical comparisons, made in

June and December, 1912, showed the mercury standards to have

changed with respect to the wire standards. Redeterminations

BURGESS AND MERICA: FUSIBLE TIN BOILER PLUGS 4G1

of Mo, Lo and the calculated Ro were therefore made for each

tube, the average change found being 1.1, 9.4 and 8.2 parts per

million respectively.

On the basis of the above new determinations the interna-

tional ohm, as- represented by the four mercury standards in

December, 1912, was 12.5 millionths smaller than the international

ohm as represented by the manganin coils at the same time.

England, Germany, Japan, Russia, France, and the United

States now have mercury standards of resistance. Comparison

of the units defined by the mercury standards of the above

countries in 1913 (those of France excepted; dates not being avail-

able) indicate a very satisfactory agreement, the average devia-

tion of the units of the several countries from the mean being

about ± 7 parts per million.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— .4 ?z investigation of fusible tin

boiler plugs.^ G. K. Burgess and P. D. Merica, Bureau

of Standards.

An investigation of fusible tin boiler plugs has been conducted

at the Bureau of Standards to determine what are the types of

deterioration to which they are subject in service and to what

these various types are due. The function of the fusible tin

boiler plug is, as its name indicates, to give warning by the

melting of the tin plug and blowing out of the boiler overheat-

ing. The attention of the Bureau has, however, been directed

to several instances of the failure of such plugs so to operate, and

examination showed that the tin in these plugs had become

oxidized in service to Sn02, melting above 1600°C.

About 1050 plugs — including used and new plugs — were ob-

tained through the courtesy of the Steamboat-Inspection Serv-

ice, and were examined as to design and construction, and con-

dition and purity of the tin filling. Of the four classes or types of

deterioration noticed in such used plugs, one could be pro-

nounced dangerous, and that consisted in the formation of this

^ To appear as a Technologic Paper of the Bureau of Standards.

462 BURGESS AND MERICA : FUSIBLE TIN BOILER PLUGS

oxide Sn02, either as a solid mass at the fire end of the plug or as

a network throughout the tin filling. It was discovered that this

latter form of oxidation in service depended on the presence of

zinc in amounts as small as 0.3 per cent. This zinc is insoluble

(that is, it does not form a solid solution with tin) in solid tin,

and upon long heating at about 180°C. the zinc in such a tin

plug coalesces to form a network bounding the tin grains. This

zinc is easily corroded by many kinds of boiler water, for in-

stance alkaline waters, and the oxide or corrosion products of

this zinc and of the tin afterwards attacked, remain and form a

solid, continuous oxide mass which in some cases has held the

pressure of the boiler even after the tin remaining had melted.

Tin plugs containing zinc were made up and heated in an auto-

clave with water at from 180° to 195°C. for 500 hours, after

which this network structure was seen clearly developed. Plugs

of pure tin were unchanged under the same conditions of test.

Lead and zinc were found to be the principal impurities in tin

plug fillings, and since all ''failed" plugs contained these or other

impurities the conclusion is reached that if these impurities are

eliminated by strict specifications and inspection, which will

allow only admittedly superior qualities of tin such as Banca

and some others, the dangers of these plugs will no longer exist.

It was found that a determination of the freezing points of

samples of tin by a cooling curve method afTorded a very good

criterion of the purity of such tin, as approximately 0.1 per cent

of either lead or zinc could be detected. This method was de-

veloped and is recommended as a quick and convenient method

for the inspection of the purity of tin in tin plugs.

Various existing specifications for fusible tin boiler plugs are

discussed in the complete paper and the conclusion is reached that

tin equal to Banca tin 99.9 per cent pure should be used for such

plugs where possible; where such tin can not be obtained it is

likely that tin of 99.8 per cent purity including all high grade tin

qualities would be satisfactory.

MANSFIELD AND LARSEN : NEPHELINE BASALT 463

GEOLOGY. — Nepheline basalt in the Fort Hall Indian Reserva-

tion, Idaho.^ George R. Mansfield and Esper S. Lar-

SEN, Geological Survey.

occurrence^

One of the igneous rock samples collected by the United

States Geological Survey party in the Fort Hall Indian Reser-

vation, Idaho, in the summer of 1913, proved upon examination

in thin sections to be nepheline basalt. Because of the relative

rarity of rocks of this type any new occurrence of them is of scien-

tific interest and is worthy of note. Indeed, nepheline-bearing

rocks and all the so-called alkali rocks are very rare on the

Pacific slope of North America.

The Fort Hall Indian Reservation is in southeast Idaho and

may be conveniently reached from either Pocatello or Blackfoot

on the Oregon Short Line Railroad. Pocatello lies about 3 miles

south of the central part of the reservation and Blackfoot is on

the northern border. The locality of the nepheline basalt is

in the northeast part of the reservation about 24 miles nearly

due east of Blackfoot. The rock forms a little knoll on a ridge

that descends northeast along the north side of Wood Creek in

the SW.i of the SE.i sec. 18, T. 3 S., R. 38 W. Boise meridian.

The area occupied by the basalt is small and the occurrence would

be insignificant were it not for the unusual mineralogical compo-

sition of the rock.

The rocks in the immediate vicinity of the basalt are mainly

sedimentary rocks of Triassic and possibly Jurassic age that out-

crop in bands extending from northwest to southeast and appar-

ently form the west limb of a syncline that is inclined northeast.

The eastern limb of the syncline is more or less concealed by

Tertiary sediments and volcanic rocks. The sedimentary rocks

are somewhat faulted. The knoll on which the basalt occurs lies

in the belt of Portneuf limestone, a massive and siliceous lime-

stone that constitutes the upper formation of the Thaynes group

(Lower Triassic). About one-third mile to the northeast are

massive ledges of the Higham grit, the basal member of the Nug-

' Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.

2 By Mr. Mansfield.

464 MANSFIELD AND LARSENI NEPHELINE BASALT

get sandstone, of Jurassic or Triassic age. Associated with the

nepheUne basalt and apparently surrounding it is a rhyolitic

rock that was not examined closely in the field but may underlie

or be penetrated by the basalt. This rock resembled other fine-

textured, siliceous, igneous rocks observed elsewhere in the res-

ervation and no sample was collected. The unusual character

of the accompanying basalt was not then recognized and the

contact of the two rocks was not observed. No fragments of the

rhyolitic rock were found in the basalt although some search for

them was made. Inclusions, at first mistaken for pieces of the

above-mentioned grit, proved to be fragments of a coarse-textured

igneous rock.

Other igneous rocks occur in various parts of the reservation

but these all, so far as studied, are normal rhyolites, basalts,

andesites, and quartz-latites. In general the igneous rocks lie

around the borders of the sediments on the north, northeast, and

northwest, and compose larger or smaller portions of the lower

hills. They occupy some of the valleys and are accompanied in

places by large bodies of ash beds and tuffs.

The geology of the igneous rocks has not been worked out in

detail and their geologic age has not yet been accurately deter-

mined. Present information points to at least four epochs of

volcanic activity, extending from perhaps middle Tertiary into

the Pleistocene. The order of succession appears to be an early

intermediate or basic series of eruptions with andesites and per-

haps basalt followed by outpourings of rhyolite. These were in

turn followed by olivine basalts in a number of places, well

exposed in the canyon of the Blackfoot River. The latest erup-

tions appear to have been latitic with both flows and elastics, the

last forming an extensive sandy area which is in part dune-

covered. The place of the nepheline basalt in this succession is

not known, but it appears to be extrusive and is very fresh. It

probably was not closely connected with the olivine basalts.

PETROGRAPHY^

Description. The nepheline basalt is dark greenish gray and

is dense except for a few large, rough cavities. In the hand

3 By Mr. Larsen.

MANSFIELD AND LARSEN : NEPHELINE BASALT 465

specimen it shows abundant pale yellowish green grains of olivine

up to 2 millimeters across and a few small grains of augite in an

aphanitic groundmass. It contains a few small inclusions of

shaly material and one large inclusion of a nearly white, granu-

lar rock made up almost entirely of striated feldspar and quartz.

Microscopic examination shows the rock to be made up largely

of pyroxene and olivine with some nepheline, phlogopite, iron

ore, and apatite. The texture is porphyritic and the pheno-

crysts, which average about a millimeter in cross section, and

are chiefly forsterite with some diopside, make up about a third

of the rock. They are imbedded in a holocrystalline ground-

mass made up chiefly of rods and grains of diopside which lie in

a clear matrix or are poikilitically included in phlogopite. The

clear matrix is probably in part nepheline but may contain some

glass. The average cross section of the minerals of the ground-

mass is about 0.01 mm.

The forsterite is in clear grains of the usual form. In cross

sections the grains range from over 2 millimeters to a small

fraction of a millimeter, but the greater part are not far from a

millimeter. They have the following optical properties: « =

1.641 ±0.003; /? = 1.661 ±0.003; t = 1-680 ±0.003; 2V =87° (com-

puted from the refractive indices) ; optically + . In convergent

light the bars of the interference figure are nearly straight and

the dispersion of the optic axes is barely perceptible with p< v.

In addition to embayments filled with the groundmass the

forsterite carries a few inclusions of the iron ore and chains of

gas or liquid inclusions. The mineral shows no signs of altera-

tion except for a narrow reddish border which probably repre-

sents incipient alteration to iddingsite. A Rosiwal determina-

tion on two thin sections showed 24.9 ± 1 per cent by volume

or 26.4 per cent by weight of olivine.

The diopside is mostly in the groundmass, but the crystals

vary greatly in size and some are a millimeter across. The diop-

side is nearly colorless but shows a faint greenish cast as com-

pared with the water-clear olivine. A very few of the larger

crystals show small cores or narrow zones which are rather deep

green and pleochroic. It shows zonal growths with somewhat

different extinction angles and a faint hour-glass structure. The

466

MANSFIELD AND LARSEN: NEPHELINE BASALT

extinction angles are very large; those for the green part are the

larger, indicating a higher content in iron.

The nepheline is interstitial to the diopside. It is clear, has

an index of refraction near that of Canada balsam, and is indis-

tinctly polarizing. It is commonly without crystal outline but

square sections are occasionally present. It is in too small

grains for positive identification by optical means alone. Some

glass may be present; no feldspar was found.

In elongated streaks or irregular patches the abundant diop-

side rods are embedded poikilitically in mica, the mica forming

less than half of the area. This mica is pleochroic, rather light

reddish brown parallel to the cleavage and nearly colorless

normal thereto. It is probably phlogopite or a biotite rather

poor in iron.

Chemical composition. An analysis of the nepheline basalt,

inade by W. C. Wheeler in the laboratory of the Geological Sur-

vey, is given in column 1 below and is accompanied by the analy-

ses of similar rocks for comparison:

Analyses of nepheline basalt and related rocks.

Si02...

AI2O3.

FeaOs.

FeO..

MgO..

Ca.O. .

NaaO.

K2O..

H2O-

H2O+

TiO.. .

CO....

P2OS..

S

Cr203.

NiO..,

MnO..

BaO. .

SrO...

* Including V2O3 0.04, F 0.07, and deducting 0.030 for F.

MANSFIELD AND LARSEN I NEPHELINE BASALT

467

1. Xepheline basalt (III) IV. 1 (2). 3. 2. (1) 2 Rossweinose. About 24 miles

east of Blackfoot, Idaho.

2. Periodtite, IV.1.'.3.'2.'2, Crystal Falls, Mich. H. N. Stokes, analyst.

Described by J. Morgan Clement, Jour. Geol., 6 : 386. 1898.

3. Gabbro, 'IV. 1'. '3. 2. '2, Etzdorf, Rosswein, Saxony. Sachsse and Becker,

X. J., 1893, II, p. 503.

4. Nepheline basalt, 'IV.2.3.2'.'2, Schafberg Plateau, Saxony, J. Stock, Tsch.

Min. Pet. Mitt., 9: 466. 1888.

5. Nepheline basalt, IV.'2.3.2.'2, Black Mt., Uvalde Co., Texas. W. F. Hille-

brand, analyst. Described by Whitman Cross, U. S. Geological Survey, Bull.

419, p. 43.

Classification. The great abundance of augite, olivine, and

biotite, and the presence of nepheline as the only feldspathic

mineral, places the rock as a biotite-bearing nepheline basalt

rather high in olivine.

In the Quantitative Classification the norm and the systematic

position of the rock are as follows:

Norm and systematic positions of nepheline basalt from about 24 miles east of

Blackfoot, Idaho

Class: Sal = 34.91 = 0.554 (III) IV

Fern 63.03

Order: PO = 55.96 = 8.74 1 (2)

M 6.40

Section: P = 25.35 = 0.826 3

O 30.61

Rang: Mg + Fe + K2O + "NazO 568 =

CaO =116

4.90 '2

Subrang: MgO = 496 = 6.89 (1) 2

FeO 72

(III) IV. 1 (2).3.'2.. (1) 2, Rossweinose.

100.12

Comparison of the norm and mode. The presence of consid-

erable phlogopite in the norm and the presence of feldspar in the

mode and its absence in the norm are the most apparent differ-

ences between the two. The following calculation of the mode

from the chemical composition and the known mineral composi-

468 pittier: caesalpiniaceous trees of panama

tion is no doubt a close approximation to the actual mineral com-

position. The composition of the norm is given for comparison.

Mode and norm of nepheline basalt from about 24 miles east of Blackfoot, Idaho

Mode Norm Difference

Apatite 1 1 0

Ilmenite 1 1 0

Magnetite 3 5 2

Biotite 8 -S

Forsterite 26 31 5

Diopside 39 25 -14

Xepheline 20 11 -9

Orthoclase 9 9

Albite 6 6

Anorthite 9 9

H2O 2 2 0

Total 100 100

The comparison of the norm and the mode thus indicates that

the norm shows more magnetite, forsterite, and feldspar than the

mode and less biotite, diopside, and nepheline.

BOTANY. — Some new caesalpiniaceous trees of Panama. Henry

Pittier, Bureau of Plant Industry.

The botanical exploration of the Isthmus of Panama begun

under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution in 1910, and

since continued occasionally, has brought to light startling facts

with reference to the occurrence of certain genera hitherto un-

known within that region. It has been known for a long time

that Middle America is mainly a territory of transition between

the floras of two continents, in which many genera have their

northernmost or southernmost limit, the proportion of either

South American or North American species respectively decreas-

ing or increasing according to the distance from their centers of

dispersion. But there was no indication whatever of the very

sudden change which takes place in Darien, the eastern part of

Panama and the connecting link with South America.

PITTIER: CAESALPINIACEOUS trees of PANAMA 469

This abrupt transition brings in as new elements of the flora

several genera known heretofore as represented exclusively in the

Amazonian Hylea or in the eastern part of South America. The

presence of these species in a district separated from regions

of identical climatic conditions both by imposing mountain

ranges and the semixerophytic belt of Colombia and Venezuela

constitutes a most interesting problem, the solution of which

may not be reached until the interlocking slopes and valleys

of Colombia and Venezuela have been thoroughly explored.

Among such Panamanian representatives of Brazilian genera one

species each of Stachyarrhena, Cassupa, Browneopsis, and Colig-

nonia has already been detected, while many others are certain

to appear during the further progress of the work of identifying

and naming the extensive collections now at hand. In the pres-

ent paper, 3 more species, belonging to 2 genera, are described

under the names Peltogyne purpurea, Centrolobium yavizanum,

and Centrolobium patinense. Furthermore, an undescribed spe-

cies of Dilodendron has been collected in the hilly region of the

Chucunaque Valley, while the forests of Darien in general have

furnished an unusually strong contingent of Lecythidaceae,

among them 1 species of Couroupita, 4 of Lecythis, 3 of Esch-

weilera, and 2 of Gustavia.

Another interesting fact never brought out before is the con-

siderable development, along the Pacific coast, of the mangrove

formation, and the presence in the inner part of the tidal-belt

of a characteristic tree allied to the mora of Guiana and never

described. Besides being of importance as an ecologic element,

this species enjoys the peculiarity of possessing the largest known

dicotyledonous seed. It also is described below under the name

D itnorphandra megistosperma.

Centrolobium yavizanum Pittier, sp. nov., ramulis juvenibus foliisque

pube molli ferruginea evanescente dense vestitis, petiolis communibu.s

teretibus, longitudinaliter striatis, stipulis ovatis, obtusis, extus dense

villoso-lanatis, intus pubescentibus, folioli^ membranaceis, breviter

petiolulatis, ovatis vel elliptico-lanceolatis, argute acuminatis, basi

rotundatis, leviter emarginatis, supra glabrescentibus, hifra glabratis,

ad costas venasque rufo-villosis ; floribus . . . . ; legumine pri-

mum glanduloso-tomentello dein glabrato, aculeis partis seminiferae

470 pittier: caesalpiniaceous trees of panaivl^

densis, acicularibus, stili vestigio adscendente. apice recurvato. ala

cultrifornii. apice rotundata. venis a basi alae adscendentibus, demum

a latere stilifero arcuatis.

Arbor decidua. 25-30 metralis, cortice griseo, coma elongata. Petio-

lus communis 30-50 cm. longus, e basi attenuatus: petioluli circa

3 mm. longi, folioli 13-17, 6.5-12 cm. longi. 4-5.5 cm. lati, jugisinferi-

oribus latioribus brevioribusve, intermediis longioribus. Pedicelli

floriferi 7-8 mm. longi, puberuli, bracteolis angustis, 3 mm. longis,

persistentibus: cah^x glandulosus. ferreo-puberulus. persistens, lobulis

obtusis; ovarium stipitatum. Pedicellus fructifer 1 cm. longus,

calycem incrassatum sustinens: legumen cum ala 12-14 cm. longum.

4-5 cm. latum, e stipite 2 cm. longo aculeato suffultum, aculeis circa

1.8 cm. longis.

Type in U. S. National Herbarium, no. 716,636.

Paxai\l\: In virgin forest between Pinogana and Yaviza, southern

Darien, leaves and fruits only, April 22. 1914 (Pittier 6572, type).

Centrolobium patinense Pittier, sp. nov., ramulis juvenibus petiolisque

pube molli fulva vel obscure purpurea dense vestitis. petiolis com-

munibus teretibus. longitudinaliter striatis. stipulis late ovatis, sub-

obtusis, lanatis, foliolis membranaceis, breviter petiolulatis, ovatiS;

abrupte acuminatis, basi rotundatis nunc emarginatis. ad costas ven-

asque sparse rufo-villosulis, supra pubescentibus, infra glabratis, flori-

bus ; legumine juveniglanduloso, rufo-tomentello, demum

glabrato, aculeis partis seminiferae densis, acicularibus, stili vestigio

adscendente, recto, ala flabelliformi, apice oblique truncata, venis a

basi alae adscendentibus dein a latere stilifero arcuatis.

Arbor decidua, 30 m. et ultra alta, cortice griseo, ligno duro, rubro-

spadiceo, coma elongata. Petiolus communis 30-35 cm. longus;

folioli 11-15, 3-12 cm. longi, 2.5-7 cm. lati, jugis intermediis majoribus;

petioluli 4 mm. longi. Pedicellus fructifer 1.5 cm. longus; calyx per-

sistens, incrassatus; stipes dense rufo-hirsutus, aculeatus, 1,4 cm.

longus; legumen cum ala 17-20 cm. longum, 6-8 cm. latum, aculeis

usque ad 3 cm. longis.

Type in U. S. National Herbarium, no. 716,677.

Panama: Forest on dry hills at Punta Patino, southern Darien,

leaves and fruits only, June, 1914 {Pittier 6611, type).

These two species of a genus hitherto considered as exclusively

Brazilian were one of the surprises of mj'- last expedition to Darien.

Besides ha^^ng the characteristically shaped fruit of Centrolobium,

they show minor details as to the numerous minute, resinous glands

covering the leaves, j'oung shoots, parts of the inflorescence, and the

fruits in their first stage of maturity. In shape the fruit of C. yavizanum

reminds one of that of C. robustum ]Mart., but in size it comes between

the two varieties of this latter species and its veins are more strongly

arcuate than in either of the two.

PITTIER: CAESALPINIACEOUS TREEvS of PANAMA 471

In size the fruit of C. patinense equals and even surpasses that of

C. robustum macrochaete, but the form of the wing is quite distinct,

its apex being cut in a distinct hne almost parallel to the opposite

margin. From the other Brazilian species the difference is greater

still, so that there can be no doubt as to these Panamanian forms

being specifically distinct.

Centrolohium ijavizanum and C. 'patinense differ from each other in

their leaflets, these more numerous on the average, more elongated,

and emarginate at the base in the former, less numerous, shorter and

broader, and simply rounded at the base in the latter. The petiolules

also are sensibly shorter in the first species, which has comparatively

smaller fruits, the wing rounded at the tip like a table knife, and not

obliquely truncate as in the latter. The flowers of both species are

unknown, the few details included in the description of C. yavizanum

having been obtained from remnants collected along with the fruits.

Centrolohium. patinense is known among the natives of Panama

under the name of amarillo de Guayaquil, and is reputed as a cabinet

wood on account of its hard, fine-grained wood, beautifully veined in

several shades of red.

Peltogyne purpurea Pittier, sp. nov., ramis teretibus cortice grisea,

ramulis gracilibus, violaceis; foliis deciduis, glaberrimis, stipulis semi-

ovatis, acuminatis, membranaceis, caducissimis ; foliolis unijugis, breve

petiolulatis, falcatis, acuminatis, inaequilateralibus, basi oblique

rotundatis, stipellis filiformibus, caducissimis; inflorescentia racemosa,

pauciflora, floribus ; legumine 1-spermo, pedicellato,

semiorbiculato, glaberrimo, suturis angustissimis, laevibus, superiore

arcuata, apice mucronulata, inferiore recta, longitudinaliter 1-sulcata;

semine oblique ovato, depresso, funiculo in arillum anguste cupuli-

formem dilatato.

Arbor magna, duramine durissimo, purpureo, cortice griseo, ramulis

foliisque glaberrimis. Stipulae 10 mm. longae, 6 mm. latae, stipellae

6-8 mm. longae. Petlolus 1.2-1.7 cm. longus, petioluH 3^ mm. longi,

lamina 5.5-6.5 cm. longa, 2.5-3 cm. lata, eleganter reticulato-venosa.

Legumen 3 cm. longum, 1.6 cm. latum, pedicello 7 mm. longo. Semen

1.9 cm. longum, 1.1 cm. latum, "e legumine aperto ejectum diu tamen

ei adhaerens."

Type in U. S. National Herbarium, no. 716,675.

Panama : On rocky hills along the Chucunaque River beyond Yaviza,

southern Darien, young leaves only, April 22, 1914 {Pittier 6586);

Punta Patino, southern Darien, on hills along the seashore, leaves and

mature pods {Pittier 6610,) ; also noticed by me in the dry forests around

La Palma del Darien, and reported from Coiba Island.

472 pittier: caesalpiniaceous trees of panama

Peltogyne purpurea, called nazareno or morado by the natives of

Panama, is one of the most remarkable trees of the forest in the districts

with a well defined dry period. It grows preferably on ridges free of

higher vegetation. The height of a full grown tree is seldom less than

25 meters and the trunk reaches up to 60 cm. in diameter. The tree is

evidently deciduous, as only very young leaves, with the stipules still

attached, were found near Yaviza. But at Punta Patino, a few days

later, there were individuals with the old leaves and pods still on, and

others with young shoots and leaves only.

One of the peculiarities of the morado tree is that the seed remains

hanging from the dehiscent pod by the hilum after maturity,

probably until the rainy season sets in. This curious habit, which

has been observed also in Peltogyne congestiflora Benth., of Brazil,

may be considered as a means of protection against ants and other

insects, or the extreme dryness of the soil. On the tree, however, the

seeds are not immune from attacks, as I found many of them inhabited

by a coleopterous insect.

The Avood of Peltogyne is very hard, the sapwood white and little

developed, and the heartwood of a beautiful purple color.

Dimorphandra megistosperma Pittier, sp. nov., ramis teretibus,

verruculosis, brunneis, glabris; foliis exstipulatis, glaberrimis, petiolo

communi infra foliola inferiora anguloso, superne piano, subtus tereti;

foliolis bijugis, oppositis, coriaceis, breve petiolulatis, oblongo-acumi-

natis, basi plus minusve inaequilateralibus, apice obtusis, supra nitidis,

infra glaucis; floribus sessilibus, densissime spicatis, spicis terminali-

bus vel subterminalibus; calyce glabro, lobulis rotundatis, ciliatis;

petalis oblongis, calyce subduplo longioribus, basi attenuatis, apice

rotundatis plus minusve irregulariter emarginatis, margine scarioso

ciliato; staminibus fertilibus corolla longioribus, filamentis crassis,

leviter attenuatis, antheris apicem antice lanoso-barbatis, demum

glabrescentibus; pistillo staminibus subaequante, stipitato, ovario

3-ovulato, dense lanoso, stylo glabro; legumine 1-spermo, glabro, cori-

aceo, dehiscente; semine maximo, extus brunneo, nitido.

Arbor excelsa, 15^5 m. alta, trunco erecto 10-15 m. longo, usque

ad 1 m. diametro, cortice nigrescente, coma elongata. Rhachis foli-

orum 5-9.5 cm. longa, parte infra foliola inferiora 2.5-5 cm.; petioluli

3-4 mm. longi, incrassati; foliola 10-18 cm. longa, 4.5-7 cm. lata,

reticulato-venosa. Spicae floriferae 8-10 cm. longae; calycis lobi

inaequales, 3.5-4 mm. longi; petala alba, 6 mm. longa, 2.5-3 mm. lata;

stamina et staminodia 7-8 mm. longa. Legumen usque ad 25 cm.

longum, 13 cm. latum, leviter depressum. Semen phaseoliforme,

usque ad 18 cm. longum, 12 cm. latum.

Type in U. S. National Herbarium, no. 716,658.

PITTIER: CAESALPINIACEOUS trees of PANAMA 473

Panama: In groves, in the tidal forest along the Mamonl River,

near its confluence with the Bayano River, Province of Panama, pods

and leaves, October 23, 1911 {Pittier 4582); below Sumacate, along the

Tuyra River, southern Darien, flowers, April 25, 1914 {Pittier 6593,

type). This species was observed also along the Sta. Lucia River in

eastern Chiriqui; around La Palma del Darien, on the margin of the

mangrove forest; and along the lower course of the Sambu River,

also in southern Darien.^

In the course of my exploration of Panama I had repeated oppor-

tunities to collect on the beaches of the Pacific and its tributary tidal

rivers stray specimens of the enormous seed of the above described tree.

Dr. M. A. Howe, of the New York Botanical Garden, had also gathered

specimens of the same in the course of his explorations in 1910. The

unusual size of this seed made me very anxious to know more about it

from my own experience, especially since all queries among European

and American botanists failed to procure further enlightenment about

it. Finally, the tree producing these beans was discovered, on October

23, 1911, on a point of land at the meeting of the Mamoni and Bayano

rivers, below Chepo, in the Province of Panama. Later on it was found

again in Chiriqui and Darien, always playing an important role as a

constituent of the forest of the tidal belt. But my discovery was

only partial at that time, because I left the Isthmus without having

been able to collect flowering specimens. It was not until April, 1914,

that I had the privilege of seeing the alcornoque, as it is called by the

natives, in full bloom in mile-long stretches along the lower course of

the Tuyra River in southern Darien.

The alcornoque is a gregarious tree, seldom found as isolated indi-

viduals. With reference to the root system, there seems to be a great

variety in the size of the buttresses and the way they part from the

base of the trunk. At times they form large wings, generally three in

number, reaching up the latter to a distance of 1.5 meters and over;

at other times they are low and hardly noticeable. The main roots

run horizontally on the surface of the ground and can often be followed

^ In the Kew Herbarium there are specimens of a Panamanian tree, cited as

Dtmo?-p/iand7-a oZeV/eroTriana in Hemsley's botanical part of the BiologiaCentrali-

Americana (1: 342). This species, collected by Sutton Hayes in the swamps

of the Rio Grande near Panama, has never been described. Through the courtesy

of the Director of the Kew Gardens, I am informed that the species is ''quite

distinct from any species of Dimorphandra (Mora) represented here." In the

absence of further data, however, and in order to avoid a possible confusion. I

deem it preferable to describe under a new name the material collected b}- myself.

474 pittier: caesalpiniaceous trees of panama

to a distance of some 15 meters from the trunk; they are flattened

laterally and end in several secondary branches, each of which lies on

the flat bottom, forming a succession of bow-like arches, with numerous

rootlets growing downward at the lowest points. Around the base of

the tree, in parts temporarily submerged, there appear sometimes

bunches of thin roots, which are supposed to be pneumatophores.

The trunk is usually straight with a smooth, dark brownish, peeling

bark. It will give logs of 6 to 8 meters, of any diameter up to 1 meter,

of a pale brown, tough, close grained wood. The sap once excluded,

this wood is, it is claimed, incorruptible and adapted as a substitute

for oak or other hard timbers in their various industrial uses. Ac-

cording to another statement the wood of the alcornoque is better than

any other for structures kept permanently under sea water.

The crown of the tree is elongated and the main limbs are rather

short. The middle-sized specimen which was felled to procure herba-

rium material was 31 meters high; the trunk measured 10 meters in

length and 75 cm. in diameter; the white sapwood had a thickness of

5 to 7 cm.; and the heart was dark reddish.

Botanically speaking the affinities of Dimorphandra tnegistospenna

are with D. excelsa (Schaub.) Baillon, of British Guiana. Its leaves,

however, are pinnate, with only 2 pairs of leaflets, instead of the 3 or

4 pairs of the latter. The floral spikelets are not paniculate but soli-

tary at the end or in the upper axils of the branchlets. In the several

ovaries which were dissected a constant number of ovules was found,

3, of which only one reaches maturity. The enormous pods, once ripe,

open with a twist of the valves without parting from the branchlets,

and the seed slips to the muddy ground, where germination starts

almost immediately. From the cotyledons the natives extract by

infusion a dark red dye.

The dimensions of the pods and seeds are variable. As reported in

the description, the largest specimen found measured 18 cm. in length

with a breadth of 12 cm. and a thickness of 8 cm.

REFERENCES

Under this heading It l3 proposed to include, by author, title, and citation, references to all

gclentific papers published in or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate

with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are

not intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal.

PHYSICS

Abbot, C. G. The solar constant oj radiation. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 80-110.

1914.

Adams, L. H. Calibration table Jor copper constantan and platinum-platinrhodium

thermo-elements . J. Am. Chem. Soc, 36:65-72. 1914.

Agnew, p. G. a icatthour meter method oj testing instrument transformers. J.

Wash. Acad. Sci., 4:509-511. 1914.

Agnew, p. G., and Silsbbe, F. B. Accuracy of formulas for ratio, regulation,

and phase angle of transformers. Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 211.

1914.

Allen, Irving C, Jacobs, Walter A., Crossfield, A. S., and Mathews, R. R.

Physical and chemical properties of petroleums of California. Bureau of

Mines Tech. Paper No. 74. 1914.

Austin, L. W. Quantitative experiments in radiotelegraphic transmission. J.

Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 570-572. 1914. Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No.

226, 17 pp. 1914.

Bates, Frederick, and Phelps, Frances P. Influence of atmospheric conditions

in testing of sugars. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4:317-318. 1914. Bureau of

Standards Sci. Paper No. 221, 18 pp. 1914.

Bates, S. J., and Vinal, G. W. Coinparison of the silver and iodine voltameters

and the determination of the value oj the faraday. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 36: 916.

1914.

Bearce, H. W. Supplementary report on the density and thermal expansion of

turpentines. Rep. Committee Dl on Preservative Coating for Structural

Materials, pp. 108-112. Proc. Am. Soc. Testing Materials. 1914.

Bearce, H. W. Studies in the expansion of milk and cream. J. Agricultural

Research, 3:251-268. 1914.

Bleininger, a. v., and Teeter, Paul. Viscosity of porcelain bodies. Bureau

Standards Tech. Paper No. 30, 11 pp. 1914.

Brooks, H. B. Testing potential tra7isformers. Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper

No. 217, 5 pp. 1914.

Buckingham, E. On physically similar systems. Illustrations oj the use of di-

mensional equations. Phys. Review, 4: 345. 1914.

Buckingham, E. Physically similar systems. 3. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 347-353.

1914.

Bureau of Standards. Units of weight and measure, definitions, and tables of

equivalents, 1st ed. Circular No. 47, 68 pp. 1914.

475

476 references: physics

Bureau of Standards. Pyrometer testing and heat measurements, oth ed.

Circular No. 7, 19 pp. 1913.

Bureau of Standards. Polarimetry and polarimetric analyses oj raw and other

sugars. Circular No. 44, 140 pp. 1914.

Burgess, G. K., and Foote, P. D. The emissivity of metals and oxides. I.

Nickel oxide (NiO) in the range 600 to 1300°C. 3. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 279-

280. 1914. Phys. Zeits. 15:721-723. 1914. Bureau of Standards Sci.

Paper No. 224, 23 pp. 1914.

Burgess, G. K., and Sale, P. D. Thermoelektrische Verfahren zur Bestimmung

der Reinheit von Plating eraten. Zeitsch. Anorg. Chem., 88: 349-354. 1914.

Burgess, G. K., and Kellberg, D. N. Electrical resistance and critical ranges of

pure iron. J. AVash. Acad. Sci., 4:436-440. 1914. Bureau of Standards

Sci. Paper No. 236, 13 pp. 1914.

Burgess, G. K., and Waltenberg, R. G. The emissivity of metals and oxides.

II. Measurements with the micropyrometer. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 566-567.

1914.

Burgess, G. K., and Crowe, J. J. Critical ranges A2 and A3 of pure iron.

Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 213, 55 pp. 1914.

Burrows, Charles W. Experimental study of the Koepsel permeameter. J.

Wash. Acad. Sci., 4:491-492. 1914. Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No.

228, 29 pp. 1914.

CoBLENTZ, W. W. Measurements on standards of radiation in absolute value.

J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 565-566. 1914. Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No.

227, 13 pp. 1914.

CoBLENTZ, W. W. A comparison oj stellar radiometers and radiometric measure-

ments on 110 stars. Phys. Review, 4: 545. 1914.

CoBLENTZ, W. W. Absorption, reflection, and dispersion constaiits of quartz.

Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 237, 10 pp. 1913.

CoBLENTZ, W. W. Diffuse reflecting power of various siibstances. Bureau of

Standards Sci. Paper No. 196, 42 pp. 1913.

CoBLENTZ, W. W. Constants of spectral radiation of uniformly heated inclositre

or so-called black body. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 204, 77 pp.

1913.

CoBLENTz, W. W. Note on the radiation from stars. Astronomical Soc. 'Pacific,

26: 169. 1914.

CoBLENTZ, W. W. Die Empfindlichkeit von Thermosaiilen. Phys. Zeits., 16: 453.

1914.

CoBLENTZ, W. W. Bemerkung iiher die Konstante der Gesamtstrahlung eines

schivarzen Korpers. Phys. Zeits., 15:762. 1914.

CoBLENTz, W. W. Radiation constants of a nitrogen- filled tungsten lamp. Light-

ing Journal, 1914, p. 35.

CoBLENTZ, W. W. Radiation from straight and helical filaments. Elect. World,

64: 1048. 1914.

CoBLENTZ, W. W. Various modifications of bismuth-silver thermopiles having

continuous absorbing surface. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 511-514. 1914.

Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 229, 56 pp. 1914.

Curtis, Harvey L. A vibration electrometer. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 567-569.

1914.

references: physics 477

Curtis, Harvey L. The insulating properties of solid dielectrics. J. Wash.

Acad. Sci., 4: 492-494. 1914.

Dellinger, J. H. Resistivity on trial. Elect. World, 64:35-36. 1914.

Dickinson, H. C. Combustion calorimetry and heats of combustion of cane sugar,

benzoic acid, and naphthalene. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 434-435. 1914.

Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 230, 68 pp. 1914.

Dickinson, H. C, and Mueller, E. F. Neiv calorimetric resistance thermometers.

Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 200, 9 pp. 1913.

Dickinson, H. C, Harper, 3rd, D. R., and Osborne, N. S. Latent heat of

fusion of ice. Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 209, 31 pp. 1913.

FooTE, Paul D. Note on cold junction corrections jor thermocouples. Bureau

of Standards Sci. Paper No. 202, 13 pp. 1914.

Fowle, F. E. Avogadro' s . constant and atmospheric transparency. J. Wash.

Acad. Sci., 4: 529-530. 1914.

FowLE, F. E. Smithsonian Physical Tables. Sixth Revised Ed. 1914. 355 pp.

Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 63, No. 6. 1914.

Gray, A. W. Production of temperature uniformity in electric furnace. J. Wash.

Acad. Sci., 4: 134-138. 1914. Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 219,

22 pp. 1914.

Gray, A. W. Micrometer microscopes. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 45-52. 1914.

Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 215, 15 pp. 1914.

Grover, Frederick W. Aiialysis of alter nating-current waves by method of Fourier,

with special reference to methods of facilitating computations. Bureau of

Standards Sci. Paper No. 203, 79 pp. 1913.

Harper, D. R., 3rd. Specific heat of copper in the interval 0° to 50°C with note

on vacuum-jacketed calorimeters. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4:489-490. 1914.

Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 231, 70 pp. 1914.

Hersey, M. D. The laws of lubi-ication of horizontal journal bearings. J. Wash.

Acad. Sci., 4:542-552. 1914.

Hewlett, C. W. The atmospheric-electric observations made on the second cruise

of the Carnegie. J. Ter. Mag., 19: 127-171. 1914.

Hewlett, C. W. Investigation of certain causes responsible for uncertainty in the

measurement of atmospheric conductivity by the Gerdien conductivity appa-

ratus. J. Ter. Mag., 19:219-233. 1914.

Hewlett, G. A., and Vinal, G. W. Studies on the silver voltameter . J. Wash.

Acad. Sci., 4:593-594. 1914.

Kanolt, C. W. Melting points of some refractory oxides. Bureau of Standards

Sci. Paper No. 212, 19 pp. 1914. Zeits. anorg. Chem., 85: 1-19. 1914.

Kimball, H. H. ^4 return to normal atmospheric transparency. J. Wash. Acad.

Sci., 4: 17-25. 1914.

KoLSTER, Frederick A. A direct reading instrument for measuring the logarithmic

decrement and wave length of electromagnetic waves. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4:

569-570. 1914.

Melcher, a. F. Note on the change of density of sulphur with rupture. J. Wash.

Acad. Sci., 4: 431-434. 1914.

Nutting, P. G. The brightness of optical images. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 129-

134. 1914.

478 references: physics

Nutting, P. G., and Jones, L. A. A transmissioji and reflection photometer for

small areas. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 313-317. 1914.

Nutting, P. G. The axial chromatic aberration of the human eye. J. Wash.

Acad. Sci., 4: 385-388. 1914.

Osborne, N. S., McKelvy, E. C, and Bearce, H. W. Density and thermal

expansion of ethyl alcohol and oj its mixtures with water (with bibliography of

literature on alcohol and alcoholometry). Bureau of Standards Scientific

Paper No. 197, 47 pp. 1913.

Reid, H. F. The free and forced vibrations of a suspended magnet. J. Ter. Mag.,

19:57-72, 189-203. 1914.

Rosa, E. B., ViNAL, G. W.,andMcDANiEL, A.S. Silver voltameter . Pt.4- Third

series of quantitative experiments arid special investigations. J. Wash. Acad.

Sci., 4: 52-58. 1914. Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 220, 56 pp. 1914.

Elect. World, 63:373. 1914. Elecktrotech. Zeits., 35: 789. 1914.

Rosa, E. B., and Crittenden, E. C. Flame standards in photometry. J. Wash.

Acad. Sci., 4 : 280-282. 1914. Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 222, 38 pp.

1914.

Stillman, M. H. Note on setting of mercury surface to required height. Bureau

of Standards Sci. Paper No. 214, 6 pp. 1914.

Stratton, S. W. Annual report of directors Bureau of Standards for the fiscal

year 1913, 38 pp. Report for 1914, 99 pp.

SwANN, W. F. G. Oti the electrical resistance of thin metallic films. Phil. Mag.,

(6) 28:467-496. 1914.

SwANN, W. F. G. On the expression for the electrical conductivity of metals as

deduced from the electron theory. Phil. Mag., (6) 27: 441-455. 1914.

SwANN, W. F. G. On certain new atmospheric-electric instruments and methods.

J. Ter. Mag., 19: 171-185. 1914.

SwANN, W. F. G. The measurement of atmospheric conductivity, together with

certain remarks on the theory oj atmospheric radioactive measurement. J.

Ter. Mag., 19:23-38. 1914.

Sw.\NN, W. F. G. The theory of electrical dispersion into the free atmosphere,

with a discussion of the theory of the Gerdien conductivity apparatus and of the

theory of a collection of radioactive deposit by a charged conductor. J. Ter.

Mag., 19:81-93. 1914.

SwANN, W. F. G. On certain matters relating to the theory of atmospheric-electric

measurements. J. Ter. Mag., 19: 205-218. 1914.

SwANN, W. F. G. Some points with regard to the variation of the specific mag-

netization of a substance with temperature. Phys. Review, (2)3:485. 1914.

TiLLYER, E. D. Supplementary report on refractive indices of turpentines. Rep.

Committee D 1 on Preservative Coatings for Structural Materials, pp. 113-

114, Proc. Am. Soc. Testing Materials.

ViNAL, G. W., and B.\tes, S. J. Comparison of silver and iodine voltameters and

determinations of value of faraday. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 69-70. 1914. Bu-

reau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 218, 25 pp. 1914.

Wenner, F., and Weibel, E. Adjustments of Thomson bridge in measurement of

very low resistances. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 471-473. 1914. Bureau of

Standards Sci. Paper No. 225, 3 pp. 1914.

Wenner, F., and Weibel, E. Testing of potentiometers. J, Wash. Acad. Sci.,

4:469-471. 1914. Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 223, 40 pp. 1914.

references: entomology 479

White, Walter P. A sigyiificani iristance of galvanometer instability. Phys.

Review, (2) 3:491-492. 1914.

White, Walter P. Thermoele'ments of precision, especially Jar calorimetry.

J. .Am. Chem. Soc, 36: 2292-2313. 1914.

White, W^ALTER P. Easy calorimctric methods of high precision. J. Am. Chem.

Soc, 36:2313-2333. 1914.

White, Walter P. Einige neue Doppelkompensatoren. Zeits. Instrumenten-

kunde, 34: 71-82; 107-113; 142-151. 1914.

White, Walter P. Thermoelements installations, especially for calorimetry.

J. Am. Chem. Soc, 36: 1856-1868. 1914.

White, Walter P. Potentiometers for thermoelectric measurements, especially in

calorimetry. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 36: 1868-1885. 1914.

WiGAND, Albert. Measurement of the electrical conductivity in the free atmosphere

up to 9000 meters in height. J. Ter. Mag., 19: 93-102. 1914.

'Wright, Fred. E. A simple method for the accurate measurement of relative strain

in glass. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 294-298. 1914.

W^right, Fred. E. The optical properties ofroscoelite. Am. Jom*. Sci., (4)38: 355-

359. 1914.

Wright, Fred. E. The measurement of the rejractive index of a drop of liquid.

J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 269-279. 1914.

Wright, Fred. E. The optical character of the faint interference figure observed in

high power objectives between crossed nicols. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 301-309.

1914.

W^right, Fred, E. ^4 neir halj shade apparatus with variable sensibility. J. Wash.

Acad. Sci., 4:309-313. 1914.

Wright, Fred. E. The determination oj the relative refringence of mineral grains

under the petrographic microscope. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4: 389-392. 1914.

Wright, Fred. E. Measurements of refractive indices on the principal optical

sections of birefracting minerals in convergent polarized light. J. Wash. Acad.

Sci., 4:534-542. 1914.

ENTOMOLOGY

Cram'ford, J. C. The species of Perilampidae of America north of Mexico. Pro-

ceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 16: 69-76. June 12,

1914. (Gives tables for the genus Perilampus, describing nine new species,

and Chrysolampus, describing three new species. — J. C. C.)

Crawford, J. C. New parasitic Hymenoptera from British Guiana. Proceedings

of the Entomological Society of Washington, 16: 85-88. June 12, 1914. (De-

scribes three new Serphidoidea and three new Chalcidoidea. — J. C. C.)

Crawford, J. C. Some species of the bee genus Coelioxys. Annals of the Ento-

mological Society of America, 7: 148-159, figs. 1-6. June, 1914. (Contains

a key to the females ot the species found north of the Mexican boundary and

describes eight new species and one new variety. — J. C. C.)

(Bushman, R. A. A new species of the braconid genus Phanerotoma Wesmael.

Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 16: 78-79. June

12, 1914.

480 references: entomology

Dyar, H. G., and Knab, F. New mosquitoes from Peru. Insecutor Inscitiae

Menstruus, 2: 58-62. April 24, 1914. (Describes Phalangomyia debilis, new-

genus and species, and Aedes epinolus, n. sp. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. The pericopid larvae in the National Museum. Insecutor Inscitiae

' Menstruus, 2: 62-64. April 24, 1914. (Describes the larvae of some species

and gives references to the descriptions of larvae which had been published

previously. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. The noctuid moths of the genera Palindia and Dyomyx. Proceed-

ings of the U. S. National Museum, 47: 95-116. May 7, 1914. (Sixteen new

species in Eulepidotis (Palinda) and one new species in Dyomyx.— J. C. C.)

Heidemann, O., 0. M. Renter. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of

Washington, 16: 76-78. June 12, 1914. (A short biography giving a list of

the papers by Dr. Reuter on American Hemiptera. — J. C. C.)

Heinrich, C. Notes on some forest Coleophora, ivith descriptions of two new spe-

cies. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 16: 66-69.

June 12, 1914. (Describes three new species in this genus. — J. C. C.)

Hood, J. D. Two new Thysanoptera from Panama. Insecutor Inscitiae Men-

struus, 2: 49-53. April 24, 1914. (Describes the new genus Holopothrips,

based on two new species. — J. C.C.)

Howard, L. O. Concerning some Aphelininae. Proceedings of the Entomologi-

cal Society of Washington, 16: 79-85, fig. 1. June 12, 1914. (Describes Dir-

phys, new genus, and seven new species; gives a table of the species of Phys-

cus.— J. C. C.)

Knab, F. Ceratopogoninae sucking the blood of caterpillars. Proceedings of the

Entomological Society of Washington, 16: 63-66. June 12, 1914. (Gives

records of these flies sucking the blood of caterpillars and describes Forci-

pomyia erucicida and F. crudelis, new species. — J. C. C.)

Knab, F. Supplementary notes on Peruvian Simuliidae. Proceedings of the

Biological Society of Washington, 27: 123-124. July 10, 1914. (Describes

one new species and gives notes on others. — J. C. C.)

McAtee, W. L. Key to the nearctic genera and species of Geocorinac . (Heterop-

tera; Lygaeidae.) Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 27:

125-136. July 10, 1914. (In addition to key to the genera of Geocorinae of

the world, describes the new genus Isthmocoris together with Geocoris carina-

tus, sp. nov., and G. punctipes var. paulus, var. nov. — J. C. C.)

Malloch, J. R. American black flies or buffalo gnats. U. S. Department of Ag-

riculture, Bureau of Entomology, Technical Series, No. 26. Pp. 1-70, pis.

1-6. April 6, 1914. (Includes tables for the known larvae and pupae, as well

as for the adults; describes the new genus Parasimulium and thirteen new

species, and proposes the new name lutzi for minutum Surcouf & Gonzales-

Rincones, not Lugger. — J. C. C.)

Malloch, J. R. Description of a new species of Agromyza from Porto Rico. Pro-

ceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 16: 89-90, fig. 1. June

12, 1914.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 246th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 11, 1915.

W. D. BiGELOW, Director of the Research Laboratory of the National

Canners' Association, gave an illustrated lecture on Some of the proh-

Urns and diffi.culties of the canning industry. Motion pictures were

presented showing the work of the Bureau of Chemistry with the

various canning industries, especially along the line of the betterment

of sanitary conditions in the sardine packing industry, and the solution

of the difficulties encountered by corn-packing establishments. The

scope of the work of the Canners' Laboratory was given and many of

the specific problems were outlined, such as the causes of the darken-

ing of corn and other packed materials, the effect of the nature of the

tin plate used in can manufacture on the finished pack, etc. The

latter point is being made the object of an extensive investigation by

the makers and users of tin plate in co5peration with the government.

Lender the head of informal communications H. C. Gore, of the

Bureau of Chemistry, discussed the Preparation and uses of calcium acid

malate. This material is readily prepared from what is ordinarily

apple refuse and offers possibilities as a substitute for the acid con-

stituent used in baking powders. Samples of the materials were shown.

The 247th meeting (special) was held at the Cosmos Club, March 17,

1915. Mr. W. S. Landis, Chief Technologist of the American Cyan-

amid Company, presented an illustrated lecture on The fixation of

atmospheric nitrogen. A review of the methods for the fixation of

nitrogen in commercial use was presented, giving particular attention

to the manufacture of cyanamid which according to the speaker occupies

a preeminent place and has been making steady progress since its

introduction by Frank and Caro. Manj^ of the uses of cyanamid in

the chemical industries and agriculture and as an intermediate prod-

uct in the production of ammonia were described. Motion pictures

showing the plant of the American Cyanamid Company at Niagara

Falls, Canada, in operation presented an interesting feature of the

lecture. This lecture is published in full in the Journal of Industrial

and Engineering Chemistry, 7: 433-8 (1915).

The 248th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, April 8, 1915.

H. D. GiBBS, of the Bureau of Chemistry, presented a paper entitled,

A study of so7ne palm trees, with special reference to the sugar and alcohol

industries. Practically all the alcohol used in the Philippines is obtained

481

482 proceedings: chemical society

from the sap of palm trees; 97 per cent of this is used for beverages and

3 per cen{. for industrial purposes or export. While several varieties

of palm trees are the source of alcohol in the tropics, the Nipa palm

overshadows all for this purpose in the Philippines and may be regarded

as the cheapest source of alcohol in the world, the cost of raw materials

being about two cents per liter. The sap has at present no value as a

source of sugar, as it rapidly becomes impure. When fresh it contains

15 per cent sucrose. Inversion may be prevented by the addition of

milk of lime, and enzyme action inhibited by means of SO2. Sugar

obtained in this way on a small experimental scale showed this source

to be cheaper than the use of beets or cane; 150 kg. were obtained

from 1000 I of sap. The lecture was illustrated by slides showing the

various palm trees and the mills used in the experimental work.

There was some discussion as to the nature of the changes in the sap

and their cause.

C. S. Hudson, of the Bureau of Chemistry, spoke on The acetyl

derivatives of the sugars. A brief review was given showing the various

new sugars and types of sugars obtained by acetylation. This re-

action is easily carried out except where the sugar is easily hydrolysed.

In general the new compounds were crystalline with sharp physical

properties. Oxyacetate were also prepared. The preparation of these

compounds is important from the standpoint of the constitution of

cellulose. More detailed information regarding these compounds

and the latest developments are given in papers published in the

Journal of the American Chemical Society, 37: 1264, 1270, 1276, 1280,

1283, 1589, 1591 (1915).

Under the head of informal communications, Mr. J. B. Tuttle,

of the Bureau of Standards, spoke on The requirements and purchase of

rubber tubing for laboratory purposes. The difficulties incurred at the

Bureau of Standards in obtaining rubber tubing with a reasonable

life and satisfactory rubber content were outlined. Former sources

of supply have been cut off by the war and an effort is being made to

have American manufacturers take up the manufacture of a good grade

of laboratory tubing at a reasonable price. Such samples are now

being tried out at the Bureau of Standards.

The 249th meeting (special) was held at the Cosmos Club, April 21,

1915. Prof. A. A. Noyes, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

gave a lecture on A system of qualitative analysis including nearly all

the elements. The speaker reviewed briefly and gave the present

status of the work on this subject that has been under way at the

Institute for some twenty years. This lecture was also delivered on

the occasion of the acceptance by the author of the Fifth Willard

Gibbs Medal at Chicago, April 16, 1915; a brief abstract of it will be

found in the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 7 : 450

(1915).

While the work is not finished in all its details, the fundamentals

have been well established and we may expect soon a system of qualita-

proceedings: chemical society 483

tive analysis that has its quantitative aspects also from the stand-

point of adequacy and limits of the separation process.

The 250th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, May 13, 1915.

Members of the American Chemical Society resident in Virginia with

the exception of Alexandria county have withdrawn, with the per-

mission of the council, from the Washington section, forming a Virginian

section with headquarters at Richmond. This withdrawal reduces the

membership of the local section from 371 to 318 members, of whom

14 reside in Maryland.

Mr. R. R. Williams, of the Bureau of Chemistry, formerly of the

Bureau of Science, Manila, P. I., presented a paper entitled Vitmnines

and beriberi. The proof of the existence of substances now called

vitamines was an outgrowth of the study of beriberi. This is still a

disease of primary importance in Oriental countries, though the etiology

is now fairly established. Extensive studies and observations through-

out the world have shown that the beriberi is produced by the exclusive

consumption of a specifically deficient diet such as rice. The defici-

ency which produces the pathological condition is solely one of so

called vitamines. These are ashfree niti'ogenous substances which

occur in minute quantities in some foodstuffs and are absent in others.

Their existence and nature was first demonstrated by Funk in 1911,

who was able promptly to cure polyneuritis in fowls by administration

of relative minute amounts of a product separated from rice polishings

or yeast. As yet, however, no vitamine has been isolated in a pure con-

dition and we have little knowledge of their chemical nature. Twenty-

seven cases of human beriberi were treated with vitamine preparations

from rice polishings. The result of this treatment proved no less prompt

and radical in the case of human beriberi than it had already been shown

to be in polyneuritis gallinarum, thus demonstrating more conclusively

the essential identity of the two. A temperature reaction was observed

following the administration of vitamines to human patients.

The suggestion was offered that beriberi is due to a metabolic tox-

aemia which is inhibited or corrected by administration of vitamines.

The chemical and pathological evidence in favor of this theory was

reviewed and some experimental evidence presented that polyneuritis

may be produced by the ingestion of the internal organs of birdg dying

from the disease resulting from white rice feeding. This view of the

function of the vitamines appears to account rationally for the observed

facts regarding beriberi. The conception of the vitamines as foods

necessary for tissue construction must be subjected to further critical

investigation (author's abstract).

Discussion: Dr. Voegtlin in the discussion remarked that the

modern method of milling corn does not appear to account for pellagra.

A similar deficiency is however believed to be important in this disease

as well as beriberi.

Dr. Salant said he had found carrot-fed rabbits more resistant to the

toxic effects of tartrates and certain heavy metals than were animals

fed on other diets, such as oats. E. C. McKelvy, Secretary.

484 proceedings: geological society

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 295th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club

on April 14, 1915.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATIONS

E. W. Shaw : Sulphur in rocks and in river waters. Sulphur is indi-

cated by analyses to be about 36 times as abundant in rivers as in rocks

and yet the mineral matter of rivers must come directly or indirectly

from the rocks. Several questions arise. Is the sulphur being brought

back from the sea to the land so that it makes two or more trips while

other elements make one? Evidently not. Are there other agents

which carry loads in which sulphur is scant or wanting? The dust

carried by the wind probably contains very little sulphur, but the

quantity reaching the sea is small compared with the rock waste car-

ried by streams. The clay, silt, sand, and gravel carried by streams

contain, no doubt, less sulphur than the rocks do, and assist consider-

ably in explaining the discrepancy, but it is known that the amount

of material carried in suspension by streams is not more than about

twice that carried in solution, and hence if the suspended matter con-

tains no sulphur at all the discrepancy would still be about 1200 per

cent. The bottom load of streams is an unknown quantity, but it is

probably considerably less than the suspended load. Is sulphur more

abundant in rivers because sulphur compounds are in general more

soluble than others? The long periods of geologic time and great

amount of erosion which the lands as a whole have suffered would seem

to nullify this possibility, for in the lowering of a land surface hundreds

or thousands of feet, both soluble and insoluble materials, must be

removed. But the removal may not proceed at a uniform rate and

hence arises the question as to whether or not present conditions are

unusual. Apparently they are, first, because of the activities of man

in bringing sulphur-containing minerals — pyrite, gypsum, etc. — within

reach of streams; and second, because of a generally lower position of

ground water surface and thicker zone of active oxidation at present

due to the unusual height of the continents and to the withdrawal of

water from wells. Coal mining alone is apparently responsible for a

considerable part of the discrepancy, especially since most of the waters

analyzed come from well settled regions. However, a part of the sul-

phur sent into the atmosphere is carried out over the ocean and there

brought down by rain. Finally, it appears that the amount of sulphur

in the earth's crust has been underestimated because, first, the speci-

mens of sedimentary rocks analyzed were taken from at or near the

surface where much of the sulphur has been leached out and carried

away, and second, because sedimentary rocks are weighted at only 5

per cent, whereas most of the waters have access only to such rocks.

The moral is that composite samples of strata lying below the surface

of ground water should be made up and analyzed.

proceedings: geological society 485

F. C. Schrader: A sulphide-hearing monzonite from Arizoym. A

description of a monzonite was given, in which pyrite, chalcopyrite,

and molybdenite are disseminated throughout the entire rock, appar-

enth' as original constituents. Green copper stains are quite common

on the rock, and a few mining prospects have been started.

Discussion: A. C. Spencer said that in his study of the disseminated

copper ores of Ely, Nevada, the microscopic examination had led him

to infer at first that the copper minerals in these bodies had been

deposited as original constituents. He had later come to the conclusion

that his first impressions were wrong. Schrader said that in his speci-

mens the copper ores occupied an interstitial position as regards the

quartz and feldspar. In similar California occurrences described by

Turner the same relations had been found. From such relations the

original nature of these constituents had been inferred.

REGULAR PROGRAM

J. B. Mertie: Copper and gold deposits of the Koisina-Kuskulana

District, Alaska. The Kotsina-Kuskulana District lies on the south

flank of the Wrangell Mountains. The geologic column in this area

is as follows: At the base there is a formation composed essentially

of tuffs, interbedded lavas, and basic intrusives, with which are associ-

ated minor amounts of argillite and limestone. Fossils from the

sedimentary members have been determined to be of Carboniferous

age. Overlying this conformably is a series of altered basaltic lava

flows, about 6,500 feet thick, which are designated as the Nikolai

greenstone. Lying upon the Nikolai greenstone without apparent

disconformity is the Chitistone limestone, a formation of upper Triassic

age about 700 feet thick. This grades upward into thin-bedded lime-

stone and shale, likewise of upper Triassic age, which comprise probably

about 5,000 feet of sediments. The youngest hard-rock formations of

the area include massive conglomerates, sandstone, and limestone of

upper Jurassic age, which lie unconformably on all the underlying

formations. Glacial and recent stream gravels occur along the drain-

age channels. Dioritic rocks intrude all the formations up to and in-

cluding the upper Triassic sediments.

The copper deposits occur in the basal formation, in the Nikolai

greenstone, and to a minor extent in the Chitistone limestone. The

copper minerals commonly found are bornite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite,

malachite, azurite and native copper, but not all of these are found in

any one deposit. The gangue minerals are quartz, epidote, and calcite.

The loci of the copper deposits are shear zones. The ore-bodies are

irregular in shape and of doubtful persistence. Five tj^pes of ore de-

posits are recognized. All of these types, with the exception of the

native copper deposits, are thought to be primary. The presence of a

quartz-epidote gangue in much of the ore, considered in relation to

numerous quartz-epidote veinlets which have their maximum develop-

ment in the vicinity of the dioritic intrusives, leads to the belief that the

ore deposits are connected genetically with the intrusive rocks. The

486 PEOCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

gold deposits are confined to the basal member of the geologic column.

The gold occurs both in the native state, and intergrown with pyrite.

The gangue is dominantly siliceous, with calcite occasionally present.

The gold ores are more often in well-defined veins than are the copper

deposits.

Discussion: Sidney Paige inquired whether acid solutions might

be capable of depositing the calcite of the ore-bodies, as might be

inferred under the supposition that the deposits were due to atmos-

pheric waters. Mertie thought it unlikely. Schrader inquired

regarding the thickness of the basal formation. Mertie explained

that folding made it difficult to compute this, but thought that it was

probably about equal in thickness to the Nikolai greenstone, or 6,500

feet.

Chase Palmer: The silver preci-pitating capacity of certain arsenides

as an index of their constitution. The speaker described a number of

experiments he had made on certain metallic arsenides, in which they

had been subjected to the action of silver solutions. Their silver-

precipitating capacity was believed to afford an indication of the valence

of the iron present.

Discussed by Sidney Paige.

G. W. Stose: The mechanics of a cross fault in the Northern Appa-

lachians. Cross faults in the Appalachians are generally of two kinds:

(1) Faults in which the thrust plane is so flat that, when slightly folded,

erosion produces deep reentrants across the strike; (2) shear faults

accompanying thrust faults, resulting froiii differential displacement.

The fault here described is of the latter class.

South Mountain is broken by a cross fault in southern Pennsylvania.

The rocks aff'ected are pre-Cambrian lavas, Cambrian sandstones,

quartzites, conglomerates, and shales, and Cambro-Ordovician lime-

stones. The fault passes under cover of the Triassic sediments east of

the mountain. Adjacent to the cross fault the formations have been

offset a mile or more. Drag of the beds along the fault is conspicuously

shown on both sides. A transverse depression across the mountain

eroded along the crushed zone of faulting conceals the exposures, so

that fault brecciation was not observed, but the adjacent metarhyolite

is crushed and intensely jointed. Two major anticlines and the en-

closing syncline are the chief structures in the area. Overturned folds

and a prevailing southeastward-dipping schistosity show that the

direction of thrust and pressure at the level here studied is from the

southeast. Therefore the eastern of the two anticlines was the first

to rise, and the oldest pre-Cambrian rocks are brought up along its

axis. The western anticline did not rise so high and is still capped by

the massive Cambrian sandstones which plunge south and pass under

the limestone at the cross fault. North of the cross fault this western

massive anticline of sandstone blocked the way to further westward

movement and the rocks in the syncline between the two anticlines were

intensely folded and faulted. South of the cross fault, however, the

Cambrian sandstone lay so low that westward movement was not

proceedings: geological society 487

obstructed, ])ut found relief in an overthrust fault in the limestone to

the west. The differential horizontal movement resulted in shearing

along the plane of the cross fault, which is nearly vertical, and passes

into the thrust fault to the west.

Discussion: A. C. Spencer remarked that it was to be regretted

that the later Triassic sediments concealed the relations so that the

extension of the fault to the eastward could not be traced.

Sidney Paige asked whether the cross-cutting portion of the fault

was necessarily vertical. Might it not have a rather shallow dip?

Stose explained the evidence which pointed to a steep dip. D. F.

Hewett inquired whether there was any indication of thickening of

strata on the limbs of the folds which had been described. Stose

replied that there was no evidence of this. Sidney Paige asked re-

garding the evidence of faulting and as to the presence of igneous

masses to whose intrusion the compression and folding could be ascribed.

Stose cited a number of features which gave evidence of the fault.

Regarding intrusions, he said that there was nothing of the kind near

enough to attribute the compression to this cause. R. B. Sosman

inquired whether the injections of Triassic basalts showed any con-

nection with the fault. Stose replied that none was shown.

C. N. Fenner, Secretary.

The 296th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club

on April 28, 1915.

informal communications

Sidney Paige: A model illustrating character of faulting at the

Homestake ore-body. At a previous meeting of the Society the

speaker had suggested an hypothesis to explain the origin of the Home-

stake Ore-Body of Lead, South Dakota. At that time it was pointed

out that stratigraphic work on the pre-Cambrian had shown the pres-

ence of a fault, on the two sides of which the schist series had divergent

strikes, and that the series on the eastern side terminated at this fault

line. It was also shown that dolomitic limestones and their impure

schistose equivalents formed an important member of the series and

occupied precisely the outcrops of the Homestake Ore-Body along the

fault line. The folded character of these beds was pointed out and

the significance of these folds in determining the shape of the ore-body

at various levels within the mine was emphasized. To portray this

relationship a plaster model has been constructed and a wooden copy

made. Very simple structural assumptions (based on field obser-

vations) were made in constructing this model. An anticlinal fold was

modeled in wax; on the main fold minor folds were imposed much

after the fashion of innumerable instances observed in the field. This

fold was given a pitch, was cut at an oblique angle by a fault, and was

penetrated by horizontal mine levels. The results are shown in the

model. Considering that the solutions which formed the ore-body

rose along the fault-plane and permeated the calcareous series for a

488 . proceedings: geological society

certain distance only, it is not difficult to see the resemblanee between

the artificial mine levels and the actual shape of the ore-body as shown

on the maps of the 300, 400, and 500-foot mine levels published in

U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper No. 26.

F. C. ScHRADER gave abstracts of the following papers: Magmatic

copper sulphide deposits in Plumas County, Col., by H. W. Turner

and A. F. Rogers. Iron ore deposits of Kiruna, Sweden, by R. A.

Daly.

Discussed by La Forge and A, C. Spencer.

REGULAR PROGRAM

C. W. Gilmore: Some neiv dinosaurs (illustrated). The speaker

discussed briefly some of the more important discoveries of dinosaurian

fossils made in North America during the past two or three years,

referring especially to the explorations conducted by the American

Museum of Natural History and by the Canadian Geological Survey

in the Edmonton and Belly River formations in the Province of Alberta,

Canada. He stated that the recent finding of several specimens, with

which were preserved impressions of considerable parts of the epider-

mal covering, leads us to hope that the time is not far distant when

the external appearance of these animals will be as well kno\jm as is the

internal skeleton. Lantern slides of many of the more striking speci-

mens were shown, the speaker confining himself to brief explanatory

remarks regarding their systematic position and their more striking

characteristics. The following forms were chscussed, Saurolophus,

and Corthyosaurus of the trachodont dinosaurs; Ankylosaurus, an

armored reptile; Monoclonius, Anchiceratops, Ceratops, Styracosaurus ,

and Br achy ceratops, all of the Ceratopsia or horned dinosaurs. In

conclusion life restorations of Brachy ceratops, Thescelosaurus, and

Stegosaurus modeled by the speaker were exhibited for the first time.

Discussion: Sidney Paige asked by what means it was possible to

distinguish in dinosaurs between adult and young individuals. Gil-

more said that the principal distinguishing feature was that in the

young the sutures of the skull were open, and in the adult they became

closed. R. S. Bassler spoke in appreciation of Gilmore's work and

referred to the scientific attainments and artistic skill required to make

the restorations.

C. N. Fenner: A geological reconnaissance of Porto Rico (illustrated).

The New York Academy of Sciences, with the cooperation of the

Insular Government of Porto Rico, has undertaken a natural history

survey of the island. A number of expeditions have already been

sent out and have made preliminary studies in the botany^ zoology,

anthropology, geology, etc. The geological expedition consisted of

Prof. Berkey, of Columbia University, and the speaker. They spent

four weeks on the island during the past summer. A description was

given of the principal geologic and topographic features, most of which

were illustrated by lantern slides. (The chief results of the expedition

have been published by C. P. Berkev in Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., 26:

1-70. 1915.

proceedings: geological society 489

Discussion: T. Wayland Vaughan stated the results of his expedi-

tion to Antigua, St. Bartholomew, and Anguilla in 1914, and gave a

resume of the present status of the geologic correlation of the Cretace-

ous and Tertiary formations of the Antilles.

Cretaceous: The peculiar Upper Cretaceous fauna of Jamacia has

also been found in Cuba and St. Thomas. Hill has noted in Porto

Rico "volcanic tuffs and conglomerates with interbedded Cretaceous

rudistean limestone similar to that of Jamacia," thereby confirming a

previous inference of Cleve that the same horizon which he found in

St. Thomas also occurred in Porto Rico. Quin figures a specimen of

Barrettia from the "Blue-beach'' formation of St. Croix and a similar

fauna occurs in Mexico. This fauna is closely related to that of Gosau,

Austria. Gabb reports Cretaceous in Santo Domingo.

Eocene: Miss Maury has described from the lower beds of Soldado

rock, Trinidad, a fauna which corresponds to that of the Midway group

in Alabama, and she correlates the fauna of the uppermost bed of

Soldado rock with that of the Wilcox group. Vaughan's studies of

the fossil corals of Jamaica and St. Bartholomew resulted in the cor-

relation of the Richmond and Catadupa beds of Jamacia with the

coraliferous limestone in St. Bartholomew. These deposits appear to

correspond to the Ocala limestone of Florida and Georgia. The same

or a closely related horizon is represented in Oriente Province, Cuba,

in Panama, and in the island of Trinidad. Hussakof has described

an Eocene marine fish from Antigua.

Oligocene: Vaughan in 1900 correlated the fossil coral reef beds

of Antigua with the base of the Chattahoochee formation of Bainbridge,

Georgia. Dall identified Or^/2aM/a.T in collections from Antigua, show-

ing that the deposits correspond to the upper group of Oligocene

deposits in the southern United States. This horizon or a closely re-

lated one has been recognized by Vaughan through collections from the

following localities: 4 miles west of Lares, Porto Rico; in Oriente

Province, Cuba: in Province of Pinar del Rio, Cuba; in eastern Mexico;

and in the island of Arube, Netherlandic West Indies. The lower

part of the fossiliferous marls and limestones of Anguilla are slightly

younger. They may be correlated with the upper portion of the

Chattahoochee formation of Georgia and Florida, with the Tampa

formation of Florida, and with the Emperador limestone of Panama.

Dall has shown that this, or a closely related horizon, is found in Santo

Domingo. Dall has indicated parallelism between the Bowden beds

of Jamaica and the Chipola horizon in Florida. The Bowden horizon,

as is shown by fossil corals, is present at several places in eastern Costa

Rica. Perhaps the upper part of the Anguilla limestone and marls

may be of this age. Upper Oligocene deposits are wide- spread in Cuba,

Costa Rica, and Panama. '

Miocene: As no undoubted Miocene has been identified in the West

Indies, this is supposed to have been a period of high uplift.

Pliocene: Pliocene has not been positively identified in the West

Indies, but some of the fossil corals from Santo Domingo are sug-

490 proceedings: geological society

gestively similar to species found in the Caloosahatchee marl of

Florida.

R. T. Hill spoke of work which he had done years before in the

West Indies, and expressed gratification that the New York Academy

of Sciences had taken up the Porto Rican field. He mentioned some

of the structures which had been exhibited in the views and advanced

the opinion that the islands of Porto Rico, Santo Domingo, and Cuba,

with the connecting banks, represented horsts left at a high relative

elevation by the down-sinking of faulted blocks at the sides. Sidney

Paige inquired about the structures shown in the San Juan formation,

whose origin Fenner had ascribed to the consolidation of old sand-

dunes. He thought that for such an origin the cross-bedding should

be of a somewhat different type than that shown. Fenner replied

that the reference to such an origin had been made because of the areal

distribution of these hills along the north coast and because of the

internal structures, which Avere difficult to account for otherwise.

A. C. Spencer inquired as to whether any mineral deposits had been

seen and as to the mineral resources of the island. Fenner replied

that indications of mineral were known at various places and several

of these had been visited. The only active work being done was a

little gold-washing by natives along streams, but prospects had been

opened up in gold, copper, lead, and iron.

R. B. Sosman: Types of columnar structure in igneous rocks (il-

lustrated). From the physical standpoint two principal types of

columnar structure may be distinguished. The first and most common

is that due to contraction of the crystallized rock during cooling, where-

by strains and stresses are produced which yield different sizes and

kinds of prisms according to the magnitude of the temperature gra-

dient, the rate of cooling, and other factors. The second type arises

from convectional circulation of the still liquid rock. Experiments

on low-melting materials have demonstrated that the vertical transfer

of heat by convection is capable of dividing a liquid into hexagonal

cells which leave their record in the crystallized mass and control its

further division by contraction into hexagonal columns. The two

methods produce prisms which differ in attitude, in the relation of di-

ameter to length, in the frequency of 4, 5, 6 and 7-sided polygons, in the

frequency of certain angles, and in the type of their cross-jointing.

Attention was especially called to the usefulness of quantitative data on

prismatic structures in igneous rocks as an index to the original con-

ditions of occurrence of the rocks containing these structures.

C. N. Fenner,

C. H. Wegemann, Secretaries.

The 297th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club

on May 12, 1915.

informal communications

R. B. Sosman: Two suhordinaie types of prismatic structure. In

addition to the two principal types discussed at the meeting of

April 28, two subordinate types should be distinguished. The first

proceedings: geological society 491

of these is due to contraction in a physically heterogeneous material

(mixture of solid and liquid) and is fundamentally different from the

type produced by prismatic division in a cooling solid; a common

example is mud cracks produced by drying. The second type is due

to internal expansion, whereby the surface is stretched and broken;

a prismatic structure produced in a cement briquet by internal ex-

pansion was shown as an example. It was suggested that the "weather

cracks" on the surface of diabase boulders are of this type, and that

they are due to sub-surface hydration and expansion, which produces

a tension in the surface of the block.

REGULAR PROGRAM

R. C. Wells: The solubility of magnesium carbonate in natural

waters. Under atmospheric conditions at 20°C. magnesite was found

to dissolve in pure water to the extent of 0.018 gram magnesium and

0.065 gram total carbon dioxide per liter, and somewhat more in solu-

tions of other salts. But some natural waters freely exposed to the air

contain much more magnesium and carbon dioxide than this. A true

equilibrium was obtained at 20° only with MgC03.3H02 as solid phase,

the final solubility being 0.37 gram magnesium and about 1.00 gram CO2

per liter.

Discussion: T. Wayland Vaughan said he had been greatly inter-

ested in a closely related subject — that of the solubility of calcium

carbonate in sea-water. He had come to the conclusion that the sea-

water was very nearly saturated with calcium carbonate and that

anything which disturbed the equilibrium would be apt to precipitate

the carbonate. He had experiments in mind to ascertain whether

MgCOs might not be thrown down with CaCOs under natural conditions.

W. H. Fry: The 'weathering stability of minerals as illustrated in soils

and soil-like materials. Soils from various climatic, physiographic, and

geologic regions of the United States were examined petrographicallj'.

The minerals identified are as follows: quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase,

muscovite, biotite, hornblende, augite, calcite, dolomite, chlorite, ser-

pentine, olivine, kaolin, sericite, limonite, hematite, magnetite, and a

great variety of less common minerals. As to mineralogical composi-

tion, the various soils resemble each other qualitatively; but quantita-

tively they differ widely. Orthoclase occurs both fresh and altered.

Microcline always occurs as fresh fragments. Acid plagioclases gener-

ally appear as fresh grains, while the more basic ones are at times deeply

altered. Hornblende sometimes shows a tendency to alter to chlorite.

Epidote shows practically no signs of chemical alteration. The micas

are apparently very stable. Tourmaline, rutile, and zircon usually

occur as fresh crystals, although occasionally the edges are rounded.

Garnet appears to be fairly resistant. Magnetite appears to alter to

the hydrated sesquioxide of iron. Quartz is the most abundant of

the soil minerals, and occurs both as primary and secondary grains.

Judging from the mineralogical composition, the processes of soil-

weathering tend to leach out the alkalies and alkaline earths, to separate

492 proceedings: geological society

iron as the oxide, leaving silica and insoluble Mg and Al silicates.

In general, the percentage of quartz increases with increase of exposure

of the soil to the weathering agencies.

Discussion: R. B. Sosman inquired whether any distinction is made

between the effects of purel}^ mechanical processes of destruction and

those due to chemical alteration. Fry replied that in soils there was

usually no means of finding out which process had been most effective.

D. F. MacDonald inquired whether sizing had been used in

the analysis of soils. Fry said that it had. F. E. Wright asked

as to percentage of quartz grains in soils, and also as to whether the

mineral composition gave any indication of fertility. Fry answered

that in the Norfolk soil the silica formed 97 per cent. As to fertility,

the mineral composition formed at least as good a basis for judgment

as chemical analysis. E. T. Wherry asked whether the secondary

enlargement of quartz grains took place after the grains had left the

parent rock. Fry said he had no means of deciding this. La Forge

asked regarding limestone soils — whether the variety of minerals

found could be attributed to contributions by wash from foreign

sources. Fry said that limestone soils showing no such contributions

possessed a great variety of minerals.

G. R. Mansfield: Geology of the Fort Hall Indian Reservation,

Idaho. The physiographic history is complex, involving at least three

cycles of erosion. Numerous physiographic features are due to vul-

canism. The sedimentary rocks include a long sequence of formations

ranging in age from early Cambrian to Quaternary, but with no rep-

resentatives of the Cretaceous. The geologic section corresponds

with that of the Montpelier district in southeastern Idaho. The re-

vision of certain Triassic formations in the reservation is found advis-

able. The Nugget sandstone is divisible into four members: (4)

main sandstone member 1500 =t feet thick, (3) Wood shale 220-250

feet, (2) Deadman limestone 150 feet, (1) Higham grit 500 feet, at the

base of the formation. The Thaynes limestone becomes the Thaynes

group with three members: (3) Portneuf limestone at the top 1500=1=

feet, (2) Fort Hall formation 800 feet, (1) Ross hmestone 1350 feet.

Igneous rocks occur in considerable variety and abundance, with much

fragmental material. An interesting single occurrence of nepheline

basalt is reported. The general sequence of igneous rocks seems to

have been (1) an earlier basic or intermediate lava, (2) acid eruptives,

(3) basalt, (4) latite, the last being perhaps as late as middle or late

Pleistocene. The structure is very complex in detail and is marked

by both faulting and folding. There seem to have been at least three

epochs of deformation. The Putnam Overthrust, a fault comparable

with the Bannock Overthrust and with other great faults in the Rocky

Mountain region, is particularly noteworthy. Phosphate deposits

occur in Ihe eastern part of the reservation. The main bed appears

to average about 6 feet in thickness and to be of 70 per cent or

better quahty. The tonnage estimate for the reservation is 738,526,700

long tons. Other mineral deposits of the reservation are negligible

proceedings: anthropological society 493

except the great deposits of volcanic ash, which may later have some

value as abrasives.

Discussion: J. B. Umpleby spoke of several points Avhich had

interested him because of his work in the Mackay district. The

general sequence of formations in the two districts was quite similar,

and the sequence noted by Lindgren in the Boise district was also

similar, but the thickness of meml^ers of the Paleozoic rocks and cer-

tain other characteristics were quite unlike, and in the Hailey district

there is little in common. R. B. Sosman spoke of the vanadium con-

tent of the phosphate rock and asked if this was deleterious in using

as a fertilizer. There seemed to be no information on this point.

C. N. Fenner, Secretary.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 485th meeting of the Society was held in the Public Librarj^,

INIarch 16, 1915, the program consisting of a paper by Dr. Manuel

v. Arguelles, University of the Philippines, Manila, P. I., entitled,

The Filipino r-acial complex. The lecturer defined the present Filipino

race as a mixture of Malay stock from the South, with an infusion of

Chinese and Hindu, their early culture being largely of Chinese origin.

The aboriginal occupants of the islands were represented by the sur-

viving Negrito remnant, a black dwarfish race of lowest culture status.

At the 486th meeting of the Society, held April 6, 1915, in the Public

Library, Dr. Gudmund Hatt, of the University of Copenhagen, read

a paper entitled At home with Lapps and reindeer, which was illustrated

with lantern slides. The Lapps, or Samoyed (Samid), live in the

northern part of Norwaj^, Sweden, and Finland, and on the Kola

peninsula in Russia. Of the total number of 30,000, about 6000 are

reindeer nomads. The nomadic Lapps are a factor of economic value,

for by means of their large reindeer herds they utilize vast stretches of

mountain land which otherwise would be of no value. Although the

Lapps have for centuries been under strong influences from the sur-

rounding peoples, they retain much of their old culture. This is due to

the fact that old thoughts and habits are closely and necessarily con-

nected with their nomadic life as reindeer herders. They cannot

further their business by imitating sedentary populations. The inner

life of the mountain people, therefore, although they are thoroughly

Christianized, still retains important old traits, which, however, are

not easily noticed by foreign observers. The younger generation

does not retain much of the old thought, but among the middle-aged

and the old are still found beliefs, customs, and tales that supplement

and interpret their early mythologj'.

According to Lappish beliefs, the world is full of supernatural powers,

which are not clearlj^ defined or classified. These seem to have been

recruited from the ghosts of the dead. A belief in an underground

people is prominent. These are called by some Lapps "saivo, '" and are

494 proceedings: anthropological society

generally invisible and haunt certain saivo places. These saivo people

are believed to be reindeer breeders. Several facts make it appear

that the saivo world originally was the world of the dead; thus, in some

shamanistic tales the shaman goes to the saivo world to fight for the

recovery of a sick person, and until recent years offerings have been

made to the saivo world, in order to prolong the life of a person. A

belief is also common in certain vagrant spirits, "muones," who bring

sickness to people; their traits disclose their original nature as spirits

of the dead, although they are not now always conceived as such.

The Lappish shaman, or noaide, still uses the ghosts of dead persons

as helping spirits. There is, however, also among the Lapps a belief

in local spirits, which probably have nothing to do with the spirits of

the dead. According to the beliefs of the northern Lapps, every thing

and every locality may be inhabited by local spirits, "haldek," who

in some way are the owners of these localities. In Pithe he heard a

Lapp woman sing a song to the localitj^ when the tent was set up in a

new place, and a song of parting when the camp was moved again.

Important supernatural powers are connected with the lodge, in which

every place has some occult significance. The place behind the fire

is still sacred; the fire itself or the powers of the fireplace have some

intimate connection with the renewal of life, as can be seen from certain

old customs.

The Lapps have always been considered great magicians. The

magic drum, which was still in use in some parts of Lapland 50 years

ago, has now disappeared, and magic is much less prominent than in

earlier times. As magic knowledge is a personal possession which

loses part of its power by being given to others, information is hard to

obtain. The main purposes of Lappish magic are, to bring sickness and

death to men and reindeer and to cure sickness. Sickness is always

due to some sort of spiritual contagion, which may come from the dead

but also may come from the earth, stagnant water, whirlwinds, or cer-

tain rocks. The evil influences are driven back to the place whence

they came, by teri'ifying the hostile power. The magician, therefore,

in his magic formulas, talks in a superior and commanding way to the

sickness-bringing power. In order to remove the evil influence, the

sick part may be touched by the same object from which the evil came —

very much as electricity is unloaded by means of a conductor. The

two concepts, individual spirits and supernatural power, are in Lappish

magic and religion usually connected; but in some cases the idea of

power itself is so highly emphasized that it seems devoid of personality.

The idea of reindeer luck is characteristic of the Lapps. Reindeer

luck is the standard form of happiness, for which our modern idea of

wealth can not be substituted. In order to insure reindeer luck, sacri-

fices until lately have been in vogue. The main feature in sacrifice

of reindeer is that not a single bone must be broken, for in the bones

resides the vital principle, and in the saivo world the bones will again

be clothed with flesh. In ordinary slaughtering no bone is hurt; the

slaughtering of reindeer nmst be done in accordance with old rules.

proceedings: anthropological society 495

Reindeer bones were in former days sometimes placed in a spring;

this was believed to restore life. According to Lappish ideas the

relations between reindeer and man are rather intimate. In former

days the same deity took care of the birth of children and of reindeer

calves. A reindeer's life can buy life for man, and the life. of a human

being can buy reindeer luck.

At the 487th regular and 36th annual meeting of the Society, held

April 20, 1915, Dr. Henry R. Evans, of the Bureau of Education,

read a paper on The old and new magic. In addition to explanations

given in hiis book under this title, the speaker held, in common with

others taking part in the discussion, that thought transference and

even hypnotism might be the real explanation of peculiar phenomena

exhibited by so-called mediums and chlairvoyants. At any rate,

this would throw light upon some of the spiritualistic seances in

which he had taken part. In interviews with "psychics" in different

parts of the country, a knowledge was shown by these exhibitors of

the occult that could not possibly have been obtained through any

ordinary channels of information. Although ''orthodox" science

sneers at so-called telepathy, many eminent psychologists have little

doubt that there is a basis of fact underlying clairvoyance and thought

transference which has not as yei been fully worked out in a scientific

manner.

Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt said that shamans among the Iroquois were all

jugglers and had annual meetings at which they showed their skill.

They believed that each trick came from a "dangerous dream." Each

juggler was obliged at these meetings to show a new trick or he forfeited

his life, and a simple trick answered the purpose if it deceived the

other jugglers. Jugglers could swallow pebbles, knives, and the like,

by the use of a tube inserted in the throat, made of a piece of Angelica.

They also caused "appearances" in the smoke after putting tobacco

and perfumes upon the fire. A juggler that could not tell the meaning

of a dream also forfeited his life.

Mr. Francis La Flesche related some tricks played by the Pawnee

jugglers. One feat, the swallowing of a deer's head, he could not

explain. "Arrows" were swallowed which were made of ^ vine soaked

and greased so as to render them pliable. Pawnee tricks were more

remarkable than those described by the speaker of the evening, in that

the jugglers were nearly nude, remained in the midst of the audience,

and did not use any of the aids employed by professional prestidigita-

tors. Medicine men sometimes avenged themselves b}' playing tricks

that seemed simple enough when explained. One secretly tied a horse's

hair tightly around the exposed tip of the tail of the offender's horse,

causing the animal to walk backward in circles until restored to its

normal condition by the medicine man on payment of a fee.

Mr. MooNEY spoke of remarkable hypnotic phenomena which he had

observed among the Indians. He believed in the possibility of hypno-

tizing an entire audience of Indians, especially during the ghost dance,

496 proceedings: anthropological society

when subjects become hysterical. After a Wichita dance he saw a

subject who offered unusual resistance finally hj'pnotized. First, a

black handkerchief was waved by the shaman before the eyes of the

woman as she circled in the dance, then an eagle's feather. After a

half hour's struggle, during which time she trembled as if in agony and

at times braced herself to avoid falling, she finally fell rigid, as others

had done. The speaker had seen ten or twenty persons stretched upon

the ground in a hypnotic trance in the remarkable dramatic performance

of the Hopi Indians.

Dr. E. L. Morgan reported having seen an Indian shaman manip-

ulate a man who had been shot in the chest, and produce by sleight-

of-hand the bullet from his back. It is said that American Indians also

perform a trick similar to the famous mango trick of India, making

a bush grow in a few moments under a buffalo robe. Most spiritualis-

tic phenomena are to be explained, he thought, as mind reading.

Dr. GuDMUND Hatt, of the University of Copenhagen, said that

much of Lapp magic also is explainable by hypnotism. Very sus-

ceptible persons can not only be strongly influenced, but cured from

sickness, or made sick, or even killed, by the hypnotic influence exer-

cised by Lapps. Many Scandinavians believe this, and there are well

authenticated instances of it. Lapps also understand "second sight;"

instead of a crystal, they use a glass of liquor. In one such instance

a Lapp saw a favorite deer of his which was being treacherously killed

in a distant place; the fact was afterwards confirmed.

Dr. John R. Swanton was elected President of the Society for the

ensuing year; Dr. I. M. Casanowicz, Vice-President; and William

A. Babcock a member of the Board of Managers. The following

officers were reelected: Secretary, Dr. Daniel Folkmar; Treasurer,

Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt; Councilors: Mr. Francis La Flesche,

Mr. George C. Maynard, Dr. Edwin L. Morgan, and Mr. Felix

Neumann.

Daniel Folkmar, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V AUGUST 19, 1915 No. 14

GEOLOGY. — Plumbojarosite and other basic lead-ferric sul-

phates from the Yellow Pine district, Nevada.^ Adolph

Knopf, Geological Survey.

Plumbojarosite and beaverite. The gold, platinum, and palla-

dium in the quartz lode at the Boss mine, Clark County, Nevada,

are especially associated with plumbojarosite, a basic lead-ferric

svdphate.- The mineral occurs as small masses of comparatively

pure ocher enclosed in a fine-grained quartz mass, which forms a

replacement of a Carboniferous dolomite, the country rock at

the mine. It is a greenish-yellow mineral whose most obvious

physical feature is its smooth talc-hke feel. Under the highest

power of the microscope the ocher is seen to consist of perfect

hexagonal tablets averaging 0.01 mm. in diameter. Very rarely

triangular plates can be found. Dr. F. E. Wright has kindly

determined certain of the optical properties of the mineral and

for comparison has also determined the refractive indices of the

analyzed plumbojarosite from American Fork, Utah,^ and from

> Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.

2 Knopf, Adolph, A gold-platinum-palladium lode in southern Nevada. U.

S. Geol. Survey Bull. 620-a, 1-18. 1915. /

3 Hillebrand, W. F., and Wright, F. E., A new occurrence of plumbojarosite.

Am. Jour. Sci., 4th Ser., 30: 191-192. 1910. In this paper the refractive index

o) is given as greater than 1.83; at that time it could not be determined more

closely, as index-solutions of higher indices than 1.83 had not then been

prepared.

497

498 KNOPF: PLUMBOJAROSITE FROM NEVADA

the Red Warrior mine, Beaver County, Utah.'* The results of the

measurements for sodium hght are:

Refractive indices of -pi umbo jaro site

* This unpublished determination, made by E. S. Larsen (on the type

material originally analyzed by Hillebrand), has been added for the sake of

completeness.

In regard to this material Wright states that "The differences

in refractive indices between the different samples are not great

and within the limits of error, which I have put purposely large

because of the character of the material. Of the three samples

that from the Red Warrior mine seemed to contain the most

impurity in the form of opaque inclusions scattered through the

crystals. The sample from Nevada is much finer grained than

the other two."

Chemical composition. An analysis of the plumbojarosite from

the Boss mine has been made by Dr. R. C. Wells. This is given

in the following table together with the analysis of the Utah

material whose indices were determined by Wright. For

comparison the composition calculated from the formula

Pb03Fe2034S036H20 is also given.

The silica and titania shown by the analysis represent a me-

chanical admixture of quartz and octahedrite crystals, which

remain as a residue after dissolving the mineral in hydrochloric

acid; the precious metals are present in minute metallic par-

ticles. In spite of the apparent homogeneity of the analyzed

material and its optical identity with the very pure mineral

from American Fork and Beaver County, the material from the

Boss mine shows a divergence in chemical composition from the

other analyzed specimens, the most important being the lower

■^ Butler, B. S., and Schaller, W. T., Some minerals from Beaver County,

Utah. Am. Jour. Sci., 4th Ser., 32:422. 1931.

KNOPF: PLUMBOJAROSITE FROM NEVADA

499

ferric iron, the higli content of bismuth, and the noteworthy

amount of copper, an element not present in considerable quanti-

ties in the previously pubUshed analyses of plumbojarosite.

Analyses of plumbojarosite

The presence of this copper suggested the possibility that

the analyzed material contains an admixture of beaverite

(CuOPbOFe2032S034HoO), a mineral recently discovered by

Butler, and shown by him to occur in some abundance in the oxi-

dized ores of Utah. 5 Under the microscope the optical prop-

* Butler, B. S., and Schaller, W. T., Some minerals from Beaver County,

Utah. Am.Jour.Sci.,4thser.,32: 418. 1911. Butler, B.S., Occurrence of complex

and little known sulphates and sulpharsenates as ore minerals in Utah. Econ.

Geology, 8: 316-318. 1913.

500

KNOPF: PLUMBOJAROSITE FROM NEVADA

erties of beaverite are nearly identical with those of plumbo-

jarosite. It is seen to be crystallized in minute hexagonal

plates of yellow color. According to Mr. E. S. Larsen'^ the

optical properties of the type material are: Optically negative,

probably uniaxial; w = 1.83; € = 1.79. From these data it is

obvious that under the microscope the only way of distinguish-

ing plumbojarosite from beaverite lies in determining the re-

fractive index oj of the hexagonal plates.

Computation of analysis

0.027X 694=18.74)

0.002X 636= 1.27/

0. 060X1131 = 67. 86~

0.003X1002= 3.00

O.OIOX 972= 9.72

= 20.01 per cent beaverite.

80.58 per cent plumbojarosite.

100.59

On careful re-examination of the material from the Boss mine by

immersion in a liquid of index of approximately 1.84 certain of the

hexagonal plates were found to have indices that were below this

value, and the remainder were found to .exceed considerably

this yalue. Those of the lower index were then determined by

F. E. Wright to have an index whose value is 1.84 ±0.01, sug-

gesting strongly, therefore, the presence of beaverite. The

chemical analysis was then computed as follows: The bismuth,

which is possibly present in the native state, since no compound

' Personal communication.

KNOPF : PLUMBOJAROSITE FROM NEVADA 501

to which it can be referred was recognized under the micro-

scope, the siHca, titania, the minor constituents, and the precious

metals are regarded as impurities; the analysis was recalculated

to 100 per cent. The molecular ratios were then obtained, the

CuO was used to determine the amount of beaverite, and the

other constituents were allotted in accordance with the formula

CuOPbOFe2032S034H20; the remaining PbO together with the

alkalis, was used to determine the amount of plumbojarosite

according to the formula Pb03Fe2034S036H20.

This summation of the calculated mineral composition to 100.59

strongly confirms the microscopic diagnosis that the analyzed

material is a mixture of plumbojarosite and beaverite.

Vegasite, a newly recognized basic lead-ferric sulphate. A straw

colored ocherous mineral, forming relatively pure lumps up to

several inches in size, occurs at the Rosella prospect, which is

situated several hundred feet north of the Boss mine. Quali-

tatively it gives the reactions of plumbojarosite, but quantitative

data show apparently that it is a new mineral. It differs from

plumbojarosite in specific gravity, refractive indices, and molec-

ular ratios.

Under the highest power of the microscope the mineral is

found to be exceedingly fine grained. It is well crystalhzed,

however, showing principally minute fibers; but scattered among

these are also a considerable number of six-sided plates, apparently

belonging to the hexagonal system. The plates are all under

0.01 mm. in diameter and range down to 0.002 mm. By causing

the fibers to move with a rotatory motion through the liquid in

which they are immersed, it can be seen that the fibers represent

the edges of the hexagonal plates.

The plates are isotropic; the fibers are strongly birefringent

and give parallel extinction. The mineral is therefore probably

uniaxial. The fibrous sections are markedly pleochroic, ranging

from brownish yellow to pale yellow, the absorption being e>co.

The indices as determined by the immersion method are:

€ = 1.82 ± 0.01 and co = 1.755 ± 0.002; the mineral is therefore

optically positive.

502

KNOPF: PLUMBOJAROSITE FROM NEVADA

An analysis of this mineral was made by Dr. R. C. Wells in

the laboratory of the U, S. Geological Survey.

Analysis of basic lead-ferric sulphate, Yellotv Pine district, Nevada

Si02..

FejOa.

AI2O3.

H2O-

H2O+

SO3...

PbO..

NaaO.

K2O..

CaO..

MgO..

1.14

38.90

3.33

0.94

10.77

24.60

18.44

0.76

0.10

0.45

0.49

99.92

MOL. R.iTIOS

0.243\

0.033/

0.598

0.308

0.083^

0.012

0.001.

0.008

0.012

0.276 or 2.88

0.598 or 6.23

0.308 or 3.21

0.096 or 1

Specific gravity: 3.458.

The interpretation of this analysis presents some difficulty.

If the small amounts of silica, hme, and magnesia are neglected

as belonging to impurities, the ratios suggest the formula

PbO3Fe2O3.3SO3.6H2O, in which the lead has been isomorphously

replaced to a minor extent by sodium and potassium, and the

ferric iron partly by aluminum'. This formula, however, cannot

be interpreted rationally; moreover, the considerable amount

of hygroscopic water suggests the possibihty that colloidal hy-

drates of aluminum and iron are present. Under the micro-

scope the material appears to be of high purity; nevertheless in

such minutely crystallized material, a gram of which would

probably contain more than 6,000,000 crystals, it is quite possible

that a considerable amount of impurity might be included and

escape detection; nor would such an admixture be surprising,

as was pointed out by Hillebrand and Penfield in the original

paper on plumbojarosite, where a similar computation was

made.^ Possibly the material analyzed represents a mixture con-

sisting of a basic sulphate of the composition Pb [Fe (OH)2]4(S04)8

' Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 14: 215-216. 1902.

saffoed: lignum nephriticum 503

and aluminum and iron hydroxides amounting to about 10 per

cent.

The name vegasite^ is suggested for the mineral from Las

Vegas, the principal town of the county in which it Occurs.

Briefly, vegasite may be characterized as a mineral giving chemi-

cal reactions similar to those of plumbojarosite, but distinguish-

able by widely different optical constants.

BOTANY. — Eysenhardtia polystachya, the source of the true

Lignum nephriticum mexicanum.^ William Edwin Saffoed,

Bureau of Plant Industry.

INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY

Among the wonderful products of the New World brought to

Europe shortly after the discovery of America was a Mexican

wood supposed to be efficacious as a diuretic and therefore called

lignum nephriticum. Water kept in cups of this wood and an

infusion of its chips in spring water had the remarkable property

of reflecting a blue color, though apparently colorless or yellow

when held up to the light in a glass receptacle. This led to the

experiments of Athanasius Kircher,^ in 1646, and afterwards

to the more systematic study by the Hon. Robert Boyle, in 1663,

which may be regarded as the first serious investigation of the

phenomenon now known as fluorescence.^ One result of Boyle's

work was to make fignum nephriticum a classic wood. Strange

to say, however, the botanical identity of the plant from which

this wood was derived has remained uncertain until the present

day. Though celebrated throughout Europe in the 16th, 17th,

and the early part of the 18th centuries, sacrcely a fragment of

8 The "e" in the first syllable should be given the Spanish pronunciation:

like "a" in late.

1 Based upon a paper entitled "The rediscovery of Lignum nephriticum,"

read by the author February 2, 1915, at a meeting of the Botanical Society of

Washington. Published with the permission of the Secretary of Agriculture.

2 "Of a certain wonderful wood coloring water all kinds of colors," in Ars

Magna Lucis et Umbrse, pp. 77 and 78. 1646.

^ Boyle, Robert, Experiments and considerations touching colours, p. 203. 1664.

504 safford: lignum nephriticum

it is now to be found in drug collections, and its very name has

disappeared from encyclopedias.

Monardes (1565) was the first to call attention to the wood,

but he knew nothing of its origin except that it came from Mexico.

Hernandez, writing about the year 1576, described the plant

producing it under the name coatl, or coatli, as follows: A shrub

or tree with leaves like those of a chick-pea {Cicer arietinum)

but smaller, and with spikes of small longish flowers. The color

of the flowers he described as yellow and faded ; but he evidently

drew his description from dried material, as was the case with the

majority of plants described by him, which were gathered and

brought to him by Indian herb doctors. Hernandez Was a phy-

sician rather than a naturalist, and many of his descriptions and

illustrations of both plants and animals are so crude as to be un-

recognizable. Of lignum nephriticum he gave no illustration.

He was even uncertain regarding the plant producing it, stating

that they had described it to him as a shrub, but that he had seen

specimens of it exceeding very large trees in size. Hernandez's

work on the products of Mexico remained in manuscript for

almost two centuries and never appeared as a whole. The

portions of it relating to medicine were grouped together and

prepared for publication by Nardo Antonio Recchi; but owing

to lack of funds or for some other reason Recchi's compilation

did not appear until 1751, seventy-three years after Hernandez's

death, though a Spanish translation from Recchi's Latin manu-

script by Fray Francisco Ximenez appeared in 1615, in the city

of Mexico.

In the meantime the plant itself remained unidentified botanic-

ally. Caesalpinius (1583) and Caspar Bauhin (1623) supposed

it to be a species of Fraxinus. Terrentius, in Recchi's epitome

of Hernandez (1651), referred it to the Leguminosae but did not

attempt to identify it. Johan Boeclerus (1745), believing it to

be a Laburnum, called it Cytissus mexicanus. Linnaeus, in his

Materia Medica (1749), added to the confusion by referring it to

Moringa pterygosperma, an East Indian tree, in spite of the fact

that it was originally declared to be of Mexican origin ; and Gui-

safford: lignum nephriticum 505

bourt, in his Histoire abregee des drogues (1820), identified it

with the West Indian cat's-claw (Mimosa unguis-cati L.).

The first to indicate its true botanical classification was Dr.

Leonardo Ohva, Professor of Pharmacology in the University of

Guadalajara. In his Lecciones de Farmacologia^ he^ identified

it with Varennea polystachya DC. {Viborquia polystachya Ortega;

Eysenhardtia amorphoides H.B.K.). Subsequent authorities,

however, did not accept his identification. Dr. Fernando

Altamirano (1878), while recognizing the identity of the coaili

of Hernandez with the tree called by the modern Mexicans palo

dulce and referring it to Viborquia polystachya Ortega, was not

aware that the latter was the same as Eysenhardtia amorphoides

H.B.K., and he followed Alfonso Herrero in referring hgnum

nephriticum to Guilandina moringa, a mistake which may be

traced at once to Linnaeus. In describing the uses of coatli

wood by the modern Mexicans, he states that the country people

make drinking-troughs of it for their fowls, to guard against

certain epidemics to which the latter are subject; or, if the vessel

from which they drink is of some other substance, they put a

piece of the wood in the water and allow it to remain there. The

water assumes a blue color, he says; but Mariano Barcena, who

experimented with it, observed that the blue color was the result

of the refraction of light, and the water, instead of yielding a blue

coloring matter like indigo, yielded a yellowish brown dye-stuff.^

Sargent, in his Silva of North America, gave an amended

description of the genus Eysenhardtia, in which he for the first

time established the combination Eysenhardtia polystachya, but

it is evident that he was unaware that this species had anything

to do with lignum nephriticum, or that its wood yielded a fluores-

cent infusion. Concerning it he simply says: ''The wood of

some species is hard and close-grained and affords valuable fuel.

The genus is not known to possess other useful properties.*^

The third edition of the Nueva Farmacopea Mexicana (1898)

^2: 429. 1854.

^ Altamirano, Fernando, "Leguminosas indigenasmedicinales," in La Natural-

eza, 4: 97-98. 1879.

« Sargent, C. S. The Silva of North America, 3: 30. 1S92.

506 safford: lignum nephriticum

repeats Oliva's observations under the heading ''Taray de Mexi-

ico, " but in a footnote states that leno Jiefritico had been errone-

ously attributed to Varennea polystachya, or Eysenhardtia amor-

phoides H.B.K., and that its classification was not known. ^

In a subsequent edition of this work the name palo dulce is

omitted, except as applied to the European hcorice, Fllickinger

and Hanbury, in their well known Pharmacographia (1879),

are silent about Hgnum nephriticum, although for years before

the publication of this work Hanbury had been seeking to identify

it.^ Dragendorf refers to it as a species of Guajacum.^ Otto

Stapf, however, guided by Ramirez and Alcocer's Sinonimia

vulgar y cientifica de las plantas Mexicanas (1902), referred a

piece of wood labeled "cuatl" in the Paris Exposition to Eysen-

hardtia amorphoides; but the wood was unaccompanied by

botanical material by which it might be identified with certainty.^

He gives a history of. the wood known as lignum nephriticum in

early literature, and also quotes several Mexican authorities

but not Oliva, cited above. He accounts for the fact that the

flowers were described by Hernandez as yellow by the supposition

that there are varieties of Eysenhardtia yielding lignum nephriti-

cum which have yellow flowers, although, as a matter of fact,

no such forms occur in the localities cited by writers on the sub-

ject; and the only species in which the flowers are yellow are

low scrubby plants which never attain the size even of a small

tree or have a stem with a diameter approaching the dimensions

of the pieces of lignum nephriticum hitherto described.

The last author to investigate the origin of lignum nephriticum

is Dr. Hans-Jacob MoUer, of Copenhagen, who after an exhaustive

study of the subject referred it to a Mexican tree belonging to the

' Nueva Farm. Mex. 153. 1896.

* See Oliver and Hanbury, in Admiralty Manual of Scientific Inquiry, p. 391.

1871. "Lignum nephriticum. — This rare wood, noticed by some of the earliest

explorers of America, is a production of Mexico. To what tree is it to be re-

ferred? Its infusion is remarkable for having the blue tint seen in a solution of

quinine."

" Das Lignum nephriticum deriilteren Mediciu wird wohl von einer Guajacum-

Art stammen." Dragend. Heilpfl. 345. 1898.

i»See Stapf, Otto. Kew Bull. Misc. Information, 1909, pp. 293-305. 1909.

safford: lignum nephriticum 507

genus Pterocarpus. Dr. Moller made a careful examination of

the various woods hitherto supposed to be the true Ugnum

nephriticum mexicanum, among them specimens of the wood of

Eysenhardtia amorphoides, sent to him by C. A. Purpus, the

latter described as "das Kernholz von einen recht dicken Ast,"

but with negative results (''keine Fluoreszenz)." On examin-

ing the heartwood of a Philippine species of Pterocarpus, how-

ever, he found that in water containing lime it yielded an infusion

having the characteristic sky-blue fluorescence of lignum nephriti-

cum mexicanum as described by early investigators. He there-

fore assumes that the mother-plant of lignum nephriticum

mexicanum, "sought in vain for 300 years by so many investi-

gators, is a Mexican species of Pterocarpus," in all probabil-

ity Pterocarpus amphymenium DC. (Arnphymenium pubescens

H.B.K., Pterocarpus pubescens Sprengel) ; and he refers a second

kind mentioned by Hernandez, endemic in Quauchinango, to

Pterocarpus orbiculatus DC.^^

There can be no doubt that the heartwood of some species of

Pterocarpus does yield a fluorescent infusion; but the "lignum

nephriticum mexicanum," or "coatl/' of Hernandez, the leaves

of which are described as "resembling those of Cicer arietinum

but smaller, " and which are also compared with the finely divided

leaves of the common wild rue, cannot possibly be identified with

any known Mexican species of Pterocarpus. The leaflets of the

species of Pterocarpus figured by Moller himself exceed 6 cm. in

length by 3.5 cm. in breadth.

IDENTIFICATION OF LIGNUM NEPHRITICUM

In connection with his work on the economic botany of Mexico

the writer has for years been seeking the source of lignum nephriti-

cum. Among other woods examined for the blue fluorescence

characterizing this wood were specimens of branches of Eysen-

hardtia polystachya, collected by the writer in 1907 in the vicinity

of Aguascalientes, the infusion of which gave no evidence of

fluorescence in ordinary sunlight. From this fact and from the

11 Moller, Hans-Jacob. Lignum nephriticum. Berichte der Deutschen

Pharmaz. Gesellsch. 23: 88-154. 1913.

508 safford: lignum nephriticum

fact that all specimens seen by the writer were either shrubs or

trees too small to yield wood for the manufacture of bowls and

cups, the writer was inclined to agree with Moller in discarding

Eysenhardtia as a source of the famous wood. In July, 1914,

however, specimens of a medicinal wood from Mexico were

brought to the writer accompanied by herbarium material from

the same tree sufficient to identify it. It proved to be Eysen-

hardtia polystachya, commonly known by the modern Mexicans

in many localities as palo dulce, or ''sweet wood." Its collector

had not noticed anything peculiar about the color of its infusion,

but dwelt upon its efficacy as a cure for certain diseases to which

fowls are subject in Mexico. The wood was a section of a tree

trunk, whicli deprived of its bark was 7 cm. in diameter, and

which, unhke all specimens of Ej^senhardtia wood hitherto

seen by the writer, consisted chiefly of dark brown, dense, fine-

grained heartwood very much like Guaiacum officinale in appear-

ance, surrounded by a ring of brownish-white sapwood 5 to 8 mm.

thick. A few small chips of the heartwood in ordinary tap-

water tinged the latter a golden yellow, which soon deepened to

orange, and looked like amber when held between the eye and the

window. When the glass vial containing the liquid was held

against a dark background the liquid glowed with a beautiful

peacock blue fluorescence, very much like that seen in quinine.

Placed partly in a sunbeam, half of the hquid appeared yellow and

the other half blue; and when the sunlight was focused upon it

by the lens of a common reading glass, the vial appeared to be

filled with radiant gold penetrated by a shaft of pure cobalt.

There was no longer any doubt as to the identity of the wood.

It could only be the true lignum nephriticum of Robert Boyle's

experiments; and it was undoubtedly the wood of Eysenhardtia

polystachya, a tree with small pinnately compound leavs which

might well suggest those of a chick-pea or of the common wild

rue of Spain, and with spikes of small flowers which had turned

yellowish in drying, corresponding with Hernandez's description

of the coatl of the Aztecs.

Chips of the sapwood tinged tap-water only slightly at first,

but when left over-night the infusion deepened to a greenish

safford: lignum nephriticum 509

yellow and glowed with a decided fluorescence. With distilled

water neither the sapwood nor the heartwood produced fluores-

cence, as seen by ordinary sunlight; but this phenomenon was

distinctly visible when, at the suggestion of Dr. Arno Viehoever,

U. S. Department of Agriculture, these infusions were held in

the ultraviolet rays of a fluorescence lamp, and it was also dis-

played in ordinary daylight when a small amount of sodium car-

bonate or other alkali was added to the infusions of the wood in

distilled water. On boihng chips of the wood in tap-water for

several hours a deep amber-colored extract was obtained not un-

like Madeira wine in color. When placed on the table the surface

of this extract appeared to be outlined by a deep blue marginal

ring, and when held away from the light the fluorescence of the

liquid gave it the appearance of certain mineral oils. A drop of

the extract in a glass of water caused the whole glass to glow with

fluorescence when held in the rays of the sun admitted through a

hole in a screen.

At a conversazione at the house of Dr. Alexander Graham

Bell, on the evening of January 6, 1915, at which the wood and

accompanying herbarium material were shown by the writer,

specimens of the infusion when exhibited by ordinary electric

light failed to show fluorescence; but afterwards, when held in

the rays of an arc hght the liquid glowed with an intense blue

which illuminated the faces of those standing near by.

Experiments were made by Dr. Lyman J. Briggs, Biophysicist

of the Bureau of Plant Industry, with a view to determine the

possible value of lignum nephriticum as an indicator in titri-

metric determinations. The result of Dr. Briggs' observations

have not been published, but he recognized at once the advantage

which this, like other fluorescent substances, must have over

those indicators which show color changes only by transmitted

light, especially in testing dark liquids, in which the color of the

liquid masks the color changes of the indicator. Eysenhardtia

wood has one great advantage over fluorescein itself, from the

fact that its extract is readily soluble in cold water. With most

acids it does not fluoresce, but in the presence of acetic acid its

fluorescence is not destroyed. It cannot, therefore, be used as

510 safford: lignum nephriticum

an indication of alkalinity in all cases. As compared with

phenolphthalein it has a neutral point nearer the acid end of the

scale; that is to say, it will fluoresce in a solution in which phenol-

phthalein develops no color whatever.

FURTHER BOTANICAL HISTORY

As already stated, the first description of the plant yielding

lignum nephriticum is that of Hernandez, written about the year

1575, but first published in the form of a Spanish translation,

in the city of Mexico, by Ximenez, in 1615. It is as follows:

They call coatl a plant which they describe as a shrub ; but I have seen

it larger than very large trees; and some call it tlapalezpatli, or "blood-

red medicine." It is a large shrub which has a thick trunk devoid of

knots, like that of a pear tree. The leaves are like those of the gar-

vanzo [Cicer arietinum], but smaller and almost like those of rue [Ruta

chalepensis L.] and somewhat larger, a mean between these two extremes;

the flowers yellow and faded, small and longish, are arranged in spikes.

. . . It grows in moderately warm regions like the valley of

Mexico, and in still warmer situations like Guachinango [state of

Puebla], Chimalhuacan [district of Texcoco], Chalco, and Tepuztlan

[near Cuernavaca, state of Morelos] and almost throughout the entire

extent of the malpais [pedregal or lava-beds] of Coyohuacan; and in

many other places.

■ Following Monardes, whose description of the wood he quotes,

the author tells of the blue color of the infusion of the wood and

of its virtues as a diuretic; and he adds: ''There is another kind

of plant of this nature, but it does not color the water;" and on

his return trip to Spain he says: ''In this fleet there is a Viscayan

merchant who is taking more than fifty large logs of this wood

to Spain."

From the above description it is evident that Hernandez refers

to two distinct species, the first of which, with leaves resembling

those of Cicer arietinum and Ruta chalepensis and with spikes of

small longish flowers, is undoubtedly Eysenhardtia polystachya,

which never exceeds the size of a small tree. It was undoubtedly

the wood of this species which Robert Boyle used in making his

experiments on fluorescence. The second is in all probability

one of the trees called by the Aztecs tlapalezpatli, or tlapaliz-

patli (from tlapalli, tincture; eztli, blood; and patli, medicine),

safford: lignum nephriticum 511

and by the Spaniards sangre de drago, or dragon's blood. Among

the latter are species of Pterocarpus, which grow to much larger

dimensions than the Eysenhardtia, and one of these was in all

probability the source of the large logs carried to Spain by the

Viscayan merchant mentioned by Hernandez. Hernandez never

described a Pterocarpus botanically, and in all probability he

never saw specimens of their leaves or flowers. As already

indicated, none of them has leaves with small leaflets in any way

comparable to those of Cicer arietinum or of Ruta chalepensis.

THE GENUS EYSENHARDTIA

Following is the original description of the genus Viborquia

of Ortega/- with a reproduction of Ortega's original illustration

(fig. 1). The name itself, on account of its prior use for

another genus by Konrad Moench of Marburg, in 1794, under

the form Viborgia, had to be abandoned in favor of the much

later name Eysenhardtia of Humboldt, Bonpland and Kunth,

proposed in 1823. ^^

Generic Character

Calyx tubular-campanulate, five-toothed at the mouth; teeth equal,

obtuse, very small, the two upper ones more remote, broader, and

a little deeper.

Corolla papilionaceous. Vexillum cuneiform, emarginate, carinate,

with the margins involute. Wings longer than the keel, spathu-

late, falcate, within concave above. Keel two-petaled, spathulate,

falcate, within concave above.

Stamens ten. Filaments shorter than the corolla, united into a cylin-

der cleft above. Anthers subrotund, incumbent, bifid at the base.

Pistil with the ovary oblong compressed. Stijle subulate, ascending,

a little longer than the stamens. Stigma capitate.

Legume oblong, compressed flat, subfalcate, containing the seed at

the apex.

Seed oblong-reniform, affixed to the apex of the legume.

Differential Character

Calyx 5-toothed, the two upper teeth the broader. Corolla composed

of 5 petals: vexillum cuneiform, the remaining petals spathulate.

Legume sessile, foliaceous, 1-seeded, containing the seed at its apex.

12 Hort. Matr. Dec. 5: 66. 1798.

13 Nov. Gen. et Sp. 6: 489. 1823.

Fig. 1. Eysenhardtia polystachya (Ortega) Sargent,

original illustration, with details of flower and fruit.

512

A copy of Ortega's

safford: lignum nephriticum 513

description of eysenhardtia polystachya

The plant positively identified as yielding the hgnuni nephriti-

cum of Hernandez may be described briefly as follows:

Eysenhardtia polystachya (Ortega) Sargent, Silv. N. Am. 3: 29.

1892 (excl. Texas references).

Viborquia polystachya Ortega, Hort. Matr. Dec. 5: 66, pi. 9. 1798.

Eysenhardtia amorplioides H.B.K. Nov. Gen. et Sp. 6: 491, pi. 592.

1823.

Varennea polystachya DC. Prodr. 2: 522. 1825; Oliva, Lecc. Farm.

2:429. 1854.

An erect, sweetly aromatic shrub or small tree, glandular-punctate,

with spreading, recurved branches. Leaves even-pinnate or odd-

pinnate, with numerous small opposite or alternate stipellate leaflets,

these oval or oblong-elliptical, entire, usuall}^ decreasing in size toward

the extremity of the rachis, the terminal one of odd-pinate leaves usually

obcordate, the others rounded or slightly retuse at the apex and often

terminating in a short acumen, pubescent when young, often becoming

glabrate, usualty punctate with glandular dots on the lower surface;

rachis grooved above, irregularly glandular-dotted, often retaining the

persistent minute subulate stipels after the leaflets have fallen. Flowers

fragrant, small, white, turning yellow in drying, borne in terminal

densely spicate racemes; pedicels subtended by a lanceolate deciduous

bracteole, short and slender, often reflexed at length, but sometimes

ascending or widely spreading; calyx glandular-punctate, 5-toothed,

persistent; corolla scarcely at all papilionaceous, composed of 5 nearly

equal unguiculate petals, the standard slightl}^ broader than the wings

and keel, emarginate, carinate, with involute margins; stamens 10,

diadelphous, the superior one free, the filaments of the others united in-

to a tube; ovary subsessile, oblong, compressed, terminating in a long

slender stjde, somewhat longer than the stamens, geniculate and glandu-

lar below the apex; stigmas introrse. Legume small, oblong, compressed

flat, subfalcate or almost straight, subtended by the persistent companu-

late calyx and tipped by the persistent base of the style, usually glandu-

lar-punctate, indehiscent, pendent or abruptly reflexed, sometimes

widely spreading or ascending but never erect and appressed, purplish

at the apex when fresh, usually containing a single seed near the apex.

This species was first described by Gomez Ortega, under the name

Viborquia polystachya in 1798, as shown in the synonymy given above,

from specimens grown in the Royal Garden of Madrid from seeds

sent by Sesse from Mexico. Ortega named the genus in honor of

"A^iborq, most distinguished professor of the botanical garden of

Copenhagen, who, when a short time ago he journeyed through Spain

and visited Madrid, left in us deep appreciation of his kindliness and

his conversation." The generic name Viborquia had to be aban-

Fig. 2. Eysenhnrdtia pulystachya (Ortega) Sargent. A Tamaulipas specimen,

showing reilexed legumes and cross-section of the trunk (lignuln nephriticum) .

Natural size.

514

safford: lignum nephriticum 515

cloned for the reason given above, and that of Eysenhardtia H.B.K.

substituted for it.

The general range of the genus Eysenhardtia is from Guatemala

to Texas and Arizona. On account of their great variability it is

difficult to delimit the species. It is quite certain, however, that the

low shrubby Eysenhardtia texana Scheele, with erect appressed falcate

seed-pods, the type of which was collected by Lindheimer in the vi-

cinity of New Braunfels, Texas, is a valid species quite distinct from

E. polystachya of central and southern Mexico, which often attains the

size of a tree; and it is quite probable that the more robust E. adeno-

stylis Baillon, of Guatemala, is also a valid species. On the other

hand E. orthocarpa Watson, of western Texas and southern Arizona,

approaches so closely to forms of E. polystachya collected in the Valley

of Mexico, Jalisco, and Michoacan, that it may prove to be specifically

identical with them. A critical study of the genus Eysenhardtia is

greatly to be desired. The group of low scrubby plants including

Eysenhardtia spinosa Engelm., E. parvifolia Brandeg., and E. penin-

sularis Brandeg., is so distinct from tj^pical Eysenhardtia that it is

quite possible it may have to be removed from this genus.

Eysenhardtia polystachya, as understood by the author, is remark-

ably variable in size and form of leaves, density of pubescence, and

appearance of seed pods. It sometimes occurs as a stunted bush

with very small leaflets, sometimes as a spreading shrub with straight

stems, and sometimes as a slender tree 5 to 7 meters high, the wood

of which is prized by cabinet makers on account of its hardness, dura-

bility, and fine, dense, straight grain. In the vicinity of Mexico City

on the pedregales, or lava beds, sometimes called the malpais, a form

with small pubescent leaves is the most prevalent. In the northern

Mexican states it occurs on elevated dry plateaus in the form of shrubs

about 2 meters high with relatively small leaflets. A distinction has

been made between the forms having reflexed pedicels and those with

ascending or spreading pedicels; but in the barrancas of Jalisco forms

very closely allied are found almost side by side, some with mature

pods reflexed, and others with them ascending but never closely ap-

pressed as in E. texana. In this region also there are subglabrous forms

with seed pods at least twice as large as those of the type.

In addition to the localities mentioned, specimens of Eysenhardtia

polystachya, or of forms so closely allied to it as to be scarcely distin-

guishable, have been collected on the volcanoes of Cohma, near the

Pacific coast of Mexico, and Orizaba, near the Gulf coast; on the high

water-shed between Chilapa and Tixtla, in the State of Guerrero; in

516 safford: lignum nephriticum

the State of Oaxaca at elevations of 1500 to 1800 meters, especiallj^ on

the slopes of barrancas or canyons; and m northeastern Michoacan,

where the trees are large enough to yield valuable cabinet wood. A

specimen in the U. S. National Herbarium collected at the station of

La Junta, Michoacan, by Langlasse (no. 226) is described by the col-

lector as "arbre au tronc elance; bois, recherche pour ebenisterie,

prouduit une teinture bleue." The specimens in the Economic Her-

barium of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, including the wood with

fluorescent properties, described in the present paper, were collected

in north-central Tamaulipas, not far from the village of San Nicolas.

They are shown in figure 2.

DENDROLOGICAL NOTES

Microscopic sections of the wood of Eysenhardtia polystachi/a

were made at the writer's request, by Dr. Albert Mann, Plant

Morphologist of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and by Mr.

CD. Mell, Assistant Dendrologist of the Forest Service. Dr.

Mann found the heart wood to be extremely compact, heavily

Hgnified, and impregnated with a gum, or resinoid substance,

which did not break down in xylol. This gum is contained in

tracheae, which in cross sections appear like pores, either soli-

tary or in groups of two or three. Radial and tangential sections

show the tubes, with pitted walls, to be partly or entirely filled

wdth this gum, and they also show the medullary or pith rays,

which in the cross-sections are inconspicuous. The annular

lines of growth, however, are well marked in the cross sections.

Specimens of Philippine Ugnum nephriticum (Pterocarpus

iyidicus) commercially known as narra, from Baggao, province

of Cagayan, Island of Luzon, were obtained by the writer from

the newly installed wood-collection in the U. S. National Museum.

This wood bears little resemblance to that of Eysenhardtia. In

the specimens obtained the color was a beautiful deep flesh tint

variegated with light red ; the grain coarse and somewhat twisted ;

and the annular lines of growth, as seen in the cross-section, ver}^

distinct, with conspicuous large pores between them. Chips

of this wood in tap water yielded a yellow infusion of a lighter

shade than that of Eysenhardtia polystachya but reflecting a very

similar blue fluorescence.

safford: lignum nephriticum 517

SUMMARY

Lignum nephriticum mexicanum, a wood remarkable for the

blue fluorescence of its infusion in spring water, was celebrated

throughout Europe in the 16th century as a diuretic. Its

botanical identity has remained uncertain until the present time.

It proves to be the wood of a leguminous tree, Eysenhardtia

polystachya occupying an exensiVe range in the interior of Mexico.

The botanical description of the tree corresponds well with that

of Hernandez written in the 16th century. Its pinnately com-

pound leaves bear a general resemblance to those of Cicer arieti-

nuin and also suggest the divided leaves of Ruta chalepensis. Its

small flowers, arranged in spicate clusters, though white when

fresh, soon turn j-ellow in dried specimens. Its wood, straight-

grained and dense and free from knots, yields a tincture in spring-

water (containing a slight percentage of lime) which shows a

remarkable blue fluorescence and in an opaque vessel appears

quite blue.

Its botanical identity remained uncertain for so long a time

owing to the following causes: (1) Commercial specimens of the

wood were unaccompanied by botanical material; (2) botanical

material in herbaria was lacking in wood ; (3) the phenomenon

of fluorescence as seen in ordinary dayhght is produced by an

infusion of the dark-colored heartwood, while the light-colored

sapwood of stems and of moderate-sized branches, though

yielding a fluorescent infusion as seen in ultra-violet rays, does

not yield a fluorescence perceptible in daylight ; (4) the plant was

first described from a shrub in all probability too young to possess

heartwood, and the author of the species was unaware of its

identity with lignum nephriticum or even of its power to produce

the phenomenon of fluorescence.

For the first time the botanical identity of the true lignum

nephriticum mexicanum has been established beyond a doubt,

bj^ the study and exhibition of specimens of wood corresponding

accurately with the descriptions of Robert Boyle, yielding the

characteristic fluorescence obtained by him in his experiments,

and accompanied by botanical specimens from the tree producing

the wood, these agreeing in all respects with the original descrip-

tion by Hernandez of the plant yielding lignum nephriticum.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEOLOGY. — The calcite marble and dolomite of eastern Vermont.

T. Nelson Dale. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 589.

Pp. 67, with maps and sections.

Some of the rocks discussed are of pre-Cambrian age and associated

with granite-gneiss. Some are of Cambro-Ordovician age and appear

to be sporadic in a great schist mass. A few are probably of Ordovician

age and are parts of narrow impure calcareous belts. Twenty varieties

of marble and dolomite are described.

Of special interest is the occurrence of finely interbedded coarse

l)ink calcite marble, colored by manganese, with a white fine-grained

twinned dolomite. Attention is called to some recent French deter-

minations of the presence of manganese both in the calcareous and

soft parts of marine moUusks, and hence to the probability that the

pink marljles are of organic origin and to the possibility that the inter-

bedded dolomite was formed by chemical precipitation.

The presence of actinolite and diopside schist along the contact of

marble and granite-gneiss, and of felty asbestos along the joint and

bedding planes of marble and dolomite are regarded as reaction

products under regional metamorphism.

A marble synclinal outlier is described, illustrating in miniature

principles governing mountain masses in a region of folding. This

has been transversely folded in the direction of the pitch, while the

underlying schist has acquired slip-cleavage with a strike parallel to

the pitch.

Attention is called to the frequent occurrence in the Cambro-Ordo-

vician schist of Vermont of the interesting secondary twinned albites

first described by Wolff and Whittle. These enclose plicated beds

518

abstracts: geology 519

beyond the edges and ends of which the feldspar has grown and, there-

fore, cannot have been pebbles of another feldspar. T. N. D.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and underground waters of the southeastern part

of the Texas Coastal Plain. Alexander Deussen. U. S. Geolog-

ical Survey Water-Supply Paper Xo. 335. Pp. 365, with 9 plates

and 17 figures. 1914.

The report treats of the physiography, geology, and underground

water resources of the Texas Coastal Plain between Brazos River and

the eastern boundary of the State. Under physiography are described

an interesting succession of wolds, with the gentle gulf ward-sloping

Cuestas and steep inland sloping bajadas, parallelling the Gulf Coast.

The wolds are produced by differential erosion, and they have had an

appreciable influence on parts of the stream courses.

The geologic formations indicated or described include Carboniferous

rocks which form the basement on which the deposits of the Coastal

Plain rest, undifferentiated Cretaceous deposits, the water recourses

of which are not treated at length, and differentiated deposits of Eocene,

Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Recent age. The general

structure of the region is monochnal, the formations dipping gulf-

ward, and the successively younger ones outcropping nearer and nearer

the coast. Flexures, domes, and faults of relatively minor impor-

tance, are recognized. The general artesian conditions of the area are

indicated. L. W. Stephens.

GEOLOGY. — Mineral deposits of the Santa Rita and Patagonia Moun-

tains, Arizona. Frank C. Schrader and James M. Hill.

U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 582. Pp. 373, with maps,

sections, and illustrations. 1915.

The Santa Rita and Patagonia Mountains, located in Pima and

Santa Cruz counties in southern Arizona, form an irregular range of

the Great Basin type. Longitudinal faulting has played an important

part in its orogeny, and later faulting has given to many of the surface

features, as well as the rock outcrop belts and fissure veins, a north-

westerly trend. The range consists fundamentally of a granitic axis

of pre-Cambrian (?) rocks which is flanked by overlapping and locally

highly tilted sediments which are from Cambrian (?) to Cretaceous in

age. All the formations, except the Cretaceous, have been freely

invaded by Mesozoic intrusives and all flooded later by Tertiary vol-

canics. The structure in general is monoclinal with dip gently to the

520 ABSTEACTS: GEOLOGY

east. Areally, the igneous rocks are dominant. On the piedmont

slopes the hard rock formations are mantled by a sheet of gravels,

sand, and stream alluvium 150 feet in maximum thickness and ranging

in age from early Quarternary to Recent.

The principal sedimentary rocks in descending order are about 6000

feet in thickness of Mesozoic, red shales, sandstones, and conglomerates,

which are chiefly Cretaceous, and mostly Comanche series, resting

uncomformably on 4000 feet of Carboniferous and Devonian limestone

which in turn rest unconformably on 4000 feet of Cambrian (?) conglom-

erate, quartzite, shale, and schist. The most important of these rocks

with reference to the mineral deposits are the Paleozoic limestones,

which locally are highly altered by contact metamorphism.

The principal igneous rocks are (1) Tertiary effusives, consisting

of beds of tuffs and agglomerates, and flows of rhyolite, andesite, and

quartzlatite porphyry, aggregating 2500 feet in thickness; (2) Meso-

zoic intrusives, consisting of rhyolite porphyry, aplite, quartz monzonite,

and granite, and diabase, gabbro, syenite, and lamprophyric rocks;

(3) pre-Cambrian (?) granite (basal). The most abundant and impor-

tant of the igneous rocks with reference to the ore deposits are the Meso-

zoic acidic intrusives.

Mineralogically the range is a part of the northwestern continuation

in Arizona of the celebrated mining region of Mexico. Seventy-five

per cent of the metalliferous deposits occur in the igneous rocks, and

25 per cent in the sedimentary rocks, and 54 per cent of the deposits

are genetically connected with later intrusives.

The lower limit of the oxidized zone is irregular and ranges from

less than 100 to 300 feet in depth, but sulphides generally begin to appear

near the surface. The surface deposits, worked mostly in early days,

yielded chiefly rich silver ores; but in depth the deposits change to ores

of copper, lead, and zinc, and the metals now produced are gold, silver,

copper, lead, zinc, iron, tungsten, and molybdenum.

The deposits occur chiefly as fissure veins, but also as contact meta-

morphic, replacement, and shear zone deposits. These were formed

chiefly by ascending thermal solutions that circulated as a close after-

effect of the intrusion of the igneous rocks in whichthey occur or with

which they are genetically connected.

The deposits occur in two large and contrasting groups that differ

considerably in age and represent two distinct periods of mineraliza-

tion. The older and more important group, which besides veins in-

cludes important contact metamorphic and later replacement deposits,

abstracts: mineralogy 521

occurs in association with the Mesozoic granular acidic intrusives and

in part with the Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. It is probably of early

Cretaceous age, is referred to the late Mesozoic epoch of metallization,

and was formed at considerable depth.

The younger group of deposits occurs in or associated with the Ter-

tiarj^ effusive volcanic rocks, notably the rhyolite and andesite. It is

regarded as of late Miocene age and belonging to the late Tertiary

epoch of metallization. This great group in general consists of gold-

silver-bearing quartz veins. F. C. S.

MINERALOGY. — The microspectroscope in viineralogy . Edgar T.

Wherry. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 65^: 1-16.

1915.

Previous work with the microspectroscope having been limited to

a very few minerals, observations have been made on a number of

additional ones. The most convenient apparatus is a binocular micro-

scope with an Abbe-Zeiss Spectral-Ocular. Light is best obtained

from a Welsbach burner or Nernst lamp, and is concentrated laterally

on the specimens, the wave lengths of the absorption bands being read

off on a scale. The method is of considerable practical value in the

identification of certain colored minerals, and in particular of cut gems.

Most of the rare-earth minerals show two or more bands, which are

useful in distinguishing these minerals from all others, and to some

extent in differentiating individual species. Violet calcite from Joplin,

Missouri, shows bands which indicate that its color is due to the pres-

ence, in mix-crystal form, of a carbonate of neodymium. Some minerals

containing uranic uranium show characteristic bands, while zircon,

containing this element in the uranous form, exhibits a different set

of bands. The colors of the various members of the garnet group have

been ascribed to several elements, but it is shown by tabulating the

colors, spectra, and percentages of chromium, vanadium, and man-

ganese for six different specimens that the colors are due chiefly to the

first two of these elements.

Tables are given of the spectra of rare-earth minerals, uranium

minerals, and minerals with red, yellow, green, blue, and violet colors;

a determinative table for minerals showing bands of sufficient intensity

for diagnostic purposes; and finally a table of the elements producing

absorption spectra, with their forms and the limits to the amounts

present. E. T. W.

522 abstracts: zoology

BOTANY.— Flora of New Mexico. E. 0. Wooton and Paul C.

Standley. Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium,

Vol. 19. Pp. 1-794. 1915.

This volume consists of a systematic account of the phanerogams

and vascular cryptogams native and advent ive in New Mexico. There

are provided keys to the orders, families, genera, and species, and brief

diagnostic descriptions of the genera are given. Under each species

are included the place of publication of the specific name, the principal

synonyms, type locality, general range, and distribution in New Mexico,

and any notes of particular interest concerning the peculiarities of the

plant. Definite collections are cited in the case of some of the rare

species.

There are listed for the state 2903 species, distributed among 848

genera. Of these 42 species are pteridophytes and 25 gymosperms.

The largest family is naturally the Asteraceae, including 511 species.

The other large groups are the grasses (270 species), Brassicaceae

(101), Fabaceae (189), and Scrophulariaceae (100). The Cactaceae are

represented by no less than 67 species. The largest genus is Astragalus,

with 54 species; but some of the others are notable, for example, Carex

(41 species), Quercus (24), Eriogonum (40), Opuntia (32), Gilia (20),

Pentstemon (35), Castilleja (20), Erigeron (46), Artemisia (23), and

Senecio (41).

The work includes also a geographic index of all the localities in the

state at which plants are known to have been collected, and the altitude

for each is given when it could be definitely ascertained. P. C. S.

ZOOLOGY.^ — Echinoderma II: Crinoidea. A. H. Clark. Beitrage

zur Kenntnis der Meeresfauna Westafrikas, herausgegeben von

W. Michaelsen (Hamburg) S. 307-318. 1914.

The relationships of the crinoid fauna of west Africa to that of the

other regions of the Atlantic basin are discussed in detail, as well as

the relation between the Atlantic and the Indo-Pacific basins.

A revision of the genus Antedon, with a key to the species and the

range of each, is included. A. H. C.

REFERENCES

Under this heading it Is proposed to include, by author, title, and citation, references to all

icientific papers published in or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate

with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are

not Intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal.

ENTOMOLOGY

Martini, E. Some new American mosquitoes. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 2:

65-76, pi. 2. June 8, 1914. (Describes two new species from Panama and

one from Cuba. — J. C. C.)

Miller, J. M. Insect damage to the cones and seeds of Pacific Coast conifers.

Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 95. Pp. 1-7, pis. 1-3.

July 9, 1914. (Gives an account of the various insects attacking cones and

seeds, together with methods of preventing loss. — J. C. C.)

Phillips, E. F. The temperature of the honeybee cluster in winter. Bulletin of

the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 93. Pp. 1-16. April 30, 1914.

(This paper records a series of experiments to ascertain the optimum tem-

perature for the bee cluster in winter. — J. C. C.)

QuAiNTANCE, A. L. The control of the codling moth in the Pecos Valley in New

Mexico. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 88. Pp. 1-

8. April 30, 1914. (This economic paper advocates the application of three

sprays in the region under discussion. — J. C. C.)

RoHWER, S. A. Descriptions of two new genera of parasitic Hymenoptera. Psyche,

21: I'd-^ylffigs.l and2. April, 1914. (TiesQvihes Anomopterus fasciipennis i\.nd

Centistidea ectoedemiae, new genera and new species of Braconidae, from Vir-

ginia.—J. C. C.)

Walton, W. R. Four neio species of Tachinidae from North America. Proceed-

ings of the Entomological Society of Washington 16: 90-95. June 12, 1914.

(Describes the new genus Polychaetoneura. — J. C. C.)

TECHNOLOGY

Abbott, Frederick V. Concrete in sea water on Neiv England coast. Prof.

Mem. U. S. Army, 6: 111-118. 1914.

Bleininger, a. v., and Montgomery, E. T. Effect of overfiring upon structure

of clays. Bureau of Standards Tech. Paper No. 22, 23 pp.

Bleininger, A. V., and Brown, G. H. Veritas firing rings. J. Wash. Acad. Sci.,

4: 446. 1914. Bureau of Standards Tech. Paper No. 40, 10 pp. 1914.

Brown, G. H., and Murray, G. A. Function of timet in vitrifiication of clays.

Bureau of Standards Tech. Paper No. 17, 26 pp. 1914.

Brow'n, G. H., and Montgomery, E. T. Dehydration of clays. Bureau of

Standards Tech. Paper No. 21, 23 pp. 1914.

Buckingham, Edgar. Windage resistance of steam turbine wheels. Bureau of

Standards Sci. Paper No. 208, 43 pp. 1914.

523

524 references: tech-nology

Bureau of Standards. Relation of horsepower to kilowatt. Circular No. 34, 2nd

ed., 16 pp. 1915.

Bureau of Standards. Safety rules to be observed in operation and maintenance

of electrical equipment and lines. Circular No. 49, 2nd ed., 50 pp. 1915.

Bureau of Standards. Testing of barometers. Circular No. 46, 2nd ed., 12 pp.

1914.

Bureau of Standards. Standard specifications for incandescent electric lamps.

Circular No. 13, 6th ed., 20 pp. 1914.

Bureau of Standards. Testing of barometer. Circular No. 46, 12 pp. 1914.

Bureau of Standards. Testing of hydrometers. Circular No. 16, 3rd ed., 16 pp.

1914.

Bureau of Standards. Testing of materials. Circular No. 45, 89 pp. 1913.

Burgess, G. K., Crowe, J. J., Rawdon, H. S., and Waltenberg, R. G. Obser-

vations on finishing temperatures and properties oj rails. J. Wash. Acad. Sci.,

4: 353-354. 1914. Bureau of Standards Tech. Paper No. 38. 1914.

Cain, J. R. Determination oj carbon in steel and iron by barium carbonate titra-

tion method. Bureau of Standards Tech. Paper No. 33, 12 pp. 1914.

Cain, J. R., and Cleaves, H. E. TJie determination of carbon in steels and irons

by direct combustion in oxygen at high temperatures. J. Wash. Acad. Sci.,

4:393-397. 1914.

Fitch, T. T., and Huber, C. J. Comparative study of American direct current

watthour meters. Bureau of Standards Sci. Paper No. 207, 29 pp. 1913.

Gillett, H. W., and Norton, A. B. Approximate melting points of some com-

mercial copper alloys. Bureau of Mines Tech. Paper No. 40, 10 pp.

Klein, A. A., and Phillips, A. J. The hydration of Portland cement. J. Wash.

Acad. Sci., 4:573-576. 1914.

Lewis, Walter S. Physical testing of cotton yarns. Bureau of Standards

Tech. Paper No. 19, 31 pp. 1913.

Lyon, Dorsey A., Keeney, Robert M., and Cullen, Joseph F. Electric fur-

nace in metallurgical work. Bureau of Mines Bull. 77, 216 pp.

McCoLLUM, Burton, and Peters, O. S. Surjace insulation of pipes as a means of

preventing electrolysis. Bureau of Standards Tech. Paper No. 15, 44 pp. 1914.

Montgomery, E. T. Some leadless borosilicate glazes maturing at about 1100°C.

Bureau of Standards Tech. Paper No. 31, 22 pp. 1913.

Priest, I. G. Supplementary report on color of turpentines. Rep. Committee

D 1 on Preservative Coatings for Structural Materials, pp. 115-116, 1914,'

Am. Soc. Testing Materials.

Rosa, E. B., and McCollum, Burton. Special studies in electrolysis mitigation.

1 . Preliminary study oj conditions in Springfield, Ohio %vith recommendations

for mitigation. Bureau of Standards Tech. Paper No. 27, 55 pp. 1913.

Rosa, E. B., McCollum, Burton, and Logan, K. H. Special studies in elec-

trolysis mitigation. 2. Electrolysis from electric railway currents and its pre-

vention; experimental test of insulated negative feeders in St. Louis. Bureau

of Standards Tech. Paper No. 32, 34 pp. 1913.

Rosa, E. B., McCollum, Burton, and Peters, O. S. Electrolysis in concrete

(with bibliography). Bureau of Standards Tech. Paper No. 18, 137 pp. 1911.

Waidner, C. W., and Mueller, E. F. Industrial gas calorimetry. Bureau of

Standards Tech. Paper No. 36, 150 pp. 1914.

Wright, C. L. Fuel-briquetting investigation. Bureau of Mines Bull. 58, 277 pp.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V SEPTEMBER 19, 1915 No. 15

RADIOTELEGRAPHY. — Resistance of radiotelegraphic antennas.

L. W. Austin, Naval Radiotelegraphic Laboratory.

The resistance of a radiotelegraphic antenna may be divided

into three parts: first, the ohmic resistance of the wires; second,

the so-called radiation resistance; and third, the so-called earth

resistances. The first is generally negligible where a sufficient

number of wires in parallel is used. The second is derived

from the expression for the radiated energy of an antenna, which is

E = 1607r'^7'

2^«

where h represents the height to the center of capacity of the

antenna, X the wave length, and /« the current measured at the

base of the antenna. The expression IGOtt"'— is called the

A

radiation resistance, as it takes the same position in the energy

equation as that occupied by R in the case of ohmic losses.

The expression shows that the radiation resistance falls rapidly

as the wave length is increased.

Up to the present no satisfactory theory of ground resistance

has been developed. The experimental curves of antenna

resistance, on account of the decreasing radiation resistance,

fall rapidly at first, as the wave length is increased, and then,

as the wave length is further increased, remain nearly con-

stant if the ground conditions are good as in the case of a ship's

525

526 foote: pyrometer color screens

antenna, or again rise nearly in a straight line if the ground con-

ditions are poor. This rise may be very rapid in the case of

peculiarly poor grounds. For instance, the resistance of the

Bureau of Standards antenna rises from 13 ohms at 800 meters

wave length to 28 ohms at 2000 meters. Great difficulty has

been found in. explaining this increase of resistance with increas-

ing wave length, but it is believed that the following explanation

is the true one:

The antenna system must be looked upon, as a condenser,

the anten'n.a itself being the upper plate and the ground water

the lower plate. Between the ground water and the surface

there is usually a layer of semi-conducting material which

would correspond to a poor dielectric in. the case of an ordinary

condenser. It is well known that the dielectric losses in im-

perfect condensers generally increase in proportion to the wave

length of the current employed in. the measurement. It is found

that by covering the surface of the ground under and around the

antenna with a wire net, thus making the net the lower plate of

the condenser, the ground losses nearly disappear.

PHYSICS. — The "center of gravity'' and '^ effective wave length''

of transmission of pyrometer color screens. Paul D. Foot]^,

Bureau of Standards.

Some ten years ago Waidner and Burgess^ called attention to

the shift in effective wave length of the color screens used with

optical pyrometers, when the temperature of the source sighted

upon changes. Pirani^ has contributed two papers upon this

subject and in the past month a paper by Hyde, Cady, and

Forsythe^ has appeared.

Heretofore it has been, assumed that the effective wave length

is the so-called "center of gravity" of the luminosity curve.

Hyde, Cady, and Forsythe have given a new definition of the

mean effective wave length between, any two temperatures,

'Waidner and Burgess. Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper, No. 55, p. 175

' M. V. Pirani. Verh. d. Phys. Ges., 15: 826-838. 19L3; 17: 47-62. 1915.

3 Hyde, Cady, and Forsythe. Phys. Review, 6: 70-74. 1915.

foote: pyrometer color screens 527

which has a real physical basis. They haA^e defined the effective

wave length of the glass used between these two temperatures

as that wave length for which the ratio of the two radiation

intensities corresponding to the tw^o temperatures exactly equals

the ratio of the integral luminosities through the screen for the

same two temperatures.

In the following discussion the difference between the "center

of gravity" and the true effective wave length is discussed and

a simple and accurate method is derived for obtaining the true

effective wave length.

Let J^ = Ci X~' e~>^ = Wien's law.

T =/(X) = transmission of color screen.

V = (p (X) = visibility.

T and V are functions of X only but the analytical forms of the

functions are unknown. Consider two temperatures di and 62.

c..

for du /i = Ci X "e xe,

(1) -i 1^

[ for 02, J 2 = Ci \~'e ^e

(2) Jx'J, = eVe. eJ

Since X may have any arbitrary value from 0 to »= the ratio

/i //o may have any chosen value by properly choosing X. Let

Li = luminosity at temperature di and Lo = luminosity at

temperature do.

/■• CO /^ an

Li = JVTd\ = J (X^i) T (\) V (X) dK

Jo Jo

Lo = r JiX^2) ^(X) V {\)d\

Jo

(3) LJL. = /o? ^^^^) ^^^^^ '

' - JU (Xd.) TVd\

Li and Lo, and hence the ratio Li/Lo, can be determined by graph-

ical integration. Let the ratio be any definite number. It

528 foote: pyrometer color screens

is possible to choose X in (2) such that Ji //o = Li/L^. Call

this value of X = X^,. Substituting in (2) :

Ji-i)

\ a D I

(4) mean X^, = — ? (natural logarithms)

log Li — log Lo

This is the definition, expressed analytically, of the mean effec-

tive wave length over a given temperature range, proposed bj^

Hyde. Cady, and Forsythe. Instead of referring the effective

wave length to a given temperature range it may be referred

to a definite temperature by letting the two temperatures ap-

proach one another. Let Qi and 0o approach d as a limit. The

right term of (4) is indeterminate but can be evaluated by

the ordinary rule of L'Hospital, observing in the differentiation

TVJdX where only J is a func-

tion of 6. Then for the limit di = 02 = 6, the following value

of \l is obtained.

(S) j_./:rFja

J

■ d\

0 X

This is the true effective wave length of the glass for a tem-

perature e. Define the wave length corresponding to the line

which bisects the area of I TVJdX as X^, that is, the axis of

the center of gravity of the luminositv curve, so chosen that

I TVJdX = 2 j TVJdX. Then by definition of the center

of gravity:

... . _f;Tvj\dx

^ ^ ' i; TVJdX

Having drawn the luminosity curve on any arbitrary scale

whatever, paying no attention to actual values of the scale

of ordinates (L) , only relative values of L needing consideration,

Xg can be determined with a planimeter having two indicating

dials, one of area and the other of moments, such as the Amsler

foote: pyrometer color screens 529

integrator No. 1. Surprising accuracy is obtainable in measur-

ing \. This is evident when one considers that the hnninosity

curve for a good red glass extends only from about X = 0.600

to 0.750 n. Since all errors are actually based on the difference

of these two wave lengths, a low precision in the determination

of the center of gravity as far as the curve is concerned still

means a very high precision in the determination of the absolute

value of \g. Four or five significant figures are obtainable.

The method of determining X^ suggested by Hyde involves

the log ratio of the areas of two luminosity curves, and when

\l is expressed by equation (5) its determination requires the

ratio of the areas of two curves. In general the area of luminosity

curves can not be measured by a planimeter with an accuracy

much better than 0.5 per cent; and since a direct mathematical

integration is impossible, because T = /(X) and V = f(\) are

not expressible by any usable equations, it is evident that

great precision is not readily possible in the determination of X^

by such a method — probably not better than three significant

figures when great care is taken.

Inspection of equation (5) however shows a very curious re-

lation. Suppose that instead of plotting X versus JTV as ordi-

nates, the ordinary luminosity curve, we plot JVT /\ as ordinates.

The line of the center of gravity of this curve is given by the

following expression :

(7) X (center gravity) = "^

J

ill A

which is identical with (5'>

Therefore the true effective wave length of the pyrometer

glass is the wave length corresponding to the center of gravity

of the curve /(X) = JVT/\, i.e., the luminosity at any wave

length divided by the wave length. The true value of X^ is

slightly different from the value of X^. The center of gravity

of the curve JVT :\ versus X can be determined with great

accuracy, so that a curve of X^r = fid) may be easily obtained by

this method. Whether such high mathematical accuracy is

530 mereill: the generic name nauclea of linnaeus

of value is a point open to question since the transmission of the

glass can not be measured extremely accurately and visibility

curves appear very different for different observers. But in

the case of the transmission, absolute values are not required,

merely the form of the curve needs to be known. And in the

case of the visibility, only a short range of the curve is important,

and over this range the slope of the visibility curves of various

observers is in good agreement.

In a more complete paper which w^ill be published at an early

date several specific pyrometer glasses are considered. One

of these glasses is a black absorption glass used with optical

pyrometers for extrapolating the temperature scale to say

2500°C. The calibration of such a glass by the usual method

necessarily tacitly involves the visibility or scope of the visibility

curve over a small range of color. Different observers obtain

practically the same calibration of the glass which would indi-

cate that the eifective wave length of the system could be de-

termined with greater accuracy than one would ordinarily

expect. Also the values of the effective wave length of a red glass

obtained by Hyde, Cady, and Forsythe by different methods

show such excellent agreement that a more accurate method of

computing the data is warranted.

In conclusion, the writer desires to thank Dr. Waidner. Dr.

Kanolt, and Mr. Crittenden for suggestions given him in this

work.

BOTANY. — On the applicatio7i of the generic name Nauclea of

Linnaeus. E. D. Merrill, Bureau of Science, Manila, P.

I. (Communicated by William R. Maxon).

It sometimes happens that the current and universally ac-

cepted concept of a genus is quite different from that of the

genus as originally described. This is due to misconception or

to misinterpretation of the group on the part of later authors;

sometimes because the original genus is subdivided, the various

species being referred to other genera until all or most of them

are dissociated from the original generic name; and sometimes

because certain species have been added after the original de-

MERRILL: THE GENERIC NAME NAUCLEA OF LINNAEUS 531

scription of the genus, by the original author or by others, which

later botanists have interpreted as representing the genus,

even when these are generically distinct from the original type.

The case presented by Nauclea is of especial interest as illus-

trating this latter type of interpretation, for the genus was origi-

nally based on a single species, a plant thoroughly well known,

and one generically distinct from Nauclea as this genus has been

interpreted by all modern botanists. Use of the generic name

Nauclea for the genus so called by all botanists during the past

century is logically incorrect and is not permissible under any

rules of botanical nomenclature; but Nauclea in the original

Linnaean sense is entirely valid. It is, however, decidedly un-

fortunate that, in revising the nomenclature of the group, Nauclea

must be used for those species now placed by all botanists in

Sarcocephalus, while those species now placed under Nauclea

must receive a new generic name.

Haviland^ has given us a very careful and critical revision of

this group and in connection with his work has examined most

of the types of the species considered and determined the types

of most of the genera. His position as to nomenclature can best

be indicated by the following quotation from the introduction

to his paper:

I have also assumed that rules of priority were made to help and not

to hinder; if they were exactly followed, Uncaria would be Ourouparia,

Sarcocephalus would be Nauclea, Nauclea would have to be renamed,

and probably Mitragyna would be Mamhoga.

From my knowledge of the Philippine flora and of the genera

and species described by Blanco, I can definitely state that

Mamhoga of Blanco is identical with Mitragyna of Korthals and

antedates Korthals' name by two years. The status of Uncaria

and Mitragyna, however, is determined by the list of nomina con-

servanda adopted by the Vienna Botanical Congress, these two

generic names being retained in preference to Ourouparia and

Mamhoga. The case presented by Nauclea and Sarcocephalus

is entirely different, and it is really unfortunate that Haviland

' A revision of the Tribe Naucleeae (Nat. Ord. Rubiaceae). Journ. Linn.

See. Bot. 33: 1-94, pi. 1-4 . 1897.

532 merkill: the generic name nauclea of linnaeus

did not solve this problem of nomenclature in his revision of

the group. Britten,- in his appreciative review of Haviland's

paper, states:

The retention of Nauclea necessitates the statement "typus nullus"

after the name; then, after a definition of the genus as now understood,

comes a reference to ''Naticlea Linn. Sp. PI. ed. 2, 243," followed by

the remark, "none of the plants called Nauclea by Linnaeus are now in

this genus, although there is no doubt he would have called those in

it Nauclea if he had seen them." But as Mr. Haviland tells us else-

where that "Linnaeus founded his Nauclea orientalis on two species

of Sarcocephalus" it is difficult to see how the retention of his name for

the plants he described could be regarded as a hindrance.

To be strictly accurate, Nauclea orientalis Linn, involves three

different species of Sarcocephahis , rather than two. Haviland's

stand on this simple question had led him illogically to retain

Sarcocephalus as the valid name for what should be Nauclea;

he has quoted the type of genus Nauclea as a synonym of Sar-

cocephalus cordatus Miq. ; and as to Nauclea itself, while still

crediting Linnaeus as authority for the genus, he retains nothing

in the genus placed there by Linnaeus himself, and is obliged to

admit that Nauclea as interpreted by him, following modern

usage, has no type. Others^ have solved the dilemma by illogi-

cally and incorrectly crediting the authorship of Nauclea to

Korthals.

The history of this nomenclatural anomaly begins with the

publication of the genus Cephalanthus by Linnaeus i^ but the

type of the genus Cephalanthus is perfectly clear, • although

Linnaeus included in the first edition of his Species Plantarum

two generically distinct species, Cephalanthus occidentalis Linn,

and C. orientalis Linn. The type of the genus is clearly indi-

cated as the former by Linnaeus: "Character desumtus est a

specie occidentali, quum orientalis fructus nobis non dum suf-

ficienter innotuit."

In the second edition of the Species Plantarum Linnaeus

separated Cephalanthus orientalis from the genus Cephalanthus,

2 Notes on the Naucleeae. Journ. Bot. 35: 336 340. 1897.

^ Dalla Torre and Harms, Genera Siphonogamarum, 495. 1905.

•< Genera Plantarum, 61. 1737; ed. 5, 42. 17.54.

MERRILL: THE GENERIC NAME NAUCLEA OF LINNAEUS 533

making it the type and only species of the genus Nauclea. The

genus Nauclea, then, must be interpreted solely by a consideration

of the original publication of the name.^ Unfortunately Nauclea

orientalis Linn, is Sarcocephalus of all modern authors, but the

mere fact that a genus has been consistently misinterpreted is

no logical reason for ignoring the original application of the

name. Although Nauclea orientalis Linn, is in itself a mixture

of three species, the five references given by Linnaeus are con-

generic.

The first reference is "Cephalanthus foliis oppositis Fl. zeyl.

53. Sp. pi. L p. 95," and this is Sarcocephalus cordatus Miq.

( = Nauclea orientalis Linn.), and this number of the Flora Zey-

lanica is represented in Hermann's herbarium- by a drawing,

according to Trimen."^ This reference I consider typifies the

species. The second reference is to 'Tlatanocephalus citri

foliis bijugis, capite majore. Vaill. act. 1722, p. 259," which

in turn is based on "Katou Tsjaca, Rheede, Hortus Malabaricus

3:29, t. 33,'' and is Nauclea missionis W. & A. {Sarcocephalus

missio7iis Havil.).^ The third reference is to "Arbor indica,

fructu aggregato gioboso. Raj. hist. 1441," which is also based

on the same figure and description of Rheede as the above refer-

ence. The fourth reference is directly to "Katu Tsiacca Rheed.

Mai. 3, p. 29, t. 33,'' which, as noted above, is Nauclea missionis

W. & A. (Sarcocephalus missionis Havil.). The fifth reference

is a doubtful one to ''Bancalus Rumph. amb. 3, p. 84, t. 551"

and Kuntze has adopted Bancalus for the generic name in place

of Nauclea. Bancalus of Rumphius, however, is a Sarcocephalus

{= Nauclea of Linnaeus, not of other authors), a species closely

allied to Sarcocephalus junghuhiiii Miq., S. mitragynus Miq.,

and S. tenuiflorus Havil. Cephalanthus orientalis Linn.,^ on

which Nauclea orientalis Linn.^ is based, presents the first, second,

and fourth of these citations.

The generic nomenclature of Nauclea i§ as follows:

* Linnaeus, Species Plantarum, ed. 2, 243. 1762.

^ Hermann's Ceylon Herbarium and Linnaeus's "Flora Zeylanica." Journ.

Linn. Soc. Bot. 24: 129-155. 1887.

^ See Haviland, Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 33: 32. 1897.

* Species Plantarum, 95. 1753.

9 Species Plantarum, ed. 2, 243. 1762.

534 MERRILL: THE GENERIC NAME NAUCLEA OF LINNAEUS

NAUCLEA Linn. Sp. PL ed. 2, 243. 1762.

Sarcocephalus Afzel. ex R. Br. in Tukey's Congo App. 267.

1818.

Cephalina Thonn. in Schumm. Beskr. Guin. PL 125. 1827.

Platanocarpum EndL Gen. 557. 1838; Korth. Obs. NaucL

Ind. 18. 1839.

Bancalus O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. PL 1:276. 1891.

The type of the genus Nauclea, and the sole species cited under

this name in the original publication, is Nauclea orientalis Linn.

{Sarcocephalus cordatus Miq.).

The type of the genus Cephalina Thonn. is Cephalina esculenta

Thonn., the only species cited ( = Sarcocephalus esculentus Afzel.).

The type of the genus Platanocarpum EndL is not indicated

by that author; but he cites "Naucleae, sectio Nauclearia, §. 1.

DC. Prodr, IV. 343," the description applies to Nauclea of

Linnaeus {Sarcocephalus Afzel.), and the first three of the four

species placed by DeCandolle in the first section of Nauclearia

are Nauclea of Linnaeus {Sarcocephalus Afzel.). Interpreting

the genus upon the first species cited by DeCandolle, the type

would be Nauclea undulata Roxb. {Sarcocephalus undulatus

Miq.). Korthals' interpretation of Platanocarpuyn a year later

is based on two species: the first, Platanocarpum suhditum Korth.

( = Sarcocephalus subditu^ Miq.) ; the second, Platanocarpum

cordatu7n Korth. {= Sarcocephalus cordatus Miq. = Nauclea

orientalis Linn . ) .

Bancalus of O. Kuntze was based on '^Bancalus Rumph.

Herb. Amb. 3:84, t. 55. 1743," ostensibly because Bancalus

is an older name than Nauclea. Kuntze included in Bancalus

species of Sarcocephalus and of Nauclea as currently understood

by modern botanists; but whether Bancalus be typified by

the Rumphian plant or by the typexDf the Linnaean goim&Nauclea,

it is a synonym of Sarcocephalus Afzel. ( = Nauclea Linn.). Dalla

Torre and Harms are wrong in referring Bancalus O. Ktze. to

Nauclea Korth. as a synonym; it is a synonym of Nauclea Linn.

If Bancalus is to be interpreted as an exact equivalent of Nau-

clea of Linnaeus, the type is N. orientalis Linn., cited by O.

Kuntze as Bancalus orientalis (Linn.) O. Kuntze. If typified

by the plant Rumphius actually described and figured under

MERRILL: THE GENERIC NAME NAUCLEA OF LINNAEUS 535

Bancalus, the type is also a true Nauclea (Sarcocephalus) , for

Rumphius' description refers unmistakably to Sarcocephalus:

"fructus . . . non facile manibus confringenclus, lentus enim

ac tenax est, interna substantia similis est, sed siccior praecedente"

[Arbor noctis = Sarcocephalus \]. -Most of the species trans-

ferred by Kuntze to Bancalus, however, belong in Nauclea as

currently interpreted, but not in Nauclea {Sarcocephalus) as

defined by Linnaeus.

Nauclea as here interpreted in the original Linnaean sense

consists of the following species, extending from tropical Africa

through tropical Asia and Malaya to tropical Australia and

Polynesia, nearly 25 being known.

NAUCLEA Linnaeus.

Nauclea annamensis (Dubard & Eberh.)

Sarcocephalus annamensis Dubard & Eberh. Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat.

Paris 15: 493. 1909.

Indo-China.

Nauclea dasyphylla (Miq.)

Sarcocephalus dasyphijllus Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. 2: 133. 1856.

Sumatra.

Nauclea diderrichii (Wildem.)

Sarcocephalus ■diderrichii Wildem. in Masui £tat Indep. Congo

Expos. Brux. 439. 1897 (nomen); Rev. Cult. Colon. 9: 7. 1901.

Tropical Africa.

Nauclea elmeri nom. iiov.

Sarcocephalus ovatus Elm. Leafl. Philip. Bot. 1: 33. 1906; non

Nauclea ovata Merr. 1913.

Philippines.

Nauclea esculenta (Afzel.)

Sarcocephalus esculentus Afzel. ex R. Br, in Tukey, Congo App.

467. 1818.

Nauclea sambucina Winterb. Ace. Sierra Leone 45. 1803 (nomen).

Tropical Africa.

Nauclea gilleti'. (Wildem.)

Sarcocephalus gilletii Wildem. in Rev. Cult. Colon. 9: 8. 1901.

Tropical Africa.

Nauclea glaberruna Bartl. ex DC. Prodr. 4: 28. 1830.

Sarcocephalus glaberrimus Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. 2: 133. 1856.

Philippines and Celebes.

536 mekrill: the generic name nauclea of linnaeus

Nauclea hirsuta (Havil.)

Sarcocephalus hirsutus Havil. Journ. Linn. 8oc. Bot. 33: 32. 1897.

Borneo.

Nauclea junghuhnii (Miq.)

Sarcoceplialus jimghuJmii Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. 2: 133. 1856.

Malay Peninsula and Cambodia to Sumatra, Borneo, and the

Philippines.

Nauclea maingayi Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3: 27. 1880.

Sarcocephalus maingayi Havil. Journ. Linn. Soc.-Bot. 33: 33. 1897.

Bancalus maingayii 0. Ktze. Rev. Gen. PI. 1: 277. 1891.

Malay Peninsula and Borneo.

Nauclea missionis W. & A. Prodr. 392. 1834.

Sarcocephalus missionis Havil. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 33: 32. 1897.

Bancalus missionis O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. PI. 1: 277. 1891.

India.

Nauclea mitragyna (Miq.)

Sarcocephalus mitragynus Miq. Ann. Mus. Bot. Lugd.-Bat. 4: 180.

1868-69.

Ceram.

Nauclea multicephala (Elm.)

Sarcocephalus multicephalus Elm. I^eafl. Philip. Bot. 5: 1896. 1913.

Philippines.

Nauclea orientalis Linn. Sp. PL ed. 2, 243. 1762.

Cephalanthus orientalis Linn. 8p. PI. 95. 1753.

Nauclea cordaia Roxb. Fl. Ind. ed. Carey 1: 509. 1832.

Sarcocephalus coYdatus Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. 2: 133. 1856.

Platanocarpum cordatum Korth. Obs. Naucl. Ind. 16. 1839.

Bancalus orientalis 0. Ktze. Rev. Gen. PL 1: 277. 1891.

Sarcocephalus orieiitalis Merr. Philip. Journ. 8ci. Bot. 3: 436. 1908.

India through Malaya to tropical Australia. The type of the genus.

Nauclea pacifica (Reinecke)

Sarcocephalus pacificus Reinecke, Bot. Jahrb. Engler 25: 684. pi.

13, f.C. 1898.

Samoa.

Nauclea parva (Havil.)

Sarcocephalus parvus Havil. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 33: 31. 1897.

Borneo.

Nauclea pobequini (Pobequin)

Sarcocephalus pohequini Pobequin, Ess. Fl. Guin. Fr. 313. 1906.

Tropical Africa.

MERRILL: THE GENERIC NAME NAUCLEA OF LINNAEUS 537

Nauclea pubescens (Valet.)

Sarcocephalus pubescens Valet. Bot. Jahrb. Engler 44: 550. 1910.

Borneo.

Nauclea ramosa (Lauterb.)

Sarcocephalus ramosus Lauterb. Bot. Jahrb. Engler 41: 235. 1908.

Samoa.

Nauclea robinsonii noui. nov.

Sarcocephalus pubescens C. B. Rob. Philip. Journ. Sci. Bot. 6: 225.

1911; non Valet. 1910.

Philippines.

Nauclea subdita (Korth.)

Platanocarpum subditum Korth. Obs. Naucl. Ind. 19. 1839 (nomen);

Verh. Nat. Gesch. Bot. 133, pi 32. 1840.

Sarcocephalus subditus Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. 2: 133. 1856.

Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and Java.

Nauclea tenuiflora (Havil.) *

Sarcocephalus tenuiflorus Havil. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 33: 32. 1897.

New Guinea.

Nauclea trillesii (Pierre)

Sarcocephalus trillesii Pierre ex Wildem. Not. PI. Util. Congo 37. 1903.

Tropical Africa.

Nauclea undulata Roxb. Fl. Lid. ed Carey, 1: 508. 1832.

Sarcocephalus undulatus Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. 2: 133. 1856.

Malay Archipelago and New Guinea.

Having demonstrated that logically, historically, and under

all rules of botanical nomenclature those species which have been

described under Sarcocephalus must be transferred to Nauclea,

it becomes necessary to establish a new generic name for the

more numerous species that have been described by many

authors since Linnaeus under the latter generic name. In my

quest for a published name I have even looked up the original

publications of the various synonyms placed under Cephalanthus

Linn., but none of them are available for the species that have

up to this time been, placed under Nauclea. Acrodryon Spreng.

(Syst. 1:386. 1825) is based on Cephalanthus orientalis Lour.i°

'" Loureiro, Flora Cochinchinensis, 67. 1790, under Ce-phalanthus occidentalis:

"Si cum Ceph. Americano (milii non obvio) non converiiat, vocetur Ceph.

orientalis."

538 mereill: the generic name nauclea of linnaeus

and C. angustifolius Lour. From Loureiro's description the

former is a true Nauclea (Sarcocephalus) , for the fruits are de-

scribed as edible and baccate, while the latter is a true Cephal-

anthus, the type of which Haviland has examined in the herbarium

of the British Museum. Axolus Rafinesque (Sylv. Tellur.

61. 1838) is based on Cephalanthus angustifolius Lour., and

is a proper synonym of Cephalanthus. Eresimus Rafinesque

(loc. cit.) is based on Cephalanthus sfellatus Lour., which is

cited by Haviland as a synonym of Cephalanthus angustifolius

Lour. Gilipus Rafinesque (loc. cit.) is based on Cephalanthus

mo7itanus Lour., which Loureiro has described as having alternate

leaves. If Loureiro's description is correct, Gilipus does not

even belong to the Rubiaceae, and from other characters given,

such as leaves crenate, rough, and flowers dioecious, the plant

even if rubiaceous can scarcely belong to the Naucleeae. Sili-

manus Rafinesque (op. cit. 60) is based on Cephalanthus procum-

hens Lour., which like Gilipus cannot be a rubiaceous plant, if

Loureiro's description is correct, as the leaves are described as

alternate; the description otherwise as to habit, flowers dioecious,

and other characters, at once removes the plant from the

Naucleeae.

The list of synonyms of Sarcocephalus, Nauclea, and Cephal-

anthus being exhausted, and none of them being applicable to the

numerous species that have erroneously been placed in Nauclea,

I propose for these species the new generic name Neonauclea

as a substitute for Nauclea as described by Korthals,!^ by Bent-

ham and Hooker,!- \^y j{; Schumann, ^^ and by Haviland. ^^

Neonauclea as now constituted contains nearly 50 species, and

extends from India to New Guinea. Unlike Nauclea proper

{Sarcocephalus Afzel.) no species have been reported from tropi-

cal Africa, from tropical Australia, or from Polynesia. I trans-

fer to Neonauclea the following species.

" Observationes de Naucleis Indicis, 17. 1839.

'2 Genera Plantarum, 2: 31. 1873.

'3 In Engler and Prantl, Natiirlichen Pflanzenfani. 4": 57. 1891.

'4 Revision of the Tribe Naucleeae. Joiirn. Linn. See. Bot. 33: 48. 1897.

MERRILL: THE GENERIC NAME NAUCLEA OF LINNAEUS 539

NEONAUCLEA Merrill.

Neonauclea angustifolia (Havil.)

Nauclea angustifolia Havil. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 33: 55, pi. 3. 1897.

Borneo.

Neonauclea ategii (Elm.)

Nauclea ategii Elm. Leafl. Philip. Bot. 5: 1877. 1913.

Philippines.

Neonauclea bartlingii (DC.)

Nauclea bartlingii DC. Prodr. 4: 344. 1830.

Bancalus bartlingii O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. PI. 1: 276. 1891.

Philippines.

Neonauclea bernardoi (Merr.)

Nauclea bernardoi Merr. Philip. Journ. Sci. Bot. 10: 101. 1915.

Philippines.

Neonauclea calycina (Bartl.)

Nauclea calycina Bartl. in DC. Prodr, 4: 346. 1830.

Nauclea purpurascens Korth. Verh. Nat. Gesch. Bot. 158. 1840.

Philippines and Borneo.

Neonauclea celebica (Havil.)

Nauclea celebica Havil. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 33: 54. 1897.

Celebes.

Neonauclea chalmersii (F. Muell.)

Nauclea chalmersii F. Muell. Notes Papuan PI. 8: 44. 1886.

New Guinea.

Neonauclea cordatula (Merr.)

Nauclea cordatula Merr. Philip. Journ. Sci. Bot. 8: 40. 1913.

Philippines.

Neonauclea cyclophylla (Miq.)

Nauclea cyclophylla Miq. Ann. Mus. Bot. Lugd.-Bat. 4: 181. 1868-69.

Moluccas.

Neonauclea cyrtopoda (Miq.)

Nauclea cyrtopoda Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. 2: 342. 1856.

Borneo and Sumatra.

Neonauclea excelsa (Blume)

Nauclea excelsa Blume, Bijdr. 1009. 1826.

Java. /

Neonauclea fagifolia (Teysm. & Binn.)

Nauclea fagifolia Teysm. & Binn. Cat. Hort. Bogor. 117. 1866

{nornen); Havil. in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 33: 63. 1897.

Amboina.

m

540 MERRILL: THE GENERIC NAME NAUCLEA OF LINNAEUS

Neonauclea formosana (iVlatsum.)

Nauclea formosana Matsum. Bot. Mag. Tokyo 14: 127. 1900.

Formosa.

Neonauclea forsteri (Seem.)

Nauclea for steri Seem. Fl. Vit. 121. 1865-73.

Bancalus forsteri O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. PI. 1: 277. 1891.

Philippine, Society, Tonga, Samoa, and Fiji Islands.

Neonauclea gageana (King)

Nauclea gageana King, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 72-: 123. 1903.

Andaman Islands.

Neonauclea gigantea (Valet.)

Nauclea gigantea Valet. Bot. Jahrb. Engler 44: 549. 1910.

Borneo.

Neonauclea gracilis (Vidal)

Nauclea gracilis Vidal, Phan. Cuming. Philip. 176. 1885.

Bancalus gracilis 0. Ktze. Rev. Gen. PI. 1: 277. 1891.

Philippines.

Neonauclea griffithii (Hook, f.)

Adina griffUJui Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3: 24. 1880.

Nauclea griffithii Havil. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 33: 51. 1897.

India.

Neonauclea hagenii (K. Schum. & Lauterb.)

Nauclea hagenii K. Schum. & Lauterb. Fl. Deutsch. Schutzgeb.

Siidsee557. 1901.

New Guinea.

Neonauclea havilandii (Koord.)

Nauclea havilandii Koord. Meded. Lands Plant. Buitenz. 19: 498.

1898.

Celebes.

Neonauclea jagori (Merr.)

Nauclea jagori Merr. Philip. Journ. Sci. Bot. 4: 326. 1910.

Philippines.

Neonauclea kentii (Merr.)

Nauclea kentii Merr. Philip. Journ. Sci. Bot. 8: 43. 1913.

Philippines.

Neonauclea lanceolata (Blume)

Nauclea lanceolata Blume, Bijdr. 1010. 1826.

Bancalus qfflnis 0. Ktze. 'Rev. Gen. PL 1: 276. 1891.

Java.

MEKRILL: the generic name NAUCLEA of LINNAEUS 541

Neonauclea media (Havil.)

Xauclea media Havil. Journ. Linn. Soe. Bot. 33: 56. 1897.

Philippines.

Neonauclea mindanaensis (A [err.)

Naudea mindanaensis Merr. Philip. Journ. Sci. Bot. 8: 44. 1913.

Philippines.

Neonauclea mollis (Blume)

Naudea mollis Blume, Bijdr. 1010. 1826.

Bancalus mollis O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. PI. 1: 277. 1891.

Java.

Neonauclea moluccana (Miq.)

Naudea moluccana Miq. Ann. ]\Ius. Bot. Lugd.-Bat. 4: 183. 1868-69.

Buru.

Neonauclea monocephala (Merr.)

Naudea monocephala j\Ierr. PhiUp. Journ. Sci. Bot. 8: 44. 1913.

Philippines.

Neonauclea morindaefolia (Blume)

Naudea morindaejolia Blume, Bijdr. 1011. 1826.

Java.

Neonauclea nicobarica (Havil.)

Naudea nicobarica Havil. Journ. Linn. Soe. Bot. 33: 59. 1897.

Nicobar Islands.

Neonauclea nitida (Havil.)

Naudea nitida Havil. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 33: 53. 1897.

Philippines.

Neonauclea obtusa (Blume)

Naudea obtusa Blume, Bijdr. 1009. 1826.

Bancalus obtusus O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. PI. 1: 277. 1891.

Bancalus cordatus O. Ktze. op. cit. 276. 1891.

Java and Sumatra.

Neonauclea ovata (Merr.)

Naudea ovata Merr. Philip. Journ. Sci. Bot. 8: 42. 1913.

Philippines.

Neonauclea pallida (Reinw.)

Naudea pallida Reinw. ex Blume Cat. Gew. Buitenzorg 38. 1823.

Sumatra and Java. /

Neonauclea peduncularis (G. Don)

Naudea peduncularis G. Don, Gen. Syst. 3: 469. 1834.

Bancalus peduncularis 0. Ktze. Rev. Gen. PI. 1: 277. 1891.

Malav Peninsula and Borneo.

542 meerill: the generic name nauclea of linnaeus

Neonauclea philippinensis (Vidal)

Adina philippinensis Vidal, Rev. PI. Vase. Filip. 148. 1886.

Nauclea philippinensis Havil. Journ. Linn. 8oe. Bot. 33: 52. 1897.

Philippines.

Neonauclea puberula (Merr.)

Nauclea puberula Merr. Philip. Journ. Sci. Bot. 8: 41. 1913.

Philippines. «

Neonauclea reticulata (Havil.)

Nauclea reticulata Havil. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 33: 62. 1897.

? Nauclea formicaria Elm. Leafl. Phihp. Bot. 3: 989. 1911.

Philippines.

TQ'eonauclea sessilifolia (Roxb.)

Nauclea sessilifolia Roxb. Fl. Ind. ed. Carey 1: 515. 1832.

India and Cochin China.

Neonauclea strigosa (Korth.)

'Nauclea strigosa Korth. Verh. Nat. Gesch. Bot. 157. 1840.

Bancalus strigosus 0. Ktze. Rev. Gen. PI. 1: 277. 1891.

Borneo and the Philippines.

Neonauclea synkorynes (Korth.)

Nauclea synkorynes Korth. Verh. Nat. Gesch. Bot. 160. 1840.

Bancalus synkorynes O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. PI. 1: 277. 1891.

Borneo, Celebes, and Cambodia.

Neonauclea tenuis (Havil.)

Nauclea tenuis Havil. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 33: 55. 1897.

New Guinea.

Neonauclea venosa (Merr.)

Nauclea venosa Merr. Philip. Journ. Sci. Bot. 8: 45. 1913.

Philippines.

Neonauclea vidalii (Elm.)

Nauclea vidalii Elm. Leafl. Philip. Bot. 1: 16. 1906.

Philippines.

Neonauclea wenzelii (Merr.)

Nauclea wenzelii Merr. Philip. Journ. Sci. Bot. 9: 386. 1914.

Philippines.

Neonauclea zeylanica (Hook, f.)

Nauclea zeylanica Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3: 26. 1880.

Bancalus zeylanicus O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. PI. 1: 277. 1891.

Ceylon.

FEWKES: UNIT TYPE OF PUEBLO ARCHITECTUEE 543

ANTHROPOLOGY.— r/ie origin of the unit type of Pueblo

K

architecture.^ J. Walter Fewkes, Bureau of American

Ethnology.

An important step in the study of the origin of the pueblos

of our Southwest was the recognition, by Dr. T. Mitchell Prudden,

of the ''unit type," from which more complex architectural

forms may have been evolved. This ''unit type, " so well defined

by him,- consists of a row of rooms with consolidated walls and

extensions at right angles from each end, directly in front of which

is a circular subterranean ceremonial chamber, or kiva, and near

by a cemeter}^ with other features. Another important advance

in the study of pueblos was the recognition of the existence of an

architectural type known as the pre-puebloan, preceding the

"unit type." The object of the present paper is to consider a

cause that may have developed the "unit type" of habitation

from the pre-puebloan.

The accepted classification of our Southwestern sedentary

Indians inhabiting terraced houses is based on differences in

their languages, and includes the following stocks: Tanoan

(Tewa, Tigua, Piros), Keresan, Zufii, and Hopi, to which list

may be added others now extinct.

It is evident that in ancient times each of these linguistic

stocks inhabited a much larger area than its descendants, or

those speaking the above-mentioned languages, now occupy.

We know of a diminution in the number of villages, not only

from legendary accounts, supplemented by archaeological data,

but also from historical evidences. The number of inhabited

villages in the Rio Grande region recorded in 1540 was larger

than that existing at the present day. The rate of decrease of

certain Pueblo stocks in historical times may even be determined,

and the probability is that the number of inhabited pueblos in

prehistoric times was considerably larger than when they were

first visited by white men, although many were in ruins even at

that time. We are hardly justified in supposing that the people

'■ Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

2 American Anthropologist, n. s., 5: 224. 1903; ibid., 16: 33. 1914.

544 FEWKES: UNIT TYPE OF PUEBLO ARCHITECTURE

who lived in all buildings now ruins spoke one of the surviving

languages; or at all events we have not sufficient data to decide

to what linguistic stock many of them should be assigne.d. The

existing classification of Pueblos, according to Major Powell,

is one of languages, not cultures ; for linguistic data are not com-

prehensive enough to include culture areas of Pueblos of the past.

The first archaeological feature to be considered in a classi-

fication based on the culture of people whose language is unknown

is architecture, the character of the houses. Sufficient evidence

is accumulating to show that a greater uniformity existed in build-

ings in the earliest times than later in their history. The most

ancient people of our Southwest inhabited a type of dwelling

which differed greatly from a Gila compound, like Casa Grande,

and from a terraced pueblo, like Laguna. We find evidences of

the existence of prehistoric dwellings, subterranean rooms of

circular or rectangular forms, and of simple buildings above

ground whose walls were constructed of stones or of logs with

entwined twigs plastered with clay. Evidences may be adduced

to show that there formerly existed in what is now called the

pueblo area an antecedent more or less uniform culture, called the

pre-puebloan, in which habitations were solitary, the rooms un-

connected and one story high. This pre-puebloan type of halDi-

tation is widespread; it has been reported even from localities

where the true pueblo style of building was later evolved, while

on the periphery of the pueblo area the single one-house type

survived into historic times and was never submerged by more

complex forms. This early simple style, recognized by Mr. C.

Mindeleff, Baron Nordenskiold, Gushing and others, is here re-

garded as the nucleus from which later types have sprung.

When we examine the present distribution of ruins in our

Southwest it is found that they fall geographically into northern

and southern groups, separated by a line extending from Fort

Graig on the Rio Grande, along the rim of the Mogollons to Oak

Greek, Arizona, and thence north to the mouth of the Little

Golorado. One of these areas may be called the northern, the

other the southern. They differ in climatic, biologic, and other

environmental conditions, to which may be traced in part marked

FEWKES: UNIT TYPE OF PUEBLO ARCHITECTURE 545

cultural differences. The most ancient habitations of both

these areas have architectural features in common, as simple

houses, and natural and artificial cave-dwellings. There exist also

marked architectural differences; in the south the dwellings are

large and isolated, grouped into rancherias, or, when communal,

contracted into compact blocks of rooms. The inhabitants of

these buildings looked for protection to the latter or to fortifi-

cations called trincheras, situated on the neighboring hillsides.

They had no specialized ceremonial rooms, called kivas, and few

if any of the ruins were terraced or had more than one story.

The dwelling of the southern group closely resembles those of

an early epoch, of which they may be a survival or of a time when

there were slight differences in the buildings in the several geo-

graphical regions of the Southwest. A close similarity exists

between these earliest habitations and those of southern Cali-

fornia or of the plains east of the pueblo region. In course of

development, differentiation, however, soon came about by

reason of climatic influences and the pressure of hostile tribes,

the nature of which in the southern area does not concern us in

this discussion.

Did the terraced compact form of architecture in the north

aAd the isolated type of dwellings with communal houses in the

south arise independently in these two regions, or was one evolved

from the other? ^ Aly answer would be that there is no relation

of sequence, but that each originated independently and developed

from a common type. The pueblo form was not due to extra-

territorial influences from the southern area, as suggested by some

archeologists, but is the result of local growth through a stage

when defence was necessary. We need not follow those who

regard the ''unit type'" as a cultural phase, but may look upon it

as a cultural stage from which the pueblo evolved. But here we

must discriminate, for there are cliff-habitations on the Upper

Gila and in the Sierra Madre in Mexico that are morphologically

different from those of the Mesa Verde, Colorado, and those

along the San Juan. These latter cliff-dwellings are stages in

the development of terraced pueblos; the former may have been

phases of architecture adapted to use in caves.

546 FEWKES: UNIT TYPE OF PUEBLO ARCHITECTUEE

An important contribution to our knowledge of prehistoric

culture evolution in the Southwest is the recognition that form

and symbolic designs on prehistoric pottery are more important

than color, in a determination of chronology. When we study

the geographical distribution of designs on food bowls and vases,

we find it possible to identify roughly the pre-puebloan, partially

by color and form, but mainly by the character of ceramic sym-

bolism, which gives a cultural classification corresponding with

that built on architectural features. The various complicated

types of designs appearing in the several regions are comparatively

late in evolution; with this diversity there exist certain common

geometrical designs almost identical throughout the whole South-

west. There are localities in which these simple geometrical

forms make up the majority of decorative motives;^ there are

others in which they are subordinate to, or more or less replaced

by, a specialized symbolism characteristic of different regions.

It is a significant fact that while geometrical decoration reached

a high development in cliff-houses, what is most important is that

such designs as life figures rarely occur there, although abundant

in pueblos which are believed to be of later development. The

designs on cliff-dwellers' pottery are practically pre-puebloan

survivals.

Objections may be made to the statement that the pre-

puebloan culture is characterized by the geometrical nature of

pottery designs and a poverty of life figures, since the inhabit-

ants of the Mimbres valley decorated their bowls with a wealth

of human and animal designs unsurpassed in the Southwest;

especially as it has been held elsewhere that the prehistoric

inhabitants of the Mimbres were not Pueblos, but belonged to

an earlier culture. The Mimbres people were not in the evolu-

tionary series above considered; their geometrical designs on

pottery are radically different from the so-called pre-puebloan

of the north.

^ As a rule, black and white ware is archaic and older than red, or polychrome,

and the prevailing decorations on it are geometric designs. It is essentially

cliff-dwelling pottery, but not confined to caves.

FEWKES: UNIT TYPE OF PUEBLO ARCHITECTURE 547

The conclusion arrived at by a comparative study of the

simple or complicated designs on cliff-dwellers' pottery is that

they represent a past stage of culture, and that the presence

of the same in pueblo ruins accompanied by more complicated

designs, realistic or symbolic, is a survival.

Bearing in mind what is said above, let us pass to the con-

sideration of the causes that have led to the formation of the

''unit type" from the pre-puebloan. The main cause is a desire

for protection from enemies, which led to the choice of sites for

habitations on inaccessible mesa tops or in caves. In some

instances the "unit type" was formed in the open, directly from

the pre-puebloan, but in certain localities it was developed in

caves.

Nordenskiold seems to the author to have expressed better

than any other archeologist the cause which developed the pueblo

form of architecture. He writes: "The manner in which the

villages are built, the numerous small rooms huddled together

in one large structure, and the several stories rising in terraces

one above another can be explained only on the assumption

that this architecture was developed during the construction

of houses in the caves, where the crowded grouping of the apart-

ments and the erection of several stories were necessitated by

the confined space. This circumstance has already been pointed

out by Cushing with respect to the Zuni villages."^ The author

regrets that this writer has not discussed more at length the

evidences which led him to state so confidently that there was

a secondary occupation of some of the cliff-houses of the Mesa

Verde. He writes "We are forced to conclude that they [cliff-

houses] were abandoned later than the villages on the mesa,"

and, later, "they [cliff -houses] were first abandoned, and had

partly fallen into ruin, but were subsequently repeopled, new

walls being now erected on the ruins of the old." The rea-

son for this belief he briefly states to be the ''superposition

of walls constructed with the greatest proficiency on others built

in a more primitive fashion." This difference in masonry might

^ The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde. Stockholm, 1893.

548 FEWKEs: rxiT type of pueblo architecture

account for a later rebuilding of a room, rather than abandon-

ment and secondary occupation of a cliff-house, but even that is

a doubtful interpretation, for foundation walls were often more

roughly constructed than those built upon them, at the same

epoch. It is still an open question whether such a ruin as Com-

munity House, on the Mesa Verde, was abandoned earlier than

the neighboring Cliff Palace. The author has seen no adequate

evidence to prove that the Mesa Verde cliff -houses were deserted

later than the villages on the Mesa.^

In southern Colorado and northern Arizona, where caves are

especially commodious and abundant, pre-puebloan man moved

into them for protection from foes, building his single-roomed

isolated dwelling in one of the most convenient.*^ Later his

clan or family was joined by others or increased naturally in

numbers. Rooms to accommodate the increase multiplied until

the floor space of the cave, which at first was ample for founda-

tions of habitations, became too small, and the houses were

crowded together; later the people were so hard pushed for space

upon which to build their habitations that they were obliged,

when cave floors failed, to erect rooms on the roofs of houses

already occupied, thus imparting a terraced form to the structure.

' This of course does not mean that now and then there has not been a second-

ary occupation of certain well known cliff-houses; thus the Asa clans of the Hopi

inhal)ited caves in Chelly canyon well into the historic epoch. The pre-puebloan

houses were of course abandoned when their inhabitants moved into the cliffs.

^ The cliff-pueblos of the Navajo National Park, in northern Arizona, have

several architectural features different from those of the Mesa Verde, but show

the transition from a pre-puebloan habitation to the "unit type." The construc-

tion of rooms and kivas in this region is much ruder, the walls as a rule being made

of undressed stones, or of clay or adobe laid on wattles, supported by upright

logs. A circular ceremonial opening corresponding to a Hopi or Mesa Verde

sipapu has not yet been described or figured from this region, although there

are depressions in the floors of some of the rooms which have been given that

name. The feature in a kiva which the author identifies as the same as the sipapu

of the Hopi kiva is a small circular hole having a diameter of a few inches, situated

in the floor about midway between the fireplace and the kiva wall, on the side

opposite the deflector. Other holes or depressions are also found in kiva floors.

Some of these, as fire-holes, may be ceremonially known as si papas. These are

not the same, however, as the sii)iipus of the Hopi kivas, nor have they the same

syml)olic interpretation.

FEWKES: UNIT TYPE OF PrEBLO ARCHITECTURE 549

Thus the restricted area of the cave led to modification of

the pre-puebloan type of dwelhngs and developed them into

terraced communal houses since called the ''unit type." Secur-

ity dependent on life in caves having become less necessary on

account of the increase of numbers, the cliff-dwellers later moved

out of the caves to sites on the mesa tops, and afterwards into

the vallej^s, carrying with them this type of architecture, born

in caves. Through conservatism they still retained this "unit

type," which was partially preserved by the matriarchal system

of house holding and clan descent, even after several "unit types"

had united to form a complex modern pueblo.

The question naturally arises : Which of the surviving linguistic

stocks above mentioned may be regarded as nearest related to

that of the early culture when the "unit type" originated?

Studies of the migration stories, myths, and ceremonies still

surviving among the Hopi and the Zuni point to the so-called

Keres as the most ancient linguistic stock. This stock is now

shrunken in its distribution, surviving in the pueblos of Laguna,

Cochiti, Acoma, Sia, Santo Domingo, and a few smaller \'illages.

The cultural center of the area in which the "unit type"' originated

was the San Juan, the Chaco, and Chelly canyons, and the valley

of the Puerco. The Keres pueblos are situated approximately

on its southern boundary, while on the east side their influence

extended as far as the Rio Grande or crossed to the left bank.

Survivals of this stock are still represented in many pueblos,

speaking other Pueblo languages, showing that Keresan clans

were widely distributed in prehistoric times. It is probable that

colonies from its cultural center migrated into northern Arizona,

and that some of its clans followed down the San Juan river to

the region now occupied by the Hopi villages. Keresan colonies

were planted near Zuiii and contributed originally to the modi-

fication of this pueblo, the nucleus of which, as shown by

Gushing, was a group of clans from the Gila basin migrating

by way of the Little Colorado.

The cause of the origin of the several minor forms in pueblo

architecture is' secondary to that which led to the evolution of

the "unit type;"" for instance, in the ancient Keres culture area

550 FEWKES: UNIT TYPE OF PUEBLO ARCHITECTURE

there are rectangular ruins, round ruins, and circular kivas of

subterranean character, as well as the terraced houses which

distinguish the consolidated community dwellings. Archaic

pueblo cults, as those of the Snake dances (Acoma, Sia, Laguna,

and Hopi), some of which are extinct, and others (as of the Hopi)

still celebrated, distinguish in a measure the ancient pre-puebloan,

and were transmitted into Keres culture.^

There are not enough data at hand to show that the Keresan

language was once spoken on the San Juan or throughout north-

ern New Mexico or southern Colorado; legends declare that

Keresan colonists have introduced Keresan rites, songs, and

prayers in the distant pueblos Zuni and Hopi, and elsewhere.

While we may never know the speech of the ancient pre-puebloan

inhabitants or of the cliff-dwellers, there are legends among

Pueblos that their ancestors inhabited caves, and strangely

enough the Navajo Indians have a like legend for their oldest

clan.

The area above identified shows evidences of long occupation

by man, and in it occur some of the finest terraced-house ruins

in the Southwest. Although it is commonly believed that

the particular form of buildings that characterize the pueblos

was derived from Mexico, there is little in comparative data to

support this conclusion. Aboriginal terraced buildings are not

found in Mexico or in Cahfornia.* It is more probable that this

^ The known association of Snake dances and Snake clans and their presence

in the Keresan pueblos Sia, Acoma, and old Laguna, as well as at Hopi, may

play an important role, when enough data are collected to permit an intelligent

discussion of the theory of a close kinship between the inhabitants of the San

Juan pueblos and the Keres and Shoshoneans (as Paiute and others). The Hopi

claim that their Snake clan and its festival, the Snake dance, came from Toko-

nabi on the San Juan, and that the Acoma Snake dance, now extinct, came from

the same region.

^ The observation that "casas grandes a la manera de los de la Nueva Espana,"

and "pueblo-like" settlements are found on the California coast, as stated by

Cabrillo (Doc. Ined. de Indias, 3: 401, 412-13; 5: 491; 14: 177, 181.) is believed

to be too indefinite to support the theory that terraced pueblos were intended.

The ruins Quiarra and Abojo in Lower California, mentioned by Johann Xantus

(Globus, 1861, p. 143), and referred to pueblos by Fritz Krause, in his excellent

monograph on pueblos, are not terraced, and do not belong to the true pueblo

type as limited by the author of the present article.

FEWKES: UNIT TYPE OF PUEBLO ARCHITECTURE 551

unique culture was autochthonous, being largely due to environ-

ment. Judging from the characteristics of the ruins and the

evidences of their antiquity, it is much more likely that the ter-

raced-house architecture in our Southwest arose in a region of

caves like those of the San Juan, and reached its highest develop-

ment in the Chaco canyon, or in the Rio Grande valle3^ Where-

ever we find this peculiar form outside this area it can be traced

either to the influence of colonists that had migrated from this

center of distribution or to transmission of cultural ideas.

But the Keresan were not the only group of ancient seden-

tary people with community dwellings, in the Southwest. Com-

pact buildings existed along the Gila river, in early times, and

dwellings ascribed to another stock are found in the Rio Grande

valley. Prominent among the latter may be mentioned an-

cestors of a Tanoan people who inhabited northern New Mexico ;

valleys peopled by them extend along the upper Rio Grande

valley, from Taos to Isleta, and as far west as Jemez. In the

early days the Tanoans also probably did not build terraced

houses or pueblos; they may have become acquainted with this

specialized architecture, and circular ceremonial rooms, or

kivas, through association with other peoples, or even have ac-

quired it independently. There are at the present time evidences

of variation in the composition of this people, which is believed

to have originated from a mixture of Tanoans with Keresan

clans and wilder nomads from the Great Plains or elsewhere.

So great was the mixture that the various members of the Tanoan

stock speak widely divergent dialects of the Tewa language, as

evidenced by the Taos and Isleta.

The third of the great prehistoric culture areas of the South-

west, the inhabitants of which were linguistically allied to the

Tanoan, especially Jemez, once extended from the pueblo Pecos,

a few miles east of Santa Fe, to the border of Texas, ^ following

down the Pecos river, which practically forined its eastern border,

and extending through the salt regions (Salinas) near Alama-

gordo, on the eastern side. The pre-puebloan habitations of

5 A ruin is marked on the "Engineer's Map" (1877) on the Pecos in Texas,

but this site has not been verified.

552 FEWKES: UNIT TYPE OF PUEBLO ARCHITECTURE

this area were clusters of houses, generally isolated, which in

some places, however, had been built closer together, either

for protection or because of the influx of Pueblos. This was

practically a region of agricultural tribes and buffalo hunters. i"

Bordering the prehistoric Keres on the south and the west

we find evidences of the existence of an extensive population

along the headwaters of the Gila and the Little Colorado, includ-

ing the inhabitants of several fertile valleys along numerous

tributaries. The language spoken in this region is unknown,

and the culture has not been connected with any special pueblo

area, but this culture was greatly modified by admixture with

incoming Keres and Tewa clans. Zuiii, on a tributary of the

Little Colorado, was modified, as shown by Mr. Cushing, by

clans of Keres stock that inhabited the "round" ruined pueblos,"

and later by Tanoan elements, which joined it not long before

1540, the beginning of the historic epoch.

A word should be said, in closing this brief discussion, on the

relation of the Casa Grande or "compound type,"^- characteristic

of the Gila and Salt River valleys, and the pueblo proper. This

architectural type, like the true pueblo, originated independently

in the valley in which it is. now found. The interpretation of

its relation to the true pueblo is that both were evolved from a

common pre-existing type, the so-called pre-puebloan.

The same explanation of independent origin holds also in re-

gard to Sierra Madre plateau, or "Casas Grandes" type, and

that found among the prehistoric inhabitants of the Mimbres

valley, southern New Mexico. This latter culture, like terraced

pueblos, was evolved independently in the valley in which its

remains are now found. It likewise was preceded by a culture

comparable, in architectural features, with the pre-puebloan,

a type represented by great buildings, Casa Grandes, in the

south, and highly developed pottery symbols in the north.

1" The Pecos language survived to within a few years in a small, extra-terri-

torial village on the Rio Grande near El Paso, but is now extinct.

'iMatyata ("Archeotekopa"), Jour. Amer. Arch. Eth., 1: 2. 1891.

'2 The "compound" type is so clearly defined in the author's report on Casa

Grande (28th Ann. Rept. Bureau of American Ethnology) that only confusion

will result if true pueblos are designated "compounds."

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The 98th meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences, a joint

meeting with the Biological Society, was held on Thursday, March 11,

1915, at 8.30 p.m. in the Auditorium of the New National Museum.

Mr. Wilfred H. Osgood, of the Field Museum of Natural History,

gave a lecture on Fur seals and other animals on the Priblof Islands.

Mr. Osgood was engaged in a special investigation of the fur seal

question for the Department of Commerce during the summer ' of

1914, and therefore had had unusual opportunities to become well

informed on this subject, which he discussed from both the biological

and economic standpoints. The life history of the seal and other ani-

mals that inhabit or frequent the Priblofs was explained and made

especially vivid by numerous lantern slides and by motion pictures.

The 99th meeting of the Academy was held Thursday, March 18,

1915, at 4.45 p.m., in the Auditorium of the New National Museum.

Dr. Arthur L. Day, Director of the Geophysical Laboratory of the

Carnegie Institution, gave an illustrated lecture on The volcano Kilauea

in action. Dr. Day explained that the somewhat hazardous and un-

comfortable trip into the crater was made for the purpose of studying

the processes, chemical and physical, that take place in active volcanoes.

By the accidental formation of a lava dome over active molten lava a

rare opportunity was offered, and fully utihzed, for collecting a con-

siderable quantity of volcanic gases before there had been any opportun-

ity for contamination with the atmosphere. These had been studied

in detail and, among other important results, the presence of consider-

able quantities of water vapor definitely confirmed.

The 100th meeting of the Academy was held Thursday, March 25,

1915, at 4.45 p.m. in the Auditorium of the New National Museum.

Dr. N. A. Cobb, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, gave an illustrated

lecture on Nematodes, their relations to mankind and to agriculture.

It was explained that nematodes are amost universal in distribution;

that they abound in every soil, swarm in the depths of the ocean, prey

on all vegetation, infest animals of every species and man of every race.

If forests and cities should disappear, leaving behind only their nema-

todes, it would be quite possible for the scientist, judging by the num-

bers and the species involved, accurately to locate not only every one

of the lost cities and every vanished forest, but even in great measure,

553

554 proceedings: the Washington academy of sciences

the streets, the kinds of trees and other details. As abundantly demon-

strated, the subject of nematodes, in addition to its unusual scientific

interest, is also of great economic importance.

The 101st meeting of the Academy was held Thursday, April 1,

1915, at 4.45 p.m., in the Auditorium of the New National Museum.

Dr. Charles E. Munroe, Dean of Graduate Studies, George Wash-

ington University, gave an illustrated lecture on High explosives and

their effects. The nature of an explosion was made clear by reference

to combustion, and the way in which it is facilitated by subdivision of

the combustible. The history of each of the more important explo-

sives was given. Its chemical structure, the process of its manufac-

ture, and its uses, both in civil operations and in warfare, were all fully

explained. In several cases the original ingredients and the final

compound were all shown. Many surprising results produced by high

explosives were illustrated by lantern slides, and a remarkable series

of iron plates was exhibited on which high explosives had left impressions

of leaves, laces, and other relatively soft and delicate objects.

The 102d meeting of the Academy was held Thursday, April 8,

1915, at 4.45 p.m., in the Auditorium of the New National Museum.

Mr. W. D. Hunter, of the Bureau of Entomology, gave a lecture on

hisects and their relation to disease. It was shown that with the dis-

covery of Pasteur the empirical age of medicine began gradually to

be replaced by an exact knowledge of the cause of disease and an under-

standing, in many cases, of how to prevent it. A further great advance

was made when it was clearly recognized that of several of the more

formidable diseases, such as malaria, yellow fever, bubonic plague,

sleeping sickness, and typhus fever, each depends not only for its trans-

mission but even for its existence upon one or another species of insects;

while still others, of which diphtheria and typhoid fever are typical

examples, are similarly spread from place to place. Hence the relation

of insects to disease is of the greatest importance. Sanitation, the pre-

vention of epidemics, and the reduction of disease to a minimum is,

therefore, a biological rather than a medical problem.

The 103d meeting of the Academy was held Thursday, April 15,

1915, at 8.30 p.m., in the Auditorium of the New National Museum.

Dr. R. S. Woodward, President of the Carnegie Institution, gave a

lecture on The Earth. The dimensions and mass of the Earth were given

in terms of ordinary familiar units and, therefore, for the most part in

exceedingly large numbers. The Earth was conveniently divided

into four distinct but very unequal parts, namely: The atmosphere,

concerning whose upper or outer portion but little is known; the hy-

drosphere, essentially the oceans, which in many respects is well known;

the Hthosphere, or rocky crust, also comparatively well known; and the

centrosphere, or all that part of the earth below its rocky shell. In

comparison with the other parts almost nothing is known of the

centrosphere.

W. J. Humphreys, Recording Secretary.

proceedings: philosophical society 555

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 754th meetmg was held on March 13, 1915, at the Cosmos Club,

President Eichelberger in the chair; 50 persons present.

Mr. G. K. Burgess gave an illustrated account of Some researches

in metals at the Bureau of Standards, descril^ing investigations now

being carried out on the preparation, properties, and failure of metals

and alloys. The methods developed for determining critical ranges

with the thermoelectric and resistance pyrometers and their applica-

tion to pure iron in w^hich the characteristics of the A2 and A3 trans-

formations were brought out, were described. The application of the

micropyrometer to the determination of monochromatic emissivities

of metals and oxides in the solid and liquid states were demonstrated

in the range 900° to 1700°C. Cooperative work with some of the

technical societies in the preparation of alloys and the determination

of suitable specifications for typical bronzes and brasses was described.

A study of the volatilization of various grades of platinum ware with

the object of forming a basis for defining the quality of such ware for

exact chemical analysis has been made. Investigations are being made

on the causes of failure of railway rails, the deterioration of fusible tin

boiler plugs, and failures of wrought bronzes and brasses used in engineer-

ing construction. The paper was discussed by Messrs. White and C. A.

Briggs with references to improved method for casting steel ingots and

the precise character of stresses in bronze bolts and bars.

Mr. W. Bowie then gave an illustrated account of The errors of

precise leveling. Very accurate determinations of elevations above

some adopted datum have been made possible by the great improve-

ments of the wye level during the past half century. In 1912 the

International Geodetic Association defined leveling of high precision

as that which must have a probable accidental error not greater than

1 mm. per kilometer and a probable systematic error not greater than

0.2 mm. per kilometer. The effect of most of the errors of precise

leveling can be eliminated by the method employed. There are, how-

ever, errors of refraction in leveling on steep slopes which depend upon

the time of day and the weather conditions. It is concluded from an

investigation carried on at the Coast and Geodetic Survey that, on an

average, the afternoon running gives a greater difference in elevation

between two points than a morning running. The difference is greater

in cloudy than in sunshiny or clear weather. It is also greater during

wind than in calm. The speaker is of the opinion that the runnings in

the afternoon in wind and in cloudy weather give results nearer the

truth than in the forenoon in calm and in sunshiny weather. In the

discussion Mr. Winston gave some details of leveling across Florida;

Mr. Burgess referred to possible lines across Mexico and the Isthmus

of Panama for determining possil^le difference in the ocean levels;

Mr. SosMAN raised question as to difference of results with time particu-

larly on the Atlantic Coast; Mr. Burgess referred to possible effect of

expansion coefficients of materials in ground on values. Mr. Bowie ■

556 proceedings: philosophical society

stated that some redeterminations of elevations for old Coast and

Geodetic Survey marks by the New York City survey indicated no differ-

ences with time for stations set on solid rock; for one at Sandy Hook

a subsidence of 0.35 foot is indicated; there is probably no error on

account temperature changes because of constant conditions at slight

depth and rapidity with which work is done.

The 755th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 27, 1915,

President Eichelberger in the chair; 62 persons present.

Mr. C. G. Abbot spoke on Recent progress in astronomy . The speaker

summarized briefly results of recent discussion placing total number

of stars between 1 and 2 million, and determinations of proper motions

and stellar drifts, reviewing particularly the work of Boss. Attention

was called to work on star spectra by Pickering and the types of spectra;

the excellent agreement for position of apex of solar motion by measure-

ments from displacement of spectrum lines by Pickering and from

Boss' discussion of star groups was pointed out. A brief review of our

knowledge of star distances and the methods for determining them

was given.

Mr. L. J. Briggs then presented an illustrated paper on A new method

for measuring gravity at sea. The necessit}^ of measuring the boiling-

point of water in connection with barometer readings in determining

gravity at sea can be eliminated by the use of an apparatus in principle

similar to a closed barometer, maintained at constant temperature.

This was the method employed, the apparatus in addition being so de-

signed that the enclosed mass of gas supporting the mercury column

always occupied the same volume at the time of making the observa-

tions. This avoids the necessity of measuring volume changes, and

doubles the sensitiveness of the apparatus. The apparatus was con-

structed of glass and consisted of a capillary mercurial column to reduce

pumping, which expanded at the top into an evacuated spherical bulb,

while the lower end of the column opened below a mercury surface in

the pressure chamber. The evacuated bulb contained at its center a

fixed reference point. Above the air chamljer the capillary was bent into

a zigzag spring which allowed a small vertical adjustment of the ol)-

serving bulb, controlled by a micrometer screw. In making an observa-

tion the bulb was so adjusted that the mercury surface was barely in

contact with the fixed point. This confined the gas always to the same

volume. The height of column was then read from the micrometer

head. This arrangement avoids the necessity of any measurement of

the position of the lower mercury surface. The whole apparatus can

thus be kept surrounded by melting ice, which was used to maintain

constant temperature. On board ship, the apparatus was swung on

gimbals to secure verticalitj^, and suspended from spiral springs to

reduce vibration. Observations were made daily between Tahiti and

San Francisco. The results indicate a slight excess of mass in this part

of the ocean, particularly in latitude 16° to 24° north, and longitude

130° to 135° west. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Abbot, Mar-

proceedings: philosophical society 557

viN, Paul, Wenner, Swann, and C. A. Briggs, particularly with refer-

ence to correction on account of velocity of ship, pumping effects and

damping by decreasing diameter of capillary tube, correction due to

mean variation of instrument from vertical, and effect of non-uniformity

in ice packing.

The 756th meeting was held on April 10, 1915, at the Cosmos Club,

President Eichelberger in the chair; 43 persons present.

Mr. W. BoW'iE spoke on Geodetic work of the Coast and Geodetic

Survey. Reference was made to the measurement of arcs in Europe

in the 17th and 18th centuries, but for lack of time the history during

the ages before the 19th century was not dwelt upon. The problems

before the geodesist today were presented. Some of the earlier prob-

lems have been solved, the measurement of base lines l^eing one of

them. The nickel-steel (invar) tapes and wires now in general use

give results which are entirely satisfactory. The illustrations showed

the instruments used in the several branches of geodetic surveying and

the field methods were described. Every effort is made by the Survey

to reduce the unit costs of the work without decreasing the accuracy

of the results. The motor truck has been used successful^ as the

means of transportation for several seasons. Three of them will be used

by the primary triangulation party this year on the Utah-Idaho line.

Aside fr-om the scientific value of the geodetic surveys they have great

practical value, for they furnish the fundamental control for maps and

surveys made by government and private organizations. The paper

was discussed by Messrs. Winston, Curtis, Priestly, and L. A.

Fischer.

Mr. R. B. Sosman then presented a paper by himself and Mr. J. C.

Hostetter entitled Note on the magnetic properties of iron dissolved in

ylatinum. This paper is printed in the Journal of the Washington

Academy of Sciences, 5: 293. 1915. The communication was dis-

cussed by Messrs. Burgess and Swann.

Mr. H. E. Merwin then spoke on Chromatic reflection of covellite.

(Published in the Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 5:

341-344. 1915.) The paper was discussed by Messrs. Humphreys,

Priestly, and C. A. Briggs.

Mr. G. W. ViNAL then spoke on The solubility of metallic silver in

distilled water. The practice of nearly all observers with the silver

voltameter has been to continue the washing of the deposit until the

presence of silver nitrate can no longer be detected in the wash waters

by chemical tests, but many haye taken the further precaution of allow-

ing distilled water to stand on the deposit for a considerable period of

time. As a test on the completeness of the washing. Prof. G. A. Hulett

and the speaker compared the conductivity of the water before being

put in the cup with its conductivity after it had stood in the cup for

various periods of time. In every case the conductivity increased

with time. It was at first supposed that this increase was due to

entrapped silver nitrate gradually soaking out, as the silver in the

558 proceedings: philosophical society

water could be detected after allowing the water to stand over night.

All subsequent experiments showed that this is not the case, but rather

that an electrolytic process was taking place by which the silver was

passing into solution at the rate of about 0.006 mg. per hour from a

4 gram deposit of silver on platinum. Confirming this it was shown

by a galvanometer that a current actually passed from the silver through

the water to the platinum. In washing the deposits over night this

effect becomes appreciable. The paper was discussed by Messrs.

BuEGEss and C. A. Briggs.

Mr. M. James then spoke on .4 conducting paint. An electrically

conducting paint has been obtained through the action of hydro-

chloric acid on bronze powder. The resistance of a paint film depends

largely upon the surface to be painted. The resistance increases with

time; the rate of change, however, decreasing. For such surfaces as

glass, wood, and paper, the resistance increases about 30 per cent in

two months, and then is fairly constant. The resistivity of a painted

surface is about 1000 times that of copper. The paper was discussed

by Messrs. Swann. Priestly, and Bessaches.

The 757th meeting Avas held on May 8, 1915, at the Bureau of Stand-

ards, President Eichelberger in the chair; about 90 persons present.

President Eichelberger called upon Vice-President Humphreys to take

the chair for the meeting. Mr. Humphreys introduced the speaker

of the evening. Prof. E. Northrup, of Princeton University, who gave

an experimental lecture on Some physical properties of matter at high

temperatures. Temperature was defined as a condition of matter which

results from the disorganized motion of its molecules or atoms, as con-

trasted with any organized motion which is impressed upon a mass

as a whole. It was pointed out that any body tends to acquire a dis-

organized motion of its ultimate parts, called its temperature, because

this kind of motion is the most probable of all motions. A ''visil>le

molecules apparatus" was exhibited which illustrated the above con-

ception of temperature as well as some of the fundamental principles

belonging to the kinetic theory of gases. With this apparatus, in which

16,000 one-sixteenth-inch steel balls were caused to move in the manner

of gas molecules, experiments were shown to illustrate change of pres-

sure with temperature, the voliunc being constant, and change of

volume with temperature the pressure being constant. With the aid

of accessories attached to this apparatus the viscosity of a gas was illus-

trated and an imitation was given of the Brownianniovements. Other

experiments which could be performed, with this apparatus were de-

scribed. It was stated that temperature was a unique condition of mat-

ter and that it affects its manifested properties more than any other

single condition to which matter may l)e subjected.

The problem of the electrical conduction of matter throughout

the producible temperature range of some 4000°C. was discussed.

Methods and apparatus were described and shown for experimentally

studying the electrical conduction of matter in its solid, liciuid, and

proceedings: philosophical society 559

vapor phases. Two types of furnaces were operated, to show the

production of very high temperatures. The advantage of using the

cascade principle of heating was explained and a tungsten wire 1 mm.

in diameter was melted in the cascade attachment to the larger model

furnace exhibited. It was pointed out that temperatures up to 1680°C.

may be accurately measured by means of the speaker's new type tin

pyrometer which makes use of the property possessed by molten tin

of increasing in resistance linearly with the temperature.

The characteristic facts of metallic conduction over a wide range

of temperature were explained and several curves were thrown on the

screen. The peculiarities of the electrical conduction of hot gases were

described and it was explained how the unstable character of gas con-

duction at very high temperature may be used to make a small fur-

nace act in the capacity of a telephone receiver and talk. The com-

monly accepted "free electron theory" of metallic conduction was ex-

plained and reasons given why the theory appears quite inadeciuate

to account for experimental facts. A new hypothesis, which the

speaker called the '"electric transport theory" of conduction, was

briefly explained. The lecture concluded with a plea for employing

experimental methods of investigation in acquiring new knowledge of

the properties of matter under all temperature conditions. As a final

experiment an electromagnetic piece of apparatus which the speaT^er

called "an electric Jack-in-the-box," was shown.

The Chair expressed to Professor Northrup the appreciation and

thanks of the meml^ers of the Society and guests present for his inter-

esting and instructive lecture and experiments.

The 758th meeting was held on May 22, 1915, at the Cosmos Club,

President Eichelberger in the chair; 30 persons present.

Mr. C. E. Van Orstrand presented a paper by himself and Mr.

F. P. Dewey entitled Preliminary report on the diffusion of solids.

The coefficients of diffusion of gold into lead at temperatures of 100°,

150°, and 197°C. were found to be in close agreement with values ob-

tained by Roberts-Austen. Preliminary tests on the variation with

pressure of the coefficients of diffusion of gold into lead were not conclu-

sive, but point to the possibility that the coefficient is increased. Va-

rious methods of determining the constants of the Fourier integral which

represents the dift'usion of heat and of. substances in solution were chs-

cussed for the case of constant initial quality. The exceptional agree-

ment between the observed and theoretical curves was emphasized.

The paper was cUscussed by Messrs. Humphreys and Swann.

Mr. H. C Dickinson then spoke on The specific heat of ice at tem-

peratures near the melting point, presenting results obtained in co-

operation with Mr. N. S. Osborne. (PubHshed in the Journal of the

Washington Academy of Sciences, 5: 338-340. 1915.)

Mr. W. D. Lambert then spoke on An exact formula for theoretical

gravity at the earth's surface. The mathematical expressions usually

given for the force of gravity at the earth's surface constitute only 2

560 proceedings: philosophical society

or 3 terms of an infinite series. An expression in closed form may be

derived, if it is assumed that the surface of the earth is an equipotential

surface having the form of an elhpsoid of revolution. The expression

for the surface gravity g is:

Vl - e" sin^ <p + mef (e) , ~ ^ =^ siir <p

Vl-e sin%

In this equation cjo is the force of gravity at the equator, e is the eccen-

tricity of a meridian ellipse, (p is the geographic latitude, m is ratio

of the centrifugal force at the equator to gravity there, and

the Q's being zonal harmonics of the second kind. An expression was

also derived for — , the rate of decrease of gravity with elevation above

the earth's surface, the results agreeing with those derived from a for-

mula given by Helmert. Attention was drawn to the fact that Hel-

mert's formula is really a geometrical interpretation of Laplace's equation

and hence is more general than might appear from Helmert's proof of

it. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Swann and L. J. Beiggs.

J. A. Fleming,

Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V OCTOBER 4, 1915 No. 16

PHYSICS. — A method for yneasuring Earth resistivity. Frank

Wenner, Bureau of Standards.

A knowledge of earth resistivity may be of value in determin-

ing something of its composition, such for example as moisture

content, whether or not it contains oil or ore of high conductivity,

etc., or in the calculation of damages to pipe systems by the

return current of street railway systems. For some of these

or other reasons we may wish to determine the resistivity of

limited portions of the earth.

For those cases in which we desire the resistivity of a fairly

large portion of earth, extending to a considerable depth, or where

there are reasons why the measurement should be made without

disturbing the portion to be measured, the following method is

suggested.

Four holes are made in the earth approximately uniformly

spaced in a straight line. The diameter of the holes is not

more than 10 per cent of the distance between them and all

extend to approximately the same depth, which is usually that

at which we are most concerned with the resistivity. In each

hole is placed an electrode which makes electrical contact with

the earth only near the bottom. Two of these electrodes serve

as current terminals and two as potential terminals in the meas-

urement of the resistance.

Knowing the resistance, the depth of the holes and the dis-

tance between them we have data from which the effective

resistivity in the vicinity can be calculated.

561

562 wenner: earth resistivity

In case a is the distance between the holes, h is the depth of

the holes, p is the resistivity, and R the measured resistance, then

4iTraR ^iraR ..s

p = = (1;

^ 2a _ 2a n

where n varies between 1 and 2 according to the ratio of the

depth of the electrodes to their distance apart. If the holes are

not in a straight line or are not of a uniform depth or spacing

the resistivity is easily calculated from the depth of each of the

holes and the distance of each from each of the other three.

Concerning the resistance measurements there is in general

no need for a high accuracy. There is therefore no reason why

we may not use an ammeter for measuring the current and a

voltmeter for measuring the resulting difference in potential

between the potential terminals, providing no current is drawn

from these terminals. As the voltage to be measured is low and

the resistance between electrodes and earth high, errors would be

introduced if the ammeter-voltmeter method were used in the

ordinary way.

The following potentiometer arrangement, using alternating

current to obviate the more serious difficulties which might arise

on account of polarization with direct current, seems to answer

the purpose fairly well. The current terminals or electrodes are

connected to a source of alternating voltage of suitable value,

and across the line is connected a step-down transformer, the

low voltage side of which is connected to the ends of a slide wire.

One of the potential terminals is connected to one end of the slide

wire and the other through a vibration galvanometer to the adjust-

able contact on the slide wire. An ammeter is connected into

a lead to one of the current terminals and a voltometer across

the ends of the slide wire. On account of the polarization at

the current electrodes a variable inductance is connected into

one end of the leads, for the purpose of bringing the test current

in phase with the voltage of the low side of the transformer.

SOSMAN, HOSTETTER, MERWINI CALCIUM CARBONATE 563

If then adjustments are made so that no current flows through

the galvanometer, the position of the sliding contact, the value

of the test current, and the voltage across the slide wire are read,

we have data from which the resistance R is readily calculated.

From the measured resistance, and the depth and distance

between electrodes a value may be obtained for the effective

resistivity as explained above. The value depends mainly

upon the resistivity in the neighborhood of and between the

potential electrodes and very little upon the resistivity at dis-

tances from either of these electrodes equal to half the distance

between the current electrodes.

So far the method has been used only for determining resis-

tivities in a region very close to the surface, a few meters or less

in radius. To measure the effective resistance of a much larger

portion of earth extending to a considerable depth, the elec-

trodes would be placed much farther apart. Such a measure-

ment might be of assistance in locating deposits of ore of high

conductivity.

CHEMISTRY. — The dissociation of calcium carbonate below

500° C. R. B. SosMAN, J. C. HosTETTER, and H. E. Mer-

wiN, Geophysical Laboratory.

In connection with investigations in progress in this Labora-

tory it appeared possible to apply a vacuum furnace, developed

by the authors for the measurement of low dissociation pressures

of oxides,^ to the measurement of the carbon dioxide pressures

of calcite and aragonite. If aragonite is a metastable form at

all temperatures, its dissociation pressure should be measurably

higher than that of calcite at temperatures below that at which

aragonite is rapidly transformed into calcite.

This transformation takes place in a few minutes in air at 470°,

although in contact with solutions it will go on as low as 350°,

according to results obtained by Williamson in this Laboratory.

The problem was therefore to measure the dissociation pressures

at several temperatures below 470°.

' This Journal, 5: 277-285. 1915.

564 SOSMAN, HOSTETTER, MERWIN : CALCIUM CARBONATE

The downward extrapolation of Johnston's curve,- obtained

from measurements between the temperatures 587° and 894°

and the pressures 1 mm. and 716 mm., indicates the follow-

ing carbon dioxide pressures at lower temperatures: 450°, 0.017

mm. mercury; 400°, 0.0020 mm. A "blank" run in the fur-

nace up to 400° showed that the expected pressure from calcite

at 400° could be measured definitely and without ambiguity;

the equilibrium pressure decreases so rapidly with temperature,

however, that at 350°, or even 375°, it would be obscured by the

evolution of gases from the walls of the furnace and the glass

connections, if measurements were necessary over a period of an

hour or m.ore.

Measurem.ents were accordingly begun at 425° on aragonite.

The material used consisted of clear crystals (U. S. National

Museum No. 17692) ground to pass 65 mesh. 350 mg. of this

powder was mixed with 150 mg. CaO made by heating the ara-

gonite powder in platinum over a Meker burner. The measure-

ments at 425° lasted 90 minutes. When cold, the aragonite was

found to have been completely converted into calcite.

At 400°, on the other hand, 68 minutes heating converted

none of the mixture into calcite. The few calcite grains visible

were not more numerous than the calcite grains in the original

aragonite. It is evident, therefore, that 400° is practically the

only temperature at which calcite and aragonite can be com-

pared as regards their dissociation pressures.

Measurements were therefore m.ade on aragonite and calcite

at 400°. Two varieties of calcite were used: (1) clear crystals

of Iceland spar (Kahlbaum, 1913);'' (2) artificial precipitated

CaCOs (J. T. 'Baker, lot No. 8212)." The latter is in small

well-formed rhombs, each with an inclusion at its center. Mix-

tures were made containing 350 mg. calcite, and 150 mg. CaO

made from the calcite by ignition. Experiments were also made

on the combination of CaO with CO2.

2 Jour. Am. Chem. Soc, 32: 938-946. 1910.

3 Containing 0.098 per cent MgCOs (Hostetter, J. Ind. and Eng. Chem., 6:392.

1914).

* Containing 0.081 per cent MgCOs.

SOSMAN, HOSTETTER, MERWIN : CALCIUM CARBONATE 565

The result of the dissociation pressure measurements, so far

as their original purpose is concerned, was disappointing. The

cause lies probably in the slow rate of dissociation of the dry ma-

terials at 400°. A number of interesting facts were obtained,

however, which have been thought worth present publication,

as we have had to discontinue the work for the present.

Forms of lime. CaO is obtainable in two distinct physical

states. That made by heating Iceland spar at 700° in the

vacuum furnace, and pumping out the last traces of CO2, is very

fine grained and porous, with a faint double-refraction. The

refractive index seems to be quite variable, but on account of

the porosity of the material accurate measurements of the

index could not be made. The oxide is very reactive, absorbing

water from the air even when confined in a desiccator in the

presence of calcium chloride. After being reheated to 1200°,

the index rose, and gave values varying from 1.725 to 1.77; the

oxide was then much more stable in air, and did not take up

moisture while the microscopic examination was being made,

as did the first sample. As in the first case, however, the porosity

interferes with accurate measurement. Again reheated, to 1400°,

the oxide showed a prevailing refractive index of 1.81, with some

grains as low as 1.79. It still showed double-refraction.

On account of its fineness, it is impossible to say conclusively

whether this variety is crystalline or am.orphous. The double-

refraction may be the result simply of strains within an amorphous

solid.

The reactivity of this porous lime was shown by another ex-

periment. 452.5 m.g. of 200 mesh Kahlbaum calcite was heated

and evacuated at 750° in the vacuum furnace, in presence of

P2O5, for about 30 minutes. When it had cooled to 110°, 15

mg. dry CO2 was admitted. (The gas had been drawn from a

cylinder of liquid CO2, passed over hot copper and copper oxide,

dried over P2O5 and stored over mercury.) The reaction began

immediately with a rise of temperature; as the charge cooled

to room temperature the absorption still continued, but at a

decreasing rate. Even at room temperature the absorption

continued slowly, 0.48 m.g. being taken up in 21^ hours. About

566 SOSMAN, HOSTETTER, MERWINI CALCIUM CARBONATE

4 mg. remained unabsorbed. Practically all of this was absorbed

on reheating to 460°, the small residue being probably nitrogen.

An interesting feature of this reheating was the increase of pres-

sure observed between 400° and 460°, in which interval the pres-

sure nearly doubled, although already at least 10 times the cal-

culated dissociation pressure of CaCOa at these temperatures.

On continued heating the pressure again continued to fall. The

phenomenon suggests a condensation or absorption of the gas

in the porous solid before true chemical union occurs.

A second variety of lime is obtained by carefully dehydrating

calcium nitrate, melting it, and gradually raising the temperature

until all nitric oxide is driven off.'^ The resulting crystals are

isotropic cubes and octahedra, of refractive index 1.83. They

are identical with the CaO found in the lime-alumina-silica melts

of Rankin and Wright.*' The porous lime obtained from cal-

cium carbonate seems to gradually go over to the cubical form

on heating; calcite heated in platinum over the blast lamp for

1 hour gave cubic lime of index 1.83, and impure commercial

building-lime also had the same properties.

Some lime which had been fused in a graphite vacuum furnace

in 1913 by C. W. Kanolt of the Bureau of Standards was also

examined. The greater part of it consisted of rounded grains

of isometric lim.e of index 1.83, being similar to the rounded lime

grains formed in silicate melts.

The much lower reactivity of the cubical crystalline lime is

shown by the following experiment: 501 mg. of 100-mesh crystal-

line CaO from calcium nitrate was heated in the vacuum furnace

with quantities of from 5.0 to 12.5 mg. CO2, and at temperatures

between 400° and 600°. The pressures were from 1.65 to 4.10

mm. Although the dissociation pressure at 600° is only 2.35

mm. according to Johnston, the total amount of COo absorbed

in all these heatings was not oVer 0.86 mg. The porous lime

referred to above, on the other hand, absorbed 11 mg. in a few

minutes at 110° and lower.

^ By special precautions clear crystals of CaO up to 10 mm. in length can be

obtained by this method. Brtigelmann, Zs. anorg. Chem., 10: 415-433. 1895;

69:248-270. 1908.

« Am. Jour. Sci., 39: 1-79. 1915.

SOSMAN, HOSTETTER, MERWIN : CALCIUM CARBONATE 567

Transition point in CaO. Lastchenko^ has shown by specific

heat measurem,ents that a transition point probably exists in

crystalline lim.e at about 400-415°, having a heat effect of 280

calories per molecular weight, or 5 calories per gram. This heat

effect is just about on the border of recognizability by a direct

time-temperature heating curve. Nevertheless we tried heating

curves on a sample of the crystalline lime from calcium nitrate,

using the vacuum furnace in order to avoid any heat effect

due to hydration or carbonation. At 11° per minute no break

was detected. At 5° per minute there was a distinct absorption

of heat at about 425-430°, but the corresponding evolution was

not distinguishable on the cooling curve. From the forms of the

crystals obtained from melts at higher temperatures it is evi-

dent that both the high- and low-temperature forms must be

cubic; the transformation is probably a crystallographic change

similar to the inversion of quartz at 575°.

Dissociation pressures of calcite and aragonite. Although not

sufficiently definite to decide the question as to which is the more

stable form, the CO2 pressures measured were not without cer-

tain regularities. All of the pressures measured at 400° lie

between the limits 0.0019 mm. and 0.0168 mm.^ The greater

part lie between 0.0030 and 0.0090 mm. The dissociation pres-

sure of calcite at 400° calculated from Johnston's curve is 0.0020

mm. ; the pressures found are of this order of magnitude, which

is all that might reasonably be expected of an extrapolation to

a pressure only about yVoo^ of the lowest accurately measured

pressure on the curve referred to.

Both calcite and aragonite, when heated alone at 400°, were

found to dissociate so slowly that it seemed hopeless to wait

for the pressure to reach an equilibrium, since the vacuum fur-

nace could be operated only during the working hours of the day.

Even at 600° calcite dissociated quite slowly. The addition of

5 per cent Fe203 to calcite did not seem to affect its dissociation

'J. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc, 42:1604-1614. 1911. Bull. Inst. Polyt. Don.

1913, II, 9-46.

8 The relatively high pressure of 0.0168 mm. was obtained from the inclusion-

bearing artificial calcite.

568 SOSMAN, HOSTETTER, MERWIN : CALCIUM CARBONATE

rate appreciably. At 400° this mixture gave a pressure of 0.0026

mm., in 18 minutes, and 0.0039 in 35 minutes; aragonite gave

0.0019 mm. in 18 minutes.

The carbonate formed by absorption of COo by porous lime

dissociates readily. After the initial pumping out of residual

gas it gave at 400° a falling pressure of 0.0129 in 25 minutes,

and after a second pumping, a constant pressure of 0.0117 mm.

in 42 minutes.

Mixtures were made containing 30 per cent CaO and 70 per

cent calcite or aragonite, in the expectation that the presence of

the second phase would hasten the establishment of equilibrium.

This seemed at first to be the case, as pressures were quickly

attained which then rose only slowly. But repeated pumping

out of the gas caused a progressive lowering of the pressures

attained and of the rates of increase, until the condition of pure

slow-dissociating calcite or aragonite was approached. It seems

probable, therefore, that the gases came chiefly from the CaCOs

formed by absorption of small amounts of CO2 from the air by

the CaO. This CaCOa dissociates readily, as just shown, and,

after the exhaustion of the CO 2, the CaO remains simply as a

neutral substance in the presence of the slowly dissociating

crystals of original calcite or aragonite.

Whether the compound formed by the combination of the

porous CaO with CO2 is calcite, aragonite, or amorphous CaCOs

we are unable to say. The high dissociation pressure suggests

that it is amorphous.

Sumin'ary. Pure lime, CaO, is obtainable in two forms. The

first, which is probably amorphous, results from the dissociation

of CaCOs at low red temperatures. On heating for a consider-

able time at higher temperatures, it changes gradually into the

cubic crystalline lime of refractive index 1.83. The latter forms

directly from silicate melts or from fused calcium nitrate, and is

the stable form at high temperatures. There are indications

that it has an inversion point (perhaps similar to the inversion

between high- and low-temperature quartz) between 400° and

430°.

swingle: new genus of citrous fruits 569

The porous lime unites very readily with dry carbon dioxide,

and the compound dissociates readily with rising temperature.

The crystalline lime unites very slowly with dry carbon dioxide.

The crystalline forms of calcium carbonate dissociate very slowly

at low temperatures, and the rate does not seem to be hastened

by the presence of Fe203 or of CaO. Aragonite is transformed

into calcite within an hour at 425° in the vacumn furnace. The

dissociation pressures of crystalline calcium carbonate at 400°

are of the order of magnitude of 0.003 to 0.009 mm.

BOTANY. — Microcitrus, a new genus of Australian citrous fruits.

Walter T. Swingle, Bureau of Plant Industry.

In the first quarter of the nineteenth century Allan Cunning-

ham collected in Australia and sent to Europe scanty specimens

of a plant which at first was referred by botanists to Limonia

and later to Citrus. Four species of Citrus in all have been

described from Australia: C. australis Planchon, C. australasica

F. Muell., C. inodora Bail., and C. Garrowayi Bail.

In the course of a systematic study of the species of Citrus

and related plants the writer has been able to examine these

Australian citrous fruits both as dried specimens in the principal

European and American herbaria and as live plants in Italy

and in the greenhouses of the Department of Agriculture at Wash-

ington, D. C. It soon became apparent that they differed from

the other species of Citrus in a number of characters of impor-

tance in this group. The dimorphic foliage showing marked con-

trast between the juvenile and mature forms, the minute flowers

with free stamens and very short pistils, the parallel venation

of the leaves and their very short wingless petioles, and the

few-celled fruits, with subglobose stalked pulp-vesicles and small

rounded seeds, give these plants a very different aspect from

the commonly cultivated species of Citrus. Furthermore, in

greenhouse cultures the young seedlings show cataphylls like

Eremocitrus and Poncirus, instead of a pair of subsessile broadly

oval or ovate leaves as in Citrus. In view of these important

570 swingle: new genus of citrous fruits

differences from Citrus it seems proper to create a new genus,

Microcitrus/ to include these plants.

MicROCiTRUS Swingle.^ Small trees or shrubs ; young branches an-

gular, minutely puberulent, the older ones rounded, giabrous; spines

borne sjingly at one side of the bud in the axil of the leaf. Leaves

unifoliolate, rather thick, dimorphic, the juvenile ones often very small,

oval-elliptical or linear, the mature ones subrhombic or obovate, some-

times broadly cuneiform or lanceolate, blunt-pointed, rounded, or

emarginate; veins nearly parallel, extejiding from the midrib to the

margin; lower surface with few oil glands; petiole very short, slender,

subcylindric, apterous, puberulent when young, articulated with the

blade in some species. Flowers very small, borne singly or rarely in

pairs in the axils of the leaves, Avith very short pedicels, 5-merous

(rarely 4- or even 3-merous). Flower buds small, circular in cross-

section. Petals 5 (rarely 4, or even 3), white, blunt, often concave.

Stamens free, divergent, 12-20 or even 30; filaments slender; anthers

small. Pistil very short, seated on a small disk; style blunt, short,

ending in a slightly furrowed stigma not much thicker than the style;

ovary subglobose, 5-6- (rarely 7-8-) celled; ovules in 2 rows, numerous,

8-20 in each cell. Fruits finger-shaped to ovoid or subglobose, 3-10

cm. long, 1,5-5 cm. in diameter. Peel rather thin, with large oil glands;

segments 5-7 or 8; pulp vesicles subglobose, stalked, small (2-3 mm.

in diameter), pale greenish in mass, separating easily and containing a

sharply acid juice. Seeds small, 6-7 mm. long, ovate in outline, usu-

ally flattened on one side, smooth, pale yellowish; embryo whitish.

Germination Avith hypogeous cotyledons; first leaves slender cataphylls,

merging gradually into the juvenile foliage.

Type species, M. australasica (Citrus australasica F. Muell.), a

native of Queensland and New South Wales.

1 Microcitrus Swingle, gen. nov., Citro affinis, foliis dimorphis, in plantis

juvenilibus minutis, staminibus liberis, stylo brevissimo, ovario 4-8-loculari,

loculis polyspermis.

Folia unifoliolata, petiolis brevissimis apteris puberulis, laminae venis sub-

parallelis; rami novelli virentes plus minusve angulosi, minute puberulenti;

spinae ut in Citro. Flores parvae, in axillis foliorum singulae vel 1)inae brevissime

pedicellatae, 4-5- (rarius 3-) maris; petala ovalia vel ovata plus minusve cucul-

lata; stamina libera numero petalorum quadrupla; ovarium 4-8-loculare, ovulis

numerosis; stylus crassus, brevissimus; stigma diametro stylo paulo major.

Fructus cylindrico-fusiformis vel ovoideus vel globosus, cortice ut in Citro car-

nosa, glandulis oleiferis instructa, pulpa vesiculari acida, vesiculis subglobosis

vel ovoideis, pedicellatis. Semina parva, ovata, 6-7 mm. longa, glabra; cotyle-

dones albidae in germinatione hypogeae; folia prima cataphyllaminuta alterna.

Arbusculae vel frutices, juventute spinosissimae. Species typica, Microcitrus

australasica (Citrus australasica F. Muell.) Habitat in Australia.

2 So called because the very small juvenile leaves, the slender twigs, and the

minute flowers with the very short styles and small stigmas are in each case the

smallest occurring among the plants previously included in the genus Citrus.

swingle: new genus of citrous fruits 571

The genus Microcitrus differs from Citrus in its dimorphic fohage

and especially in its very small juvenile leaves, in the shape and vena-

tion of the adult foliage, in its very small flowers, these with free sta-

mens and a very short pistil (the thick style merging into the onty

slightly thicker stigma), in the few-celled (4-6, rarely 7-8) ovary with

numerous ovules in each cell, in the subglobose stalked pulp vesicles,

in the presence of cataphylls in the seedling, and in the succeeding

microphyllous juvenile foliage. Its nearest affinities in, Citrus are

with the aberrant C. hystrix and related species. It has little affinity

with Fortunella (the kumquat oranges), although both genera have

few-celled ovaries. It is, however, closety allied to the Australian

genus Eremocitrus, but differs in having unifacial glabrous leaves of

mesophytic rather than xerophytic structure, as well as in having

more cells in the fruits and many more ovules in each cell, and in

having larger seeds, these not wrinkled. The leaves show on the

upper face two layers of palisade cells but no stomata, and on the

lower face only chlorenchyma with stomata, thus agreeing in general

with Citrus, and differing widely from Eremocitrus. Doubtless both

Eremocitrus and Microcitrus are descended from a common an-

cestral type.

There is no evidence of any close relationship between Microcitrus

and the New Caledonian Oxanthera fragrayis Montr. (Citrus oxanthera

Beauv.) and the recently discovered Citrus neo-caledonica. It is very

doubtful whether these plants are at all closely related to Citrus; it

is clear that they are not congeneric with Microcitrus.

THE SPECIES OF MICROCITRUS

Altogether four species, one of them with a well marked variety

or subspecies, all described under Citrus and all from eastern Australia,

are to be placed in this genus. Three of them are very distinct; but

the fourth, the last to be discovered. Citrus Garrowayi of northern

Queensland, is very close to the common finger lime.

The species of Microcitrus may be distinguished by means of the

following key:

Leaves very large, 7.5-18 cm. long, 4-6.5 cm, broad, lanceolate, not

articulated with the very short petiole; flowers inodorous;

fruits 5-6.5 cm. X 3.2 cm., oval or oblong in outline, 8-celled,

ribbed 4. M. inodora

572

swingle: new genus of citrous fruits

Leaves medium-sized or small; fruits 4-7-eelled, not ribbed.

Fruits round, rough-skinned, 2.5-6.5 cm. in diameter, 5- (rarely

6- or 7-) celled; juvenile leaves linear, borne on flexuose

branches 3. M. australis

Fruits long and slender; juvenile leaves very small, oval or ovate,

on stiff spreading branchlets.

Fruits oval, 5-6.5 cm. X 2.5-3.3 cm., rough-skinned, 5-celled;

mature leaves broadly rhombic, medium-sized, 2.5-4.5

cm. long, 1.2-2.5 cm. broad 2. M. Garrowayi

Fruits cylindric-fusiform, 5-10 cm. X 1.5-2.5 cm., smooth-

skinned; mature leaves small, obovate, cuneiform or rhombic,

2-4 cm. long, 1.2-2 cm. broad 1. M. australasica

THE FINGER LIME

The finger lime, native to the mountain scrubs of the coastal region

of northern New South Wales and Queensland, has been named Citrus

australasica by F. Mueller. It is the type of the genus Microcitrus.

1. Microcitrus australasica (F. Muell.) Swingle.

Citrus australasica F. Muell. Fragm. Phytogr. Austr. 1: 26. 1858;

2:178. 1861.

Fig. 1. M. australasi-

ca. Seedling showing

hypogeous cotyledons

and alternate cataphylls

merging into juvenile

foliage leaves. Natural

size.

Type locality: "In nemoribus circum sinum

Moreton Bay," Queensland, Australia.

Mueller's description was based on flowering

specimens, but apparently none of this particu-

lar collection has as yet been sent to Europe or

America; consequently it has not been possible

to examine it. Two or three years later Muel-

ler referred to this species fruits of the finger

lime collected by Beckler on the Clarence River.

The original description is not sufficiently de-

tailed to make it certain that it applies to

the finger lime rather than to the Australian

round lime, which also occurs at Moreton Bay;

and when Mueller referred the fruits of the

finger lime to this species he was apparently

unaware of the fact that there were two species

occurring in the same region. As it has not

been possible for the writer to examine the type

specimen it is necessary for the present to ac-

cept Mueller's determination which, it should

be said; is concurred in by F. M. Bailey,^ J. H.

3 Bailey, F. M. Queensl. Flora, 1: 215. 1899.

swingle: new genus of citrous fruits

573

Maiden, and other Australian botanists. No reliance can be placed in

the identifications of Bentham and Mueller in the Flora Australiensis

(1863) which are based confessedly on imperfect material and on the

false assumption that the round-fruited species had flowers with only

10 stamens.

ArtWVR FlTZPATfllCK

Fig. 2. M. australasica. Horizontal spiny twigs of a young plant showing

juvenile foliage. Natural size.

The finger lime is one of the most cm'ious and interesting of the

citrous fruits. The young plants have more or less horizontally

arranged branchlets, with very short internodes, and small oval or

ovate juvenile leaves, these much shorter than the stiff, erect spines

(fig. 2); the mature leaves are small, 1.5-4 cm. long, 1.2-2.5 cm. broad,

ovate, cuneiform or subrhombic, usually very blunt or emarginate at

the apex (fig. 3). The flowers are small, sub-

sessile, usually 5-merous but sometimes 3-4-

merous, with erect, concave, broadly rounded

petals (fig. 3) ; the pistil is very short and thick-

set, the ovary 5-7-celled, with numerous ovules

in each cell (8-16 or even 20). The fruits are

long and slender, cylindric-fusiform, 6.5-10 cm.

X 1.5-2.5 cm., often slightly curved, frequently

showing a short blunt protuberance at both

the base and tip (fig. 4, A). The pulp is com-

posed of loosely cohering, subglobose, long-

stalked pulp vesicles (fig. 4, B, C) filled with a

sour, rather strongly pungent juice. The seeds

are small, 6-7 mm. long, ovate, usually flattened

on one side and often showing small depres-

. Fig. 3. M . australasi-

ca. Flowering twig of

a young plant showing

mature leaves and 3-

merous flowers. Natu-

ral size.

574

swingle: new genus of citrous fruits

B

sions on the other faces, probably due to the pressure of the pulp vesicles

during the development of the seed; no wrinkling of the testa such

as occurs in Eremocitrus is to be seen (fig. 4, D). On germination

the cotyledons remain buried in

the ground; the first leaves are

reduced to cataphylls, alternately

arranged, which merge gradually

into the juvenile foliage (fig. l).

A variety, the red-fruited fin-

ger lime, is indigenous to north-

eastern New South Wales:

la

Microcitrus australasica san-

guine a (Bail.) Swingle.

Citrus australasica var. sangui-

nea Bail. Contr. Queensl.

Flora, Dept. Agric.

Queensl., Bull. 18 (Botany

5), 8. 1892.

Type locality: "Tambourine

Mountain," southern Queens-

land, Australia.

Illustration: Penzig, Studi

bot. sugli Agrumi, in Annali di

Agric. No. 116, 214, pi. 21, fig.

13. 1887.

A

Fig. 4. M. australasica. A, fruit; B,

cross-section of fruit; C, pulp vesicles;

D, seed; E, seed in cross-section. A, B,

D, E, natural size; C, scale 2.

This seems to differ from the typical form of the species only in having

a blood-red fruit, with pink pulp. The fruit has been described rather

fully by Penzig. This variety has been introduced into America and is

being grown in the greenhouses of the U. S. Department of Agriculture

at Washington, D. C.

GARROWAY'S FINGER LIME

Another finger lime from northern Queensland is considered by F.

M. Bailey to be a distinct species.

2. Microcitrus Garrowayi (Bail.) Swingle.

Citrus Garrowayi Bail. Queensl. Agric. Journ. 15:49. 1904.

Type locality: "Summit of Mount White, Cape York Peninsula,

altitude about 1300 ft.," northern Queensland, Australia.

Specimens from the type locality, kindly sent to the writer by Prof.

F. M. Bailey, show this plant to have larger, broader leaves and shorter,

thicker fruits than the typical finger Ume. The fruits are said by

Bailey to bo 4- or 5-celled, while the finger lime has 5-7 cells; the oil

swingle: new genus of citrous fruits 575

glands also are said to be larger; and the fruit is broader and has a

rougher skin than the ordinary finger lime. Seedlings grown in the

greenhouse of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C,

from seed collected in the type locality in Queensland, show the same

peculiar juvenile growth as the ordinary finger lime; that is, several

tiers of very spiny small-leaved branches spread out horizontally be-

fore a few upright branches at length arise. The twigs are more slen-

der and the upright branches more flexuose than in the typical M.

australasica.

It is a still a matter of doubt to the writer whether this is a valid

species or merely a geographical form of the finger lime.

THE DOOJA OR AUSTRALIAN ROUND LIME

The round-fruited Australian lime, native to the subtropical coast

forests of New South Wales and Queensland, is generally referred to

Citrus australis Planchon.

3. Microcitrus australis (Planchon) Swingle.

Limonia australis A. Cunn. in Sweet, Hort. Brit. ed. 3, 91. 1839

{noynen subnudufn).

Citrus australis Planchon, Hort. Donatensis, 18. 1854-58.

Citrus Planchoni F. Muell. Australian Vegetation Indigenous or

Introduced, etc., in Intercolonial Exhibition Essays 1866, 5 and 23.

1867 (no7nen subnudum); Proc. Zool. Acclim. Soc. Victoria, 1: 282.

1872.

Type locality: ''Nouv. HolL," Moreton Bay Region, Queensland,

Australia.

Illustration: Penzig, Studi bot. sugli Agrumi, in Annali di Agric.

No. 116, 210-214, vl. 21, figs. 8-12. 1887.

The round fruited Australian lime or dooja, as it is called by the

aborigines, is one of the most interesting but at the same time one of

the least known of the Australian citrous fruits. As early as 1827 Allan

Cunningham collected a fruiting branch of this species on the Brisbane

River. This specimen is preserved under his number 163 in the Brit-

ish Museum. Another of Cunningham's specimens, preserved in the

herbarium at Kew, has the following label:

"The Limonia australis (C). The "lime" of Moreton Bay. A

solitary flower alone found after felling many of these trees on the

banks of the Brisbane proves the genus to be Limonia and not Citrus,

the 10 stam. being all distinct."

This sheet shows two twigs, one with a young fruit, the other with

leaves only, though possiblj'' it originally bore the single flower re-

576 swingle: new genus of citrous fruits

ported. There can be no reasonable doubt that this material is the

round-fruited Australian lime, though the flower must have been ab-

normal, as the number of stamens usually runs about 16-20 or some-

times a few less by reduction. Unfortunately no adequate description

of Cunningham's Limonia australis seems ever to have been published,

so his name cannot be used.

Between 1854 and 1858 Planchon described Citrus australis, stating

expressly that it was based on ''an imperfect specimen of Leichardt's

preserved in the Museum d'histoire naturelle at Paris."

In June, 1911, the writer found two sheets of Leichardt's material,

collected at Moreton Bay in 1845, in the herbarium of the Paris Mu-

seum, one a small twig with a flower, the other a branched leafy twig

with no flowers or fruits but having pasted on the sheet a note by the

collector and an analysis by Baillon,* reading ''Calyx 5-dent. petala 5,

stamina plura, filam. liberis." A pencil drawing of the pistil in profile

and in section by A. G. [A. Guillaumin] shows the ovary to have 7

cells. No flower is now found on this sheet. Planchon speaks of the

"flore unico effoeto," so he must have seen only an imperfect specimen.

Possibly the flower has been lost or is the one preserved on the second

sheet. The leaves of this specimen are cuneate-obovate, 2.5-5 cm.

long by 1.5-3.2 cm. broad, and rounded or blunt-pointed at the apex.

It is difficult to place this material, as it is somewhat intermediate

in appearance between the two species common in the Moreton Bay

region. For this reason the application of the name must for the pres-

ent remain somewhat doubtful, though possibly a careful study of the

Paris material would decide to which species it belongs.

A later name. Citrus Planchoni F. Muell., published in 1872, un-

doubtedly applies to the round-fruited species.

The dooja reaches a height of 9-18 meters (30-60 ft.) and bears

fruits 2.5-6.5 cm. or even 7.5 cm. in diameter; the juvenile leaves are

often very narrow, even linear in shape, not oval or ovate as in the fin-

ger lime, and are borne on slender, rather flexuose branches. The grow-

ing shoots and immature leaves on vigorous plants grown in the open

are deep wine-red in color. The spines, at least in greenhouse speci*

mens, are often minutely puberulent toward the base. Unlike the

finger lime, which flowers and fruits when only a few years old, the

dooja rarely ever flowers and fruits in greenhouse culture.

* Fide Beauvisage, G. Genera Montrouzierana Plant. Nouv. Caled., in Ann.

Soc. Bot. Lyons, 26: 12. 1901.

swingle: new genus of citrous fruits 577

THE RUSSELL RIVER LIME

The largest and most striking member of the genus is the Russell

River lime, discovered only a few decades ago by Archibald Meston.^

It is native to the Bellenden-Ker region of North Queensland.

4. Microcitrus inodora (Bail.) Swingle.

Citrus inodorus Bail. Bot. Bellenden-Ker Exped., in Report of the

Government Scientific Expedition to Bellenden-Ker Range, 34.

1889.

Citrus inodora Bail. Third Suppl. Syn. Queensl. Fl., 12. 1890.

Tyfe locality: ''Harvey's Creek, Russell. River, " Nares County,

Queensland, Australia,

Illustration: Bail. Queensl. Fl. 1: -pi. 10. 1899.

This species is remarkable for having very large leaves, while its

congeners are small-leaved. Its leaves are lanceolate or ovate-lanceo-

late, 7.5-18 cm. long and 4-6.5 cm. wide. In spite of the large size of the

leaves the petioles are very short, only 3-5 mm. long, wingless, and, to

judge by an excellent specimen collected by Meston in the type locality

and sent to the writer by Prof. F. M. Bailey, not articulated with the

blade of the leaf. Nothing is known as to the character of the juve-

nile foliage. The flowers are said to be odorless. They are small,

like those of the other species of Microcitrus, but have more numerous

stamens (over 30). The fruits are unique among true citrous fruits,

being ribbed; they are oval or oblong in outline, 5 — ^6.5 X 3.2 cm.,

and have a pulp of a sharp agreeable acid flavor.

Although undoubtedly related to the other species of Microcitrus,

M. inodora nevertheless departs widely in several important charac-

ters. It is greatly to be desired that additional and more complete

material be secured in order to determine the exact relationship of this

aberrant species.

UTILIZATION OF MICROCITRUS

Young plants of the finger lime, showing the juvenile foliage arranged

in several successive tiers somewhat like a young Auracaria plant, are

very ornamental and should become better known for decorative pur-

poses. Both the finger lime and the dooja are of promise for hedge

plants, as they are very spiny and can be grown from cuttings. The

dooja grows vigorously enough to deserve trial as a stock upon which

to graft the common citrous fruits.

5 Meston, Archibald. Expedition to the Bellenden-Ker Range. Report to

the Minister for Lands, Queensland, A. C. 36-1904, 3. 1904.

578 swingle: new genus of citrous fruits

The fruits of all of the species of Microcitrus have an acid pulp

which is rather disagreeably pungent except in the case of the Russell

River lime. However, as the two commonly cultivated species, the

dooja and the finger lime, are decidedly more hardy than the lime or

lemon, they may prove of use in breeding new types of hardy citrous

fruits. A number of hybrids have recently been made by the writer

between the finger lime and the common lime (Citrus aurmitiJoUa) .

The Russell River lime is the only species in the genus that yields

fruits of sufficiently good quality to be of promise for culture even

without any improvement by cross-breeding or selection. Speaking of

this plant F. M. Bailey says, "This new species of Citrus is well worthy

of cultivation for its fruit, which is juicy and of equal flavour with the

West Indian Lime.'"^

So far all attempts to introduce the Russell River lime into culture

have failed and the rapid clearing up of land along the Russell River

threatens to exterminate the species altogether. It is to be hoped that

Australian botanists and fruit growers will not permit this to happen.

The species of Microcitrus are closely related to the desert kum-

quat, Eremocitrus glauca,'' a hardy drouth-resistant shrub native to

the semi-arid scrubs of the interior of Australia, and could doubtless

be hybridized with it. As the desert kumquat is edible in the wild

state and is the hardiest known evergreen citrous fruit, such a hybrid

would be of great interest in the breeding of new types of hardy sub-

stitutes for the lime and lemon.

« Bailey, F. M. Queensl. Flora, 1: 216. 1899.

' Swingle, Walter T. Eremocitrus, a new genus of hardy drouth-resistant

citrous fruits from Australia, in Journ. Agric. Research, 2 : 85-100, figs. 1-7,

pi. 8. Mmj, 1914.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEOLOGY. — Guidebook of the Western United States, Part A, the

Northern Pacific route, with a side trij) to Yellowstone Park. M.

R,. Campbell and others. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 611. Pp.

212, with maps and illustrations. 1915. (For sale by Superin-

tendent of Documents, Washington, D. C; price $1.)

The first of a series of handbooks for railway travelers in the Western

States, describing the geographj^, geology, history, and natural re-

sources of the region traversed by the principal transcontinental

routes. The present volume deals with the country along the Northern

Pacific Railway from St. Paul to Seattle and along the branch line to

Yellowstone Park.

He is a very unobservant traveler who can cross the Great Plains,

the Rocky Mountains, the lava plateau of the Columbia, and the Cas-

cade Range, without noting some of the diversities in the color and

character of the rocks and the striking differences in the landscape.

It is the purpose of this volume to answer some of the questions which

these views from the car windows evoke, to tell what the rocks are

and how they got there, to explain the eft'ects of earth movements

upon them, to show how that conspicuous element in scenery which we

call topography is the result of a long succession of geologic events — in

brief, to tell the storj^ of the mountains, valleys, and plains. It does

not stop there, however. It connects this record of the prehistoric past

with the present march of western progress and development by show-

ing the relation of geologic processes to natural resources of various

kinds; it describes the utihzation of these resources and tells how man

has turned them to account since Lewis, and Clark toiled over the route

that is now so quickly traversed in luxurious comfort.

579

580 abstracts: geology

Every effort has been made to make the volume interesting as well

as accurate. Matter slightly more detailed or technical than that in

the body of the text has been separated as footnotes, and a glossary

has been provided for such geologic terms as it was necessary to use.

The more important sources of geologic information on the region are

listed in the back of the book, and a table showing the principal divi-

sions of geologic time appears on the back of the title-page. Each

map unfolds so that it can be consulted conveniently without turning

the page which the traveler may be reading. The halftone views and

text figures have been chosen with care to convey definite information.

F. L. R.

GEOLOGY. — Guidebook of dhe Western United States, Part B, the

overland route, with a side trip to Yellowstone Park. W. T. Lee,

R. W. Stone, H. S. Gale, and others. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull.

612. Pp. 244, with maps and illustrations. 1915. (For sale by

Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C; price $1.)

A handbook for the traveler which deals not only with the geology

but with the natural resources, history, and development of the country

between Omaha and San Francisco. It shows how differences in scen-

ery and climate depend upon past geologic events and dispels the mo-

notony of the great plains by taking the traveler back to times when

these regions supported vegetation very (iifferent from their present

scanty covering and were inhabited by animals of strange forms and

huge size. The scenery of the mountains acquires additional interest

from the explanation of the earth movements and the resulting rock

structures to which fundamentally the mountains forms are due.

Even the desert becomes attractive when the traveler is told of its

vanished lakes and is shown the old beach lines which their waves cut

on the now arid hillsides.

The book is intended to educate by being interesting, to win hearing

for the story of geology by telling it in a clear and simple way, with

abundant illustration from the car windows not only of the story itself

but of its intimate connection with- human life. F. L. R.

GEOLOGY.— (reo^ogr^ a7id mineral deposits of the National mining dis-

trict, Nevada. Waldemar Lindgren. U. S. Geol. Sui'vey Bull.

601. Pp. 58. 1915.

The National mining district is in Humboldt County, Nevada,

near the Oregon line. No large production of precious metals had

abstracts: geology 581

been recorded from this region up to 1908, but in that year a bonanza

shoot of gold quartz was discovered in the National mine, which within

four years yielded about $4,000,000. This shoot is, in fact, one of the

most remarkable and interesting bodies of high-grade ore discovered

in the West.

The district is located in the Santa Rosa Mountains, a narrow range

rising abruptly out of the desert. The northern part of this range in

which the camp of National is located consists of flows of basalt, latite,

rhyolite, and trachyte and some rhyolite dikes. These are of Tertiary,

probably Miocene, age. The flows dip at gentle angles to the east or

northeast.

The mineral deposits are steeply-dipping, narrow fissure veins which

are distinctly later than any rock in the district. The National vein is

the only one that has been extensively developed. Most of the veins

are essentially silver veins of verj^^ moderate tenor and contain in a

drusy, fine-grained quartz gangue, small amounts of pyrite, sphalerite,

galena, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, and stibnite, the latter being the

most characteristic mineral of the deposits. At least one deposit car-

ries cinnabar. Native gold is abundant onty in the unique rich shoot

of the National vein, where it occurs as electrum carrying about 50

per cent of silver. The National ore shoot was encountered 40 feet

below the surface and has been followed for about 800 feet down the

dip of the vein; the stope reaches 250 feet in length. It appears to be

of the same age as the leaner parts of the same vein and the other veins

of the region. Much of the ore was remarkably rich, the first-class

ore during one period averaging about $25 a pound, and the second-

class ore $4000 a ton.

The National and other veins of the district are believed to have

been deposited at slight depths by ascending waters during an epoch of

hot-spring action following the eruption of the rhyolitic rocks. The

fine-grained quartz, scarcity of pyrite, constant presence of stibnite,

and occasional occurrences of cinnabar, point decidedly to deposition

near the surface. The propylitic alteration of the country rocks points

to the same conclusion.

Subsequent to the principal mineralization there has been in the

National mine a deposition of secondary marcasitc, pyrargj'-rite and

stibnite along joints and fissures below the water level. This deposi-

tion was accompanied by solution of quartz and the development of

irregular cavities. There are no placers in the region. E. S. B.

582 abstracts: paleontology

GEOLOGY. — Guidebook of the Western United States, Part D, the

Shasta route and coast line. J. S. Diller and others. U. S.

Geol. Survey Bull. 614. Pp. 142, with maps and illustrations.

1915. (For sale by Superintendent of Documents, Washington,

D. C; price $1.)

A manual for the traveler between Seattle or Los Angeles and San

Francisco, which describes in clear, simple language the geography,

geology, history, and natural resources of the region visible from the

car window. Geology is made interesting to the reader by an avoidance

of details and by the selection for treatment of the features that are

likely to attract the eye. Care is taken also to point out the connection

between the story of the earth and the present human activity in the

region.

The book is divided into two parts, one dealing with the route from

Seattle to San Francisco and one with the route from Los Angeles to

San Francisco. Both routes go through regions that present great di-

versity in geology, scenery, climate, and resources. For the northern

route the history of civilized settlement goes back to the early fur

traders and trappers, and for the southern route to the Spanish padres

and their Indian converts.

As in the other guidebooks in this series the route is completely

covered by convenient maps and the text is well illustrated by views

and diagrams. F. L. R.

PALEONTOLOGY. — Contributions to the knowledge of the mammals

of the Pleistocene of North America. Oliver P, Hay. Proceed-

ings of the U. S. National Museum, 48: 515-575, pis. 30-37.

April 8, 1915.

The results detailed in the present paper include descriptions of

two extinct horses, one new extinct bison, one new and one previously

described musk-ox, and measurements of certain limb bones of fossil

horses, with discussion of variations observed. There are given also

measurements from many skulls of various equids, as Przevalsky's

horse, a number of fossil horses, domestic horses, three species of

zebras, the chigetai (Equus hemionus), and the kiang {E. Kiang);

from which certain indices in equine craniometry have been computed.

From these measurements and indices an attempt has been made

to determine to what extent the various unmixed and wild species

which are considered deviate from an average condition; to ascertain

the value of some of the measurements and indices which have been

abstracts: zoology 583

employed in the study of domestic horses; and to throw some hght

on the elements which have contributed to the formation of that

assemblage of horses which bears the name Equus caballus.

O. P. H.

ZOOLOGY. — The relation between the maximum and the average bathy-

metric range, and the mean and the average depth of habitat, in the

subfamilies and higher groups of recent crinoids. Austin H. Clark.

American Journal of Science, 40: 67-74. July, 1915.

In general the more specialized famiHes possess small, and the more

generalized large, bathymetric ranges; the thermal adaptability of the

groups increases with specialization. The average range of the fami-

lies of recent crinoids is very nearly the same as, but shghtly more

than, the average depth of habitat. A. H. C.

ZOOLOGY. — A study of the recent crinoids which are coiigeneric with

fossil species. Austin H. Clark. American Journal of Science,

40:60-66. July, 1915.

The eight genera of recent crinoids which include fossil species fall

into the following three groups: (1) Genera confined to the western

Pacific; Eudiocrinus, Catoptornetra, Proisocrinus and Carpenterocrinus;

(2) genera confined to the western, or western and northern, Atlantic,

but occurring as fossils in the Indo-Pacific basin ; Isocrinus, Rhizocrinus

and Holopus; (3) genus common to the Indo-Pacific and Atlantic;

Democrinus.

All but one of these genera are chiefly developed in shallow water;

this single exception is also the only one which, so far as we know,

does not occur within 100 fathoms of the surface, three of the others

being entirely confined to water of less than 155 fathoms in depth.

In the total range, average range, and mean depth of habitat these

genera show a close approximation to the genera peculiar to the At-

lantic, in contrast to those peculiar to the Indo-Pacific, which have a

much greater total range but lesser average range and mean depth of

habitat, and to those common to both oceans, which have a much greater

average range and mean depth of habitat, as well as total range. In

depth the maximum representation is between 0 and 200 fathoms,

especially between 50 and 150 fathoms. As, taking the ocean as a

whole, we find at a depth of 200 fathoms a temperature of 50? 1, and at

100 fathoms 60? 7, it is evident that these genera are most strongly

represented within the optimum temperature for crinoid life, which is

between 50° and 65°. A. H. C.

584 . abstracts: zoology

ZOOLOGY. — A phylogenetic study of the recent crinoids, with special

reference to the question of specilization through the partial or com-

plete suppression of structural characters. Austin H. Clark.

Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 65^'' : 1-67. August 19,1915.

A detailed analysis of the structure of the recent crinoids and a

comparison with fossil types indicates that phylogenetical advance has

been through a progressive simplification of the organism, evidenced

by a reduction in the number of the component parts. The pairs of

contrasted characters employed in differentiating the recent crinoids

are given, the more generalized of each pair being numbered 1 and the

more specialized 2, and the types falling under each are listed. By

simple addition this gives a numerical basis for the determination of

the phylogenetical status of all the recent types. Taking the most

primitive family (Plicatocrinidse) as 1 we find the families to be spe-

cialized, in terms of this family, as follows:

Holopodidse 3.12 or 2.59

Pentacrinitidse 2.79 or 2.19

Bourgueticrinidse 2.48 or 2.13

Apiocrinidae 1 .87 or 1 .67

Phrynocrinida3 1 .74 or 1 .55

Plicatocrinidse 1 .00 or 1 .00

Thus the families according to their specilization fall into three

groups: (1) Holopodidse, Pentacrinitidse and Bourgueticrinidse; (2)

Apoicrinidae and Phrynocrinidse ; and (3) Plicatocrinidse.

Of the individual structures which collectively make up the crinoid

whole the sequence in specialization is: (1) The skeleton as a whole

(most specialized); (2) calyx; (3) disk; (4) arms; (5) column; (6)

pinnules.

On the basis of a broad average the more specialized characters

occur in shallower and warmer water than the more primitive.

A. H. C.

ZOOLOGY. — The distribution of the recent crinoids on the coasts of

Australia. Austin H. Clark. Internationale Revue der gesam-

ten Hydrobiologie und Hydrographie, 1915, pp. 222-234. 1915.

Australian crinoids fall into three groups, (1) Tropical Austral-

ian types, (2) South Australian types, and (3) East Indian types.

The distribution of each of these groups on the Australian coasts is

treated in great detail. A. H. C.

REFERENCES

Under this heading it is proposed to Include, by author, title, and citation, references to all

scientific papers published in or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate

with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are

aot Intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal.

CHEMISTRY

CuRRiE, J. N. Composition of roquefort-cheese fat. Journal of Agricultural

Research, 2: 429-434. September, 1914.

Gore, H. C. Changes in composition of peel and pulp of ripening bananas. Jour-

nal of Agricultural Research, 3: 187-203, fig. 1. December, 1914.

H'OAGLAND, D. R. Organic constituents of Pacific coast kelps. Journal of Agri-

cultural Research, 4: 39-58. April, 1915.

HoAGLAND, Ralph. Coloring matter of raw and cooked salted meats. Journal of

Agricultural Research, 3: 211-226, fig. 1, pis. 32-33. December, 1914.

MacIntire, W. H. Decomposition of soil carbonates. Journal of Agricultural

Research, 3: 79-80. October, 1914.

Shorey, E. C, and Walters, E. H. A nitrogenous soil constituent: tetracar-

bonimid. Journal of Agricultural Research, 3: 175-178. November, 1914.

Thompson, Alice R. Organic phosphoric acid of rice. Journal of Agricultural

Research, 3:425-430. February, 1915.

Willaman, J. J., and West, R. ]\I. Notes on the hydrocyanic-acid content of sor-

ghxim. Journal of Agricultural Research, 4: 179-185, figs. 1-2. May, 1915.

BOTANY

Dahlberg, R. C. Identification of the seeds of species of Agropyron . Journal of

Agricultural Research, 3: 275-282, figs. 1-4, pis. 34^37. December, 1914.

Edson, H. a. Rheosporangium aphanidermatus, a new genus and species of

fungus parasitic on sugar beets and radishes. Journal of Agricultural Re-

search, 4: 279-292, pis. 44-48. July, 1915.

Griffiths, D., Bidwell, G. L., and Goodrich, C. E. Native pasture grasses

of the United States. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No.

201. Pp. 1-52. May 26, 1915.

Hedgcock, G. G., and Long, W. H. Identity of Peridermium fusiforme with

Peridermium cerebrum. Journal of Agricultural Research, 2:247-250, pi.

11. June, 1914.

Mann, Albert, and Harlan, H. V. Morphology of the barley grain with refer-

ence to its enzym-secreting areas. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agri-

culture, No. 183. Pp. 1-32. April 13, 1915.

Mason, S. C. Botanical characters of the leaves of the date palm used i7i distin-

guishing cultivated varieties. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agricul-

ture, No. 223. Pp. 1-28. June 23, 1915.

585

586 references: bacteriology

Piper, C. V., and Morse, W. J. Five oriental species of beans. Bulletin of the

U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 119. Pp. 1-32. September 2, 1914.

Swingle, W. T. Eremocitrus, a neiv germs of hardy, drouth-resistant citrous

fruits from Australia. Journal of Agricultural Research 2: 85-100, figs. 1-7,

pi. 8. May 25, 1914.

Wight, W. F. The varieties of plums derived frorn native American species. Bul-

letin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 172. Pp. 1-44. March 13,

1915.

WoLLENWEBER, H. W. Identification of species of Fusarium occurring on the

sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas. Journal of Agricultural Research, 2: 251-

286, pis. 12-16. July, 1914.

FORESTRY

Hawley, L. F., and Palmer, R. C. Yields from the destructive distillation of

certain hardwoods. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No.

129. Pp. 1-16. September 10, 1914.

Surface, H. E. Suitability of longleaf pine for paper pulp. Bulletin of the

U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 72. Pp. 1-26. May 29, 1914.

AGRONOMY

Chilcott, E. C, Cole, J. S., and Btjrr, W. W. Spring wheat in the great plains

area; relation of cultural methods to production. Bulletin of the U. S. De-

partment of Agriculture, No. 214. Pp. 1-43. May 1, 1915.

Hansen, D. Experiments in the production of crops on alkali land on the Hunt-

ley Reclamation Project, Montana. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of

Agriculture, No. 135. Pp. 1-19. September 10, 1914.

Hartley, Carl. Injury by disinfectants to seeds and roots in sandy soils. Bul-

letin of the XJ. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 169. Pp. 1-35. February

20, 1915.

Knorr, F. Experiments with crops under fall irrigation at the Scottsbluff Recla-

mation Project experiment farm. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agri-

culture, No. 133. Pp. 1-17. September 16, 1914.

Letteer, C. R. Experiment in crop production on fallow land at San Antonio.

Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 151. Pp. 1-10. Sep-

tember 19, 1914.

Stuart, William. Group classification and varietal descriptions of some Ameri-

can potatoes. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 176.

Pp. 1-56. March 27, 1915.

BACTERIOLOGY

Ayers, S. H., and Johnson, W.T., Jr. Ability of streptococci to survive pasteur-

ization. Journal of Agricultural Research, 2: 321-330, figs. 1-3. July, 1914.

Ayers, H., and Johnson, W. T., Jr. Ability of colon bacilli to survive pasteuri-

zation. Journal of Agricultural Research, 3:401-410, fig. 1. February

1915.

BoNAzzi, A. Cytological studies o/ Azotobacter chroococcum. Journal of Agri-

cultural Research, 4: 225-240, pis. 31-33. June, 1915.

references: phytopathology 587

Evans, Alice C, Hastings, E.G., and Hart, E. B. Bacteria concerned in the

production of the characteristic flavor in cheese of the cheddar type. Journal

of Agricultural Research, 2: 167-192. June, 1914.

Hart, E. B. Relation of the action of certain bacteria to the ripening of cheese

of the cheddar type. Journal of Agricultural Research, 2: 193-216. June,

1914.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY

Charles, Vera K., and Jenkins, Anna E. A fungous disease of hemp. Journal

of Agricultural Research, 3: 81-84, fig. 1, pi. 11. October, 1914.

Cobb, N. A. Citrus-root nematode. Journal of Agricultural Research, 2: 217-

230, figs. 1-13. June, 1914.

Edson, H. a. Seedling diseases of sugar beets and their relation to root-rot and

crown-rot. Journal of Agricultural Research, 4: 135-168, pis. 16-26. May,

1915.

Fawcett, G. L. Pellicularia koleroga on coffee in Porto Rico. Journal of Agri-

cultural Research, 2: 231-233, figs. 1-3. June, 1914.

Gloyer, W. O. Ascochyta clematidina, the cause of stem-rot and leaf-spot of

Clematis. Journal of Agricultural Research, 4: 331-342, pis. 50-54. July,

1915.

Harter, L. L. Fruit-rot, leaf-spot, and stem-blight of the eggplant caused by

Phomopsis vexans. Journal of Agricultural Research, 2:331-338, fig. 1,

pis. 26-30. August, 1914.

Hasse, Clara H. Pseudomonas citri, the cause of Citrus canker. Journal of

Agricultural Research, 4: 97-100, pis. 9-10. April, 1915.

Heald, F. D., Gardner, M. W., and Studhalter, R. A. Air and ivind dissemi-

nation of ascospores of the chestnut-blight fungus. Journal of Agricultural

Research, 3: 493-526, figs. 1-3, pis. 63-65. March, 1915.

Hedgcock, G. G., and Lond, W. H. Heart-rot of oaks and poplars caused by

Polyporus dryophilus. Journal of Agricultural Research, 3: 65-78, pis.

8-10. October, 1914.

Jamieson, Clara O. Phoma destructiva, the cause of a fruit-rot of the tomato.

Journal of Agricultural Research, 4: 1-20, pis. A-B, pis. 1-6. April, 1915.

Long, W. H. The death of chestnuts and oaks due to Armillaria mellea. Bulle-

tin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 89. Pp. 1-9. May 22, 1914.

Long, W. H. Influence of the host on the morphological characters of Puccinia

ellisiana and Puccinia andropogonis. Journal of Agricultural Research,

2:303-319. July, 1914.

Orton, W. a., and Rand, F. V. Pecan rosette. Journal of Agricultural Re-

search, 3: 149-174, fig. 1, pis. 24-28. November, 1914.

Pool, Venus W., and McKay, M. B. Phoma betae on the leaves of the sugar

beat. Journal of Agricultural Research, 4 : 169-177, pi. 27. May, 1915.

Potter, A. A. Head smut of sorghum and maize. Journal of Agricultural Re-

search, 2: 339-372, figs. 1-7, pis. 31-37. August, 1914.

Roberts, J. W. Sources of the early infections of apple bitter-rot. Journal of

Agricultural Research, 4: 59-64, pi. 7. April, 1915.

Shapovalov, M. Effect of temperature on germination and growth of the common

potato-scab organism. Journal of Agricultural Research, 4: 129-133, fig. 1,

pi. 15. May, 1915.

588 references: technology

Stakman, E. C. Relation between Puccinia graminis and plants highly resistant

to its attack. Journal of Agricultural Research, 4: 193-199, pi. 28. June,

1915.

Weir, J. R. Two new wood-destroying fungi. Journal of Agricultural Research,

2: 163-166, pis. 9-10. May 25, 1914.

Weir, J. R. A new leaf and twig disease of Picea engelmanni. Journal of Agri-

cultural Research, 4: 251-254, pi. 34. June, 1915.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H. L. Relative ivater requirement of plants. Journal

of Agricultural Research, 3: 1-64, fig. 1, pis. 1-7. October, 1914.

Briggs, L. J. Effect of frequent cuttings on the water requirement of alfalfa and its

hearing on ;pasiuragc. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No.

228. Pp. 1-6. May 22, 1915.

BuNZEL, H. H. Oxidases in healthy and in curly-dwarf potatoes. Journal of

Agricultural Research, 2: 373-404, figs. 1-21. August, 1914.

Garner, W. W., Allard, H. A., and Foubert, C. L. Oil content of seeds as af-

fected by the nutrition of the plant. Journal of Agricultural Research, 3: 227-

249. December, 1914.

Hasselbring, H., and Hawkins, L. A. Physiological changes in sweet potatoes

during storage. Journal of Agricultural Research, 3:331-342. January,

1915.

Kellerman, K. F., and Wright, R. C. Relation of bacterial transformations of

soil nitrogen to nutrition of citrous plants . Journal of Agricultural Research,

2: 101-114, figs. 1-7. May 25, 1914.

EVOLUTION

Collins, G. N. A more accurate method of comparing first-generation maize

hybrids with their parents. Journal of Agricultural Research, 3: 85-91.

October, 1914.

Cook, O. F. Brachysm, a hereditary deformity of cotton and other plants. Jour-

nal of Agricultural Research, 3: 387-400, pis. 53-62. February, 1915.

Gilbert, A. W. Heredity of color in Phlox drummondii. Journal of Agricul-

tural Research, 4: 293-302, pis. C-E. July, 1915.

Hedrick, U. p., and Anthony, R. D. Inheritance of certain characters of grapes.

Journal of Agricultural Research, 4: 315-330. July, 1915.

Kearney, T. H. Mutation in Egyptian cotton. Journal of Agricultural Re-

search, 2: 287-302, pis. 17-25. July, 1914.

TECHNOLOGY

Kremers, Edward. Agricultural alcohol; studies of its manufacture in Ger-

many. Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 182. Pp. 1-35.

February 2, 1915.

RuEHLE, G. L. A. Methods of bacterial ayialyscs of air. Journal of Agricultural

Research, 4: 343-368, figs. 1-3. July, 1915.

ScoBEY, F. C. Behavior of cup- current meters xmder conditions not covered by

standard ratings. Journal of Agricultural Research, 2:77-83, figs. 1-4.

May, 1914.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V OCTOBER 19, 1915 No. 17

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— Microstrudural changes accom-

panying the annealing of bronze. Henry S. Rawdon,

Bureau of Standards. ^

A study of the structural changes in bronze induced by an-

neahng was made to supplement the investigation of the stand-

ard zinc-bronze (88 Cu, 10 Sn, 2 Zn) recently carried out at the

Bureau of Standards. The various changes together with

the temperatures at which such changes are completed were

determined.

After casting, the alloy exhibits a complex structure compris-

ing a dendritic matrix consisting of a solid solution of tin (and

zinc) in copper, in which are embedded nmiierous particles of a

hard and brittle eutectoid similar in structure and formation to

pearlite in steel. Upon anneaUng, the alloy is first rendered

homogeneous by the absorption of the eutectoid by the matrix

and the disappearance of the dendritic structure of the same

matrix by diffusion. If the alloy has received no deformation

previous to annealing, no other changes are observed, the crystal

or "grain" size remains unchanged. The characteristic poly-

hedral twinned crystals seen in annealed brass and bronze rich

in copper are obtained only after the structure has been dis-

torted. Samples which had been cooled in a very drastic man-

ner, thus inducing severe internal stresses, behaved similarly upon

annealing to those which had been mechanically deformed be-

fore annealing.

1 To appear in full as a Scientific paper of the Bureau of Standards.

589

590

eawdon: annealing of bronze

BECAUSE OF SURFACE OXIDATION THE MEASURED THICKNESSES DO NOT REPRESENT

THE TRUE DEPTH TO WHICH THE METAL WAS WORKED. AVERAGE WEIGHT OF

SAMPLE, 20 GRAMS

1 To obtain an approximate quantitative expression of the rate of absorption of the eutectoid, the

number of inclusions in the successive microscope fields taken contiguously along a diameter of the

sample (magnification lOOX) was counted. On account of the difference in size of the particles, this

method is a rough approximation only.

^ When the dendritic structure appears to have di-sappeared entirely, upon examination under vertical

illumination, with oblique illumination it is still to be seen.

' The thickness of the recrystallized layer was in all cases measured directly by means of a micrometer

ocular.

vaughan: growth-rate of shoal-water corals 591

The samples used were small cylinders, the surface layer of

which had been distorted by machining in the lathe. These

were annealed for periods of: 1, 2, 4, and 8 hours at 400°, 600°,

and 800°C. The data tabulated below for one series indicate

the general nature of the observations made and the results

obtained.

The constancy of the thick ess of the reciystallized layer

(different for different temperatures) is very striking. Though

the crystals in this layer of recrystallized metal increase in size

upon annealing, there appears to be no appreciable increase in

thickness of the layer itself. The process is not a progressive

one from exterior inward, but begins simultaneously throughout

the layer which is capable of being affected at that temperature.

The results obtained are in support of, and in accordance with,

Tammann's theory of the recrystallization of ''cold-worked"

metals upon heating.

GEOLOGY. — The geologic significance of the growth-rate of the

Floridian and Bahaman shoal-water corals.^ Thomas

Wayland Vaughan, Geological Survey.

Except to allude to the continuation of the experiments and

observations, no specific report on the results of the study of the

growth rate of corals has been published since the one in Year

Book No. 10 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, pages

148-156, Plates 4-6, where all data then available on the size

of year-old corals were presented. The technique for rearing

and planting corals and that for measuring corals growing under

natural conditions are described in the Year Book referred to

and in Year Book No. 9, pages 136-144, Plate 1. The descrip-

tions there given need not be repeated.

As the object of the investigation should be made clear, it

should here be stated that stony corals are not suitable subjects

1 Published by permission of the President of the Carnegie Institution of

Washington and of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. The field studies

were made under the auspices of the Department of Marine Biology of the Car-

negie Institution of Washington while the office facilities were furnished by the

U. S. Geological Survey. A fuller account of these investigations will appear

in the Year Book of the Carnegie Institution of Washington for 1915.

592 vaughan: growth-rate of shoal-water corals

for a critical study of the laws of growth rate. The proportion

of living tissue to the stony skeleton is relatively small and as the

skeleton after very young stages usually is not entirely covered

by the living soft parts, organisms may attach themselves to it

and increase its weight, or boring organisms may enter it, begin

its destruction, and decrease its weight. As many boring organ-

isms have calcareous tests, they destroy a part of the original

skeleton and add the weight of their own. Minute algae, as

Duerden has shown, bore into the skeleton and ramify through

it almost or quite to the boundary of the living soft parts.

Weights obtained from specimens cemented to discs are sub-

ject to all the sources of inaccuracy enumerated above and also

to the practical inability of restoring the disc to its initial con-

dition after affixing and planting a specimen, because of organ-

isms attaching themselves to its surface. These remarks make

it clear that the object of the investigation is not to make a

contribution to the laws governing growth-rate, although some

of the principles of growth-rate of some species have been as-

certained. The actual object of the investigation has been to

aid in understanding the relative amount of work stony corals

may do as constructional geologic agents, and especially in the

formation of those calcium carbonate structures designated

''coral reefs."

In order properly to evaluate corals as constructional agents,

the subject needs to be studied from at least five different view-

points, viz.: (1) In dealing with sediments uplifted above the

sea, the quantity of material contributed by corals and that

contributed by other agents must be estimated and the re-

spective proportions determined; (2) in coral reef areas, the

ratio of the area covered by corals to that not covered by them

should be estimated; (3) the relations of coral reefs to continuity

and discontinuity of marginal submarine platforms must be as-

certained; (4) marine bottom deposits must be analyzed accord-

ing to the source of the material, and the percentage of the cal-

cium carbonate contributed by the different agents estimated;

(5) the rate of growth of corals needs to be known, especially

for the light it may throw on the rate of reef formation.

vaughan: growth-rate of shoal-water corals 593

That corals have been tremendously over-evaluated is estab-

lished. In this connection, reference may be made to Murray

and Renard's^ description of their coral sand and coral mud and

to some analyses Quin^ has made of the calcareous sand on the

shores of St. Croix Island, Danish West Indies.

From the table on page 596 it will be seen that there is no single

formula for the growth-rate of corals, as the rate of growth is

different for different species, and in each species it varies in

accord with differences in local ecologic conditions. In order to

understand the factors controlling growth-rate, the ecologic

factors common to the entire reef- tract should be ascertained,

and each species should be studied to discover the subordinate

ecologic conditions of its more restricted habitat. Investi-

gations of the Florida reef-tract along both these lines have been

made, and some of the results have been presented in my pre-

vious papers.

Observations and experiments were conducted on the growth-

rate of Tortugas corals as follows :

(1) Colonies obtained from planulae whose history was known.

They were planted (a) off the northwest face of Fort Jefferson

moat-wall and (b) on the reef off the northwest side of Logger-

head Key.

(2) Colonies cemented to tiles. These were planted (a) off

the northwest face of Fort Jefferson moat-wall and (b) on the

reef off Loggerhead Key.

(3) Colonies naturally attached: (a) in Fort Jefferson moat; (b)

on piers of the Fort Jefferson wharf; (c) on the outside of the

northwest face of the Jefferson moat-wall; (d) on the reef off the

northwest face of Loggerhead Key.

The observations and experiments in the Bahamas were made

on the leeward side of the north end of a small island, known as

Golding Cay, which is on the east side of Andros Island at the

mouth of South Bight. The specimens included, (a) those

cemented to tiles and planted, (b) those living naturally attached.

2 Challenger Repts., Deep-sea deposits, p. 246. 1891.

^ Quin, John T. The building of an island, p. 15. 1907.

594 vaughan: growth-rate of shoal-water corals

The size of the colonies of all species of corals seems limited,

but some attain large dimensions, 2 to 3 meters or even more in

diameter, and nearly as much in height, while other species are

adult when a diameter of 35 to 50 mm. has been reached. Rec-

ords of two species, Favia fragum and Maeandra areolata illus-

trate relatively rapid growth for the first 2 to 4 years, after which

it decreases. Other species, for instance Orbicella annularis

and Maeandra strigosa are not so limited in size. Ramose

corals increase in dimensions more rapidly than massive species :

while of the former, the growth rate of species with perforate,

loose-textured skeletons is more rapid than that of species with

dense skeletons. In general the more massive and the denser

the corallum, the slower the growth; while the more ramose and

the more porous the skeleton, the more rapid the growth.

table of indicated average annual growth-rate

When practicable two diameters at right angles to each other

were measured in successive years, and the increments were

ascertained by subtracting the next earlier from the later measure-

ments. All increments for each species at each station were

added together and divided by the number of the annual incre-

ments entering into the computation. The averages for height

were similarly determined. As the records are for annual growth-

rate, each of the Bahama records is counted as 2, as each of those

represents a period of 2 years.

It should be said regarding the nomenclature of the species

that the specimens designated Mussa (Isophyllia) dipsacea

Dana may include colonies of M. (Isophyllia) fragilis Dana.

The specimens referred to Porites clavaria Lamarck may include

more than one species of similar growth facies.

As has been stated, the primary object of this investigation

was to get an approximate measure of the rate at which corals

might build reefs. In order to make this estimate, the true reef

corals must be considered separately from those which live in

other habitats. The reef species par excellence in the Recent and

Pleistocene reefs of Florida and the West Indies is Orbicella

annularis; after it in importance are Maeandra strigosa, M.

vaughan: geowth-rate of shoal-water corals 595

labyrinthijormis, and Siderastrea siderea. Other corals, the most

important of which is Pontes astreoides, with Agaricia and

Favia fragum of secondary importance, occur in the area inter-

mediate between the prominent heads. In solne areas Acroyora

palmata is the dominant species. The massive heads form the

strong frame work of the reef, with infilhng by other corals and

other organisms. Therefore the upward growth rate of Orbicella

annularis on the reef is critical. The data on it will be repeated :

Upward growth-rate of Orbicella annularis

Annual average

Location mm.

Ft. Jefferson, tiles outside moat wall 6 .57

Loggerhead Reef, tiles 5.28

Loggerhead Reef, nat. att 6 .80

Golding Cay, tiles 5.67

Golding Cay, nat. att 5.00

The highest figure is for naturally attached specimens on

Loggerhead Reef, but the average is based on only 5 measure-

ments which are not so accurate as those of specimens on tiles.

The specimens attached to tiles all thrived and gave an annual

average of 5.28 mm. for 14 measurements; while the Golding

Cay specimens, which also thrived, gave an annual average of

5.67 mm. for 6 specimens, 2 years growth each. An estimate of

6 mm. for upward growth per year is probably somewhat liberal.

25 4 X 12

This would indicate for an upward growth of a foot, — '- =

6

50.8 years. Should 7 mm. be taken as the average the rate

would be 1 foot in 43.54 years. Using these figures as the basis

of a further computation, a reef by the continuous upward growth

of corals might attain at a rate of 6 mm. per year a thickness of

25 fathoms = 150 feet in 7620 years; and at a rate of 7 mm. per

year it might attain the same thickness in 6531 years.

Should the growth rate of Acropora palmata be taken as a

measure, the time to accumulate such a thickness would be con-

siderably less. This species forms spreading, palmate fronds,

rising from stout bases. As age advances the fronds thicken

and can withstand the pounding of surf and breakers. The

average upward growth is between 25 and 40 mm. per year,

Indicated average annual groulh-rate of Floridian and Bahaman shoal-water corals

(Note. — Nat. att. = naturally attached. Note' in table, accuracy or resord doubtful; note- tape-line

measurements, accuracy somewhat doubtful)

Oculina diffusa Lam.

Eusmitia fastigiata (Pallas)

Eusmilia fastigiata (Pallas)

Dichocoenia stokesi M. Edw. & H.

Dendrogyra cylindrus Ehr.

Orbicella annularis (Ell. & Sol.)

Orbicella cavernosa (Linn.)

Favia fragum (Esper)

Favia frag urn (Esper)

Favia fragum. (Esper)

Favia fragum (Esper)

Manicina gyrosa (Ell. & Sol.)

Maeandra areolata (Linn.)

Maeandra labyrintliiformis (Linn.)

Mccandra labyrinthiformis (Linn.)

Maeandra strigosa (Dana)

Maeandra clivosa (Ell. & Sol.)

STATION

Ft. .Jefferson, tiles outside moat

wall

Ft. Jefferson moat, nat. att.

Ft. Jefferson wharf, nat. att.

Ft. Jefferson, tiles outside moat

wall

Ft. Jefferson wharf, nat. att.

Loggerhead Key, reef, nat. att.

Ft. Jefferson moat, nat. att.

Golding Cay, tiles

Golding Cay, nat. att.

Golding Cay, tiles

Ft. Jefferson, tiles outside moat

wall

Loggerhead Key, reef, tiles

Loggerhead Key, reef, nat. att.

Golding Cay, tiles

Golding Cay, nat. att.

Ft. Jefferson, tiles outside moat

wall

Loggerhead Key, reef, tile

Golding Cay, tile

Ft. Jefferson, tiles, outside moat

wall

Ft. Jefferson, moat

Ft. Jefferson, out.side moat wall,

nat. att.

Loggerhead Key, reef, nat. att.

Golding Cay, tiles

Ft. Jefferson, tiles, outside moat

wall

Loggerhead Key, reef, tiles

Ft. Jefferson, moat (trans-

planted;

Ft. Jefferson, wharf

Ft. Jefferson, tiles outside moat

wall

Ft. Jefferson, moat (trans-

planted)

Ft. Jeffer-son, out.side moat wall

nat. att.

Golding Cay, tiles

Golding Cay, nat. att.

Loggerhead Key, reef, tile

Ft. Jefferson, moat, nat. att.

Ft. Jefferson, wharf

Loggerhead Key, reef, nat. att.

Ciolding Cay, tiles

Golding Cay, nat. att.

Ft. Jefferson, tile, outside moat

wall

INCREASE IN

DIAMETER

19.28

19.2.5

29.57

9.61

10.62

21

6.67

6.29

2

7

7.43

6.89

9.02

6.45

0

14.50

4.83

9.5

4.42

4.2

6.417

4.5

3.62

9.75

7.87

21.50

16.77

10.74

15.25

12.00

7.34

9.17

6.375

7.70

19.80

11.17

9.75

8.14

5.92

20.90

No. of

records

as basis

for es-

timate

7

4

28

19

1

12

24

4

16

'29

29

36

24

2

19

6

4

27

0

8

24

4

12

66

12

4

26

24

8

5

6

8

24

14

10

INCREASE IN

HEIGHT

O

-5

I .0

12.70

22. Gl

4.5

7

5.2'

2 2

2

10.375

6.57

5.28

6.80

5.67

5

3.22

5.67

3.5

2.92

3.77

5.00

3.83

2.5

4.67

8.67

7.00

6.71

9.60

No. of

records

as basis

for es-

timate

2

5

13

10

4

10

2

14

5

12

9

3

2

14

11

1

12

3

4

28

5

14

12

2

3

50()

Maeandra clivosa (Ell. & Sol.)

Maeandra clivosa (E!l. & Sol.)

Maeandra clivosa (Ell. & Sol.)

Mussa (Isophyllia) dipsacea Dana

Mitssa (Isophyllia) rigida Dana

Mussa (Isophyllia) rigida Dana

Siderastrea radians (Pallas)

Siderastrea siderei (Ell. <& Sol.)

Siderastrea siderea (Ell. & Sol.)

Agaricia agaricites (Linn.)

Agaricia purpurea LeS.

Agaricia crassa Verrill

Acropora cervicornis (Lam.)

Acropora prolifera (Lam.)

Acropora palmata (Lam.X

Acropora palmata (Lam.)

Porites clavaria Lam.

Porites furcata Lam.

Porites astreoides Lam.

597

598 vaughan: growth-rate of shoal-water corals

but as the interspaces between the fronds are considerable

in volume, comparisons with Orbicella annularis must be based

upon relative increases in weight for a known period. The total

of the weights* of 5 specimens of Orbicella annularis in 1912 was

1886 grams; the total increase in weight of the 5 specimens in

1114

2 years was 1114 grams, or 7W^ = 59.1 per cent. The average

annual increase in height of these specimens was 5.7 mm.

The total of the weights of 5 specimens of Acropora palmata

in 1912 was 745 grams; the total increase in the weight of the

1727

same 5 specimens in 2 years was 1727 grams, or = 231.8

per cent. The average annual increase in height of these speci-

mens was 24.4 mm.

According to weight, the specimens of Acropora palmata have

grown 3.91 times as fast as .those of Orbicella annularis; this

may be stated in round numbers as 4 times as rapidly, while

the increase in height is 4.28 times as rapid. Therefore a reef

composed of Acropora palmata might grow upward at the rate

of about an inch per year, a growth which would produce a

thickness of 150 feet in 150 X 12 = 1800 years, but it is not

probable that conditions so favorable have ever been realized

in any area for a protracted period.

These two estimates give a measure of the limits of reef forma-

tion under continuously favorable conditions for upward growth.

Such corals as Orbicella annularis might form a reef 150 feet

thick in between 6500 and 7600 years; while such corals as Acro-

pora palmata might form a similar thickness in 1800 years.

A few references to previous literature will indicate the rate

of growth of Pacific and Indian ocean corals.

H. B. Guppy^ has furnished interesting data on the rate of

growth of corals around Keeling Atoll, including in his account

the results of some experiments by G. C. Ross. According to

Guppy, arborescent Acropores ''grow at the average rate of four

to five inches in a year, and will attain their full height in about

* The weights are of the wet living corals.

6 Scottish Geog. Mag., 5: 573-376. 1889.

vaughan: growth-rate of shoal-water corals 599

fifteen years." He estimates that branching species of Pontes

grow upward at the rate of 1^ inches per year, while the annual

upward growth of massive species of Porites is from ^ to f inch

per year. Montipora, of the facies of M. digitata, is said to have

an upward growth of not less than five inches per year.

Stanley Gardiner and F. Wood-Jones have made valuable

contributions to the knowledge of the growth rate of Indo-

Pacific corals. Wood-Jones has summarized the data in a

privately published paper entitled, The rate of growth of reef

building corals. His observations in Cocos-Keeling Islands

corroborate the estimates of Guppy. According to his recom-

putation of the data supplied by Gardiner, based on a collection

of presumably 3-year old corals from Hulule, North Male Atoll,

a general average of the upward growth for branching forms is

about 44 mm. per year, while that of massive forms is about 29

mm. Gardiner's estimates for the upward growth of massive

forms would be as follows:

Massive ' ' Astreidae' ' 22 mm. per year

Massive Fungidae 29 mm. per year

Massive Perforata 20.3 mm. per year

As it is probable that these corals, especially the massive ones,

are more than three years old, I am inclined to the opinion that

the estimates for the massive species are too high. Guppy's

estimate of the upward growth of massive Porites, 12,7 to 19.05

mm. per year, seems better founded, and falls within the range of

a number of the measurements on Porites astreoides. However,

recent remeasurements by Mayer of some of the corals meas-

ured and marked by Saville-Kent indicate an annual increase

in diameter of 1.9 inches (48.26 mm.) per year. As in massive

corals the increase in height is usually one-half to two-third

that in diameter, the increase in height would probably be

between 24 and 32 mm. per year, or very nearly the figures given

by Gardiner for massive species of corals.

The data available for the Pacific corals are not so abundant

as those for the Atlantic, nor have the records, with few excep-

tions, the same degree of precision. However, they are sufficient

for some general comparisons. The general growth rate of

600 standley: a remarkable new geranium

branching corals is nearly the same for both regions, but the

growth of the massive forms in the Pacific appears to be appreci-

ably more rapid than that of similar forms in the Atlantic.

Therefore it seems probable that in the coral reef regions of the

Pacific and Indian oceans a reef 150 feet thick may form under

favorable conditions in less than 6000 years. According to

Gardiner such a reef might form in 1000 years.

As the disappearance of the Wisconsin ice sheet is estimated

to have been between 10,000 years ago in Scandinavia and

Alaska and 40,000 years ago at Niagara, the data presented show

that there has been ample time for the development of any

known living reef since deglaciation. That Recent off-shore

reefs have been formed either during or immediately subsequent

to Recent submergence may be accounted established. That

deglaciation was an important factor in this submergence can

scarcely be doubted, but there are other factors which have

not yet been evaluated.

BOTANY. — A remorkahle new Geranium from Venezuela. Paul

C. Standley, U. S. National Museum. ^

The Geranium here described as new is of unusual interest

as affording an additional evidence of the relationship which

exists between the flora of the Hawaiian Islands and that of

tropical North and South America. This relationship has long

been known to botanists, being mentioned by Hillebrand in his

Flora of the Hawaiian Islands, ^ and discussed in some detail by

Alfred Russel Wallace in his "Island Life. "^ The affinities be-

tween the floras of these widely separated regions are best shown,

perhaps, in the family Asteraceae: several of the genera occur-

ring in Hawaii are represented also in tropical and subtropical

North and South America, and most of the species of other

genera are closely related to American plants. In other groups,

also, the relationship is well shown. Hawaii possesses species

of Gunnera, Phyllostegia, Fragaria, Sisyrinchium, Rubus, Dau-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

2 Page XXIX.

3 Pages 300-30G.

STAND ley: a remarkable new geranium 601

cus, Sanicula, Portulaca, Vaccinium, Ranunculus, Osteomeles,

Silene, Cleome, Nertera, Gnaphalium, Sida, Viola, Hibiscus,

Drosera, Acaena, Colubrina, and Dioclea, as well as of many

other genera, all of these more or less closely related to American

representatives of the same groups.

Among the most interesting Hawaiian plants is a peculiar

assemblage of species of Geranium, designated by Dr. Gray as

the Neurophjdlodea, well distinguished by their habit and by

the peculiar form of their leaves. The new Geranium here

described, while possibly deserving rank as a separate section

of the genus, is most closely related to the Neurophyllodea, and

if included in that section it is the first extra-Hawaiian species

thus far discovered.

Geranium jahnii Standley, sp. nov.

A low shrub, 10 cm. high, from an elongate woody root; stems very

stout, 2-3 cm. in diameter, branched, the branches ascending, the

older ones nearly black, the others densely covered with the persistent

stipules and petioles, the leaves present only at the apices of the

branches; stipules 3-4 mm. long, lanceolate, attenuate to rigid setaceous

tips; leaves densely crowded, the blades jointed with the petioles, these

1.5-2 mm. long, appressed, persistent; leaf blades cuneate, 6-8 mm.

long, coriaceous, yellowish green, more or less tinged with red, glabrous,

shallowly 3-Iobed at the apex, the lobes triangular, acutish, the middle

one longer than the others; peduncles 1-flowered, 9 mm. long, densely

pilose with short spreading whitish hairs, the flowers apparently cernu-

ous; sepals 6 mm. long, elliptic-oblong, acutish, short-mucronate,

villous-cihate, pilose, especially near the base; petals 9 mm. long,

spatulate-obovate, purplish, broadly rounded or truncate at the apex,

glabrous; filaments dilated at the base, the outer shorter than the inner

ones; fruit not seen, the ovary densely white-pilose at the base, the

beak glabrous.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 602229, collected on the

Paramo del Jabon, State of Trujillo, Venezuela, altitude 3000 to 3200

meters, October 2, 1910, by Dr. Alfredo Jahn (no. 34). The branches

of the plant are covered with lichens, an indication of the humidity

of the region in which it grows.

Although the material at hand is not so ample as might be desired,

it is sufficient to show the proper position of this remarkable plant.

Using Knuth's key to the sections of the genus,"* which is based largely

on habit, the present plant will run at once to the section Neurophyll-

* In EngL Pflanzenreich, 53: 44-47. 1912.

602 standley: a remarkable new geranium

odea A. Gray, a group confined, so far as known heretofore, to the

Hawaiian Islands. Not only in habit but in the form of the leaf blades

does Geranium jahnii bear a strong resemblance to members of this

group. Most of the species of the section have densely silvery-pubescent

leaves, but in G. cuneatiim menziesii A. Gray the leaves are glabrous

and in general form much like those of the species here described,

except that the blades are relatively broader and larger. Most of the

species of the Neurophjdlodea have a more ample inflorescence than

the Venezuelan jjlant, but not infrequent^ one-flowered peduncles

are found.

Knuth remarks^ that this section is perhaps related to the group

Andina, and the recent discovery of this new species tends to confirm

that view. Geranium jahnii, however, is unlike the Andina in habit,

and none of the species of that section have similar leaves. The most

striking peculiarity of G. jahnii is the apparent articulation of the

petiole with the leaf blade, a character not possessed by any other

species, so far as the writer can learn, although in some of the densely

cespitose species the leaf blade often does break from the petiole, which

then persists upon the caudex.

« Op. cit., p. 216.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEOLOGY. — The fauna of the Baiesville sandstone of northern Arkansas.

G. H. GiRTY. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 593. Pp. 170, with

11 plates. 1915.

This bulletin is one of a series designed to describe and illustrate the

succession of upper Mississippian faunas in the rocks of northern

Arkansas, which differs surprisingly from the faunal succession of the

typical Mississippian series in areas not far removed. The chfferences

are so great that an exact correlation of the two series can not yet be

made either faunally, lithologically, or stratigraphically. The Bates-

ville sandstone overlies the Moorefisld shale, whose fauna has been

described in a previous bulletin. Sandstone fossils are rarely well

preserved and rarely yield satisfactory results in the way of accurate

generic and specific discrimination. It was therefore the fact of its

occurrence in this series of formations rather than any intrinsic interes*:

that led to the investigation of the fauna of the Batesville sandstone.

The Batesville fauna had already been described by Professor Wellei-,

whose report was based on collections from Batesville alone. The

fossils described in Bulletin 593 include collections not only from the

Batesville region but from Marshall as well. Weller's report recognized

only about 30 species, whereas this one describes about 128, most of

which are therefore new to the Batesville fauna as previously known,

and some of Avhich are new to science.

The fauna of the Batesville sandstone^ was found to differ widely

from that of the underlying Moorefield shale and to be of uppsr Missis-

sippian age, to which, indeed, it had been generally assigned. Its cor-

relation is discussed at some length, but for the reason set down above

no definite conclusion is reached as to its exact position in the typical

upper Mississippian sections of Missouri and Illinois. G. H. G.

603

604 ABSTKACTS: GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY. — Fauna of the so-called Boone chert near Batesville, Ark.

G. H. GiRTY. U.S.Geol. Survey Bull. 595. Pp. 45 with 2 plates.

1915.

The Moorefield shale which is typicall}^ exposed in the Batesville

quadrangle of northern Arkansas has generally been regarded as of

u]3per Mississippian age. Its fauna comprises a unique assemblage

of species remarkably different from the typical upper Mississippian

faunas of Missouri and Illinois, and in some ways reminiscent of the

Devonian rather than of the Carboniferous types of life. In the Bates-

ville region the Moorefield shale rests on a series of impure limestones

and cherts that have heretofore been identified as Boone limestone

because of their lithologic character. The Boone limestone is commonly

regarded as of Osage age and its fauna differs as widely from that of

the Moorefield shale as the Moorefield fauna differs from the faunas

of the typical Mississippian. Recent studies, described in this report,

have shown that the cherty beds underlying the Moorefield shale near

Batesville differ in lithology from the typical Boone farther west.

Aside from other less striking differences they contain an intercalated

bed or beds of black shale quite alien to the Boone. Moreover they

contain a fauna thoroughly unlike that of the typical Boone. Fossils

are hard to find in this series of cherty beds, but several small collections

were obtained, aggregating about 35 species. The noteworthy feature

of this fauna is that practically all the species occur also in the Moore-

field shale above, some of them being characteristic Moorefield types,

while practically none of them occurs in the typical Boonp. This

fact bears in two directions. The Moorefield shale, as defined, con-

tains at its base a few beds of dark gray, earthy limestone ; most of the

formation, however, consisting of black and green shale. The basal

beds, for which at one time the name "Spring Creek" limestone was

proposed, furnish nearly all of what is known as the Moorefield fauna.

Only a few forms have been obtained from the shaly part of the forma-

tion and these make up a fauna considerably different from that found

in the "Spring Creek" limestone. It is the "Spring Creek" limestone

fauna which is represented in the cherts and impure limestone below,

and in view of these facts it is proposed, to restrict the name Moore-

field to the shale beds of which the formation mainly consists and to

unite the "Spring Creek" limestone with the underlying formation

which it resembles faunally and lithologically.

The second question considered is whether the cherty beds contain-

ing the "Spring Creek" limestone fauna are really Boone or some

younger formation. It is true that their fauna and lithology are dis-

abstracts: geology 605

tinctly different from the typical Boone fauna and lithology, but these

cherty beds appear to occupy the same place in the section as the Boone

which farther west, as at Marshall, immediately underlies the Moore-

field shale; furthermore, in western Tennessee, there are dark shales

which must be of about the same geologic age as the Boone but which

contain a fauna having many features in common with the "Spring

Creek" limestone fauna. This broad and very interesting problem is

as yet unsettled. A conclusion so far as the cherty beds at Batesville

are concerned rests partly on the thickness and faunal content of some

light gray crystalline limestones that underlie the cherts in ques-

tion. They are almost certainly of Carboniferous age, but are as yet

uninvestigated. G. H. G.

GEOLOGY. — The faunas of the Boone limesione at St. Joe, Ark. G. H.

GiRTY. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 598. Pp. 50, with 3 plates. 1915.

This short bulletin consists of two parts, one describing the fauna

of the St. Joe limestone member of the Boone limestone, the other

describing a small fauna obtained in the Boone not far above the St.

Joe. The collections described in both papers were obtained near St.

Joe in northern Arkansas.

The St. Joe limestone comprises about 30 feet at the base of the

Boone limestone and though composed of much the same materials, it

is faunally and lithologically a rather distinct and widely recognizable

unit. Except for some shaly beds of inconsiderable thickness below,

these limestones of the St. Joe are the earliest deposits of Carbonifer-

ous age in this region. The fossils described in this report, which

obviously represent the typical St. Joe fauna, comprise 30 species, some

of which are new. The fauna, though differing in certain respects,

strongly resembles the Fern Glen fauna of northeastern Missouri,

thus corroborating a correlation suggested by Professor Weller on rather

incomplete evidence. Weller's correlation of the Fern Glen and Chou-

teau is also agreed to in this report, ])ut it is suggested, though not

stated as a conclusion, that the Chouteau may really correlate with the

lower part of the Burlington limestone instead of being entirely older,

as commonly held.

The small but interesting fauna from the Boone, just above the St.

Joe member, comprises 32 species, many of which are new. It is

noteworthy that this fauna indicates a great change in the organic

sequence following St. Joe time. The succeeding fauna does not pos-

sess either a distinctive Burlington or a distinctive Keokuk facies but

differs markedly from both. G. H. G.

606 abstracts: geology

GEOLOGY. — The fauna of the Wewoka formation of Oklahoma. G. H.

GiRTY. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 544. Pp. 353, with 35 plates.

1915.

This report is pur3ly paleontologic in treatment and had its inspi-

ration partly in the character and fine preservation of the fossils that

occur in the Wewoka formation. These circumstances have per-

mitted the recognition of a number of new genera and species. The

Wewoka formation is one of the Pennsylvanian formations of Okla-

homa and is exposed in the Wewoka and Coalgate quadrangles. It

consists of alternating banks of shale and sandstone, about 700 feet

in all. The fossils occur in the shale beds from which they weather

free. In preservation they are unusual, the lime carbonate of which

they were originally composed being replaced by a compound of lime,

magnesia, and iron. As at present known, the Wewoka fauna con-

tains about 150 species, all of which are described and figured in this

report. Brachiopod types are relatively few, on the other hand, pele-

cypods and gastropods are relatively numerous, and the cephalopods

are represented by an unusually larg3 and interesting group of species.

A tentative assignment is made of the Wewoka formation to about

the position of the Fort Scott limestone of the Kansas section.

G. H. G.

GEOLOGY. — Reasons for regarding the Morrison as. an introductory

Cretaceous formation. Willis T. Lee. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.

26: 303 314. 1915.

The Morrison formation contains bones of dinosaurs which correlate

it with dinosaur beds in the Potomac group of the Atlantic Coast,

with the Wealden of Europe, and with certain dinosaur beds in east

Africa. Marsh, who described the Morrison dinosaurs, believed that

they indicated Jurassic age. Later the Potomac and Wealden beds

were classed as Lower Cretaceous; the dinosaur beds of east Africa are

interstratified with sedimentary rocks containing marine inverte])rates,

which, on preliminary examination, seem to indicate Lower Cretaceous

age. There is therefore a paleontologic basis for referring the Morrison

formation to the Lower Cretaceous. The present paper deals, how-

ever, mainly with physical features, which also support the reference

of the formation to the Lower Cretaceous.

The problem of classification is considered from the diastrophic

viewpoint. The physical relations of the Morrison to other formations

are described and an attempt is made to visualize the physiographic

conditions under which the formation probably developed. It is shown

abstracts: geology 607

that the Morrison is structurally much more closely related to the over-

lying Cretaceous than to the underlying formations and that its sedi-

ments were deposited on a graded plain formed mainly by degradation,

but in a few places by aggradation. The formation lies with apparent

conformity on marine Jurassic, but also overlaps onto a variety of older

formations to such an extent as to indicate a long interval of erosion

previous to INIorrison time.

The sequence of events is pictured as follows: The mountains of

Carboniferous time had undergone erosion throughout the Triassic

period and the early part of the Jurassic, so that the encroaching

sea of Upper Jurassic time found a nearly level plain extending

over a large part of the Rocky Mountain region. At or near the

close of the Jurassic period a slight uplift expelled this sea from the

continent. This uplift, evidenced by the withdrawal of the sea,

seems to have been a part of the general post- Jurassic movement

which elsewhere is regarded as the close of the Jurassic period. Soon

thereafter the interior of North America l^egan to subside and the

streams spread out over the graded plain the sediments which con-

stitute the Morrison formation. These accumulated in the shallow

basin lately occupied by the Jurassic sea, but also spread beyond its

borders over the broad, low-lying peneplain which seems to hav3

extended with little interruption from New Mexico to Montana and

from Utah to Kansas. These streams formed the swamps, lagoons

and shallow temporary lakes in which lived the huge reptiles of Morri-

son time. The remarkable uniformity in character and thickness of

the sediments is believed to be due to the slow subsidence of a large

interior area, a movement that culminated in the formation of the

interior basin of the Upper Cretaceous epoch. Lat^r this movement

carried the swamp deposits beneath the level of the sea in which were

deposited sediments of late Lower Cretaceous age. According to the

writer's view, although the character of the sedimentation changes

abruptly from the stream deposits of the Morrison to the marine de-

posits of the Lower Cretaceous, no long period of time intervened

between them, and it follows that the Morrison is of Lower Cretaceous

age.

The conclusion is reached that the physical character of the Morri-

son and its relation to contiguous formations indicate that it was de-

posited on a peneplain soon after the beginning of the Cretaceous

subsidence, when the surface was too near sea level for further degra-

dation, but not yet low enough for marine submergence. It is there-

fore the first sedimentary expression in the Rocky Mountain region

608 abstracts: zoology

of the order of events that cuhiiinated in the occupancy of the inte-

rior of North America by sea waters in Cretaceous time. It is a

non-marine forerunner of the Cretaceous marine formations and is of

Cretaceous age. W. T. L.

GEOLOGY. — Eocene glacial deposits in southwestern Colorado. W. W.

At WOOD. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 95-B.

Pp. 13-26. 1915.

At the northwest base of the San Juan Mountains, not far from the

village of Ridgway, Colorado, there is a series of exposures that include

a remarkable section of glacial till, which is overlain by formations of

Early Tertiary age. At the type locality, where first discovered, the

till consists of 80 to 100 feet of material showing all the characters of

glacial till, including an abundance of striated pebbles. This is capped

by finer material probably also of glacial origin and this in turn by the

Telluride conglomerate and the San Juan volcanic tuff, well known to

be of Tertiary age. From the facts thus far discovered it is inferred

that glaciers of the alpine and possibly also of the piedmont or small

ice-sheet types existed in Eocene times in and adjacent to an early

generation of San Juan Mountains. E. S. B.

ZOOLOGY. — DieCrinoidender Antarktis. AustinH. Clark. Deutsche

Sudpolar Expedition, XVI, Zoologie, 8: 103-209, pi. 1-10. May

16, 1915.

This is a complete monograph of the antarctic crinoids, including an

historical introduction, systematic discussion, and philosophical con-

clusions. Full synonymies of the families and genera, as well as of

the species, are given, and diagnoses of the species, genera, and higher

groups. The families Bourgueticrinidae and Plicatocrinidae and the

subfamilies Zenometrinae and Heliometrinae are revised. The origin

and relationship of the antarctic fauna is discussed, and the arctic

and antarctic faunas are contrasted. The significance of the distri-

bution of antarctic types in its' relation to the problem of the circulation

of the abyssal water is considered in detail.

One new genus, Eumorphometra, two new subgenera, Anthometra

and Florometra, and three new species, Psathyrometra antarctica,

Eumorphontetra concinna and Ormina occidentalis, are described.

In the included note by J. Thiele is given a description of Eulima

capensis, sp. nov., a parasitic gastropod found on Cominia occidentalis;

and in a note appended, by F. W. Clarke, are given analyses of the

skeletons of Promacliocrinus kerguclensis and Anthometra adriani.

A. H. C.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V NOVEMBER 4, 1915 No. 18

CHEMISTRY. — On some new indicators for the colorimetric

determination of hydrogen-ion concentration.^ Herbert A.

LuBS and William Mansfield Clark, Bureau of Animal

Industry.

In the biochemical application of the colorimetric method of

determining hydrogen-ion concentrations several difficulties are

encountered. The most serious of these are the so-called protein

and salt errors and the obscuring effect of the natural coloj s of

the solutions to be tested. All of these hindrances to accurate

determinations are encountered to a greater or lesser extent in

applying the method to bacterial cultures and culture media.

Indeed, the method in its particular application to general bac-

teriological problems is in a somewhat unsatisfactory condition,

and we are, therefore, attempting to simplify and systematize

it so that it may be used extensively in general bacteriological

work.

Unsatisfactory color changes alone rule out many indicators

which, though useful with perfectly clear solutions, are of httle or

no value in bacteriological media; and, as Sorensen- has shown,

the great majority of indicators listed in the elaborate tables of

Salm, Thiel, and others must be rejected for one reason or

another.

1 From the research laboratory of the Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal In-

dustry. Published by permission of the Secretary of Agriculture.

'-Biochem. Zeitschr. 21: 131. 1909; 22: 352. 1909; Ergebn. d. Physiol., 12:

393. 1912.

609

610 LUBS AND CLARK: NEW HYDROGEN-ION INDICATORS

Sorensen has done invaluable service by eliminating from these

tables the comparatively useless indicators and in his excellent

resume he has offered a selection of undoubted value. Unfortu-

nately some of these are of little value in bacteriological media

and others, from our experience, might be replaced with advan-

tage. The eliminations leave some serious gaps in the series.

There are, however, some indicators which have been studied

since Sorensen's compilation, a few of which have not been in-

vestigated with reference to their applicability for determining

hydrogen-ion concentration, and there also remain the possi-

bilities in new syntheses, as Sorensen has suggested.

Walpole^ in a recent article gives an excellent resume of the

method and suggests some new indicators. Those suggested are

either not particularly satisfactory for our purpose or are rather

difficult to obtain or prepare.

These considerations have led us to the investigation and

compilation herein recorded. A more detailed account of the use-

fulness of particular indicators, of their protein and salt errors, the

determination of their apparent dissociation constants, and our

attempts to systematize the method for the general use of the

bacteriologist will be reserved for subsequent papers. This

paper is to be regarded merely as a preliminary description of

our work in this field.

The importance of a simple, accurate, and well-systematized

colorimetric method of determining the hydrogen-ion concen-

trations of bacteriological culture media and cultures has been

pointed out in previous papers^ from this laboratory.

PREPARATION AND PROPERTIES OF INDICATORS OF THE

METHYL RED TYPE

Methyl Red, o-Carboxybenzene-azodimethylaniline, N(CH3)2 — C6H4

— N2 — C6H4COOH, was first prepared by Rupp and Loose.^ Tizard"

later improved the method of preparation so that almost quantitative

yields were obtained. He determined its apparent dissociation constant

3 Biochem. Journ. 8: 628. 1914.

* Journ. Infect. Diseases 17: 109. 1915; ibid. 17: 160; Journ. Biol. Chem. 22:

87. 1915.

5Ber. d.deutsch. Chem. Ges. 41: 3905. 1908.

6 Trans. Lond. Chem. See. 97: 2477. 1910.

LUBS AND CLARK: NEW HYDROGEN-ION INDICATORS 611

as an acid and found the value, K = 1.05 X 10~^ at 18°. Palitzsch''

states that the region in which methyl red can be used for colorimetric

determination of hydrogen-ion concentration lies between Ph 4.2 and

Ph 6.3, and that in this region a difference of 0.1 in the Ph^ value produces

a marked difference in the tint of the indicator. He also determined its

so-called protein and salt errors. The range of color extends from yel-

low on the alkaline side to red on the acid side. The brilliant and

sharp changes of methyl red and its utility in the presence of protein

and protein cleavage products makes it an excellent indicator for the

estimation of the hydrogen-ion concentration of bacteriological media.

It was with the hope of finding an indicator showing color changes

at hydrogen-ion concentrations just below those which can be deter-

mined by methyl red that we began to synthesize other indicators of

this series. In our bacteriological work we found that it was necessary

to have an indicator which would give a fairly sharp differentiation be-

tween Ph 6 and Ph 6.5. Para nitrophenol is an excellent indicator for

this range in a colorless solution, but unfortunately its color cliange is

of such a nature that it is obscured by the natural color of most bac-

teriological media.

We found by varying the substituent alkyls in the aniline residue of

methyl red that the resulting indicators show but little difference in

properties. Their colors vary only in intensity, and the hydrogen-ion

concentrations at which the changes occur differ but little. As would

be expected, the indicators with two substituent alkyls had a much

deeper color than the corresponding monoalkyl derivatives.

INDICATORS OF THE METHYL RED TYPE INVESTIGATED

Monomethyl Red, o-Carboxybenzene-azomonomethylaniline. — A speci-

men of this material was kindly sent to us by Dr. L. W. Jones. This

was recrystallized from alcohol. The nature of the color change was

practically the same as that of methyl red but far less intense. Changes

occur over the range Ph 4.25 to Ph 6.00.

Methyl Red, o-Carboxybenzene-azodimethylaniline. — Previously de-

scribed.

Monoethyl Red, o-Carboxybenzene-azomonoethylaniline. — This indi-

cator was prepared from anthranilic acid and monoethylaniline by the

" C. R. d. trav. d. Lab. Carls. 10: 163. 1911.

* Ph = log 7T-' For a discussion of the significance and convenience of this

symbol see Sorensen, loc. cit.

612 LUBS AND CLARK: NEW HYDROGEN-ION INDICATORS

method of Tizard for the analogous methyl red. It was recrystallized

from alcohol. Color changes occur over the range Ph 4.25 to P^ 6.00.

Diethyl Red, o-Carhoxyhenzene-SiZodiQthylamyme. — This substance was

prepared from anthranilic acid and diethyl aniline by the method pre-

viously described. It was recrystallized from alcohol. Its colors are

slightly deeper than those of methyl red and the changes occur over the

range Pj^ 4.50 to P^ 6.50.

Monopropyl Red, o-Carboxybenzene-azomonopropylaniline. — This in-

dicator was prepared from anthranilic acid and monopropyl aniline.

Color changes are from yellow to red and extend over the range Ph 4.25

to F^ 6.25.

Dipropyl Red, o-Carboxybenzene-azodipropylaniline. — Attempts to

prepare this substance in the manner described by Tizard for methyl

red were not successful, so the following procedure was adopted : Five

grams of anthranilic acid were dissolved in two molecular equivalents of

3N hydrochloric acid. To the cooled solution was added the necessary

amount of sodium nitrite solution. Starch-potassium-iodide paper was

used as the indicator. Thediazotized solution was allowed to stand in ice

water for one-half hour and then 6.6 grams of dipropyl aniline dissolved

in 150 cc. of alcohol were added. The mixture was allowed to stand

in the ice water for two hours, and then at room temperature over

night. The next morning the bluish purple crystals were filtered off

with suction, washed with a little cold alcohol and then with water.

The yield, after drying in the air, was about 3 grams. Color changes

are from reddish-violet to yellow and occur over the range Ph4.50

to Ph 6.50. They are slightly more intense than in the corresponding

diethyl compound.

Dimethyl-a-naphthylamineRed,o-Carhoxyhenzene-a,zodmiethyl-a-naph-

thylamine. — Howard and Pope^ first made this indicator. Their

method of preparation was used and an almost quantitative yield was

obtained. The color changes are extremely brilliant from purple to

yellow and occur over the range Ph 4.50 to Ph 6.50.

The phenyl-a-naphthylamine, a-napthylamine, and diphenylamine

derivatives of this series were also prepared by Howard and Pope.

We investigated the two latter compounds and found that the color

changes were not very brilliant and probably would be of little use in

bacteriological work.

The color changes of o-Carboxybenzene-azodimethyl-c^-naphthylam-

ine take place between Ph 5.00 and Ph 6.75. The changes of the

9 Trans. Lond. Chem. Soc. 99: 1333. 1911.

LUBS AND CLARK: NEW HYDROGEN-ION INDICATORS 613

diphenylamine compound occur between Ph 4.25 and Ph 5.50. A cold

saturated alcoholic solution of these two indicators was used. In all

other cases a solution of 0.1 gram of indicator in 300 cc. alcohol and

200 cc. distilled water was used.

INDICATORS OF THE SULPHONE-PHTHALEIN TYPE

Phenolsulphonephthalein was first prepared by Remsen and Sohon^"

by the condensation of phenol and the anhydride of o-sulphobenzoic

acid. An improved method which has been used in this laboratory is

based upon the action of phenol upon the chloride of o-sulphpbenzoic

acid in the presence of anhydrous zinc chloride. By the old method

a large amount of alkali insoluble material is obtained, while by the

new method practically none is formed. An additional advantage of

the new method lies in the greater ease with which the starting mate-

tials can be prepared.

PHENOLSULPHONE-PHTH ALE IN

Preparation. — The starting material was pure saccharin. From this

the ammonium salt of o-sulphobenzoic acid was prepared by substan-

tially the same method as described by Remsen and Holmes. ^^ The

chloride was prepared from the ammonium salt as described by Remsen

and Dohme.^2 Ten grams of the acid chloride, 15 grams of phenol

and 10 grams of freshly fused and pulverized zinc chloride were mixed

in a porcelain jar. As soon as the zinc chloride was added a vigorous

evolution of hydrochloric acid gas occurred and the temperature of the

reacting mass rose spontaneously to about 55° C, developing a deep red

color. The temperature was raised to 140° C. and held there for six

hours. During the heating the mass was frequently stirred with the

thermometer used to indicate the temperature. The reaction product

gradually became more viscous. When the heating was finished the

melt was disintegrated with hot water, boiled for a few minutes and

filtered with suction. After a thorough washing a bright red powder

was obtained. This was then dissolved in strong alkali, the solution

filtered and slowly poured into hot dilute hydrochloric acid, with con-

stant stirring. After boiling for a few minutes the flask containing the

sulphonephthalein was allowed to stand for several hours, and then

the indicator was filtered off with suction, washed and air dried. Com-

10 Amer. Chem. Journ. 20: 257. 1898.

11 Amer. Chem. Journ. 25: 205. 1901.

12 Amer. Chem. Journ. 11: 332. 1889.

614 LUBS AND CLARK: NEW HYDROGEN-ION INDICATORS

plete drying can be secured at 120° C. The indicator obtained by this

procedure is quite pure.

Properties. — Levy, Rowntree and Marriot^^ were the first to recog-

nize the excellence of phenolsulphone-phthalein as an indicator for the

colorimetric determination of hydrogen-ion concentration. A com-

plete discussion of the theory of color changes of this compound will

shortly be published by White and Acree. The range of color changes

is from yellow to reddish-violet and extends from Ph 6.50 to Ph 8.50.

Between Ph 7 and Ph 7.50 extremely sharp differentiations can be se-

cured but the indicator can be used with entire satisfaction over the

wider range. A solution of the sodium salt in water is used and such

a solution can now be purchased from any of the dealers in chemical

supplies. A 0.01 per cent solution is satisfactory for colorimetric pur-

poses. Use 4-6 drops.

O-CRESOLSULPHONE-PHTHALEIN

Preparation.- — ^This indicator was also prepared by Remsen and So-

hon." The method of preparation used in this laboratorj^ was, in gen-

eral, the same as that used for the analogous phenol compound. Ten

grams of o-cresol, 15 grams of the acid chloride and 10 grams of freshly

fused and pulverized zinc chloride were heated together for 6 hours at

165°-170°. The melt was then treated as previously described. The

filtration is much more difficult than in the case of the phenol com-

pound. Yield about 10 grams. o-Cresolsulphone-phthalein can be re-

ciystallized from glacial acetic acid. It is quite soluble in alcohol.

Properties. — This indicator covers practically the same range as

phenolsulphone-phthalein. The color changes are very similar. On

the whole the phenol compound is superior to the cresol compound.

The phenol compound can be prepared more easily and shows slightly

sharper color changes. The indicator solution was prepared by dis-

solving 0.1 gram of indicator in 200 cc. alcohol. Use 2-4 drops.

THYMOLSULPHONE-PHTHALEIN

Preparation. — Ten grams of the acid chloride, 10 grams of freshly

fused and dehydrated zinc chloride and 15 grams of thymol were heated

for four hours at 140° C. with frequent stirring. The reaction mixture

must be stirred constantly during the first half hour of the reaction in

order to prevent a loss of material from frothing. The melt was boiled

" Archiv. Int. Med. 16: 38. 1915. (See also Trans, of the Assoc, of Physi-

cians, 1915.)

" Amer. Chem. Journ. 20: 257. 1898.

LUBS AND CLARK: NEW HYDROGEN-ION INDICATORS 615

with water. The dye collected as a black viscous mass at the bottom

of the beaker. The water was poured off and the viscous mass which

hardened upon cooling was boiled with alcohol to remove the remain-

ing thjanol. Upon cpoling to room temperature the thymolsulphone-

phthalein was filtered off as greenish crystals. Yield about 5 grams.

These crystals can be recrystallized from alcohol. (1) 0.3288 gram

gave 0.1490 gram BaS04; (2) 0.4224 gram gave 0.2118 gram BaS04;

S. calculated for C27H30S 05,6.88 per cent; S found (1) 6.21 per cent/^ (2)

6.88 per cent.

Properties. — The color changes are from yellow to blue and take place

between Ph 8 and Pr 9.75. The useful range lies between Ph 8.00 and

Ph 9.50. Throughout this range the differentiations are extremely

sharp. For colorimetric purposes a dilution of 0.1 gram of indicator

in 200 cc. alcohol and 50 cc. water was used. Use 3-6 drops. This

indicator covers practically the same range as phenolphthalem, and

probably can be substituted for the latter to advantage in many cases.

This point will be decided as soon as we have completed our work on

the magnitude of the protein and salt errors of these new indicators,

a-NAPHTHOLSULPHONE-PHTHALEIN

Preparation. — Five grams of the acid chloride, 5 grams of freshly

fused and dehydrated zinc chloride and 6 grams of a-naphthol were

thoroughly mixed. The reaction began at once. A dark green melt

was formed. This was heated to 70° with constant stirring and held

at this temperature for about ten minutes. Upon longer heating, the

dye tends to go over into a substance which is probably an oxidation

product and which gives a green color in alkaline solution. The melt

was extracted with water to remove the zinc chloride. The residue

was then extracted thoroughly with ether in order to remove the ex-

cess of naphthol. It was then dissolved in cold alkali and the solution

filtered. The indicator was reprecipitated by the addition of strong

hydrochloric acid, filtered with suction, washed with water containing

hydrochloric acid and air dried. When dry the indicator has a dark

green color. Without further purification and after drying at 120°

in vacuo, 0.5154 grams gave 0.2345 grams BaS04; 0.2736 grams gave

0.1239 grams BaS04. Theoretical for C27H18SO5, 7.06 per cent S.

Found (1) 6.24 per cent, (2) 6.21 per cent.

Properties. — The color changes are from yellow to blue over the

15 Incomplete fusion suspected in this case. Further analyses were not made

because of limited supply of indicator.

616 LUBS AND CLARK: NEW HYDROGEN-ION INDICATORS

range of Ph 7.50 to Ph 9.00. Very sharp differentiations can be se-

cured over this range. As an indicator solution use 0.1 gram dissolved

in 50 cc. alcohol and add 150 cc. distilled water. Use 1-2 drops.

TETRABROM-PHENOLSULPHONE-PHTHALEIN

Preparation. — This compound was prepared as described by White. ^®

Two grams of phenolsulphone-phthalein were suspended in 20 cc. of

glacial acetic acid and to the suspension were added 10 grams of bro-

mine dissolved in 10 cc. of glacial acetic acid. The flask was allowed to

stand, with occasional shaking, for several hours and then the excess

of bromine was removed by means of an air current. The precipitate

was filtered off with suction, washed with cold acetic acid, recrystallized

from the same and air dried.

Properties. — The color changes are from yellow to purple and occur

over the range Ph 3.50 to Ph 4.50. The indicator solution was made

by dissolving 0.1 gram in 250 cc. alcohol. Use 3-5 drops.

BROMTHYMOL-SULPHONE-PHTHALEIN

Preparation. — This indicator was prepared in the manner described

for the analogous phenol compound. It is obtained as yellow granular

crystals. We are investigating its chemical constitution and will

publish our data shortly.

Properties. — The color changes are from yellow to blue and occur

over the range Ph 6.00 to Ph 7.25. As an indicator solution use 0.1

gram dissolved in 250 cc. of alcohol.

Work is now in progress to prepare other new indicators of the

sulphonephthalein type. We have already prepared phenol-nitrosul-

phone-phthalein, but have not purified it sufficiently to give an accurate

description of its properties.

The authors take this opportunity to express their gratitude to Dr.

L. W. Jones, Dr. S. F. Acree, and Dr. E. C. White for specimens of

indicators and to Mr. H. A. B, Dunning for valuable suggestions.

SUMMARY

The following new indicators of the methyl red type have been pre-

pared by us: Monoethyl red, diethyl red, monopropyl red and dipropyl

red. Besides these new indicators we have also prepared and investi-

gated the following indicators of the methyl red group which had been

"White, Disser. Univ. of Wisconsin. 1915.

wells: solubility of calcite in water 617

previously made by others: Monomethyl red, a-naphthylamine red,

dimethyl-a-naphthylamine red and diphenylamine red. The well

known methyl red had been previously investigated by Palitzsch. Of

these indicators the most satisfactory are those containing two sub-

stituent alkyls.

Several new indicators of the sulphonephthalein type were prepared ;

namely, thymolsulphone-phthalein, a-naphtholsulphone-phthalein, and

bromthymol-sulphone-phthalein. An improved method of preparation

for the sulphone-phthaleins is described.

The hydrogen-ion concentrations at which the color changes of the

above indicators occur was determined.

The authors will shortly publish the result of their investigations

on the utility of the most satisfactory of the new indicators with par-

ticular reference to their salt and protein errors and to their applica-

bility in biochemical investigations,

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— T/ie solubility of calcite in water

in contact with the atmosphere, and its variation with tempera-

ture. Roger C. Wells, Geological Survey.^

It is well known that even the small amount of carbon dioxide

in the atmosphere is sufficient greatly to increase the solubility

of calcite in water. Direct experiments on this point at tempera-

tures above 25°C. were made by Kendall,- who found the solution

to contain calcium equivalent to 46 parts of calcium carbonate

per million at 25° and 29 parts at 50°. The partial pressure of

carbon dioxide in Kendall's experiments was found by him to be

3.69 X 10~^ atmospheres.

Recently all the data on the solubility of calcite in carbonic

acid water have been critically examined by Johnston,^ and he

has calculated the solubility of calcite in water at 16°, in con-

tact with air containing certain small pressures of carbon dioxide,

with the results given below.

When Kendall's results are compared with those calculated by

Johnston, under similar conditions, the agreement is not as good

as one could wish. Moreover, in a paper by Dubois* on the

1 Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological

Survey.

2 Philos. Mag. Ser. 6, 23: 973. 1912.

3 Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 37: 2001. 1915.

^ Proc. Sec. Sci., Amsterdam Academy, 3: 46. 1901.

618 wells: solubility of calcite in water

Calculated Solubility of Calcite in Water at 16°C., in Contact with Air

Containing the Partial Pressure, P, of CO2 (Johnston)

solubility of calcite in natural waters the dependence on tem-

perature is barely mentioned.

Since data at lower temperatures are lacking, and since the

variation of the solubihty of calcite with temperature is a mat-

ter of great importance in geochemistry, I have carried out some

new experiments designed especially to show the effect of tem-

perature on the solubility.

The method of working consisted in agitating the solutions

under investigation by a current of outdoor air for long intervals.

The Jena flasks employed were kept in a thermostat while air

was being passed, and, for the experiments at 1°C., they were

immersed in a mixture of ice and water in a refrigerator during

the whole continuation of the experiments.

The outdoor air used for stirring was filtered through cotton

and washed by water. Although the carbon dioxide content of

the air is known to be slightly variable,^ this procedure must

have equalized the small variations to a considerable degree. A

number of careful determinations of the carbon dioxide content,

made at various times, ranged from 3.02 to 3.27 parts in 10,000,

with a mean of 3.18 parts. Apparently, then, equilibrium with

a normal atmosphere was more nearly approached than it could

be by any other simple procedure.

The Joplin calcite used had the following composition: Si02

0.09, MnO 0.05, FeO 0.19, CaO 55.80, MgO none, CO2 (by dif-

ference) 43.87, sum 100.00 per cent. As far as determined calcite

was the only solid phase involved, but, if a less soluble phase did

in fact exist in the mixtures, the solubilities actually found would

of course apply to it. The calcium content of the solutions was

6 Letts and Blake. Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc. 9: Pt. 2, 107. 1900.

wells: solubility of calcite in watee

619

calculated from the result of titrating about 50 cc. with 0.02 N

NaHS04, using methyl orange as indicator. The solutions were

slightly acid toward phenolphthalein, thus showing that the

calcium was present chiefly as bicarbonate. The results are

stated, however, in terms of CaCOs, since that is the solid phase

actually dissolved, or the phase that would be again precipitated

on evaporation. Table I contains some results obtained at 1°C,

when calcite in excess was added to water and air was passed

through the solution for an hour or two daily.

TABLE I

Calcite Added to Distilled Water at 1°C. and Air Passed Daily

Table II shows how slowly a supersaturated solution, without

points of crystallization other than the walls of the flask, loses its

excess CO2 and CaCOs at 1°. The high results of this series

are probably due in part to the deposition of a more soluble

form of calcium carbonate than calcite and were excluded in

drawing the curve below. In Table III are shown results ob-

tained with a similar solution but with considerable powdered

calcite present to assist deposition.

TABLE II

Air Passed at 1" Through a Solution Containing CO2 and Ca(HC03)2

620

wells: solubility of calcite in water

TABLE III

Calcite Added to a Solution Containing Ca(HC03)2 at 1°C. and Aih Passed

Tables IV and V are self-explanatory. The results of the in-

vestigation are summarized by the curve in Figure 1.

TABLE IV

Calcite Added to Distilled Water at 30°C. and Air Passed

The geochemical conclusion to be drawn from the curve is,

that in solutions freely exposed to the atmosphere solid cal-

cium carbonate is considerably more soluble at low temperatures

than at higher temperatures. As, however, there are many

possibilities of lag in adjustment of the various equilibria in-

volved, it is doubtless true that conditions of perfect equilibrium

are seldom fully attained in nature.

Although it would take too much space to point out all the

results in nature, of the variation of the solubility with tem-

perature, one or two applications of the data may be mentioned.

wells: solubility of calcite in water

621

Parts

CaCO^

A^illion

70

60

50

40

30

0

JO

20

30

40

SO'C.

Fig. 1. Solubility of calcite in water in contact with the atmosphere, and

its variation with temperature.

The Mississippi River flows, on the average, in a direction of

rising temperature. Therefore, if the streams of the North

become saturated with calcium carbonate, a considerable amount

of it will tend to re-deposit as the river flows southward, merely

because of the rise in temperature. The chemical equation is:

Ca(HC03)2 = CaCOs + COo + HoO

from which it follows that carbon dioxide will be again evolved

as the calcium carbonate precipitates. The winds stir the at-

mosphere so rapidly, in comparison with the movement of the

river, that it is useless to look for variations of the carbon dioxide

in the atmosphere due to this cause. The water of the Missis-

sippi, however, seems to show clearly the decrease in bicarbonate

622

wells: solubility of calcite in water

as it flows southward. Taking the analyses used by Palmer/

we have the following data on this point:

Bicarbonate content of Mississippi Rive)' water at various localities

The figures in the last column above are not exactly compar-

able with the solubilities in pure water recorded in this paper on

account of the presence of other salts, a varying acidity and a

varying calcium ion concentration, but they are believed to illus-

trate the dependence of the solubility of calcium carbonate on

the temperature.

Another application of the varying solubility may be found

in the formation of marble from coral. Certain islands in the

Philippines, having shores of coral, are found to consist, at fairly

shallow depths, of limestone. It may be that the compara-

tively rapid conversion of coral into limestone is due to the fact

that with every fluctuation of temperature, many particles of

calcium carbonate alternately dissolve in, and re-deposit from,

small amounts of water in the pore space, tending always toward

the more stable calcite.

In making analyses of natural waters the temperature at the

time of collection should be noted, for, although calcium car-

bonate may not actually deposit before the analysis can be made,

owing to the slowness of the change illustrated by Table II, the

question of whether the water was saturated or not when col-

lected would require for its satisfactory answer a knowledge of

its temperature.

• U. S. Geological Survey Bull. 479, p. 28.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEOLOGY. — Some mining districts in northeastern Nevada and north-

western California. James M. Hill. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull.

594. Pp. 200. 1915.

This report embodies the results of a geologic reconnaissance which

had two main objects, (1) to satisfy a present public demand for

reliable information, and (2) to gather data which should be of use in

preparing at a later time a general report on the geology and ore de-

posits of Nevada, The report brings out many facts not only of practi-

cal but of scientific interest, such as the widespread occurrence of

adularia in the veins of northwestern Nevada, the presence of second-

ary tetrahedrite and wurtzite in the Reese River district, and the pres-

ence of selenium in the veins of Aurora.

In the region covered, sedimentary rocks ranging in age from Paleo-

zoic to Mesozoic were noted. These sedimentary rocks, in practically

every camp in which they were noted, have been intruded by granit-

oid rocks ranging from diorites through monzonites, quartz mon-

zonites, and gi'anodiorites, to granites. Their age was not definitely

determined, though they cut Jurassic rocks; it is believed, however,

that they were all intruded during the late Cretaceous or early Tertiary-

period of intrusion common to the Sierra Nevada and Great Basin

province. Lava flows cover considerable parts of the region visited,

particularly along the western border of Nevada and in northeast

California. Farther east, in Lander County, volcanic rocks are less

conspicuous.

The ore deposits are grouped as gold-silver deposits, silver-lead

deposits, copper deposits, and antimony deposits. Each of these broad

groups is further subdivided according to the mineral composition of

the ores and their mode of occurrence.

623

624 abstracts: zoology

In most of the gold-silver deposits quartz has replaced calcite gangue

to some extent, giving a peculiar platy structure to the quartz. With

the exception of the veins near Aurora the veins pi'oper carry almost no

sulphides although pyrite is found in the altered wall rocks. The gold

is all free but usually very finely distributed. At Aurora, besides free

gold, the ores carry tetrahedrite, some pyrite and chalcopyrite, and

selenium. The nature of the selenium compound is not yet known.

So far as known all the silver-lead deposits are closely associated

with the intrusive quartz monzonite and related rocks and are therefore

of late Mesozoic or early Tertiary age. All these veins exhibit marked

similarity in the sulphide minerals, though the proportions of one to

another differ widely even in the same vein. Antimonial compounds,

generally freibergite, are present in practically every vein. Galena,

dark sphalerite, pyrite, arsenopyrite, and chalcopyrite are usually

fairly abundant.

The copper deposits are associated with quartz monzonite intrusives

probably of early Tertiary age. Most of them are of the contact

metamorphic type or are replacement deposits in various kinds of

sediments near masses of intrusive rock.

Most of the antimony deposits occur in crushed, contorted siliceous

shales. The ores consist of white quartz and stibnite, with, in some

places, minor quantities of tetrahedrite and galena, showing that they

are probably related to the silver-lead mineralization. E. S. B.

ZOOLOGY. — A Study of asymmetry, as developed in the genera and

families of recent crinuids. Austin H. Clark, The American

Naturalist, 49: 521-546. 1915,

Among the recent crinoids any wide departure from the normal

close approximation to true pentamerous symmetry indicates unfavor-

able conditions of one or other of two main types, which are not mutu-

ally exclusive. These two types are: (1) Internal unfavorable condi-

tions, induced by incipient phylogenetical degeneration through type-

senescence, as in the PlicatocrinidiB which in the recent seas represent

the almost exclusively palaeozoic Inadunata; and (2) External unfavor-

able conditions, taking the form of (a) Phylogenetically excessive cold

which, to cite one example, appears to be the determining factor in

the asymmetry of the genus Promachocrinus, or (6) Phylogenetically

excessive warmth, which appears to be the determining factor in the

asymmetry of the Comasteridse. A. H. C.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V NOVEMBER 19, 1915 No. 19

ELECTRICITY. — Protection of life and property against light-

ning. 0. S. Peters, Bureau of Standards.

This paper is a report of a survey of statistical data relating

to life and property hazards from lightning, and describes existing

methods of protection against lightning. The field covered does

not include electrical power and signal systems. In the course

of preparation of the paper an examination was made of the

available literature on the subjects of lightning phenomena and

protection against lightning, and of the reports of fire marshals

and insurance companies. In addition to this a considerable

amount of data was obtained from the reports of the Census

Bureau, and manufacturers of lightning rods were asked to sub-

mit their opinions, and the results of their experiences, as to

how a system of lightning rods should be installed. Appendices

are included in tbe complete paper, to be published by the

Bureau of Standards, giving rules concerning the installation

and maintenance of lightning rods which have in some cases

been followed in Germany, England, and the United States,

and also rules for first aid treatment in cases of persons injured

by lightning. '

The chief facts disclosed by the information obtained in the

course of the inquiry may be summarized briefly as follows:

1. The property loss by lightning for the entire United States

is approximately eight million dollars per year, of which by far

the greater part occurs in rural districts.

625

626 peters: protection against lightning

2. During each year there are approximately 1500 persons

affected by lightning stroke in the United States, one-third of

this number being killed and the rest subjected to injuries which

in many cases are permanent. About nine-tenths of these acci-

dents occur in rural districts.

3. Such evidence as is available on the effectiveness of light-

ning rods indicates that, taking rods as they come in the gen-

eral run of installations, they reduce the fire hazard from light-

ning by 80 to 90 per cent in the case of houses, and by as much

as 99 per cent in the case of barns. The same is undoubtedly

true of other buildings having characteristics similar to those

of barns and houses.

4. With regard to the proper metal for Ughtning rods it may

be said that the differences of resistivity of the metals ordinarily

available for lightning rodfe are not great enough to make one

metal preferable to another. Resistance to atmospheric and

soil corrosion is the chief essential to be considered.

5. Extended metallic masses on or within a building must

be made a part of the lightning rod system, with a possible excep-

tion, however, in the case of metallic masses within the building

which do not come near the roof and are at a distance of ten

feet or so from the rods. Gas pipes should be avoided in erect-

ing lightning conductors if possible, but if they are so located

that it is impossible to keep at a distance of ten feet or more,

they should be electrically connected to the rods at several

points, connected to earth within the building, and well bonded

around the gas meter.

6. The maximum current in a lightning flash may, in some

cases, be more than 20,000 amperes.

7. Each flash of lightning consists, in most cases at least, of

a number of consecutive discharges along the same path with

short time intervals between them. The duration of each of

the consecutive discharges is of the order of 1/35000 second.

The best obtainable evidence points to the fact that these con-

secutive discharges are unidirectional and of steep wave front.

8. The heating effects of a lightning stroke on a rod of ordi-

nary size, i.e., a rod weighing about 0.5 kg. per meter, is not

peters: protection against lightning 627

likely to be appreciable except at the place where the stroke

enters the rod, or at high resistance joints.

9. Good mechanical construction in a lightning rod system

is a prime essential to permanency. Rods are subject to severe

strains from wind, snow and ice, thermal expansion and con-

traction, and, in the event of a stroke of lightning, to electro-

magnetic stresses, so joints must be strong and the rod securely

fastened to the building.

10. The resistance of the earth connection should be made

as low as practicable. In practice there is no chance of getting

too low a resistance. On the other hand, a resistance which

rises above 15 or 20 ohms at any time should be considered as

excessively large on account of the potential drop which may

possibly be set up in the event of a stroke.

11. When a system of hghtning rods is installed aerial termi-

nals with points should be placed at all chimneys, gables, points

or other projections toward which a stroke of lightning might

be directed. This is necessary because a point cannot be relied

upon to protect objects other than that upon which it is placed.

12. Down conductors should be run in such a way that a

stroke on any aerial terminal on a structure will have two or

more widely separated paths from the foot of the aerial terminal

to earth. One path to earth has been found to be unsafe, and

more than two are preferable.

13. It has been shown photographically that the path of a

lightning discharge may be shifted by the wind as much as 10

meters or more during the period between the initial and final

discharge. For this reason it is advisable not to allow too great

an expanse of flat roof to be exposed without aerial terminals.

14. The return on an investment in lightning rods may be

expected in two ways; in a sense of personal security from

hghtning, and in actual security to life and property'. The

property loss from lightning is not sufficient to cause universal

protection against lightning to be a paying investment. Pro-

tection against lightning is justified as an investment only

where risk to human life is involved, or where the property risk

is great enough to make protection against lightning more eco-

nomical than insurance.

628 STAND ley: notes on orthopterygium huaucui

15. With regard to personal safety from lightning it may be

said that no place to which a person may ordinarily retire can

be considered as absolutely safe. The only places which can

be considered as closely approximating absolute safety are in

a building completely surrounded by a metal network, in a

steel frame building, or in an underground chamber. A high

degree of safety, however, may be found in a well rodded build-

ing; the next degree of safety is undoubtedly to be found in an

unprotected house which may be considered as far preferable

to the open or to unprotected outbuildings.

BOTANY. — -Notes on Orthopterygium huaucui. Paul C. Stand-

ley, U. S. National Museum. ^

In 1907 Mr. W. Botting Hemsley published^ a very elaborate

account of a proposed new family of plants, the Julianiaceae, in-

cluding two genera, Juliania (or Amphipterygium) and Orthop-

terygium, the latter being described as new. The family is a

very remarkable one in many respects, and for a long time after

the description of the first published species, Juliania adstrin-

gens, in 1843, its proper taxonomic position was unknown. Some

authors placed Juliania in the Burseraceae or in the Ana-

cardiaceae, while others referred it to the list of ''genera in-

certae sedis." Hemsley, however, demonstrated that while the

Julianiaceae bear certain resemblances to the Anacardiaceae,

their affinities are rather with the Juglandaceae and Fagaceae.

The genus Juliania is an exclusively Mexican group, composed

of four species, while Orthopterygium consists of a single Peruvian

species, 0. huaucui, the type specimens having been collected

by the Wilkes Exploring Expedition "in the vicinity of Yanga,

Peru," near Lima.^ Specimens of the same plant had been col-

lected, however, as early as 1831, on ''the sides of the base of the

Cuesta of Purruchuca, Province of Canta, Peru," by Mathew.

These two localities were the only ones known to Hemsley when

his monograph of the family was prepared. Recently Dr. C. H.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

2 Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, London, Ser. B. 199: 169-197, pi. 18-24.

3 A. Gray in Wilkes, U. S. Expl. Exped. 15: 371. 1854.

STAND ley: notes ON ORTHOPTERYGIUM HUAUCUI

629

T. Townsend, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, who has

spent several years in entomological work in Peru and Ecuador,

presented to the National Museum a small collection of plants

from western Peru. Among the specimens are staminate flowers

and nearly mature fruit of Orthopterygium huaucui. The fruit

agrees perfectly with that of the type collection of the species.

\

^^jggMjjj

i

Fig. 1. Orthopterygium. huaucui in Chosica Canyon. The largest individual

seen, a pistillate tree with fruits pendent from the branches.

Dr. Gray states that his own material consisted of ''two leafless

branches .... with nothing besides a terminal fascicle

of immature, pendent, samaroid fruits." One of these branches

is in the National Herbarium.

Dr. Townsend's specimens come from the general region of the

two localities cited above. They were collected June 6 or 7,

630 STAND ley: notes on orthopterygium huaucui

1914, at an altitude of about 1800 meters at Goatherd Camp,

Chosica Canyon, in the mountains northwest of the town of

Chosica, Peru. The soil here consists of gravel and rock detritus.

Soil and atmospheric humidity are practically nothing in the cool

season, which extends from May to December. At this period

the temperature is from 70 to 75°F. during the day, and 60 to

65° at night, the lowest temperature being probably not under

45°. In the warm season, lasting from January to April, there

is a precipitation of perhaps 4 to 6 inches. The vegetation is

very scanty, being confined to 3 species of columnar Cereus and

a few shrubs and composites in the bed of the canyon. The ani-

mal life, likewise, is limited, only a few arid forms of vertebrates

and insects being present.

Orthopterygium forms an extensive patch on a north slope near

the top of the bench in the south side of the canyon, being scat-

tered over an area several hundred yards in diameter, many of

the trees lying dead on the summit of the northwest exposure

of the bench. The plant is a shrub or small tree, 1 to 2.5 meters

high, with spreading, brittle, ''fat" twigs and branches having

a milky latex. It was not in leaf the first of June, but the stami-

nate flowers were present, dark red and pendent, as well as the

green or reddish, pendent fruits.

The flowers received by the National Herbarium agree in

every respect with those illustrated in Hemsley's monograph.

The fruits are 6 to 7 cm. long, 11 to 16 mm. wide, and slightl}^

pubescent. Like those of Juliania they are of a very curious

structure; the pedicel becomes in age broad and flat and some-

what spongy, and sunken in its apex is borne the involucre which

incloses the three flowers. The whole has the appearance of

some samaroid fruit inverted, and the casual observer of the

detached fruits might easily take the terminal involucre for a

basal point of attachment.

The fruits of Dr. Townsend's specimens are so nearly mature

as to show" the characters of the seeds, which were not known be-

fore. Of the three ovaries in each involucre only one develops.

The seed is pendent, attached laterally near the apex; it is

strongly compressed, in outline narrowly ovate-acuminate, taper-

RAWDON: STANDARD ZINC-BRONZE 631

ing gradually from the base to the apex; it is 11 to 12 mm. long,

3,5 mm. broad, and 1.5 mm. thick; the radicle is slender and

ascending; the cotyledons are thin and very brittle; the testa is

membranous and pale brown.

The illustration showing habit and habitat is from a photo-

graph kindly furnished by Dr. Townsend, who has supplied also

the geographic and habital data given above.

TECHNOLOGY. — Standard zinc-bronze: Relation of micro-

structure and 7nechanical properties. Henry S. Rawdon,

Bureau of Standards.^

To complete the study of the mechanical properties of zinc-

bronze (Cu 88, Sn 10, Zn 2) as influenced by the method of casting,

temperature of pouring, and other varying factors of foundry

practice, a detailed study of the micro-structure of a large num-

ber of test bars was made. The results show that the method of

preparation affects the structure only indirectly by the rate of

cooling, amount and distribution of foreign inclusions, etc.

In the cast condition the alloy consists of an aggregate of

relatively large crystals, each of which comprises a dendritic

matrix consisting of a solid solution of tin (and zinc?) in copper,

embedded in which are numerous particles of a hard brittle

eutectoid. When stress is applied and continued beyond the

"elastic limit," the matrix is plastically deformed while the

eutectoid enclosures are shattered and broken transversely

across. When broken in the tension test, the bars become

wrinkled and roughened in a characteristic manner which is to

be attributed to the orientation of the crystal-structure and

properties. The examination of a good many broken bars

shows that, with few exceptions, when fracture occurs it takes

place within the crystals and is not a mere pulling apart and

separation of adjacent crystals.

Since the fracture occurs through the crystals, i.e., along

cleavage planes, rather than between them, the size of crystals

is an important factor in determining the ultimate strength of

1 To appear in full as a Technologic Paper of the Bureau of Standards.

632 rawdon: standard zinc-bronze

the tensile bar. The crystals after slow cooling are relatively

large and instances were found where the fracture occurred at a

point where one crystal extended across the greater portion of a

cross-section of the bar and thus determined the mechanical

properties of the whole sample. Often, adjacent crystals are

very similarly oriented and, mechanically, are practically equiva-

lent to a single crystal. In ordinary sand castings, however,

such cases are apparently unavoidable.

Of all possible factors affecting the tensile strength the pres-

ence of oxides in the form of pits and films is especially serious.

The following illustrates the delete'rious effect of such oxide

films:

In test-bars showing a tensile strength above 35,000 pounds

per square inch, oxide films were rarely found and then only in

small isolated spots.

The presence of oxides of tin and zinc in the form of pits and

films may be considered, then, as the predominating factor in the

cause of mechanical weakness of cast bronze.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to

forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEOPHYSICS.— T'/ie Earth's magnetism. L. A. Bauer. Ann. Rep.

Smithsonian Institution for 1913, pp. 195-222, 9 p]s. 1914.

(Smithsonian Inst. Pub. 2281.)

The fourth ''Halley Lecture," dehvered in the schools of the Uni-

versity of Oxford on May 22, 1913; reprinted, after revision by the

author and with additional illustrations, from Bedrock, vol. 2, no. 3,

October, 1913, pp. 273-294. The lecture concerns itself especially

with Halley's contributions to terrestrial magnetism, to recent advances

relating primarily to the mapping of the Earth's magnetic field at any

one time, and to the determination of the secular changes. Among the

illustrations are a portrait of Halley, a view of the house occupied by

Halley while living at Oxford, and a reduced facsimile reproduction of

Halley's first chart of the lines of equal magnetic declination as based

on his observations in the Atlantic Ocean during the cruises of the

Paramour Pink, 1698-1700. In the closing paragraph the belief is

expressed that a long step forward will have been taken toward the

discovery of the origin of the Earth's magnetism when once we have

found out the causes of its many, and often surprising, variations. As

some slight indication of the import the solving of the riddles of the

Earth's magnetism may be, Schuster's suggestive remark is recalled

that ''atmospheric electricity and terrestrial magnetism, treated too

long as isolated phenomena, may give us hints on hitherto unknown

properties of matter." J. A. F.

(i33

634 abstracts: geology •

GEOLOGY.— Gu/de book of the Western United States, Part C. The

Santa Fe Route. N. H. Darton and others. U. S. Geological

Survey Bulletin 613. Pp. 194, maps and illustrations. 1915. (For

sale by the Supt. of Public Documents, Washington, D. (\

Price $1.)

The average busy American is prone to regard the journey across

the Great Plains of the Middle West and the arid stretches of New

Mexico and Arizona, as an enforced tedium to be mitigated as far as

possible by slumber, magazines, or the ''smoker." Only some unusu-

ally picturescjue feature stirs him to a real interest in his surroundings.

Travel for the purpose of understanding the country traversed rather

than as a means of getting from city to city is an art less developed here

than abroad. The purpose of this guide book of the Santa Fe Route

is to make the 1800 miles between Kansas City and Los Angeles in-

teresting and educating to the intelligent traveler, by explaining in non-

technical language the meaning of the things that are visible from the

car window. Emphasis is placed upon the meaning of the scenic fea-

tures of the landscape, as is natural in a publicatioji emanating from the

Geological Survey, but many features of agricultural or of botanical

interest, such as the peculiar floral features of the desert, are also de-

scribed, and the history of human endeavor in the "winning of the

west" receives a just share of attention.

The explanation of such striking natural features as the petrified

forest in Arizona, the volcanic cones near Winona, Arizona, and great-

est of all, the Grand Canyon, will be particularly welcomed bj^ trav-

elers. Of great human interest are the descriptions and pictures of

Hopi and Navajo Indian villages of the "Painted Desert." The jour-

ney through some of the less picturesque regions is enlivened by excur-

sions into the geologic past whose gigantic reptiles are pictured from

authoritative restorations by Charles R. Knight. E. S. Bastin.

GEOLOGY. — The fractional precipitation of some ore-forming com-

pounds at moderate temperatur-es. Roger C. Wells. U. S.

Geological Survey Bull. 609. Pp. 46. 1915.

The experiments described in this bulletin were made to aid in

elucidating the chemistry of ore deposition. They yield as their

immediate result the order of solubility of the compounds of each of

the classes investigated — sulfides, hydroxides, carbonates, and sili-

cates. The results with the silicates are really those due to hydroxides,

since the silicates are so completely liydrolyzcd in aciueous solution,

abstracts: forestry 635

but they show that metalhc bases are incapal)le of removing sihca

from solution completely. The work of Anthon and Schiirmann,

which covered the sulfides fairly completely, is discussed in order to

compare their results with the solubilities and solubility products

determined by physicochemical methods. The order of solubility of

sulfides obtained from experiments on fractional precipitation agrees

better with solubilit}' products calculated from electromotive force

measurements than it does with Weigel's results obtained by conduc-

tivity determinations. Incidentally, it is shown that the immediate

precipitate produced by alkaline- sulfides and copper salts contains

a much higher proportion of cuprous sulfide than that formed by

hydrogen sulfide in acid solutions. The precipitation series obtained

for the hydroxides, beginning with the most insoluble, is as follows:

Ferric, aluminium, cupric, zinc, lead, nickel, silver, ferrous, manganous,

magnesium, calcium. The series obtained for carbonates, based on

results with sodium bicarbonate as precipitant, is: Mercury, lead,

cadmium, manganese, silver, ferrous, zinc, calcium, magnesium.

R. C. W.

FORESTRY.— Fa?i/e of the big tree contest. W. H. Lamb. The Jour-

nal of Heredity, 6: 424-428. 1915.

This is a discussion of the scientific value of the prize photograph

contest conducted by the American Genetic Association, in which the

largest hardwood tree discovered was a sycamore {Platanus occidentalis) ,

located at Worth ington, Indiana, which measures 42 feet 3 inches in

circumference and about 140 feet in height. In this contest the in-

terest of the forester and the dendrologist centered upon the ascertain-

ment of the species reaching the maximum size, the greatest size at-

tained by every species, and upon consideration of the geographic loca-

tion of notable trees with respect to their natural range. In discussing

the contest from' this viewpoint, data are presented upon the influence

of heredit}^ and environment upon the form and size of trees, on the

doctrine of indefinite longevity in trees, and on the scientific and aes-

thetic value of large specimens. Maps are included showing the natu-

ral range and location of the largest individ'uals of six important timber

trees, and attention is called to the deske of the Association for informa-

tion on the location, life history, and size of notable trees throughout

the United States. ' W. H. L.

REFERENCES

Under this heading It la proposed to Include, by author, title, and citation, references to all

scientific papers published In or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate

with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are

not Intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere In this Journal.

GEOLOGY

Bastin, Edson S. Ores of Gilpin County, Colorado. Economic Geology, 10:

262-291, pi. 12, figs. 40-42. 1915.

Bauer, C. M. A sketch of the late Tertiary history of the Upper Missouri River.

.Jour. Geol. 23: 52-58, fig. 1. 1915.

Butler, B. S. Geology and ore deposits of the San Francisco and adj acent districts ,

Utah. Economic Geology, 9: 413-434, 529-558, pi. 5, figs. 109-110, 124-129.

1914.

Butler, B. S. Relation oj ore deposits to different types of intrusive bodies in

Utah. Economic Geology, 10: 101-122, figs. 16-19. 1915.

Capps, S. R. Some ellipsoidal lavas on Prince William Sound, Alaska. Jour.

Geol. 23: 4.5-51, figs. 1-5. 1915.

Clarke, F. W. Analyses of rocks and minerals from the laboratory of the United

States Geological Survey, 1880 to 1914. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 591.

Pp. 376. 1915.

Diller, J. S. The eruptions of Lassen Peak, California. Bull. Seismological

Soc. Amer. 4: 103-107. 1914. Also, The Mazama, 4: 54-59, Illustrated.

1914.

Fath, a. E. Copper deposits in the "Red Beds" of southwestern Oklahoma. Eco-

nomic Geology, 10: 140-150, figs. 22-27. 1915.

Ferguson, Henry G. Pocket deposits of the Klamath Mountains, Calijornia. Eco-

nomic Geology, 10: 241-261, pi. 11, figs. 30-39. 1915.

Knopf, Adolph. Is the boulder batholith a laccolith? Discussion of a paper by

A.C.Lawson. Economic Geology, 9: 396-402. 1914.

Lee, W. T. Relation of the Cretaceous formations to the Rocky Mountains in Colo-

rado and New Mexico. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 95-C,

pp. 13-26, pis. 1-4, figs. 2-11. 1915.

Loughlin, G. F. The oxidized zinc ores of the Tintic district, Utah. Economic

Geology, 9: 1-19, pis. 1-2, figs. 1-8. 1914.

Palmer, Chase. Studies insilver enrichment. Tetranickel-triarsenide,its capac-

ity as a silver precipitant. Economic Geology, 9: 664-674. 1914.

PoGUE, J. E. The Cantwcll formation. A continental deposit of Tertiary age in

the Alaska Range. Jour. Geol. 23: 118-128, figs. 1. 1915.

Rogers, G. S., andLESHER,C. E. The use of thickness contours in the valuation of

lenticular coal beds. Economic Geology, 9: 707-729, pis. 16-18. 1914.

Siebenthal, C. E. Spring deposits at SulpJiur Spri7^gs, Arkansas. Economic

Geology, 9: 758-767. 1914,

636

references: engineering 637

Umpleby, Joseph B. The genesis of the Mackay copper deposits, Idaho. Eco-

nomic Geology, 9: 307-358, figs. 80-89. 1914.

Wegemann, C. H. Anticlinal stmcture in parts of Cotton and Jefferson Counties,

Oklahoma. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 602. Pp. 108, 5 plates. 1915.

ENGINEERING

Babb, C. C., Covert, C. C., and Mathers, J. G. Surface water supply of the

north Atlantic coast basins, 1912. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply

Paper 321. Pp. 240. 1914.

Ellsworth, C. E., and Davenport, R. W. Surface water supply of the Yukon-

Tanana region, Alaska. V. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper

342. Pp. 343. 1915.

FoLLANSBEE, RoBERT. Surface water supply of the lower Mississippi River basin.

U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 327. Pp. 84. 1914.

FoLLANSBEE, RoBERT, and Dean, H. J. Water resources of the Rio Grande basin,

1888-1913, including Surface water supply of the western Gulf of Mexico

basins, 1913, by Robert Follansbee, W. W. Follett, and G. A. Gray.

U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 358. Pp. 725. 1914.

Follansbee, Robert, and Gray, G. A. Surface water supply of lower Mississippi

River basin, 1913. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 357.

Pp.86. 1915.

Follansbee, Robert, Porter, E. A., and Padgett, H. D. Surface water supply

of the Colorado River basin, 1912. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply

Paper 329. Pp. 238. 1914.

Follett, W. W., Follansbee, Robert, a,nd Gray, G. A. Surface water supply

of the western Gulf of Mexico basins, 1912. U. S. Geological Survey Water-

Supply Paper 328. Pp.121. 1914.

Henshaw, F. F., Baldwin, G. C., Stevens, G. C., and Fuller, E. S. Surface

water supply of the north Pacific coast basins, 1911. U. S. Geological Sur-

vey Water-Supply Paper 312. Pp. 706. 1915.

Henshaw, F. F., and Fuller, E. S. Surface water supply of the north Pacific

drainage basins. Lower Columbia River and Rogue, Umpqua, and Siletz rivers.

U. S. Geological Survey W^ater-Supply Paper 332-C. Pp. 226. 1914.

Henshaw, F. F., Lewls, John H., and McCaustland, E. J. Deschutes River,

Oregon, and its utilization. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper

344. Pp.200. 1914.

Henshaw, F. F., Porter, E. A., and Stevens, G. C. Surface umter supply of the

Great Basin. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 330. Pp. 275.

1915.

HoRTON, A. H., Hall, W. E., and Jackson, H. J. Surface water supply of the

Ohio River basin, 1912. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 323.

Pp. 118. 1914.

Horton, a. H., Hoyt, W. G., and Jackson, H. J. Surface water supply of the

upper Mississippi River and Hudson Bay basins, 1912. U. S. Geological

Survey Water-Supply Paper 325. Pp. 193. 1914.

638 references: engineering

HoRTON, A. H., Hall, W. E. and Peterson, H. J. Surface water supply of Ohio

River basiii, 1913. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 353. Pp.

264. 1915.

HoYT, W. G., HoRTON, A. H. and Covert, C. C. Surface water supply of St.

Lawrence River basin, 191S. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper

354. Pp. 136. 1915.

Lamb, W. A., Follansbee, Robert, and Padgett, H. G. Surface water supply

of the Missouri River basin. 1912. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply

Paper 326. Pp.375. 1914.

Lamb, W. A., and Follansbee, Robert. Surface water supply of Missouri River

basin, 1913. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 356. Pp.291. 1915.

McGlashan, H. D., and Stevens, G. C. Surface tvater supply of the Pacific coast

basins in California, 1912. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper

331 . Pp. 442. 1914.

Marshall, R. B. Profile surveys in the basin of Clark Fork of Columbia River,

Montana-Idaho-Washington. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper

346. Pp.6. 1914.

Marshall, R. B. Profile surveys in Snake River Basin, Idaho. U. S. Geological

Survey Water-Supply Paper 347. Pp.12. 1914.

Marshall, R. B. Profile surveys in Hood and Sandy River basins, Oregon. U. S.

Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 348. Pp. 8. 1914,

Marshall, R. B. Results of spirit leveling in Michigan, 1911 and 1913. U. S.

Geological Survey Bull. 559. Pp. 79. 1915.

Marshall, R. B. Results of spirit leveling in Minnesota, 1897 to 1912, inclusive.

U. S. Geological Survey Bull. 560. Pp. 190. 1915.

Marshall, R. B. Results of spirit leveling in Hawaii, 1910 to 1913, inclusive.

U. S. Geological Survey Bull. 561. Pp.42. 1914.

Marshall, R. B. Results of spirit leveling in Virginia, 1900 to 1913, inclusive.

U. S. Geological Survey Bull. 562. Pp. 68. 1914.

Marshall, R. B. Results of spirit leveling in Maryland, 1896 to 1911, inclusive.

U. S. Geological Survey Bull. 563. Pp. 80. 1915.

Marshall, R. B. Results of spirit leveling in Colorado, 1896 to 1914, inclusive.

U. S. Geological Survey Bull. 565. Pp. 192. 1915.

Marshall, R. B. Results of spirit leveling in Utah, 1897 to 1914, inclusive. U. S.

Geological Survey Bull. 566. Pp. 77. 1915.

Marsh.ill, R. B. Results of spirit leveling in Idaho, 1896 to 1914, inclusive.

U. S. Geological Survey Bull. 567. Pp. 130. 1915.

Marshall, R. B. Results of spirit leveling in Missouri, 1896 to 1914, inclusive.

U. S. Geological Survey Bull. 568. Pp. 219. 1915.

Marshall, R. B. Results of spirit leveling in loiva, 1896 to 1913, inclusive. U. S.

Geological Survey Bull. 569. Pp. 126. 1915.

Marshall, R. B. Results of spirit leveling in Wisconsin, 1897 to 1914, inclusive.

U. S. Geological Survey Bull. 570. Pp. 86. 1915.

Marshall, R. B. Results of spirit leveling in Nebraska, 1896 to 1913, inclusive.

U. S. Geological Survey Bull. 572. Pp. 57. 1915.

Marshall, R. B. Results of spirit leveling in Arizona, 1899 to 1915, inclusive.

U. S. Geological Survey Bull. 573. Pp. 123. 1915.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 759th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, on October 2, 1915.

President Eichelberger in the chair, 70 persons present.

Mr. W. F. G. Swann presented a paper on The normal electric field

of the Earth. The first portion of the paper dealt with the causes

responsible for the ionization of the atmosphere. The radio-active

material in the air over the sea is not sufficient to account for the

ionization observed, l)ut the measured value of the penetrating-radia-

tion is amply sufficient to make up for the deficit. Over the land the

active material in the air above is sufficient to account for more than

the ionization ordinarily observed, so that there is a surplus to account

for the existence of a large number of the so-called "Langevin ions."

The second portion of the paper dealt with the maintenance of the

Earth's charge. It was shown, on theoretical grounds, that the as-

sumption of a continual return conduction current over some region

of the Earth is untenable. Any theory which accounts for the mainte-

nance of the Earth's negative charge by the entrance of negative

corpuscles from regions outside the atmosphere, will, in virtue of the

known increase of conductivity with altitude, automatically account

for the positive charge in the atmosphere.

It was explained that if any theory is adopted in which the negative

charge on the Earth comes in some way from the atmosphere, and in

which the replenishment is confined to a limited region or time, then,

on such a theory it is necessary to assume a state of very high con-

ductivity in the upper atmosphere in order to account for the existence

of atmospheric-electric phenomena at places where the replenishment

is absent.

The part played by the electrical convection current was considered,

and it was explained that any attempt to account for a balance of the

conduction current by this agency would result in the conclusion that

all atmospheric-electric phenomena should , be located within a shell

of comparatively small altitude.

The significance of the variation of the vertical conduction current

with altitude was discussed, and it was pointed out that such variations

indicate a passage of electricity into and out of the volume-elements

of the air partly by processes other than conduction. A provisional

hypothesis as to a corpuscular emission from the atmosphere was

cited, by the help of which such variations in the vertical conduction

639

640 proceedings: philosophical society

may be accounted for, and the origin and maintenance of the Earth's

charge itself explained.

The paper was discussed by Messrs. Olshausen, Bauer, Hum-

phreys, and Bellinger.

Mr. J, W. Humphreys then presented a paper on Lightning discharges

illustrated with lantern slides. The electric separation essential to the

lightning discharge is produced, according to Simpson's well supported

theory, by the disruption of rain drops in the air and the transfer of

the resulting negative spray to higher altitudes by convection currents.

But however produced, when the potential-gradient between different

portions of the cloud, or between the cloud and the earth, has any-

where reached the disruptive value, lightning immediately occurs.

When seen at close range lightning appears as a sinuous line or

streak of vivid white or, occasionally, pink — sinuous because, pre-

sumably, of irregular ionization and consequent irregular conductivity

of the atmosphere. Some of these discharges are single, as shown by

rotating cameras, and of short duration, while many are multiple,

consisting of a number of partial discharges generally of unequal

strength and at irregular intervals, but all following the same path,

the ionized and therefore conducting path of the first discharge. Occa-

sionally a streak of lightning persists a full second or even longer,

gradually fading away, and thus producing, through its end-on and

therefore brighter portions, the phenomenon known as beaded or pearl

lightning.

Sheet lightning, so often seen in distant cumuli, presumably is only

the diffused and reflected light of ordinary streak lightning. The

objective reality both of rocket or slow moving lightning and of ball

lightning is often doubted, but both have the support of many excel-

lent observers.

It is commonly stated that the lightning discharge consists of many

high frequency oscillations. A close examination of the evidence how-

ever indicates that it is either unidirectional or else very heavily damped.

But little is known of the maximum current strength in a lightning

discharge, though there is evidence sufficient, apparently, to show

that this may amount to 10,000 amperes, perhaps even 100,000 amperes

but that the quantity of electricity is surprisingly small, rarely enough

to electrolyze 0.1 cc. of water.

The paper was discussed by Messrs. Littlehales, Olshausen,

Austin, Frazer, and Swann.

F. E. Wright, Secretary pro tern.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V DECEMBER 4, 1915 No. 20

PETROLOGY. — The position of the vibration plane of the polarizer

in the petrographic microscope. F. E. Weight, Geophysical

Laboratory.

In petrographic microscopes the polarizer is mounted in one

of two positions, so that its plane of light transmission is parallel

either to the vertical cross-hair or to the horizontal cross-hair

of the eyepiece. Certain makers prefer the first position,

others the second; but with them the matter seems to be one of

long standing habit rather than one of definite reason. It is,

therefore, of interest to inquire into the relative merits of the

two positions and, if possible, to obtain data which enable us

to ascertain definitely which is the better position. In antici-

pation of the final result it may be stated that for an observer

using light from the northern sky, the correct position depends

on, and varies with, the time of day at which the observations are

made. The evidence on which this unexpected conclusion is

based is presented in the following paragraphs.

Of the two positions of the plane of vibration of the polarizer

that position is preferable which transmits the most light. In

case the light entering the polarizer is strictly non-polarized,

the same amount of light is transmitted by the polarizer in either

position; under these conditions both positions are equally good.

If, however, th« incident light be partially polarized, the inten-

sity of illumination varies with the azimuth of the polarizer

plane; that position which allows the greater percentage of the

polarized light to pass is then obviously the better.

641

642 WRIGHT: VIBRATION PLANE OF THE POLARIZER

The chief factors which produce partial polarization in the

incident light are: (a) polarization by reflection at the surface

of the substage reflector; (b) sky polarization.

(a) At first thought it would seem that the first factor is ex-

ceedingly important because of the pronounced polarization ef-

fect which a plane glass surface produces on reflected rays. The

line of vibration for such reflected rays is the normal to the plane

of incidence; hence the natural inference is that the preferable

position for the plane of vibration of the polarizer is from right

to left, parallel to the horizontal cross-hair. But in the case of

the silvered mirror we have to do not only with reflection at a

glass surface but chiefly with metallic reflection ; and for such a

surface the percentage intensity of polarization by reflection is

in general much less than at a glass surface. Measurements,

with a Koenig-Martens polarization photometer, of the relative

intensities of the light rays reflected from the substage mirror

(metallic reflection) show that the intensity of the rays vibrating

normal to the plane of incidence is less than 10 per cent greater

than that of the rays vibrating in the plane of incidence; this

difference is for practical purposes not of sufficient importance

to exclude either position. Unless, therefore, the source of light

is distinctly polarized we must conclude that, practically, the

one position is as good as the other.

(b) It has been known for nearly a century that much of the

light from the sky on a clear day is polarized. Arago, Babinet,

and Brewster were the first to discover and to study sky polariza-

tion, and since their time many investigators have studied the

phenomenon. The literature on the subject is voluminous.

The general results of this study so far as it pertains to the pres-

ent problem are: The light from the different parts of the sky

is not uniformly polarized but is at a maximum in the plane

polar to the sun ; this plane is also the plane of vibration of these

polarized rays. The percentage of sky polarization decreases

from the polar plane toward, and away from, the sun until the

neutral points of no polarization (called Babinet and Arago points

and situated about 20° from the sun and its antipoint respectively)

are reached; beyond these the sky polarization again increases.

Wright: vibration plane of the polarizer 643

In the early morning and late afternoon the sun is near the

horizon on the east or west and the plane of maximum sky polari-

zation is approximately a north-south vertical plane passing

through the zenith. The vibration plane of rays contained in

this vertical plane and incident on the microscope facing north

is parallel to the vertical cross-hair of the microscope. Measure-

ments by H. H. Kimball^ and others prove that between 50 and

80 per cent of this light is plane-polarized, the actual percentage

varying with a number of factors which need not be discussed

here. Under these conditions the intensity of the transmitted

light, when the plane of the polarizer is in the plane of symmetry

of the microscope, is more than twice that when the polarizer

is parallel with the horizontal cross-hair.

At noon, on the other hand, the sun is in the south and its

polar plane is an inclined plane intersecting the horizon on the

east and west. The plane of vibration of the rays from the north

incident on the microscope is essentially parallel to the hori-

zontal cross-hair. Under these conditions the most favorable

position of the polarizer plane is from right to left or at right

angles with the early morning position.

On cloudy and misty days the amount of sky polarization

decreases rapidly and is practically negligible. On such days

the position of the polarizer plane has little effect on the inten-

sity of the field illumination in the microscope.

If on a clear day the observer wishes to obtain the maximal

illumination it is necessary to set the plane of the polarizer paral-

lel to the vertical cross-hair in the early morning or late after-

noon and then toward noon to turn it to the horizontal position.

But such a procedure is not always convenient as the polarizer,

is commonly fixed in position; in view of the fact that at noon

time there is always an abundance of light from a clear sky

while in the early morning and late afternoon the sky illumina-

tion is less than half that at noon, the position of the polarizer

which favors greater intensity of illumination at early and late

J Proc. Third Convention of Weather Bureau Officials, Peoria, III. 1904,

p. 69. Bull. Mt. Weather Observatory, 1, pt. 2: 38-48. 1908. Ibidem, 3, pt.2:

113-114. 1910. Jour. Franklin Institute, 171:333-344. 1911.

644 townsend: new generic name for screw-worm fly

hours is to be preferred as the fixed position. In this position

the plane of vibration of the rays emerging from the polarizer

is parallel with the vertical cross-hair of the eyepiece.

An extended series of tests by the writer with the petrographic

microscope corroborates these statements in detail, the general

conclusion being that, although either position of the polarizer

is permissible, there is a slight practical advantage in having

the plane of vibration parallel to the vertical cross-hair.

ENTOMOLOGY. — A new generic name for the screw-worm fly.

Charles H. T. Townsend, Bureau of Entomology.

The screw-worm fly is an insect of much economic importance

from both the medical and veterinary standpoints. Its maggots,

known as screw-worms, have been repeatedly found to infest

diseased nasal sinuses and unguarded sores in man; while they

also extensively infest open sores and all cuts, wounds, or other

skin abrasions in cattle, horses, mules, sheep, hogs and other

stock, as well as dogs and various other animals.

The screw-worm fly was originally published as Musca ma-

cellaria by Fabricius^ and Wiedemann.- In 1875 Rondani^

erected the genus Compsomyia to include two European and four

East Indian species. In 1893 Brauer & Bergenstamm* selected

macellaria as the type of Co7npso7nyia, but this can not hold

since it is not an originally included species. In 1910 Coquillett^

designated Musca dux Eschscholz as the type of Compsomyia,

which is evidently valid since there seems to have been no

previous designation that can hold.

In 1863 Rondani*' mentioned Musca marginalis Wiedemann,

.of Africa, as the type of Desvoidy's genus Chrysomya;'' this is

not a strictly valid designation, as the name is not originally

included or designated in synonymy by Desvoidy, but Coquil-

' Syst. Ent. 776. 1775. Syst. Antl. 292. 1805.

2 Auss. Zw. Ins. 2: 405. 1830.

3 Ann. Mils. Civ. St. Nat. Genova, 7: 425-427. 1875.

^ Denkschr. Math.-Nat. CI. Kais. Akad. Wiss. 60: [91] 179. 1893.

' Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 37: 526. 1910.

« Arch. Zool. Modena, 3: 27. 1863.

» Essai Myod. 444. 1830.

townsend: new generic name for screw-worm fly 645

lett^ clinched it in 1910 by designating regalis R.D. ( = marginalis

Wd. ace. Bezzi)" as the type. A careful comparison of dux

and marginalis shows that they are undoubtedly congeneric,

at least so far as can be made out from external characters.

Therefore Compsomyia apparently becomes a synonym of

Chrysomya.

Chrysomya is confined to the Old World, while macellaria and

its congeners are confined to America. The latter are generi-

cally distinct on external adult characters from both dux and

marginalis and all the Old World species. Compsomyia origi-

nally included only Old World species and thus it could not, in

any event, have been used for macellaria.

Musca macellaria is wrongly cited by Coquilletti'^ as the type

of Paralucilia Brauer & Bergenstamm,i^ by accepting the syn-

onymy of E. Lynch-Arribalzaga,^2 ^ho gives Calliphora fulvipes

Macquart^^ as a synonym of macellaria. This synonymy can

not be accepted, since Brauer & Bergenstamm^-* state that ful-

vipes Macquart, for which they erected Paralucilia, has the

vibrissae close on the oral margin and not constricting the facial

plate.

In 1883 Brauer^^ cited the generic name Callitroga Schiner MS.

as having been applied to macellaria and its relatives; and in

1893 Brauer & Bergenstamm'^ state that this name was used

in this sense by Schiner in the collection, evidently on labels.

The standing of the name Callitroga is thus that of a manuscript

name cited in synonymy; wherefore it is not validated and hence

is not available for use.

It thus appears that there is no generic name in existence

that can be used for inacellaria. It is the purpose of this

8 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 37: 523. 1910.

s Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital. 39: 48. 1907.

i«Proc.U.S.Nat. Mus.,37: 584. 1910.

'1 Denkschr. Math.-Nat. CI. Kais. Akad. Wiss. 58: [87] 391. 1891.

'"Anales Soc. Cient. Arg. 10: 71. 1880.

" Dipt. Exot. 2: 3, 132 [289]. 1843.

i« Synopsis in Denkschr. Math.-Nat. CI. Kais. Akad. Wiss. 60: [90-92] 178-

180. 1893.

'5 Denkschr. Math.-Nat. CI. Kais. Akad. Wiss. 47: 74. 1883.

i« Denkschr. Math.-Nat. CI. Kais. Akad. Wiss. 60: [106] 194. 1893.

646 townsend: new generic name for screw-worm fly

paper not only to demonstrate this fact, but also to supply the

deficiency.

Cochliomyia Townsend, gen. nov.

Genotype, Musca macellaria Fabricius, Syst. Ent. 776. 1775.

Differs from Chrysomya R.D. by the epistoma being well elongate,

well narrowed b> the vibrissal angles, and its plane normally nearly or

quite in the vertical. The vibrissae are well removed from the oral

margin, normally by a distance equal to twice the length of the second

antennal joint. The third vein may be either almost bare or distinctly

bristled more than half way to the small crossvein. The parafacials

are pubescent. The hind scale of tegulae is not hairy on posterior half,

but bare. Antennae not separated at base. The epistomal characters

are almost a duplication of those of Pollenia.

The generic name has reference to the popular name of the maggot —

Screw-worm.

The genera Pollenia and Cochliomyia stand removed from all the

other Muscidae (syn. Cp,lliphoridae) on the epistomal characters in-

cluding the constricted facial plate. Other forms having the vibrissae

far removed from the oral margin, as Thelychaeta B. B. (East Indies)

and Apollenia Bezzi (Africa), do not have the facial plate strongly

constricted, and further differ in having the antennae separated at base.

Chryso77iya R.D. has the plane of epistoma at an angle of about 45**

to the vertical, and while the facial plate may be somewhat constricted

the epistoma is neither so narrowed nor so elongate as in the present

genus; it also has the hind scale of tegulae hairy on posterior half, and

the parafacials are practically bare.

The extensive synonymy that has been given by E. Lynch-Arri-

balzaga for macellaria, and quoted by others,^^ cannot be accepted

without very careful verification in each case. Certain of the species

described are undoubtedly valid. Some of them belong to Paralucilia

and not to Cochliomyia. Chrysomya wheeleri Hough, of California,

belongs to Cochlioynyia. The writer has collected a species of Cochlio-

myia in the Andes of Peru which is abundantly distinct from macellaria

and which occurs at an altitude of over 12,000 feet. He has also taken

specimens in Peru that are evidently to be referred to Paralucilia, and

has seen others from Brazil that belong to the same genus, all closely

resembling macellaria in the vittate thorax and other superficial char-

acters. Thus it can be seen that much confusion has resulted from the

attempts to lump all the names in question.

i^Williston, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 12: 203. 1889. Giglio-Tos, Ditt. Mess.

IV (Mem. R. Ace. Sc. Torino, ser. 2, 45), 5-6. 1895. Aldrich, Cat. No. Am.

Dipt. 517. 1905.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to

forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and oil resources of the west border of the San

Joaquin Valley north of Coalinga, California. RoBpmT Anderson

and R. W. Pack. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 603. Pp. 220,

with 15 plates and 5 figures. 1915.

The region described forms the eastern foothills of the Diablo Range,

which is the easternmost component of the Coast Ranges in central

California. In the higher parts of the range, altered sedimentary and

igneous rocks of probable Jurassic age outcrop. Overlying these rocks

are thick unmetamorphosed Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary for-

mations, with basaltic intrusives and flows in two very small areas.

The post-Jurassic sedimentary formations are mainly arkosic sand-

stones and shales, but there are two persistent shale formations, each

over 1000 feet thick, composed largely of the remains of diatoms and

f Oram inif era. One of these formations is of Upper Cretaceous age;

the other is probably Oligocene. The Cretaceous rocks all belong to

the Chico or Upper Cretaceous phase, and aggregate the astonishing

thickness of something over 23,000 feet.

The structure of the region is predominantly monoclinal, forming

the eastern flank of the great anticlinal structure that determines the

Diablo Range. The regularity of the monoclinal structure is broken,

however, by several anticlinal folds that head in the central part of

the range and, trending obliquely to it, extend out toward the San

Joaquin Valley. Faults are relatively few and only locally dominate

the structure.

The petroleum apparently originated in the diatomaceous shales,

and at present is found in, or in close association with, the two forma-

tions that are composed largely of that material.

647

648 abstracts: geology

The anticlinal folds that trend obliquely to the course of the main

range appear to be the chief structural features governing the accu-

mulation of oil. The petroleum has apparently migrated, both verti-

cally, from the organically formed shales into the more porous sand-

stones that overlie them, and laterally up the dip through the porous

beds. Shale lying beneath the broad San Joaquin Valley is believed

to have yielded much of the oil now found in the anticlines along the

foothills. The oblique folds appear to have a protecting influence upon

the concentration of petroleum in the main range, for oil occurs not

only along the higher parts of the oblique anticlines but also in the

flank of the main range just back of these folds, or in other words in

the flanks of the sjmcline that lies between the oblique anticline and

the main range. Oil is not found, however, in the flank of the range

where there s no anticlinal fold lying between the main range and the

San Joaquin Valley. R. W. P.

GEOLOGY. — -The -phosphate deposits of Florida. G. C. Matson.

U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 604. Pp. 101, pi. 17, 2 figs. 1915.

This publication describes the distribution, geology, character, oc-

currence, origin, age, and consumption of the Florida phosphates.

Several pages are devoted to descriptions of methods of preparing the

rock for market. A bibliography of Florida phosphates closes the work.

There are several different types of phosphate rock in Florida, but

only two of them, rock phosphate and land pebble, are important. la

the rock phosphate deposits the phosphate is embedded in a fine-

grained matrix and a deposit that will yield 25 per cent of valuable

rock is regarded as rich. The river pebble deposits are of fluviatile

origin and the fragments of which they are composed show mechanical

abrasion. The matrix of the river pebble deposits consists of sand and

clay. The land pebble is believed to have been derived secondarily

from the underlying phosphatic bed rock.

The deposits are found in sedimentary rocks and with few excep-

tions are of secondary origin. They are all of Tertiary age and lie

in depressions in the surface of lower Oligocene limestones. The land

pebble phosphate has been assigned to the Miocene, but may be as

late as Early Pliocene. The river pebble deposits are in part Pleisto-

cene and in part Recent. The various theories that have been ad-

vanced to explain the origin of the deposits are reviewed at length.

W. C. Phalen.

L tBKAIIY

^^v -o*^

e

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 104th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington

was held at the Cosmos Club on the evening of Tuesday, April 6, 1915.

Forty-five members and fifty-three guests were present. The following

papers were read :

Prepaleozoic 'algal deposits: Charles D. Walcott. Mr. Walcott

described the stratigraphic position of the great Prepaleozoic Beltian

series of central Montana, which he considered to be of fresh or brack-

ish water origin, in all probability deposited in a great inland lake or

lakes covering an area of about 6,000 square miles, and also on river

flood plains as sand and gravel, or perhaps as fine dust carried by winds.

The formations consist of sandstones, calcareous and siliceous shales,

and beds of limestone, the last varying in thickness from a few inches

to several thousand feet. The same type of deposits also occurs in the

Grand Canyon region of Arizona and extends northward along the

main ranges of the Rocky Mountains far into Alberta and British

Columbia.

At a horizon approximately 9000 feet below the bpse of the Cambrian

numerous reefs of algal deposits occur at several horizons in the New-

land limestone formation of the Beltian in Montana, and isolated

conci'etionary-like forms occur scattered at various levels in the over-

lying Spokane shales of the Belt Mountains. The algal remains occur

in many forms, some of which are surpi'isingly similar to those of the

fresh-water lake and stream blue-green algal deposits of Pennsylvania,

New York, Michigan, etc. Others are similar in appearance to the

blue-green and green algal deposits of the thermal waters of the Yellow-

stone National Park.

Mr. Walcott illustrated by lantern slides the various forms of algal

deposits as they are found in the Pre-Cambrian rocks and in recent

deposits. Photographs of thin sections of both the fossil and recent

deposits showed similar chains of cells which are characteristic of the

blue green alga. Other photographs illustrated recent bacteria and

those associated with the algal remains in the Prepaleozoic of Montana.

These included the Micrococci, with both round and oval cells. Some

of the sections appear to carry rodlike bacilli.

The alga] flora of some Eocene shales: Charles A. Davis. Extensive

beds of petroleum yielding shales of Eocene age occur in northwestern

Colorado and westward. They are carbonaceous, and when fresh

are dark brown, hard, tough and compact, with a bituminous odor.

649

650 proceedings: botanical society

So far as observed, they contain no free oil, but yield petroleum on dis-

tillation.

By modifying methods of sectioning employed by various investi-

gators in studying coals, the author successfully sectioned these shales

by microtome. The sections show an organic detrital rock containing

an extensive microscopic flora which includes a large number of per-

fectly preserved micro-algse related to blue-green and higher types.

Thirty-five lantern slides showed the various algai found in these

shales.

Algae in the Upper Paleozoic: David White.

The 105th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington

was held at the Cosmos Club, Tuesday, May 4, 1915, at 8 p.m. Thirty-

three members and four guests were present. Dr. George R. Lyman

was elected to membership. Dr. Camillo Schneider, general secre-

tary of the Dendrologischen Gesellschaft of Austria-Hungary, was

present as a guest of the society. The scientific program was as follows :

The botany of Western Yunnan (China): Dr. Camillo Schneider.

Dr. Schneider had just returned from a year's journey in the high

mountains of western Yunnan. In the region of the upper Yangtze

he carried on investigations in botany, zoology and ethnology. He

obtained a great number of colored photographs taken from nature

(Lumiere, autochromes) of which he exhibited 25 with the lantern.

These showed most interesting plant types of the high mountains

near Li Chiang at an elevation of 10,000 to 17,000 feet. Especially

striking was a recently discovered Primula (P.^Littoniana) with a spiked

inflorescence which resembles an orchid rather than a Primula. The

buds are of a dark purple, while the open flowers are lighter colored. A

very peculiar plant of biological interest is a new Saussurea, which

inhabits limestone boulders at about 17,000 feet and has the flowers

hidden among the leaves, which are densely hairy and protect them

from snow and frost. The virgin forest of the Li Chiang zone consists

chiefly of Pinus Massoninana, various Piceas, Abies Delavayi, Tsuga

yunnanensis, and evergreen oaks, together with many Rhododendrons

and numerous other shrubs. The cryptogamic flora is very rich. Dr.

Schneider has collected over 3000 different species of phanerogams

and ferns.

The genus Endothia: Dr. N. E. Stevens. (To be published in full

elsewhere.)

Endothia pigments: Dr. Lon A. Hawkins. (To be published in full

elsewhere.)

Identification of the teonanacatl, or "sacred mushroom" of the Anecs,

with the narcotic cactus, Lophophora Willia^nsii, and an account of its

ceremonial use in ancient and modern times: Mr. W. E. Safford,

The early Spanish writers describe certain feasts of the Aztecs in

which a narcotic called by them teonanacatl, or "sacred mushroom,"

was used as an intoxicant. Bernardino Sahagun, writing before 1569,

states that it was the Chichimeca Indians of the north who first dis-

proceedings: botanical society 651

covered the properties and made use of these "evil mushrooms wh^ch

intoxicate like wine." Hernandez distinguishes them from other mush-

rooms {nanacanie, plural of nanacatl,) which are used as food, by the

distinguishing adjective teyhuinti, inebriating, "quoniam inebrare sol-

ent. " The belief survives that the drug thus used was a mushroom.

According to Remi Simeon, the teonanacatl is "une espece de petit

champignon qui a mauvais gout, enivre et cause des hallucinations."

(Diet, de la langue Nahuatl, p. 436, 1885.)

Investigations by tlie author have proved that the drug in question

is not a fungus but a small, fleshy, spineless cactus endemic on both

sides of the Rio Grande in the vicinity of Laredo, Texas, and in the state

of Coahuila, i-anging southward to the states of Zacatecas, San Luis

Potosi, and Queretaro, a region inhabited in ancient times by the

tribes called Chichimecas. The drug is prepared in two principal

forms: (1) discoid, in which the head of the plant is cut off transversely

and, when dried, bears a close resemblance to a mushroom; (2) in longi-

tudinal pieces or irregular fragments, in which the entire plant, includ-

ing the tap root, is sliced longitudinally into strips like a radish or pars-

nip, bearing no resemblance whatever to a mushroom, and designated

by early writers as peyotl, and also as raiz diaholica, or "devil's root."

The first to call attention to the ceremonial or religious use of this

drug by the Indians of today was Mr. James Mooney, of the Bureau of

American Ethnology, in a paper read before the Anthropological

Society of Washington, November 3, 1891. Since the time of Mr.

Mooney's observations the use of the drug has spread widely among

the Indians of the United States, by whom it is commonly called "mes-

cal button" or "peyote."

Efforts have been made to prevent the Indians from using it, chiefly

because it is believed by some of those interested in the Christianizing

of the Indians that it has a tendency to make them revert to their primi-

tive condition and to their heathen beliefs. Action was taken in the

courts to prosecute a certain Indian for furnishing this drug to the

Indians of the Menominee Reservation of Wisconsin on March 15,1914.

It developed that the drug was received by parcel post from the vicinity

of Laredo, Texas. In a paper before the Lake Mohonk Conference in

October, 1914, affidavits of certain Indians of the Omaha and Winne-

bago tribes of the Nebraska reservation were read. The evidence

showed the existence of a religious organization among the Indians

called the "Sacred Peyote Society," the ceremonial meetings of which

are remarkably like those of the ancient Mexicans at which the "sacred

mushroom" was eaten; and that the physiological effects, as described

by those partaking of the drug, were identical with those attributed

by the early writers to the teonanacatl. The chemical properties of

the drug have been studied in Germany and the United States, especially

by Lewin, of Berlin, Heffter, of Leipsic, and the late Ervin E.

EwELL, of the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture;

and the physiological effects by Drs. D. W. Prentiss and Francis P.

Morgan, of Washington, D. C.; but it is not possible to give the de-

tailed results of these investigations in the scope of the present paper.

652 proceedings: biological society

So far as known to the speaker this is the first time the identity of

the "sacred mushroom" or "flesh of the gods" with the narcotic cactus

known botanically as Lophophora WiUiamsii has been pointed out.

That the drug was mistaken for a mushroom by the Aztecs and early

Spaniards is not surprising when one bears in mind that the potato

(Solanum tuberosum) on its introduction into Europe was popularly

regarded as a kind of truffle, a fact which is recorded by its German

name Kartoffel, or Tartuffel.

Perley Spaulding, Corresponding Secretary.

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 543d meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held

at the Cosmos Club, Saturday, October 23, 1915, at 8 p.m., with

President Bartsch in the chair; 85 persons present.

Under the heading Brief Notes, Dr. C. W. Stiles recorded obser-

vations on blood examinations (cell counts, hemoglobin, etc.) of 600

children, between 6 and 17 years of age, in North Carohna. Dr.

Stiles also discussed the International list of generic names of birds.

Under the heading Exhibition of Specimens, Dr. J. N. Rose showed

some interesting examples of humming birds' nests which he had col-

lected in Brazil the past summer.

The first paper of the regular program was by Prof. A. S. Hitchcock,

Collecting grasses in the Southwest. Professor Hitchcock spoke of his

trip during the summer in the region from California to Western Texas

for the purpose of collecting grasses. At Grand Canyon was found

the rare Stipa arida Jones. At Ft. Bragg, California, was found

Agrostis breviculmis Hitchc, known only from this locality and the

western coast of South America ; it is abundant on the open ground back

of the sandy clay cliffs at this point. In a springy place on the side of

the cliffs there was a colony of Phleum alpinum L. a grass of the high

mountains of California ; its occurrence at sea level was very unexpected.

At various points in northern California occur Danthonia americana

and D. calijornica. In these species the culms disarticulate near the

base at maturity. An examination of the swollen base of the detached

culms discloses, hidden beneath the sheath and prophyllum, a cleistogo-

mous spikelet consisting of a single floret. The floret and enclosed

caryopsis are much larger than those of the panicle.

Cleveland National Forest, lying east of San Diego, was visited

to investigate Calamagrostis densa Vasey. This species, known only

from the type collection by Orcutt, was provisionally united with

C. koelerioides by the speaker (in Jepson, Flora of California, 3:125.

1912), but he is now satisfied that the two are distinct.

An ascent was made of Humphreys Peak of the San Francisco

Mountains, near Flagstaff, Arizona. These are the highest mountains

in Arizona, the peaks extending above timber line. In the alpine

region four species of grasses were found, Trisetum spicatum, Poa

rupicola, Festuca brachyphylla and Agropyron scribneri. Collections

proceedings: anthropological society 653

were made at several other places of interest: Oracle, about 45 miles

north of Tucson, in company with Prof. J. J. Thornber; Big Spring,

Alpine, and Del Rio, in western Texas; and the Guadalupe Mountains

of southern New Mexico, especially rich in Mexican species. Prof.

Hitchcock's paper was discussed by the chair.

The second and last paper of the program was by R. L. Garner,

African studies: Things in common among men, apes, and other mammals.

Mr. Garner spoke of the courtship, family life, period of infancy, arrival

of puberty, instincts, homes, habits, and moral traits of the African

anthropoid apes as observed by him in their wild state, during many

years of observation in Africa. Among other things he stated that the

period of gestation is probably seven months; that the young ape is

born with usually 4 teeth present; that twin births are exceedingly

rare; that the female becomes sexually mature at from 7 to 9 years, and

the male from 1 to 2 years later; that the usual length of life is 20 to

21 years; that their foods are mainly vegetable, but that flesh is an es-

sential part of their diet; that they have no permanent homes, but

travel about as nomadic families; that their sleeping position is on their

back or side like that of men; that they often make their beds 18 to

25 feet off the ground, but that the young are delivered in a bed on the

ground in a well drained place; that sight and particularly hearing are

acute, but that smell is not much more developed than in man and that

touch is less acute than in man; and that the right of ownership among

them is well respected. Mr. Garner concluded by saying he hoped to

return to Africa in the near future and take motion pictures of the

great apes.

M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

At the 488th meeting held October 13, 1915, at the George Washing-

ton Medical School, jointly with the Medical Society of the District of

Columbia, Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, Curator in Physical Anthropology,

National Museum, delivered an address on The evolution of man

in the light of recent discoveries, and its relation to medicine. Human

evolution is no longer a mere theory but a fixed part of natural history,

better documented from day to day by substantial evidence. Its

foundations rest upon many and important organic analogies; on actual

physical remains of early man and perhaps even some of his predeces-

sors; and on observations of the changes which are at present taking

place in man.

The organic analogies are (1) the evidence of evolution in all the better

known mammals; (2) the relations of various stages of the embryonic

development of man to grades of life represented by some lower verte-

brates; (3) resemblances in the mode of conception, the laws of develop-

ment, in all other vital functions, and in death; (4) similarities between

man and other mammals in organs, limbs, and all other physical as

well as microscopic parts of the body; (5) close similarities in the chemi-

654 proceedings: antheopological society

cal constituents of the human body and those of other mammals; and

(6) the frequent presence in man of vestiges of or reversions to anatom-

ical features still functional in some lower animals.

The physical evidence of man's evolution consists of a large series of

skeletal remains dating from the early Pleistocene to the last prehis-

toric peri'od. These remains show in general that the farther back we

proceed the more primitive are the human features and the more closely

they are related to those of the lower primates. This evidence alone

is quite conclusive, although there are still, of course, many important

gaps in the line of evidence, especially relating to the earlier periods;

these however are gradually being filled in.

The historical and recent changes in man show us that his evolution

has not as yet been fully accomplished but is still progressing, and that

possibly among civilized white men it is progressing more rapidly than

it has during most of its course. We see that the higher civilized

white man has already in some respects outdistanced others, that he

is rapidly diversifying, and that those who can not keep the acceler-

ated pace are being eliminated by nature. Probably the most obvious

changes are taking place in his teeth, which are gradually lessening in

resistance, in size, and even in numbers — changes which in turn condi-

tion weakening and numerous disharmonies in the whole facial structure.

The process of human evolution has close relations to medicine —

much closer, in fact, than are commonly appreciated by even the sur-

geon and physician. Evolution is not only constructive, but elimina-

tive, involving weakening, degeneration, and eventual loss of parts which

have become less useful, less functional. The progressive and retro-

gressive changes are not always harmonious or generally beneficial

to the individual, and they bring about many conditions which demand

medical or surgical intervention. The process of evolution bears,

however, still other relations to medicine. It has prolonged the periods

of infancy, childhood, and senility in man, the most dangerous periods

of an organism; the assumption of the erect posture had necessarily

adverse consequences, which probably have not yet been completely

overcome, on the circulatory system and in seriously modifying the

abdominal and pelvic drags as well as pressure, especially in pregnancy;

it has intensified the sexual functions in man, the results of which are

frequently untoward and even dangerous ; it has caused an enlargement

in the size of the head in the human foetus which necessitated a con-

sequent enlargement of the pelvic cavity, and there are doubtless still

disharmonies between the two conditions ; it has resulted in greater rela-

tive slenderness of bones, even in the skull, rendering them proportion-

ately more liable to injuries; it has brought about greater delicacy of

skin, with a consequent less resistance of the body to exposure; it has

induced especially a great enlargement of the brain, a process the re-

sults of which to this day offer many imperfections; and, finally, while

evolution has doubtless improved various immunities in man, it is

still very incomplete in this respect, and on the other hand it has evi-

dently led to new dangers and predispositions. There seem to exist

proceedings: anthropological society 655

some indications that it may in some of the most advanced groups

adversely affect the abihty of procreation. The evolution of man will

continue, and in order that it shall proceed with the least harm and

towards the greatest benefit of mankind, it will require the most en-

lightened and increasingly important help and service from all branches

of medicine.

The paper was well illustrated and briefly discussed.

At the 489th meeting of the Society, held October 19, 1915, in the

Public Library, Dr. D. S. Lamb, of the Army Medical Museum, read a

paper on The medicine and surgery of the ancient Peruvians, giving

first some account of the country and its people, their history, customs,

food, and religion. We have no evidence of hospitals in old Peru.

The people are said not to have studied the medicinal properties of

their plants, although they well knew the properties of what is called

Peruvian bark, used in malarial fevers. Whether syphilis or leprosy

occurred among them is doubted. The same may be said of tuberculosis,

although some writers, like Ashmead, ascribe the mutilations represented

on their pottery to local skin tuberculosis, usually known as lupus. These

mutilations have also been regarded as resulting from punishments or

surgical operations. Three skin diseases are considered peculiar to the

ancient Peruvians, the miriuita, caused b}^ a worm entering the skin;

the verrugas, a very fatal disease of a warty character that struck terror

into Pizarro's soldiers in 1532; and the uta. They had the climatic,

dietetic, respiratory, and heart diseases found elsewhere, and from

similar causes. Malarial fevers prevailed and were usually of the

tertian variety. Smallpox, measles, scarlet fever, and yellow fever

were introduced by the Spaniards and their successors. The Peru-

vians had what seems to have been a typhus called tahardillo. Goitre

prevailed and was said to be caused by drinking the turbid water

from the mountains. They deformed the heads of their infants, very

, much as did the Chinook Indians of the northwestern United States,

by pressure front and back; one tribe is said to do so still. Their

injuries were necessarily, for the most part, much the same as now, with

the exception of shot wounds and injuries caused in modern industrial

occupations. They scarified and let blood, reduced dislocations, used

fixation apparatus for fractures as we do, covered open wounds, cut

out pterygiums, and trepanned the skull. This trepanning was done

either directly to relieve disease and injury or simply to let out the

demon that cabsed the trouble.

In discussing Dr. Lamb's paper. Dr. C. L. G. Anderson said that

the predecessors of the Incas also, the people who built the megaliths

at Tiahuanaco and the great fortress at Cuzco, likewise knew much

about medicinal herbs. The Indians made infusions, decoctions,

powders, and ointments of barks, leaves, berries, roots, and vines. A

few remedies were obtained from the mineral kingdom, such as sulphur

and salty earths. Certain baths and hot springs were utilized in curing

rheumatism and various skin diseases. Garcilaso de la Vega says

656 proceedings: anthropological society

that the use of drugs was largely prophylactic and that after the disease

was well established they left nature to work its cure, merely regulating

the diet. The basal idea was to eliminate the evil, whether spirit or

substance. Hence, purgatives and venesection were much in vogue,

as among all nations.

Throughout tropical America, the wood of the guayacan tree, lignum

mtae, was held to be a specific for the venereal disease called by the

Spaniards las hubas. Sarsaparilla was said to be the great panacea

about Guayaquil. The wonderful drugs, coca and quina-quina, were

peculiar to the Andean regions. The coca was chewed to ward off

hunger and fatigue. Quina, later known as Peruvian bark, was the

cure for fever. It was introduced into Europe about 1640. Among

the common people, old women were herbalists. The new-born babe

was bathed in cold water. Usually no midwife was employed. The

Peruvians knew of many poisons. Witchcraft and divination were

practiced.

Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt spoke of the idea of getting the evil spirit out

of the patient as being common to all primitive peoples. In the Iro-

quois language the expression in case of sickness was "It is biting

me," "biting my tooth," or "biting my head," according to the part

affected. Dr. E. L. Morgan, among others who discussed the paper,

considered that trepanning probably had its origin in the idea of get-

ting rid of the evil spirit, but was continued as a custom because of the

curative results observed in some cases. Dr. Lamb, in response to an

inquiry, said that the flattening of the head among the ancient Peruvians

as among the Chinook Indians, probably had no effect on the intellect

because it was practiced in infancy.

Daniel Folkmar, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. V DECEMBER 19. 1915 No. 21

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— On a supposed allotropy of copper.

G. K. Burgess and I. N. Kellberg, Bureau of Standards.

Some dilatometric experiments have been carried out recently

by Professor Ernst Cohen and W. D. Hulderman^ which have led

them to the conclusion that copper exists in two allotropic (enan-

tiotropic) forms, having a transition point at 71 ?7 C. to 69?2 C.

under varying conditions of fineness and previous contact with an

electrolyte. The copper was in the form of metal chips turned

from sticks that had been cast in asbestos from Kahlbaum re-

melted electrolytic copper. The metal therefore probably con-

tained some cuprous oxide.

Messrs. Cohen and Hulderman also consider the change in

the zero value of electrical resistance of copper after heating to

100°C. an a priori indication of the probability of allotropic modi-

fications between 0° and 100°C. This phenomenon of shift of

zero is, however, common to all metals and is known to be re-

lated to the degree of hardness of the metal. It is very per-

sistent, being removed only by complete annealing and freedom

from strains.-

In Table I are given a comparative series of measurements at

0° and 100° for copper and platinum wire resistance thermome-

ters, wound on the same frame. It will be seen that the plati-

1 Proc. Amsterdam Acad. 16: Dec. 27, 1913; 17: May 30, 1914; Phys. Chemie

87:419. 1914.

2 See for example the behavior of Pt and Pd resistance thermometers, Waidner

and Burgess, Scientific Paper No. 124, Bureau of Standards.

657

658

BURGESS AND KELLBERG : ALLOTROPY OF COPPER

num is no more constant in its behavior than the copper, and

constancy is attained for both metals after a few heatings to

100°C. If they were now heated to a temperature higher than

100°C., their zeros would again change, and so on.

TABLE I

Constancy of Zero Resistance of Platinum and Copper

Professor Cohen also considers the specific heat experiments

of Le Verrier^ — who found discontinuities at about 360°, 575°

and 775°C. from a very limited number of as yet unconfirmed

observations — to strengthen his conclusions as to two modifica-

tions of copper.

In 1907, Professor Benedicks'* showed that a supposed allo-

tropic form of copper discovered by Schlitzenberger'^ was not

copper.

In view of the manifest importance of an allotropic phenome-

non in copper below 100°, if it really exists, we have executed a

series of experiments by an electric resistance method, in the

range 0 to 100°C., similar to that described by us for iron,^

substituting a calorimeter for the furnace.

'Cohen, Trans. Faraday See, May 1915; Le Verrier, Comptes Rendus 114:

907. 1892.

^ Carl Benedicks, Metallurgie 4: 5, 33. 1907.

^ Schiitzenberger, Comptes Rendus 86 : 1265. 1878.

* Burgess and Kellberg, The Electrical Resistance and Critical Ranges of

Pure Iron, Scientific Paper No. 230, Bureau of Standards, and Journ. Wash.

Acad. Sci. 4:436. 1914.

BURGESS AND KELLBERG: ALLOTROPY OF COPPER

659

These experiments gave us negative results. A brief descrip-

tion of the methods used and a summary of the results obtained

may, nevertheless, be of some interest.

The copper was in the form of hard drawn wire, of 0.005 cm.

diameter by about 35 cm. length, wound, together with a plati-

num wire of 0.015 cm. diameter, on a mica frame and enclosed

within a glass tube. This was immersed in a completely water-

jacketed and electrically-controlled calorimeter' the temperature

D/ac^rams of Connections for Methods. 1,2 and 3

Fig. 1. Methods of resistance measurement.

of which could be made to vary uniformly at any desired rate

between 0° and 95°C.

Three methods of measurement were used, as illustrated in

figure 1 :

1 . The resistance of the platinum and copper coils was measured

differentially and simultaneous observations of temperature were

taken with a mercury thermometer. The copper-platinum ther-

mometer was first annealed for 2 hours at 100° and then for 5

hours at 150°C.

2. Using the same copper and platinum coils, a commutator

was inserted, as shown in figure 1, which permitted taking alter-

nate readings of the platinum resistance, which then served as a

thermometer, and of the platinum-copper resistance difference.

In this series of observations the glass container was evacuated,

to eliminate extraneous temperature influences caused by con-

vection down the containing tube.

' H. C. Dickinson, Bulletin Bureau of Standards 11 : 210. 1915.

()60

BURGESS AND KELLBERG: ALLOTROPY OF COPPER

3. In a third series, the platinum and copper resistances were

measured separately with a common lead and a common battery

lead, (as in the observations on iron) and the times taken to 0.1

second on a chronograph. For this series a new length of pre-

viously annealed copper wire was used which also received the

preliminary alternate heating and cooling shown in Table I.

TABLE II

Measurements op Copper Resistance

The thermometer leads were of gold for the third series and of

copper for the other two. The Wheatstone bridge used was one

specially designed for calorimetric work^ and, as used, accurate

and sensitive to 1 in 500,000. Observations were taken every

« lUiUetin Bureau of Standards 11; 571. 1915.

BURGESS AND KELLBERG: ALLOTROPY OF COPPER

661

few seconds, often as close together as 0.03°C. The copper was

examined microscopically by Mr. Rawdon and showed a small

quantity only of cuprous oxide inclusions, see figure 2.

In Table II is given a list of

the ranges over which observa-

tions were taken, together with

the mean rate of heating or

cooling. Several series were \

taken in the range 60-70° by

the second method, as there

were apparent indications, from . ',

the observations by the first

method, of a possible resistance

effect. This was, however, at-

tributed to convection since it

was not constant in position and

could be introduced at will by

opening a window or door in the

laboratory. In the second and third methods no anomaly could

be detected, to at least 1 part in 50,000. The last series taken

Fig. 2. Photomicrograph of longi-

tudinal section of copper wire.

~t

6

c

o

c

1-

111

§:

0

o

It

I"-

Te mperature

\b5' [66' 167'

.3-2 - 1 0 ■( -2 -J

Hesisfance afP/atinuminOhms

Fig. 3. Resistance of copper vs. platinum and plot of residuals.

662 BURGESS AND KELLBERG: ALLOTROPY OF COPPER

is reproduced in figure 3 in the form of a copper vs. platinum

resistance curve and also as a curve of residuals. The plot of

residuals was constructed from the platinum-copper resistance

curve, using a straight line as reference on cross section paper

165 X 140 cm. The residual plot is slightly curved on account

of the slightly different resistance-temperature relations of plati-

num and copper.

We may, therefore, conclude that an allotropic transformation

of copper at about 70°C., postulated by Messrs. Cohen and

Hulderman, does not exist; that the resistance of copper in the

range of 0° to 100° varies continuously; and that ordinary copper

is most probably not in a metastable state.

It may not, perhaps, be out of place to remark in conclusion,

that it is extremely regrettable that such a far reaching and dis-

quieting announcement as the metastability at ordinary tem-

peratures of a metal so widely used and extremely important in

exact measurements, should be made on the basis of two or three

series of very inconclusive measurements.

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY. — Identification of the stages in the asexual

cycle of Bartonella bacilliformis, the pathogenic organism of

verruga, and their hearing on the etiology and unity of the

disease. Charles H. T. Townsend, Bureau of Ento-

mology.

The etiology of the Peruvian disease known as verruga has

thus far remained obscure. The writer considers that he has

conclusively demonstrated Phlehotomus verrucarum Townsend as

the vector of this disease, but the true status of the specific

organism concerned is as yet undemonstrated. Barton described

as ''x-bodies" the mature gamete stage of this organism in 1909,

discovered by him in 1905 in the erythrocytes of the peripheral

blood of verruga cases in the fever phase. ^ Strong et al. have

redescribed the same stage under the name Bartonella hacilli-

formis,^ which they consider to be the specific organism of

iCr6nica MMica (Lima) 26:7. 1909.

2 Journ. Am. Med. Assoc. 61: 1713-1716. 1913; Rep. First Exped. So. Amer.,

Harv. Sch. Trop. Med., 32. 1915.

townsend: asexual stages of verruga organism 663

''Oroya fever" (fever phase of verruga), while they consider

''verruga peruviana" (eruptive phase of verruga) to be a distinct

disease. It is the purpose of the present communication to in-

terpret correctly the stages in the asexual cycle of the patho-

genic organism from the findings already published, the signifi-

cance of which has not yet been fully pointed out. These

published findings will be taken up in chronologic order.

In 1911, Darling figured gametes found by him in verruga blood

smears from Peru, among which he gives a figure of an erythro-

cyte filled with minute rods which he terms "young x-bodies,"

and which will be referred to as Darling's x-bodies.^ These are

the immature gametes of Bartonella, shortly after penetration of

the erythrocyte.

In September, 1912, Gastiaburii and Rebagliati, working in

Lima, Peru, discovered certain "cuerpos" (bodies) in verruga

eruption tissue and in liver of verruga patients in the eruptive

phase, which they figured and described as Leishmania-Uke.*

These "cuerpos" are respectively early and maturing schizonts of

the Bartonella before they have begun to break up into merozoites.

In April, 1913, Mayer, Rocha-Lima and Werner, working in

Hamburg, figured and described certain "Zelleinschliisse" (cell-

inclusions) which they found in vascular endothelial cells of the

greater part of the verruga nodules examined by them from a

case of the disease just arrived from Peru.^ Their figures 1 to 4

show the cell-inclusions entire, while 5 and 6 show them rup-

tured. These "Zelleinschliisse" are evidently to be interpreted

as, respectively, maturing Bartonella schizonts (1 to 4), and

Bartonella merozoites which have resulted from the breaking up

of schizonts (5 and 6).

In 1915, Strong et al. figured and described certain "spheres"

found by them in endothelial cells of spleen and lymphatic nodes

of verruga patients in that phase of the disease which they term

"Oroya fever," which spheres they state apparently "break up

3 Proc. Canal Zone Med. Assoc. 4: 208-209. (No. 6, Case I, right-hand figure.)

1911.

* Cr6nica Medica, 29: 651. 1912; Journ. Econ. Ent., 6: 224. 1913.

6 Munch. Mediz. Wochenschr. 60:740. April, 1913.

664 townsend: asexual stages of verruga organism

into a large number of minute elements each of which contains a

chromatin granule ; these become elongated and finally appear as

distinct rods containing at one end a minute particle of chroma-

tin."^ These ''spheres" are obviously an earlier stage of Mayer,

Rocha-Lima and Werner's ''Zelleinschliisse;" of this the writer

believes there can be no doubt. Figures 1 and 2, plate X, of

Strong et al. are early schizonts of the Bartonella and the same as

Gastiaburu and Rebagliati's eruption ''cuerpos;" corresponding

more or less nearly to 2a and 3a in Gonder's diagram of the life-

cycle of Lymphohaematocytozooii parvum,'' reproduced for purpose

of comparison by Strong et al. as figure 1, plate XL Figure 3,

plate X, of Strong et al. corresponds to Mayer, Rocha-Lima and

Werner's figures 1 to 4, and to Gastiaburu and Rebagliati's

liver ''cuerpos;" figures 4, 5, and 7, plate X, represent the elon-

gated stage of themerozoites, somewhat farther advanced than the

stage shown in figures 5 and 6 of Mayer et al., though signs of

elongation are apparent in the latter's figure 5. Strong et al.

add: "If these rod-shaped elements, which have been set free

by the rupture of the endothelial cells, are compared with the

rods found within red blood-corpuscles lying near, it is seen that

they are identical in character. Moreover they are entirely

similar to the forms already observed in the blood-cells in the

peripheral circulation."^ These ''rods" or "rod-shaped ele-

ments," prior to their penetration of the erythrocytes, are to be

considered as merely an advanced stage of the merozoites; im-

mediately after entering erythrocytes, and before completing

growth, they are to be considered as immature gametes, and are

the same as Darling's x-bodies. The work of Strong et al. has

thus resulted in establishing a definite connection between Bar-

ton's x-bodies, Darling's x-bodies, Gastiaburu and Rebagliati's

"cuerpos," and Mayer, Rocha-Lima and Werner's "Zellein-

schliisse," which was hitherto not apparent.

All of these findings appear to indicate conclusively that the

Bartonella is a protozoan. Several facts, which are easily ex-

«Rep. First Exped. So. Amer., Harv. Sch. Trop. Med., 33. 1915.

7 Journ. Comp. Path, and Ther. 23: 32S. 1910.

s Rep. First Exped. So. Amer., Harv. Sch. Trop. Med., 33. 1915.

townsend: asexual stages of verruga organism 665

plicable, have proved stumbling-blocks, however, in interpreting

the asexual development of the organism. It has been repeatedly

demonstrated that blood containing the Bartonella gametes in the

erythrocytes fails to originate any symptoms upon injection into

healthy animals; that the gametes disappear from the erythro-

cytes upon the advent of the eruption ; that eruption-tissue inocu-

lations produce localized lesions in new tissues without Barto-

nella gametes in the erythrocytes; and that such lesions may be

produced successively in series of animals by such inoculations.

These and related facts are what induced Strong et al. to con-

sider the fever and eruptive stages of verruga as two distinct

pathologic entities.^ But their finding in ''Oroya fever" cases

of the schizonts and merozoites, already shown to be characteris-

tic of the eruption tissues, appears to bind inseparably their

''Oroya fever" and "verruga peruviana" as phases of one dis-

'ease. The explanation of the several facts above mentioned will

appear below.

It is apparent that the great majority of the Bartonella sporo-

zoites introduced by the Phlebotomus within the skin of suscept-

ible subjects immediately imbed themselves in the cytoplasm

of the vascular endothelial cells at point of inoculation, becom-

ing schizonts, which upon maturing break up into merozoites,

these elongating within the unruptured host-cell wall and pene-

trating such erthrocytes as come in actual and direct contact

with the infected cell, whereupon they become immature gametes.

The fully formed rods and ovals in the erythrocytes are respec-

tively the mature male and female gametes, which can con-

jugate only in the Phlebotomus. Hence their injection into a

healthy warm-blooded animal fails to originate any symptoms of

the disease. There appears to be no duplication or repetition of

any of the stages, except that the male gametes increase by

binary transverse division. '

The endothelial cells of the capillaries of the subcutaneous tissues

are evidently the chief seat of the above-described schizogonic cycle

of the Bartonella, and here is where the erythrocytes become infected.

« Ibid., 6, 14, et seq.

666 townsend: asexual stages of verruga organism

The beginning of the fever stage doubtless follows the extensive

breaking up of the schizonts in the endothelial cells of the capil-

laries, and coincides with the extensive penetration of the ery-

throcytes by the merozoites.

The eruption, which is particularly characterized by a great

proliferation of vascular endothelial cells, is the direct result of the

extensive asexual multiplication of the Bartonella in the subcu-

taneous tissues. The proliferation of vascular endothelial cells

prevents the erythrocytes from coming in direct contact with

cells containing merozoites. Hence the infection of the erythro-

cytes is cut short, the fever subsides, and the gametes are no

longer to be found in the blood. Hence also eruption-tissue

inoculations produce no gametes in the erythrocytes of the sub-

ject inoculated, for the merozoites contained in such material are

obviously unable to come in contact, under proper conditions,

with the erythrocytes in the new tissues. »

Erythrocytes can evidently become infected only during their slow

passage through the capillaries and while in contact through positive

chejnotropism with a living infected endothelial cell in situ in the

capillary wall. Eruption-tissue inoculations are, in a sense,

mere transplantations, or grafts, as proved by the fact that the

resultant proliferation is strictly localized. They are compar-

able in behavior to the grafts of carcinoma and other tumors

which have been effected within recent years.

The cause which leads to localized proliferation in new tissues

following such inoculations appears to be purely mechanical in char-

acter, the new proliferation resulting from a specific irritation of the

endothelial cells in the capillaries of the new tissues by the prolifer-

ated cells thus introduced. Such new proliferation may be suc-

cessively repeated by inoculation of old proliferated cells into

new tissues. This explains the lesions obtained by Strong et

al. in twelve series of monkeys, which they considered due to a

virus resident in the proliferated tissues used for inoculation.^''

But they were unable to obtain lesions by injection of a filtrate

from these tissues ;^^ nor were they able to cultivate the virus

1" Ibid., 122 and table II.

" Ibid., 125-127 and table I.

townsend: asexual stages of verruga organism 667

which they supposed to exist. ^^ Jt is further very significant

that inoculation of these tissues upon the rabbit's cornea pro-

duces no lesion. I'' The lesions produced by these inoculations are

toxin-incited, not virus-incited. The original proliferation, in-

cited by a toxin resulting from the metabolism of the organism,

possesses a specific chemophysical reaction, transmissible within

limits to the new proliferation which it induces.

The sporozoites must also reach the spleen, lymphatic nodes,

bone marrow, and liver, as well as the capillaries of the mucous

membranes, carried thence by the lymphatic system on their

failure to imbed in the subcutaneous tissues. If this happens ex-

tensively, internal eruption results. This explains the infarc-

tion, necrosis, etc., of the internal organs mentioned, and the

articulation and bone pains, so commonly noted in the disease.

In most cases the fever and eruptive phases of verruga corre-

spond very faithfully in intensity. When this correspondence is

not so marked, antibodies have probably aided in greater degree

in cutting short the asexual multiplication of the Bartonella in

the subcutaneous tissues.

It appears that we are now, for the first time, getting some

tangible evidence as to the etiology of verruga. Those familiar

with the facts so far known relating to this unique disease will

at once see how perfectly they all fit together, now that we inter-

pret the cell-inclusions of the eruption tissues as a part of the

schizogonic cycle of Bartonella. Thus the unity of verruga

appears to be demonstrated by the known stages of its specific

organism.

12 Ibid., 125-126.

i^^Ibid., 130.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

Each of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to

forward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to tho.se appearing in

this issue.

GEOPHYSICS. — General results of the work in atmospheric electricity

• aboard the "Carnegie," 1909-1914- L. A. Bauer. Proc. Am. Phil,

Soc, 54: 14r-17. 1915.

A paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Philo-

sophical Society at Philadelphia on April 24, 1915. It contains a gen-

eral account of the progress made by the Department of Terrestrial

Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution, in its work in atmospheric

electricity aboard the Carnegie and at the laboratory in Washington.

The Department can now enter actively, with increased facilities, upon

participation in another world-wide project, namely, the mapping of

the Earth's electric field and the study of its variations at fixed points.

J. A. F.

TERRESTRIAL MAGlSiETmM.— Distribution of the magnetic declina-

tion in the United States for January 1, 1915, with isogonic chart

and secular change tables. D. L. Hazard. U. S. Coast and Geo-

detic Survey Special Publication No. 33, Serial No. 18. 1915.

The general distribution of the magnetic declination in the Uaited

States on January 1, 1915, is shown graphically by means of an isogonic

chart, on which the lines of equal declination are drawn for each degree.

It is based on about 6000 values of the magnetic declination, including

about 800 in Canada and 300 in Mexico and the West Indies. In order

that the results represented may be used for other dates than the epoch

of the chart, tables are given showing the secular change of the mag-

netic declination at one or more places in each State from 1750 or the

date of the earliest observations to 1915. In addition the values of

annual change of declination for 1915 are shown graphically on the

chart by means of lines of equal annual change. On account of the

large number of results available, it was impossible to represent all of

668

abstracts: geodesy 669

the irregularities of distribution by continuous lines, hence the plan

was adopted of drawing the lines to represent the g Mineral distribution

and of entering on the chart isolated abnormal values differing by more

than a degree from the normal value for the locality. A disturbed

area of some extent, indicated by observations at several places, is

represented by a small closed curve. For this reason the lines on this

chart appear less irregular than those on the one for 1910 which it

supersedes. D. L. H.

GEODESY. — ■A'pTpUcation of the theory of least squares to the adjust-

ment of triangulation. Oscar S. Adams. U. S. Coast and Geodetic

Survey, Serial No. 9, Special Pubhcation No. 28. Pp. 220. 1915.

This publication has not been prepared with the idea of displacing

the textbooks in dealing with the subject of least squares but of supple-

menting these in the special field of triangulation. Concrete examples

of adjustments are given, ranging in difficulty from some of the easiest

to those thac are more difficult. A development is given, expressed in

the symbolism employed in the office of the Survey at the present time,

for the condition equations necessary to effect the closure in geo-

graphic positions of a loop. A need for this has been felt for some time

past. A method of adjustment by the variation of the geographic

coordinates (latitude and longitude) of the various points has been

developed and applied to the adjustment of several figures. This is

a method which has not heretofore been used in the United States,

although something similar is regularly employed in Canada.

At the end of the publication there is given a new development of

the formulas for the computation of differences of elevation from the

observations of zenith distances. These formulas take into account

some of the effects due to the lengths and heights of the lines that

were not taken into consideration in the development previously in

use in the Coast and Geodetic Survey. O. S. A.

MINERALOGY. — A71 arrangement of minerals according to their occur-

rence. Edgar T. Wherry and Samuel G. Gordon. Proc. Acad.

Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1915: 426-457. Aug. 24, 1915.

The types of mineral occurrence are classified on the basis of chemical

and geological relations, the chief criterion for subdivision being dis-

similarity in mineral content. About 800 species of minerals are ar-

ranged according to this classification, and an alphabetical index for

locating the position of any species is given. E. T. W.

INDEX TO VOLUME V

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Anthropological Society. Proceedings :

142, 263, 335, 373, 451, 493, 653.

Biological Society of Washington. Pro-

ceedings : 259, 290, 333, 371, 409, 448,

652.

Botanical Society of Washington. Pro-

ceedings: 187, 231, 256, 649.

Chemical Society. Proceedings : 27, 228,

481.

Geological Society of Washington. Pro-

ceedings: 29, 139, 185, 252, 328, 406,

444, 484.

Philosophical Society. Proceedings:

135, 250, 555, 639.

Society of American Foresters. Pro-

ceedings: 258.

Washington Academy of Sciences.

Proceedings: 183, 553.

AUTHOR INDEX

Adams, Leason H. Application of

the interferometer to the quanti-

tative analysis of solutions. 230.

*Calibration tables for copper-

constantan and platinum-platin-

rhodium thermo-elements. 84.

Some notes on the theory of the

Rayleigh-Zeiss interferometer.

265.

Adams, O. S. *Application of theory

of least squares to adjustment of

triangulation. 669.

Abbot, C. G. Experiments in meas-

uring solar radiation from bal-

loons. 251.

Recent progress in astronomy. 556.

Allen, Arthur A. Birds of a cat-tail

marsh. 372.

Allen, E. T. *Effect of temperature

and acidity in the formation of

marcasite (FeS2) and wurtzite

(ZnS). 94.

*Stokes method for the determina-

tion of pyrite and marcasite. 93.

Andersen, Olaf. *Binary system

MgO-Si02. 90.

Mineral occurrences and associa-

tions in southern Norway. 140.

Anderson, Robert. *Geology and oil

resources of San Joaquin Valley,

California. 647.

Arguelles, Manuel V. Filipino ra-

cial complex. 493.

Ashley, G. H. Physiography of the

Rockies in the Cretaceous-Terti-

ary period. 332.

Atwood, W. W. *Eocene glacial de-

posits in southwestern Colorado.

608.

Austin, L. W. Resistance of radio-

telegraphic antennas. 525.

Babcock, William H. The races of

Britain. 375.

Bailey, Vernon A mouse which lived

in tree-tops. 260.

Notes on variation, distribution

and habits of the pocket-gophers

of the genus Thomomys. 410.

•Abstracts.

670

INDEX

671

Bancroft, Rowland. *0n the Re-

public mining district, Washing-

ton. 21.

*Ore deposits of northeastern Wash-

ington. 21.

Barrell, Joseph. Factors in move-

ments of the strand line. 413.

Bartsch, Paul. Notes on some birds

observed on the Florida Keys in

April, 1914. 263.

Bassler, R. S. Unconformities in

limestone. 185.

Bastin, Edson S. Experiments with

colloidal gold and silver. 64.

Ore deposits of Gilpin County,

Colorado. 185.

Some features of the ore deposits

of Gilpin County, Colorado. 160.

Bauer, L. A. *The Earth's magnet-

ism. 633.

*Local magnetic constant and its

variations. 16.

*Regarding improvement of appli-

ances for measurement of the

Earth's magnetic elements. 17.

*Results of work in atmospheric

electricity aboard the "Carnegie,"

1909-1914. 668.

BiGELOW, W. D. Some of the prob-

lems and difficulties of the canning

industry. 481.

BosE, J. C. Response of plants. 183.

BowEN, N. L. *Binary system MgO-

Si02. 90.

Importance of crystallization in the

differentiation of igneous rocks. 29.

*Ternary system : diopside-f orster-

ite-silica. 178.

Bowie, Edward H. *Types of storms

of the United States and their

average movements. 242.

Bowie, William. The errors of pre-

cise leveling. 555.

Geodetic work of the Coast and

Geodetic Survey. 557.

*Precise leveling from Brigham,

Utah, to San Francisco, California,

83.

Briggs, C. a. On the construction of

primary mercurial resistance stand-

ards. 458.

Briggs, L. J. A new method for meas-

uring gravity at sea. 556.

Buckingham, E. Principle of dimen-

sional homogeneity and the form of

physical equations. 135.

Burgess, George K. Characteristics

of radiation pyrometers. 233.

Emissivity of metals and oxides.

IV. Iron oxide. 377.

Study of the quality of platinum

wave. 378.

An investigation of fusible tin

boiler plugs. 461.

Some researches in metals at the

Bureau of Standards. 555.

Supposed allotropy of copper. 657.

Bush-Brown, H. K. Evolution of the

horse. 334.

Bushnell, Jr., David I. Fragmentary

textiles from Ozark caves. 318.

Butler, B. S. Relation of ore depos-

its to different types of intrusive

bodies in Utah. 407.

Campbell, M. R. *Guidebook of the

Western United States. Part A,

the Northern Pacific route. 579.

Movement of sand-dunes on the

California coast. 328.

Capps, Stephen R. An estimate of

the age of the last great glaciation

in Alaska. 108, 186.

Unusual exposures of a great

thrust fault. 252.

Chase, Agnes. Developing instincts

of a young squirrel. 291.

Clark, Austin Hobart. Correlation

of phylogenetic specialization and

bathymetrical distribution among

the recent crinoids. 309.

Bathymetrical distribution of Arc-

tic and Antarctic crinoids. 76.

•Abstracts.

Aiijs^

C72

INDEX

*Die Crinoiden der Antarktis. 608.

*Crinoids collected by the Endeav-

our between Fremantle and Ger-

aldton (Western Australia). 370.

*The distribution of the recent cri-

noids on the coasts of Australia.

584.

*Echinoderma II, Crinoidea. 522.

— — -Geographical divisions of the re-

cent crinoid fauna. 7.

On certain aspects of the bathy-

metrical distribution of the recent

crinoids. 125.

Bathymetrical and thermal distri-

bution of unstalked crinoids oc-

curring on the coasts of China and

Japan. 213.

*A phylogenetic study of the re-

cent crinoids, with special refer-

ence to the question of specializa-

tion through the partial or com-

plete suppression of structural

characters. 584.

*Atlantic Ocean biologically an

inland sea. 99.

— — *Relation between the maximum

and the average bathymetric range,

and ' the mean and the average

depth of habitat, in the sub-fami-

lies and higher groups of recent

crinoids. 583.

— — -Relationship between phylogenetic

specialization and temperature in

the recent crinoids. 425.

*Study of asymmetry, as devel-

oped in the genera and families of

recent crinoids. 624.

*Study of the recent crinoids which

are congeneric with fossil species.

583.

Clark, William Mansfield. On some

new indicators for the colorimetric

determination of hydrogen-ion

concentration. 609.

*Reaction of cows' milk modified

for infant feeding. 177.

Cobb, X. A. Nematodes, their rela-

tions to mankind and to agricul-

ture. 553.

CoBLENTZ, W. W. Comparison of stel-

lar radiometers and radiometric

measurements on 110 stars. 33.

Cook, O. F. Botany of cacao and pa-

tashte. 232.

Glaucothea, a new genus of palms

from Lower California. 236.

— — ^A new genus of palms allied to

Archontophoenix. 116.

— ■ — Tribroma, a new genus of tropical

trees related to Theobroma. 287.

Cooke, Wells W. National Bird Cen-

sus. 262.

Coville, Frederick V. Local flora,

Washington and vicinity. 256.

Systematic botany. 188.

Crenshaw, J. L. *Effect of tempera-

ture and acidity in the formation

of marcasite (FeS2) and wurtzite

(ZnS). 94.

*Stokes method for the determina-

tion of pyrite and marcasite. 93.

CuRRiE, James N. *Composition of

Roquefort cheese fat. 100.

Dale, T. Nelson. *Calcite marble

and dolomite of eastern Vermont.

518.

*Slate in the United States. 25.

Darton, N. H. Guide book of the

western United States. Part C,

the Santa Fe Route. 634.

Davis, C. A. The algal flora of some

Eocene shales. 649.

Day, Arthur L. *Das Studium der

Mineralschmelzpunkte. 92.

The volcano Kilauea in action.

553.

Dearborn, Ned. Notes on the breed-

ing of minks in captivity. 335.

Present state of fox-farming. 260.

Deussen, Alexander. *Geology and

underground waters of the south-

eastern part of the Texas Coastal

Plain. 519.

'Abstracts.

INDEX

673

Dewey, F. P. Preliminary report on

the diffusion of solids. 559.

Recovery of osmiridium in the

electrolytic refining of gold. 28.

Dickinson, H. C. An aneroid calorim-

eter. 337.

Specific heat and heat of fusion of

ice. 338.

DiLLER, J. S. *Guidebook of the wes-

tern United States. Part D, the

Shasta route and coast line. 582.

Recent eruptions of Lassen Peak.

31.

Duncan, George S. The Sumerian

people and their inscriptions. 263.

DuvALL, C. R. Recurring-series meth-

od of seeking hidden periodicities,

with applications. 139.

Eakin, H. M. Effect of the Earth's

rotation as a deflecting force in

stream erosion. 139.

*Iditarod-Ruby region, Alaska. 21.

Evans, Alice C. Bacillus abortus in

market milk. 122.

Evans, Henry R. Old and new magic.

495.

Paris, R. L. *Results of magnetic ob-

servations made by the U. S. Coast

and Geodetic Survey in 1913. 18.

Fenner, Clarence N. Geological re-

connaissance of Porto Rico. 488.

*Mode of formation of certain

gneisses in the Highlands of New

Jersey. 180.

Ferguson, John B. *Occurrence of

molybdenum in rocks, with special

reference to those of Hawaii. 96.

Fewkes, J. Walter. Origin of the

unit type of Pueblo architecture.

543.

Prehistoric cultural centers in the

West Indies. 436.

Recent field research in anthro-

pology and ethnology. 375.

Vanished races of the Caribbean.

142.

Fischer, Louis A. Length standards

and measurements. 145.

^Measurement of length. 137.

FooTE, Paul D. "Center of gravity"

and "effective wave length" of

transmission of pyrometer color

screens. 526.

Characteristics of radiation pyrom-

eters. 233.

The emissivity of metals and ox-

ides. IV. Iron oxide. 377.

Total emissivity of platinum and

the relation between total emis-

sivity and resistivity. 1.

Franklin, W. S. Some phenomena of

fluid motion and the curved flight

of a base ball. 136.

Fry, W. H. Weathering stability of

minerals as illustrated in soils and

soil-like materials. 491.

Gale, H. S. Guidebook of the west-

ern United States. Part B, the

overland route. 580.

Garner, R. L. African studies:

Things in common among men,

apes, and other mammals. 653.

Study of the great Apes of west-

ern Africa. 261.

Ghosh, Sarath Kumar. Ancient civi-

lization of India. 373.

Gibbs, H. D. Study of some palm

trees, with special reference to the

sugar and alcohol industries. 481.

GiDLEY, J. W. Notes on the possible

origin of the bears. 333.

Gilbert, Grove Carl. *Transporta-

tion of debris bj^ running water.

19.

Gilmore, C. W. Observations on new

dinosaurian reptiles. 411.

Some new dinosaurs. 488.

GiRTY, G. H. *Fauna of the Bates-

ville sandstone of northern Arkan-

sas. 603.

— — *Fauna of the so-called Boone

chert near Batesville, Ark. 604.

*Ahstracts.

674

INDEX

*Fauna of the Wewoka formation

of Oklahoma. 606.

*Faunas of the Boone limestone at

St. Joe, Arkansas. 605.

Goldman, E. A. Biological explora-

tions in eastern Panama. 409.

Gore, H. C. Concentration of apple

juice by freezing. 229.

Preparation and uses of calcium

acid malate. 481.

Graves, Henry S. Place of forestry

among natural sciences. 41.

Greene, Edward L. Washington Bo-

tanical Club. 188.

Grover, Frederick W. Calculation

of the maximum force between two

parallel, coaxial, circular currents.

456.

Hancock, E. T. History of a portion

of Yampa River, Colorado, and

its possible bearing on that of

Green River. 141.

Hares, C. J. Correlation of some of

the Cretaceous and Eocene forma-

tions of central Wyoming. 328.

Hatt, Gudmtjnd. At home with

Lapps and reindeer. 493.

Hawkins, L. A. Endothia pigments.

650.

Hawley, L. F. * Yields from the de-

structive distillation of certain

hardwoods. 98.

Hay, Oliver P. *Contributions to

the knowledge of the mammals of

the Pleistocene of North America.

582.

Hay, W. p. An albino terrapin. 290.

♦Hazard, D. L. Magnetic declination

in the United States, 1915. 668.

Heroy, W. B. Relation of the Upper

Cretaceous formations of southern

Wyoming and northeastern Colo-

rado. 330.

Hersey, M. D. Some characteristics

of aneroid barometers. 137.

Hewett, D. F. Calculation of the

thickness of strata represented in

a series of outcrops of varying dip.

252.

Hewitt, J. N. B. Recent field re-

search in anthropology and eth-

nology. 375.

Hewlett, C. W. *Atmospheric-elec-

tric observations made on the sec-

ond cruise of the Carnegie, 1909-

1913. 14.

*Investigation of certain causes

responsible for uncertainty in the

measurement of atmospheric con-

ductivity by the Gerdien conduc-

tivity apparatus. 15.

Hill, James M. *Mineral deposits of

the Santa Rita and Patagonia

Mountains, Arizona. 519.

Ore deposits of Gilpin County,

Colorado. 185.

Some features of the ore deposits

of Gilpin County, Colorado. 160.

*Some mining districts in north-

eastern Nevada and northwestern

California. 623.

HiLLEBRAND, W. F. *Hewettite, meta-

hewettite, and pascoite; hydrous

calcium vanadates. 179.

Hitchcock, A. S. Botanical collect-

ing in the Northwest. 260.

Collecting grasses in the South-

west. 652.

Local flora, Washington and vicin-

ity. 256.

*Text-book of grasses. 244.

Hjort, Johan. Migrations and fluc-

tuations of marine animals of west-

ern Europe. 184.

Holmes, W. H. Recent field research

in anthropology and ethnology.

375.

Hood, J. D. Some features in the mor-

phology of the insect order Thy-

sanoptera. 409.

Hopkins, A. D. New genus of scoly-

toid beetles. 429.

'Abstracts.

INDEX

675

HosTETTER, J. C. Dissociation of cal-

cium carbonate below 500°C. 563.

— — -*Method for determining mag-

nesium in calcium salts. 91.

— — -Reduction of iron oxides by plati-

num, with a note on the magnetic

susceptibility of iron-bearing plat-

inum, 293.

Vacuum furnace for the measure-

ment of small dissociation pres-

sures. 277.

Howard, L. O. Some observations on

mosquitoes and house flies. 449.

Hrdlicka, Ales. The evolution of

man. 653.

Hubbard, W. S. Hydrolysis of sugar

solutions under pressure. 228.

Hudson, C. S. Acetyl derivatives of

the sugars. 482.

Humphreys, W. J. Changes of sea-

level due to changes of ocean vol-

ume. 445.

*Frost protection. 177.

Lightning discharges. 640.

*The thunderstorm and its phe-

nomena. 243.

Hunter, W. D. Insects and their

relation to disease. 554.

Isaacs, A. Study of some recent

methods for the determination of

sulphur in rubber. 235.

Jackson, H. H. T. Pelage variations

of American moles. 261.

James, M. A conducting paint. 558.

Johns, C. O. Syntheses of methyl-

and methylamino-purines. 228.

Johnston, John. *Utilization of dif-

fusion processes in the prepara-

tion of pure substances. 90.

Kearney, T. H. *Mutation in Egyp-

tian cotton. 97.

Kellberg, I. N. Supposed allotropy

of copper. 657.

Knopf, Adolph. *Gold-platinum-pal-

ladium lode in southern Nevada

370.

Plumbojarosite and other basic

lead-ferric sulphates from the Yel-

low Pine district, Nevada. 497.

Lamb, D. S. The medicine and sur-

gery of the ancient Peruvians.

655.

Lamb, W. H. *Value of the big tree

contest. 635.

Lambert, W. D. An exact formula for

theoretical gravity at the Earth's

surface. 559.

Landis, W. S. Fixation of atmos-

pheric nitrogen. 481.

Larsen, Esper S. Nepheline basalt

in the Fort Hall Indian Reserva-

tion, Idaho. 463.

Lee, Willis T. *Guidebook of the

Western United States. Part B,

the overland route. 580.

*Reasons for regarding the Morri-

son as an introductory Cretaceous

formation. 606.

Relation of Cretaceous formations

to the Rocky Mountains. 29.

Use of physiography in the study

of Rocky Mountain stratigraphy.

29.

Lefpingwell, E. de K. . Ground ice

wedges. The dominant form of

ground ice on the north shore of

Alaska. 186.

Lewton, F. L. Australian Fugosias.

303.

LiNDGREN, Waldemar. *Geology and

mineral deposits of the National

mining district, Nevada. 580.

*0n the Republic mining district,

Washington. 21.

LiTTELL, F. B. The Washington-Paris

longitude by radio signals. 250.

LoTKA, Alfred J. Efficiency as a

factor in organic evolution. 250.

Efficiency as a factor in organic

evolution. I, 360; II, 397.

Loughlin, G. F. *Reconnaissance in

the Canyon Range, west-central

Utah. 19.

•Abstracts.

67(i

INDEX

Stratigraphy of the Tintic mining

district, Utah. 142.

LuBS, Herbert A. On some new in-

dicators for the colorimetric de-

termination of hydrogen-ion con-

centration. 609.

LuscHAN, F. VON. Excavation of a

Hittite capital. 335.

Lyon, M. W., Jr. Endamoeba gingi-

valis and pyorrhea. 335.

Notes on the physiology of bats.

290.

Porcupine skull showing an extra

pair of upper incisors. 262.

Maddox, John Lee. Spirit theory in

early medicine. 144.

Mansfield, George R. Geology of

the Fort Hall Indian Reservation,

Idaho. 492.

*Geology of the phosphate deposits

northeast of Georgetown, Idaho.

24.

Nepheline basalt in the Fort Hall

Indian Reservation, Idaho. 463.

Matson, G. C. *The phosphate de-

posits of Florida. 648.

Matthes, F. E. Studies on glacial

cirques in the Sierra Nevada. 254.

Merica, p. D. Investigation of fusi-

ble tin boiler plugs. 461.

Merrill, E. D. On the application of

the generic name Nauclea of Lin-

naeus. 530.

Mertie, J. B. Copper and gold de-

posits of the Kotsina-Kuskulana

District, Alaska. 485.

Merwin, H. E. Covellite: A singular

case of chromatic reflection. 341.

Dissociation of calcium carbonate

below 500°C. 563.

*Hewettite, metahewettite, and

pascoite; hydrous calcium vana-

dates. 179.

Nephelite crystals from Monte

Ferru, Sardinia. 389.

■*SimuItaneous crystallization of

calcite and certain sulphides of

iron, copper, and zinc. 95.

MicHELSON, Truman. Recent field re-

search in anthropologj' and eth-

nology. 375.

MiDDLEKAUFF, G. W. Characteristic

equations of tungsten filament

lamps and their application in

heterochromatic photometry. 61.

Miller, John M. Effective resist-

ance and inductance of iron and

bimetallic wires. 455.

MiTCHEL, W. L. Hydrolysis of sugar

solutions under pressure. 228.

Munn, M. J. *Reconnaissance of oil

and gas fields in Wayne and Mc

Creary Counties, Kentucky. 20.

MuNROE, Charles E. High explo-

sives and their effects. 554.

Nansen, F. Siberia, the land of the

furure. 140.

Noble, L. F. *Shinumo Quadrangle,

Grand Canyon District, Arizona.

181.

NoRTHRUP, E. Some physical proper-

ties of matter at high temperatures.

558.

Norton, J. B. Spring flowers in the

fall. 285.

NoYES, A. A. System of qualitative

analysis including nearly all the

elements. 482.

Oberholser, H. C. a naturalist in

Nevada. 292.

Osborne, N. S. An aneroid calorim-

eter. 337.

Specific heat and heat of fusion

of ice. 338.

Osgood, Wilfrd H. Fur seals and

other animals on the Pribilof Is-

lands. 553.

Pack, R. W. *Geology and oil re-

sources of San Joaquin Valley, Cali-

fornia. 647.

•Abstracts,

INDEX

677

Paige, Sidney. Model illustrating

character of faulting at the Home-

stake ore-body. 487.

Palmer, Chase. Bornite as silver pre-

cipitant. 351.

Silver precipitating capacity of

certain arsenides as an index of

their constitution. 486.

Palmer, R. C. *Yields from the de-

structive distillation of certain

hardwoods. 98.

Palmer, T. S. Notes on the importa-

tion of foreign birds. 334.

Palmer, William. An unknown fossil.

290.

Basic facts of bird coloration. 411.

Certain Miocene fossils. 261.

Peters, O. S. Protection of life and

property against lightning. 625.

Pierce, W. Dwight. Uses of weevils

and weevil products in food and

medicine. 449.

PiTTiER, Henry. Some new caesal-

piniaceous trees of Panama. 468.

PopENOE, PaulB. Arabic zoology. 262.

PosNJAK, ExJGEN. *Determination of

cuprous and cupric sulphide in

mixtures of one another. 91.

QuAiNTANCE, A. L. Remarks on some

little known insect depi'edators.

450.

Rankin, G. A. *Ternary system CaO-

AhOs-SiOs. 88.

Ransome, F. L. Paleozoic section of

Ray Quadrangle, Arizona. 380.

Raavdon, Henry S. Microstructural

changes accompanying the anneal-

ing of bronze. 589.

Standard zinc-bronze: Relation of

micro-structure and mechanical

properties. 631.

Reynolds, Walter F. *Triangula-

lation in Alabama and Mississippi.

369.

Richards, R. W. *Geology of phos-

phate deposits northeast of George-

town, Idaho. 24.

Rose, J. N. Botanical explorations in

South America. 292.

Safford, W. E. Eysenhardtia poly-

stachya, the source of the true Lig-

num nephriticum mexicanum. 503.

Identification of the teonanacatl

or "sacred mushroom" of the

Aztecs with the narcotic cactus,

Lophophora Willimnsii. 650.

New or imperfectly known species

of bull-horn acacias. 355.

Rediscovery of Lignum nephriti-

cum. 232.

Sale, P. O. Study of the qualitj^ of

platinum ware. 378.

Sanford, Raymond L. Temperature

coefficient of magnetic permeabil-

ity within the working range. 63.

ScHALLER, Waldemar T. Four new

minerals. 7.

Schneider, Camillo. The botany of

Western Yunnan (China). 650.

Schrader, Frank C. *Mineral de-

posits of the Santa Rita and Pata-

gonia Mountains, Arizona. 519.

Some features of the ore deposits

in the Santa Rita and Patagonia

Mountains, Arizona. 252.

Sulphide-bearing monzonite from

Arizona. 485.

Seidell, A. Excretion of thymol in

the urine. 28.

Shaw, E. W. Study of the Lafayette

at and near the type locality. 30.

Sulphur in rocks and in river wa-

ters. 484.

Unique coal mine explosion. 140.

Shear, C. L. Mycology in relation

to phytopathology. 256.

ShoemaivER, M. p. On the construc-

tion of primary mercurial resist-

ance standards. 458.

Skogland, J. F. Characteristic equa-

tions of tungsten filament lamps

and their application in hctero-

chromatic photometry. 61.

*Abstract3.

678

INDEX

A direct-reading device for use in

computing characteristics of va-

cuum tungsten lamps. 453.

Snyder, J. O. Notes on some fishes

collected by Dr. Mearns in Colorado

River. 263.

SoSMAN, R. B. A vacuum furnace for

the measurement of small disso-

ciation pressures. 277.

Dissociation of calcium carbonate

below 500°C. 563.

Reduction of iron oxides by plati-

num, with a note on the magnetic

susceptibility of iron-bearing plat-

inum. 293.

Two subordinate types of pris-

matic structure. 490.

Types of columnar structure in ig-

neous rocks. 490.

Spencer, J. W. Results of recent

soundings at Niagara, and their

interpretation. 406.

Standley, Paul C. Application of

the generic name Achyranthes. 72.

*Flora of New Mexico. 522.

New genus of Chenopodiaceae,

from Arizona. 57.

North American tribes and genera

of Amaranthaceae. 391.

Notes on Orthopterygimn huaucui.

628.

A remarkable new geranium from

Venezuela. 600.

Stebinger, Eugene. *Montana group

of northwestern Montana. 19.

Stephenson, L. W. *Cretaceous de-

posits of the eastern Gulf region,

and species of Exogyra from the

eastern Gulf region and the Caro-

linas. 24.

Stevens, N. E. The genus Endothia.

650.

Stone, R. W. *Guidebook of the

Western United States. Part B,

the overland route. 580.

Stose, G. W. Mechanics of a cross

fault in the northern Appalachi-

ans. 486.

Stuntz, S. C. Bamboo possibilities

in America. 231.

Swann, W. F. G. Atmospheric-electric

work of the Department of Terres-

trial Magnetism. 138.

Normal electric field of the Earth.

639.

*0n certain matters relating to the

theory of atmospheric-electric

measurements. 13.

*0n certain new atmospheric-elec-

tric instruments and methods. 12.

Swanton, John R. Ethnologic fac-

tors in international competition.

336.

Institutional marriage. 219.

Swingle, Walter T. Early history

of physiological and plant breeding

work in the Department of Agri-

culture. 188.

Merope angulata, a salt-tolerant

plant related to Citrus, from the

Malay Archipelago. 420.

^Microcitrus, a new genus of Aus-

tralian citrous fruits. 569.

A new genus, Fortunella, compris-

ing four species of kumquat or-

anges. 165.

TowNSEND, Chas. Haskins. *The por-

poise in captivity. 99. .

TowNSEND, Charles H. T. Correc-

tion of the misuse of the generic

name Musca, with description of

two new genera. 433.

New generic name for the screw-

worm fly. 041.

Two years' investigation in Peru

of verruga and its insect trans-

mission. 448.

Stages in the asexual cycle of

Bartonella bacilliformis, the path-

ogenic organism of verruga. 062.

'Abstracts.

INDEX

679

TuTTLE, J. B. Requirements and pur-

chase of rubber tubing for labora-

tory purposes. 482.

Study of some recent methods for

the determination of total sulphur

in rubber. 235.

Vaughan, T. Wayland. Geologic sig-

nificance of the growth-rate of the

Floridian and Bahaman shoal-wa-

ter corals. 591.

Factors producing change in posi-

tion of strand-line during Pleisto-

cene and post-Pleistocene time.

444.

Remarks on the rate of growth of

stony corals. 291.

Van Orstrand, C. E. Preliminary re-

port on the diffusion of solids. 559.

ViNAL, G. W. The solubility of me-

tallic silver in distilled water. 557.

Walcott, CD. Prepaleozoic algal de-

posits. 649.

Waite, M. W. The Botanical Seminar

and the early development of plant

pathology in Washington. 187.

Walters, E. H. Presence of primary

cleavage products of protein in

soils. 28.

Washington, Henry S. *Analcite

basalts of Sardinia. 97.

Calculation of calcium orthosili-

cate in the norm of igneous rocks.

345.

*Composition of rockallite. 96.

Condition of the southern Italian

volcanoes. 32.

*I Basalti Analcitici della Sardeg-

na. 97.

Nephelite crystals from Monte

Ferru, Sardinia. .389.

*Occurrence of pyroxenite and

hornblendite in Bahia, Brazil. 180.

Weightman, R. Hanson. *Types of

storms of the United States and

their average movements. 242.

Wells, Roger C. *Electric activity in

ore deposits. 23.

Fractional precipitation of some

ore-forming compounds at moder-

ate temperatures. 634.

Solubility of calcite in water in

contact with the atmosphere, and

its variation with temperature. 617.

Solubility of magnesium carbonate

in natural waters. 491.

Wenner, Frank. Method for meas-

uring Earth resistivity. 561.

Wherry, Edgar T. *Carnotite near

Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania. 60.

Detection of certain elements by

their absorption spectra. 231.

-*Microspectroscope in mineralogy.

521.

— — ^*Notes on wolframite, beraunite,

and axinite. 60.

Peculiar oolite from Bethlehem,

Pennsylvania. 31.

■* Arrangement of minerals accord-

ing to occurrence. 670.

White, David. Occurrence of trans-

ported boulders in coal beds. 407.

Algae in the upper Paleozoic. 650.

Some relations in origin between

coal and petroleum. 189.

White, Walter P. *Easy calorimet-

ric methods of high precision. 87.

*Einige neue Doppelkompensato-

ren. 88.

Electric pendulums and pendulum

contacts. 135.

*Leakage prevention by shielding,

especially in potentiometer sys-

tems. 85.

*Significant instance of galvanom-

eter instability. 87.

*Thermo-elements of precision, es-

peciall^y for calorimetry. 86.

*Thermo-element installations, es-

pecially for calorimetry. 84.

*Potentiometers for thermo-elec-

tric measurements. 84.

Williams, E. T. Confucianism, the

state religion of China. 451.

'Abstracts.

680

INDEX

Williams, R. R. Vitamines and beri-

beri. 483.

Willis, Bailey. Physiographic pro-

vinces of South America. 408.

WiNCHELL, Alexander N. *Mining

districts of the Dillon Quadrangle,

Montana, and adjacent areas. 23.

Wolff, F. A. On the construction of

primary mercurial resistance stand-

ards. 458.

Woodward, R. S. Compressibilitj- of

the Earth's mass. 251.

The Earth. 554.

WooTON, E. O. *Flora of New Mexico.

522.

Wright, A. H. Snakes and lizards of

Okefinokee Swamp. 371.

Wright, Fred E. Accurate measure-

ment of the refractive indices of

minute crystal grains under the

petrographic microscope. 101.

-*Hewettite, metahewettite, and

pascoite; hydrous calcium vana-

dates. 179.

-Measurement of relative strain in

glass. 137.

-*Ternary system Ca O — AI2 O3 —

SiOa. 88. '

-New crystal-grinding goniometer.

35.

-*Optical properties of roscoelite.

95.

-Petrographic microscope in analy-

sis. 229.

-The position of the vibration plane

of the polarizer in the petrographic

microscope. 641.

SUBJECT INDEX

Agricultural Chemistry. Primary cleav-

age products of protein in soils. E.

H. Walters. 28.

Preparation and uses of calcium acid

malate. H. C. Gore. 481.

Agronomy. References. 586.

Anthropology. Excavation of a Hit-

tite capital. F. von Luschan. 335.

Filipino racial complex. M. V.

Arguelles. 493.

Institutional marriage. J. R. Swan-

ton. 219.

Old and new magic. H. R. Evans.

495.

Prehistoric cultural centers. J. W.

Fewkes. 436.

The races of Britain. W. H. Bab-

cock. 375.

Recent field researches in anthro-

pology and ethnology. W. H.

Holmes, J. W. Fewkes, T. Mi-

CHELSON, .1. N. B. Hewitt. 375.

The Sumerian people. O. S. Dun-

can. 263.

Textiles from Ozark caves. D. I.

BusHNELL, Jr. 318.

Unit type of Pueblo architecture.

J. W. Fewkes. 543.

Astrophysics. Comparison of stellar

radiometers. W. W. Coblentz. 33.

Atmospheric Electricity. *Atmospheric

electric measurements. W. F. G.

SWANN. 13.

*Atmospheric-electric observations,

second cruise, the Carnegie, 1909-

1913. C. W. Hewlett. 14.

*Gerdien conductivity apparatus. C.

W. Hewlett. 15.

*New atmospheric-electric instru-

ments and methods. W. F. G.

SwANN. 12.

*Results of work in atmospheric

electricity aboard the "Carnegie,"

1909-1914. L. A. Bauer. 668.

Bacteriology. Bacillus abortus in mar-

ket milk. A. C. Evans. 122.

*Composition of Roquefort cheese

fat. J. N. CuRRiE. 100.

References. 586.

•Abstracts.

INDEX

681

Biography. Dr. A. F. A. Kint. C. L.

G. Anderson. 374.

Biology. An albino terrapin. W. P.

Hay. 290.

The breeding of minks. N. Dear-

born. 335.

Certain miocene fossils. W. Palmer.

261.

Developing instincts of a young

squirrel. Agnes Chase. 291.

Endanioeba gingivalis. M. W. Lyon,

Jr. 335.

Evolution of the horse. H. K. Bush-

Brown. 334.

E.xplorations in eastern Panama. E.

A. Goldman. 409.

Growth of stony corals. T. W.

Vaughan. 291.

Little known insect depredators. A.

L. Quaintance. 450.

Marine animals of western Europe.

J. Hjort, 184.

Morphology of the insect order Thy-

sanoptera. J. D. Hood. 409.

Mosquitoes and house flies. L. O.

Howard. 449.

A mouse which lived in tree-tops.

V. Bailey. 260.

A naturalist in Nevada. H. C. Obee-

holser. 292.

Newdinosaurianreptiles. C. W. GiL-

more. 411.

Pelage variations of American moles.

H. H. T. Jackson. 261.

Physiology of bats. M. W. Lyon.

290.

Pocket-gophers of the genus Thomo-

mys. V. Bailey. 410.

Porcupine scull showing an extra pair

of upper incisors. M. W. Lyon, Jr.

262.

Possible origin of the bears. J. W.

Gidley. 333.

The present state of fox-farming.

N. Dearborn. 260.

Snakes and lizards of the Okefinokee

Swamp. A. H. Wright. 371.

Some fishes of the Colorado River.

J. O. Snyder. 263.

An unknown fossil. W. Palmer. 290.

Verruga and its insect transmission.

C. H. T. Townsend. 448.

Weevils in food and medicine. W.

D. Pierce. 449.

Botany. The Australian Fugosias. F.

L. Newton. 303.

Bamboo possibilities in America. S.

C. Stuntz. 231.

Botanical collecting in the North-

west. A. S. Hitchcock. 260.

Botanical explorations. J. N. Rose.

292.

The Botanical Seminar. M.B. Waite.

187.

Cacao and patashte. O. F. Cook.

232.

Eysenhardlia polystachya, the source

of true Lignum nephriticum. W.

E. Safford. 503.

*Flora of New INIexico. E. O. Woo-

TON and P. C. Standley. 522.

The generic name Achyranthes. P.

C. Standley. 72.

The generic name Nauclea of Lin-

naeus. E. D. Merrill. 530.

Glaucothea, a new genus of palms.

O. F. Cook. 236.

Lignum nephriticum. W. E. Safford.

503.

Local flora, Washington and vicinity.

A. S. Hitchcock and Frederick

V. Coville. 256.

Merope angulata, a salt-tolerant cit-

rous plant. W. T. Swingle. 420.

*Mutation in Egyptian cotton. T.

H. Kejarney. 97.

New bull-horn acacias. W. E. Saf-

ford. 355.

New caesalpiniaceous trees of Pan-

ama. H. Pittier. 468.

A new genus of Chenopodiaceae. P.

C. Standley. 57.

'Abstracts.

682

INDEX

Microcitrus, a new genus of Austra-

lian citrous fruits. W. T. Swin-

gle. 569.

A new genus, Fortunella, comprising

four species of kumquat oranges.

W. T. Swingle. 165.

A new genus of palms allied to

Archontophoenix. O. F. Cook.

116.

North American Amaranthaceae. P.

C. Standley. 391.

Or tho pterygium huaucui. P. C. Stand-

ley. 628.

Physiological and plant breeding

work, Department of Agriculture.

W. T. Swingle. 188.

Rediscovery of Lignum nephriticum.

W. E. Sapford. 232.

Remarkable new geranium. P. C.

Standley. 600.

Response of plants. J. C. Bose. 183.

Sacred mushroom of the Aztecs. W.

E. Safford. 650.

Spring flowers in the fall. J. B.

Norton. 285.

Systematic botany. Frederick V.

COVILLE. 188.

*A text-book of grasses. A. S.

Hitchcock. 244.

Tribroma, a new genus of tropical

trees. O. F. Cook. 287.

The Washington Botanical Club.

E. L. Greene. 188.

References. 585.

Chemistry. Absorption spectra. E. T.

Wherry. 231.

Acetyl derivatives of sugars. C. S.

Hudson. 482.

Atmospheric nitrogen. W. S. Lan-

Dis. 481.

Concentration of apple juice by

freezing. H. C. Gore. 229.

*Cows' milk modified for infant feed-

ing. W. M. Clark. 177.

*Cuprous and cupric sulphide. E.

POSNJAK. 91.

Dissociation of calcium carbonate.

R. B. SOSMAN, J. C. HOSTETTER, H.

E. Merwin. 563.

High explosives. C. E. Munroe.

554.

Hydrolysis of sugar solutions. W.

S. Hubbard and W. L. Mitchel.

228.

Interferometer in quantitative ana-

lysis of solutions. L. H. Adams.

230.

*Magnesium determination in calcium

salts. J. C. HoSTETTER. 91.

Methyl- and methylamino-purines.

C. O. Johns. 228.

New hydrogen-ion indicators. H. A.

LuBS and W. M. Clark. 609.

Osmiridium in electrolytic refining

of gold. F. P. Dewey. 28.

Palm-trees, with reference to sugar

and alcohol industries. H. D.

GiBBS. 481.

Qualitative analysis. A. A. Noyes.

482.

Rubber tubing for laboratory pur-

poses. J. B. Tuttle. 482.

Sulphur in rubber. J. B. Tuttle

and A. Isaacs. 235.

The silver precipitating capacity of

certain arsenides as an index of

their constitution. C. Palmer. 486.

Thymol in urine. A. Seidell. 28.

Vitamines and beriberi. R. R. Wil-

liams. 483.

References. 585.