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JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
VOLUME 11, 1921
Robert B. Sosman
GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY
BOARD OF EDITORS
S. F. Blake;
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY
Sidney Paige
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Harlan
BOTANICAL SOCIETY
N. HOLLISTER
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY
S. A. ROHWER
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
F. B. SiLSBEE
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
G. W. Stose
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETy
J. R. Swanton
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETW
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DATES OF RECEIPT OE DECAYED JOURNALS
On account of the printers' strike in May 1921, all numbers of the Journal
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ington of Numbers 9 to 20, inclusive, are given below :
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 January 4, 1921 No. 1
MINERALOGY. — .4 new classification of the sulfo-salt minerals.
Edgar T. Wherry and William F. Foshag, National
Museum.^
The data for this paper were collected while the senior author
was employed in the National Museum; the junior author, his
successor there, has aided in bringing them up to date. The
plan followed is essentially the same as that recently applied to
the sulfide minerals,- although formulas are stated in both ex-
panded and condensed forms, to bring out relationships as fully
as possible. The chief new features are: the systematic
assignment of minerals to divisions based on the ratios of basic
and acidic sulfides, and to groups based on crystallization; the
classing of minerals containing both univalent and bivalent
metals as double compounds rather than as isomorphous mixtures,
and the throwing out of evident admixtures before calculating
formulas from analyses; and the interpretation of certain
instances of high sulfur content as due to a higher state of oxi-
dation of the metal rather than the non-metal, resulting in the
discarding of a "sulfarsenate-sulfantimonate" division, such as
has usually been recognized heretofore.
1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Received November 12, 1920.
2 This JouRNAi, id: 487. 1920.
2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 1
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JAN. 4, 1921 WASHINGTON: NOTE ON CRUCIBLES 9
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.— A^o/^' on crucibles used in rock
analysis.'^ Henry S. Washington, Geophysical Lab-
oratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.
It may be of interest to those who are engaged in the analysis
of silicates or silicate rocks to put on record my experience with
a palau and an iridium-platinum crucible, which have been used
for the fusion of rock powders with sodium carbonate. Palau
is an alloy, introduced a few years ago as a substitute for plati-
num, and is composed of 80 per cent gold and 20 per cent palla-
dium. A small percentage of iridium is often alloyed with
platinum to impart greater stiffness, as pure platinum is notice-
ably soft.-
It is well known to those analyzing rocks that, when platinum
or iridium-platinum crucibles are used for the sodium carbonate
fusion, the cold cake sometimes adheres obstinately to the
crucible walls, after slight soaking with water in the crucible and
gentle heating over a low flame, instead of freeing itself as it
"should do." This behavior necessitates prolonged digestion
of the adherent melt so as to dissolve the cake, which sometimes
results in loss of substance, and alwavs in loss of time.
This unfortunate behavior is caused, in many cases, by in-
dentations or other irregularities in the crucible wall or bottom,
brought about by careless handling, such as squeezing the cru-
cible to loosen the cake. It is also apparently rendered more
liable to happen through the ogee-like curve assumed by the
lower parts of the sides of platinum crucibles after long usage;
and is easily brought about by attempting to remove the cake
before it is quite cold and before it has separated or has started
to separate from the walls. The roughness of the inner surface
of platinum crucibles is also a determining factor. Even if the
' Received November 15, 1920.
- For some studies on the quality and properties of various platinum wares on
heating see: R. W. Hall, Journ. Amer. Chem. vSoc. 22: 494. 1900; HulETT and
Berger, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 26: 1512. 1904; HillEbrand, Walker, and
Allen, Journ. Ind. Eng. Chem. 3: 686. 1911; Burgess and vSale, Journ. Ind.
Eng. Chem. 6: 4.52. 1914; 7: 561. 1916; Bull. Bur. Standards 12: 289. 1915
(Sci. Paper 254;; Burgess and Waltenberg, Bull. Bur. Standards 13: 365. 1916
(Sci. Paper 280); Hillebraxd, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 700: 102 (Note 3). 1919.,
10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 1
cake as a whole separates from the walls, there is often left a
narrow patch or series of patches around the upper edge of the
cake, strongly adherent to the crucible wall, though this is of less
consequence. I have frequently had the opportunity to observ^e
this annoying occurrence, with both platinum and iridium-plati-
num crucibles, and have elsewhere called attention to it.^
In the course of making many rock analyses it was found that
crucibles made of pure platinum (Heraeus) were very soft, and
apparently not sufficiently polishable internally, so that a ready
loosening of the cake from them was seldom accomplished;
although for general ignition purposes they are admirable,
because of the negligible loss of weight on ignition. Crucibles
made of platinum alloyed with a small amount of iridium (such
as were used in my laboratory from 1896 to 191 2), were found
to be much better for the carbonate fusion. They are stiff er
than pure platinum, and are therefore less liable to indentation,
and are also susceptible of a higher polish. The cake loosened
more often and more readily than from pure platinum, but still
adhered occasionally. In the spring of 191 8 I began using a
palau crucible, chiefly with the object of testing the material in
actual rock analysis, because of the constantly augmenting cost
of platinum. To my great gratification it was found that the
cold sodium carbonate cake always separated easily, quickly,
and almost or quite completely from the crucible, far better and
more surely than it had done from either platinum or iridium-
platinum crucibles of about the same size and shape. With this
crucible, which is now reserved for this purpose, I have made
many fusions with sodium carbonate, but have not once found
the cake to adhere — in each case it has freed itself rapidly and
completely, on gentle heating with enough water to cover it.
This satisfactory behavior is the more noteworthy because
this crucible is slightly indented, at about the level of the upper
edge of the melt, around the zone of contact with the supporting
triangle.^ Apparently the palau softens rather more than plati-
' H. S. Washington. Manual of the chemical analysis of rocks (New York,
1919), pp. 132 and 135.
* A triangle of fused silica or of pipe stems must be used with palau crucibles.
Platinum triangles alloy with palau and ruin both crucible and triangle.
JAN. 4, 1921 WASHINGTON: NOTE ON CRUCIBLES 11
num or iridium -platinum on strong ignition. It is to be noted,
by the way, that for my fusions the blast was never used. The
heating was done for the most part over a half-high Bunsen
burner flame, which is quite sufficient to fuse the carbonate mix-
ture, and was usually supplemented by a Meker burner during
the last fifteen minutes or so. The time of heating varied from
forty-five minutes to one hour. About i gram of rock powder
and 5 grams of sodium carbonate were used for each fusion.
The cause of this freedom from adhesion of the cake to the
palau crucible walls is uncertain. I am inclined to attribute it
chiefly, if not wholly, to the superior hardness and stiffness of
the alloy, and especially to its superior polish. The iridium-
platinum alloy is almost, but not quite, equal to palau in these
respects, while pure platinum is much softer and susceptible of
less polish. Whatever the cause may be, and whether the same
behavior is true of palau crucibles in general, the observations
mentioned indicate that palau is superior to iridium-platinum,
and still more to pure platinum, for the purpose of the sodium
carbonate fusion in rock analysis.
I have not tested the resistance of the palau crucible to fusion
with potassium (or sodium) pyrosulfate, though some of the refer-
ences given above indicate that it loses more weight during the
operation than platinum or iridium-platinum.
It may, however, be of interest to give the data as to loss in
weight of the palau crucible, as well as of an iridium-platinum
crucible, during some rather long series of fusions of rock powder
with sodium carbonate. It must be premised that both crucibles
were reserved for this operation, though occasionally they were
used for the evaporation of the solution of alkali chlorides in the
determination of potash and soda; this, however, w^ould not
noticeably affect their weights.
Since June 12, 191 8 (when it was used for the first time),
the palau crucible has been used 47 times for a sodium carbonate
fusion. vSince that date the crucible has not been scrubbed with
sand, nor was it used for the pyrosulfate fusion or other ignition
that might presumably affect its weight. The evaporations for
alkali chlorides for which it w^as used were made at 100°, and
12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 1
were followed by a very gentle heating after dryness to drive
off the ammonium chloride. It would thus appear that the so-
dium carbonate fusion was the only factor that might lead to loss
in weight, whether through the temperature of ignition or through
the action of the carbonate. The same balance and the same
weights were used throughout the series.
On June 12, 191 8, the weight of the palau crucible was 32.0712
g., and the weight diminished steadily and with great regularity
through the series of 47 carbonate fusions until the last weighing,
on November 8, 1920, when it was 32.0613 g. The difference is
0.0099 g., giving an average loss in weight for each fusion of
0.00021 g., that is, about 0.2 mg.
For comparison with this there was taken a series of 2 1 weigh-
ings of an iridium-platinum crucible (percentage of iridium
unknown). The first weighing of the series was made just after
the crucible had been scrubbed with sea sand (Dec. 5, 19 14),
and the last when another set of weights was put into use (Sept. 9,
191 6). This crucible, likewise, was reserved for the sodium
carbonate fusions, and only occasionally for the evaporation of
the alkali chlorides. The initial weight of this crucible was
30.1493 g., and the final, after a series of steadily diminishing
weights, was 30.0656 g. This gives a total loss in weight of
0.0099 g. (by coincidence identical with the other), and an
average loss in weight of 0.00047 g. Thus the iridium-platinum
crucible showed an average loss, due to the fusions, rather more
than twice that of the palau. It is well known that crucibles
made of platinum containing iridium lose weight very noticeably
on ignition, which is commonly ascribed to volatization of
iridium, and this factor would seem to have had influence here.
No estimate was made of the average loss in weight suffered
by pure platinum crucibles which had been in use before the
iridium-platinum one, as my notes showed that they had been
used occasionally for the fusion with potassium pyrosulfate,
which would cause a serious and rather irregular loss (which
may be as much as 5 mg.). For the same reason a long series of
data on my crucibles that had been used in my own laboratory
at Locust, New Jersey, from 1896 to 191 2 was rejected.
JAN. 4, 1921 kempton: linkage in maize 13
Conclusions. — The cold cake from the sodium carbonate
fusion is freed very readily and completely from a palau crucible,
much more readily than from one of iridium-platinum, and still
more so than from one of pure platinum. The average loss in
weight after each sodium carbonate fusion for the palau crucible
investigated was about 0.2 mg., and that of an iridium-platinum
crucible was about 0.5 mg. The greater average loss of the latter
may be ascribed, in part, to volatilization of iridium.
GENETICS. — Linkage between hrachytic culms and pericarp
and cob color in maize.^ J. H. KempTon, Bureau of Plant
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. (Communi-
cated by G. N. Collins).
Characters which tend to be inherited together are said to be
linked, on the assumption that the genes for such characters are
arranged in a linear series on the same chromosome. The agree-
ment between the number of groups of linked characters and
the number of chromosomes and the linear arrangement of the
genes has been demonstrated genetically with remarkable detail
for the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) by Morgan and his co-
workers and for other species of Drosophila by Metz.
While it seems almost certain that groups of linked char-
acters corresponding to the number of chromosomes will be
found also in plants, nevertheless, up to the present time this
has not been demonstrated.
In several respects plants would seem to offer better oppor-
tunities than animals for studies of this kind, and among plants
Zea mays has many advantages. In the number and frequency
of variations alone Zea probably exceeds Drosophila, while in
the physiological importance of the structures involved it far
surpasses any animal organism where much less fundamental
changes are almost certain to be fatal. The number of chromo-
somes, however, is relatively large, necessitating the intensive
study of many characters, but with each succeeding linkage or
demonstrated independence progress becomes more rapid.
^ Received November 11, 1920.
14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 1
Since the first pair of linked characters was found in maize
in 191 1, six others have been reported, the present pair making
the eighth.
The linked characters reported thus far are listed below:
" Emerson (1918) explains this relationship in another way.
* Actual factors involved not identified.
Brachytic culms, a variation in which the internodes are verv
much shortened, made its appearance in a second generation
hybrid and thus far behaves as a unit character in crosses with
the normal form. (Kempton 1920.) Unlike Emerson's extreme
dwarf anther ear (Emerson 191 2) the brachytic variation is not
readily recognized in the seedling stage but is conspicuous before
the tassel appears.
This variation has been crossed with several others in an effort
to determine its relationships. Many of these crosses have been
carried through the second generation and most of them indicate
little if any association of the brachytic character with the other
variations. In some of the crosses the results were conflicting
and further analysis is necessary. One relationship, however,
seems certain, since it is corroborated in three unrelated crosses.
This is the association of brachytic culms with cob and pericarp
color.
JAN. 4, 1921 kempton: linkage in maize 15
Through the courtesy of Prof. R. A. Emerson we were sup-
plied with a sample of his liguleless leaf variation (Emerson 191 2).
This variation is one in which the line of demarcation between
the sheath and the blade is lost and the leaves possess neither
ligules nor auricles. In the strain supplied us the color of the
pericarp and cob was red. This liguleless leaf variation was
crossed with a strain of brachytic culms which had a white peri-
carp and cob.
The plants of the first generation were all normal in stature
with red cobs, and pericarps and the leaves all had the normal
ligules. Nine of these first generation plants were self -pol-
linated and separate progenies were grown from each of the
resulting ears.
With respect to the pericarp and cob colors only two classes
of plants were obtained in the second generation, namely, those
with a red cob and pericarp and those with a white cob and
pericarp. This is in accord with the results of Emerson, 19 11.
The other two characters involved (brachytic culms and
liguleless leaves) occurred in all possible combinations with each
other and with the cob and pericarp colors. Since the color of
the cob and that of the pericarp were always alike on any given
plant, it has been found convenient to refer to this character
simply as the color of the cob.
The distribution of the plants of the nine progenies for color
of the cob and character of the culm is shown in table i .
In each case the red cob color is found to be associated with
normal stature which is the parental combination. Although
the degree of association varies, the coefficient of association of
0.463 =t 0.038 for the entire group indicates a crossing-over
percentage of 35.5.
Practically the same percentage of "crossovers" was obtained
from a cross between a Maryland red dent variety of normal
stature with the white-cobbed strain of the brachvtic variation.
The first generation plants of this cross, as in the liguleless-
brachytic cross, were all normal in stature with red cobs and
pericarps.
16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 1
S
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red cobs and red pericarps
and plants with white
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The distribution of the
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relationship, the per cent
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color has also been carried
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eration. In this cross the
parent of normal stature
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crossbetweenZai tunicaia
and Z. ramosa and had a
red cob but a white peri-
carp, while the brachytic
parent, as in the other
crosses, had both cob and
pericarp white.
JAN. 4, 1921
kempton: linkage in maize
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JAN. 4, 1921 kempton: linkage in maiZE 19
In the first generation the plants showed a segregation with
respect to cob color, half the plants having red, the other half
white cobs, indicating that the red-cobbed parent was hetero-
zygous for cob color. Four self -pollinated ears with red cobs
were obtained and progenies of these had approximately three
plants with red cobs to one with white. These four progenies
are fairly uniform with respect to the Mendelian ratios. The
distribution of the plants with respect to cob color and culm
characteristics is shown in table 3. The percentage of "cross-
overs" varies from 29.6 to 48.8 with an average for the group of
38.1. This percentage, though somewhat larger than in the other
two hybrids, does not vary from them by an amount too large to
be ascribed to chance.
It may be concluded, therefore, that the genes for cob color
and stature are located in the same chromosome and rather
widely separated, the distance being between 31 and 43 units.
The nine second-generation progenies of the liguleless X
brachytic cross afford also an opportunity to measure the inter-
relations of the leaf and culm characters. These nine progenies
vary in the degree of relationship between the brachytic stature
and the liguleless leaf. In all but one progeny the correlations
were between normal stature and liguleless leaf which is the paren-
tal combination. The classes of plants are shown in table 4. In
the one exception the probable error does not preclude placing
it with the others since the deviation from the mean of the group
is but 2.5 times the error.
The correlation of 0.204 ± 0.049 ^or the entire group indicates
a rather loose linkage, the percentage of crossovers being 43.7.
The deviation from independence or 50 per cent crossing over is
slightly over 4 times the error. It would seem, therefore, that
if the genes for these characters are located on the same chromo-
some they are widely separated.
If it is held that the genes for the brachytic and liguleless char-
acters are located in the same chromosome 44 units apart it
then follows from the relation of brachytic culms to cob color
that the gene for liguleless leaves must be either 8 or 80 units
from that for cob color. The classes of plants are shown in
20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 1
table 5. It will be seen from this table that the relation of cob
color to liguleless leaf is very erratic with a mean crossover
percentage of 45.3, which is practically independence. It is
possible, therefore, that the slight relationship of the leaf and
culm characters indicated in table 4 is but the result of chance
and that the genes for these two characters are borne in reality
by separate chromosomes, though this point cannot be deter-
mined definitely until some character is found that is independent
of cob color and measurably correlated with brachytic culms.
Literature cited.
Bregger, T. Linkage in maize. The Caleurone factor and waxy endosperm. Amer.
Nat. 52: 57-61. 1918.
Collins, G. N., and Kempton, J. H. Inheritance of waxy endosperm in hybrids of
Chinese maize. IV Conference Internationale de Genetique, Paris, 1911.
Emerson, R. A. Genetic correlation and spurious allelomorphism in maize. 24th
Ann. Rep. Nebraska Agric. Exp. Station, 1911.
The inheritance of certain abnormalities in maize. Amer. Breeders Assoc, 1912.
A fifth pair of factors, A a, for aleurone color in maize, and its relation to Cc and
Rr pairs. Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta. Memoir 16. November, 1918.
Kempton, J. H. A correlation between endosperm color and albinism in maize. This
Journal 7: 146-149. March 19, 1917.
Inheritance of spotted aleurone color in hybrids of Chinese maize. Genetics 4:
261-274. May, 1919.
Jones, D. F., and Gallastegui, C. A. Some factor relations in maize with reference
to linkage. Amer. Nat. 53. May, June, 1919.
Lindstrom, E. W. Chlorophyll inheritance in maize. Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp.
Sta. Memoir 13. Aug., 1918.
JAN. 4, 1921 proceedings: philosophical society 21
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIEvS
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON
833rd meeting
The 833rd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 27, 1920.
President Sosman presided and about 75 persons were present. The
speaker of the evening was Dr. Saul Dushman, of the General Electric
Co., who presented a paper on Methods for the production and measure-
ment of extremely low pressures.
The pressures dealt with under this heading range from one mil-
lionth of an atmosphere (1 bar) to pressures lower than 10"^ bar. For the
proper operation of a number of hot cathode devices, it is absolutely
necessary to obtain pressures which are well below 10"- bar. The
methods used for the production of high vacua may be classified for
convenience under three headings: (1) Mechanical pumps, of which
the rotary mercury or oil pump and Gaede molecular pump are typical
illustrations. With the former, pressures as low as 10~^ bar can be
attained, while the Gaede molecular pump is capable of producing
vacua as high as 10"^ bar. (2) Mercury vapor pumps. The Gaede
diffusion pump and Langmuir condensation pumps are both capable of
producing extremely high vacua. The latter is, however, much more
rapid in its operation. (3) Physico-chemical methods. By means of
charcoal immersed in liquid air it is possible to obtain extremely low
pressures in devices in which gas is being evolved continually either from
metal parts or glass walls. The volatilization of calcium has been
suggested by Soddy as another method for producing low pressures in
sealed-off tubes.
In the actual exhaust operations, it is of importance to consider the
resistance to flow of glass tubes, as well as the speed of the pump.
The laws of flow of gases at low pressures have been studied by Smolu-
chowski and Knudsen and it is possible by means of the formulae de-
rived by the latter to calculate the effect of glass tubing of given dimen-
sions on the speed of exhaustion.
Methods of measuring low pressures. — The McLeod gauge is the sim-
plest but is not always applicable and is not very sensitive for pressures
below 10~^ bar. Pirani and Hale have developed an electrical re-
sistance method which is capable of measuring pressures as low as 10~"
bar. The molecular gauge devised by Langmuir is sensitive to 10~^
bar, but is difficult to construct. Knudsen developed a radiometric
type of gauge and various modifications of it have been designed by
which pressures as low as 10"^ bar can be measured. The simplest
method of measuring low pressures is the ionization gauge. This is
very convenient for measuring the pressure in sealed-off hot cathode
devices and incandescent lamps.
22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 1
The paper was illustrated by lantern slides, and was discussed by
Messrs. Burka, Foote, Sosman, McKeehan, White, Stimson, Mer-
wiN, KIanolt, and WennER.
Informal presentations: At the request of Mr. C. A. Briggs, Mr.
W. J. Humphreys spoke briefly concerning the aurora of March 22,
1920.
Mr. G. F. Hull described an unusual aurora which he had witnessed.
834th meeting
The 834th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club April 10, 1920, with
50 persons present, and Vice-President Crittenden in the chair.
The program was as follows:
H. C. Dickinson: Physical laboratory methods applied to aircraft
engines at high altitudes.
A special laboratory equipped for making precise determinations of
the various factors in the performance of aircraft engines under all con-
ditions of operation was developed at the Bureau of Standards during
the war. The methods of measuring power, heat and temperature
distribution, pressure, densities, etc., are distinctly those of the physical
laboratory. In addition to studies of engine performance, parallel
investigations have been made of the problems of ignition, carburetion,
cooling, lubrication, etc., for which special laboratory equipment has
been provided.
In connection with these researches, a number of special instruments
have been designed. These include a balanced-diaphragm pressure
indicator for recording engine cylinder pressures accurately by a point
to point method; an instrument for measuring the clearance volume in
engine cylinders ; and a device for measuring conveniently the maximum
cylinder pressure.
The paper was illustrated by lantern slides, and was discussed by Mr.
Buckingham.
M. D. Hersey: Old and new problems of aeronautic instruments.
The speaker called attention to charts and instruments which had
accumulated on this subject since the occasion of his last paper before
the Society, which was the year before the war.
The charts were as follows :
1. Rejection limits for aviation altimeters.
2. Temperature lag of aneroids.
3. The two temperature effects on instruments with elastic action.
4. Theory of groimd speed indicator.
5. Results of Venturi tube experiments in air and water.
6. Results of Venturi tube experiments in vacuum wind tunnel and on an airplane.
7. Dimensional theory of compass damping.
8. List of new problems awaiting solution as follows:
(a) Stabilizer for ground speed indicators.
(b) Air speed indicator for dirigibles.
(c) True altitude meter.
(d) Gyroscopic or double pivot compass.
(e) Temperature compensated diaphragms with small elastic lag.
JAN. 4, 1921 proceedings: archaeological, society 23
The instruments shown were as follows:
1. Vibration stand for instruments, together with Dr. Dickinson's vibrometer.
2. Precision altimeter.
3. Group showing evolution of rate-of-climb indicators.
4. Group of various Pitot and Venturi tubes.
5. Working model of Franklin stabilizer.
6. Air damped compass for dirigibles.
7. Working model of ground speed indicator.
8. Combination inclinometer, banking indicator and gyroscopic turn indicator in
operation.
Lantern sHdes were also shown as follows:
1. Certificates showing test results on aneroid barometers tested at the govern-
ment laboratories of England, France, Germany and the United States.
2. A group of curves showing errors of aneroids.
3. Diaphragm investigation exhibit.
4. Dummy observer utilizing moving picture film for instrument observations in
flight (3 views).
The paper was discussed by Messrs. Crook and Tuckerman.
S. J. Mauchly, Recording Secretary.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
The 19 th annual meeting of the Washington Society of the Archaeo-
logical Institute of America was held at the home of Mr. Robert
Lansing on Saturday, November 13, 1920.
Sir William Ramsay gave an illustrated lecture on An archaeological
retrospect and prospect in Anatolia.
The following officers were elected for the year 1921: President,
Robert Lansing; Vice-Presidents, Robert M. Thompson, Miss
Mabel Boardman, Henry White and Mrs. H. F. Dimock; Secretary,
Mitchell Carroll; Associate Secretary, Miss Helen Wright; Trea-
surer, John B. Larner; Councillors, Robert Lansing (ex-officio),
Charles Henry Butler, Mitchell Carroll (ex-officio), William
^IiLLER Collier, F. Ward Denys, William P. Eno, William H.
Holmes (ex-officio), John B. Larner, H. B. F. MacFarland, James
Parmelee, J. Townsend Russell and Robert M. Thompson; Ex-
ecutive committee, the above named officers and Albert Douglas, Miss
Amaryllis Gillett, Gilbert Grosvenor, Martin A. Knapp, Charles
Colfax Long and George Oakley Totten, Jr.
Mitchell C.\rroll, Secretary
24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 1
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS.
A luncheon was given in the Smithsonian Building on November 16,
in honor of the seventieth birthday of Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, chief
of the Bureau of American Ethnology.
Dr. J. Paul Goode, professor of geography at the University of Chi-
cago, gave an address before the General Staff at the Army War College
on November 12, on The geographic and economic foundations of the
world war.
Mr. Ralph W. Howell, geologist with the U. S. Geological Survey,
was killed by native raiders in Beluchistan in the latter part of Novem-
ber, 1920. He was engaged at the time in oil exploratory work for
Pearson & Son of London, and was working near the Beluchistan-
Punjab border in an area that had been considered safe from bandits.
Mr. Howell was born in ISSG, and had been a member of the Survey
staff since 1913. He was granted leave of absence from the Survey in
October 1919 to engage in private work. He was a member of the
Geological Society.
A series of lectures on Heaviside's operational methods as applied to
physical problems is being given at the Bureau of Standards by Professor
A. Press.
Rear Admiral Edward R. Stitt, of the Naval Medical Corps, has
been appointed surgeon general of the Navy and chief of the bureau
of medicine and surgery, Navy Department, succeeding Rear Admiral
W. C. Braisted, who has been surgeon general of the Navy since 1914,
and who went on the retired list in November.
Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan, geologist in charge of the Coastal Plain
section of the U. S. Geological Survey, is on leave for several months
to engage in private work in Mexico.
Prof. Bailey Willis, formerly geologist on the U. S. Geological
Survey, and now professor of geology at Leland Stanford Junior Uni-
versity, California, is spending several months in Washington.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 January 10, 1921 . No. 2
MINERALOGY. — Bemeniite and neotocite from western Washington,
with conclusions as to the identity of bementite and caryopilite}
J. T. Pardee, E. S. Larsen, Jr., and George Steiger, U. S.
Geological Survey.
Occurrence and association.
Specimens representative of manganese-bearing deposits in western
Washington collected in 191 7 and 191 8 by J. T. Pardee and examined
microscopically and chemically by Messrs. Larsen and Steiger, respec-
tively, are determined to be chiefly bementite, a hydrated silicate of
manganese. The material was collected at the Black and White, Apex,
Triple Trip and other mines and prospects along the north and south
forks of Skokomish River, Mason County, Washington, and from A. V.
Ginnett's prospect on Fidalgo Island south of Anacortes. Similar
material was found by Prof. Henry Landes at the Tubal Cain mine
west of Quilcene and is reported by others to occur on the mainland
about 10 miles northeast of Anacortes and at a locality a few miles
south of Lake Queniault. Most of these occurrences are within a
narrow belt about 70 miles long that extends from the vicinity of Lake
Queniault northeastward into the drainage area of Dungeness River
and covers part of the eastern slope of the Olympic Mountains. The
remainder, comprising the deposits near Anacortes, are about 60 miles
further northeastward. This rather extensive occurrence of bementite
in Washington is interesting in view of the fact that so far as known
that mineral is rare elsewhere. Dana- mentions only one locality of
its occurrence in America, namely, Franklin Furnace, New Jersey.
1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received
November 26, 1 920.
- A system of mineralogy, ed. G, p. 704, 1914; third appendix to same, p. 12, 1915.
25
2'6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 2
The belt in which bementite is found is part of a densely forested
and extremely rugged area in which the local relief ranges from 2,000
to 6,000 feet or more. It has not been thoroughly prospected or
even explored in detail, though most of it is within 15 or 20 miles of
Puget Sound. From Hoodsport the deposits along the north and
south forks of Skokomish River can be reached over a fairly good road
and trails, but most other places in the belt are rather difficult of
access.
The rocks of the bementite area are chiefly greenstone, arkosic
sandstone, argillite, and a deep red or maroon impure limestone that
forms discontinuous layers and lenses. These rocks are steeply tilted
and compressed and show the effects of regional metamorphism. The
strike appears to be generally northeastward parallel with the distribu-
tion of the deposits. The limestone contains poorly preserved fos-
sils of minute foraminifera determined by Dr. T. W. vStanton as most
probably belonging to the genus Glohigerina, which may indicate the
rock to be Mesozoic or younger. The field relations show only that
the rock group is older than the recognized Tertiary of the region.
The deposits that contain the bementite are either inclosed by or
closely associated with the limestone. They are tabular or lens-
like bodies, commonly from 5 to 20 or 30 feet in thickness and to be
measured in their other dimensions by hundreds or thousands of feet.
Parts of them are a bright red jaspery-looking rock composed of fine-
grained quartz and hematite mixed in various proportions. Locally
this material grades into practically unmixed hematite. The remaining
and commonly the larger parts of the bodies are chiefly a dense very
finely crystalline rock that consists chiefly of bementite. No dense speci-
men was found in which the bementite was entirely unmixed with
other minerals, and the texture of the rock is so fine that a heavy-
solution separation, as described further on, was found necessary to
obtain material suitable for analysis. Much of the bementite rock,
however, contains but a relatively small amount of other minerals
and, therefore, its properties are essentially the same as those of the
selected material to be described. The microscope shows the prin-
cipal associated minerals to be quartz, rhodonite, and a carbonate
near calcite and manganiferous calcite {n = 1.660 to 1.705), these
minerals being intergrown with the bementite and also deposited in
veinlets that cut it.
Locally the bementite rock is cut by veinlets, visible to the unaided
eye, that contain one or more of the minerals quartz, calcite, manga-
JAN. \\\ lit21 PARDEE, LARSEN, & STEIGER: BEMENTITE 27
nocalcite, rhodonite, rhodochrosite, barite, and manganophyllite. At
the Apex mine a dense, hard, fine-textured, dark green to black ma-
terial composed chiefly of manganese oxides forms numerous irregu-
lar streaks and bunches that are inclosed by the bementite rock.
Under the microscope thin sections of this material show an irregular
frame-work or skeleton of transparent bementite imbedded in the
opaque oxides. The boundaries between the silicate and the oxides
are sharp and the two appear to be of contemporaneous origin. The
mineral species of the oxides has not been determined.
A rather striking local feature of the bementite rock is its associa-
tion with native copper. At the Black and White mine this metal
is disseminated as fine specks and flakes through a considerable body
of the bementite rock to which it imparts a noticeable red color.
Similar, though less abundant, occurrences of copper were observed
at Ginnett's prospect and a few places elsewhere. Very small amounts
of chalcocite were also observed in specimens from the Black and
White and other deposits in that vicinity.
Some specimens of the bementite rock are cut by thin veinlets of
dark brown to black amorphous neotocite, associated with calcite,
quartz and barite.
The principal weathering product of the ordinary bementite rock
is a soft, dull black, amorphous manganese oxide. Weathered spec-
imens of the copper-bearing rock commonly show a little green copper
stain and specimens from the Black and White mine contain in addi-
tion bright red coatings composed of felted aggregates of fine prisms
of cuprite or chalcotrichite.
The source of the manganese of the bementite rock or the form in
which it was first deposited is not known. Its distribution along beds
of limestone, however, suggests it to be of sedimentary origin, and
the character of the deposits and of the rocks that inclose them indi-
cates the bementite to be a product of regional metamorphism.
The appearance of some thin sections makes it seem probable that
the bementite was derived from a granular mineral, possibly tephroite,
that was associated with more or less rhodonite. In some specimens
veinlets of fresh rhodonite cut the bementite, in others crystals of
rhodonite are embedded in the bementite, but these may represent
veinlet cuttings and crystals associated with the mineral from which
the bementite was derived and the rhodonite may have resisted de-
composition. However, none of the minute veinlets of bementite
2S JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 2
was observed to cut the embedded rhodonite crystals and it may be
that the rhodonite is later than and derived from the bementite. Much
of the quartz is clearly later than the bementite and in places the
bementite is largely replaced by finely crystalHne quartz. Some cal-
cite and manganiferous calcite are also later than the bementite, as
is also the copper.
Physical properties.
The fresh bementite is light gray or grayish brown in color, has a
vitreous luster, and is transparent in splinters, but on weathering the
color darkens and the material becomes dull and opaque, even in
splinters. The mineral has a hardness of about 6 and a specific grav-
ity of 3.106. It is tough and has a splintery fracture. It is decom-
posed by hot acid, and fuses easily to a black glass.
Under the microscope the mineral is seen to be in felted aggregates
of fibers or plates. Most of it is very finely crystalline but in some
parts the crystalhzation is coarse and tends to be spherulitic; tiny
veinlets of more coarsely crystalline mineral, with elongation across
the walls, cut the finely crystalline material.
The platy crystals show a perfect cleavage with the acute bisectrix
normal to the plates and cleavage. The optical character is - and
the elongation is therefore +. The axial angle is near o. The indices
of refraction are a = 1.624, /^ — 1-647, 7 — 1-647.
Composition.
A sample of several grams of bementite that was separated by
heavy solutions from the manganese-bearing rock of the Black and
White mine and, as shown by the microscope, contained not more
than I per cent of impurities consisting of calcite and rhodonite,
was analyzed by Mr. Steiger with the result shown in column i,
table I . For the purpose of comparison, analyses of bementite from
Franklin Furnace are given in columns 2 and 3 of table i, caryopilite
in column 4, and inesite in columns 5 and 6. In table i are given the
chemical analyses, in table 2 the molecular ratios, and in table 3 the
molecular ratios reduced to 100.
1. Bementite, Olympic Range, Washington. Analyst, Steiger.
2. Bementite, Franklin Furnace, New Jersey. Analyst, Steiger.
3. Bementite, Franklin Furnace, New Jeisey. Analyst, Konig.
4. Caryopilite, Pajsberg, Wermland, »Sweden. Analyst, Hamberg.
5. Inesite, Dillenberg, Germany. Analyst, Barwald.
6. Inesite, Pajsberg, Wermland, Sweden. Analyst, Flink.
JAN. 19, 1921 PARDEE, LARSEN, & STEIGER: BEMENTITE
29
TABLE 1. Analyses of Bementite, Caryopilite, and Inesite.
SiO......
MnO...
FeO....
MgO.. .
CaO....
ZnO....
PbO....
Alkalies .
AlsO.i...
Fe203...
mo--. .
H20+..
ci
Si02..
MnO.
FeO..
MgO.
CaO..
ZnO..
PbO..
AI0O3.
FeoOs.
HoO..
Si02...
MnO''.
H2O...
AI2O3..
100.22
99.70
100.00
99.85
100.72
TABLE 2. Molecular Ratios.
99.29
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
''Under MnO have been summed up the molecular ratios of MnO, FeO, IMgO, CaO,
ZnO, and PbO.
The average molecular ratio of the three analyses of bementite is
4O.7Mn0.24.iH20.34.8Si02, and agrees very nearly in composition
with the formula SMnO.sHsO.ySiOo.
Written in the rational form this formula becomes SMn.io H.ySi.
27O or 5MnH2Si04.MnoSi04.MnSiO3.
Leaving out water leads to the rather more simple rational formula
8Mn.7Si.22O.5H2O, or 6MnSiO3.Mn2SiO4.5HoO.
Identity of bementite and caryopilite.
The distinction between bementite and caryopilite has been based
30
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 2
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largely on the difference in
their chemical composition,
but an examination of the
analyses and molecular
ratios of the two as shown
in tables i and 2 casts some
doubt on this distinction,
especially as the analysis of
caryopilite is reported to
have been made on mate-
rial not entirely pure. ^ The
analyses of caryopilite show
somewhat less silicate and
somewhat more water and
for the bases higher MnO
and correspondingly lower
FeO than the bementite.
The bementite from Frank-
lin Furnace carries con-
siderable zinc. The optical
and other physical proper-
ties of the two minerals as
seen in table 4 show con-
clusively their identity.
The bementite from Frank-
lin Furnace is said to be
soft, and the caryopilite is
said to have a hardness of
3 to 3.5, while the massive
bementite from Washington
has a hardness of about 6.
The low hardness of the
first two may be only ap-
parent and due to the friable
character of the material.
In view of the close similar-
ity in other optical proper-
ties, the somewhat lower in-
^ Quoted, Dana: System of min-
eralogy, p. 704.
JAN. H>, 1921 PARDEE, LARSEN, & STEIGER! BEMENTITE 31
dices of refraction of the caryopilite are not sufficient to cast any-
serious doubt on the identity of the two minerals. The name bemen-
tite has the priority, and should be retained for the species.
The composition of the inesite and ectropite is much like that of
bementite, but their other properties are sufficiently different to dis-
tinguish them.
NEOTOCITE.
Occurrence and properties.
The neotocite is present in small veinlets cutting the bementite. It
is brown to black, has a clear, resinous luster, and a cpnchoidal frac-
ture. It is brittle and has a hardness of about 4. Under the micro-
scope it is clear red-brown in transmitted light, isotropic, and has an
index of refraction varying from 1.45 to 1.50 and averaging about
1.47. For comparison, neotocite from vSweden was examined. It is
black, has a conchoidal fracture, and a vitreous luster and looks like
coal. It is brown in powder and in transmitted light under the
microscope is clear brown. In part it is isotropic with an index of
refraction varying from 1.53 to 1.56, in part it is birefractory with a
mean index of refraction varying from 1.54 to 1.58 and a birefringence
of about 0.02. The birefractory part is clearly crystallized from the
amorphous part and its variable properties are probably due to
incomplete crystallization giving submicroscopic admixed amorphous
material. The crystalline part is probably bementite. The name
neotocite should be confined to the amorphous mineral having the
approximate chemical composition MnO.vSiO2.wH2O while bementite
should be applied to the crystalline mineral (8 MnO.7 SiO^-S HoO).
In common with most amorphous minerals, the composition of neo-
tocite is much less uniform than is that of the crvstalline form, be-
mentite.
Composition .
A chemical analysis made of powder separated from admixed quartz
and calcite by heavy solution and carrying a small amount of impur-
ities is shown in tables 5 and 6.
1. Neotocite, Olympic Range, Washington. Analyst, Steiger.
2 and 3. Neotocite, Gestrickland. Analysts, Cleve and Nordenskiold.
4 and 5. Stratopeite, Pajsberg. Analysts, Cleve and Nordenskiold.
6. Hydrated manganese silicate, near neotocite, from Dillenberg mining
region, Germany, described by A. Schneider.''
The mineral dissolves readily in i : i hydrochloric acid with sep-
^ Jahrb. Preuss. Landesanstalt, 472 et seq. 1887.
32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 2
aration of sandy silica. The figures shown in table 6 roughly sug-
gest a ratio of R"0 to SiOo, of i : i, with a variable quantity of water.
However, the chemical composition must be considered very doubtful.
TABLE 5. Analyses op Neotocite, Stratopeite, and a Mineral Near Neotocite-
100.61 99.86 99.95 100.67 100.30 98.11
° Part or all of the iron may be present as FeO in which case a correspondingly large
part of the manganese will have the form of Mn02.
TABLE 6. Molecular Ratios Reduced to 100.
SiO: .30.3 28.6 27.4
R2O3 3.5 3.2 6.3
R"0 28.0 26.3 20.2
H2O 38.2 41.9 46.1
100,0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
*" Ratios after deducting calcium carbonate equivalent to CO-.
PALEONTOLOGY. — Shell regeneration in aPennsyhanian brachiopod.^
W. Armstrong Price, West Virginia Geological Survey. (Com-
municated by Sidney Paige.)
The accompanying photograph, figure i, shows an area of abnormal
sculpture upon the interior surface of a pedicle valve of Derbya crassa
(Meek and Hay den). The specimen consists merely of the impres-
sion of the interior of the valve in a fine-grained, calcareous sand-
stone. It was associated with numerous impressions- of normal shells
of this species and with other marine invertebrates.
1 Published with the permission of the Superintendent of the West Virginia Geological
Survey. Received December 13, 1920.
2 In gray, sandy .shale collected by Mr. David B. Reger, from the Kanawha Black
Flint horizon of the Kanawha Group of the Pottsville Series near Summit Station, Web-
ster County, West Virginia.
JAN. 19, 1921 PRICE: SHELL REGENERATION IN A BRACHIOPOD
33
I . Description of abnormal sculpture. — The area of abnormal sculp-
ture extends from the front margin inward, beyond the center of the
shell, for about three-fifths the height and is lobate in outline. It is
expanded in the central region where it is sharply defined and has a
semicircular border. The lateral borders are somewhat irregular and
abnormal sculptural elements (costae) are superimposed upon
the normal sculpture in these regions.
The megascopic sculpture
of the abnormal area con-
sists of two elements.
Radiating costae of normal
size extend inward from the
front margin where they
are parallel to each other
and are rather evenly
spaced at the normal in-
terval for this portion of
the shell. Slight irregu-
larities in spacing appear.
Fig. 1. Impression of the interior of a pedicle The costae diverge inward,
valve of Derbya crassa (X P/s) showing an area of the divergence being ac-
abnormal sculpture. From the collection of West cglgj-ated in amOUnt bcVOUd
A'irginia Geological vSurvey, locality 203. i r- i i • " ,*
the nrst undulation oi
growth. They increase irregularly in number toward the central
region of the shell by the interpolation of smaller costae in such a
manner as to produce a fasciculate distribution. Both the fasciculate
design and the irregularity of the interpolation are abnormal in this
species.
The undulations of growth of the normal portion of the shell which
intersect the abnormal lobe are continued with unequal distinctness
across it.
Faint transverse lines, sharply convex toward the back, cross the
costae at three points, each originating just beyond one of the growth
undulations of the normal portion of the shell. They appear to be
weak undulations of growth.
The minute granular projections which covered the interior sur-
face of the shell were finer upon the abnormal area than upon the nor-
mal shell.
The abnormal lobe has the appearance of a patch placed over a
hole of somewhat irregular outline and slightly overlapping the edges
34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 1 1 , NO. 2
of the shell around the hole. Along the overlapped margin the cos-
tae are arranged in a cross-hatched design. It is possible that the
original break was much smaller than the lobe of reversed sculpture
and it may possibly have been subcircular in outline. Along a por-
tion of the inner and lateral borders the "patch" appears to have
overlapped the edges of the break and to have failed to meet the
shell smoothly where a gaping crack in the mold appears to denote
an irregular ridge which joined the two.
2. Origin of abnormal lobe by regeneration. — The irregularity of the
sculpture of the "patch" and its lack of resemblance to that of any
of the associated organisms exclude the possibility of its being merely
a portion of another shell pressed against the shell of the derbya or
adhering to it. It seems most certainly to be an instance of regen-
eration, or replacement of a broken portion of the shell. The mantle
must also have been damaged by the breaking away of the shell and
this injury probably supplied the stimulus which brought about the
regenerative growth. The new growth was thus partly a pathologic
phenomenon.
3. Origin of the injury to the shell. — How such a break in the shell
may have been caused is not altogether clear. The absence of peb-
bles and coarse sand in the sediment which enclosed the shell de-
notes comparatively quiet waters and eliminates the likelihood of its
having been caused by the pounding of shells, or shells and stones,
by wave action. The break appears to have been irregular in outline,
and unlike the neat round holes drilled in modern shells by boring
snails. It is possible that an enemy among the fish was responsible
for the injury.
4. Mode of regenerative shell growth. — From the inward divergence
of the costae of the regenerated shell it seems likely that the new shell
material grew in the direction of divergence across the break and that
the growth did not begin simultaneously all over the damaged area.
Increase in extent in the normal shell is in a forward direction, and it
is probable that, as in the case of the Pelecypoda, as the thickened
margin of the mantle is advanced by mantle growth it deposits the
larger bulk of the shell material. In the case of the shell which we
are studying, it would appear that the direction of growth was re-
versed. Since we have no way of knowing the extent to which the
mantle was damaged we cannot determine the method by which it
replaced the shell. It is conceivable that the thickened margin may
JAN. 19, 1921 PRICE: shell regeneration in a brachiopod 35
have become inverted by reason of the pathologic condition of the
mantle and that it reformed the shell by inward growth.
By whatever means accomplished, a layer of new shell substance
was spread across the break, overlapping the edges of the old shell,
and was deposited in part upon its inner surface.
While the regenerative growth appears to have been abnormal in
direction and in the pattern of the resulting sculpture, yet the costae
are normal in size and only slight irregularities in spacing were pro-
duced.
5- Rate of regenerative shell growth. — The rate of shell replacement
was sufhciently rapid to complete the patching before the death of
the animal.
6. Time of the injury. — It may properly be inquired whether the
supposed break in the shell occurred before or after the shell had
attained its present height. It seems possible that the break may
have taken place when the shell had grown only to the last undulation
of growth posterior to the present front margin, or to some point
between these two lines. The unbroken continuity of the costae of
the "patch" up to the present margin without the interpolation of
new costae anteriorly suggests that the shell did not grow appreciably
in length after the "patch" was completed. A slight anterior diver-
gence of the costae of the "patch" at the border of the present margin
may indicate a little forward growth. If such growth did occur, it
may have taken place while the regeneration was in progress.
There appears to be no indication as to whether the injury was
sufficient to affect the rate of general shell growth as the shell is within
the limits of the common adult size for the species.
Summary of conclusions. — The impression of a pedicle valve of
Derbya crassa from the Pottsville Series shows a lobate area upon the
interior surface in which the normal direction of costal divergence is
reversed.
1 . The costae of this lobe are fasciculate, a feature foreign to the
species. The inwardly diverging costae overlap the normal costae
in places. Other minor details of abnormal ornamentation are noted.
2. The abnormal lobe is not a portion of a foreign shell but was
regenerated by the animal following a break in the shell. The mantle
also was probably damaged.
3. The origin of the injury to the shell is problematical. The en-
closing sediment was deposited in quiet waters. If the injury was
caused by an enemy of the brachiopod, the form of the "patch" gives
36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 2
no clue to its identity. It is suggested that a fish may have been
responsible for the damage.
4. The direction of costal divergence is taken as the direction of
progressive shell growth in the regenerated area. The precise mode
by w^hich the shell was rebuilt is obscure.
5. Regenerative growth was sufficiently rapid to complete the
"patch" before fatal damage was done to the exposed animal.
6. The injury probably occurred when the shell had very nearly
reached its present size, or at least had reached the first growth
undulation posterior to the margin.
JAN. 19, 1921 PROCEKDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 37,
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON
835th MEETING
The S35th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, April 24, 1920, with
President Sosman in the chair and 40 persons present. The program was
as follows:
W. H. SouDER and C. G. Peters: Physical properties of dental materials
(presented by Mr. Souder). This paper, which was illustrated by lantern
slides, has since been published in full in Dental Cosmos for March, 1920. It
was discussed by Messrs. A. W. Gray, White and Humphreys.
H. A. Marmer : Results of recent tidal current investigations.
In the past few years, current obser^-ations have been secured from the
Light Vessels stationed on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United
States, from five to forty miles offshore. The instruments employed were
necessarily of the simplest character. A log line, a fifteen-foot current
pole, a sandglass or stop watch, and a pelorus constituted the whole outfit.
Observations were made hourly, both night and day.
The results of these observations show that on the Atlantic coast, in the
inland waters and close inshore along the coast, the tidal currents are of the
simple rectilinear or reversing type; that is, the flood runs for a period of
about six hours in one direction and the ebb for a like period in the opposite
direction. Also, the two floods and the two ebbs of the tidal day are very
nearly alike. The curve of velocities, therefore, is approximately a sine
curve and the times of slack, and of flood and ebb strengths bear a nearly
constant relation to the times of local high and low water.
Farther ofl"shore, the currents on the Atlantic coast become more com-
plex. Instead of flowing in the same general direction for a period of six
hours, and in the opposite direction for a like period, the current constantly
changes directions, clockwise, at such a rate that in a little over twelve
hours it will have veered completely around the compass. That is, the
current is rotary instead of being rectilinear. In a tidal day, therefore, the
curves representing the velocity and direction of the current will appear
as two ellipses, bearing a close resemblance to each other in every respect.
The rotary current is distinguished from the rectilinear current not only
by the constant change in direction, but also by a difference of behavior
in the change of velocity. In the rectilinear type, the current starts from a
slack or period of no motion and gradually increases until it attains a max-
imum, after which it decreases to another slack. In the rotarj?" current,
there is no period of slack; the current is running at all times. There is,
however, a maximum and a minimum velocity, corresponding to half the
major and minor axes of the ellipse representing the curve of velocities.
This rotary type of current having a circuit of approximately twelve hours
and the two circuits of the day being very much alike, is typical of the off-
shore current of the Atlantic coast of the United States.
38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 2
On the Pacific coast somewhat similar conditions obtain. The currents
close inshore are of the rectilinear type, while those offshore are of the clock-
wise rotary type. However, the two current curves of a tidal day are gen-
erally quite different. This is due to the diurnal inequality present in the
tides of the Pacific coast.
The diurnal inequality is largely a function of the moon's declination.
It therefore varies throughout the month, being at a minimum when the
moon is on the equator and a maximum when the moon is furthest north
or south. The effect of this on the rotary current is to make the two cir-
cuits of a tidal day very nearly alike when the moon is on the equator, but
quite unlike when the moon is farthest north or south.
The paper was illustrated with lantern slides, and was discussed by Messrs.
White, C. A. Briggs, Tuckerman, O. S. Adams, Humphreys, Beall,
McKeehan, Bowie and Hawkesworth.
In reply to questions by Messrs. White, Humphreys and Adams, it
was brought out that the relation of strength of current to time of high
and low^ water varies greatly; that the motion of tidal currents is in the
same direction from surface to bottom, and that the direction of rotation
of the rotary current is conditioned by local causes.
S3GTH meeting
The S36th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, May S, 1920, with
President Sosman presiding and 30 persons present. The program was as
follows :
F. B. Silsbee: Physics of the high-tension magneto.
Magnetos for igniting internal combustion engines have been gradually
evolved in parallel with the development of the engines on which they are
used, and the present high-speed, high-compression engines have led to the
development of the present so-called "high-tension magneto." This is an
extremely complex electrical system and the complete details of its opera-
tion are relatively little understood even by the manufacturers of the ap-
paratus.
The speaker described the results of a study of this type of device carried
out at the Bureau of Standards in connection with the developing and test-
ing of aircraft engines. The results of this study have been published in
Report No. 58 of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.
The cycle operations of the magneto can be divided into a number of
periods during each of which the electrical phenomena proceed under fairly
definite conditions, but each of which is separated from the one preceding
and the one following it by a change of conditions, such as the opening of
the primary contact or the breaking down of the spark gap. Some of
these periods, such as the building up of the primary current can be studied
by means of the oscillograph, but others, such as the rise of voltage after
"break" are so short that this instrument cannot record the phenomena.
The paper was illustrated by a number of oscillograms showing both
normal and abnormal performance of ignition apparatus.
Discussion: The paper was discussed by Messrs. C. A. Briggs, White,
Sligh and Sosman.
C. Nusbaum: The magnetic reluctivity relationship as related to certain
structures of an eutectoid carbon steel.
The magnetic reluctivity p, defined as the ratio of the magnetizing force
to the induction, has been shown by Kennelly to be related to the magnetizing
force by the relationship
JAN. 19, 1921 proceedings: philosophical society 39
p = a + /3// (1)
but for high inductions this has to be modified to
H
B - H
= «, + m (2)
where p^ is the metalHc reluctivity and B — H is the metalhc induction or
flux carried onl}' 1)y the molecules of the metal. For pure and well-annealed
materials the reluctivity line is a straight line while in the more or less im-
pure commercial materials the reluctivity line while approximately a straight
one has generally a point where its slope changes. Since the change in the
slope of the line is in general greater with the increase in impurity of the
material the cause is evidently a lack of homogeneity; /. e., the presence in
the substance as aggregates or inglomerates of materials of different mag-
netic characteristics. Although the arrangement of the constituents in a
carbon steel is generally a random one, it may be considered as combinations
of any of the three simple arrangements; viz., (a) the parallel, (h) the series,
and (c) the spheroidal.
In the experiments described in the present paper, two specimens of an
eutectoid carbon steel (0.S5 per cent carbon) were selected and turned down
to a uniform diameter of approximately 7 mm. Each of these specimens
was quenched from iSO()° C, one in oil, the other in water, and then care-
fully groimd down to (> mm. Each specimen was then cut in halves desig-
nated A and B, which were then drawn alternately to increasingly higher
temperatures up to 700° C. Normal induction curves, up to values of the
magnetizing force as high as 2500 gauss, were determined after each op-
eration.
Curves for a few of these heat treatments were shown. Other magnetic
properties shown graphically were (a) the values of the induction for con-
stant values of the magnetizing force as plotted against the drawing tem-
peratures; (6) the reciprocals of the susceptibility (47r times the reluctivity)
as plotted against the magnetizing forces; (c) the value of the saturation
intensity of the magnetization as plotted against the drawing temperatures ;
and {d) the values of the "magnetic hardness" as plotted against the draw-
ing temperatures. Referring to equation (2) the values of the saturation
intensity of magnetization are equal to — -- ; i. e., the reciprocal of the slope
47rp
of the reciprocal of susceptibility line. The values of the "magnetic hard-
ness" are the values of a; i. c, the intercept on the axis of ordinates.
These two characteristics are those with which this paper is most concerned,
since they show more than any others the transformations which take place
in the steel as a result of the heat treatment. It is found that in a region
included by the quenched condition and a drawing temperature of 230° C,
in which the specimen is known to be martensitic in structure there is a
distinct bend in the reluctivity lines and consequently there are two values
of the saturation intensity of magnetization and the "magnetic hardness"
as calculated from the upper and lower portions of the reluctivity line. In
the range of drawing temperatures bounded by 230° C. and 470° C, in which
the steel is troostitic, the reluctivity line has but one slope, hence the satura-
tion intensity of magnetization and the "magnetic hardness" each have but
one value for a given drawing temperature and the material is magnetically
homogeneous. Beyond 470° C. the reluctivity line again has a bend and
40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 2
the material is non-homogeneous, this inhomogeneity being due to the in-
creasing size of the aggregates and to their approaching stratification.
The paper was illustrated by lantern slides.
Discussion: This paper was discussed by Messrs. Sosman, C. A. Briggs,
SiLSBEE, Tuckerman, and Humphreys.
S. J. Mauchly, Recording Secretary.
CHEMICAL SOCIETY
(Local Section of the American Chemical Society.)
268th to 300th meetings
The 268th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on February 8, 1917.
F. A. McDermott presented a paper on Some experiments on the growth of
yeast in synthetic media. The pioposed "code of ethics" for the chemical
profession was discussed. Messrs. HillEbrand, Buchbinder and others
informally discussed current experience with so-called "analyzed chemicals."
The 269th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on March 8, 1917. Co-
ordination of action among the local sections of the American Chemical
Society was discussed informally. The regular program was as follows:
F. B. La Forge: Sedoheptose, a new sugar from Sedum spectabile. E.C.
McKelvy: Composition and testing of commercial liqiiid ammonia. D. R.
Harper, 3d : Work on the thermodynamic properties of ammonia at the Bureau
of Standards.
The 270th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on April 12, 1917. Pro-
gram: W. M. Clark: Indicators and the hydrogen electrode in the service
of bacteriology. J. N. Currie: Citric acid fermentation of Aspergillus niger.
L. E. Wise: Elementary organic analysis by micro-combustion methods.
F. R. Bichowsky: The electrometric determination of zinc.
The 271st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on April 20, 1917. Prof.
Marston T. Bogert of Columbia University, Chairman of the Chemistry
Committee of the National Research Council, spoke upon Chemistry and the
war. The aims and purposes of the Research Council in peace and war
were discussed with special reference to chemistry.
The 272d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on May 10, 1917. Program :
H. D. GiBBs: Catalysis of some oxidation reactions. J. B. TuTTlE and L.
YuROW: Direct determination of rubber by combustion of the nitrosite. I. K.
Phelps and H. E- Palmer: Separation and identification of lactic acid in
biological mixtures.
The 273rd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on October 11, 1917.
Program: W. D. Collins: Arsenic in sulphured food products. C. C.
McDonnell: Investigations on lead arsenate. F. P. Veitch: Investiga-
tions of shoe soling material.
The 274th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on November 8, 1917,
and was devoted to the annual election of officers for the ensuing year.
The election resulted as follows : President, Frederick B . Power ; Secretary,
E. C. McKelvy; Treasurer, F. P. Dewey; Members of Council of American
Chemical Society, C. O. Johns, A. Seidell, F, W. Smither, R. B. Sosman;
Members of Executive Committee, F. C. Cook, P. B. Dunbar, E. H. Inger-
SOLL, M. J. Ingle, E. C. Lathrop, F. A. Wertz.
The 275th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on November 19, 1917.
Prof. C. A. Kraus lectured on Laboratory methods and apparatus.
JAN. 19, 1921 proceedings: chemical society 41
The 276th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on December 13, 1917.
Program: AtherTon Seidell: Utilization of the adsorptive power of fullers'
earth for chemical separation. Oswald Schreiner: The potash situation in
relation to food crops.
The 277th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on December IS, 1917.
Prof. W. D. Bancroft lectured on Contact catalysis.
The 27Sth meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on January 10, 1918.
The retiring president, C. S. Hudson, delivered an address on American
sources of supply for the various sttgars, illustrated with samples of sugar-
bearing products and purified sugars.
The 279th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on February 14, 1918.
Program: Grinnell Jones: The work of the Tariff Commission and its
relation to the chemical industries. D. B. Jones: The hydrolysis of kafarin.
The 2S0th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on March 14, 1918.
Program: J. F. Norris: The activity of certain elements in carbon com-
pounds. H. A. LuBS. Determination oi the products formed in the chlorina-
tion of toluene. C. J. West: The chemistry of the unsaturated lipoids.
The 2Slst meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on April 11, 1918. Pro-
gram: C. W. Merrill: The ammonia program for igi8. E. C. Mc-
Kelvy and A. Isaacs: N on-condensing gas formation in ammonia absorp-
tion machines: its cause and prevention.
The 2S2d meeting was held jointly with the Washington Academy of
Sciences at the Interior Department. Prof. A. A. NovES lectured on The
nitrogen problem in relation to the war. The lecture has been published in
the Journal of the Academy.^
The 2S3d meeting was held at the Carnegie Institution on November 14,
1918. Program: Roger Adams: The preparation of organic chemical
reagents. C. L. Alsberg: The value of a museum of chemical compounds.
Reports on the general meeting of the Society at Cleveland, Ohio, were
presented.
The 284th meeting was held at the Carnegie Institution on December 12,
1918, and was devoted to the annual election of officers. The following
were elected: President, Atherton Seidell; Secretary, E. C. McKelvy;
Treasurer, F. P. Dewey; Members of Council, American Chemical Society,
C. O. Johns, John Johnston, F. B. Power, F. W. Smither, R. B. Sosman,
F. A. Wertz; Members Executive Committee, W. Blum, F. C. Cook, P. B.
Dunbar, F. F. Fitzgerald, M. J. Ingle, R. C. Wells.
A series of reconstruction proposals, prepared by the local council, were
approved for submission to the December meeting of the Council of the
general Society.
The 2S5th meeting was held jointly with the Washington Academy of
Sciences at the Carnegie Institution, on Thursday, January 9, 1919. The
retiring president of the Chemical Society, Dr. F. B. Power, gave an illus-
trated address on The distribution and character of some of the odorous prin-
ciples of plants. This has been published elsewhere.^
The 2S6th meeting was held at the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club
on January 23, 1919. Program: W. H. Smith: Airplane dopes. R. N.
Harger: The -preparation of metol. J. D. Davis: The removal of phos-
phine from ammonia made from cyanamide. The appointment of the fol-
' This Journal 8: 381-394. 1918.
- Journ. Ind. Eng. Chem. ii: 344-352. 1919.
42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 2
lowing committees was announced: Programs: ]. C. Hostetter, W. M.
Clark, F. F. Fitzgerald, L. J. Gillespie, C. O. Johns, G. A. Rankin,
E. R. Weaver, R. C. Wells, L. E. Wise; Entertainment: F. F. Fitzgerald,
F. R. V. BicHowsKY, P. J. DoNK, A. M. Heinzelman, H. a. Lepper, J. H.
Shrader.
The 287th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on February 13, 1919.
Lieut. Col. A. H. White lectured on The present status of the nitrate industry
in the Inited States.
The 2S8th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on February 27, 1919.
Dr. John Johnston lectured on The National Research Council. A general
discussion followed on the proposed plans of the Society for compendia of
chemical and physical constants and for technologic and scientific mono-
grams.
The 289th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on March 13, 1919.
Col. A. B. L.'VMB lectured on Chemical protection against poisonous gases.
The 290th meeting was held jointly with the Washington Academy of
vSciences at the Cosmos Club, on March 27, 1919. Dr. Arthur L. Day
lectured on Optical glass. An abstract of the lecture has been published in
the Journal of the Academy.''
The 291st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on April 1.5, 1919, and
was devoted to reports on the general meeting of the Society at BufiFalo,
New York, April 7-10, 1919.
The 292d meeting was held at the Bureau of vStandards on April 24, 1919,
and was preceded by a dinner served at the dining-room in the West Build-
ing. Dr. W. F. Hillebrand described the plans and construction of the
new Chemistry Building of the Bureau. The, remainder of the evening was
devoted to an inspection of the building and apparatus.
The 293d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on May 8, 1919. Program :
Charles L. Parsons: The oxidation of ammonia. AllErton vS. Cush-
man: 7 he chemistry of military primers.
The 294th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on May 22, 1919. Pro-
gram: H. D. Gibes: The work of the color laboratory of the Bureau of
Chemistry. K. P. Monroe: 7 he commercial preparation and some of the
commercial applications of the enzyme invertase.
The 295th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club October 9, 1919. Pro-
gram: E. K. Nelson: Vanillyl acyl amides. A. J. Finks: Growth ex-
periments with the proteins of the navy bean. L. I/. Steele and F. M. Wash-
burn: A new hexabromide method for linseed oil. W. M. Clark and F. F.
ZollER: Manufacture of commercial casein.
The 29Gth meeting^ was held at the Cosmos Club on October 23, 1919.
Program: R. E. Rose, of E. I. Du Pont de Nemours and Company: The
status and prospects of the dye indtistry in the United States.
The 297th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on November 13, 1919.
Program: E- T. Wherry: Crystallography in the service of the chemist.
E. T. Allen: A new method for the study of fumaroles.
Officers for 1920 were elected, as follows: President, C. O. Johns; Sec-
retary, E. C. McKelvy; Treasurer, F. P. Dewey; Members of Council,
American Chemical Society, W. D. Collins, F. B. Power, A. vSeidell, F.
W. Smither, R. B. Sosman; Members Executive Committee,"!^. H. Adams,
F. C. Cook, P. B. Dunbar, M. J. Ingle, W. W. Skinner, R. C. Wells.
3 This JouRNAi, 9: 60.3-604. 1919.
JAN. 10, 1921 proceedings: chemical society 43
The 298th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m. on Tuesday,
November 25, 1919. Dr. Charles H. Herty, who had just returned from
Europe, where he had been sent with the approval of President Wilson, to
secure for the American dye consuming industry a six months' supply of
\at dyes from stocks held by the Reparations Commission under the terms
of the Peace Treaty, addressed the Society on his interesting experiences.
The 299th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club at S p.m. on Thursday,
December 11, 1919. Air. R. S. McBride was appointed Secretary pro tern.
Program: S. L. Jodidi: The quantitative determination of amino acids,
polypeptides, and similar compounds, and their relation to certain plant dis-
eases (illustrated). C. S. Cragoe, C. H. Meyers, and C. S. Taylor: The
vapor pressure of ammonia (illustrated).
The latter part of the meeting was devoted to an appreciation of the hfe
and work of the late Secretary of the Society, Mr. E. C. McKelvy, who
died on November 29 from burns received in an accident at the Bureau of
Standards.
The 300th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m. on Thursday,
January S, 1920 Mr. J. B. Reed, of the Bureau of Chemistry, was elected
Secretary to succeed the late E. C. McICelvy.
The meeting was planned as a commemorative meeting, and the papeis
presented were concerned with the organization and early history of the
Society. H. W. Wiley, foimerly chief of the Bureau of Chemistry; F. W.
Clarke, of the Geological Survey; and F. P. Dewey, of the Bureau of the
Mint, gave informal talks, illustrated with early programs, letters, and
photographs. R. S. McBride, of the Bureau of Standards, outlined the
work of the Society during the past ten j^ears.
J. B. Reed, Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
The Pick and Hammer Club met at the Conference Room of the Geological
Survey on December 18, 1920, at 8 p.m. The following papers were pre-
sented: A. H. Brooks: The Society of Economic Geologists; its origin and
its proposed scope of work. David White: Recent meetings and scope of
some kindred societies. W. C. Mendenhall : Land classification work under
the recent leasing hill.
The Washington Branch of the Society of American Bacteriologists met
on December 20 at the District Building. Papers were presented by Chari^es
Thom, Ruth B. Edmondson, C. L. McArthur, W. D. Bigei^ow, and P. H.
Cathcart.
The Agricultural History Society met on December 16 at the Public
Library. G. K. Holmes spoke on The history of tobacco and O. C. Stine on
Agriculture of the Plymouth Colony.
Engineering Council held its last meeting in Washington on December
16, having recommended to its parent body, the United Engineering Society,
that it be discharged from service and that its current and unfinished busi-
ness be referred to the new American Engineering Council, the governing
body of the recently organized Federated American Engineering Societies.
Dr. W. W. CoBLENTz of the Bureau of Standards has been awarded the
Janssen medal of the Academic des Sciences, Institute de France, for his
work on the infra-red radiation from terrestrial sources and from stars.
Mr. Alfred N. Finn, who resigned from the Bureau of Standards in 1919,
was reappointed to the chemical staff of the Bureau in October.
Mr. F. F. Fitzgerald resigned from the staff of the National Canners
Association Laboratory in November to accept a position with the American
Can Company at 120 Broadway, New York City.
Mr. M. G. GuLLEY has been appointed assistant geologist in the U. S.
Geological Survey, and has been temporarily assigned to assist Mr. F. L.
Ransome in field work in the Oatman District, Arizona.
Mr. Walter A. Hull, formerly in charge of the work on fire-resistive
properties of materials at the Bureau of Standards, has been placed in charge
of the work on optical glass in the Division of Ceramics of the Bureau.
Mr. W. E. MvER of Nashville, Tennessee, was in Washington in Decem-
ber preparing a report for the Bureau of American Ethnology on his archeo-
logical field work of last summer in the Cumberland Valley.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 February 4, 1921 No. 3
PHYSICS.— r/z^r .compressibility of diamond.'^ L. H. Adams, Geo-
physical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Many of the properties of that remarkable form of carbon, the
diamond, are known, but its compressibility has never been measured.
The commercial value of a quantity of diamonds sufficient for such a
determination is so great that the opportunity for making the deter-
mination would seldom present itself. It is not necessary for this
purpose, however, that the material be in one piece or even in large
fragments although, contrary to what is commonly believed, no ap-
prehension need be felt in subjecting diamonds or any other homo-
geneous material to the enormous pressures required. -
It was the writer's good fortune to have at his disposal about 80
grams of diamond chips obtained through Dr. F. E. Wright, of this
Laboratory, from S. L. Van Wezel, Inc., of New York City.^ The
material was in the form of clear, colorless fragments of various sizes
up to one or two millimeters in their largest dimension. A small
amount of metallic impurity was found to be present and was removed
by treatment with hot nitric acid. After being washed with water
and dried in the oven, a fraction consisting of about 30 grams of the
coarser fragments was separated from the remainder and was used
for the measurement of the compressibility.
The method used has been described in a former publication^ from
this Laboratory. Briefly, it is as follows: The material to be investi-
gated is surrounded by kerosene and placed in a cylindrical, heavy-
walled, steel bomb, one end of which is closed while in the other
end is fitted a piston with a suitable packing. Pressure is applied
' Received January 8, 192L
- As long, of course, as the pressure is strictly hydrostatic, that is, uniform in all direc-
tions.
3 Our thanks are due to this firm and especially to the President, Mr. M. S. Van Wezet,
for their courtesy in lending this material.
"• L. H. Adams and E- D. Williamson, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 41: 12-42. 1919.
45
4G JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 3
by forcing the piston into the bomb by means of a powerful hydraulic
press. In order to determine the compressibility it is necessary to
measure the pressure and the decrease in volume. The pressure is
measured by means of a small coil of "therlo" wire the resistance of
which changes with pressure according to a known relation; and the
volume-decrease is determined by the movement of the piston,
which is measured with a dial micrometer. Pressures were read
to 1 megabar and piston displacements to 0.001 mm. As a means
of correcting for the compressibility of the kerosene, an exactly
similar series of measurements is carried out with some other sub-
stance of known compressibility.
The diamonds were placed in a thin- walled steel capsule, and the
comparison body was a Bessemer steel cylinder the volume of which
was equal to the volume of the diamonds plus the volume of metal in
the capsule. In order to remove any air bubbles which might cling
to the diamond fragments, the material, having been placed in the
capsule, was covered with kerosene and the whole evacuated.
With the apparatus used the most accurate measurements are
obtained in the range from 4,000 to 10,000 megabars.^ Accordingly,
it seemed best to make several series of readings within this range of
pressure. Readings were taken at 4,000, 6,000, 8,000 and 10,000 mega-
bars. Three separate runs were made with the diamond and two with
the steel, but the first series with the diamond was subject to slight
irregularities due to trouble with the electrical connections and was
therefore neglected in the final calculations. The method for calcu-
lating the results and for making the various corrections is described
in detail in the paper already referred to.
Various ways of combining the data of the two series for steel
and the two series for diamond led to substantially the same result.
If the mean of the former be compared with the mean of the latter,
Av
the relative decrease in volume, — , is found to be as shown in table 1.
Vo
Table 1
Decrease of Volume of Dl^mond under Pressure
^ 1 megabar = 0.987 atmosphere.
FEB. 4, 1921 ADAMS: COMPREvSSIBlUTY OF DIAMOND 47
In table 1 the second column shows the "observed" relative de-
crease in volume corresponding to the pressures given in the first
column. The arbitrary zero with reference to the volume change was
at 4000 megabars.
The decrease in volume was assumed to be a linear function of the
pressure, that is,
— X 103 = a + 6 (^ - p^) X 10-\ (1)
and by the method of least squares the values of the constants a and
b were calculated from the data in table 1 . The value found for b
"was 0.442, which, multiplied by 10 ~^ is the difference between /3,
the compressibility of diamond, and /3', that of steel. That is, /3' — ^
= 0.44 X 10 "^ If the compressibility of steeP be taken as 0.60 X
10 ~^ the compressibility of diamond is
/3 = o.i6 X io~* per megabar.
This value is estimated to be correct within =t 0.02 X 10~^
From this result it is evident that the compressibility of diamond is
remarkably low; indeed, of all substances whose elastic behavior is
known, diamond is by far the most incompressible. Its nearest com-
petitor, tungsten, is nearly twice as compressible (/3 = 0.27 X 10~®),
and the majority of solids decrease their volume more than ten times
as much for a given increment of pressure. If a diamond were buried
100 miles below the surface of the earth the pressure due to the super-
incumbent rock — a higher pressure than has ever been attained in the
laboratory — would decrease the volume only about three-fourths of
one per cent.
It is noteworthy that the other modification of carbon, graphite,
is much more compressible, the value of (3, according to Richards,''
being 3.0 X 10"^
Relation of compressibility to other properties.- — ^Einstein^ has
derived the following equation, involving the compressibiUty 3
« Compare P. W. Bridgman, Proc. Amer. Acad. 47: 366. 1911. E. GrCneisen,
Ann. Phys. (4) 33: 1262. 1910.
' T. W. Richards, Joum. Amer. Chem. Soc. 37: 1646. 1915.
8 A. Einstein, Ann. Phys. (4) 34: 170. 1911. The specific heat per gram-atom, Ct of
any monatomic solid, according to Einstein, is a universal function of p/T, thus:
R, h and k being universal constants.
48 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 3
(in absolute units), the atomic weight A, the density p, and the vi-
bration frequency v of the atoms :
i^ = 3.3 X 10^ A-^>-'^ ^-'^ (2)
Lindemann,^ on the other hand, calculates p from the equation:
V =3.1 X 10'^ A-^' p^' T^' (3)
in which T^ is the melting point on the absolute scale. Eliminating
V from these two equations, and multiplying by 10^ in order to change
the units of (3 from cmVdyne to cm-/megadyne, we have:
/3 = 1.13 X 10-"— (4)
This equation closely resembles the empirical equation used by
A
Richards, ^^ namely, /3 = 2.1 X 10~" ^,^ . rr:, and yields for
many elements values of /3 which are in fair accord with the observed
A^alues. The melting point of diamond is not known, but assuming
that it is 4000°, and taking p as 3.51, the value of /S calculated from
equation (4) is 0.10 X 10"". As calculated from Richards' formula,
the value is 0.13 X 10 "^
Another equation may be obtained from Griineisen's formula ■} ^
v = 2.^ + wi'-n 'a-^p^ (5)
in which c^ is the specific heat per gram, and a is the cubical expansion
coefficient. Eliminating v from equations (2) and (5) and multiplying
by 10^ as before, we have
a
^ = 1.29 X 10-2 — . (6)
c„p
This equation clearly illustrates the fact that low compressibility
tends to be accompanied by low thermal expansibility. In using
equation (5) or (6) for numerical calculation, however, for the ratio
-- must be taken its limiting value as the temperature is decreased.
Cv
It may be noted, nevertheless, that if the values of c^ and a for diamond
at 25° C. {c, = 0.12 cal. per g.; « = 3.5 X lO"^) be substituted in
equation (6), 13 is found to be 0.11 X 10 "^
9 F. A. LiNDEMANN, Phys. Zeitschr. ii: 609. 1911.
1" Op. cit., p. 1653. See also W. D. Harkins and R. E. Hali,, Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc.
8: 209. 1916.
" E. GRiJNEisEN, Ann. Phys. (4) 39: 293. 1912.
FEB. 4, 1921 ADAMS: COMPRESSIBILITY OF DIAMOND 49
Another useful relation involving the compressibility is that given
by Debye:^-
e = ^1^' ^ ^^-74 X 10-" j_
In this equation /3 is in absolute units, and <^ is a function of a, Poisson's
ratio, ^^ thus:
* = -(3 nryj +(3-03^)
Rearranging equation (7), substituting Debye's values for h and k,
and expressing /3 in cm.-/megadyne, we have:
/3 = 5 . 5 X 10-1 j^;; .4 -^ p-'^ </>-'^ (8)
The value of v,„ for any element can be calculated from equation (7)
provided that the specific heat is known at one or more suitable tem-
peratures; and 0 can be calculated when a, Poisson's ratio, is known.
Equation (8), then, can be used to calculate the compressibility of
any element for which C., and a have been measured. For several
elements for which these quantities are known the compressibilities
have been calculated by equation (8) with the results shown in table 2.
TABLE 2
Calculation of Compressibility from Specific Heat and Poisson's Ratio
Compress-
iljility
Max. atomic Poisson's calc. from
frequency At. wt. Density ratio equation (8) ^ X 106
Substance. •',„ X 10'^. .1. p. a. /S X 106. observed.
Aluminum 8.2 27 . 1 2.7 0 . 34 1 . 42 1 . 32
Copper 6.4 63.6 8.9 0.35 0.83 0.75
SUver 4.4 107.9 10.5 0.38 0.92 0.97
Lead 2.0 207.2 11.3 |0.45] [1.1] 2.2
Diamond 39.2 12.0 3.5 (0.25) 0.16 0.16
The values for v,„ are taken from Debye and those for <j are as given
by Griineisen.^^ Poisson's ratio for diamond has not been measured,
12 p. Debye, Ann. Phys. (4) 39: 816. 1912. Debye considers that the atoms in a solid
are vibrating, not with a single frequency, but with a number of different frequencies,
and that the specific heat is a universal function of —, vm being the maximum frequency.
His equation is :
\x^ J e"-! e-v- _ 1 1
o
, . , hvm e .
in which X = —— = -, and q is an integration variable.
kT T
" Strictly speaking, Poisson's ratio has no meaning except with reference to an isotropic
or pseudo-isotropic substance.
'-• E. Gruneisen, Ann. Phys. (4) 25: 847. 1908.
50 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIE^NC^S VOI^. 11, NO. 3
but in accordance with the well-known fact that, in general, a for hard
and highly incompressible substances is approximately 0.25, it has
been assumed to have this value. The agreement between (3 calculated
and 13 obser\^ed is satisfactory except for lead. Poisson's ratio, how-
ever, is a difficult property to measure accurately, and the large dis-
crepancy in the case of lead, as well as the smaller discrepancies for
the other metals may, not unreasonably, be ascribed to an error in
the values of a. For example, if o- for lead were 0.40 instead of 0.45
as given by Griineisen, equation (8) would yield a value of (3 almost
exactly equal to the observed value.
Since a small change in a leads to a large change in (3, or, conversely,
since a given change in /j corresponds to a much smaller variation in
a, this equation may be used to calculate with high precision the value
of the important elastic constant, a, for all those elements for which
the compressibility and specific heat are known. Thus, granting the
validity of the reasoning by which Debye arrived at his formula —
the remarkable success of Debye's specific heat formula in accurately
representing the variation of specific heat with temperature would
seem to substantiate the soundness of his theory — we may state with
considerable confidence that Poisson's ratio for diamond is not far
from 0.25.
In the course of the measurement of the compressibility of diamond
the density of the fragments was determined by the pyknometer
method and found to be 3.513 at 25°. This is in good agreement with
the value 3. 514 at 18° obtained by Cohen and Olie.^^
1 dv
Summary. — The cubic compressibility — . ■ — of clear, colorless
Vq dp
diamond of density 3.513 was measured by comparison with soft
steel. Assuming the compressibility of steel to be 0.60 X 10"*' per
megabar, the compressibility of diamond is
O.I 6 X io~^ per megabar.
This is the lowest compressibility of any known substance.
From a consideration of various formulas expressing the relations con-
necting compressibility with other physical properties, it appears that
the low compressibility of diamond is intimately related to its high melt-
ing point, its low expansion coefficient, and its high atomic frequency.
Very accurate values of Poisson's ratio for the various elements
might be obtained by Debye's equation if the compressibility and
specific heat were previously determined.
'5 E. Cohen and J. OuE, Jr., Zeitschr. Phys. Chem. 71: 391. 1910.
FEB. 4, 1921
VINAL AND SNYDER: OSCILLOGRAPH MEASUREMENTS
51
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.— 05a7/ogra^/j measurements of the
instantaneous values of current and voltage in the battery circuit of
automobiles. G. W. Vinal and C. L. Snyder, Bureau of Stand-
ards.^
Performance curves showing the instantaneous demands made upon
automobile starting and lighting batteries when cranking the engines
have been obtained recently at the Bureau of Standards. These
curves were made while preparing specifications for this type of
battery for the Motor Transport Division of the War Department.
In the course of these experiments additional information was ob-
tained with respect to the operation of the starter system and the
engine itself.
In order to measure the rapidly fluctuating values of current and
voltage a 3-element oscillograph was used. The ordinary film drum
was replaced, however, by a camera of special construction. Time
was recorded by one element while the current and the battery voltage
were measured by the two remaining elements. The oscillograph
records show the instantaneous values of current and voltage which
cannot be obtained with the ordinary indicating instruments.
ZETRO CURRENT VALUE
Fig-fl- — Fluctuations of current and voltage in battery circuit when starter cranks the
engine. Initial value of current 125 amperes. Four cylinder car 12-volt single unit system.
Time scale in half seconds at top of record.
A series of measurements under various conditions of operation was
made upon a number of cars of different makes. The records for the
various cars show different characteristics which are typical of the
design and condition of the engine and starter system. All of the
^ Published by permission of the Director, Bureau of Standards. Received December
22, 1920. The complete paper will be published as Technological Paper No. 186 of the
Bureau of Standards.
52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 3
cars were in ordinary running order when the measurements were
made.
It is possible to show only two of the records in the present paper.
These have been chosen to illustrate the general character of the
curves which were obtained from a well-known 4-cylinder car equipped
with a 12-volt single unit starting system. Figure 1 shows the fluc-
tuations of current and voltage when the starter was in operation.
The initial starting current was about 125 amperes, but decreased
rapidly. The pulsating character of the current is due to the com-
pression in the successive cylinders. The minimum values of the
voltage correspond with the maximum values of the current. The
time scale in half seconds is shown at the top of the record.
Fig. 2. — Starting of the engine, on second compression. A and A' indicate operation of
reverse current relay; B, release of starter pedal; C, charging current, engine speeding; D,
speed decreased; E, ignition cut-off. Interruptions in charging current caused by ignition
system. Same car as for Fig. 1.
Figure 2 shows the characteristics of this particular car when the
ignition was on and the engine started. The initial starting current
was approximately the same as in figure 1 . The engine started on the
second compression. At the point marked A the current was zero
and the voltage at A' was approximately open circuit value. This
is believed to represent the operation of the reverse current relay.
An instant later the battery began to charge at a high rate — as in-
dicated by the current curve falling below the indices and the voltage
curve rising abruptly to a value in excess of the open circuit voltage.
At B the starter pedal was released and the current returned to the
normal charging value. A corresponding drop in voltage occurred
at the same time. The engine was racing at C, slowed down at D,
and the ignition was cut off at E. The interruptions seen in the charg-
ing current are due to the current flowing through the ignition coil
which is operated by the distributor.
FEB. 4, 1921 VINAL AND SNYDER: OSCILLOGRAPH MEASUREMENTS 53
Analysis of the curves has suggested the possibility of using this
method for the study of problems relating to the design of engines
and starter systems. The method provides an exact means of mea-
suring the speed of rotation and of detecting small changes in speed
from one revolution to another. Additional experiments to show the
effect of temperature compression, lubrication and throttle opening
were made also. These will be described in the complete paper.
ABSTRACTS
Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably pre-
pared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The
abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
BOTANY. — The influence of cold in stimulating the groivth of plants. F. V.
CoviLLU. Journ. Agr. Res. 20: 151-160. Pis. 20-35. 1920.
The dormancy of trees and shrubs begins before the advent of cold weather.
Cold weather is not necessary to bring about dormancy. It is necessary to
bring about renewed growth in the spring. If not subjected to cold, dormant
plants will not start growth in the spring. Even on the same plant a branch
which has been chilled will start growth under proper conditions while an
adjoining branch which has not been subjected to chilling will remain dor-
mant. The best temperature for chilling is 32° to 40° F. It may be applied
in either light or darkness.
During chilling the reserve food stored in the form of starch is changed to
sugar. Until this change has taken place the plant is unable to use the
stored food for renewed growth. H. V. Harlan.
BOTANY. — Revisions of North American grasses. A. S. Hitchcock and
Agnes Chase. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 22: 1-77. Pis. 1-24, figs.
1-20. 1920.
This number of the Contributions consists of four independent papers:
(1) The North American species of Ichnanthus, by Hitchcock; (2) The
North American Species of Lasiacis, by Hitchcock; (3) The North American
Species of Brachiaria, by Chase; (4) The North American Species of Cen-
chrus, by Chase. Ichnanthus is a tropical genus allied to Panicum. Lasiacis
is a tropical genus of woody grasses, also allied to Panicum, one species of
which extends into southern Florida. Of the 6 American species oi Brachiaria
two extend into Texas. The species of Cenchrus are usually known as
sandburs. Eight of the 13 species described are found in the United States.
A. S. H.
BOTANY. — Revisions of North American grasses. A. S. Hitchcock.
Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 22: 115-208. Pis. 25-32, figs. 21-62. 1920.
This number of the Contributions includes four independent papers on the
North American species of the genera Isachne, Oplismenus, Echinochloa,
and Chaetochloa. Isachne and Oplismemis are tropical genera, one species
of the latter extending into our southern states. The species of Echinochloa
are widely distributed, some of them being common weeds. One of the forms
of E. crusgalli, barnyard grass, is cultivated under the name of Japanese
barnyard millet. The species of Chaetochloa (Setaria) are also widely dis-
tributed. Some species are common weeds, such as C. lutescens, yellow fox-
tail, and C. viridis, green foxtail. One species, C. italica, is the commonly
cultivated millet, or foxtail millet, one form of which is called Hungarian
grass. One species is grown in greenhouses as an ornamental, the broad
plaited blades giving it the name of palm grass. Twenty-six species are de-
scribed and figured. A. S. H.
54
FEB. 4, 1921 abstracts: ethnology 55
BOTANY. — Heritable characters of maize. I. Lineate leaves. G. N. Col-
lins and J. H. Kempton. Journ. Heredity ii: 3-G. January, 1920.
This paper is the first of a series in which it is planned to record variations
in maize that prove to be inherited. "Lineate leaves," the character here
described, consist of a very fine, white striping of the upper leaf blades.
The progenies of self-pollinated lineate plants and crosses between Uneate
and normal plants indicate that the character is a Mendelian monohybrid.
The character is variable in expression, however, and 2 progenies out of
14 showed significant departures from monohybrid ratios. G. N. C.
ENTOMOLOGY. — .4 revision of the nearctic termites. Nathan Banks,
with Notes on biology and geographic distribution. Thomas E. Snyder.
U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. io8. ' Pp. 228, pis. 35, figs. 70. 1920.
This paper is divided into two distinct parts. The first deals with the
taxonomy of the termites, or white ants, of the Nearctic Region; while the
second part contains a comprehensive summary, supplemented by original
observations accumulated b}- the junior author, of the habits and distribution
of these interesting economic insects. In the part dealing with the
taxonomy each species and genus is characterized in detail and synoptic
keys to all the forms are given. Seventeen new species and one new variety
are described, thus almost doubling the number of forms previously known.
That portion of the bulletin which deals with the biology gives first a sum-
mary of the habits of these insects and discusses the nesting, feeding swarm-
ing, mating, metamorphosis, castes, parasites, economic importance, con-
trol, etc., and then gives a complete account of the available information
concerning each species.
This paper is the most important work on our white ants and no worker
interested in these insects can be without it. S. A. RohwER.
ENTOMOLOGY. — Black grain-stem sawily of Europe in the United States.
A. B. G.vhan. U, S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 834. Pp. IS, pis. 2. 1920.
The black grain-stem sawfly {Trachehis tabidus (Fabr.)), a European
pest of wheat, rye and similar grains, has been known to occur in the United
States since 1S99, but only in the last few years has it attracted attention
as a pest. This bulletin gives a history of the discovery of the insect in
America, what is known of its distribution, habits, host-plants, synonymy,
injury, suggestions for control, parasites and a practically complete list of
available literature. The adult is figured in both sexes and distinguishing
characters for the larva, separating it from allied species living in similar
situations, are included. This pest mines the stems of grains and besides
thus reducing the ability of the grain to head does its greatest damage by
cutting the stems close to the ground prior to the time it goes into hibernation.
The cutting of the stems causes the grain to fall and thus escape the harvester.
S. A. ROHWER.
ETHNOLOGY. — Native cemeteries and forms of burial east of the Mississippi.
David I. Bushnell, Jr. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 71. Pp. 160, pis.
17, figs. 17. 1920.
The reports of early writers contain a great body of information regarding
the burial rites and customs of our American Indians which are of particular
importance to the archeologist, and in the present work Mr. Bushnell has
brought together as much of the available material as possible applying to
56 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 3
the United States east of the Mississippi River. This is arranged under the
headings of the several Indian stocks and an attempt has been made to
correlate it with the results of modern explorations. J. R. SwanTon.
ETHNOLOGY. — Alsea texts and myths. Leo J. Frachtenberg. Bur.
Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 67. Pp. 304. 1920.
Alsea is a dialect of the Yakonan linguistic family, which formerly occupied
a small portion of the Oregon coast southward of the Columbia River. So
few Indians are now acquainted with it that the material contained in this
volume is, in all probability, practically all that will ever be available for study.
It consists of 24 native texts with English translations, five originally re-
corded by Dr. Livingston Farrand, now Director of the American Red Cross,
and the remainder by Dr. Leo J. Frachtenberg, who also revised and edited
the material collected by his predecessor. Four tales collected by Dr. Far-
rand in English, without native equivalents, are added, and the whole is
followed by vocabularies in Alsea-English and English-Alsea and a list of
formative elements. A brief introduction explains the various ways in
which this series of texts was brought together and indicates the character
of Alsea mythology and its position with reference to the mythologies of the
neighboring peoples. J. R. S wanton.
EVOLUTION. — Kinetics of material transformations. Alfred J. Lotka
Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences 55: 137-153. 1920.
A discussion along very general lines of the differential equations relating
to systems undergoing change of state, chemical, physical, or other. The
method and conclusions cannot be readily set forth in a brief abstract. While
the immediate application is chiefly in the field of physical chemistry, a very
general mode of treatment has been adopted with a view to preparing the
ground for the discussion of the broad problem of evolution. A. J. L.
EVOLUTION. — Evolution and irreversibility. Alfred J. LoTka. Science
Progress 14: 400-417. Figs. 5. 1920.
It has been pointed out by biologists that organic evolution is an irre-
versible process. Physicists also have spoken of the second law of thermo-
dynamics broadly as the law of evolution. In organic systems irreversible
processes are attended with a decrease in certain functions of the variables
defining the state of the system. Stable equilibrium is characterized by
the fact that these functions assume a minimum value.
In the case of organic systems in the process of evolution we have not,
in general, such definite criteria for equilibrium, and the direction of the
process, although undoubtedly perfectly definite, has hitherto never been
formulated in precise terms. The paper here abstracted sets forth, for
certain cases at any rate, a precise formulation of the direction of evolution
and a criterion for the stability of equilibrium in the familiar form of a func-
tion which assumes a minimum value at the point of equilibrium.
A. J. L.
GEOLOGY. — Iron-depositing bacteria and their geologic relations. E. C.
Harder. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 113. Pp. 89, figs. 37. 1919.
Iron-depositing bacteria are abundant and widespread in soil and natural
water. They occur not only in surface waters but have been found in under-
ground waters, such as well waters and iron-bearing mine waters, to depths
FEB. 4, 1921 ABSTlLiVCTS: GEOLOGY 57
of more than 300 feet. They also inhabit distributing pipes and intakes
of city water systems where the water contains an appreciable percentage
of iron, and at times they become obnoxious in such situations.
The best-known iron-depositing bacteria such as Crenothrix, Leptothrix,
and Spirophyllum belong to the group of organisms known as thread bac-
teria. Many coccus and bacillus forms also are known, which have the
power of precipitating ferric hydroxide or basic ferric salts from iron-bearing
solutions. Some iron-depositing bacteria require iron compounds in solu-
tion for their life processes; others do not require iron compounds, but use
them when present. Some require inorganic iron compounds ; others organic
iron compounds, and still others use both. Many of these organisms have
been cultivated on artificial media.
The importance of iron-depositing bacteria in the formation of iron-
ore deposits is problematical. They are known to form bog-ore deposits
and have been found depositing limonite in openings at moderate depths.
Most of the large sedimentary iron-ore beds, however, are known to have
been deposited in salt or blackish water and iron-depositing bacteria have
not been found up to the present in such situations. E. C. H.
GEOLOGY. — The copper deposits of Ray and Miami, Arizona. F. L. Ran-
SOME. U. S. Geol. Survev Prof. Paper 115. Pp. 192, pis. 54, figs. 29.
1919.
The Ray and Miami districts lie about IS miles apart in central Arizona,
in the belt of mountain ranges that borders the Arizona Pla eau along its
southwestern edge. From the beginning of modern operations in 1907
to the end of 1918 these districts have yielded 1,098,409,607 pounds of
copper and the three principal copper companies have declared dividends
amounting to $67,592,552.
The rocks of the region comprise pre-Cambrian schist and granite over-
lain by Paleozoic sedimentary rocks and limestones which in turn are un-
conformably overlain by Cretaceous andesitic rocks. Above these in the
stratigraphic column are lavas and fluviatile detrital deposits of Tertiary
and Quaternary age. The principal intrusive rocks are diabase, probably
of early ^Mesozic age, and granite, granodiorite, quartz diorite, and related
porphyries, probably of early or middle Tertiary age.
The principal copper deposits are of the enriched disseminated type and
their most valuable constituent is chalcocite. The tenor of the ore ranges
from about 1.5 to 6 per cent and about 260,000,000 tons were estimated as
available at the beginning of the present mining operations. The ore bodies
are undulating, flat-lying masses of more or less indefinite horizontal out-
line and of varying thickness. In a verv'- general wa}' the}' are marginally
situated with reference to intrusive masses of granite, granite porphyry,
and quartz monzonite porphyry, but the ore occurs both in the pre-Cam-
brian schist and in the Tertiar}^ intrusive rocks. By far the greater part
of the ore is in schist. The ore bodies are the result of the operation of
two general processes — upward or hypogene metallization as a consequence
of the intrusion of granite or monzonite porphyries, and downward or super-
gene enrichment by percolating atmospheric water.
Supergene enrichment has generally been treated as a continuously pro-
gressive process. There is considerable probability, however, that it is
essentially cyclic, although the cyclic character may not be patent in all
deposits. The essential fact appears to be that as enrichment progresses
V
58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 3
and chalcocite increases, the process of enrichment becomes slower in action,
and erosion may, in some circumstances, overtake it. With the removal of
some of the protecting zone of chalcocite the protore, or original pyritic
material, is again exposed to oxidation and a second cycle of enrichment
begins. F. L. R.
GEOLOGY. — Bibliography and index of the publications of the U. S. Geological
Survey relating to ground water. Oscar E. Meinzer. U. S. Geol.
Survey Water-Supply Paper 427. Pp. 169, map 1. 1918.
Gives a brief historical statement of the work done by the Survey on the
subject of ground water and lists 609 papers (in 454 volumes) which contain
information on ground water, of which 307 papers (in 171 volumes) relate
primarily to this subject. It includes brief abstracts of these papers and a
detailed index with respect to ground water topics, and contains a map of
the United States showing areas covered by the papers listed. O. E. M.
GEOLOGY. — The Sunset-Midway Oil Field, California. Part I. Geology
and Oil Resources. R. W. Pack. U. S. Geol. Survev Prof. Paper 116.
Pp. 179, pis. 45, figs. 15. 1920.
The Sunset-Midway oil field lies at the south end of San Joaquin Valley,
in Kern County, California. Deposits of asphalt and seeps of oil in this
region were known to the earliest settlers, but real development did not
begin until 1900. Up to the end of June, 1917, more than 2200 wells had
been drilled in the field, and on that date 1840 were producing. Up to
1918 the field had produced more than 2,827,900,000 barrels of oil. The
largest well flowed for IS months, and is said to have produced more than
8,000,000 barrels of oil, with a maximum daily production of 05,000 barrels.
Granitoid and metaraorphic rocks form the foundation upon w^hich rest
Tertiary and possibly some Cretaceous sediments. Structure is complex;
in the mountain regions the rocks are much folded and faulted, but in the
outermost foothills along the border of San Joaquin Valley the folds are
broad and open and extend from the main range into the valley. It is
about these obliquely trending folds that the petroleum has accumulated.
The petroleum is thought to have originated in a Miocene diatomaceous
shale, and has for the most part migrated and accumulated in the late Ter-
tiary sandy beds that imconformably overlie the shale. Barren beds are
found interspersed among the oil-bearing sands. Near the outcrop the
oil becomes viscous or tarry and seals the beds more or less completely.
In parts of the field where the oil is buried more than 2000 feet a zone of
tar-filled sand lies less than 1000 feet below the surface. Tliis zone is be-
lieved to mark the place where the upward-moving hydrocarbons have met
and been oxidized by surface v/aters.
The paper includes descriptions of the individual areas with suggestions
for future work. J. D. Sears.
GEOLOGY. — Geology and water resources of the Gila and San Carlos Valleys
in the San Carlos Indian Reservation, Arizona. A. T. SchwEnnESEn.
*U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supplv Paper 450-A. Pp. 27 (1-27), pis.
4, figs. 2. 1919.
Most of the arable land in the valleys of Gila and San Carlos rivers, within
the San Carlos Indian Reservation, Arizona, is undeveloped because of the
inadequate supply of water for irrigation. The report deals with the physiog-
FEB. 4, 1921 abstracts: ornithology 59
raphy, geology and water resources of the area, with special reference to the
feasibiUty of drilling for an irrigation water supply in land not included
within the proposed San Carlos reservoir. The Reservation includes a
plateau area in the northern and eastern parts, and a basin area along Gila
and San Carlos rivers. Igneous and pre-Ouaternary sedimentary rocks
were noted in the mountain areas, and the Quaternary Gila conglomerate
in lake beds and river alluvium in the basins.
In 1914, with inadequate dams, the cost of irrigation was $1.34 an acre.
Permanent dams are not recommended. The cost of pumped well water
would probably be higher, but would be compensated by increased crops.
The shallow-well water in the Gila valley is so highly mineralized that it is of
doubtful value for irrigation; that in the San Carlos valley is though better
but practical experiments should be made. vSeveral structures favorable
for artesian supply are described, and a test well is recommended.
J. D. Sears.
NAVIGATION. — The prospective utilizaiion of vessel-to-shore radio-compass
hearings in aerial and transoceanic navigation. G. W. Littlehales.
Journ. Amer. Soc. Naval Engineers 32: 38-44. PI. 1. February, 1920.
A method of finding the latitude and longitude in aerial and marine navi-
gation from vessel-to-station radio-compass bearings is described, and its
mathematical theory is expounded. A plate of the construction employed
in the practice of the method is given, together with illustrative applications.
G. W. L.
ORNITHOLOGY.— 7/i(? birds of North and Middle America. Robert
RiDGWAY. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 50, part S. Pp. xvi, 852, pis. 34.
1919.
The eighth part of ''The Birds of North and Middle America'' is a sys-
tematic treatment of the Charadriiformes, with descriptions and S3^nonymy
of genera and species as in the previous portions of this work. The present
volume contains the following families, all of which are referred to the order
Charadriiformes under three suborders: (1) Limicolae with families Jacanidae,
Oedicnemidae, Haematopodidae, Arenariidae, Aphrizidae, Charadriidae,
Scolopacidae, Phalaropodidae, and Recurvirostridae ; (2) Lari with families
Rynchopidae, Sternidae, Laridae, and Stercorariidae ; and (3) Alcae vv'ith
the single family Alcidae. Of these families, the Arenariidae and Sternidae
are here elevated from subfamily rank on what are considered sufhcient
anatomical characters.
vSeven genera are here revived in the groups treated: three, Endomychura
Oberholser, Ciceronia Reichenbach, and Alcella vStone, are raised from sub-
generic rank; and the four others, Blasipus Bruch, Chroicocephalus Eyton,
Hydrocoloens Kaup, and Mesoscolopax Sharpe, are wholly additional. One
new genus, Neoglottis, is instituted, with Scolopax melanoleiica Gmelin as
type. Four generic groups recognized by some modern authors are con-
sidered not separable: Onychoprion Wagler, Melanosterna Blyth, Limno-
cinclus Gould, and Leiicopoliiis Bonaparte.
In this volume 187 species and subspecies are treated. The guillemot
known as Cepphus motzfeldi (Benicken), often commonly supposed to be an
individual variation, is here given full specific rank; and the same treatment
is accorded Uria ringvia Briinnich. The peculiar sandpiper Pisobia cooperi
(Baird) is here treated as a good species. The recent Alaskan record of
GO JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. U, NO. 3
Pisohia ruficollis (Pallas) is considered valid, and sufficient to warrant the
inclusion of the species in the North American list. The Frazar oyster-
catcher, Haematopus frazari, proves to be a subspecies of Haemaiopus palliatus,
not, as commonly supposed, a full species. Nearly all the recently separated
North and Middle American su]3Species of shore-birds are suppressed as
insufficiently distinct for recognition. Three new subspecies are herein
described: Pagolla wilsonia heldingi from La Paz, Lower California; Pagolla
wilsonia cinnamomina from vSabanilla, Columbia; and Sterna anaetheta
nelsoni from Sihuatnejo, Guerrero, Mexico. Harry C. Oberholser.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a wkippoorwill from Porto Rico. Alex-
ander Wetmore. Proc. Biol. vSoc. Wash. 32: 2.3.5-238. December
31, 1919.
A whippoorwill from the island of Porto Rico appears to belong to a
new species, and is here named Setochalcis noctitherus. It is most closely
allied to Setochalcis vocifera vocifera, but differs in its shorter wing and certain
color characters of the female. Bones of this species have been found in
cave deposits on the island of Porto Rico and the species is now probably
extinct. Harry C. Oberholser.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a new subspecies of Pipilo fuscus. Harry
C. Oberholser. Condor 21: 210-211. September 30, 1919.
A series of Towhees from the middle portion of the peninsula of Lower
California belongs to an undescribed subspecies which may bear the name
Pipilo fuscus aripolius. Though occupying a geographic position inter-
mediate between Pipilo fuscus senicula of northern Lower California and
Pipilo fuscus albigulus of the Cape San Lucas region, this new race differs
from the latter in its longer tail, and in its darker and more grayish colora-
tion. It is of considerable interest since it establishes direct and complete
intergradation between Pipilo fuscus senicula and Pipilo fuscus albigulus,
and shows that these birds are but subspecifically related. This fact makes
necessary the reduction of Pipilo crissalis and its races to subspecies of
Pipilo fuscus. H. C. O.
ORNITHOLOGY. — The bird rookeries of the Tortugas. Paul BarTsch.
Smithsonian Report for 1917: 469-500. Pis. 1-38. 1919.
The small group of keys that compose the Tortugas is situated some 65
miles west of Key West, Florida. These keys are of much ornithological
interest since they furnish a breeding place for large numbers of water birds,
particularly terns. A census of the birds on these islands taken July 19-31,
1917, shows 32,810 individuals of 19 species present, although only Sterna
fuscata, Anous stolidus stolidus, Sternula antillarum antillarum, and Sterna
dougalli breed here. A list of all the birds hitherto found on the islands
totals 129. While no land birds nest here this list is of interest as showing
that the Tortugas are a good pausing place for north and south bound mi-
grants. The 38 half-tone plates represent chiefly various water birds, their
nests, eggs, and young. Harry C. Oberholser.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Birds observed on the Florida Keys and the southern
end of the mainland of Florida in 191Q. Paul BarTSCH. Year Book
of the Carnegie Institution 18: 205-210. 1920.
Daily notes on the birds of the Florida Keys and southern Florida are
FEB. 4, 1921 abstracts: ornithology 61
here presented in chronological order from December 28, 1918, to May
19, 1919. These observations furnish many data on the occurrence of
birds in these localities. In all, 97 species and subspecies were observed,
of which a list is given and on which notes are recorded. Of particular
interest is an immature great white heron taken from a nest on one of the
keys and subsequently sent by parcel post to the Zoological Garden at
Washington; and a new subspecies of clapper rail from the sixth key south-
west of Big Pine Key, to be subsequently described.
Harry C. Oberholser.
ORNITHOLOGY. — The systematic position of the ring-necked duck. N.
Hollister. Auk 36: 460-4G3. 1919.
A study of the ring-necked duck {Marila collaris) in life and in the lab-
oratory indicates that this species is more closely related to Nyroca americana
than to members of the genus Marila with which it is usually associated.
It is the New World representative of Marila fuligula, and in a sequence of
species or in the separation of allied species into generic or subgeneric groups,
it should be placed between Nyroca americana and Marila fuligula.
Harry C. Oberholser.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Federal protection of migratory birds. George A.
Lawyer. U. S. Dept. Agric. Year Book 1918: 303-316. 1919.
Game birds, particularly waterfowl, have greatly decreased in the United
States during recent decades. This condition has induced the various
states of the Union to pass numerous laws for the protection of such birds.
This has, however, not been sufficient, and a Federal law was enacted in
1913, while in 1916 the Migratory Bird Treaty between the LInited States
and Canada was negotiated. This treaty protects ducks, shore birds,
insectivorous birds, and many other migratory species. An enabling act
validating this treaty was passed by the Congress of the United States in
1918, by which statute the Secretary of the United States Department of
Agriculture is given jurisdiction over the administration of this law, and in
him is vested the authority to promulgate regulations for its enforcement.
Many states have already conformed their laws to the Federal regulations,
and the outlook for the increase of birds under such cooperation is bright.
Harry C. Oberholser.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Habits and economic relations of the guano birds of Peru.
Robert E. Coker. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 56: 449-511. Pis. 53-69.
1919.
During the course of investigations on the guano and fishery industries
of Peru many opportunities for observing the birds of the guano islands
along the coast of that country were offered. The various sea birds of
these rocky, barren islands produce annually 20,000 tons of guano, while
between 1851 and 1872, 10,000,000 tons were extracted from the Chincha
Islands alone. These islands, valuable as they are from a commercial
standpoint, are not less interesting scientifically. The most important
guano-producing bird of this region is Phalacrocorax bougainvillei, not,
as commonly supposed, Sula variegata, which is much less valuable in this
way than either the cormorant or the pelican. Of this species of cormorant
there were estimated to be about 150,000 individuals on the Ballestas Islands,
62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 3
and about 750,000 on the Chincha Islands, 400,000 of the latter being young.
The next important producer of guano is Pelicanus thagns, of which 100,000
were found on the islands of L,obos de Afuera. Other birds are much less
productive of guano, but make, however, some contribution. Among these
other birds, those most conspicuous in this region are Spheniscus humboldti,
Lams dominicanus, Larus belcheri, Lams niodesUis, Sterna himndinacea,
Larosterna inca, Diomedea irrorata, Oceanites oceanicus, Hydr abates pela-
gicus, Puffimts grisetis, Pelecanoides garnoti, Sula nebouxii, Phalacrocorax
vigua, and Phalacrocorax gaimardi. The 17 plates show various features
of the remarkable avian fauna of these islands. Harry C. Oberholser.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Notes on the races of Quiscalus quiscula {Linnaeus).
Harry C. Oberholser. Auk 36: 549-555. 1919.
Recent investigations show that the three current subspecies of Quiscalus
quiscida (Linnaeus) are fully entitled to recognition; but since Quiscalus
quiscula quiscula (Linnaeus) was originally based on the bird from South
Carolina, which is the same as the Florida race Quiscalus quiscida aglaeus
Baird, it becomes the name for the southern race. The northern bird hitherto
called Quiscalus quiscula quiscula proves to be without a name, since all
the synonyms of the species relate to the typical form from the southern
United States. The birds from the middle and eastern United vStates are
therefore named Quiscalus quiscida ridgwayi. H. C. O.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of another new subspecies of Lanius ludo-
vicianus. Harry C. Oberholser. Wilson Bull. 31: 87-90. 1919.
The breeding form of Lanius ludovicianus that occupies north central
Lower California is a readily recognizable subspecies, and is here named
Lanius ludoviciamis grinnelli. It is a very darkly colored bird with little
white on the scapulars, and small terminal white areas on the outer rectrices,
and is apparently most nearly related to Lanius ludovicianus anthonyi
and to Lanius ludovicianus mearnsi. Present investigations show that
Lanius ludovicianus mearnsi is readily recognizable as a subspecies although
commonly considered a synonym of Lanius ludovicianus anthonyi.
H. C. O.
ORNITHOLOGY. — The status of Larus hyperboreus barrovianus Ridgivay.
Harry C. Oberholser. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 173-17G. 1919.
A further investigation into the claims of Larus hyperboreus barrovianus
Ridgway to recognition as a subspecies indicates that it is a tenable race.
It is distinguishable from Larus hyperboreus hyperboreus in the smaller size;
in the relatively as well as actually slenderer bill ; and in the noticeably darker
upper surface. H. C. O.
ORNITHOLOGY.— i?^^or/s on the scientific restdts of the expedition to the
tropical Pacific in charge of Alexander Agassiz. XXI. The birds.
Charles Haskins Townsend and Alexander Wetmore. Bull.
Mus. Comp. Zool. 63: 151-225. 1919.
This is a report on collections made h)y Mr. Charles H. Townsend during
the cruise of the U. S. Fisheries Steamer "Albatross," in the Pacific Ocean
from August, 1899, to March, 1900. During this voyage, which was under-
taken for the purpose of studying the coral reef district of the tropical Pacific
the following island groups were visited: Marquesas, Paumotu, Society,
FEB. 4, 1921 abstracts: ornithology 63
Cook, Tonga, Fiji, Ellice, Gilbert, Marshall, Caroline, and Ladrone. There
was made a collection comprising 406 specimens of birds, representing 93
forms, 14 of them here described for the first time. An annotated list of
the species obtained gives various data on plumage, relationships, and dis-
tribution, and includes also various critical notes. The new species and
subspecies here described are as follows: Ixobrychus sinensis moorei, from
Uala Island, Caroline Islands; Glohicera oceanica townsendi from Ponape
Island, eastern Caroline Islands; Sauropatis sacra rabulata from Eua Island;
Tonga Islands; Saiiropaiis sacra celada from Vavau Island, Tonga Islands
Myiagra townsendi from Kambara Island, Fiji Islands; Conopoderas atypha
from Fakarava Island, Paumotu Islands; Conopoderas atypha rava from
Whitsunday Island, Paumotu Islands; Conopoderas atypha crypta from Ma-
kemo Island, Paumoto Islands; Conopoderas atypha agassizi from Apataki
Island, Paumotu Islands; Conopoderas atypha nesiarcha from Rangiroa
Island, Paumotu Islands; Conopoderas atypha erema from Makatea Island,
Paumotu Islands; Conopoderas percernis from Eukuhiva Island, Marquesas
Islands; Pinarolestes nesiotes from Kambara Island, Fiji Islands; and Wyzo-
niela ruhrata [sic ] dichromata from Ponape Island, eastern Caroline Islands.
H. C. Oberholser.
ORNITHOLOGY.— A'ote5 on North American birds. IX. Harry C. Ober-
holser. Auk 36: 556-559. 1919.
The proper name for the bird now known as Phaethon americanus is Lep-
tophaethon lepturtis catesbyi, since the American bird is only subspecifically
separable from Leptophaethon lepturus. The form of Scaeophaethon rubri-
caudns occurring accidentally in North America proves to belong to the
subspecies Scaeophaethon rnbricaiidus rothschildi instead of to the typical
race as hitherto supposed. The forms of the genus Casnierodiiis {Herodias)
are commonly considered as distinct species. They are, however, only
subspecifically related, as their individual variation clearly shows. Birds
from Australia, separated recently as Herodias alba syrmatophora Gould
by Mr. G. M. Mathews, do not appear to differ sufficiently from Casmero-
diues albus tiinoriensis to be maintained as a separate subspecies. The
forms of this beautiful heron should, therefore, stand as Casmerodius albtis
albus, Casmerodius albtis timoriensis, and Casmerodius albus egretta. The
specimen that forms the basis of the North American record of Charadrius
dubius Scopoli proves to belong to the recently distinguished race Charadirus
dubius curonicus. This being the case, it should stand as such on our North
American list. H. C. O.
ORNITHOLOGY. — A new subspecies of Prunella modtdaris from the Pyrenees.
Francis Harper. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 243-244! 1919.
Se\'eral specimens of Prunella modtdaris from the Pyrenees of France
represent a new subspecies, which is here called Prvtnella modularis mabbotti.
It differs from its nearest ally, Prunella modidaris modularis in the much more
grayish, less rufescent coloration of the back and wings. The type locality
is a mountain about three kilometers south of Salliagouse, Departrhent of
Pyrenees-Orien tales, France. Harry C. Oberholser.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY
614th meeting
The 614th meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held
October 30, 1920, at 8.10 p.m., in the lecture hall of the Cosmos Club. Vice-
president Ned Hollister presided, and 41 persons were present.
Brief notes were submitted as follows: Dr. T. S. Palmer announced
the meeting of the American Ornithological Union in the United vStates
National Museum, November 9-11, with concurrent exhibits in the Library
of Congress and National Museum. Dr. L. O. Howard stated that during
the summer he witnessed a flight of grasshoppers in France. Part of the
army was detailed to light them. In the course of the operations they found
the grasshoppers to be a very desirable article of diet.
Regular program
Austin H. Clark: On crinoids.
In the recent seas there are found 576 species, 142 genera, and 28 families
of crinoids; 76 species, 22 genera, and 6 families include stalked forms,
while 500 species, included in 120 genera and 22 families, are comatulids.
The speaker discussed the interrelationships of the crinoids; viviparous
crinoids; sexual differentiation; regeneration; asymmetry; the composition
of the crinoid skeleton ; distribution ; the paleontological history of the recent
crinoids and their relation to the fossils; the occurrence of the littoral crinoids;
the re ation of the crinoids to temperature; food, locomotion and color;
and the extraordinary close structural correspondence between crinoids and
plants, with the reasons for it. He called attention to the fact that the
fixed marine animals are most markedly differentiated by their food-collect-
ing mechanism, while the plants are chiefly differentiated by their flowers;
paralleli m in the conditions to be met has resulted in the polyps and the
crinoid crowns and the insect-pollinated flowers adopting a similar form and
differential value. He also mentioned that the arrangement of the gonads
in the crinoids is essentially similar to that of the flowers in wind pollinated
plants The paper ended with a discussion of the plant-like relationships
existing between the crinoids and the arborescent marine animals and their
parasites. (Author's abstract.) The paper was discussed by Dr. L. O.
Howard and Mr. A. A. DoolittlE.
Walter J. vSwingle: Ch nese botany and Chinese botanists.
Mr. vSwingle commented upon the exceeding richness of China's flora, es-
pecially that of trees and shrubs. China possesses all but one of the genera
of woody plants occurring in the United States, besides many of her own.
The causes were traced to the absence of natural barriers to free north and
south migration of species during the glacial periods. The number of species
in some of the genera, and the importance of many of the species to agriculture,
were discussed. jMr. Swingle stated that China had a very ancient botanical
literature. vSome of the works of great magnitude and value date back for
64
FEB. 4, 1921 proceedings: biological society 65
more than ten centuries, and are more creditable than some recent works in
occidental countries. There are still some very activebotanists, oneof whom
has published the largest descriptive treatise ever attempted, and one of
great merit. Successful agricultural schools are established, as well as re-
foresting projects. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides of Chinese
plants, plant environments, books, gardens and botanists. The paper was
discussed by Mr. T. L. Gary.
6I0TH MEETING
The 615th meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held in
the lecture hall of the Cosmos Club on November 13, 1920. Vice-president
Ned Hollister called the meeting to order at 8.10 p.m., with 40 persons
present.
On recommendation of the Council Messrs. Oscar P. Silliman, Salinas,
California; M. Sloog, of the A. L. P. Agence de Libraire de Publications,
New York City; S. Stillman Berry, Redlands, California, and Herbert
J. P.\CK, Logan, Utah, were elected to membership.
Informal communications
Dr. Paul Bartsch stated that the ship-worm problem in San Francisco
Bay is reaching important proportions. The Navy has lost $7,000,000 worth
of piling, and commercial shipping has sustained a loss of $5,000,000. The
damage is caused by a Teredo, probably undescribed. Dr. Bartsch also
referred to two land shells, .Epiphragmophora, which have probably been
differentiated very recently. One, a large form, was rather rare under the
needles of cypress, and at a little distance, occurring only on rocks under
shelter; Mosambrianthum , a composite, was a smaller form, otherwise identical.
Each had its own associates. Also in the Hawaiian Islands, Dr. Bartsch
noted a honey-eating bird with the same repulsive odor as that of the Honey
Creeper of South America. An explanation of the similarity of odors was
desired.
Dr. T. vS. Palmer, referring to the meeting of the American Ornithological
Union, recently held in Washington, said that the attendance was 140,
out of a membership of 1140, the largest on record. The attendance at the
technical sessions indicated great interest. The Chairman remarked, apro-
pos of interest in the more technical aspects of biology, that the symposium
upon subspecific characters brought out both large attendance and great
interest, when the subject was wholly technical.
Mr. William Palmer exhibited the type skull of Rhabdostetts, one of several
genera of very peculiar dolphin-like animals, possessing extremely extended
upper jaws. Mr. Palmer exhibited parts of a similar skull, enough to re-
construct a skull 39 inches long, collected from the beds south of Chesapeake
Beach, Maryland.
Regular progratn
R. W. Shufeldt: A snake affected with chiggers.
A black snake was found by Dr. Shufeldt which had unusual swellings in
the skin of the anterior third of the body. The animal could not shed the
skin thus affected, and seemed to be considerably discomfited. A little
soaking in warm water enabled the skin to be removed easily, and the snake
gave evidence of relief. The snake had been in the hands of several biol-
ogists, and on coming into the hands of Dr. H. E. Ewing, of the Bureau of
Entomology, the skin was microscopically examined, and was clearly found
66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 3
to be harboring a number of chiggers. The pests were confined to the scaly
outer membrane. A photograph of the infected snake and microscopic
preparations of the skin showing the chiggers were exhibited.
Dr. Shufeldt's paper was discussed by Dr. Bartsch, who had seen ticks
upon a black snake. Mr Wm. Palmer had noticed ticks on the Pine Liz-
ard. Mr. Goldman had found ticks common in the ears of snakes and lizards
in South America. Dr. Ewing, commenting upon the specimen and in an-
swer to questions raised, said that the chiggers were doubtless wholly ad-
ventitious upon the snake, and that the instance did not throw any light
upon the life history of the chigger, which was unknown, except in the case
of a disease-bearing species of Japan. The supposed immunity of individuals
to chiggers, their very unequal distribution, even in circumscribed areas,
and other problems connected with their life history and economic relations,
were discussed. Col. Thomas Carey emphasized the need for investigations
of this pest.
Charles W. Gilmore : Remarks on some additions to the fossil vertebrate
exhibition in the National Museum.
Dr. Gilmore discussed some of the difficulties involved in building up a
representative exhibition collection of fossil vertebrates. It was pointed
out that of 20,000 specimens in the National Museum, only 40 were articu-
lated skeletons, or of every 1000 specimens collected, only two might be ex-
pected to be perfect enough to be suitable for exhibition purposes. This
ratio was not considered a constant one for all collections, but it indicated
the comparative rarity of well-preserved fossil vertebrate specimens.
It was shown that the articulation and mounting of fossil skeletons for
public exhibition is a comparatively recent phase in the development of
vertebrate paleontology in this country. Very few were thus exhibited prior
to 1900, and the first skeleton in the National Museum was set up in 1902.
The great amount of time consumed in prepairng fossil skeletons for
exhibition was discussed. A skeleton of Dimetrodon required 533 working
days, and that of Stegosaiiriis 626 days, or more than two years' steady work
for one man. The style of mounts was briefly touched upon, and the de-
sirability of preserving articulated skeletons, especially of the reptiles,
in the positions in which they were found in the field, was emphasized.
The National Museum was said to rank third on the list among American
museums having similar exhibits of extinct vertebrate life.
Following this brief discussion Dr. Gilmore exhibited slides of the more
important accessions to the collection in recent years. The most striking of
these were: Stegosaunis, an armored dinosaur; Ceratosaurus, a flesh-eating
dinosaur; Dimetrodon, a giant spined reptile; Brontotherium, a large mammal
from Nebraska; Epigaellus, a horned rodent from Kansas; Stenomylus, a
small camel from Nebraska. The more striking characteristics of these
animals were pointed out and life restorations were shown, including two
modeled by the speaker and here exhibited for the first time. (Author's
abstract.)
The paper was discussed by Drs. T. S. Palmer, Shufeldt, and BarTSCH.
A. A. DooLiTTLE, Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
The National Geographic Society announces the foundation of a series of
Memoirs for the publication of the results of its expeditions. The first
number will be devoted to a general account of the Katmai Expeditions,
and technical papers on the botanical, entomological, geological and chemical
results will follow. Prof. R. F. Griggs, director of the Katmai Expeditions,
has been requested to devote his full time to the completion of this series of
reports, and has accordingly resigned from the faculty of the Ohio State
University and has taken up his residence in Washington.
At the request of the Radio Dynamic Torpedo Unit, Coast Artillery Corps,
U. S. Army, arrangements have been made for the cooperation of the Coast
and Geodetic Survey with the U.S. Army in the securing of data on currents
in connection with the development of subaqueous sound ranging.
The Secretary of State has authorized Mr. William Bowie, who, prior to
the war, was a member of the Permanent Commission of the International
Geodetic Association, to notify the secretary of the Neutral Geodetic Associa-
tion that the United States formally withdraws from this association. In
1916, a number of neutral countries — the United States being one of them —
voted to continue the International Geodetic Association. When the
United States entered the war it ceased to take an active part in this asso-
ciation.
Within the two years of its existence the new Czecho-Slovak Republic has
established two new universities, one at Brno (Brunn) and the other at
Bratislava (Pressburg). In addition the University at Prag finds itself this
year with a nearly redoubled number of students, of whom there are now
over 10,000. With the generally and greatly reduced exchange values of
European currency, it has become exceedingly difficult for the scientific men
of these universities to provide themselves with literature in all branches of
learning published since 1914, and they appeal to their American colleagues
for all possible help in this direction. Publications should be sent to Dr. A.
Hrdlicka, U. S. National Museum.
The Division of Plants of the National Museum has received a package
of plants from the State of Oaxaca, Mexico, collected by Professor C. CoN-
ZATTi, who has from time to time during the last twenty years forwarded
to the Museum several thousand Mexican plants. Most notable among the
specimens of this last shipment is a branch from the famous cypress tree at
El Tule, near the city of Oaxaca. This tree, which is many centuries old,
has a trunk circumference of over 100 feet and a height of about 130 feet,
and is one of the largest trees known.
A valuable and well-mounted collection of moths and butterflies, including
many from Oriental countries, collected by the late J. P. Iddings, petrologist
and mineralogist, has been presented by his heirs to the National Museum.
Dr. George I. Adams, formerly with the U. S. Geological Survey, spent
October in Washington. Since leaving the Survey he has been professor of
geology in the Government University at Peking, China, and is now pro-
67
68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 3
fessor of geology and mineralogy in the University of Alabama, at Tuscaloosa,
Alabama.
Dr. H. Foster Bain, consulting geologist and mining engineer, and formerly
editor of the Mining and Scientific Press and the Mining Magazine, has been
nominated as Director of the Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior,
to succeed Dr. F. G. Cottrell, who resigned on January 1 in order to de-
vote full time to his work as Chairman of the Division of Chemistry and
Chemical Technology, National Research Council.
Dr. Henry Andrews Bumstead, professor of physics and director of the
Sloane Physical Laboratory, Yale University, and chairman of the National
Research Council in Washington, died on January 1, 1921, while on his way
to Washington from the Chicago meeting of the American Association.
Dr. Bumstead was born at Pekin, Illinois, March 12, 1870. He had been
connected with the department of physics at Yale since his graduation from
Johns Hopkins University in 1891. His research work had been chiefly in
the fields of radioactivity and Rontgen radiation. During the war he was
scientific attache to the American Embassy in London.
Dr. M. E. Holmes has been appointed manager of the chemical department
of the National Lime Association, with offices at 918 G Street, Washington.
Mr. B. L. Johnson has been placed in charge of the Section of Foreign
Mineral Reserves of the U. S. Geological Survey.
Mr. Frederick H. Newell, formerly Chief of the U. S. Reclamation
Service, who in 1915 became professor of civil engineering at the University
of Illinois, has withdrawn from his university work and is again making his
headquarters in Washington.
The party under E. W. Shaw, including G. L. Harrington, Edwin Kirk,
and C. P. Ross, geologists, and R. H. Sargent, topographer, which for nine
months has been making geologic and topographic surveys in South America,
has returned to this country. Mr. vShaw resumed his regular work on the
Geological Survey in January.
Prof. C. J. Tilden, professor of engineering mechanics at Yale University,
has been granted leave of absence for a year to accept the position of director
of the highway and highway transport education committee, of which Dr.
P. P. Claxton, U. S. Commissioner of Education, is chairman. The new
director will take charge immediately of the work planned by the committee,
which includes the compilation of economic, scientific, and engineering data
relative to highway construction and highway transport, and the distribution
of these data to educational institutions.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. U February 19, 1921 No. 4
GENERAL SCIENCE. — The distribution of scientific information
in the United States.'^ Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Labora-
tory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Of making many books there is no end. — EcclESIastes xii, 12.
But easy writing's curst hard reading. — SheRIDAN, Clio's Protest.
My two texts represent only two facets of a many-sided subject,
about which much has been written and on which many opinions
have been held. In this brief address I can hope only to sketch
an outline of the subject as it appears from the standpoint of the
scientific investigator, and illustrate the sketch with a few data
drawn from observation and experiment.
For a subject so much more closely allied to applied sociology
than to philosophy or "natural science," I cannot do better than
make use of that excellent outline for any sociological discussion
made familiar to the public by Professor Irving Fisher.- Any socio-
logical problem may be considered under the following four heads:
(I) What is it? (II) Why' is it? (Ill) What of it? (IV) What
are you going to do about it?
I. THE PROBLEM OF DISTRIBUTION
It was much in fashion before 1914 to argue about the relative
merits of different systems of production. Most of our interest
seemed to be directed toward the problem of producing commodities
for human needs, and relatively little to the problem of distributing
' Address of the retiring president, Philosophical Society of Washington, presented
at the meeting on January 15, 1921. Received January 22, 1921.
^ American problems of reconstruction (New York, 1919), p. 362.
69
70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 4
those commodities when produced. It required the stress of war
conditions in 1917 and 1918 to wake us up to the fact that production
was far better organized than distribution. It w^as not the factories
and mines and farms that had to be taken over and unified under
government control to meet war emergencies, but the railroads,
steamship Hues, export organizations, and wholesale and retail agencies
of distribution.
An analogous situation has existed in the field of research for new
knowledge. Private funds are expended in elaborate investigations;
university laboratories and personnel are devoted to research on
every conceivable subject; great foundations are established to carry
forward systematized inquiry into problems too extensive for in-
dividuals to handle ; and State and Federal governments devote large
annual appropriations to obtaining new and useful knowledge through
experiment and observation. Of what use is all this effort, unless
its results be made available so that the public may benefit, intel-
lectually or materially?
Yet the distribution of all this information is, relatively speaking,
neglected, and left to the uncertain channels of the untutored private
author, the unsympathetic clerk, or the sensation-seeking news
agency. Much of it practically disappears from view soon after
its discovery.
Let me emphasize this statement of the situation by a concrete
example, taken from an informal communication by Mr. R. W.
Stone'^ before the Geological Society of Washington in November,
1917.
About the year 1902 representatives of the Geological Survey of
the State of Washington observed that the rock in a certain "marble"
quarry consisted almost entirely of crystalline magnesium carbonate.
Similar rocks were at the same time shown to exist at other localities
in the State. The chemical analyses and other facts were published
by the State Survey. Meanwhile the "marble" proved to be not a
success as a building or decorative stone and the original quarry
was abandoned and grew up in weeds.
Then came the World War, and by 1917 Austrian magnesite,
which had until then been delivered on the Atlantic coast for the
eastern steel works, was completely cut off. A massive magnesite
from California then began to be shipped east. Chemical analyses
showing that a better magnesite existed in Washington slumbered
3 This Journal 8: 99. 1918.
FEB. If), 1921 sosman: distribution of scientific information 71
on the shelves. Meanwhile there came into the story a wandering
lumber-cruiser, who happened to pick up a piece of the "marble"
in the weed-grown quarry, and showed it to an official of a pulp
company, who gave it to his chemist. The chemist reported that
it was nearly pure MgCOs. The official promptly bought the quarry
for a nominal sum, resigned from the pulp company, and in a few
months was shipping several hundred tons of magnesite per day,
at about forty dollars per ton, to Ohio and Pennsylvania steel com-
panies.
The producers of the original information did their task well; its
distributors did theirs so poorly that the product never reached its
ultimate consumer, the average citizen of the United States, in the
crisis when he most needed it, and he had to fall back upon its redis-
covery through the chance curiosity of a wandering lumberjack who
had never read a geological bulletin in his life.
Probably every one of you could provide a similar story from
your own experience to illustrate the futility of publication. But why
should anyone be so unaware of vital facts, in a land which is flow-
ing with publications and in which nearly everyone can read? The
consideration of this question brings us to our second heading :
II. THE CAUSES OF ineffective DISTRIBUTION
In the case of that minority of the population which can not read,
ignorance of the very existence of useful information is sufficient
to account for its failure to be distributed. This obvious cause
needs no analysis.
The case that requires looking into is the case of that large propor-
tion of the population which can read, if it will. The present in-
effective distribution of information to this part of the population
ma}^ be traced to two causes: (1) disinclination to use the knowledge
we possess; (2) inaccessibility of the information when it is desired.
It is a familiar fact that the first reaction of the average individual
to a new situation which contains element? of danger is to "hope
for the best." This is true over the whole range of incidents from
a "common cold" to those sources of international friction which
result in wars. Scientific information — which means simply the
systematized results of experiment and observation — is available
as a guide to action in most of these situations, but we quite often
proceed as if no human beings had ever had to grapple with such
a problem before, or as if no record existed of the results of such
72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. -i
experiences. One philosopher, experienced in research, administra-
tion, and poUtics, refers to this lamentable fact as "the law of the
conservation of ignorance."^ Perhaps this law is only a natural
inheritance from our happy-go-lucky simian ancestors;^ but I gladly
leave that problem to the anthropologists, psychologists, and psycho-
analysts, and turn to the second cause of ineffective distribution,
one which comes much more within the ken of a physical scientist.
THE INACCESSIBILITY OF SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION
It might seem that in a land so full of newspapers, periodicals,
books, reading rooms, libraries, museums, lecture halls, and "movie"
theaters, one could not properly speak of the "inaccessibility" of pub-
lished information. But this very abundance is the first of three
important causes that make any particular item of information quite
inaccessible. A second cause is found in the extremely heterogene-
ous character of the product. And a third is the physical inability
of some of our methods to connect producer and consumer, as will
appear from a quantitative analysis of the situation.
In looking into this matter in more detail, I wish first to separate
our complicated modern methods of distributing information into
their "pure components," in order to see in what respects each
one fails, or is likely to fail, in effectiveness.
But let it first be clearly understood that we are discussing the
distribution of information, not advice. To illustrate: in the field
of human physiology and pathology it is our custom seldom to
ask the physician for information, but to expect only advice, that
is, recommendations as to what to do next. To be sure, advice is
what we usually need, and its distribution will always be a more
necessary and a much larger industry than the distribution of in-
formation; but it is too big a subject to receive more than this
passing mention here.
Under the term "scientific information" I shall include all sys-
tematized knowledge, gained by laboratory experiment, by observa-
tion of natural phenomena, or by the bringing together of old facts
in new and significant combinations. Let us consider the channels
by which this information is conveyed from its discoverer or assem-
bler (the producer) to other individuals or to the public at large
(the consumers). Five important channels may be distinguished:
* Carnegie Institution of Washington, Year Book 15: 14. 1916.
^ Clarence Day, Jr. This simian world. (New York, 1920.)
FEB. 19, 1921 sosman: distribution of scientific information 73
(1) personal communication, (2) the public lecture, (3) the museum
or exhibition, (4) the printed page, (5) the "movie" film.
We shall also bear in mind that for our present purposes a fairly
sharp division can be drawn between two classes of consumers. The
one, relatively small in numbers, consists of those who themselves
are also producers of information, while the other consists of the
greater part of the country's population.
Distribution by personal communication. — Undoubtedly the most
effective method of distributing information, as far as the individual
is concerned, is by personal communication. Anyone who has
tried it knows that to discuss an unfamiliar subject with a specialist
in that subject for an hour or two is equivalent to reading about it
for a week.
Unfortunately, this method, the most effective of all as regards
the individual, is the least effective of all as far as the public is con-
cerned. The actual producers of scientific information in the United
States form a very small fraction of the population. Those who
devote all or part of their time to this pursuit can hardly number
more than 50,000. If, then, every person in the country went to
an original source only once a year for information, each producer
would have to talk with 2120 inquirers per year, or about 7 persons
per day on every one of 300 working days. Needless to say, pro-
duction of new information would practically cease under such cir-
cumstances.
This interference of distribution with production, which I have
just hinted at, is more serious than we are accustomed to consider
it, for though every inhabitant of the United States does not seek
original information even once a year, there are many inhabitants
who seek it much oftener than that. Industrial concerns, with
whom reliable new information is often a matter of success or failure,
realize the value of personal contact and do not hesitate to send
representatives on long journeys and pay their expenses for con-
siderable periods, in order to get into personal touch with original
sources. The public or quasi-public investigator also realizes it,
sometimes to his sorrow. There is frequent complaint from members
of the Government scientific bureaus that their time is seriously
broken up by requests for information, in person, by telephone, or
by letter. As one member of an active research organization expressed
it, "I wish they would give me either the job of supplying information
or the job of doing research; I cannot attempt both at once without
spoiling them both."
74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 1 1 , NO. 4
The distribution of information to fellow-producers by this method,
in exchange for similar information from their experience, is, however,
one of the most important factors in the production of new knowledge,
and is to be sharply distinguished from "unproductive" distribution
to the public.
The informational middleman. — We have seen that the public
as a whole cannot have access to the original sources, either in person
or by mail. This kind of situation has been met in the commercial
world since time immemorial through the aid of the middleman, —
broker, commission merchant, wholesaler, retailer. Most of these
agencies perform a useful service, which must be paid for, as organizers
of cooperative distribution frequently find to their cost. Although
the distribution of information is not as elaborately organized, its
agencies are quite analogous to those used in commerce. Two types
are to be distinguished, however: first, those which distribute infor-
mation freely or at a nominal fee; and, second, those which distribute
it for profit.
To the first class belong the information offices of the larger govern-
mental bureaus, standing between the investigator and the public.
A particularly efTective example of this type is constituted by the
"demonstration agents" of the Department of Agriculture and the
State agricultural colleges. In 1919, 1200 "county agents" in the
northern and western states conducted over 90,000 demonstrations
reaching 1 million people, besides distributing information person-
ally to individuals in various other ways. Other examples of the
philanthropic type are the Research Information Service of the Na-
tional Research Council, which aims to bring investigators into touch
with each other; and the informational staffs of our public libraries.
In the second class, those operated for profit, the agencies dis-
tribut'ng commercial and financial infoimation are much further
advanced in organization than those concerned w4th the physical
and natural sciences. Babson's financial and investment service
is a type in the field of economics. The corresponding function for
chemistry, physics, geology, and related sciences is usually still
handled as a part of the work of the consulting engineer, although
in certain establishments like that of Arthur D. Little, Inc., this
part of the work is given an important position and dignified with
offices and records of its own. It is also a growing custom for manu-
facturers to employ representatives in Washington to keep them in
touch with the Federal bureaus.
FEB. 19, 1921 sosman: distribution of scientific information 75
In the field of human physiology and pathology, as before remarked,
the sale of information is distinctly a minor matter compared with
the sale of advice.*' This case serves very well to illustrate another
restriction on the distribution of information for profit, namely,
that the information is frequently a part of the working capital and
equipment of the middleman (physician, consulting engineer, etc.),
and if sold should bring a much higher price than advice. We should
logically and reasonably expect to pay at least twenty times as much
for the one as for the other.
To summarize: The method of personal communication of infor-
mation, direct or through the middleman, is effective enough as
between producers; but is usually quite ineffective with respect to
the public simply from physical inaccessibility, except in certain
cases where it has been organized on a considerable scale for the
definite purpose of distributing certain kinds of information.
Distribution by public lectures. — It is probable that men have always
assembled together for the purpose of being harangued, exhorted,
or entertained by one of their number, but their assembly to receive
information from a speaker or reader seems a development of modern
civilization. Even now, there are relatively few human beings who
can be induced to sit still for more than a few minutes to hear facts
stated or theories expounded, even when it is done with skill and
in an interesting way. Such folk are mostly to be found in scientific
or cultural societies, yet even in this limited circle I have observed
(at a general meeting of the American Association, for example)
that there are often more members in the lobby than there are listening
to the papers.
All this is merely an expression, I suppose, of the fact that although
the ear is a very much better physical instrument than the eye,
impressions received through spoken words have only a fraction of the
clearness of impressions received through the sense of sight.
As before, we may distinguish between philanthropic lecturing
and lecturing for profit. The comparative rarity of the latter in
its pure form is perhaps an indication of the method's essential in-
efifectiveness, to which reference has already been made. It is seldom
if ever used commercially without the assistance of some oth r appeal,
such as moving pictures or the attraction of getting a personal view
of some celebrity.
^ In this field we have the condition, anomalous in a community whose form of govern-
ment is based upon the assumption of an intelligent and informed public, that the sale
of certain kinds of information is forbidden by law.
70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 4
Philanthropic lecturing is done almost entirely through the medium
of scientific or technical societies, which have now become very
numerous. Washington alone possesses 35 or more.^ The distribu-
tion of information by lecturers is also a secondary activity of many
social organizations. Finally there should be mentioned its use,
admittedly rather ineffective, in college and university instruction.
Altogether, assuming that there are annually in the District of Colum-
bia 300 meetings of scientific societies, 500 lectures before social
organizations, and 3000 lectures in our 8 universities and colleges,
with an attendance of 50 persons at each, a public informational
lecture reaches a given individual in the District on an average once
in every 2.4 years. And Washington is undoubtedly ahead of most
American cities in this respect.
To summarize: The public lecture is largely used for the dis-
tribution of information among producers of information, in which
function its effectiveness, though not small, is limited more by the
heterogeneous character of the output than by any other factor.^ It
is very ineffective with respect to the public, not so much from physical
inaccessibility as from the limitations set upon it by the laws of
psychology.
Museums and exhibitions. — Next in logical order after methods of
personal communication and public announcement should be placed
methods depending on the exhibition for public study of objects,
specimens, models, etc. Although the temporary "exhibition" or
"exposition" and the permanent museum both have a function as
distributors of information, they can be traced to rather different
origins; the exhibition, to the market or "fair," designed to bring
together buyers and sellers of commodities; the museum, to the
ecclesiastical or imperial collection of objects of art, trophies, and
"curiosities," which collections later became the property of the
public and were devoted to purposes of public instruction. f^ p^^ri
The evolution of the modern scientific museum has been particu-
larly rapid. It has been hardly fifty years since the museum began
to be looked upon as sometliing more than a repository for the speci-
mens collected by explorers and a place for the study and comparison
of natural objects by specialists, and as offering tremendous possi-
bilities for the diffusion of knowledge. As compared with its pre-
decessors, the museum of today stresses the verb "diffuse" much
more than "collect."
^ Directory of the Washington Academy of Sciences and its affiliated societies, 1921 edition.
FEB. 19, 1921 sosman: distribution op scientific information 77
There is a curious psychical limitation on the effectiveness of the
museum, arising from the feeling on the part of many that a
museum is a place where dusty and cob -webbed curios have lain
on shelves for years; a place which one visits once in his lifetime,
while "traveling." The population of the District of Columbia
is a little over 0.4 million. During the twelve months ending with
June 1920 practically this number of people visited the main building
of the National Museum, and it is probable that the most of these
were tourists or travelers. Yet in the same period the National
Zoological Park, containing much that is interesting but little that
is usefully instructive, entertained over 2.2 million visitors.
The arithmetical limitation on the effectiveness of a museum
may be seen from the fact that if every city in the United States
having 10,000 or more inhabitants possessed a museum, and if a
given object in each were examined for two minutes by each one of
a constant stream of visitors passing all through a 7-hour day every
day in the year, then every person in the United States would have
such an opportunity for instruction once every three years.
The psychical disinclination to make real use of a museum is absent
in the case of the "exhibition," "exposition" or "fair," which is avail-
able only for a short time and must be taken advantage of at once
or not at all. The commercial world has made use of this medium
of distributing information to a much greater extent than the scientific
world, but its possibilities are well illustrated on the small scale by
the success of such expositions as that held a few years ago by the
Washington Academy of Sciences, and by the exhibition of the wire-
less telephone held in Washington last year by the National Research
Council and the American Telephone and Telegraph Company;
and on the large scale by the National Exposition of Chemical Indus-
tries in New York, which instructed over 0.1 million people during
its few days of activity last September.
To summarize : The museum and exhibition are more efficiently
utilized by the public than by the investigator. It is probable that
comparatively little new knowledge is distributed to its producers
by this channel. The method is physically unable, however, to reach
the whole public effectively; but it is, of all the means of distribu-
tion, the one most capable of neutralizing, by systematic and cor-
related exhibits, the disadvantage of heterogeneity.
Distribution by the printed page. — The changed circumstances of
the world that followed from the invention of printing, and especially
78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 4
from the invention of the chemical and mechanical processes for the
manufacture of wood-pulp, need not be gone into here. Social
philosophers alternately approve and lament the change. It is
plain that we are almost literally carried along on a stream of wood-
pulp. The country's activities are nearly as dependent on a con-
stant supply of printing and writing paper as upon constant supplies
of coal and iron. About 3.4 million metric tons of printing and
writing paper were manufactured in the United States in 1918, or
29 kg. for each individual. It will be of interest to inquire how
much of this was used for the distribution of scientific information,
and how effectively.
Books. — Of all the means of distribution by printing, that by books
is intrinsically the most effective. The term "book" is a little diffi-
cult to limit, but I include under the term any publication in which
one subject or group of subjects is treated in a single unit, with some
attempt at completeness or comprehensiveness. This would include,
for example, some of the bulletins of the Federal and State geological
surveys, but not all.
Most scientific and technical books are published for profit. The
output in this class in the United States in 1920 I estimate at about
1900 works including new editions.^ If we assume that the average
number of each printed was 1000, the total would be about equivalent
to one volume to each 55 individuals of the population per year.
Their effectiveness is not represented by this figure, however, because
the use of each is considerably multiplied by the existence of public
libraries; fairly exact quantitative data on this point might be ob-
tained by the study of existing library statistics.
A second group comprises books which are made to pay the cost
of their paper, printing and binding. Examples are the publications
of the West Virginia Geological Survey, the Carnegie Institution
of Washington, and some Federal bulletins. These are usually
distributed free to libraries, and reach a much larger number through
that medium than by direct sale.
A third group comprises books distributed free or at a purely
nominal charge. This includes the greater part of the "book"-
literature among the publications of the Federal bureaus and State
experiment stations. These books likewise receive wide use through
libraries, perhaps wider in certain cases than by direct free distribu-
tion.
^ See also F. E. Woodward. A graphic survey of book publication, i8go-igi6. Bur.
Education BulL 1917, No. 14.
FEB. 19, 1921 sosman: distribution of scientific information 79
Contrary to what might logically be expected, the efficiency of
distribution of books made and sold for profit appears to be greater
than that of books distributed free or at cost. The reason is perhaps
that the life of the business, in the former case, is absolutely dependent
on efficient advertising of the books produced. The carrying of an
adequate stock to meet the demand is also necessary. On the other
hand, institutions distributing books free or at cost do not always
feel the necessity of advertising or of carrying stocks, or even of
providing adequately for the prompt and business-like handling of
requests. As to their use in libraries, my few observations lead me
to believe that books are valued and cared for by librarians, just as
by individuals, approximately in proportion to what it has cost to
obtain them.
To summarize : As a means for the distribution of information
among its producers, books are relatively effective, those published
for profit rather more so than those published at cost or distributed
free. For distribution to the public they are less effective, the disparity
between profitable and philanthropic also being markedly greater ; but
they still probably exceed in present effectiveness any other form of
printed matter. With respect to both classes of consumers, scientific
books are not so numerous but that the desired information is rea-
sonably accessible; and they serve the invaluable purpose of sifting
and sorting the new knowledge as it comes out of the mill. But they
are under the disadvantage of being from one to twenty years behind
the times.
Scientific and technical periodicals and bulletins. — It is difficult to
visualize the tremendous volume of printed matter which is daily made
available to the reading public. The greater part of it consists of
newspapers, general periodicals, and popular books, but even the
small fraction of it which is devoted to science is impressive in its
bulk. The American Chemical Society, for example, printed about
250 metric tons of reading matter during the year 1920. It distrib-
uted to each of its members 15.0 kilograms of chemical information,
contained in about 8400 printed pages exclusive of advertising.
I might tell you, in the customary manner of statisticians, how
many times these pages could be made to girdle the earth, except
that such comparisons are about as meaningless as the original figures,
since nobody has any concrete^ picture of the size of the earth. A
much better realization is had of the bulk of this one year's chemistry
if I point out how long it would take to read it aloud.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 4
One can easily calculate that to read aloud at reasonable speed
the publications of the American Chemical Society for 1920 would
require about 514 hours, or 64 full working days of 8 hours each —
over two months. After seeing these facts it is not difficult to believe
the statement that no one individual can be fully informed as to the
progress of chemistry in all its branches.
After thus getting a realizing sense of the overwhelming bulk of
the Chemical Society's publications, let us recall that numerous other
agencies also are publishing chemical information. Then add to
this the volume of reading matter put forth by physicists, engineers,
geologists, astronomers, and biological scientists of every variety,
through the medium of publication agencies numbering in the scores
for this country alone, and the "futility of publication" of which I
gave an illustration at the beginning of this address becomes readily
understandable.
Like all the other media of distribution which we have considered,
this type must be divided into two classes, the philanthropic and the
profitable.
In the philanthropic class belong the journals and proceedings of
the scientific and technical societies, and the current bulletins of
Federal and State bureaus, university laboratories, and museums. As a
group the philanthropic periodicals are characterized by two features
both of which are inimical to effective distribution : subdivision into a
large number of independent units, and small circulation of each
unit. There were listed'' in the United States in 1920 about 240
strictly scientific and technological publications, not including such
as might be more properly called "trade journals," of which there
were about as many more. About 100 of those which I have classed
as "scientific and technological" were medical periodicals. Appar-
ently about one-fourth of the remainder (those devoted to "science
and engineering" as ordinarily understood) were published for profit.
The circulation of the philanthropic class varied from 75,000 for the
Journal oj the American Medical Association down to 175 for the
Journal of Entomology and Zoology of Claremont, California, but
the greater part of the scientific and technological group had a
circulation of the order of magnitude of 500 to 800.
The Federal bureaus in Wash ngton publish about 75 different series
of publications of a scientific or technological character, not counting
' Ayer's American newspaper annual and directory. (Philadelphia, 1921.) Evidently
the list is far from complete. Probably no list approaching completeness is in existence,
although one is now in course of compilation at the Smithsonian Institution.
FEB. 19, 1921 sosman: distribution of scientific information 81
maps and annual reports. ^° The size of the editions ^^ varies from a
few hundred to over a million, but most of them were of the order
of magnitude of 1000 to 3000. The Department of Agriculture dis-
tributed a total of 62.2 million documents in 1918. I have no data
at hand concerning bulletins of State bureaus, university bulletins,
or the undoubtedly numerous publications not listed in Ayer's Annual,
but their circulations are of the same order as for the scientific periodi-
cals.
As I indicated at the beginning of this section by the example of
the Chemical Society, the scientific-periodical type of printed matter
is overwhelming in its bulk with reference to the producers of infor-
mation, among whom it finds a large part of its circulation. At
the same time, the extreme heterogeneity of the product and the
extreme subdivision of its units of publication are its most outstanding
characteristics. The result is a very ineffective distribution of the
information even among its producers.
Praiseworthy efforts have been made to offset these disadvantages
by means of abstracting periodicals, indexes, and guides. But
so great is the bulk of material that even the indexes and guides
themselves are lost in the stream.
So much for the producing class. With respect to the general
public the philanthropic-scientific-periodical type of literature is
an almost negligible channel of distribution. The usual circulation
of a scientific periodical is about half a dozen copies per million in-
habitants, a relatively minor ripple in the great current of wood-
pulp. Yet it is not quite as bad as it looks, thanks to the existence
of abstracting periodicals and of public libraries. The more im-
portant results of a research published in the Journal of Physical
Chemistry, for example, with a circulation of only a few hundred,
are reproduced in Chemical Abstracts, which, by means of its circula-
tion of over 15,000 and its appearance in every important library
of the country, may place the data before many thousands of persons. ^^
The foregoing remarks concerning the bulk and heterogeneity of
*" Estimated from data in W. I. Swanton's Guide to United States Government publica-
tions. Bur. Education Bull. 1918, No. 2. See also E. GuERRiER, The Federal executive
departments as sources of information for libraries. Bur. Education Bull. 1919, No. 74.
" No published summarized data are available on this point. An act of 1895 limits
the initial edition of any departmental publication to 1000. Special acts provide for special
publications or particular bureaus. To supply large demands reprintings are permitted.
'- During the War a Library Information Service was maintained in Washington to
keep the librarians of the country in touch with Federal publications. Its future mainte-
nance is dependent on the passage of a bill now before Congress (H. R. 6870 and S. 2457).
82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 4
philanthropic periodicals apply equally well to those publislied for
profit, but there are some special features of the latter which require
further consideration.
The publication for profit of strictly technological periodicals
(not trade journals) is a relatively recent development. The most
conspicuous example is the group of journals published by the Mc-
Graw-Hill Company. They have the great advantage of being
edited, managed, and circulated by men whose business is editing,
managing and circulating periodicals, and nothing else. They do not
suffer from the haphazard editing, inefficient business management,
and almost neglected circulation characteristic of most scientific
society journals. At first rather looked down upon and avoided
by scientific investigators, this class of periodicals now obtains,
by contribution, special reporting, or reprinting, first-class readable
material which it puts into the hands of readers at a comparatively
small price.
The scientific societies have apparently not become aware of the
possibilities, both beneficent and dangerous, of these journals. It
is most important to recognize that their profit does not come from
subscriptions, but from advertising. Their problem, and likewise
the problem they offer the community, is thus exactly the same as
that of the popular magazine and the newspaper; they must publish
just enough reading matter, of just high enough grade, to most effi-
ciently carry the advertising, and no more. What this amount and
grade of reading matter shall be seems now fairly well established
for the newspaper, but is still a subject of empirical experimentation
by the popular magazine and the technical periodical published for
profit, with extinction as the penalty for the ones that make the
poorest guess.
This dependence upon advertising may even have the effect of
making it good policy to restrict the circulation in certain directions
rather than enlarge it, and thus make the journal actually work
against rather than for the widest distribution of the information
it carries. The American Machinist, for example, probably costs
in the neighborhood of twenty dollars per copy per year, yet it sells
for $4.00 per year. Obviously, to send this journal to a professor
of Latin, with no interest in and no buying power for machine tools,
even though he be willing and eager to pay his $4.00 for it, is to waste
$16.00, for the advertisers have no interest in supplying information
to professors of Latin. This extreme case will serve to emphasize
FEB. 19, 1921 sosman: distribution of scientific information 83
the fact that it might even become unprofitable to send the American
Machinist to any machinist but a master mechanic.
In this connection I may note an interesting experiment now
being made by the American Chemical Society. Considering the
possible profit from advertising as well as the desirability of serving
its industrial members, the Society in 1909 founded the Journal of
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, which has advertising and
business offices, and an editor who devotes all his time to the Journal.
The profit from this journal in 1919 was such that the Society was
enabled to do publishing and other work that would have required
an increase in dues of $3.00 per year for its 15,500 members, had this
aid not been available.
To summarize: Scientific and technological periodicals and bul-
letins reach the producers of information in overwhelming bulk.
The extreme heterogeneitv of the material and its subdivision into
many units of publication combine with this bulk to make them rela-
tively ineft'ective distributors of information even to the producing
class. With respect to the general public, their small circulation
makes them almost negligible as channels of distribution (with the
possible exception of certain Federal bulletins of wide circulation),
and public libraries can do little to offset this disadvantage, for the
average library has not the facilities for handling them all. The
type of periodical which is published for profit is affected in all these
respects by its dependence upon advertising.
Separates. ^^ — In an effort to prevent the complete drowning and
submergence of their work in the general current, many investigators
during the last half-century have adopted the plan of getting "re-
prints" of their published work, and distributing these by mail to
persons whom they know to be interested in the subject. In recent
years this method has even been adopted by some research institu-
tions, such as the Geophysical Laboratory and the Mt. Wilson Observa-
tory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and the Research
Laboratory of Physical Chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology. ^^ A few organizations carry stocks of separates
for sale {e.g., the Franklin Institute).
'^ Commonly (but incorrectly) called "reprints" in this country. A better term is
"offprints" (separata, extraits, Sonderabdriicke).
'* Separates from periodicals are occasionally used by the Federal bureaus; for example,
separates from the National Geographic Magazine by the U. S. Reclamation Service. Sep-
arates from their own periodicals are also distributed; for example, from the Journal of
Agricultural Research and the Proceedings of the National Museum.
84 JOURNAL OF THS WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 4
The publication of scientific periodicals in the form of loose separates
which can be filed according to the taste of the subscriber has been
suggested several times, and an actual trial of the plan was begun
by the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers
in 1920. It is still too soon to judge of the advantages or disadvan-
tages of the plan. Somewhat similar is the loose-leaf type of serial
literature best exemplified by Lefax.
Popular magazines. — There were listed ^^ in 1920 in the United
States and Canada 139 literary, illustrated, and humorous publica-
tions of general circulation, most of them issued monthly; 33 "women's
publications of home circulation;" and 25 "mail order publications."
In addition, there were 880 religious and 562 agricultural publications,
mostly w^eekly. The aggregate circulation of the first group was
about 22 million, and the individual circulation varied from 2.1
million down to 0.01 million. The aggregate circulation of all was of
the order of magnitude of 80 million; which, taking into account the
number of weekly publications, is very probably equivalent to at
least two copies per month for every inhabitant of the country, —
numerically a very effective medium of distribution.
The material published by these periodicals covers a wide range.
A few are specifically devoted almost wholly to scientific information.
Such are the Popular Science Monthly, Science and Invention, and
Scientific American Monthly. Having circulations of 0.1 to 0.25
million, and appearing in all public libraries, this group reaches
perhaps 2 million readers. The most striking example of success
in this field, and one which proves the existence of an extensive public
demand for information as well as for entertainment, is the National
Geographic Magazine of this city, with nearly 0.8 million circulation.
Beginning with the scientific-informational type, these general
periodicals may be arranged in order of decreasing amounts of in-
formation, ending with those made up entirely of fiction, fun, or
gossip. As a whole, they supply a very large quantity of scientific
information to the public, but the material is nearly as heterogeneous
and disconnected as that supplied by the strictly scientific group.
With respect to producers of information, they play a very small
part in distribution. Seldom, if ever, do they announce the original
results of research. They are under the necessity not so much of
making a correct and understandable record, as of making a readable
and interesting record, of discoveries. Hence their dependence upon
15 Ayer's Annual, 1921.
FEB. 19, 1921 sosman: distribution of scientific information 85
literary rather than scientific skill, — in other words, they must depend
upon the middleman rather than the producer for their material.
To summarize : The general monthly and weekly periodicals are at
present numerically the most effective agency for the distribution of
scientific information to the public ; bulk and heterogeneity, however,
discount their effectiveness as compared with books. They are a
negligible factor in distribution to producers of information.
Newspapers. — About 2400 daily newspapers were published in the
United States in 1920, with a total circulation of about 31 million,
or about one for every third person in the United States, daily. There
were also published some 13,000 weekly papers. The possibilities
for distributing information by this medium are thus tremendously
greater than by any other of the methods we have considered.
In spite of this fact the newspaper has hardly been utilized at all
for the distribution of information. Its contents are principally
(1) advertising, (2) the news of the day, partly systematized, (3)
repetitions and reiterations of that news in various forms, (4) opinions
and predictions, (5) advice and propaganda, (6) fiction, (7) fun, and
(8) gossip.^" There are good reasons for the existence of all of these
departments of the newspaper, and also for the absence of any consid-
erable amount of real information. I shall not attempt to analyze
these reasons, beyond remarking that the haste in which the news-
paper is usually read is an important factor.
One factor which we should consider, though probably a minor
one, has been the information-producer's distaste for newspaper
publicity. The teacher and the investigator, as a class, have in-
herited certain disabilities from past centuries, chief among which
is that of being looked upon as akin to the medicine-man, monk,
astrologer, or wizard. This tradition demands of the newspaper
that the products of scientific investigation shall be "played up"
in a corresponding form and most scientists have studiously avoided
that insult to their self-respect — not a wanton insult, be it under-
stood, but one demanded by the circumstances, just as vituperation
is called for in a political campaign.
Of recent years, the knowledge-producing profession has increased
greatly in numbers, and has accordingly come more intimately into
touch with the world's e very-day work. There is resulting a change
'^ I would include under this term much material which would come under the dic-
tionary's definition of "news," but which has not the remotest relation to the interests
of a given reader.
8G JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 4
in the attitude of the pubHc and the newspapers. Serious efforts
are now being made to increase distribution by way of the news-
paper channel. One striking example is the geographical news
service of the National Geographic Society of this city, which now
reaches about 12 million people through its news bulletins. The
American Chemical Society maintains a press service, with a salaried
director, for the dissemination of accurate chemical information.
Another experiment, about to be initiated, is being supported finan-
cially by Mr. W. E. Sgripps. It consists of a 'Science Service"
for the newspapers, under the control of a board having a majority
of scientific men who are nominated by the National Academy of
Sciences, the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
the National Research Council, and certain other organizations.
Mr. E. E. Slosson, associate editor of The Independent and author
of one of the best of the popular books on chemistry, has been appointed
editor of the Service and will make his headquarters in Washington.
Another experiment, of considerable local interest, was initiated
last Monday, January 10, by the Washingtojt Herald, in placing a
special column at the disposal of Mr. Watson Davis, a member of
the staff of the Bureau of Standards who has had newspaper ex-
perience. The column contains announcements and brief reviews
of the papers presented before the Washington Academy anci the
scientific and technical societies allied with it. It is a task requiring
enthusiasm, persistence and conscientiousness, and I trust that the
undertaking v/ill meet with deserved success.
To summarize : The daily and weekly newspaper could become
numerically the most efficient existing medium for reaching all the
population, but has been very little used for the distribution of in-
formation in this country. The producers are too small a class to
receive consideration, except in special localities such as Washington,
while the general public has not been educated to demand the prod-
uct through this channel.
Distribution by the cinematograph. — A decade ago we should have
mentioned the moving picture as a useful adjunct to the public lec-
ture. Today "film" is said to be the fifth or fourth industry of the
country. The producers of film estimate that one person in every
ten in the United States goes into a moving-picture house daily }'^
It is probably second only to the printed page in its effectiveness as
a means for the distribution of information, and there is some ques-
tion as to whether it should not be placed first.
" E. P. OberholTzer. World's Work 41: 249-263. January, 1921.
FEB. 19, 1921 sosman: distribution of scientific information 87
There can be no doubt as to the superior appeal of pictures as
compared with printed words. When we multiply this superior appeal
by the factor of motion, so that events are presented almost as
vividly as if the observer were present on the scene ; and still have
available the factors of repetition at will, physical magnification to
bring out details of form, retardation or acceleration of speed to
analyze the motions, and finally, accessibility of the whole to a large
number of people simultaneously, the possibilities of distribution by
film seem almost limitless.
The method is already in wide use for distributing information.
Its use as an adjunct to lectures has already been mentioned, but
that use is now of secondary importance. The showing of instruc-
tional films as part of a program for which people are willing to pay
is not uncommon; as to whether it is increasing or not I am not
sufficiently well informed to say. Doubtless this feature of the
movie program will have its ups and downs as has the informational
article in the newspaper and popular magazine.
Its philanthropic use is undoubtedly expanding. Among the
Federal bureaus, the Department of Agriculture, the Bureau of
Mines, and the Reclamation Service have perhaps made the widest
use of the method, having several hundred films available for loan.
I have briefly touched upon some of the salient features of the
"pure components" of our methods of distributing information.
These may be, and commonly are, combined in various permuta-
tions and combinations, which we cannot consider here in detail.
I have also indicated certain directions in which each of our dis-
tribution methods fails in effectiveness, which brings us to our third
question: What of it?
III. THE EVILS OF INEFFECTIVE DISTRIBUTION
The years following 1914 have given an impressive demonstration
of the ease with which man may relapse into barbarism, and have
set a larger number of persons than usual to thinking on the problem
of how best to insure human progress. Although few would publicly
dissent from the thesis that to provide for the maximum possible
accessibility of our nearest possible approximations to truth is a
sine qua non of progress, ^^ yet the survival and frequent approval of
'* To go further and say that the widest possible dissemination is desirable implies a
selection of material, since no individual can absorb all that is available; but this leads
into the kind of discussion which soon goes aground on the irregular rock bottom of per-
sonal prejudices and ethical principles.
SS JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 4
such half-truths as "A little learning is a dangerous thing" show that
the thesis is by no means universally accepted and acted upon. To
argue this question here would be quite fruitless, since I have already
shown that the number of persons who will hear and read this address
is not only small, but drawn from a circle in which the thesis needs
no demonstration. I shall pass on to the more practical question:
What are you and I going to do about it?
IV. THE FUTURE OE THE DISTRIBUTION OF SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION
"A responsibility rests upon us to see also that the results of our
own investigations are not buried more deeply than were the materials
upon which they have been based." ^^
With this general sentiment we all agree. As to its particular
application, probably each of us has his individual opinion. That
opinion should be based, not on prejudice or on our usual naive
assumptions regarding human psychology, but on scientific informa-
tion, much more accurate and detailed than the crude sample I have
just been endeavoring to distribute.
In the following paragraphs I shall take up each of the methods
of distribution already discussed, and indicate a few of the possible
or probable directions of their future development.
Personal communication. — ^There is no improvement to be hoped
for from this method of distribution. Indeed, as I have hinted
before, we need less of it rather than more. If men especially fitted
by temperament and training to do original research are employed
with the expectation of devoting their whole time to the task of
digging out new knowledge, they should not be expected to spend
time and energy retailing that knowledge.
I have already referred to complaints by the Government's scientists
of the wasting of their time in answering miscellaneous questions.
This is not indolence, narrow-minded selfishness, or lack of public
spirit on their part, any more than it is selfish for the President of the
United States to refuse to give his whole day to receiving visitors;
he has. other important business to attend to.
Various results follow if the investigator is not protected by the
administrative part of his organization against too much questioning.
One effect is that he does as much of his research as he can at home, or
in some obscure corner where visitors cannot find him ; but this inter-
im J. C. Merriam. The research spirit in the life of the average man. Science 52: 473-478.
November 19, 1920.
FEB. 19, 1921 sosman: distribution of scientific information 89
feres with the "team work" necessary to make an organization success-
ful, as such. Another effect is to drive him altogether out of public
or philanthropic research into industrial research, where it is commonly-
assumed (whether rightly or wrongly I do not venture to say) that
"silence is golden."
The above remarks do not apply, it hardly need be said, to the
personal exchange of information among investigators; this is a part
of the process of production rather than distribution.
The informational middleman. — Once in a while it happens that an
individual who has undertaken to do research finds the personal
retailing of information much more to his taste than the slow and
tedious and discouraging task of digging it up. He should by all
means be given a chance to utilize the talent, with a corresponding
release of burdens on the research worker. Some of the Federal
bureaus already have what might be called "secretaries for foreign
affairs" who stand between the bureau and the public, but I believe
their functions could be profitably enlarged; the large proportion
of simple and oft-repeated questions which comes to them might be
transferred to a central bureau of information representing all the
scientific bureaus, which might also handle that most time-consuming
of all inquirers, the "harmless crank."
The large research foundations are so new that the public is not
yet widely aware of their existence as sources of knowledge, or, when
it is aware of them, assumes that they are manufacturing something
tangible and salable. As they become better known, however, they
will have to provide some organization for answering questions, for
they are public institutions in an environment which is relatively
unsympathetic, and considers them all too frequently as possible
sources of alms but of little else. They cannot afford to overlook
any method of enlisting public confidence.
The retailer of information for profit is also likely to increase in
numbers in the future. In the field of medicine, for instance, it is
now possible to consult the diagnostician who reports facts only and
offers no treatment or advice, and this kind of service will increase
with the increase in medical specialization. We may even perceive
a kind of w^holesale and retail system in the course of development,
the wholesale distribution being through specialized bureaus by way
of technical publications to which the public has little if any access,
but which the information office digests and retails to its inquirers.
Various commercial information bureaus in Washington, such as that
of F. J. Haskin, perform this kind of ser^'ice.
90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 4
In general, the most hopeful possibilities for improving the distri-
bution of information lie in the direction of increasing the numbers
and improving the training of the informational middleman.
The public lecture. — ^The philanthropic lecture as now employed
is extremely wasteful and inefficient. Lack of cooperation between
small organizations frequently causes duplication of a lecture in the
same city, both times to small audiences. An invited lecturer will
travel long distances over the same railroad to neighboring cities,
to an extent that would astonish a Keith-circuit organizer. We
can improve this situation by ourselves insisting on the principles
that the original investigator, when asked to present his work, be
given an opportunity to reach as wide a circle of interested persons
as possible; and that after he has thus presented it he be relieved
from duty as a mere entertainer, unless he enjoys lecturing and does
it for recreation or training.
The presentation of information at general meetings of the scien-
tific societies is capable of improvement in many ways, and has
been the subject of considerable experimentation, but I shall not
attempt its discussion here.
A recent development which may be of great significance is the
distribution of public lectures by wireless telephony.
The museum and exhibition. — I have already referred to the evolu-
tion of the modern museum in the direction of becoming much more
of a diffusing agency, and less of a collecting, examining, and storing
agency. This work will doubtless be extended by the loaning of
exhibits and the formation of traveling exhibits. The museum is
already combining other agencies, such as lectures, printed bulletins,
and moving pictures, with its own particular method of distribution
and this expansion may also be expected to continue. It has not
yet, as far as I know, seriously attempted to combine with itself
anything resembling what I have called the "informational middleman"
for the personal retailing of information, except occasionally in con-
nection with special exhibits. This is a development which we may
expect in the future.
Books. — ^The best way to get information on an unfamiliar subject
is by a personal interview with somebody who knows, and the next
best is to go to the encyclopedia. In either case, one is likely to
strike a trail which leads to a specialized book on the subject. If
it is a book made and sold for profit, the course is clear. But if the
FEB. 19, 1021 sosman: distribution of scientific information 91
book is distributed philanthropically, it is much less easy to obtain.
Considerable correspondence may ensue to find it, unless the seeker
is in a hurry, in which case he engages the services of a book-dealer
and pays for the service. If the book has been issued free by a Federal
bureau, with the hope that it will reach, as many as possible who are
interested, it might seem that the Government would welcome such
assistance, especially when the consumer is willing to pay for it. Yet
the Haskin agency, which distributed 1.3 million government publica-
tions in 1918-1919 at no more than the cost of postage, was severely
criticized in the Senate by Senator Smoot,-° and with it the bureaus
who permitted themselves to be thus aided. The tendency of the
next few years seems likely to be toward restriction rather than en-
largement of free Federal distribution.
It goes without saying that the free distribution of books to all
involves tremendous waste. Our Federal and State governments
have been the most prodigal in the world in this matter. The law
requires that reasonable care be exercised to prevent waste but the
law is difficult to administer.
An obvious remedy is to sell the publications "at cost." But
what is cost^ At the end of 1919 the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington'-^ had expended on research 11.9 million dollars, and had
published 401 works, with an average edition of about 800, or a
total number of volumes of about 327,000. If we assume that half
the work of the Institution has been thus published, the cost per
volume is about $18.00. As the books could not be sold in any
number at this price, the price has been fixed at a figure which will
represent the cost of paper, printing, and binding. As a basis for
distribution this is admittedly unsatisfactory, for the value of a
book cannot be measured either by its total cost of production or
by the cost of printing and binding it. Some of the works were
sold out long ago; others move but slowly, and diminish in real value
the longer they remain in storage.
Any system of distribution for books published philanthropically
should recognize the distinction I have endeavored to draw between
production and use. Producers of knowledge may well be given the
fullest possible access, by personal conference, free or purely nominal-
priced books, and every other means of distribution, to the new
knowledge in process of being obtained by other producers. To
20 Congressional Record, April 2, 12, and 22, 1920.
2> Year Book, 1919.
92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 4
grant the same privileges to those who are mainly consumers might,
as I have indicated before, swamp the whole process of production.
Scientific and technical periodicals. — Concerning much that is
published in our voluminous scientific and technical literature we
might reasonably ask, as the Mock Turtle did of Alice, "What is the
use of repeating all that stuff?" If we had an all-wise censor to
judge it, we might well dispense with the greater part of it. But
in that "if" is contained the whole argument against any kind of
suppression.
There is instruction, and perhaps encouragement, in comparing
the evolution of scientific periodicals with that of newspapers and
popular magazines. The newspapers began with small local cir-
culations at a few places. They increased in numbers, and a few
papers forged to the front and became leaders, widely read or quoted
from. The multiplication of local papers, however, did not cease,
but increased, until now every hamlet has one; their diversification,
to represent many groups of people with related interests, went on
simultaneously. Of recent years, a strongly marked tendency toward
financial and operational centralization has appeared.
Other types of periodical printed matter have gone through a
similar evolution, and scientific periodicals are following along in
their turn. We have had (1) the period of early growth, and small
circulation, but large influence, and (2) the period of greatly increased
circulation of recognized leaders, with precarious existence for the
smaller members; and we are just entering (3) the period of rapid
multiplication of local scientific periodicals together with minute
diversification according to specialties. The period of centralization
is still below the horizon.
It may be urged that science is universal, and a local scientific
publication is an anomaly; then so is a specialized journal, for knowl-
edge is no more to be divided into Compartments according to the
temporary interests of human beings than according to their geo-
graphical residence. Nevertheless local and specialized newspapers,
magazines, and scientific journals multiply in spite of logic. Every
group of a few hundred or a few thousand persons with aUied interests,
whether allied by profession or by geographical location, seems to
need its printed organ, and the feelings of librarians are given no
consideration whatever. The Washington Academy of Sciences,
for example, representing in its own membership and in its affiliated
societies nearly 3000 scientific and technical men and women, with
FEB. 19, 1921 sosman: distribution of scientific information 93
certain joint interests that are local and not divided according to
sciences, finds a demand for a journal which shall represent those
joint interests in news, society proceedings, and announcements of
the research going on in the city, and strives to fill that need ; it may
not always be perfectly filled but it is there.
As the number of periodicals relentlessly increases, the need for
efficient and thorough abstracting and indexing is being more and
more felt and provided for. For example, chemistry and a large part
of physics is being admirably served by Mr. Crane in Chemical Ab-
stracts. Geology and allied sciences are excellently handled by Mr.
Nickles in the annual index issued by the U. S. Geological Survey.
Indexing and abstracting is a developing art, which should not be
left to amateur bungling, but should be turned over to individuals
trained and well paid for the work.
The relation of advertising to scientific and technical journals
is a matter of especial interest. It is said that any periodical which
can attain a circulation of 5000 or more can support itself on adver-
tising. Why should scientific periodicals not make better use of
this fact?
I have already mentioned the Chemical Society's experiment with
the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry , which returns
from its advertising a considerable revenue to the Society. Now there
is nothing in this situation to abrogate the old rule that "No man can
serve two masters." If the time ever comes when the interests of
the Society and the interests of the advertisers come into conflict,
the Journal either will have to stand by its advertisers or will have
to change its character. Naturally, both the advertisers and the
Society will seek to avoid occasions which would lead to disagreement ;
but that is only another way of saying that the advertisers will exert
a considerable influence on the policies of the Society, whether they
wish to or not.
The situation is further complicated by the existence in the same
field of the periodical Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, which
is published for profit and not as the organ of any society. It has
the advantages over the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chem-
istry (1) of publication weekly instead of monthly, making its news
much fresher and therefore more in demand; (2) of freedom to use
its own income for its own purposes, not for carrying another organ-
ization on its back. The Journal, on the other hand, (1) has the
prestige of representing the largest chemical society in the world and
94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 4
(2) has the first claim on the material presented before that society.
In my opinion, the Journal now publishes a higher grade of material,
but the Engineering has been steadily improving. The Journal has
the larger circulation by about one fifth. Each claims that it has a
circulation more profitable to the advertiser than the circulation of
its competitor, but on these claims I am not competent to give any
opinion.
There is evidently staged here a contest of the social versus the
profitable which I, for one, will observe with interest during the
coming decade. Meanwhile, without seeking to condemn or approve
either side, I believe we shall do well to keep these facts in mind when
considering contributing articles to these journals or others similarly
situated.
The progress of experiments such as I have described may not
improbably result in scientific societies finding it to their advantage
to have all their publishing done for profit, just as they now have
their printing and binding done for profit. Why not turn the whole
conduct of their publications over to an organization which makes
a business of editing, managing and circulating periodicals, subject
of course to some original control by each society as to the general
nature of the papers to be published ?^^
One benefit which would result would be the saving of time and
energy of investigators now spent on routine editing and publishing.
The amount of good research which has been prevented by scientific
periodicals would probably be appalling if we could sum it up. An-
other benefit would be the suppression of a great deal of data now
being published simply because space happens to be available but
for which there is not and never will be any demand. On the other
hand, the work of a Willard Gibbs might also be suppressed. -''
Another point regarding advertising. We all recognize that
the consumer pays for it, yet he has little if any control over what
he has paid for. The inanufacturer tells him what the manufacturer
would like to have him know, and no more. Why should not the
consumer have his advertising page, in which to tell the manufac-
^- An experiment of this kind is about to be tried by the Chemical Society with its two
series of Scientific and Technologic Monographs, by contract with the Chemical Catalog
Company of New York.
^^ On second thought I find I have selected a bad example. If the Transactions of
the Connecticut Academy had not been available, Gibbs' work might have been offered
and published where it would have really circulated, and the English-speaking world
would not have had to wait for it to be translated into German before it could become
known.
I
FEB. 19, 1921 sosman: distribution of scientific information 95
turer what he wants, and in which to tell his fellow-consumers his
experience with what had been offered? The editors of the Journal
of the Washington Academy of Sciences have considered the feasi-
bility of publishing "consumers' advertising" of this kind, since
the Academy, as a private organization with no governmental or
commercial affiliations, is in a wholly disinterested position, and
furthermore numbers in its membership representatives of almost
every ramification of science so that a wide range of experience is
available. The task of "advertising manager", to collect, edit, and
publish material of this type, however, is one of those public services
which are more praised than rewarded.
Newspapers and popular magazines . — The appearance of scientific
information in newspapers and popular magazines is relatively so
recent that it would be rash to try to predict its future. These
media themselves may change considerably during the next two
decades. The present tendency toward centralized ownership and
management of both types probably bodes good rather than ill for
the distribution of information, whatever may be thought of the
tendency in its political and social bearings.
Separates. — The use of separates seems to be on the increase, and
I believe is destined for continued growth. In particular, their
use in place of special series of "bulletins" published by research
institutions is a very desirable development. Bulletins issued in
independent series are not likely to be effectively distributed, as
each has to be handled by itself and librarians are frequently at a
loss as to where to index or file them. Their very existence, also,
may remain unknown until long after the stock has become exhausted
and copies are no longer available for libraries which find them in
demand. Articles published in a regularly circulating journal, on
the other hand, are not thus lost to view or rendered inaccessible.
The difference is the same as that between the privately printed book
and the book issued by a publishing house which is alwa3'^s in touch
with the channels of distribution.
The distribution of separates by dealers is a service almost lacking
in this country. For instance, before the War the surest way to get a
separate of an American geological paper was to write to Leipzig for it.
Patriotic pride, if nothing else, ought to stir us to remedy this situa-
tion. Some authors deliberately send copies of their separates to the
second-hand dealers in order better to reach interested persons un-
known to them; w^hile others condemn this practise as undignified.
96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 4
Printed matter in general. — I have reviewed briefly certain phases
of the distribution of information by the printed page. There re-
mains another point of view from which to consider all of them.
To distribute information by printing it is necessary first, to place
the printed article in the reader's hands; second, to induce him to
read it, rather than file it or put it in the waste-basket; third, to pre-
sent the matter so that the reader gets some profit from his reading.
The members of the advertising profession are probably the best
fitted to instruct us as to the best way of putting reading matter into
peoples' hands, but I do not happen to know of any scientific organiza-
tion which has actually utilized their experience. The organizations
best known to me are experimenting, each with its own system, and
the results will after some years be valuable as comparative experi-
ments. Present tendencies in the distribution of free or nominal-
priced publications seem to be in the direction of the periodical issu-
ance of lists or announcements of publications to a large mailing-
list, the recipient being expected to make his own choice and go to
whatever trouble is necessary to obtain the publication. Details
of the process vary widely, and the future will see the elimination
of the less effective procedures.
The second problem, that of inducing the recipient to begin to read
what he has received and perhaps has even personally asked for,
calls, in the commercial field, for the highest art of the advertiser.
I doubt whether this phase of the question has ever been given much
serious consideration by the distributor of scientific information,
though it is the very life of modern printed advertising. Certainly
the Federal bulletins coming from the Government Printing Office
all look alike, and I question whether all of them would be called
"attractive" by the commercial printer. I feel that we would do
well not to be satisfied with the dictum that "information is infor-
mation and the consumer may take it or leave it."
The third point, of presenting the matter so that the reader gets
something for his pains, is where the investigator himself is put on
his mettle. I have presented his complaint against too much ques-
tioning, but there is no intention of relieving him from the duty of
giving a clear account of his product, in writing. The account need
not be non-technical or suited for general reading, but it should be
understandable with the minimum of effort by the circle of readers
for whom it is written. Here is where the investigator most often
fails. Dr. George Otis Smith, director of the U. S. Geological Sur-
J
FEB. 19, 1021 sosman: distribution of scientific information 97
vey, has made it one of his favorite subjects of discourse to urge that
the results of investigation be stated in clear and easily understand-
able language, and to point out that muddy writing is usually the
product of muddy thinking. He provides, for his organization, an
editor who gives his whole attention to improving the readability
of the Sur\^ey's publications. Most organizations have editorial
committees, sometimes seeming to ramify ad infinitum, but current
discussion and comment lead me to believe that the less of this kind
of committee work we can get along with, the better. A more prac-
tical system to work toward may be indicated in the fable of the suc-
cessful publishing house which passed for publication only matter
which was found to please the janitor.
If the investigator neglects his plain duty of presenting an accurate
and clear account of his results (though not necessarily non-technical
or adapted to the use of the pubHc), and his organization neglects
its duty of seeing that the account is readable and accessible, then
there is little ground for complaint on their part if the work is over-
looked and even duplicated by somebody else. Although it is per-
haps contrary to existing professional tradition, I feel that "a thorough
knowledge of the literature" is not incumbent on an investigator if a
part of that literature is so obscure as to require a disproportionate
time for its discovery and deciphering.-^
The "movie'' film. — The future of the distribution of scientific
information by the "movies" is simply beyond prediction. Perhaps
its recent vigorous growth is only that of a mushroom, without per-
manence. Rapidly increasing investments in the business, on the
other hand, indicate considerable confidence in its future. Pro-
gressive educators, a'so, are fully aware o: its possibilities, as indi-
cated by the recent formation oT a "Society for Visual Education."
One thing is certain: tha,t the best results will not be attained by
leaving the matter to the ruthless natural selection of commercial com-
petition. Neither will anything serious be accomplished by con-
sidering the moving picture as merely an adjunct to the lecture or
museum.
Other methods. — A minor method of distribution, used particularly
in crystallography, physiology, paleontology, and geography, is that
by models or casts made in any desired number from a mold. Its
2^ "It is the worst of educated men that they cannot speak about any great question
till they have read everything that has been written about it, for fear that some one should
say, 'But have you read Schwartzenburg?' Then, if they have not read Schwartzenburg,
they are done." — Tolstoy.
98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 4
use could well be extended to other sciences. Phase-rule models in
chemistry, for instance, concentrate a great deal of information into
a small space and put it into a form very useful for instruction.-'
Another minor method is the distribution of type collections of ma-
terial, made up in considerable number from a common supply, and
distributed usually by sale. This has been used in the fields of min-
eralogy and petrology and certain branches of biology. Collections of
photographs have been similarly used by some of the Federal bureaus.
The number and field of usefulness of such reproducible collected sets
of material objects is likely to be enlarged.
The general problem of distribution to the public. — I have referred
repeatedly to the "bulk" and "heterogeneity" of our present output
of scientific information, and hope that by inference as well as by
direct statement I have already impressed the idea that haphazard
dissemination does not constitute orderly distribution. '-'' We have
accomplished little if we have merely reached the auditory or optic
nerve of the public without reaching its understanding. Have
we any assurance, for example, that the Science Service for the news-
papers (after performing its obvious and useful duty of preventing
misinformation) will do more than merely replace on the newspaper
page an equivalent area of advice, gossip, or fun, producing about
the same permanent effect as the displaced material? I hope the
plans of the Service will include some method of measurement of its
permanent results, for, in , chemical terms, if there is no solubility
there will be no absorption, however large we make the area of con-
tact; and if the absorption turns out to be small we shall have to do
something to increase the solubility.-^
In conclusion, I wish to express ni}' indebtedness to various mem-
bers of governmental and private institutions in Washington for
assistance and suggestions in the preparation of this address.
^ The Geophysical Laboratory has received a number of requests for copies of its models
of silicate systems, but is not equipped to manufacture and sell such a product. Some
commercial or philanthropic agency would do a service by taking up this kind of distribu-
tion.
^^Dissemination: "Propagation by means of diffusion or dispersion .... Propagation
by means of promulgation; a spreading abroad for or with acceptance, as of opinions."
(Centur}'^ Dictionary). The disseminator selects what is to be promulgated and the pub-
lic is at his mercy. Distribution: "Allotment in shares or according to requirements The
division of the aggregate produce of the industry of any society among the individuals who
compose it." The public does the selecting and the distributor renders the product ac-
cessible.
^^ "One can readily conceive a Dark Ages which was such because of too much instead
of too little information." The Villager 4: 94. November 6, 1920.
FEB. 19, 1021 sosman: distribution of scientific information 99
GENERAL SUMMARY
The production of new information in the United States is much
better managed than its distribution. It is distributed through
five main channels: (1) by personal communication or through the
"informational middleman;" (2) by public lectures; (3) by the museum
and public exhibition; (4) by the printed page — books, scientific
and technical periodicals, bulletins, general periodicals, newspapers,
and separates; (5) by the cinematograph. Ineffective distribution
results from (1) disinclination to use new knowledge, a cause not
discussed in this paper; (2) the inaccessibility of scientific information,
arising from (o) the bulky form in which it comes from the producer,
(b) its heterogeneous character, and (t) the arithmetical or psychologi-
cal limitations peculiar to each method of distribution. The bearings
of these various factors on existing methods of distribution, both
to producers of information and to the general public, are touched
upon, and desirable or probable future developments in each are
briefly discussed.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
A reception was held on January 12, 1921, by the President and officers
of the Medical Society of the District of Columbia to the members and
friends of the Society, including the members of the Academy and its affiliated
societies. The reception was held at the new home of the Medical Society
at 1718 M Street, following the dedication of the building.
The Washington Section of the American Institute of Mining and Metal-
lurgical Engineers held a supper and meeting at the Interior Department
on Friday, January 14. Dr. H. Foster Bain, the newly appointed director
of the Bureau of Mines, lectured on Mines and mining in the Far East.
The National Museum has received specimens of various deep-water
fishes from Hawaii, which had been killed by the recent lava flow from
Mauna Loa. Most of the forms have been found by Dr. D. S. Jordan
to be new, and a report on them will be published by the Smithsonian Institu-
tion.
An exhibit of medicinal substances arranged according to their thera-
peutic effects is being prepared for the Division of Medicine of the National
Museum.
Dr. J. M. Aldrich of the National Museum was elected president of the
Entomological Society of America at the Chicago Meeting.
Col. J. M. Birch of the British Army, in charge of the agricultural de-
velopment of the Mosul district of Mesopotamia, has sailed from New York
after spending several months studying American agriculture. While in
Washington he used the facilities of the Bureau of Plant Industry.
Dr. H. C. Bryant and Dr. L. H. Miller, of the University of California,
have been spending some time in Washington, and delivered addresses
before the Biological Society on January 22, and the Audubon Society on
January 26. Doctors Bryant and Miller were nature guides in the Yosemite
National Park during the summer of 1920 and organized field trips for the
instruction of visitors.
Dr. H. L. Shantz has been appointed plant physiologist in charge of
Plant Phj^siological and Fermentation Investigations in the Bureau of
Plant Industry. Dr. vShantz returned in September from a year's trip
through Africa for the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, from
which office he is now transferring.
Senator Charles S. Thomas, of Colorado, resigned on January 5 as a
Regent of the Smithsonian Institution, and the Vice-President appointed
Senator A. O. Stanley, of Kentucky, to succeed him.
Mr. W. F. Wallis, of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie
Institution of Washington, left Washington on January 9 for Huancayo,
Peru, where he will succeed Dr. Harry M. W. Edmonds as magnetician-
in-charge of the Huancayo Magnetic Observatory upon the conclusion of
the latter's two-year assignment. Dr. Edmonds will return about April
via San Francisco for duty at Washington.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 March 4, 1921 No. o
RADIOTELEGRAPHY. — The wave front angle in radiotelegraphy^
h. W. Austin, U. S. Naval Radio Research Laboratory.
One of the outstanding problems in radiotelegraphic transmission
is the determination of the angle between the advancing wave front
and the earth. A number of physicists- have treated the subject
theoretically and a resume of their conclusions may be found in Zen-
neck's Wireless Telegraphy (translation 1915), pp. 246-2.5.3. The
subject is of great importance in the theory of transmission and has a
very practical interest in the reception of signals on ground antennas.
Several experimenters have attempted to measure the wave front
angle by means of receiving loops, the method being to rotate the
loop around a vertical axis to the point of minimum signal and then to
rotate again around a horizontal axis in the plane of the wave front
until silence is obtained. A little consideration will show that this
method is not applicable to the problem, since after the minimum is
obtained by rotation about the vertical axis, none of the magnetic
lines of the wave can thread the loop no matter what its angle in ref-
erence to the wave front, any residual effect in this position being due
to the action of the loop as an antenna.
The most obvious method for measuring the angle, and the one
which seems most free from objection, makes use of a pivoted straight
wire antenna system well elevated above the ground with a receiver
inserted in the middle. The general arrangement is shown in figure 1 ,
and the method of shielding the circuits in figure 2. The antenna
consists of two collector wires, each 30 feet long, supported on a
piv^oted wooden spreader (Fig. 1) 60 feet long, mounted at the top
of a 55 foot wooden pole so as to be capable of rotation about a hori-
1 Received December 20, 1920.
/-J. Zenneck, Ann. Phys. 23: 846. 1907. K. UllER, Jahrb. 2: S. 190S. A.
SOMMERFELD, Ann. Phys. 28: 665. 1909. P. Eppstein, Jahrb. 4: 176. 1910.
10 1
102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 5
zontal as well as a vertical axis. The receiving set consists of a pri-
mary inductance and parallel capacity connected between the two
collectors as shown in figure 2, and a secondary, generally of the mag-
netic back-coupled oscillating vacuum tube type, provided with a
two-stage audio frequency amplifier, though in some experiments a
radio-audio amplifier with heterodyne was used. The whole set in-
cluding the batteries was mounted on top of the pole.
Itt^OU^TOK.
HOUSE
W^^///////////W////A
IH3U1- 1 TOI^
Fig. 1. Diagram of pivoted straight wire antenna system, mounted on top of 55 foot pole.
The method of experiment is as follows. The antenna is first set
vertical with the horizontal axis approximately in the plane of the
wave front. This gives maximum signal. It is then rotated about
the horizontal axis and as the antenna approaches the horizontal
position the signal fades as on an ordinary radio compass. At some
angle it dies out, and then as the rotation is continued comes in again.
At the mean of the two positions of just audible signal, the antenna is
perpendicular to the wave front if there are no causes of distortion.
The antenna is next rotated through 180 degrees and two more angles
of disappearing signal are observed. The mean of the four observa-
tions should give the determination with considerable accuracy.
In the final experiments the mast with its pivoted antenna and
instruments was erected on the Anacostia Flats not far from the
Washington Navy Yard. The absence of wire lines and houses within
MARCH 4, 1921 AUSTIN: WAVE FRONT ANGLE IN RADIOTELEGRAPHY 103
a distance of more than a quarter of a mile made this an ideal location
for the work. The two collector wires of the antenna were stretched
in a straight line by the spreader shown in figure 1 . This was con-
structed of wood with its joints fastened by wood dowel pins and a
few brass screws. The scale for determining the angle was aligned
with the wires by means of a transit. All the apparatus, with the
exception of the primary inductance and condenser, was contained
in a box covered with fine mesh copper screen. This box was sup-
ported by ropes in order to reduce the capacity between the receiving
set and the mast. It was also found necessary to shield the telephone
leads and ground the head band to the copper screen surrounding the
apparatus.
At first a certain asymmetry was observed in the reading when the
antenna was turned through 180 degrees. This was apparently due
to an asymmetry in the capacity between the grounded shield and the
two collector wares, and was corrected by connecting a small com-
pensating condenser between one side of the primary and the shield.
This condenser also produced a much sharper minimum. Its action
is similar to that of the compensating condenser frequently used with
the ordinary radio compass. Figure 2 shows the method of coupling
the primary to the secondary, the magnetic field passing with some
loss through the shield while
. r, fi f, I, f, r; i; r, rj f; f; rj ij r ; ^ r, ^ ( i| r; < r f|
SHIELD
1 1 ,
/iMPLIFIEff
TO DETECTOR
'n<iii'<V,<,'/,i','<',W,'>M'>i<t'
Fig. 2. Method of shielding circuits.
the static field is cut off". The
primary and compensating con-
densers were supported by cords
in order to reduce the capacity
between them and the mast.
The antenna collectors and all
the instruments were thor-
oughly insulated. The revers-
ing switch in the primary in
figure 2 allowed the collectors
to be reversed without actually turning the antenna through 180 de-
grees. With strong signals it was necessary to turn the primary coil
parallel to the plane of the oncoming wave and correctly adjust the
compensating condenser in order to prevent the signals being heard
with the collectors disconnected. This precaution is of importance,
since any signal picked up by the instruments not only blurs the
minimum but displaces it.
It was originally intended to continue the observations for several
months so as to make an extended series of measurements on stations
104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 5
lying in different directions, at different times of day and different
seasons of the year. Preliminary observations had been made at the
Bureau of Standards in the summer and autumn of 1919, using a lower
pole, shorter collectors and less efhcient screening, so that the possible
errors of observation at that time were not much less than 10 degrees.
During this time a large number of observations were made on various
stations including New Brunswick, Annapolis, Nauen, Lyons, San
Juan and Darien, but in no case were any deviations of the wave front
from the vertical found which were greater than the estimated errors
of observation. The work with the final apparatus at Anacostia had
been in progress only a short time when it became necessary to remove
the pole as it was considered dangerous to the aviators at Boiling
Pield.
Daylight observations
The results obtained during this period are given below. While
they are not as extensive as would be desirable, they probably fix a
definite limit to the deviations of the wave front from the vertical for
the stations measured, under conditions of normal daylight reception.
A great number of measurements were made on the near-by stations,
New Brunswick and Annapolis, largely as a test of the accuracy of
the apparatus, as it was assumed that the wave front at these dis-
tances would be practically vertical. New Brunswick showed an
apparent bending forward of the wave front amounting to 3.1°, while
Annapolis showed an apparent bending back amounting to 2.2°.
These apparent deviations are considered as probably due to syste-
matic errors of the apparatus, depending apparently on the direction
of the horizontal axis.
TABLE 1. Wave Front Angles, June, 1920
Apparent Number Maximum
Distance Wave angle of of sets of deviation of
in nautical length in wave front observa- any set
Station miles meters mean tions from mean
New Brunswick 1.52 13,000 +3 .1« 44 +1 .4°
Annapolis 29 17,200 —2.2° 14 +1.2°
Nauen 3595 12,500 +3.4° 3 —0.4°
San Diego 1974 15,200 —0.8° 1 +1.3°
" The plus sign indicates a forward sloping wave front.
The chief interest in the experiments was of course centered in
observations on stations at a great distance. A number of observa-
tions were made on Nauen of which the average is given in table 1.
It is seen that the deviation from the vertical is only slightly greater
than the estimated error. On one day measurements were also ob-
tained on San Diego. This observation is of especial interest because
MARCH 4, 1921 AUSTIN: WAVE FRONT ANGLE IN RADIOTELEGRAPHY lOo
in this case the waves passed over land for the whole distance, which
might be expected to produce a marked tilt in the wave front. The
table shows, however, that the wave front according to the observa-
tions is almost exactly vertical.
Night observations
On account of the well known shift of the apparent direction of
New Brunswick as observed in Washington at night, an attempt was
made to discover whether there was a similar shift in the angle of the
wave front. This was of interest since the most usual explanation
of the apparent shift in direction assumes the arrival at the recei^^ing
station of a portion of the energy by reflection from the upper atmos-
phere. During the observations in the autumn of 1919 with the pre-
liminary apparatus, experiments were carried on throughout one night,
while at the same time the apparent deviation in the direction of New
Brunswick was obser^^ed on the radio compass. No certain deviation
of the wave front was found, while the apparent direction of the sta-
tion shifted at times by as much as 30°. Observations were also made
every ten minutes from 5.45 p. m. to 11.45 p. m. on June 14, using
the final apparatus, but no certain deviation in the wave front angle
was observed at any time. ^
Comparison of the vertical and h-orizontal intensities of the wave
The problem of the wave front angle may be attacked in another
way. If we are able to measure the received currents from a distant
station in an ordinary vertical antenna and in a ground antenna, we
can calculate the wave front angle since the electric intensity (volts
per meter) must be proportional to the projection of the wave on the
vertical and horizontal planes.'^ Observations have been made which
show that an antenna 2000 feet long in fresh water receives the signals
from Nauen at a wave length of 12,500 meters with the same intensity
as a vertical antenna having an effective height of 50 feet, the resis-
tance of the vertical antenna system being approximately 50 ohms
and the water wire approximately 100 ohms.
Since the strength of the telephone currents is proportional to the
square root of the antenna watts, the field expressed in volts per meter
is twenty-eight times as strong in the vertical plane as in the hori-
zontal, which would correspond to a deviation from the vertical of
approximately 2°. This, it will be seen, lies within the estimated
^ This method may perhaps be criticized on account of the unknown effects of the earth
currents surrounding the ground antenna.
]()() JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 5
limits of error of the pivoted antenna measurements and the results
of the two methods may be considered to agree.
We may therefore assume in conclusion that for wave lengths over
10,000 meters, the deviation of the wave front from the vertical under
ordinary conditions at Anacostia does not much exceed three degrees.
Static
With the new apparatus it was possible to obtain the angle of the
wave front of the static disturbances with considerable accuracy.
It was found, contrary to the hypothesis that static comes from above,
that the static wave front is always practically vertical like the signal,
but that at times the two angles differ sufficiently to give a readable
signal on the static minimum.
Preliminary observations in this work w^ere taken by T. H. Willey,
Electrician, U. vS. N., while observations with the final apparatus were
made by h- M. Clausing and W. F. McBride.
ZOOLOGY. — The nomenclature of super generic names. ^ S. A.
RoHWER, Bureau of Entomology.
The recent article by Dr. Harry C. Oberholser- on the nomenclature
of supergeneric'' names is by far the most comprehensive treatment
of the subject which has been published, and should form the basis
for a discussion of the subject which w411 lead to the establishment of
satisfactory rules covering this important question. The adoption,
as a part of the International Code, of any comprehensive and uniform
set of rules is most certainly to be accompanied by the change of many
supergeneric names and the matter should be considered by students
in all groups and an effort made to preserve as many of the best known
names as possible.
Dr. Oberholser has made reference to the Hymenoptera at a num-
ber of different places in his article and it seems worth while to point
out certain overlooked points and show how the rules which he recom-
mends would work in certain groups within this order. On page
144 he implies that modern entomologists have endeavored to follow
the plan of naming the family after the oldest included genus, and
' Received January 6, 1921.
- The Nomenclature of Families and Subfamilies in Zoology. Science, n. scr. 52: 142-
147. 1920.
■• I have used this term liccause 1 wish to inchide supcrfamilics, families, subfamilies,
tribes and subtriljes.
MARCH 4, 1921 rohwer: nomenclature of supergeneric names 107
apparently overlooks the fact that in the most recent catalogue of
Hemiptera the author has been guided by the rule of priority in se-
lecting family names. In the Hymenoptera there has been no fixed
rule governing the selection of supergeneric names but by far the
greater number of taxonomists have formed the names from the oldest
included genus, and some of the most apparent exceptions which oc-
cur in recent catalogues are caused by the authors of these catalogues
accepting only part of classifications or by their placing different
values on certain supergeneric groups.
In his arguments for what he calls the "permanent type genus"
rule, Dr. Oberholser advances the belief that for Hymenoptera Dalla
Torre has catalogued all the family and subfamily names, and with
this as a basis it would be comparatively simple to adopt this prin-
ciple. This is hardly true, and when one contemplates adopting
the law of priority for the selection of supergeneric names, he loses
much of his enthusiasm as soon as he sees the labor and difhculties
involved in cataloguing these names. Dalla Torre's "Catalogus
Hymenoptorum" gives only a few of these. vSupergeneric group
names have been used not only in taxonomic papers but also in local
and faunistic lists, catalogues of collections and in biological and ana-
tomical papers. There has never been any serious effort made to
index all these nam.es, in fact many of the papers containiag them
are of such a local or ephemeral nature that only the titles are recorded.
To adopt this principle would mean that we should hav^e to go com-
pletely through the vast literature dealing with Hymenoptera and
when this task was completed we should still be in doubt because of
the possibility of overlooking papers. Such work would require
considerable time and could only be done in large libraries. After
such researches were completed it would be necessary to publish the
results in full, so that in case other students should wish to subdivide
existing groups, they would be able to determine if a name had ever
been proposed for a similar group or a group containing some of the
same genera as those they included in their unit. Of course it may
be argued that it would not be necessary to catalogue all papers and
that we should only include those which are purely systematic, but
such a plan would be unsatisfactory because it would envolve a de-
cision as to what was "systematic" and might eliminate such useful
lists as those prepared for the various editions of the Insects of New
Jersey.
From the above it might be understood that I do not favor the
adoption of the method approved by Dr. Oberholser; and this is in a
10(S JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. .')
large part true. The idea he defends is undoubtedly logical, it en-
courages and necessitates the study of the history of classification,
but it is beset with certain practical difficulties. The application
of the principle of priority would bring about some curious changes
of which the following may serve as an example.
The genus Bracon is the type genus of the family Braconidae and
should also be the type genus of all minor divisions of the family in
which it is included. The application of the rule of priority and the
other rules advanced by Dr. Oberholser would make this last impossi-
ble. Years ago the family was divided into subfamilies and these
subfamilies were given names formed on the root of one of the generic
names included. The students who proposed these names paid but
little consideration to genotypes and their subfamily Braconinae was
founded on their conception of the group Bracon rather than the genus
of the genotype. The genus Bracon of the genotype belongs to a
different subfamily, termed "Agathinae," which was proposed at the
same time as the subfamily Braconinae. According to the law of
priority the subfamily name Agathinae must hold for the group (be-
cause the name of its type genus (Agathus) remains unchanged) even
though the genus Bracon is added to it ; and the name of the old group
Braconinae must be changed to Microbraconinae, and have as its
type the generic name which replaces Bracon of authors (not the
genotype). Perhaps the following summary will make this clearer:
Braconidae.
Braconinae Marshall, 1887 = Microbraconinae.
Type. — Bracon Auctt. nee Fabricius = Microbracon Ashmead.
Agathinae Marshall, 1887.
Type.— Agathus Latreille, 1805.
Includes — Cremnops Foerster, 1802 = Bracon Fabricius, 1804.
Hymenopterists have not followed the above but have formed the
subfamily names on the oldest included genus and thus have a sub-
family Braconinae in the family Braconidae. We call the Agathinae
the Braconinae and the Braconinae of Marshall, Ashmead and others
Vipiinae.
Other curious and unusual cases could be cited and it is practically
certain that no set of rules could be made which would, without in-
terpretation and emendation, cover all cases which will arise. There
are numerous and difficult questions connected with the application
of the rules governing generic names, many of which are not covered
by the International Code, and when it is possible to have a method
MARCH 4, 1921 rohwer: nomenclature of supergeneric names 109
of choosing supergeneric names which is definite and easily applied
I fail to see the advantage of complicating matters by formulating
numerous rules which will have to be interpreted or emended.
There has been such a lack of uniformity in forming supergeneric
names that the application of any one method throughout Zoology
would undoubtedly lead to many changes, and yet for the stability of
such names we should make an earnest effort to reach a satisfactory
"official" agreement as to methods of procedure. Because of the
lack of a policy in the past I think we must digress from our usual
method of procedure and adopt definite, although not necessarily the
same, methods for all major groups. I believe that the International
Commission would do well in appointing committees for all the major
groups and that these committees should carefully review the literature
of their groups and then recommend to the Commission a policy
which would necessitate the fewest changes. After the Commission
reviewed their report they should submit it, with recommendations,
to all contemporary workers in the group. This would permit dis-
cussion. In the absence of objections an "official" opinion should
be rendered. Cases where there was objection should be referred
back to the committee for consideration and a revised report sub-
mitted which would follow the same procedure. After all the groups
had been covered by opinions these should be formulated into rules
and made a part of the Code.
ABSTRACTS
Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably pre-
pared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The
abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
CERAMIC CHEMIvSTRY. — Note on the mechanics of the weathering of glass.
F. Russell v. Bichowsky. Journ. Amer. Ceramic Soc. 3: 309-312.
April, 1020. (Geophysical Lab., Papers on Optical Glass, No. 236.)
The mechanism of the weathering of a glass surface by water is believed
to consist of the following stages: (1) true adsorption; (2) diffusion of ad-
sorbed water into the glass; (3) reaction with the silicates; (4) soaking up
of more water by the film so produced; (5) extraction of the soluble salts;
(()) solution of the silica skeleton. The appearance and behavior on heat-
ing of glasses in each of these stages are described. R. B. Sosman.
CERAMIC CHEMISTRY.— .4 practical test of the resistance of optical glass
to weathering. F. Russell v. Bichowsky. Journ. Amer. Ceramic
Soc. 3: 296-304. April, 1920. (Geophvsical Lab., Papers on Optical
Glass, No. 23a.)
The experiments described in this paper were made in 1917 with the ob-
ject of getting a rapid routine method for testing the weather stability of
the optical glasses then being made for military purposes. The surface
alkali test described by Mylius was used, but its indications are not certain
for all types of glasses. Methods of determining the rate of solubility in
water, ammonia, or hydrochloric acid were also tried, but were not found
adaptable for routine procedures. The tests finally adopted consisted in
heating samples of the glass, in company with a standard glass, in water,
5 per cent sodium hydroxide, and 1 : 1 hydrochloric acid, at temperatures
of 175° or 225° C. The glasses could then be classified into 9 groups accord-
ing to their appearance when wet and when dry, although there is some-
times considerable difference in the order of stability found with the three
reagents used. The safest estimate is one based on the three tests taken as
a group. R. B. Sosman.
CERAMICS. — The manufacture and uses of rolled optical glass. H. S.
Roberts and J. C. Hostetter. Journ. Amer. Ceramic Soc. 3: 750-
7()1. Sept., 1920. (Geophysical Lab., Papers on Optical Glass, No. 24.)
Rolled optical glass is manufactured by a process combining the stirring
and earlier processes used for ordinary optical glass, with the casting and
subsequent processes ordinarily used in the manufacture of rolled plate glass.
The glass obtained is characterized by the presence of striae in the form of
plane, parallel films, which are in general invisible unless viewed edgewise.
( )ptical systems manufactured from rolled glass should therefore be designed
so that the path of light rays cuts the striations in a direction that is as nearly
as possible normal to the direction of the striations themselves. The meth-
ods of manufacture and inspection are described and a discussion given of
the manner of forming the glass into blanks for lenses and prisms. J. C. H.
110
MARCH 4, 1921 abstracts: inorganic chemistry 111
INORGANIC CHElSIIvSTRY.— r/?r binary system dkermanite-gchlcniie.
J.,B. Ferguson and A. F. Buddington. Amer. Journ. vSci. IV. 50:
131-140. 1920.
The binary system akemianite (2CaO.Mg0.2Si02)-gehlenite (2CaO.-
AljO.-i.SiOo) was studied by the quencjiing method and the solidus and liq-
uidus curves determined. The system forms a complete series of solid solu-
tions with a minimum melting point about 70° below the melting point of
akermanite, the component of lower melting point, at a composition of about
74 per cent akermanite and 26 per cent gehlenite. Akermanite was found
to show the unusual feature of its glas having a greater density than the
corresponding crystals at 25° C. The optical characters of the crystals
are a continuous function of the composition. Akermanite is positive in
its optical characters and gehlenite is negative. Crystals of certain inter-
mediate compositions are isotropic for light of a definite wave length and
constitute a transition phase between positive and negative crystals.
A. F. B.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Some notes on the plumage of the male Florida Red-
wing {Agelaius p. fioridanits) . F. C. Lincoln. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.
32: 196-197. 1919.
A considerable number of non-breeding males of Agelaius phoeniceus
floridanns were found in Louisiana in June. These birds, though at least
a year old, showed clear evidence of immaturity on their obscured or dull-
colored orange shoulder patches, and in many cases also in the much less
brilliant color of other parts of the plumage, particularly of the black
body areas. It would be interesting to know w^hether this condition is
common to all the subspecies of Agelaius phoeniceus.
Harry C. Oberholser.
ORNITHOLOGY. — The relationships and geographical distribution of the species
and races belonging to the genus Rhynchocyclus. Charles B. Cory.
Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 217-224. 1919.
A synoptical revision of the tyrannine genus Rhynchocyclus results in
the recognition of twenty forms, all of which have been hitherto described.
Of Rhynchocyclus sulphurescens , six forms prove to be valid; of Rhyncho-
cyclus cinereiceps, two; of Rhynchocyclus peruvianus, two; of Rhynchocyclus
marginatus, two: of Rhynchocyclus megacephalus, one; of Rhynchocyclus
poliocephalus, three; oi Rhynchocyclus grisescens, one; and oi Rhynchocyclus
flaviventris, three. Comparison also shows that Rhynchocyclus sulphurescens
pallescens Hartert and Goodson is a synonym, of Rhynchocyclus sidphurescens
(Spix); and Rhynchocyclus sidphurescens asemus Bangs is a subspecies of
Rhynchocyclus cinereiceps rather than of Rhynchocyclus sulphurescens.
Harry C. Oberholser.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Descriptions of proposed new birds from Peru, Bolivia,
Brazil, and Colombia. Frank M. Chapman. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.
32: 2.53-268. 1919.
Further study of collections of birds from South American has resulted
in the discovery of a number of birds new to science. Among these is a
new genus of Furnariidae most closely allied to Automolus and here named
Hylocryptus. The following new species and subspecies are also described:
112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 5
Micropus peruvianus from Ollantaytambo, Peru; Grallaria watkinsi from
Milagros, Province of Piura, Peru; Grallaricula boliviana from Incachaca,
Province of Cochabamba, Bolivia; Synallaxis stictothorax piurae from Chilaco,
near Samate on the Rio Chira, Province of Piura, Peru; Phacellodonms
striaticeps griseipectus from Tica-Tica, near Cuzco, Peru; Hylocrypius ery-
throcephalus from Alamor, Peruvian-Ecuador boundary; Xenops rutihis
connectens from Todos Santos, Province of Cochabamba, Bolivia; Xipho-
rhynchus triangularis bangsi from Yungas, Province of Cochabamba, Bolivia;
Thripohrohis layardi madeirae from Porto Velho, Rio Maderia, Brazil;
Thripobrotus warscewiczi bolivianus from Incachaca, Province of Cocha-
bamba, Bolivia; Mecocercidus subtropicalis from San Miguel Bridge, Uru-
bamba Canon, Peru; Anaeretes agraphia from Idma, near Santa Ana, Peru;
Mionectes striaticollis columbianus from Santa Elena, Antioquia, Colombia;
Myiobonts melanocephahis bolivianus from Incachaca, Province of Cocha-
bamba, Bolivia; Basiletiteriis htteoviridis supercilaris from above Torontoy,
Urubamba Canon, Peru; Pheutiais ttropygialis terminalis from San Miguel
Bridge, Urubamba Canon, Peru; and Catamenia analoides griseiventris from
Cuzco, Peru. Harry C. Oberholser.
ORNITHOLOGY.— Mwtowda ornithologica. MIL Harry C. Oberholser.
Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 239-240. 1919.
Recent investigations show that Pitta atricapilla Lesson, being ante-
dated by Tiirdus sordidus Miiller, must now be called Pitta sordida Miiller.
The name of the swallow now known as Riparia paludicola sinensis (Jerdan)
is preoccupied and must be changed to Riparia paludicola chinensis (Gray).
For the same reason Stoporala melanops (Vigors) must become Stoporala
thassina (Swainson). Similarly, Hemipiis obscurus (Horsfield) should
stBXid 2i.s Hemipus hinindinaceus iy Q.mm\nc\i). The South American tanager
commonly called Tachyphoniis rnfiventris (Spix) must be rechristened, since
its present name is invalidated, and it now may be known as Tachyphonus
metallactus. H. C. O.
ORNITHOLOGY. — An tinrecognized subspecies of Melanerpes erythro-
cephalus. Harry C. Oberholser. Canadian Field Nat. 33: 48-50.
1919.
The red-headed woodpeckers inhabiting the Great Plains and Rocky
Mountain region of the United States and southern Canada differ from
those of the eastern United States in decidedly larger size and usually more
reddish posterior lower parts. These differences entitle it to subspecific
recognition, and it may be known as Mtlanerpes erythrocephalus erythro-
phthalmus vSilloway. H. C. O.
ORNITHOLOGY.— .4n all-day bird trip at Washington, D. C. Harry
C. Oberholser. Amer. Midi. Nat. 6: 103-110. 1919.
An all-day trip in the vicinity of Washington, D. C, on May 13, 1907,
furnished data on the unusually large number of 103 species and subspecies
of birds. A few species, such as Colaptes auratus auratus, Penthestes caro-
linensis carolinensis, and Vireo griseus griseus, were more than ordinarily
numerous on tliis occasion. Two ducks, Clangida clangula americana and
Dafila acuta tzitzihoa, were noted later in the spring than ever before in this
region. H. C. O.
MARCH 4, 192.1 abstracts: ornithology 11
o
ORNITHOLOGY. — The migration of North American birds. XI. Canada
Jay, Oregon Jay, Clarke's Nutcracker, and Pifion Jay. Harry C.
Oberholser. Bird Lore 21: 354-355. 1919.
From data chiefly in the United States Biological Survey the geographic
distribution and movements of four species of Icteridae have been deter-
mined. Five subspecies of Perisoreus canadensis are recognized, including
the recently described Perisoreus canadensis sanfordi and three forms of
Perisoreus obscurus, including Perisoreus obscurus rathbuni. Data on Nuci-
fraga columbiana and Cvanocephalus cyanocephalus are also given.
H. C. O.
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. — Estimating impurities by means of the melting
point curve. W. P. White. Journ. Phys. Chem. 24: 393-416. 1920.
Freezing points where the thermometer is immersed in the substance are
more reliable and precise than those by the capillary tube method. If in
addition the form of the freezing curve is observed, there is obtained an in-
dication of the amount of impurity, which is independent of all previous
knowledge or uncertainty as to the melting point of the pure substance, and
even of the absolute accuracy of the observer's thermometer.
Smallness of dimensions diminishes local temperature differences, and
is very often a superior substitute for stirring of the tested substance. It
also economizes both time and material. The complications, usually almost
negligible, arising from specific heat, uneven temperature, and other causes
are considered, and suitable experimental arrangements are suggested.
W. P. W.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
150th meeting
The 150th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on
Thursday, November IS, 1920. Dr. Elmer D. Merrill, Director of the Bu-
reau of Science, Manila, P. I., delivered a popular lecture, Man and nature
in the Philippines, illustrated by lantern slides.
From an ethnological standpoint the Filipino people include three distinct
types: the primitive negrito, who were undoubtedly the original inhabitants
of the archipelago; the proto-Malayan or Indonesian, representing the first
invaders; and the Malayan, now numerically and economically the most
important element in the native population, comprising the so-called Chris-
tian Filipinos and the Mohammedan peoples of Mindanao and the Sulu
Archipelago. At the present time more than 40 different languages are spoken
in the Archipelago. The language distribution was indicated by a colored
lantern slide. Types of many of the different tribes were shown also, and
brief notes given regarding them.
In connection with a relief map shown, the essentially mountainous char-
acter of the Archipelago was discussed, and some of the more important
volcanos were illustrated. The three different types of climate (the constantly
wet regions, those having alternating wet and dry seasons, and others of an
intermediate type) were similarly indicated, and the causes discussed: the
northeast monsoon, the southwest trades, the typhoons, and the topography.
The effects of climate on plant distribution were noted, particularly as de-
limiting rather strongly the distribution of the major agricultural crops, such
as sugar, abaca or manila hemp, coconuts, and tobacco. Types of vege-
tation were shown and briefly discussed: the virgin forest, secondary forests,
open grass lands, and settled areas. The indications are that the original
vegetation was a continuous virgin forest of one type or another, and that
primitive man through his destructive methods of clearing land by felling
trees and burning, and then after one or two seasons moving on to a new
clearing, was largely responsible for the vast areas of open grass lands and
second-growth forests now so characteristic of many parts of the Archipelago.
Brief notes were given also regarding the extent of the flora and concerning
its special relationship, which is distinctly with Celebes and the Moluccas,
New Guinea, and northeastern Australia. Bornean elements are few and
practically fail to reach the Archipelago proper, nor are there any notable
special alliances with the Sunda Islands and the Malay Peninsula. The
conchology, entomology, ornithology, ichthyology, and general zoology of
the Philippines were briefly mentioned, with an indication of the enormous
development in species in the first two groups. From a geological stand-
point the islands are comparatively recent. This is reflected in the present
fauna and flora, the latter in particular being notably rich in endemic species
but poor in endemic genera.
In conclusion the speaker gave an interesting account of the Bureau of
Science and its work.
114
MARCH 4, 1921 proceedings: WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 115
15 1st meeting
The 151st meeting was held jointly with the Botanical vSociety of Washing-
ton in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on Thursday, December IG,
1920. Prof. H. M. Hall, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, delivered
an illustrated address, entitled. Hay fever in its specific botanical relationships,
based upon studies carried out for a number of years in the Rocky Mountain
and Pacific coast states in cooperation with certain physicians and specialists,
especially Dr. Grant Selfridge, of San Francisco.
Hay fever attacks about one per cent of the population of the United vStates.
It is not due simply to a local irritation, but to a general poisoning by toxic
albumins, derived usually from the pollens of various plants. The condi-
tions of attack are three: (1) a defective mucous membrane, permitting the
poison to gain access to the circulation; (2) a blood serum lacking in anti
bodies; (3) the presence of poisonous pollens in the atmosphere.
A simple nasal operation frequently relieves the first-named condition.
The second is less accessible to treatment but mav be remedied by the in-
jection of solutions prepared from specific pollens. The third condition is
one to which practically everyone is exposed in the spring, summer, and fall,
since pollen is then extremely abundant in the atmosphere. Individuals
are more exposed to plant pollens than to any other nitrogenous substance,
with the exception of the food in the alimentary tract.
Most plants do not cause hay fever, chiefly for the reason that they do
not produce wind-borne pollen. For example, of 1600 species of flowering
plants in the District of Columbia perhaps 300 are wind-pollinated. About
190 of the latter are grasses. Only about 50 are really abundant, and there-
fore to be considered first in a "hay fever survey."
Many misconceptions have grown up regarding the sources of hay fever.
The spring type, often known as "rose cold," has no connection whatever
with roses. The common goldenrod is never known to cause hay fever, as
it produces very little pollen. It does, however, in common with many
other plants, carry on its surface considerable quantities of pollens that pro-
duce hay fever, such as that of the ragweed. Pines produce abundant pollen
but do not cause hay fever.
Plants are tested for their capacity to produce hay fever, first, by the bo-
tanical method, as above noted, and second, by the injection of a pollen
extract into the skin. If the patient is susceptible to poisoning by a given
pollen a swelling and reddening are observed around the spot where the ex-
tract has been injected.
The principal causes of spring hay fever are grasses, poplars and cotton-
woods, oaks, various nut-bearing trees (such as the black walnut, which is
a common source in the Sacramento Valley), the cultivated sycamore, the
Chenopodiaceae, and the plantains. In the late summer and autumn the
principal causes are ragweeds and other members of the ragweed tribe, the
artemisias, and some of the Chenopodiaceae.
Successful treatment of hay fever depends upon close cooperation between
the physician, the botanist, and the laboratory technician. The possible
sources of infection in a given district must first be outlined by the botanist.
Pollen preparations are then made in the laboratory and these are used by
the physician in finding out to what pollens the patient is sensitive. Injec-
tions of dilute solutions of the specific causative pollens and of no others,
increasing from 1 : 300,000 up to as high as 1 : 1,000 or even higher, can then
be given before the hay fever season, and produce immunity for at least one
IKJ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 5
season, and possibly longer. It would be entirely feasible to eliminate com-
pletely hay fever from the United States, but the rational carrying out of a
program toward this end is being seriously jeopardized by the manufacture
and sale of various hastily made and ill-selected pollen preparations which
are doing a great deal of harm by shaking the confidence of physicians and
the public; such nostrums are advertised even in reputable scientific maga-
zines. It is greatly to be desired that reputable and reliable drug manu-
facturing firms should take up the problem seriously in cooperation with
botanists of standing, so that dependable preparations may be made avail-
able to physicians.
152d meeting
The 152d meeting of the Academy, the 23d annual meeting, was held at
the Administration Building of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, on
Tuesday, January 11, 1921. The meeting was called to order by Vice-Presi-
dent F. V. CoviLLE. Dr. J. R. Johnston, Chief of the Office of Plant Sani-
tation, Cuba, and Director of Research for the United Fruit Company, de-
livered an address on Some problems in economic biology in tropical America.
The activities of the Office of Plant Sanitation, Cuba, begun in 1916, were
discussed briefly as including plant quarantine, disease and insect control
work, and port, railway, and nursery inspection. The investigational work
is carried out at the Estacion Experimental, Santiago de las Vegas. Instruc-
tion is given in a recently instituted course of plant pathology in the Uni-
versity of Havana. The presence of a considerable force of field inspectors
throughout the island gives excellent opportunities for discovering new pests
and diseases, new facts about them, and new investigational data regarding
the old ones.
Special attention is being given to coconut budrot, control of the citrus
black fly, and to investigation and control of the sugar cane mosaic disease.
The several types of budrot and their bacterial and fungoid origin were
discussed at length. Although progress is being made in combating disease,
losses caused by it in the American tropics as a whole are enormous. At the
present time spraying, cutting down and burning infected trees, and replant-
ing are the most practical methods of control. Progress might conceivably
be made by introduction of the disease-resistant varieties, a course which is
being undertaken in Panama.
The coconut suffers also from the "red ring" disease, characterized by a
dark red ring seen in the trunk in cross-section. The discolored tissues are
found to be full of nematodes. This disease, first described from Trinidad
and Grenada, is known also from Cuba and Central America, and is apparently
widespread. It is especially destructive in Trinidad, but neither here nor
elsewhere has any satisfactory method of control been worked out. Planta-
tions on hilly regions are apparently free from this disease, which is found in
its most acute form in drained lowlands.
Hardly second in destructiveness to any other known plant disease is the
so-called "banana wilt," caused by Fusarium cubense. This is widespread
in tropical America and occurs in many regions of the Old World also. Sani-
tary measures have almost no appreciable effect, and the disease has pro-
gressed rapidly and caused enormous losses. Certain varieties of bananas
are highly resistant. The propagation of these seems to offer the most likely
solution.
The mosaic disease of sugar cane and the control of the citrus black fly
were discussed, the difficulties of the latter work being especially emphasized.
MARCH 4, 1921 proceedings: WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 117
Many organizations are carrying out elaborate investigations of cane varie-
ties, and deep regret was expressed by the speaker that similar work was
not being conducted on a large scale in the case of the coconut and banana,
since these two crops afford the most important pathological problems of
economic botany in all tropical America. Considering the huge investments
of American capital and the large part tropical foodstuffs play in our national
food supply, the speaker deprecated strongly the lack of vital interest in
the problems of the tropics and the disinclination of many American scientists
to undertake investigations in this interesting and all-important field of work.
Following the address a business meeting was held. The Corresponding
Secretary, Robert B. Sosman, reported that the membership remained at
541, consisting of 6 honorary members, .'-) patrons, and 5;]2 members, one of
whom is a life member. Of this number, ooU reside in or near the District
of Columbia. Twenty-two resignations were accepted during the year, 16
of these being of non-resident members. The members who died during the
year are: John Alfred Brashear, Albert Hugh Bryan, Robert Hollis-
TER Chapman, Arthur J. Ellis, Walter Faxon, William Crawford
Gorgas, Hennen Jennings, Harmon Northrop Morse, Cephas Hemp-
stone Sinclair.
The Corresponding Secretary reported also on the activities of the Academy
during 1920. These were largely centered in the continued publication of
the Journal, but included assistance in several other projects of practical
value, such as the classification of the scientific and technical employees in
the Federal service, as well as matters of local educational interest.
The Recording vSecretary, William R. Maxon, reported briefly upon the
thirteen public meetings held during the year, at which illustrated lectures
were delivered. These covered a wide range of subjects and were well at-
tended.
The report of the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, showed total receipts of $5,829.73
and total disbursements of $5,515.38, the cash balance on hand being
Si, 792. 62. The investments of the Academy have a total par value of
$15,036.37. The cost of printing the Journal in 1920 was $2,873.74 as
against $2,550 for 1919. A further increase in unavoidable in 1921.
The report of the Auditing Committee, consisting of E. D. Williamson,
B. L. Johnson and H. C. Oberholser, was read, and the reports of the
Treasurer and Auditing Committee were accepted.
The report of the Editors of the Journal was read by J. Fr.-^nklin Meyer,
the senior editor.
The committee of tellers, consisting of N. L. Bowen, W. F. Meggers and
R. B. Sosman, reported that the following officers had been elected for 1921 :
President, Alfred H. Brooks; Corresponding Secretary, Robert B. Sosman;
Recording Secretary, William R. Maxon; Treasurer, R. L. Vakis; Non-resident
Vice-Presidents, J. McKeen Cattell, E. B. Wilson; Members of Board of
Managers, Class of 1924, H. S. Graves, SidneV Paige.
The following Vice-Presidents nominated l^y the affiliated Societies were
then elected: Archaeological Society, Ales Hrdlicka; Biological Society,
Ned Hollister; Botanical Society, A. S. Hitchcock; Chemical Society,
William Blum; Institute of Electrical Engineers, F. B. vSilsbee; Society of
Engineers, R. L. Faris; Entomological Society, S. A. Rohwer; Society of
Foresters, Raphael Zon; National Geographic Society, Frederick V. Coville;
Geological Society, David White; Historical Society, Allen C. Clark;
Philosophical Society, W. J. Humphreys.
W^illiam R. Maxon, Recording Secretary.
lis JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 5
BOTANICAL SOCIETY
14.3th meeting
The 14.3th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was
held at the Cosmos Club, S p. m., October 5, 1920. Thirty-three members
and one guest were present.
Mr. Albert A. Hansen gave an illustrated talk on Our disappearing wild
plants. He explained that although the transition which our flora is under-
going is attributable to some extent to such unavoidable causes as lumbering;
building, the cultivation of new land and grazing, the greatest damage is due
to avoidable causes, such as the promiscuous gathering of wild flowers by
thoughtless pickers and the commercial exploitation of the wild flora. He
also referred to the educational methods used by the Wild Flower Preserva-
tion Society of America to create a strong sentiment in favor of protecting
our handsome wild plants. Among the plants needing protection are col-
umbine, arbutus, pitcher plants, ground pine, flowering dogwood, rhododen-
dron, and several lilies and orchids.
20th annual meeting
The 2()th annual meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was held
at the Cosmos Club, October .3, 1920. The following officers were elected
for the ensuing year: President, Chas. E. Chambliss; Vice-President, P. L.
Ricker; Recording Secretary, Roy G. Pierce; Corresponding Secretary,
R. Kent Beattie; Treasurer, L. L. Harter. Prof. A. S. Hitchcock was
nominated for Vice-President in the Washington Academy of Sciences.
Charles E. Chambliss, Recording Secretary.
146th meeting
The 146th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club on No-
vember 2, 1920, 62 members and guests being present, and the President,
]Mr. Charles E. Chambliss, in the chair.
Under Brief Notes Dr. A. S. Hitchcock spoke of the valuable collection of
vSouth American grasses just received by the National Herbarium from
Germany. The program was as follows:
W. E. vSafford: The first Pan-Pacific Scientific Conference (illustrated).
This conference, at which Dr. SafTord was a delegate from the U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, was held at Honolulu, August 2 to August 20, 1920.
Delegates were present from the United States, British Columbia, Hawaii,
New Zealand, Australia, New South Wales, the Philippine Islands, and Japan.
The scope of the topics discussed was very wide, embracing a discussion
of most of the physical and biological phenomena of the Pacific. The sessions
of the Conference were interrupted by a visit to the active volcano of Kilauea
and an excursion around the west coast of the island of Hawaii.
As a result of the conference, a number of resolutions were presented by
the various sections, among them the following:
That any agency created for the guidance of scientific research and ex-
ploration in the Pacific region should be affiliated with the International
Research Council; that the attention of Governments be invited to the de-
sirability of providing vessels for suitably planned expeditions of scientific
research, similar in character to the Wilkes and the Challenger expeditions;
that young men and women should be trained for scientific work and that
such work be adequately compensated. Other resolutions bore upon the
MARCH 4, 1021 proceedings: botanical society 119
desirability of studying the anthropology of Pacific races, the making of a
magnetic, geographical, physical and biological survey of the Pacific Ocean,
including a study of bottom samples, brachiopod faunas as an index to former
land connections, algae, ecology of corals on coral reefs, land faunas of Pa-
cific islands, and the relation of living forms to extinct allied forms, Pacific
birds, land flora including problems of forestry, agriculture, ethnobotany,
plant ecology on oceanic islands and on new lava flows and ash deposits from
volcanic ejections, the preservation of the Hillebrand garden at Honolulu ;
also the establishment of a meteorological station on Matma Loa; the study
of volcano and earthquake phenomena, and the publication of information
relating to them; and the continuation of the geophysical observatory at
Samoa.
Samuel B. Detwiler: White pine and the blister rust (illustrated with
motion pictures and accompanied by specimens).
The white pine is probably the best known timber tree in the country, and
up to ISNO produced the bulk of the country's lumber cut. In the East most
of the white pine had been removed by 1890, and the present lumber cut
in New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan and A^'isconsin is only a small fraction
of what it was formerly. In New England, however, because of the ability
of this species to restock abandoned lands, the white pine has held its own.
The blister rust infection is heaviest in New England and eastern New
York. This disease, as far as is known, has not crossed the Great Plains
and infected the very valuable sugar pine and western white pine forests.
\\'hile there are federal and state quarantines, prohibiting the shipment of
five-leaf pines and Ribes (currants and gooseberries) from the East to the
West, yet there have been numerous violations of these quarantines, any
one of which, had it not been caught, might ha\'e carried the blister rust to
the western forests. The Dominion of Canada is cooperating with the United
States in tr3'ing to protect the West and has adopted quarantines similar to
ours. These quarantine measures will, however, break down unless ade-
quate inspection is made to prevent \iolations. That our western white
pines are subject to infection from blister rust is borne out by recent letters
from Mr. Wm. vS. Moir who is studying the blister rust in Europe for the
United States Department of Agriculture. He has found not only the eastern
white pine heavily infected, but also the limber pine, sugar pine and western
white pine.
The blister rust infection on white pine in the East is increasing rapidly.
A strip survey in New Hampshire showed 20 per cent of the pines infected
on an area of 72 square miles. A similar strip, studied in New York, showed
10 per cent of the pines infected.
Protective measures in the East consist of the destruction of the alternate
hosts of the blister rust, currants and gooseberries, both wild and cultivated.
In 1910, over 250,000 acres were cleared of Ribes in the North East. The
average labor cost per acre in New England was 24 cents; in New England
and New York, 42 cents, and with supervision 54 cents. Experience has
shown that the Ribes eradication crews destroyed over 95 per cent of the
bushes in one working, and that the leaf surface destroyed is over 99 per cent.
Chemical eradication of Ribes is being tried out and has proven quite suc-
cessful. An ecological study of currants and gooseberries, which is being
carried on, is expected to further reduce the cost of eradication.
147th meeting
The 147th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,
December 7, 1920, with 50 members and 10 guests present, and President
120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 5
Chambliss in the chair. James M. R. Adams, Samuel B. Detwiler,
Harry T. Edwards, Peter Klaphaak, and Frederick D. Richey were
elected into the Society. The names of Wm. Diehl, Dr. J. F. Martin, Dr.
Eben H. Toole and Mr. Freeman Weiss were presented as candidates for
membership.
Under Brief notes and revieivs of literature, Dr. Haven Metcalf presented
two books as worthy of the study of any scientist. The first is by fimile
Duclaux, entitled Pasteur, Histoire d'un Esprit, and published in 1896.
This book has been translated into English by Dr. Erwin F. Smith and Miss
Florence Hedges under the title of Pasteur, History of a Mind (published
by the W. B. Saunders Co., in 1920). Dr. E. D. Merrill called attention
to two of his publications which were little known, one entitled A Com-
mentary on Loureiro's Flora Cochinchinensis, in 2 volumes, typewritten in
1919. But 5 copies were issued, one of which is in the Library of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture. The second. Species Blancoanae, a critical
revision of the Philippine species of plants described by Blanco and Danos,
was put out in Manila in typewritten form in 1917. This work is also in the
Library of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Regular Program
E. D. Merrill: Vegetation of the Philippines (illustrated by lantern slides).
The salient features of the Philippine flora were discussed, and so far as
possible the points were illustrated. The known flora comprises about SoOO
species of phanerogams and nearly 1000 species of ferns and fern allies, while,
excepting the algae, the various groups of cellular cryptogams are relatively
highly developed. The percentage of specific endemism is high, over GO per
cent, while generic endemism is very small, indicating a separation from other
parts of Malaya sufficiently long to allow the development of very numerous
local species, but not long enough to permit the development of many genera.
The Archipelago presents Asiatic, Malayan, Australian, and Polynesian
elements, but its flora is essentially Malayan. The continental elements
are practically confined to the mountains of northern Luzon; the Polynesian
and rather striking Australian elements are nowhere dominant, but occur
at both low and high altitudes. While the Philippine flora is essentially
Malaj^an, there are practically no special alliances with Borneo, Sumatra,
Java, and the Malay Peninsula, but there are very striking special alliances
with the islands to the south and southeast, Celebes, the Moluccas, New Gui-
nea, tropical. Australia, and New Caledonia. The indications are that the
original Philippine flora came largely from the islands to the south and south-
east, not from the Sunda Islands to the southwest. It would seem probably
that an ancient continent extended from the Philippines to the south and
southeast at least as far as New Guinea, and that the plant migration fol-
lowed what may have been a coastal plain region to what is now the Philip-
pine Archipelago.
The various types of vegetation in the Philippines were discussed in detail,
the virgin forest, secondary forest, and open grass lands. It was assumed
that the original vegetation was a virgin forest of one type or another, and
that the secondary forests and open grass lands, as well as the cultivated
areas, are due to the activities of man. A cleared area once deserted almost
never reverts to primary forest, but to open grass lands, bamboo thickets
or secondary forests. vSpecific endemism in primary forests runs as high as 70
per cent, while in secondary forests, open grass lands, and settled areas it is
MARCH 4, 1021 proceedings: botanical society 121
but about 7 per cent. It would seem that very many of the species of wide geo-
graphic distribution now characteristic of regions outside of the virgin forest,
had been introduced into the Archipelago by one means or another, after the
activities of man in the Archipelago had prepared regions suitable to their
growth.
This paper was briefly discussed by several members.
The program was followed by a social hour with refreshments.
A joint meeting was held with the Washington Academy of Sciences on
December 11, at which Dr. H. M. Hall of the Carnegie Institute spoke on
Hay fever and its specific botanical relationships .
14STH MEETING
The 148th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on
Januar}^4, 1921, with 50 members and 7 guests present, and President Cham-
bliss in the chair. The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.
Mr. William W. Diehl, Dr. James F. Martin, Dr. Eben H. Toole, and
Mr. Freeman Weiss, all of the Bureau of Plant Industr}% were elected to
membership. The executive committee presented the name of Mr. Joseph
W. Wellington as candidate for membership. President Cil\mbliss an-
nounced the meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences on Januarv^ 1 1 ,
to which the members of the Botanical Society were cordially invited.
Brief reports were made by Dr. A. S. Hitchcock, Prof. C. V. Piper, and
Dr. \\". H. Weston on the Chicago meetings of the Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, with particular reference to systematic botany, ag-
ronomy and patholog}'.
F. L'amson-Scribner : The lure of Rock Creek Park (illustrated by lantern
slides) .
Rock Creek Park in the District of Columbia, embracing over 1600 acres
and extending for between 4 and 5 miles along both sides of Rock Creek, is
wild and interesting. Much of it is unchanged from pre-Colonial days.
Since picking flowers and plants is prohibited in the park, it is a real plant
preserve, and a pleasure to all lovers of wild flowers. About 800, or one half
of the species of flowering plants and ferns listed in the latest "Flora of the
District and Vicinity," may be found within the park.
At one point in the creek bottom are large boulders that show remarkable
pot holes, worn in the rocks by the action of water centuries ago. In the,
cool shaded ravines are found the maidenhair fern, with jack-in-the-pulpit,
false Solomon seal and bellwort; where the soil is rich and the trees less dense,
the black snakeroot and Astilbe or false goats beard occur. One of the very
first flowers in the spring is the hepatica.
Farther north we pass Joaquin Miller's picturesque log cabin. This cabin
was formerly located at 16th Street above Florida Avenue and was moved
to its present site in 1911. A number of fine springs are located in the park,
which offer deliciously cool water to those who know where to find them.
The Park that presents so many, so varied and so beautiful and natural
attractions in the summer season, offers hardly less beautiful scenes when the
winter snows are on the ground and the trees and shrubs are festooned w^ith
crystal whiteness.
The paper was discussed by Dr. Paul B^artsch.
J. j\Iarion Shull: Skunk cabbage, Spathyema foetida (with lantern).
The skunk cabbage pursues for an indefinite number of years a monopodial
juvenile existence until such time as the terminal bud becomes modified to
122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 5
produce the first inflorescence, after which the growth becomes sympodial
and so continues to a possible extreme and indefinite old age. The sympodial
stage is characterized by a succession shoot of but two leaves. In the axil
of the first of these leaves a bud lies dormant and is rarely permitted to de-
velop further. The terminal bud being converted into an inflorescence, it
thus devolves upon the second axillary bud to produce the new terminal and
in its turn bear its leaves and surmounting spathe. Barring accident this
succession continues ad infinitum. The leaf arrangement, which has always
been in question, is difficult to trace, but elongated growths appear from deep
seated lateral buds showing a close approximation to the familiar 2/5 cycle.
Balance between photosynthesis and fruit production is maintained by
the regular suppression of most of the inflorescence, this abortion being ap-
parently brought about through strangulation due to growth pressure of the
leaf bases.
Contrary to popular opinion the spathe is not of rapid development, dis-
sections showing that it is differentiated as much as twenty-seven months in
advance of anthesis. There is no means of determining the age of an indi-
vidual skunk cabbage, and there is no apparent reason why this plant may
not outlive the oldest of the oaks.
R. G. Pierce, Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
To aid in the rehabilitation of the hbrary of the Department of Botany,
Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama, which was destroyed by
fire on October 17, 1920, the Smithsonian Institution, at the request of Prof.
Wright A. Gardner, has undertaken to receive and forward to the Institute
such publications as botanists and others in the vicinity of Washington may
desire to present for that purpose. All packages should be plainly marked
"Library, Department of Botany, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn,
Alabama," and delivered to the Smithsonian Institution, charges paid.
The Washington Chapter of the American Association of Engineers has
begun the publication of a monthly news organ under the title of The Wash-
ington Engineer. A. D. Morehouse is editor and Thomas H. Faris associate
editor of the new publication.
The Division of Graphic Arts of the National Museum has just received
from the American Museum of Natural History in New York fifty specimens
of metal movable type made from the fifty original bronze type which were
cast in Seoul, Korea, about 1406, and were owned by the Government Print-
ing Office. There seems to be little doubt that the credit for making the
first movable metal type belongs to Korea, as Gutenberg did not start his
press in Europe until about fifty years later. There was a movable clay
type in China about two hundred years earlier.
The Pick and Hammer Club met on Saturday, January 20, at the Geological
vSurvey. Talks were given by F. H. MoFFiT on Some of the features of the
problem of making maps from aeroplane photographs; H. B. Sullivan, on
Some dilhculties attending the practical application of aerial photography to
mapping, from the viewpoint of the pilot of the observation plane; and W. T.
Lee, on .4 look fonvard — the use of aeroplane photography in geology.
The Section of V^ertebrate Paleontology of the National Museum has re-
ceived as a gift from the Southern Coal, Coke and Mining Company of Shiloh,
Illinois, a beautifully preserved specimen of the extinct Carboniferous shark
Edestus heinrichsi. It was found by one of the miners.
The Bureau of Standards announces a new method for producing very small
and light mirrors for use on oscillographs and similar apparatus. These mir-
rors can be made in dimensions as small as Lo by 0.5 by 0.1 mm., and of
satisfactory planeness and polish, by compressing aluminum between opti-
cally flat steel dies.
Mr. J. W. GiDLEY, Assistant Curator of Vertebrate Paleontolog}' at the
National IVIuseum, left Washington in January for a two months' exploratory
trip in Arizona, Cahfornia, and Nebraska for the U. S. Geological Survey
and to secure fossil mammals for the Museum collection. Important finds
of Pleistocene mammal remains in the vicinity of Benson, Arizona, have
already been made.
123
124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 5
Mr. George L. Harrington recently returned from vSouth America,
where he had been engaged for ten months in private work, and resumed
work in the Alaskan Division of the U. S. Geological Survey. He went
back to South America early in February.
Mr. Herbert Insley has been transferred from the U. S. Geological Sur-
vey to the Bureau of Mines as petrographer. He will conduct petrographic
studies of dust in metal mines and related petrographic problems at the
experiment station of the Bureau at Pittsburgh.
Mr. Edwin Kirk, who resigned from the U. S. Geological Survey in April,
192U, to do private work in South America, has been reinstated as geologist
with the Survey.
Mr. J. C. Martin has resigned his position in the Foreign Mineral Section
of the U. S. Geological Survey, and will go into private work in oil geology.
Mr. Homer F. vStaley, metallurgical ceramist at the Bureau of Standards,
resigned in December to become ceramic engineer with the Metal and Thermit
Corporation, 120 Broadway, New York City.
Mr. Eugene Stebinger, formerly in charge of the Foreign Mineral Section
of the U. S. Geological Survey, has resigned to engage in private work.
Dr. F. A. Wolff of the Bureau of vStandards gave a lecture before the
City Club on January 26 on A scientific analysis of Federal expenditures.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 March 10, 1921 No. G
BOTANY. — The American species of Maximilianea {Cochlospermum).
S. F. Blake, Bureau of Plant Industry.^
The principal genus of the small family Cochlospermaceae is that
which has generally been known under the name Cochlospermum,
given it by Kunth in 1S22. Three years previously Schrank had
published for another species of the same genus Martins' m^anuscript
name Maximilianea, and it is this name which must be employed for
the genus under the American Rules. Martins' single species was
named Maximilianea regia in honor of King Maximilian of Bavaria.
Unfortunately, Martius was not satisfied with this dedication and
employed- the same name (in the spelling Maximiliana) a few years
later for a species representing a new genus of palms, for which it has
generally been adopted. Simultaneously he proposed the name
Wittelshachia for the genus which he had earlier called Maximilianea,
Kunth's name Cochlospermum being rejected because of the prior
Cochliospermum of Lagasca.
In 1847 Planchon published a revision of the family Cochlospermeae.
He^ divided the genus Cochlospermum into two subgenera: Eucochlo-
spermum, including as American species Co.chlospernmm insignc and
C. hibiscoides; and Diporandra, containing three species, all American,
two of which were described as new. The first subgenus was char-
acterized by its strongly imbricated sepals, free filaments, anthers
opening by a single apical pore, reniform seeds, and palmatifid leaves;
the second by its slightly imbricated sepals, irregularly subconnate
filaments, two-pored anthers, twisted seeds (?), and digitate leaves.
This classification was followed in Eichler's treatment in the Flora
Brasiliensis.
\ Received January lo, 1921.
2 Hist. Nat. Palm, 2: 1.31. 1824.
3 Loud. Journ. Bot. 6: .3(H;~;ni. 1<S47.
12.5
12() JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 0
In a collection recently made by Mr. Henri Pittier in Venezuela is a
new species of this genus, which combines to some extent the char-
acters relied upon by Planchon and Eichler for the separation of their
subgenera. The leaves are digitately trifoliolate, but the anthers
open by a single terminal pore and two tiny basal pores. Another
species, described from Bolivia by H. Hallier, has digitate leaves and
anthers opening by two apical pores and two smaller basal pores.
Hallier raised the question whether these basal pores may not have
been overlooked in other species of the subgenus Diporandra, but was
prevented by lack of material from determining this point. There
are in the National Herbarium no flowers of any of the previously
described species of this subgenus, so that the question remains an
open one, but it is probable, from the fact that two minute lateral
basal pores are found in the anthers of M. vitifoUa, of the group
Eucochlospernmm , that they occur in all the species.
The species of Maximilianea are shrubs or trees, with alternate
palmatifid or digitate leaves and short panicles of handsome yellow
flowers. The inner bark of two species iJM. regia and A/, viti folia)
is used in Brazil and Mexico for making ropes and cord, and the latter
species (M. vitifolia) is sometimes grown as a hedge plant in the
American tropics, but in general the genus is of little economic im-
portance.
Maximilianea Mart.; Schrank, Flora 2: 4-51. 1S19.
Cochlospermum Kiinth, Malv. G, footnote.'* 1822; H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & vSp. 5:
297, footnote. 1S22.
Wittelsbackia Mart. & Zucc. Nov. Gen. & Sp. i: 80. pi. 55. 1824.
''Azeredia Arrtida; Allem. Appar. Coll. Desenh. Arruda, ntvi tab. 1S4G."
Type species M. regia Mart. & Schrank.
KEY TO SPECIES
Leaves palmate-lobed, the lobes serrate.
Leaves 7-lobed, the lobes lanceolate, subcaudate-acuminate. 1. M. codinae.
Leaves 3- to 7-lobed, the lobes obovate to oblong, acuminate to obtusish.
Shrub 2 meters high; leaves 10 to 12 cm. wide; capsule glabrate, obtuse.
2. M. regia.
Tree up to 8 meters high or more; leaves 10 to .33 cm. wide; capsule
densely griseous-tomentellous, umbilicate. 3. M. vitifolia.
Leaves digitately 3- to 7-foliolate, the leaflets entire.
Leaflets 3; anthers with a single terminal pore. 4. M. triphylla.
Leaflets 5 to 7 (rarely 3) ; anthers with 2 terminal pores.
Middle leaflet 10 to 18 cm. long.
Middle leaflet 2 cm. wide; capsule glabrous, about 25 mm. long.
5. M. tetrapora.
^ Genus named and one species (Bomba.x gossypium L.) cited, but no description or
diagnosis.
MARCH \\\ 1921 BLAKE: AMERICAN SPECIES OF MAXIMILIANEA 127
Middle leaflet 3 toG.5 cm. wide; capsule densely puberulous, H to 7.5 cm.
long. 0. M. orinocensis.
Middle leaflet 5 to 7.5 cm. long.
Leaflets very obtuse, long-attenuate at base. 7. M. parkeri.
Leaflets abruptly acuminate, sessile. 8. M. paviaefolia.
1. Maximilianea codinae (Kichl.) Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. i: 44, as Maxi-
iiiiliana. ISUl.
Cochlospermuni codinae Eichl. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 13': 4;J1. pi. S6, f.i.
187L
Leaves 7-lobed, the lobes lanceolate, subcaudate-acuminate, glaucescent
beneath; two outer sepals oblong-ovate, subacute, the three inner rounded;
petals three times as long; capsule obovate-oval in outline, obtusely 5-angled,
5-valved.
Type Locality: Banks of the Rio Para, Brazil.
Described by Eichler from a drawing by Codina.
2. Maximilianea regia MarL & Schrank, Flora 2: 452. 1819.
Wittelsbachia insif^nis Mart. & Zucc. Nov. Gen. & Sp. i: 81. pi. yj. 1824.
Bomhax hibiscifoUiiDi Willd.; Mart. & Zucc. Nov. Gen. &: vSp. i: 81, as
synonym.^ 1824.
Cochlospernium instgne vSt. Hil. PI. Us. Bras, ■pi: S7- 1827.
"Azeredia pernanibncana Arruda; Allem. Appar. Coll. Desenh. Arruda,
cum tab. 1840." \
Cochlospermiim insigne var. pohliana Eichl. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 13^: 430.
1871. ' \
Shrub about 2 meters high; branchlets pubescent at apex; petioles puber-
ulous, 8 to 14 cm. long; leaves about 10 to 12 cm. wide, o- or 5-lobed for three-
fourths their length, the lobes oboval or ovate-oblong, acuminate to obtusish,
pubescent beneath at maturity, the middle lobe 8 to 12 cm. long, 4 to 5 cm.
wide; panicle pyramidate, the lower branches 2- to 4-flowered, the upper
1-flowered; pedicels 1.5 to 2.5 cm. long, tomentellous; flowers 0 to 8 cm. wide;
two outer sepals o%-ate or oblong, subacute or obtuse, puberulous, the three
inner 10 to 20 mm. long, 12 to 14 mm. broad, less pubescent; petals sub-
quadrate-obovate, usually emarginate; stamens free, the anthers dehiscent
by an apical pore; ovary with 3 to 5 placentae; capsule 3- to 5-valved, oblong-
pyramidal, obtuse, 7 cm. long, glabrate; seeds reniform, 0 to 7 mm. wide,
involved in dense whitish wooL
Type Locality: Eastern Brazil.
Range: Provinces of Pernambuco, Goyaz, Bahia, and Minas Geraes, Brazil.
Not seen; the description compiled from those of Martins and Zuccarini
and St. Hilaire, and from Eichler' s^ account in the Flora Brasiliensis. The
capsule is said to have the odor of dill (AnetJmm graveolens) . The filamentous
bark, according to Eichler, is used for making rope. St. Hilaire states that
a decoction of the roots is used for internal troubles, principally those result-
ing from falls or other accidents, and that this decoction is said to heal ab-
scesses. He gives the native name as "butua do curvo."
^ Wrongly referred to this species, according to Eichler.
6 Fl. Bras. 13": 429-431. pi. 86, f. 2. 1871.
12S JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 6
The typical form has the leaves somewhat pubescent beneath. The form
described as var. pohliana by Kichler, with slightly larger and thicker always
3-lobed leaves, seems unworthy of recognition. Two other varieties, which
appear sufficiently distinct for recognition by name, are the following:
Maximilianea regia glaberrima Cliod. & Hassl. Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 3: SIO.
1903.
Leaves strictly glabrous.
Described from Hassler 4934, from Nundurucay, and 4392, from the Rfo
Capibary, Paraguay. Said to be a shrub 30 to 40 cm. high.
Maximilianea regia mattogrossensis (Pilger) Blake.
Cochlospermum insigne var. mattogrossensis Pilger, Bot. Jahrb. Engler 30:
176. 1901.
Leaves densely and shortly cinereous-tomentose beneath.
Described from Pilger 518, from the upper Cuyaba Valley, Matto Grosso.
vSaid to be a shrub with several unbranched stems from a thick rootstock.
3. Maximilianea vitifolia (Willd.) Krug & Urb. Bot. Jahrb. Engler 15: 293,
as Maxin nlia nia . 1 892 .
Bombax vitifolimn Willd. Enum. Hort. Berol. 2: 720. 1809.
Cochlospermwn serratifoliiim DC. Prodr. i: 527. 1824.
Bombax serratifolium [Moc. & Sessc;] DC. Prodr. i : 527, as synonym. 1824.
Mahuria f speciosa Choisy in DC. Prodr. i: bbS. 1824.
Wittelsbachia vitifolia Mart. & Zucc. Nov. Gen. & Sp. i: 82. 1824.
Cochlospermum- hibiscoides Kunth, Syn. PI. Aequin. 3: 214. 1824.
Cochlospermum vitifolimn Willd.; Spreng. Svst. 2: 596, in part. 1825;
vSyst. 4: Cur. Post. 206. 1827.
Maximiliana Jiibiscodes Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. i: 44. 1891.
Large or small tree; branchlets at first loosely pilose; petioles more or less
pubescent, glabrate, 8 to 28 cm. long; leaves usually 54obed, rarely 3- or
7-lobed, for one-half to three-fourths their length, 10 to 33 cm. wide, above
more or less puberulous along the impressed veins, beneath loosely pilose
along the veins and in youth along the chief veinlets, the lobes oblong to
oval or obovate-oval, shoit-pointed or abruptly short-acuminate; inflorescence
sordid-pubescent, the axis 3 to 9 cm. long, the spreading or ascending branches
several-flowered toward the tip ; pedicels densely puberulous or tomentulose,
2 to 3 cm. long; flowers 7.5 to 12.5 cm. wide; two outer sepals ovate to oblong-
ovate, obtuse to lounded, sparsely or densely puberulous, 10 to 12 mm. long,
the three inner broadly oval, rounded, finely and densely cinereous-puber-
ulous, 16 to 22 mm. long; stamens free, the anthers opening by an apical pore
and 2 minute basal pores; capsule broadly obovate-oval, 7 to 8 cm. long,
about 6 cm. thick, densely griseous-tomentellous, 5-valved, umbilicate at
apex; seeds involute-reniform, 4.5 mm. wide, involved in long whitish wool.
Illustration: Hemsl. Biol. Centr. Amer. Bot. pi. 2.
Type Locality: "Brazil" {i. e., Campeche, fide Mart. & Zucc.).^
Range: Western Mexico, fromSinaloa and Guerrero to Chiapas and Yuca-
tan, southward to Colombia (Santa Tvlarta, H. H. Smith 830), and reported
from Venezuela and Guayaquil;^ also Cuba (introduced).
The species bears the following local names, many of which have been
furnished me by Mr. Paul C. Standley: "rosa amarilla" (Sinaloa, where the
7 Mart. & Zucc. Nov. Gen. & vSp. i: 82. 1824.
8H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 7: 22.3. 1825.
MARCH 19, 1921 BLAKE: AMERICAN SPECIES OF MAXIMILIANEA 129
orange inner bark is used for making ropes); "palo amarillo," "palo de rosa
amarilla" (Durango); "panaco" (Acapulco, Guerrero); "madera de pasta"
(Veracruz, Ramirez); "apompo," "pongolote," "cojon de toro" (Oaxaca);
"pochote" (Tabasco, Oaxaca); "cocito" (Chiapas); "tecomasuchil" (Chiapas,
Guatemala); "quie-riga," "quie-quega," "huarumbo," "flor izquierda"
(Chiapas and Oaxaca, Scler); "chuun," "chum," "chimu" (Maya, Yucatan);
"tecomaxochitl" (Nahuatl) ; "tecomasuche" (Guatemala); "bombon,"
"catamericuche" (Nicaragua); "poro-poro" (Nicaragua, Panama, Costa Rica,
Colombia); "flechero," "batabana," "bototo" (Venezuela, Colombia);
"botija" (Cuba). Kunth^ mentions the local names "botulo" (Guayaquil)
and "carnestolendas" (Aragua, Venezuela). The branches root readily if
thrust into the ground, and are frequently used to form hedges.
The original description of this species is so brief that it would not sufhce
to distinguish between M. regia and M. vitijolia as generally adopted. Will-
denow gives the locality as Brazil, but Martins and Zuccarini, who examined
the original in the Willdenow Herbarium, accredit it to Campeche, and their
statement is here taken as authority for the use of the name in its generally
accepted sense. Mahuria ? speciosa, which was based by Choisy on a single
flower collected at Santa Marta by Bertero, is considered by St. Hilaire, who
examined the original, as scarcely distinct from M. regia. It is clear, how-
ever, from the good specimen collected at the same locality by Herbert H.
Smith, that the name belongs rather to M. vitijolia.
The ovarv' of Cochlospernmm hihiscoides w^as wrongly described by Kunth
as glabrous.
4. Maximilianea triphylla Blake, sp. nov.
Small tree; branchlets glabrous, lenticellate ; petioles glabrous, 12.5 to
16 cm. long; leaflets 3, on petiolules 1 to 2 mm. long, the blades nearly mem-
branaceous, the terminal one obovate-oval, 14.5 cm. long, 7.8 cm. wide, short-
pointed with obtuse apex, broadly cuneate at base, glabrous, entire, margin-
ate, light green, the chief nerves about six pairs, curved, ascending at an angle
of about 60°, the secondary veins somewhat prominulous ; lateral leaflets
similar, oval, inequilateral, 12.5 cm. long, 6 cm. wide; flowering axis 6 cm.
long, with about 5 short horizontal branches, sordid-puberulous toward the
tip, each bearing toward apex about 4 flowers; pedicels obscurely puberulous,
2.8 cm. long; sepals 5, the two outer elliptic-oblong, rounded, sordid-pilose,
dark colored, about 1.7 cm. long, 6 mm. wide, the three inner suborbicular,
broadly rounded, densely canescent-pilosulous, 2 cm. long; petals 5, cuneate-
obovate, apparently emarginate at apex, bright yellow, 5 cm. long, 2 to 2.5
cm. wide; stamens very numerous, with free glabrous filaments, the anthers
3'ellow, linear, 4.8 to 6 mm. long, dehiscing by a single terminal pore and two
minute basal pores; ovary densely tomentose, 5-celled; style glabrous, 3.5
cm. long.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,065,095, collected in hedges
at Valencia, Venezuela, April (flowers) and July (leaves), 1920, bv H. Pittier
(no. 8930).
" H. B. K. Nov. Gen. and Sp. 7: 223. 1825.
130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. U, NO. 6
Fig. 1. Maximilianea triphylla Blake, a, leaves, X V'a; b, inflorescence after defloration,
X V2; c, flower, X V2; d, bud, X about 'A; e, stamen, X 2V2.
MARCH 19, 1021 BLAKE: AMERICAN SPECIES OF MAXIMILIANS A DJl
This species is readily distinguished by its combination of digitate leaves
and single apical anther pore. M. tctrapora, which is said by Hallier to have
the leaves occasionally with three leaflets, is easily separated by its much
smaller calyx, much narrower lanceolate leaflets, and anthers with two apical
pores.
."). Maximilianea tetrapora (H. Hallier) Blake.
Cochlospermum tetraponim H. Hallier, INIed. Rijks Herb. 19: 39. 1913.
fCochlospermum zahlhruckneri Ostermeyer, Rep. vSp. Nov. Fedde 13: 395.
1914.
Leaves long-petioled, at first sparsely pilose, the leaflets 5 to 7, rarely 3,
verv shortly petiolulate, the blades lanceolate, membranaceous, with a very
narrow acumen at apex, attenuate at base, the two basal ones inequilateral,
the middle leaflet 10.3 cm. long, 2 cm. wide; peduncles dichotomous, glabrous;
pedicels 2.5 cm. long, glabrous; sepals ovate or elhptic, 10 to 12 mm. long,
5 to 8 mm. wide, the inner densely puberulous and ciliolate; petals obovate,
excised, -i cm. long, 2.5 cm. wide; anthers 3 to 4 mm. long, dehiscing by two
ap.'cal and two smaller basal pores; capsule fusiform-subglobose, glabrous,
2.3 cm. long, l.S cm. wide.
Type Locality: Caipipendi \'alley, Bolivia.
Not seen; described by Hallier from //t'rsog 1101, collected on dry hills on
the left bank of the Pilcomayo at Ibiboba, Bolivia, at an altitude of 400
meters, in November, 1910, and Herzog 1242,' from the Caipipendi Valley,
altitude 1000 meters, December, 1910. As the material of the former num-
ber consisted only of three flow^ers, the latter should be selected as the type.
The short description by Ostermeyer of his Cochlospermum zahlhruckneri
agrees very wxll with the full description given by Hallier of C. tetraponim,
and there can be little question that the two are the same. The former was
based on material collected by J- Schuel in 1913 in the Province of Jujuy,
Argentina, a region very close to the type locality of M. tetrapora. Oster-
meyer gives the local name of his species as "palo papel." The reddish
brown papery exfoliating bark of Af . tetrapora is likewise mentioned by Hallier.
G. Maximilianea orinocensis (H. B. K.) Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. i: 44, as
Maximiliana. 1891.
Bonibax orinocense H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & vSp. 5: 301. 1822.
W ittelsbachia orinocensis Mart. & Zucc. Nov. Gen. & Sp. i: 83. 1S24.
Cochlospermum orinoccense (sic) Steud. Nom. ed. 2. i: 393. 1840.
Tree 10 meters high; branchlets puberulous at apex; leaves long-petioled,
the leaflets 5 or rarely 0, lanceolate or oblong, acuminate, at base acute,
glabrous above, puberulous along the nerves beneath, the middle one 10 to
18 cm. long, 3 to ().5 cm. wide; axis of inflorescence thinly tomentose above,
the pedicels puberulous; sepals ovate or ovate-oblong, thinly tomentose;
flowers 10 to 11 cm. wide; calyx 10 to 18 mm. long; petals cuneate-obovate,
excised at apex; stamens free, the anthers dehiscent by 2 terminal pores;
capsule 3-locular, about 7.5 cm. long, thinly tomentose outside; seeds twisted,
clothed with a long wool.
Type Locality: Banks of the Orinoco.
132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 6
The above description is compiled from the original, based on fragmentary
fruiting specimens, and from the descriptions of Martins and Zuccarini and
of Eichler. The native name is given as "botuto." It is recorded by Eichler
from the provinces of Para (Spruce 483) and Alto Amazonas (Spruce 494) .
In the National Herbarium is a single sheet of fruiting material labeled as
this species, collected at Catalina on the Lower Orinoco by Rusby and
Squires (no. 236). This has 5-foliolate leaves, with the
sessile elliptic acuminate and apiculate perhaps not
mature leaflets 10 to 11.5 cm. long or more, 3 to 4 cm.
wide, glabrous above, beneath puberulous along the
'^//l'\^^' costa and chief veins. The capsules are obovate,
' slightly umbilicate at apex, 3-valved, 6 cm. long, 3 cm.
Fig. 2. Seed oi Maxi- thick, very densely olivaceous-puberulous and with
milianea orinocensis, , j i v . a,a, , . , ,
^ , sparse looser and longer hairs, i he seeds are mvolute,
X 1. Drawn from 11,1-1
Rushy & Squires 256. ^ "^"^- ^^^^e- ^"^ clothed With a peripheral fringe of
rufidulous wool about 9 mm. long. In the only other
species of which I have examined the seeds, M. vitijolia, the much looser
and denser wool is attached to the whole outer surface of the seed, on the
sides as well as on the back.
7. Maximilianea parkeri (Planch.) Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. i:A:A,2isMaximili-
ana. 1891.
Cochlospermum parkeri Planch. Lond. Journ. Bot. 6: 310. 1847.
Petioles very thinly puberulous, about 7.5 cm. long; leaflets 5, oblong, very
obtuse, at base long-attenuate, glabrous, the terminal one 5 to 7.5 cm. long,
2 to 3.5 cm. wide, the two lowest less than half as large; peduncle bifurcate
at apex, the flowers secund along the branches.
Type Locality: British Guiana.
Not seen. Described from material in the Kew Herbarium, collected by
Parker.
8. Maximilianea paviaefolia (Planch.) Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. i : 44, as
Maximiliana pawiacfolia. 1891.
Cochlospermum parviaefolium (sic) Planch. Lond. Journ. Bot. 6: 311. 1847.
Cochlospermum parkiaefolium (sic) Hook. & Jacks. Ind. Kew i': 576. 1893.
Leaflets 5, sessile, oblong, abruptly acuminate, glabrous, the middle one
7.5 cm. long, 2.5 to 3.7 cm. wide; pedicels 1.2 cm. long or more; sepals broadly
oblong, obtuse, slightly unequal, rufo-tomentellous outside; petals twice as
long.
Type Locality: Surinam.
Not seen; based on material in the Kew Herbarium, collected by Hostmann.
OCEANOGRAPHY.— T/z^ problem of physical oceanography. '^ A. L.
Thuras. (Communicated by vS. W. Stratton, Bureau of Standards.)
Physical oceanography is that branch of oceanography which deals
with the physical properties of the ocean such as temperature, salinity,
density, pressure, velocity and direction of water movements, for the
1 Received January 31, 1921.
MARCH H), 1921 THURAS: PROBLEM OF PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY 133
purpose of solving the general problems of oceanic circulation. This
article is written with the object of indicating the importance of this
subject, especially as regards a part of the North Atlantic ocean, from
the light of recent experience, and with the hope that in the near
future some systematic plan of work will be undertaken to solve the
important dynamical problems of the sea, thereby obtaining a more
accurate knowledge of ocean circulation.
During recent years much work of an explorational nature has been
carried on in the coastal waters of the United States and Canada.
Dr. Henry B. Bigelow, in cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries,
has made these investigations, and the results of his work are published
in the Bulletins of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Har^-^ard
University. Several theories of the origin and circulation of our coastal
waters have been corrected, and sufficient data have been collected
to give a general working knowledge of the subject. Valuable ob-
ser^^ations have also been collected by observers in Canadian waters,
and from these observations some exceedingly interesting theories of
ocean circulation have been developed by J. W. Sandstrom. Most
of this work has also been of an explorational nature.
Since the beginning of the International Ice Patrol an opportunity
has been given to extend this work further out into the North Atlantic
in the region of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland and in the Labra-
dor Current and Gulf Stream. The conflict of the Labrador Current
and Gulf Stream south of the Newfoundland Bank causes greater
changes in the physical properties of the sea water, only a few miles
apart, than occur in any other part of the world. The hydrographical
conditions which exist in this locality cause much ice and fog which
become a serious menace to navigation during the spring and summer
months. The vessels of the U. S. Coast Guard have collected many
observations while on patrol in this region. These observ^ations have
so far been chiefly of an explorational nature, as the primary purpose
of the Patrol has necessarily been to locate ice and convey this informa-
tion to other vessels. However, from the data obtained and the ad-
mirable current charts prepared by Captain C. E. Johnston of the
Coast Guard, a fairly accurate knowledge of the movements of ice
after passing Newfoundland is available.
In the spring icebergs from the shores of Greenland and Labrador
are carried southward in the Labrador Current, their movement being
little affected by winds, on account of their small buoyance. Those
bergs which are sufficiently off shore to clear the bottom and keep in
13-i JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. U, NO. G
the south-flowing branch of the Labrador Current are carried along
the eastern edge of the Newfoundland Bank and southward toward
the Gulf Stream. By measurements of temperature and salinity the
course and extent of these streams can be determined, salinity generally
being the most reliable indication. The temperature of the Labrador
Current is — l°to +1° C, with a salinity of 33 grams of salt per 1000
grams of sea water; the Gulf Stream has a temperature of 15° to 20° C,
with a salinity of 36. South of the Grand Bank, where the Labrador
Current merges into the Gulf Stream, a large area of mixed water is
formed, and at this place the Labrador Current ceases as an individual
current. In this mixed water almost all the icebergs remain until
they melt, and, as this area is usually very foggy from the mixing of
the warm and cold waters, it becomes extremely dangerous for vessels.
At no time during the last four years has an iceberg ever been located
in the unmixed waters of the Gulf Stream, which have a salinity of
36 and a temperature above 15° C. Therefore, if vessels while passing
the Newfoundland Bank would keep in this warm salt water there
would be little danger from ice, and furthermore such a course would
avoid most of the fog.
A comparison of the yearly observations show that the volume and
strength of the Labrador Current have a decided influence on the course
of the Gulf Stream in this vicinity. In some years the Gulf Stream
was found almost up to the southern end of the Grand Bank, in other
years as far south as the 40th degree of north latitude, a variation of
over KJO miles. This variation in the deflecting power of the Labra-
dor Current must have an effect on the volume of flow of the Gulf
Stream to the eastward and also possibly west of this position. A more
accurate knowledge of the volume, velocity, and location of these cur-
rents from time to time, and correlation with meteorological condi-
tions, might yield results of great interest.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK
The science of physical oceanography, having passed the period
of exploration, should now be undertaken on a large scale with most
carefully worked out plans of systematic investigation extending over
a long period of time. This can be most effectively accomplished by :
(1) international cooperation; (2) development of instruments; (3)
establishment of a permanent oceanographic laboratory.
International cooperation. — The oceanographers of Europe for many
years have been engaged in the study of the North Sea and sur-
rounding waters. They have built many ingenious instruments and
MARCH 19, 1921 THURAS: PROBLEM OF PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY 135
developed several new methods of investigation. They have been
especially interested in the waters of the Gulf Stream, on account of
its effect on their climate, and would be very glad to cooperate with
us in a careful study of this Stream.
Development of instruments. — In order to obtain a clearer and more
complete understanding of the dynamics of ocean circulation, an
effort has been made in recent years to develop recording instruments.
Hans Pettersson of Goteborg, Sweden, has built a photographic re-
cording current meter which will give a continuous record of current
velocity and direction for a period of two weeks. By the use of special
anchors and buoys the instrument can be firmly anchored at any
depth up to several hundred meters. Dr. R. A. Daly of Harvard
University has recently had constructed a thermograph which will
give a continuous record of temperature for a week or more; this in-
strument can be used at great depths in the ocean. The U. S. Coast
Guard in conjunction with the Bureau of Standards has designed and
constructed a recording salinity apparatus and a recording thermom-
eter which will give continuous records of temperature, salinity and
density of the sea water taken from intake pipes below the surface
by a moving vessel. As all of these instruments have been developed
independently, it might be possible by cooperation and further re-
search to develop a single instrument which would give all of these
physical properties at each oceanographic station.
Oceanographic laboratory. — A physical oceanographic laboratory
should be established where instruments could be tested and improved
and research carried on. This laboratory should be located in Wash-
ington, preferably at the Bureau of Standards, where there are facili-
ties for handling and developing work in scientific instruments.
SUMMARY
The physical oceanographic observations collected in our Atlantic
waters indicate that that stage in development has been reached which
calls for more thorough plans of work extending over a long period
of time. These investigations can be accomplished most successfully
by international cooperation, development of physical oceanographic
instruments, and establishment of a permanent oceanographic labora-
torv.
ABSTRACTS
Authors of scientific papers ar^ requested to see that abstracts, preferably pre-
pared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The
abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
BOTANY. — ^.4 teosinte-maize hybrid. G. N. Collins and J. H. Kempton.
Journ. Agric. Research. 19: 1-37. Pis. 7, figs. 33. 1920.
The diminutive variety of pop corn known as Tom thumb was crossed with
the teosinte of Florida {Euchlaena mexicana Schrad.), using teosinte as the
female parent. Eleven hybrid seeds were obtained and six plants were raised
to maturity. The first generation plants were intermediate between maize
and teosinte. The pistillate inflorescences were all four-rowed and the
staminate inflorescences resembled those of maize in that they terminated
in eight-rowed central spikes.
A population of 127 second generation plants was raised from the seed
of a single self-pollinated first generation plant. These plants like those of
the first generation were intermediate between maize and teosinte but with
greatly extended range of variation. Thirty-three of the characters that
differentiated the parents were studied and with one or two exceptions no
evidence of alternative or Mendelian inheritance was found.
With respect to the individual characters, the extreme variants approached
or even exceeded those of the parents but none of the plants possessed any
very large number of the characters of either maize or teosinte. All com-
binations of characters appeared that might be expected with so limited a
number of individuals. There were many instances of coherences or partial
couplings but there was an almost equal number of instances where char-
acters derived from different parents showed a tendency to combine more
ftequently than would be expected as the result of chance. This phenom-
enon is termed "disherence."
While there appeared to be no imcompatible combinations, there were
on the other hand no completely independent characters. A surprisingly
large number of the plants combined the abundant production of suckers,
characteiistic of the teosinte parent, with the sturdy upright character of
maize and resulted in very leafy compact plants of a type that should prove
valuable for forage purposes. It remains to be seen whether the new com-
binations can be maintained and made to breed true. J. H. K.
BOTANY. — Daily development of kernels of Hannchen barley from flowering to
mattirity. Harry V. Harlan. Journ. Agric. Research 19: 393-429. Pis.
9, figs. 17. 1920.
The growth of barley kernels is traced from flowering to maturity. By
an accurate method of sampling, growth in periods as short as twelve hours
has been recorded. Length, lateral diameter, dorso-ventral diameter and
weight are all shown to be measurable. The length growth of barley kernels
is much more rapid than had been supposed. The full length is reached by
the seventh day after flowering. As soon as the length growth is checked
a rapid gain in dry matter begins, accompanied by increase in the lateral and
dorso-ventral diameteis. The indices of growth have proved very valuable
in measuring the reactions to water supply and other factors in nutrition.
H. V. H.
136
MARCH 19, 1921 abstracts: botany 137
BOTANY. — Development of barley kernels in normal and clipped spikes and the
limitations of aivnless and hooded varieties. Harry V. Harlan and
Stephen Anthony. Journ. Agric. Research 19:431-472. Figs. 13. 1920.
The awns of barley are extremely harsh and are objectionable, both in
handling the crop and in feeding the straw. Awnless and hooded barleys
have not yielded as well as the awned sorts. The physiological value of the
awn was tested by clipping the awns from a large number of spikes. Growth
measurements taken by the method used in the study of the daily develop-
ment of kernels of Hannchen barley showed that the awn was necessary for
the maximum growth of the kernel. The kernels at maturity were not
only smaller but the daily increase in weight was less on the spikes from
which the awns were clipped. That this was not due to any injury of clipping
was evident from the fact that the growth for the first few days after the
removal of the awns was normal, the reduction in the daily increase of dry
matter not taking place until the period of rapid starch infiltration had begun.
The awns of Hannchen barley normally contain about 32 per cent of ash at
maturit}'. When the awns were clipped much of this ash was apparently
deposited in the rachis of the spike, causing the spikes to shatter while ripen-
ing. This may explain why the awnless and hooded varieties of barley are
more prone to shatter than the awned sorts. H. V. H.
BOTANY. — Occurrence of the fixed intermediate, Hordeum intermedium haxtoni,
in crosses between H. vitlgare pallidum and H. distichon palmella.
Harry V. Harlan and H. K. Hayes. Journ. Agric. Research 19: 575-
591. Pis. 4. 1920.
Hordeum intermedium is considered by the writers to be one of the four
species of cultivated barleys. It consists of a number of varieties several of
which are in field cultivation in different parts of the world. This species
has been isolated by the writer from a number of crosses between 6-rowed
and 2-rowed barleys. Heretofore plant breeders have considered that such
crosses give only three types, the 6-rowed, 2-rowed and the heterozygous
intermediate. H. V. H.
HYDROLOGY.— SwrA^r^ waters of Vermont. C. H. Pierce. U. S. Geol.
Survey Water-vSupply Paper 414. Pp. 218, pis. 14, figs. 2. .1917.
The rivers of "Vermont have figured largely in the growth and development
of the State. A brief introduction sketches the changes which have taken
place in the utilization of water-power since the early settlements. For-
tunately, pure water is abundant, so that the higher use for domestic and
municipal supply need not seriously interfere with its use for other purposes.
Tables are given which show the daily, monthly, and annual run-off for the
principal rivers as measured at regular gaging stations. Monthly discharge
of Lake Champlain outlet (Richelieu River) for the years 1S75-1916 is shown
for the purpose of comparing short time lecords on tributary streams with the
probable long term average. Precipitation records at Burlington for the
same period are also given. Deficiency tables for several rivers show the
number of days on which the discharge and corresponding horse-power per
foot of fall were less than the amounts given in the columns for discharge and
horse-power. Several maps accompany the report, a map of Vermont show-
ing principal drainage basins and location of gaging stations, scale 1 to 1,000,-
000, and river surveys of Winooski River drainage basin, scale 1 to 24,000.
A gazetteer of streams is given which lists and describes the streams, lakes,
loS JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 6
and ponds which are shown and named on topographic maps of Vermont
and such other maps as are available for areas not yet covered b}' topographic
maps. In this list are included nearly three hundred lakes and ponds and
over fi\'e hundred and fifty streams. C. H. P.
PALEONTOLOGY. — The fauna of the Cannonhall marine member of the
Lance formation. Timothy W. Stanton and Thomas Wayland
Vaughan. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 128-A. Pp. G7, pis. 10, figs. 3.
1920.
The Cannonball member is the latest marine deposit known in the Great
Plains province and thus adds one more item to the record of the sea's ad-
vances and retreats which mark the diastrophic history of the region that
includes the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains. It is intimately as-
sociated with some of the continental deposits which lie near the boundary
between Cretaceous and Tertiary and concerning whose exact age there has
been and still is difi'erence of opinion. It lies immediately beneath the Fort
LTnion formation and rests on continental deposits of the Lance formation,
which in turn overlie the marine Cretaceous Fox Hills sandstone. Its fauna
is strictly marine and includes 2 species of Foraminifera, 6 of corals, 60 of
Mollusca, and 2 of sharks.
Geographically and historically the Cannonball member is much more
closely connected with the Cretaceous than with the Eocene, foi the reason
that it is in the midst of an area that was covered by the sea practically
throughout Upper Cretaceous time, while it is a thousand miles distant from
recognized marine Eocene deposits. The conclusion is therefore reached
that the Cannonball marine member and consequently the whole of the
Lance formation is of Cretaceous age. R. W. Stone.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
BOARD OP MANAGERS
The 244th meeting of the Board was held on October 2.5, 1920. The pub-
lication of a new edition of the "Red Book" (the directory of the Academy
and its affiliated societies) was authorized. At the request of Dr. George
F. Bowerman, Librarian of the Pubhc Library of the District of Columbia,
a committee consisting of the president and resident vice-presidents was
appointed to compile a list of popular books in science. The following Com-
mittee on Meetings for the season 1920-21 was announced: A. H. Clark,
Chairman, G. N. Collins, E. F. Mueller, G. W. Stose, E. T. Wherry.
Routine business was transacted at the 24.3th meeting on November 29, 1920.
The question of increased rates for the assembly hall at the Cosmos Club for
the Academy and its affiliated societies was considered at the 240th meeting,
December 27, 1920.
MARCH 19, 1(12! proceedings: WASHINGTON ACADEMY 139
At the 247th meeting on January 24, 1921, the following committees were
appointed: Committee on Membership: H. L. Shantz, Chairman, L. H.
Adams, S. J. Barnett, D. F. Hewett, Walter Hough. Executive Com-
mittee: The President, Corresponding Secretary, and Treasurer; F. \'. Cov-
ILLE, and F. B. Silsbee. Editor of the Journal, iQ2i~ig2j: vSidney Paige.
The Associate^ Editors were reappointed for 1921, and G. W. vStose was ap-
pointed to succeed Sidney Paige as representative of the Geological Society.
A budget for 1921 was approved, with a slight increase for publication of the
Journal. It was announced by the Editors that the cost of publication of
the Journal would be greater in 1921 by about 70 per cent, and that on ac-
count of the limited funds available it would be necessary to decrease the
number of pages, but that the amount of material would not have to be cor-
respondingly decreased as certain economies could be effected by increasing
the size of the printed page and in other ways. A request from the American
Metric Association for support for certain metric system bills before Con-
gress was declined as being contrary to the Academy's policy. The follow-
ing Resident Vice-Presidents were elected: C. Hart Merriam, Anthro-
pological vSociety; H. C. Macatee, INIedical Societ}^.
The following persons have become members of the Academy since the
preceding report in the Journal (August 19, 1920, p. 417) :
Prof. James Rowland Angell, Carnegie Corporation, 576 Fifth Ave.,
New York City.
Mr. Henry Walter Bearce, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.
Dr. Charles Thomas Brues, Bussey Institution, Forest Hills, Boston,
Massachusetts.
Miss Julia Gardner, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
Dr. William Jacob Holland, Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, Pennsyl-
vania.
Dr. Edwin Pechin Hyde, Nela Research Laboratory, National Lamp
Works of the General Electric Company, Cleveland, Ohio.
Prof. Vernon Kellogg, National Research Council, 1701 Massachusetts
Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Prof. Clarence Erwin McClung, National Research Council, 1701
Massachusetts Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Dr. Daniel Trembly MacDougal, Department of Botanical Research,
Carnegie Institution of Washington, Tucson, Arizona.
Dr. William Frederick Meggers, Bureau of vStandards, Washington,
D. C.
^Ir. Sylvanus Griswold Morley, Carnegie Institution, 16th and P
vStreets, Washington, D. C.
Maj. Gen. George Owen Squier, U. S. A., vSignal Corps, War Depart-
ment, Washington, D. C.
Dr. Clark Wissler, National Research Council, 1701 Massachusetts
Avenue, Washington, D. C.
14U JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOI^. 11, NO. 6
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
329th meeting
The 329th meeting was held March 4, 1920, at the Cosmos Club, with
President Walton presiding and 21 memlDcrs and 3 visitors present.
Program
Wm. MiddeETon: Comparison of larval folds and adult sclerites in the
s aw- j lies.
This paper dealt with the structure of the immature forms of Pteronidea
ribesii, treating especially the limits of a segment, the composition of its
tergum and pleurum, and the relations existing between larval and adult
parts. Particular attention was given to the transformation of the prepupa
to the pupa, and it was from observations during this phase of the meta-
morphosis that the indications of the homologies suggested were found.
The structure of the saw-fly larval body was studied and it was concluded
that the segment is composed of four folds, three of which are armed and
always have a place in the exterior structure of the larva, and were shown to
develop into adult sclerites, while the fourth is never armed, is concealed
in some saw-flies, functioning as intersegmental skin, and was shown to be
represented in the adult also as a connective membrane. The folds are
defined by infoldings of the skin to which muscles are attached and the
muscles as well as the arrangement of these folds throughout the whole body
determine the limits of the segment. The interpretation of the segment thus
arrived at applies to the thorax as well as to the abdomen and to other saw-fly
larvae as was attested by several examples.
The study of the metamorphosis brought out several interesting changes
in the prepupa preceding pupation, and the homologies were based on the
changes exhibited by prepupae under daily observations together with some
dissections of more advanced prepupae. Following a table of the homologies
the paper concluded with a brief summary of the more important evidence
supporting the homologies indicated and some suggestions as to the probable
causes of the changes in segment limitation between larva and adult.
This paper was copiously illustrated by drawings showing the correlation
of the larval and adult structures.
Discussion. — Mr. Rohwer noted that if the conclusions were correct this
was another case of unusual change in the thorax of the Hymenoptera.
When the first morphologist stated that the first abdominal segment became
a part of the so-called thorax of the Clistogastra there was some doubt in the
minds of many. This doubt was, however, easily disposed of by the presence
of the spiracle on the propodeum. The borrowing of part of the metanotum
of the larva by the mesonotum of the adult is not as easily proven as the
transferal of the first abdominal segment to the "thorax" of the Clistogastra.
When the composition of the adult mesonotum is considered, and especially
when its bulk is compared with the mesonotum of the larva such a transfer
does not seem unreasonable, and from the evidence furnished by saw-fly larvae
and adults it seems certain that Mr. Middleton's conclusions are correct.
Notes and exhibition of specimens
Mr. R. E. Snodgrass discussed the mouthparts and the alimentary canal
of the periodical cicada, on the basis of additional observations made since
his paper presented at the 327th meeting of this Society. The alimentary
canal of the adult cicada has an arm of the stomach forming a loop from the
MARCH 19, 1921 proceedings: entomological society 141
rear end to its middle where it penetrates between the stomach walls (not
into stomach lumen), goes forward, unites with intestine, and the latter
emerges at top of stomach. The Malpighian tubules arise within the stom-
ach walls and emerge at the constriction between the two stomach com-
partments.
It appears to be impossible in any way to homologise the connections of
the mouth setae to the head and their internal apodemes and muscle attach-
ments with these parts in biting insects. Yet all students of their embryo-
logical development, except one, agree that the setae are the true mandibles
and maxillae. If so the details of their transformations need to be followed
more closely than has yet been done.
Mr. C. T. Greene presented a note on the larvae of the flies of the vStrat-
omyid genus Hennetia. The larvae of this genus are scavengers and have
been found in various places, as follows :
Hennetia chrysopila Loew, a scavenger in holes in Opuntia made b}' other
insects, and in other decaying vegetable matter. H. Jiunteri Coq., habits
same as H. chrysopila. H. illncens L., in wax in beehives, in latrines, and
in decaying vegetable matter. Dunn reports this species breeding in large
numbers in a human cadaver in the Canal Zone.
Larvae of Hennetia sp. weie found in raw rubber at Para which was shipped
to England. The larvae were presented to the U. S. National Museum by
Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt of Canada.
330th meeting
The 330th meeting was held April 1, 1920 at the Cosmos Club, with Presi-
dent Walton in the chair and 27 members and 2 visitors present.
Program
A. D. Hopkins: The hioclimatic law and its application to researcli and
practice in entomology.
The results of detailed studies of the codling moth from Maine to California
and New Mexico were made available to the writer by Dr. A. L. QuainTance,
with a request for information on the application of the bioclimatic law to the
mapping of the distribution of the codling moth and its generations, the fore-
casting of spraying dates, etc.
The methods utilized and the results were described and illustrated, and
it was shown that forecasts could be made within the range of allowable error
for any given place within the United States as to
(a) The dates on or near which the first, maximum, and last hatching of the eggs of the
first and subsequent seasonal generations of the codling moth may be expected to occur;
{b) the number of generations expected;
(c) the optimum time to spray;
(d) the latitude and altitude limits of distribution of the insect;
(e) the altitude limit of each number of complete generations of hatched eggs.
Date constants of the egg-hatching were computed from the table of con-
stants for each of the six stations utilized, and when these were compared
with the recorded dates for all years and all events the average difference be-
tween the recorded and the constant dates was found to be within a range of
error allowable for local influences, etc. vSimilar computations for the falling
of the apple petals and the thermal meannormal for April to July, inclusive,
at each of the stations gave similar results. Thus the computations from the
falling of the petals and the thermal mean constants served as checks on the
computations from the egg-hatching constants.
142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. ()
A table of altitude and latitude limit constants was prepared from which
the altitude limits were computed for the several stations and when these
were compared with the records they were found to closely approximate them.
This served as a basis for making maps of the distribution of the generations
and examples of such maps were exhibited.
It was concluded that, if the computed or forecasted dates for the hatching
of the eggs of the several generations, the dates for the falling of the apple
petals, the thermal means and the altitude limits for the several generations,
agreed so closely with the records from six widely separated stations, similar
forecasts from the same tables for any place within the United States should
come close enough to the actual date or altitude limit for all practical pur-
poses. It appears safe to assume, therefore, that with records from a few
representative places in a State or the United States fairly reliable information
on these and similar problems in entomology can be forecasted for any place
and thus avoid a large amount of local investigation.
A. T. Speare: The relation of Fungi to insects.
It was pointed out that fungi are associated with insects in several ways.
(1) An association in which insects prey upon fungi. (2) The commensalistic
association. (3) The symbiotic relationship. (4) An association in which
fungi are parasites upon insects. Examples of the first three types were
briefly considered. Examples of the fourth type of fungi that live as parasites
upon insects were considered in some detail, particularly with reference to
the pathogenic forms. Lantern slides showing many rare exotic entomo-
genous fungi were shown.
33 1st meeting
The 331st meeting was held on May G, 1920, at the Cosmos Club, with
President Walton in the chair and 34 members and 8 visitors present. Dr.
Franz Schrader was elected to membership.
Program
J. M. Aldrich: Bot Hies and their biology.
Dr. Aldrich summarized what is known of the host relations both as to
the species of the host, the oviposition habits and methods of ingress into the
body of the host, and the subsequent development of the immature stages.
J. J. Davis: The Japanese beetle and operations under way for its control.
This was a statement concerning the work under way at River ton, N. J.,
looking to the control of this introduced pest. Many photographs of control
operations were exhibited.
Dr. F. KoLPiN Ravn, Professor of Plant Pathology in the Royal College
of Agriculture at Copenhagen, Denmark, was invited by the President to
address the vSociety. Dr. Ravn spoke on the desirability of cooperation be-
tween entomologists and plant pathologists. He brought out the close
relationship between insects and the organisms causing diseases of plants,
citing some very striking examples of the interdependence between the two
factors. He expressed the opinion that the well-trained plant pathologist
should have a good knowledge of zoology, systematic botany (including
mycology and bacteriology), as well as plant physiology, while specializing
in one subject or another. This he thought necessary to enable the pathol-
ogist to determine at once all of the more common diseases and injuries and
to give advice as to remedial measures.
MARCH 19, 1921 proceedings: entomological society 143
332nd meeting
The 332nd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, June 4, 1920, with
Vice-President A. B. Gahan in the chair and 22 members and 5 visitors pres-
ent.
Corresponding Secretary-Treasurer S. A. Rohwer reported on the final
settlement of the will of the late Frederick Knab, under the terms of which
the Society was the residuary legatee. By this the Society adds some $1400
to its publication fund. Mr. Rohwer also read a letter from two members
of the Zoologische und Botanische Gesellschaft of Vienna, explaining the
difficulty they were having in securing food and offering to exchange portions
of their valuable collection of cavern insects for food parcels. x-\fter some
discussion the Society authorized the Treasurer to solicit subscriptions, leaving
the selection of the insects in the exchange to the owners.
Dr. Adam Boving announced the death from blood-poisoning of Dr. F.
KoLPiN Ravn of Copenhagen at East Orange, N. J., on May 25th.
Notes and exhibition of specimens
Under the title of Tlie introduction of a serious pest, Mr. J. A. Hyslop an-
nounced the finding of the injurious wire worm, Agriotes lincatits L-, in the
United States. A large shipment of potatoes from Copenhagen, consigned
to New York City, was inspected by Port Inspector D. G. Tower on February
2, 1920, and a wire worm was found in one of the tubers. For other reasons
than the insect pest, these potatoes were confined to local consumption so
the danger of this insect being established by this shipment is very slight.
Agriotes lineatns is probably one of the most troublesome pests to field grown
crops in Europe, especially sugar beets, potatoes, carrots, and all the small
grains. It is distributed throughout northern Europe and the British Isles,
and it seems remarkable that it has not become established in this country
through the large importations of potatoes which we annually receive from
Europe.
Mr. E. A. Schwarz stated that he had recently received alive what was
probably the larva of this species in soil around rose bushes from Europe.
Mr. Rohwer presented a note by William H. Fox, a former member,
recording the occurrence of the spider Lathrodectes mactans Fabr. in northern
Xew Hampshire. Dr. Fox's note is as follows:
"In July, 1918, I was sitting reading on the upper porch of my cottage at Twin Lakes
(Little Sunapee), New Hampshire, when I noticed, just outside the wire screening which
protected all the opening of the porch, a female Lathrodectes mactans, very busily making
a web. I moved up until I was less than 18 inches from the spider and watched her for
some time at her work. The web was very irregular, of many crossed threads, but not at
all thick. In size I should judge it to be roughly, 4 ft. by 5 or 6 ft. Unfortunately, the
])orches were so well screened it was impossible to procure the spider, but as I watched her
for some fifteen minutes at close range there could be no mistake in the identification. The
web remained in situ for some time, but although I watched a good many times, I failed
to again see the spider. This is the only adult L. mactans that I have ever seen in New
Hampshire, but I have procured the young from the mud nests of a species of Sphex, in
southern New Hampshire (Hollis)."
Mr. C. H. Richardson reviewed two recently published papers by Dr.
August Krogh of the University of Copenhagen on the physiology of respira-
tion in insects (Pfliigers Arch. Gedamte Physiol. 95-112, 179. 1920), which
are of interest to students of insect physiolog}' and to those engaged in studies
on gaseous insecticides. The conclusions reached by this author are : that gas
difi"usion is often the only method by which the tracheal air of insects is re-
newed; that in some forms such as very active adult insects or those having
144 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 6
large tracheal trunks, air sacks, etc., mechanical ventilation, accomplished
by body movements, supplements gas diffusion. But even in these forms
gas exchange in the finer tracheal branches must be accomplished by diffusion.
The Dytiscus larva is a type which shows both mechanical ventilation and
gas diffusion.
Mr. E. R. Sasscer discussed Mr. Richardson's note in its relation to dis-
infection with poisonous gases. In reply to questions he stated there is 30%
more gas in sodium cyanide than in potassium cyanide, and that dormant
insects are more resistant to gas poisoning than active insects.
Mr. Wm. MiddlETOn presented Some notes on the terminal abdominal
appendages of saw-flics, taken from a paper bearing the above title, which
will be published elsewhere.
Mr. H. K. Plank exhibited adult specimens of a new pest of the cranberry,
the cranberry root weevil, Geoderces incomptus Horn, from near Cranberry
Station, Washington, and showed photographs from life of the eggs, larvae,,
pupa, and adult, also of the female in the act of ovipositing in folds of a "buck
brush" leaf. Spiraea douglasii, sl common bog plant. He described briefly
the work o the larvae and adults, showing photographs of larvae feeding on
the small roots of the cranberry just beneath the surface of the bog, the de-
structiveness of the larvae, and the adults in the act of feeding on the terminal
leaves of the cranberry upright.
Mr. Plank also exhibited specimens from Seaview, Washington, of a species
of Spicaria, a new fungous disease of the pupae of the blackhead fireworm,
Rhopobota naevana Hn. The identification of this insect was made by Carl
Heinrich of the U. vS. National Museum. It is the same species that occurs
on the bogs of the east and in Europe, of which vacciniana Pack, is a synonym.
This fungous disease attacks the pupa in its loosely constructed cocoon in
the trash and leaves beneath the vines and becomes apparent about early or
mid August.
Mr. Plank called attention to the single generation of Rhopobota naevana
Hn. on one bog near Cranberry Station, Washington, as compared with two
and three generations of the same species on other bogs in the same general
locality. The range of the daily temperature on the former is somewhat
greater, and this bog is also somewhat more wind-swept than the bogs on
which two and three generations exist. Specimens of adults were exhibited.
Mr. L. O. Jackson told of an encounter observed by his mother between
a bumble bee and a white-faced hornet {Vespa maculata), in which the bumble
bee came off victorious.
A note on Hymenoptera at the British Museum by T. D. A. CockerELL was
read by Mr. RohwER, as follows:
"When I visited the British Museum about 15 years ago, I found Col. Bing-
ham arranging the ants, but the bees had never been rearranged since the
death of F. Smith about 26 years before. The progress made since 190.5 is
remarkable, and it will be of interest to quote a summary from a recent
(Nov. 26, 1919) letter received from Mr. Rowland E. Turner:
' ' 'Meade-Waldo had practically finished the bees before his death, including
the incorporation of the Biologia material except the Prosopis group. They
now occupy 12 cabinets; Diplotera 4, Sphegidae 7, Psammocharidae 6, Mutil-
lidae, Thynnidae, and Scoliidae 6; so that Aculeates are pretty well incorpor-
ated up to date excepting ants and Mutillidae. I have recently got the
MARCH 19, 1921 proceedings: entomoIvOGIcal society 145
Braconidae into somethng like order; also the Evaniidae, etc., and Dodd
has arranged our exotic Proctotrupidae. Morley has done portions of the
Ichneumonidae, and Morice has nearly completed the saw-flies. The exotic
Hymenoptera altogether occupy 70 cabinets now, which is a great change
since I first came here in 1905. But the collection is still a very small one
compared to what it ought to be, as from many regions we have no recent
material.'
"The death of Mr. Meade-Waldo was a very severe blow to the Museum
and to hymenopterology. The most important accessions to the collection
of Hymenoptera are doubtless the collections obtained by Mr. Turner in
Australia, which are extremely rich in new and nteresting species. Mr.
Turner is now oflf to South Africa, where he is sure to make large and impor-
tant collections."
In discussing this note Mr. Rohwer spoke of the Hymenoptera at the
Xational Museum, as follows: "While it is undesirable, as well as unprofit-
able, to make comparisons, I feel that the following remarks may be of some
interest at this time because of the short note b)^ Prof. Cockerell.
"Four years before the Division of Insects of the National Museum was
formally started, and coincident with the time when Riley deposited his
collection in the old building of the National Museum, W. F. Kirby edited
his first volume of the Hymenoptera of the British Museum. This volume
dealt only with the saw-flies. Thirty years prior to that Frederick Smith
had catalogued and described the Aculeate Hymenoptera of the British Mu-
seum and had published his results in five volumes, extending from 1854 to
1857, as a catalogue of the hymenopterous insects.
"The British Museum has developed naturally along the lines of a museum.
Their hymenopterous collections have been accumulated by collectors and
students of habits and, of course, they have amassed great quantities of ma-
terial, wasps, bees, and other Aculeates. The National IMuseum collection
on the other hand was developed because of and to support agriculture.
Its greatest advances have been made in parasitic groups, so where the British
]Museum is weakest, the National Museum is strongest, and I think we can
say with assurance that the collection of parasitic hymenoptera in the Na-
tional Museum is excelled by none. It formed the basis of all of Ashmead's
monographs, and there is no institution whose collection of Chalcids can com-
pare in any way with that which has been amassed by agricultural entomol-
ogists in the United vStates.
"The collection of Hymenoptera n the National IMuseum is not arranged
in as good order as we might wish because there are many more undetermined
specimens than there are determined specimens. About a year ago we made
a rather careful inventory of the adults and found that the collection con-
tained 17,638 species, of which 8,566 were represented by types. There are
131,906 determined specimens, and of the undetermined, 361,851. The total
number of spec mens in the Museum was approximately a half million when
we made our inventory a year ago. One feature which our collection has
which, I believe, is not developed to any degree in any other institution, is
the alcoholic collection of immature stages. We workers here feel sure that
there is much to be desired and there are many gaps which need filling, but
if we visit other institutions and see how little they have, we are forced to real-
ize that the alcoholic collection of immature stages is by far the best available
to students. This is especially true of the immature stages of the saw-flies.
14G JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. ()
"Because of the incomplete arrangement of the collection, it is impossible
to definitely state the number of cases the arranged collection would occupy.
To give some idea I think we can justly give the number of cases which are
allotted to the various groups. The allotment of room does not allow for
any expansion and is an estimate which covers only the actual amount of
space needed to arrange the collection already in hand. Our unit is a double-
columned steel case containing 50 drawers approximately IS inches square.
The saw-flies occupy three cases and they are fairly well arranged. The
Vespoids have two cases allotted to them; the Mutilloids three-and-a-half
cases; the Sphecoids three cases; the Ants four cases; the Bees five cases; the
Braconids three cases; the Ichneumonids five; Cynipoids each two; and the
Chalcids five."
Mr. E. A. ScHWARZ spoke of the Tenebrionid genus Epitragiis, the species
of which are commonl}^ found on living plants, where they feed on scale in-
sects. Mr. Barber had dissected a specimen of a Florida species, taken on
orange, and found scale insects in its crop.
Mr. H. L. vSaxford announced that Brood 19 (b^-year race) of the period-
ical cicada had made its appearance in Alabama, Missouri, North Carolina,
Tennessee, Oklahoma, and possibly Texas. Mr. E. A. Schwarz stated that
the recording of this cicada west of the Mississippi is due to erroneous deter-
mination, and that there is in Texas a related species that occurs at the same
time as the 1.3 -year brood.
Mr. R. A. CuSHMAN presented a note on An external egg-parasite as follows:
The eggs of many insects are subject to the attack of parasites, but so far
as I am aware all such parasites recorded live within the host agg. Certain
Ichneumonids of the genera Trontatobia, Gelis, and Hcuiitelcs live as larvae
in the egg-sacs of spiders feeding on the eggs or young spiders. But I believe
that no case has been recorded in which a parasite larva reached full growth
as an external parasite of a single insect egg. On one occasion I foimd among
a number of eggs of the saw-fly, Cunbex amcricana I.each, several that were
being fed upon by hymenopterous larvae, some of which later developed into
Chalcids of the genus Synipitsis. Whether this is the normal habit of this
particular species I do not know. Many of the species of Sympiesis are
parasitic on the larvae of leaf-miners, and the Cimbex egg, being placed just
under the epidermis of the leaf, may have attracted a parasite normally at-
tacking a leaf-miner.
Mr. H. S. Barber exhibited specimens of soft-bodied insects and soft parts
of insects that he had prepared in such a way as to retain the natural form
in the dry state.
Mr. A. B. Gahan spoke of the difficulty of distinguishing species in the
chalcid genus Anastatus and of the hosts of the various species.
Mr. S. A. Rohwer told of a carpenter bee that he had observed working
at all hours except 5 to 0 a.m., and stated that Aculeate Hymenoptera do not
ordinarily work at night. Mr. Barber stated that he had known yellow jack-
ets to stay away from the nest all night.
R. A. CuSHMAN, Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTEvS AND NEWS
The Pick and Hammer Club met at the Geological Survey on February 2(5.
President W. W. Atwood of Clark University spoke on TJie Quaternary
geology and the physiography of the San Juan region of Colorado.
The interchange of publications between Germany and the United States,
which was suspended when this country entered the \A'orld War in 1917, has
been resimied by the International Exchaiige Service of the vSmithsonian
Institution.
The Di\-ision of Insects of the National Museum has recently acquired
specimens of a minute subterranean Arthropod, belonging to the class My-
rientomaia. This class, which differs from insects in having no antennae,
was hitherto represented in the collection only by four specimens of an
Italian species. The new local specimens were taken by Messrs. Barber
and Mann, along the Potomac. It is probable that species of this group
are not rare, but because of their minute size and subterranean habit are
usually overlooked by the collector.
The Petrologists' Club met on February 15, and discussed papers by M. I.
Goldman on Early stages of nietamorphism in sedimentary rocks, and D. F.
Hkwett on Bentonite.
Dr. Charles H. Herty, editor of the Jottrnal of Industrial and Engineering
Chemistry and chairman of the committee to cooperate with the Chemical
Warfare Service, gave a lecture on The Reserves of the Chemical l]'arfare
Service at the National Museum, at 8 p.m., Monday, February 21. The
lecture was given under the auspices of the National Research Council, and
was accompanied by a popular exhibit emphasizing the importance of funda-
mental research in chemistry and its relation to national defense, medicine
and industry. This exhibit was later opened to the public at the offices of
the Council, 1701 Massachusetts Avenue.
'Mr. L. W. Wallace has been appointed executive secretar)^ of the American
Engineering Council, the executive body of the Federated American Engineer-
ing Societies.
The second annual convention of the Federal Department of the American
Association of Engineers was held at the New Ebbitt Hotel, February 28 to
:^Iarch 2.
The Division of Insects of the United States National Museum has recently
received an interesting collection of subterranean and cave-inhabiting Cole-
optera, which contains 244 specimens, representing K)() species, all of which
are new to the National Collection. This accession came from two Austrian
entomologists who have made a specialty of those obscure and unusual beetles
so abundant in the caves of Europe. Last year these two gentlemen. Pro-
fessor Otto Scheerpeltz and Professor Emil Moczarski, addressed a letter
to the Entomological Society of Washington, in which they offered to sell
their valuable collection for food drafts. By means of a private subscription
taken among the various membei^s of the Society, a sufficient sum was real-
ized with which to purchase a number of food drafts, and at the time of mailing
these, Professor Scheerpeltz and Professor Moczarski were informed that the
vSociety would be glad to accept for the collection of our National Museum
specimens from their duplicates. The splendid sending mentioned above
is the result, and has been accessioned as a gift from these distinguished
\'iennese entomologists. (S. A. R.)
147
148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 6
Major J. W. Bagley of the Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, who was
formerly with the U. S. Geological vSurvey, has been assigned to duty at the
Air Service Engineering Field at Dayton, Ohio, as representative of the En-
gineers in experimental work connected with the adaptation of aerial pho-
tography to mapping.
Mr. Edward Chester Barnard, member of the International (Canadian)
Boundary Commissions, died on February G, 1921, in his fifty-eighth year.
Mr. Barnard was born in New York City, November 13, 1863. After gradua-
tion from the Columbia Univers ty School of Mines in 1884 he joined the
U. S. Geological vSurvey, and as topographer and, later, geographer with the
Survey until 1915 took part in the mapping of Alaska and many of the western
States. In 1915 he was appointed commissioner for the United vStates in the
International (Canadian) Boundary Commissions, with which he had been
chief topographer since 1903, engaged in the resurvey of the boundary line
along the 49th parallel. He was a member of the Academy and the Geo-
logical Society, and was president of the Washington Society of Engineers in
1920.
Mr. Frederic Perkins Dewey, Assayer of the Bureau of the Mint, U. S.
Treasury Department, died on February 10, 1921, in his sixty-sixth year.
Mr. Dewey was born at Hartford, Connecticut, October 4, 1855. After
graduation from Yale University he became instructor in chemistry at
Lafayette College. From 1881 to 1889 he was connected with the U. S.
Government, first as chemist with the Tenth Census, then as mineralogist
with the Geological Survey, then as curator in the National Museum. After
24 years in chemical and metallurgical patent practice he became assayer
of the Mint in 1903. He was a member of the Academy, and was one of
the founders of the Chemical vSociety of \A'ashington, of which he was presi-
dent in 1893.
Mr. R. N. Harger, assistant biochem'st at the Bureau of Plant Industry,
U. S. Department of x\griculture, resigned in September to accept a National
Research Council fellowship in chemistry. The research is in organic chem-
istry, and is being carried on at Yale University.
Mr. Herbert C. Hoover of California has been elected a trustee of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Mr. J. A. Jeancon has resigned his position as temporary ethnologist in
the Bureau of American Ethnology and has accepted a position in Denver
as head curator of the Colorado vState Museum.
A farewell reception and buffet supper in honor of Secretary of Agriculture
Edwin T. Meredith was held at the Raleigh on February 16 and was at-
tended by about 600 members of the scientific and technical staff. The
committee in charge consisted of Charles E. Chambliss and R. G. Pierce,
representing the Botanical Society of Washington; F. R. Ouackenbush, the
American Association of Engineers; J. Kittredge, Jr., the Society of For-
esters; and V. K. Chesnut, the Chemical Society of Washington.
Dr. L. A. MiKESiGV has resigned from tlfe Color Laboratory of the Bureau
of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agricluture, to join the stafl' of the Rocke-
feller Institute for Medical Research, New York City.
Mr. Thomas M. Rector, formerly n charge of the division of food tech-
nology in the Institute of Industrial Research, has been appointed director
of the department of industrial chemistry of the Pease Laboratories, Inc., of
New York City.
i
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. U April 4, 1921 No. 7
PHYSICS. — On the theory of irreversible time effects A Mayo D.
Hersey, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
The study of irreversible phenomena has never been carried far
in comparison with other aspects of physics. This paper aims to
formulate the problem of time effects — meaning transient or re-
coverable effects as distinguished from permanent changes — and to
develop methods of analysis for use in subsequent research. The
writer's attention was directed to the importance of this subject in
consequence of aneroid barometer investigations- at the Bureau of
vStandards in 1911.
General formulation . When a load A' is suddenly applied to an im-
perfectly elastic body, a certain amount of displacement, x^, takes
place at once, if ordinary inertia effects are excluded. This may be
termed the elastic part of the displacement and written x^ = X/E,
where E denotes the stiffness of the body. But the actual displace-
ment X at any time t differs from this by some small amount y which
may be termed the inelastic yield, so that
X = X/E + y (1)
The yield, y, depends on the whole past history of the loading of the
body and so the displacement at any present time t depends on the
load history X = funct (r) for all previous times t < t.
An absolutely general formulation of the problem of irreversible
time effects is, therefore, having given the load-time curve, to deduce
the displacement-time curve. When the problem has been solved
in this general way the solution will be found to embrace, as particular
cases, all such special effects as the discrepancy between static and
dynamic modulus ; residual displacement after removal of load ; phase
difference between a periodically varying load and the corresponding
displacement; time needed for approaching the cyclic state — a state
' Received February 26, 1921.
- Described in Phys. Rev. 6: 75-76. 1915. It is hoped opportunity will be available
later for a more extended report on irreversibility, including a detailed discussion of experi-
mental data already collected. The present paper is intended only as a brief abstract of
the principles involved.
149
150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 7
in which the hysteresis loop has an invariable form; or the damping
of free vibrations. For example, the displacement-load diagram for
a given method of loading, % = funct (X), and the hysteresis loop can
at once be found by eliminating the time between the load-time curve
and the displacement-time curve.
This formulation need not be restricted to elastic lag phenomena.
It applies to all irreversible effects measured by some quantity x
whose value is fixed by the history of some other quantity A'. Thus
X might be termed the generalized displacement and X the generalized
load. The latter is a more flexible concept than generalized force,
because the product Xdx need not represent work. Table 1 shows
some of the possible applications of this method.
TABLE 1. — Irreversible Time Effects
Phenomenon
Calibration of aneroid barom-
eter
Elastic after-effect with torsion
Magnetic hysteresis
Residual charge of condenser
Action of selenium cell
Hysteresis of thermometer glass Change of temperature
Generalized load, X
Change of air pressure
Torque
Magnetizing force
E. M. F.
Intensity of incident light
Generalized displacement, x
Deflection of instrument
pointer
Angle of twist
Induction
Quantity of charge
Change of resistance
Change of volume
In what follows the terms load and displacement will be used for
short to designate X and x respectively, but it is to be understood
that all quantities retain their most general significance. The analysis
will be confined to the determination of y as a function of /, because
X can easily be obtained from y by equation (1).
Dimensional theory. Let the physical constants needed for specify-
ing the irreversible properties of a body be represented by Ci, C^, . .C^
and let X be the load at time r. Suppose while t varies from 0 to t
the load passes through a maximum range R. Then the load history
can be specified by R, t, and the geometrical shape of a diagram having
X/R and r/t for coordinates. Therefore
y - funct {R, t, Cr,C2,..C:) (2)
in which the form of the function is unknown, but the same for all
processes with geometrically similar load diagrams. As (2) is a
qualitatively complete physical equation, it is subject to the usual
methods of dimensional reasoning.
This leads to several interesting possibilities, notably the reduction
of the number of independent variables confronting the experimenter,
and the prospect of predicting effects outside the limit of direct mea-
surement by observations on physically similar models.
APRIL 4, 1921 hersey: irreversible time effects 151
In equation (2) with its A^ separate quantities y, R, t,Ci,. . .C^ there
are N - 1 degrees of freedom, but Buckingham has shown^ that di-
mensional requirements diminish this number by k, where k is the
number of fundamental units needed for measuring the original N
quantities. Now in treating irreversible processes where the physical
state is held constant, x, X, and t are sufficient for fundamental units
so that k = 3. Consider for example a body whose properties are
fixed by J/ = o drift constants Bo, n, and /3 (defined by equations (7)
and (13)). The dimensions of the original six quantities are [y] —
[x], [R\ = [X], [t] = [t], [Bo] = [xX-H-''], [n] = [1], and [3] =
[A"-i]. Therefore (2) becomes
y = BoRt" funct (J3R, «) (3)
and it is clear that there are now only two independent variables, (3R and
«, instead of five. The procedure for model experiments can also be
illustrated by equation (3), letting primed symbols refer to the model,
others to the original. The condition for similarity is that the model
be made from a substance having the same value of n, and loaded over
a range R' such that R'/R = /:^//3'. The yield y at any time t can now
be computed from the yield y' observed at time t' by the relation
y Bo' R' v) ^
The load history diagrams for the model and original are to be kept
geometrically similar.
Superposition theory. Direct calculation of the yield y at time / is
possible on the basis of an assumption which may be called the prin-
ciple of the superposition of elements of drift. By drift is meant the
increase of displacement while the load is held constant. Imagine a
small load AA' applied instantaneously to a body which is in a normal
state; that is, to a body which has rested undisturbed for a sufficient
time so that all previous effects have sensibly died out. What hap-
pens? It is a matter of observation that the displacement does not
stop with the immediate or elastic part x , but keeps on increasing.
Under these circumstances, the yield ^y observed after a lapse of time
T reckoning from the instant when the load was applied is termed the
drift due to instantaneous loading. It can be written
^y = AX- F{T) (5)
This equation serves to define the drift function F{T), which is a
purely empirical characteristic of the body.
» This JouRNAi. 4: 347-353. 1914.
152 JOURNAI, OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOX,. 11, NO. 7
The fundamental physical assumption of drift superposition may
now be stated in this way : The yield y at any time t is the algebraic
sum of all the elements of drift generated by each previous load incre-
ment.
If this assumption is true, the general problem of irreversible time
effects can be solved mathematically without further physical informa-
tion than is already contained in the function F. The ' assumption
implies that if two bodies have the same drift function F, they cannot
differ in any of their remaining effects; and while this assumption is
probably not precisely true even for moderate loads, it is certainly
true as a first approximation, and therefore practically useful.
The following two-constant expressions have been used in aneroid
barometer work :
, F{T) = Ail - r-'"'") (6)
F{T) = BT" (n<l) (7)
") (8)
(9)
has been proposed by Michelson ' for the drift due to torsion in a large
number of substances. The coefhcients A, B, C, K, m, n, a may
depend on temperature and other physical conditions, including the
load X itself; but are required by the superposition assumption to
be independent of the load increment AX.
The principle of the superposition of elements of drift may be ex-
pressed mathematically thus,
y = Z AX. Fit - t) (10)
in which y is the yield at the present time /, while A A' denotes a load
increment applied at some previous time r. For convenience the
argument T of the drift function has been replaced by its equivalent,
t — T. Equation (10) can also be put into the form of a time-integral.'^
t
= C^ Fit - r)dr (11)
* Laws of elastico-viscous flow. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 3: 319-323. 1917.
^ The time-integral was made possible by suggestions of Dr. F. B. Silsbee. Acknowledg-
ments are due also to Dr. L. B. Tuckerman and Prof. P. W. Bridgman for valuable sug-
gestions. The first attempt at a general solution was completed in 1916 in connection with
work on elasticity at Harvard University. It led to a formula which is equivalent to (10)
but which was to be applied by the summation of series instead of by integration, and
which also differed in that F (T) represented the drift following a gradually applied load.
APRIL 4, 1921 hersey: irreversible time effects 153
This is not an integral equation, for there is nothing unknown under
the integral sign. It has sometimes been thought that integral equa-
tions would be indispensable in solving "heredity" problems, but such
does not appear to be the case except when treating inertia.
The fact that the constants in the drift function may depend on the
load could be shown explicitly by writing F as a function of two ar-
guments, t — T and A'. Since the drift constants are sensitive to
temperature change, this consideration has special importance for
problems of thermal hysteresis where the load is itself a temperature
change. It may often be sufficient to express F as the product of two
factors, one of which, Fo , is independent of A', so that
Fit - r) =f{X).Fo(t - r)
and
t
y = r^'/(A')/o(^ - r)dr (12)
< dr
For example, if p' denotes the fractional change in B with respect to load,
B^BoiX + ^X) (13)
so
/(A) = 1 + ^A
For vanishingly small loads /(A') approaches unity and (12) reduces
to von Schweidler's formula for residual effects in dielectrics.
When f{X) is constant, the integration of (12) by parts gives
y = j X\f^{t — r)(ir in which \p{t — r) denotes the first derivative of
o
the drift function Fit — r), and in which it is understood that A' = 0
when r ^ 0. Writing co in place of / — t this reduces to
00
y = j AXco)J« (15)
o
which is Boltzmann's equation for the elastic after-effect in torsion
wires. Boltzmann's formula is therefore a special case of (12) above,
and a physical interpretation has been found for his arbitrary function
^(w) by identifying it as the slope of the drift curve.
Definition of ideal irreversibility. In all cases where some drift is
generated whenever the load on a body changes, this fact alone neces-
sitates qualitatively the existence of all the remaining irreversible
effects such as the familiar hysteresis loop. Hence, it is of interest
to compute the amount of each effect which would accrue from the
simple addition of elements of drift even where it is not expected that
the whole effect can be attributed to drift. In order to establish
154 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 7
standards of performance for the comparative study of different
bodies, a^ process may be called ideally irreversible if the observed
effect is in exact agreement with the amount calculated from the prin-
ciple of superposition. The departure of an actual process from this
arbitrary standard might be taken as a measure of the irreversible
peculiarities of the body, just as the deviation of a real fluid from the
equation of state of an ideal gas may be taken as a measure of its in-
trinsic properties.
Simple harmonic motion and the cyclic state. As an example of com-
putation by the superposition method, consider a body subjected to a
load
X = Rsin cor (16)
If this body follows the drift function (6) with constants independent
of load, integrating (11) gives
y =
^-'"' + sin {o:t - 4>)
(17)
where tan <^ = co/m. From (1) the total displacement x can be found.
After sufficient time that the exponential term of (17) has dwindled
to an insignificant amount, the cyclic state may be considered es-
tablished; the displacement then is given approximately by
" sin (coi - <^) (18)
X
=ii..
hi '4:)]*
where tan$ = AE{m/oo). The hysteresis loop will be found by elimi-
nating the time {T = t) between the load equation (16) and the dis-
placement equation (18). Since (16) and (18) represent two simple
harmonic motions at right angles, of the same period but differing in
amplitude and phase, the hysteresis loop will be an ellipse. The area
of this ellipse will represent the energy dissipated into heat per cycle,
after the cyclic state has been reached.
Calculation of recovery curve. Suppose a load R suddenly applied,
kept on for a time interval to , then suddenly released. What will be
the after-effect z (residual displacement) at an interval t' after the
instant of release? Since x^ is now zero, the after-effect will equal
the yield y at time t = to + t' due to a load increment aX = R 3.t
time T = 0 followed by a second increment A A' = —Rat time t = to.
Hence by (10)
z = R[F{to +t') - Fit')] (19)
APRIL 4, 1921 pittier: notes on swartzia 155
Thus the recovery curve can be constructed by making a tracing of
the drift curve, inverting it and shifting it along the time axis by an
amount ^o- The algebraic sum of the ordinates of these two curves
forms the desired curv^e for z sls a. function of /'. This method has
been applied with fair success to data furnished by- Dr. C. E. Van
Orstrand for the slow stretch in a steel tape over a period of four
months, when suspended under tension. The greatest difference be-
tween the calculated and observed after-effect at any time during this
long period was less than 9 per cent of the initial after-effect.
A similar check on equation (19) should be possible by reference to
Michelson's data for torsion. His recovery curve formula may be
written^
z = KRe-'^^^' (1 - e-"^^o) (20)
Substitution from (9) into (19) gives
z = KRe-"^^ [1 - e.-«(Vtr+l^- VP)] (21)
This, for small values of ^', reduces to Michelson's experimental for-
mula (20), but for large values it diverges. It is not possible to make
an exact test of equation (19) without reference to the original observa-
tions, w^hich were not given in the paper above cited.
These examples may suffice to make clear the general purpose of
the superposition theory. It is not a molecular theory, neither does
it aim to deduce a priori anything about the form of the drift function.
It presupposes the availability of just such data as Michelson's drift
curve (9) and then proceeds to develop the necessary interconnections
between the drift and the remaining irreversible effects.
*
BOTANY. Notes on the genus Swartzia in Panama and Guatemala.'^
Henry Pittier.
The genus Swartzia of the Caesalpiniaceae contains a large number
of species, many of which are closely related, and the genus as a whole
is badly in need of revision. In the present paper an attempt is made
to systematize the representatives of the genus now known from
Panama. A little known species of the genus from Guatemala is also
described. ^^'
6 Op. cit. See also Journ. Geol. 28: . 1920. /K
1 Received February 11, 1921. /
156 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 7
1. REVISION OF THE PANAMA SPECIES
Legume broad, long, and flat; racemes many-flowered, elongate; leaves pin-
nate, 5-foliolate. (Platypoda.) 1. 5. panamensis.
Legume cylindrical, short; racemes 2- to 5-flowered; leaves mostly 1- or
3-foliolate, rarely 5-foliolate. (Strong ylopoda.)
Leaves unifoliolate. Petiole narrowly alate or scutellate at the apex;
petal about 4 cm. in diameter. 2. 5. simplex.
Leaves mostly 3-foliolate, sometimes 1- or 5-foliolate.
Stamens 20 or fewer, not conspicuously unequal. Flowers small, the
petal hardly longer than the calyx. 3. 5. arborescens.
Stamens numerous, conspicuously dimorphous, the longer ones 10 to
20, the smaller ones numerous.
Leaflets not over 10 cm. long, lanceolate, the petioles rather broadly
winged. 4. 5. trifolia.
Leaflets usually larger, ovate, the petioles rather narrowly winged.
Petal suborbicular, about 2 cm. in diameter. 5. S. myrtifolia.
Petal ovate-cordiform, about 2.5 cm. long and 3 cm. broad.
6. 5. darienensis .
1. Swartzia panamensis Benth. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 15-: 38. 1870.
Deciduous (?) tree, 6 to 20 meters high, with short ascending limbs and
elongate crown, the trunk seldom over 40 cm. in diameter, often distorted,
the bark grayish, smooth.
Leaves 5-foliolate, pubescent, glabrate, with lanceolate-acuminate silky-
pubescent caducous stipules; petioles 9 to 13 cm. long, almost terete; petio-
lules articulate, 4 to 6 mm. long; blades elliptic or ovate-lanceolate, rather
long and narrowly acuminate, S to 18 cm. long, 3 to 6 cm. broad, dark green
above, pale green beneath, the venation sparse, impressed above, prominent
beneath, the 9 to 11 primary veins alternate, arcuate, transversely anasto-
mosing.
Racemes solitary in the defoliated axils of the preceding season or in the
axils of new leaves, very long (20 to 40 cm.), pendent, many-flowered, the
bracts awnlike, up to 10 mm. long, caducous; rachis and pedicels minutely
pubescent, the former thick and subangular; pedicels reflexed, clavate,
about 2 cm. long; calyx opening irregularly by 4 or 5 reflexed lobes about
1 cm. long. Petal creamy yellow, almost square (31 mm. long, 29 mm. broad),
unguiculate, hastate and emarginate at the base, subquadrilobate, with
irregular margin; claw narrow, about 6.5 mm. long. Stamens very numerous,
the larger ones 6 to 10, erect, with thick filaments 12.5 mm. long, the remain-
ing small ones with threadlike filaments 15 mm. long and smaller anthers,
their cells more or less parted at the base. Ovary short, flattened, entirely
smooth, long-stipitate, with a short, blunt, hardly bent style; stipe 6 mm.
long, the ovary and style about 5 mm. long; ovules S or fewer.
Legume single, 20 to 30 cm. long, 8 to 10 cm. broad, coriaceous, apiculate,
dehiscent, 4- to 8-seeded; pedicel thick, 2 cm. long; stipe 1.5 to 2 cm. long;
seeds large, irregularly sublenticular-ovate, 7 to ^.o cm. long, 6 cm. wide,
and 1.5 cm. thick, exarillate, dark brown.
vSpecimens Examined:
Panama: Rocky slopes along Chagres River near Alhajuela, flowers and
fruit, May 13, 1911, Pittier 3520. Along Trinidad River, Canal Zone, near
sea level, flowers, July 20, 1911, Pittier 4019. Around Port Obaldia, San
Bias Coast, flowers, September 2, 1911, Pittier 4324.
APRIL 4, 1921 pittier: notes on swartzia 157
Also recorded by Seemann from San Juan de Chagres and Hacienda de
Juan Lanas. Seemann describes the racemes as being in pairs, a character
not shown by the recent specimens, though these agree in the main with Ben-
tham's short diagnosis. These collections from the shady forests of the lit-
toral plain around Port Obaldia have broader and less coriaceous leaflets than
those from the high banks of the Trinidad River or the rocky slopes of the
Chagres gorges. In the first locality, too, the tree assumes more frequently
an erect, regular shape, with a straight trunk. It seems that only the basal
flowers of each spike bear a pistil ; this part was missing altogether on several
of the specimens I had occasion to dissect, and, so far as my experience goes,
the pods invariably grow out of the 5 flowers nearest to the base of the raceme.
Usually there is only one pod to each raceme, but two on the same peduncle
are not uncommon. Completely developed seeds are seldom found. The
trees on the Chagres River bore only new, incompletely developed leaves,
although anthesis was rather advanced and even fully grown pods were pres-
ent. These facts would indicate a deciduous species, the only one reported
so far in this heterogeneous and not well defined genus.
2. Swartzia simplex Spreng. Syst. Veg. 2: 567. 1825.
Small tree, 3 to 10 meters high, the trunk 10 to 15 cm. in diameter, straight
or distorted, with smooth grayish bark, the branching sparse and divaricate.
Leaves unifoliolate, quite glabrous, more or less coriaceous, nitidulous, the
primary veins numerous and subparallel ; stipules setaceous, 5 to 8 mm. long,
caducous; petiole 3 to 15 mm. long, terete and auriculate at the apex when
ver>^ short, marginate and distinctly articulate at the apex when longest;
blades ovate-oblong, rounded or subcuneate at the base, shortly obtuse-
acuminate at the apex, 4 to 20 cm. long, 2 to 7 cm. broad, the venation prom-
inent on both sides.
Inflorescences racemose, 2- to 6-flowered, axillary or terminal, 4 to 10 cm.
long, the rachis glabrous; pedicels erect, 5 to 20 mm. long, obclavate; buds
globose, 7 to 10 mm. in diameter; calyx opening by 4 irregular lobes; petal
orbicular, about 4 cm. in diameter, pale yellow; long stamens 8 to 12, the
anthers elongate-oblong; short stamens numerous, the anthers also smaller;
ovary long-stipitate, quite glabrous, arcuate, 10- to 12-ovulate, the style
arcuate and subulate.
Legume oblique-oblong, terete, up to 4 cm. long, 1.5 cm. in diameter,
usually 1- or 2-seeded, in the latter case hardly contracted between the seeds.
Type Locality: Trinidad.
Specimens Examined:
Panama: Chagres, Fendler 327. Agua Clara, Canal Zone, along Rio
Trinidad, fruit, June 20, 1911, Pittier 3984. Culebra, Canal Zone, flowers,
January 6, 1911, Pittier 2256. Penonome and vicinity, fruit, March, 1908,
Williams 396. Marraganti, South Darien, fruit, April 5, 1908, Williams 995.
3. Swartzia arborescens (Aubl.) Pittier.
Possira arborescens Aubl. PI. Guian. 2: 934. pi. 255- 1775^.
Tree, 6 to 10 meters high, the branchlets glabrous or pubescent.
Leaves glabrous, 3-foliolate or sometimes 1-foliolate; stipules setaceous;
2 For full synonymy see Fl. Bras. IS^: 22. 1870.
158 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 7
rachis, including petiolar part, 1 to 4 cm. long, narrowly winged and auricu-
late at least under the terminal leaflet ; leaflet blades ovate or ovate-elliptic,
rounded or cuneate at the base, obtusely short-acuminate, subcoriaceous,
lustrous, the terminal leaflet o to 10 cm. long, the primary veins numerous,
parallel, and conspicuous.
Racemes axillary or terminal, the short slender glabrous peduncles with
2 to 4 flowers; pedicels filiform, 1 to 1..5 cm. long; bracts small, setaceous;
bracteoles very small or none; buds quite glabrous, subglobose, hardly 4 mm.
in diameter; petal orbicular, unguiculate, a little longer than the calyx;
stamens IS to 20, almost all equal, twice longer than the calyx, the anthers
ovate; ovary stipitate, narrow, glabrous, 5- or 6-ovulate, attenuate to a short
style, the stipe a little shorter than the calyx.
Legume short-stipitate, obliquely ovoid, long-acuminate, 4 to 5 cm. long,
thick and carnose; seed oblique-ovoid, the aril lacerate, the raphe very
prominent.
Type IvOCALITy: Near the source of the Galibi River, French Guiana.
This species was collected on Tobago Island by Seemann (no. 1687), but I
have seen no specimens of it.
4. Swartzia trifolia Pittier, sp. nov.
Small tree, 4 to 5 meters high, the trunk 8 to 12 cm. in diameter, the
branchlets, leaves, and inflorescences entirely glabrous, the bark dark red
and smooth.
Leaves usually 3-foliolate, seldom 5-foliolate, coriaceous; stipules setaceous,
stiff, about 4 mm. long; rachis 2 to 5 cm. long, terete, winged-auriculate, the
wings broader at the auricles; leaflets subsessile, the blades lanceolate, more
or less oblique and rounded at the base, obtusely short-acuminate at the apex,
the lateral ones 4. .5 to 7 cm. long, 2 to 2. .3 cm. broad, the terminal one 5.5 to
9 cm. long, 2 to .3.5 cm. broad, the primary veins about 16, anastomosing
along the margin, the venation conspicuous on both sides.
Flowers not known.
Fruiting pedicel about 1 cm. long; stipe 8 mm. long; fruit glabrous, 1-seeded,
ovoid, acuminate, 3.5 cm. long, 1.5 cm. broad between the sutures; seed
ovoid-subreniform, 2.5 cm. long, brown and lustrous.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 677726, collected on the savanna
of La Tortuga, between El Boquete and Caldera, Panama, at an altitude of
about 400 meters, in fruit, March 21, 1911, by H. Pittier (no. 3343).
This species is so well characterized by its peculiarly shaped leaves and
narrow leaflets that even in the absence of the flowers I do not hesitate to
describe it as new.
5. Swartzia myrtifolia J. E. Sm. in Rees' Cycl. 34: Swartzia no. 5. 1819.
Small tree, the slender branchlets as well as the leaves and inflorescences
glabrous or slightly pubescent.
Leaves 3-foliolate or sometimes 1-foliolate; stipules subulate, 3 to 4 mm.
long; rachis slender, marginate and more or less distinctly auriculate below
the insertion of the leaflets, 2.5 to 5 cm. long; leaflets subsessile, the blades
ovate or ovate-oblong, rounded or cuneate at the base, obtusely short-acum-
inate at the apex, subcoriaceous, nitidulous, the primary veins numerous and
prominent on both sides; lateral leaflets 6.5 to 8 cm. long, 3 to 4 cm. broad;
terminal leaflet 6.5 to 14.5 cm. long, 5 to 7 cm. broad.
APRIL 4, 1921 pittier: notes on swartzia 159
Racemes axillary or terminal, 2- to 5-flowered, about equaling the petioles;
bracts small, setaceous; bractlets minute or none; peduncles short; pedicels
slender, 1 to 2 cm. long; buds globose, 6.5 mm. in diameter; segments of the
calyx 4, reflexed; petal yellow, orbicular, about 2 cm. in diameter; larger
stamens 12 to IS, the anthers oblong; smaller stamens numerous, the anthers
half shorter than those of the larger ones; ovary glabrous, narrow, recurved,
long-stipitate, S-to 10-ovulate, the style much shorter.
Legume nearly 2.5 cm. long, obliquely ovoid-oblong, short-acuminate.
Type Locality: West Indies.
Specimens Examined:
Panama: Obispe Falls, Canal Zone, Hayes. Pinogana, South Dari^n,
in forest, flowers, June 21, 1914, Pittier 6676.
6. Swartzia darienensis Pittier, sp. no v.
Small spreading tree, entirely glabrous, 6 to 8 meters high, with short trunk
and pendent branches, the bark smooth, grayish.
Leaves 1- or 3-foliolate, membranous; stipules linear, 4 to 6 mm. long,
caducous; petioles of the 1-foliolate leaves 5 to 7 mm. long, articulate and
provided at the tip with 2 stiff acute auricles; rachis of the 3-foliolate leaves
3 to 6 cm. long, canaliculate, marginate, with acute auricles at the insertion
of the leaflets ; leaflets petiolulate, ovate-elliptic or broadly lanceolate, rounded
or obtusely pointed at tip, the lateral ones 7 to 10 cm. long, 3 to 4 cm. broad,
the terminal one and the blade of the 1-foliolate leaves 12 to 16 cm. long,
5 to 6 cm. broad; petiolules 4 mm. long; veins very thin, almost parallel,
delicately reticulate-anastomosing.
Racemes axillary or terminal, often geminate, 3- to 5-flowered; bracts and
bractlets linear, minutely pubescent, caducous; rachis 1.5 to 7 cm. long;
pedicels 5 to 10 mm. long, clavate, pubescent; segments of the calyx 4, ir-
regular, about 1 cm. long; petal pale yellow, irregularly ovate-cordiform,
emarginate at the base, about 2.5 cm. long (including the claw, this 5 mm.
long) and 3 cm. broad; larger stamens 4 to 9, the smaller ones very numerous,
the anthers slightly larger in the former but all alike and broadly ovate or
orbicular, with a dark connective; pistil incurved; ovary long-stipitate,
8-ovulate; style a little shorter than the ovary, capitellate.
Legume not known.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 678872, collected on the rocky
slope of Mamei Hill, near Gorgona, Canal Zone, Panama, July 6, 1911, by
H. Pittier (no. 3800).
There is certainly a great deal of confusion as to the segregation of the
several very nearly related forms of Swartzia in Panama, and the difficulty
of separating them is increased by the vagueness of the descriptions and the
lack of material. The species just described belongs without doubt to the
polymorphous group of S. myrtijolia, but it seems not to agree with the de-
scription of any of the species published.
2. A little known species from GUATEMALA
Swartzia guatemalensis (Donn. Sm.) Pittier.
Swartzia myrtijolia var. guatemalensis Donn. Sm. Bot. Gaz. 33: 251. 1902.
Section Pteropoda. vSmall tree, the branches slender, glabrous or minutely
appressed-pubescent.
160 JOURNAIv OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 7
Leaves 3-foliolate or often reduced to the terminal blade, glabrous or more
or less appressed-pubescent ; stipules subulate or linear, minutely pubescent;
petioles 1.5 cm. long in the simple leaves, 2.5 to 4 cm. in the compound leaves,
glabrous, broadly alate, the wings up to 7 mm. broad, acute or rounded below
the insertion of the leaflets; leaflets short-petiolulate, ovate-lanceolate,
rounded at the base, obtusely long-acuminate, the main primary veins (of
the terminal leaflets) 11 to 14, anastomosing along the margin, prominent
on both sides, the intermediate veins numerous and parallel; lateral leaflets
3.5 to 9 cm. long, 1.5 to 4 cm. broad; terminal and single leaflets 8 to 16 cm.
long, 3.5 to 6 cm. wide.
Inflorescences 2- to 5-flowered, axillary or terminal, the rachis slender,
sparsely appressed-pubescent; pedicels subfiliform, 12 to 15 mm. long; buds
subglobose or broadly ovoid, glabrous, about 9 mm. long; calyx opening by
3 irregular segments, almost 10 mm. long; petal short-unguiculate, broadly
ovate, IG mm. long, 22 mm. broad; longer stamens S, the anthers elongate,
recurved; smaller stamens numerous and short; ovary long-stipitate (the
stipe 10 to 14 mm. long), 6- to 8-ovulate, glabrous, 6 to 8 mm. long, the style
straight, subulate, 5 to G mm. long.
Legume not known.
Type collected by von Tuerckheim at Cubiquiltz, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala,
in flower, May, 1901 (J. D. Smith, no. 7839).
This plant, described by Captain John Donnell Smith as a variety of
Swartzia myrtifolia, differs from that species in several important particulars,
such as the disparity between the lateral and terminal leaflets, the con-
spicuousness of the main primary veins, the long acumen of the blades, the
broad wing of the petiole, the 3-laciniate calyx, the shape of the petal, the
8 long stamens (instead of 12 to 18), and the long-stipitate ovary. These
characters are sufficient to justify specific rank for this interesting member
of the Guatemalan flora.
OCEANOGRAPHY. — Practical application of the electrical conduc-
tivity method of measuring sea water salinity.'^ A. L. Thuras.
(Communicated by S. W. Stratton, Bureau of Standards.)
Heretofore the only reliable method of measuring the total salt con-
tent of sea water has been by chemically titrating for the amount of
chlorine present. The relation of chlorine to the total salts being a
constant, a measure of the salinity is thereby obtained. Salinity is
defined as the number of grams of total salts in 1000 grams of sea
water. The titration method, being a laboratory method, requires
that the samples after collection be stored in suitable bottles until
they can be tested on shore. The disadvantages of such a method
are: the loss or breakage of samples, possible errors from evaporation
and handling, and the great undesirability of not knowing the physical
properties of the waters while they are being investigated.
' Received January 31, 1921.
APRIL 4, 1921 THURAS: MEASUREMENT OF SEA WATER SALINITY 161
During the Ice Patrol of 1920 an opportunity was given to use the
electrical method of measuring sea water salinity on board ship. An
apparatus consisting of instruments and parts secured from the
Bureau of Standards was set up on shipboard and several hundred
determinations of salinity were made. The operation of the ap-
paratus was simple and convenient and at no time did weather condi-
tions interfere with the measurements. This apparatus consisted of:
a wheatstone bridge, a Leeds and Northrup alternating current
galvanometer, a specially constructed electrolytic cell designed for a
salinity recorder, ^ a hand regulated temperature bath, and a rebuilt
1/12 horse power direct current motor to give 120 volts, 60 cycles of
alternating current when connected to 110 volts direct current. This
machine was designed and built by Mr. A. J. Fecht of the Bureau of
Standards.
All measurements were made at 25° C. and a table was prepared to
give salinities directly from the balanced bridge readings. The com-
plete apparatus was tested each day by standard sea water taken
from a supply which had been carefully measured both by a chemical
method and a density method^ before beginning the cruises. This
supply of sea water lasted throughout the cruises. The temperature
of the electrolytic cell bath could easily be held to within 0.03° C,
and the bridge, after balancing the moving coil of the galvanometer
so that the center of mass was fairly near the axis of support, could be
set to a value corresponding to 0.02 in salinity. No electrical capacity
or inductance was necessary for balancing the bridge, and variations
in the voltage and frequency of the generator had no appreciable effect
on the bridge setting. With the rough apparatus used the determina-
tions were accurate to 0.05 in salinity, or better than 0.02 of one per
cent.
Since the electrical conductivity method may be satisfactorily used
at sea to measure the salt content of ocean water, attention is directed
to the references given in the foot notes which describe an apparatus
which will give a continuous record of sea water salinity from a moving
vessel. This instrument in conjunction with an instrument to record
temperature, which has been constructed, would give the three most
important physical variables of sea water, namely, temperature,
salinity and density. Such records taken regularly over the same
course would show monthly and yearly variations of these physical
properties which might be of much scientific value.
2 See this Journal, 8: 145, 680. 1918.
» See this Journal, 7: 605. 1917.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
S37TH MEETING
The S37th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, May 22, 1920, with
President Sosman in the chair and 50 persons present.
The first two papers of the program were devoted to the general subject
Foreign laboratories and societies, the speakers being C. E. Mendenhall and
H. L. Curtis. Mr. Mendenhall confined his remarks to his observations
and experiences in England referring especially to the Royal Society, the
Royal Institution and the Physical vSociety of London. Mr. Curtis spoke
of the French societies and laboratories and of the National Physical Lab-
oratory of England.
Discussion: Messrs. Sosman, Crittenden, Humphreys, Bowie, and
Williamson took part in the discussion.
The last paper was by W. P. White on Three methods of promoting precision
in thermostats. Preliminary publication of this paper appeared in this
Journal.^ The paper was discussed by Messrs. Mendenhall, Dickinson,
Mueller, and T. S. Sligh.
S38TH meeting
The 83Sth meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, October 9, 1920. Presi-
dent Sosman presided and about 50 members and guests were present. The
program was as follows:
S. J. Barnett: Further experiments on magnetization by rotation.
This paper is a report of progress in the first part of a general investigation
of the relations between magnetization and rotation designed to extend the
earlier work in this field, to obtain more precise results, and especially to find
out whether negative electricity with the known value of m/e is alone re-
sponsible for magnetisfn.
In earlier papers it has been shown that, if the slowly moving electron,
with the value of m/e known from other experiments, is alone involved in
the Ampereian vortices, the rotation of a magnetic substance at an angular
velocity of one revolution per second is equivalent to placing it in a magnetic
field of strength —7.1 X 10"'' gauss directed along the axis of rotation.
Two series of experiments made in 1914 and 1915, by a method of electro-
magnetic induction, gave 3.6 and 3.1, respectively, instead of 7.1, apparently
indicating that negative electricity is chiefly responsible, but that positive
electricity also is involved. Another alternative, on the assumption of the
correctness of the experimental results, is that negative electricity alone is
involved, but that it has, for the motions responsible for magnetism, a smaller
value of m/e than that determined in known experiments.
Another series of experiments made in 1916 and 1917 by a magnetometer
method gave the same sign as before, but gave numbers approximately 5 and
6 in place of 8.1. A few experiments made more than two years ago at the
Ohio State University, where the earlier work was done, with copper sub-
1 This Journal, 10: 429-432. 1920.
162
APRIL 4, 1921 proceedings: philosophical society 163
stituted for the magnetic substance, indicated that a part of the effect in the
magnetometer experiments was due to eddy currents, the effects of which
appear to have been completely eliminated in the work done by the method
of electromagnetic induction. This probably accounts for at least a part
of the discrepancy between the results obtained by the two methods.
In new experiments performed under superior conditions in the non-mag-
netic experiment building of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, by
the magnetometer method, considerable improvements have been made in
the completeness with which the earth's field is compensated, in the elimina-
tion of mechanical and magnetic disturbances, and in other ways. The
polar position of Gauss, which was earlier thought impracticable, has been
substituted for the equatorial position, as it makes less difficult the elimina-
tion of eddy current effects and has other advantages. Eddy current effects
have been more thoroughly studied by rotating copper and otherwise. The
work is still in progress and other tests remain to be applied.
The most extensive observations have been made on a rod of Norway iron
(for which observational curves were shown) . Many observations have been
made on a rod of cobalt, and some on rods of cold-rolled steel. All the rods
gave values about one-half of 7.1 instead of 7.1, or even less, as in the ex-
periments on iron by the method of electromagnetic induction, thus again
indicating an effect of positive electricity or else indicating that negative
electricity alone is involved, but has, for the motions responsible for mag-
netism, a smaller value of m/e than that determined in known experiments.
Satisfactory experiments on nickel have not yet been made.
It is interesting to observe that, while all the sources of trouble have not
yet been removed, the method is so sensitive that, in the later part of the
night, when extraneous magnetic disturbances are least, the effect can be
measured at even very small speeds. Curves between the scale readings for
right and left handed rotations and the time were exhibited showing clearly
the effect for cobalt at the speed 3/4 revolution per second.
The paper closed with a reference to recent experiments on the converse
effect (rotation by magnetization). These experiments, on the theory which
has been adopted by the investigators, but which involves an uncertain as-
sumption with reference to the seat of the reaction to the resultant electron
momentum produced on magnetization, also appear to indicate an effect of
positive electricity or else the participation of negative electricity with a
value of m/e different from that hitherto known.
The paper was illustrated by lantern slides, and was discussed by Mr.
Humphreys.
S. J. Mauchly: Results of atmospheric electric observations made during
solar eclipse of May zg, igig, and summary of similar observations.
The only atmospheric-electric observations made within the belt of totality
during the total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, appear to have been those by
observers of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at Sobral, Brazil.
These observations were in charge of Mr. Andrew Thomson, of the Depart-
ment of Terrestrial Magnetism, who made measurements of the electrical
conductivity of the air due to positive and negative ions, respectively. Mr.
Thomson was assisted by Mr. Antonio Lima, a native of Brazil, who had been
educated in the United States, and who made potential-gradient observations
under Mr. Thomson's direction.
164 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 7
Owing to considerable cloudiness during the first hour of the eclipse, the
conditions at Sobral were not so favorable for the detection of an eclipse-
effect as those which favored the observations made for the Department of
Terrestrial Magnetism by the author and others, in connection with the eclipse
of June 8, 1918. However, in spite of the fact that clouds still remained,
they did not obscure the Sun after a time corresponding to about 15 minutes
before totality, and it was possible to note, in the results for the remainder
of the eclipse, variations of the several elements similar to those observed at
Lakin in June, 1918.
Briefly enumerated, the Sobral results indicate:
(i) A general potential-gradient minimum beginning just before totality
and continuing until about 20 minutes after totality. The values during this
period were abnormally uniform and about 20 per cent lowei than those which
obtained during the equal periods just preceding and following the one under
consideration. (2) For both the positive and negative conductivity as de-
termined by the ordinary Gerdien apparatus, a maximum of the order of
20 per cent, which set in just after totahty and continued throughout most
of the period of potential-gradient minimum. (3) That the air-to-earth
current-density, as computed from potential-gradient and total conductivity,
remained near the normal station value throughout the period in which
obscuration exceeded 50 per cent, and was more constant than during arny
equal period of the forenoon.
In view of the general agreement between the results obtained at Lakin,
in 1918, and at Sobral, in 1919, a detailed study was made of all available
data concerning atmospheric-electric observations made during solar ecHpses.
It was found that the evidence as a whole is of a very conflicting nature un-
less special care is taken to note the apparatus and methods employed by the
various observers, and the meteorological (especially cloud) conditions which
prevailed during the observations.
Following these lines it was found that almost without exception the con-
ditions attending previous observations were less favorable for the detection
of an eclipse-effect than at Sobral and Lakin, and in nearly all cases where
conditions were reasonably favorable the results for potential-gradient and
conductivity were in substantial agreement with the foregoing.
The paper was illustrated by lantern slides.
L. A. Bauer: Results of magnetic and meteorological observations during
solar eclipse of May 2Q, igig (illustrated).
With the aid of magnetic data from nine stations within the region of visi-
bility of the solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, five of these stations being those
at which observations were made by the expeditions of the Department of
Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and from
about eighteen cooperative stations distributed outside the region, the fol-
lowing main conclusions weie drawn:
(j) Magnetic effects of appreciable and determinable magnitude were ob-
served during the solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, at stations inside the region
of totality as well as at certain stations in the sunlit region, the magnitude
and character of the effects being similar to those observed during previous
solar eclipses and showing a distinct connection with the eclipse circumstances.
The magnetic data for stations in the night region of the globe did not exhibit
similar effects.
APRIL 4, 1921 proceedings: philosophical society 165
(2) There were two principal variations (with some subordinate ones), as
shown especially at stations near the totahty-belt, having periods approxi-
mately that of the entire eclipse (5h. 10 m.) and that of the local eclipse
(on the average about 2 hours from first to last contact) . There are evidences
that the efifects continued for some time after the end of the eclipse at sunset
on the southeast coast of Africa. The amplitude (semi-range) of the short
wave was, on the average, about one-half of that for the long wave. In the
case of the magnetic declination, for example, the amplitude of the long
wave for stations inside or near the totality-belt approximated, on the average,
one minute of arc, which was equivalent to a horizontal deflecting force of
about 0.01 per cent that of the average west-east component of the Earth's
magnetism.
(j) A preliminary analysis of the magnetic effects at stations within the
region of visibility, or in close proximity, showed that the effects in declination
and horizontal intensity were similar to those produced by a north-end at-
tracting focus located in the vicinity of the shadow cone. With the aid of
the vertical-intensity effects it was found that the eclipse magnetic system
was composed of an external and an internal system of forces.
At 12h. SOm.G.M.T., May 29, 1919, just before the maximum development
of the eclipse system, the north end attracting focus of the external system
was located east-southeast of the shadow cone, and that of the internal system
was to the northward of the cone and approximately northward of the point
where the Sun and the Moon were in the zenith. The momentarily increased
magnetization of the Earth for stations near the belt of totality of 0.012 per
cent at 12h. 30m. corresponded to the amount associated with about a six
per cent decrease in solar radiation. Equally interesting results were dis-
closed at other times; invariably the positions of the foci of the disturbing
forces could be related to the momentary position of the shadow-cone. The
indications are that the complete analysis of the eclipse magnetic system will
show that it has characteristics analogous to those exhibited by the systems
causing the solar-diurnal and the lunar-diurnal variations of the Earth's
magnetism.
839th meeting
The S39th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, October 23, 1920. Presi-
dent SoSMAN presided and 25 persons were present. The program was as
follows :
William Bowie: The Pan-Pacific Scientific Congress.
The speaker presented a paper on the recent scientific conference for the
exploration of the Pacific which was held under the auspices of the Pan-Pa-
cific Union in Honolulu, August 2-20, 1920. In the winter of 1919-20, a
committee of the National Research Council, formed to consider the scientific
exploration of the Pacific, held several meetings at which the necessary pre-
liminary steps were taken and then the activities were transferred to Honolulu
where a local committee of scientists perfected arrangements for the conference.
At the conference were representatives of the United States, Canada, Japan,
New Zealand, Australia, the Philippine Islands and Hawaii.
The organization of the conference was described, and the general resolu-
tions and those resolutions bearing on the geographic subjects which were
adopted by the conference were explained in some detail. The scientific
166 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 7
work considered under geography consisted of geodesy, topography, physical
oceanography, terrestrial magnetism, and meteorology.
It was found that much work remains to be done in the Pacific in the
various branches of science, and one of the purposes of the Congress was to
present the evidence that would show that some central organization should
be created that could assist and be a coordinating agency in scientific explora-
tion in the Pacific region. It was the opinion of all those at the conference
that the most urgent needs are in topographic mapping, including the shore
line of the continents and islands, and oceanography, especially the con-
figuration of the bottom of the ocean and the mapping of the direction and
strength of the ocean currents. On this work, that is, topographic surveys
and ocean charts, must be based much of the work in other lines of science.
The sessions of the conference were held at Honolulu, except that two
general sessions, one on volcanology and one on seismology, were held at the
volcano of Kilauea, which most of the delegates visited.
The speaker expressed appreciation of the hospitality and good will shown
by the people of Honolulu to the members of the scientific congress.
It was stated that a publication will be issued by the Conference giving the
resolutions and a brief history of the meeting. This publication will probably
be distributed in the very near future. Later in the winter it is expected
that one or more volumes will be published which will contain abstracts of
minutes of the general sessions and of the meetings of the various sections,
papers which were presented at Honolulu, and statements in regard to the
various branches of science which are now in process of publication by the
members of the conference. These later papers are expected to cover in more
comprehensive form the problems of the scientific exploration of the Pacific
region.
Discussion: Messrs. Silsbee, Sosman, Ferner, Mauchly, and Humph-
reys discussed Mr. Bowie's paper.
P. V. Wells: The iq20 meeting of the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science.
The meetings were held at Cardiff in the new public buildings which are
grouped about a beautiful campus, leaving room at one end for the future
Welsh Houses of Parliament. Sectional meetings opened on Tuesday morn-
ing (Aug. 24) with the presidential addresses, those of Prof. Karl Pearson on
Anthropology and of Prof. EddingTon on the Constitution of the Stars being
particular features. The latter spoke of the radiative equilibrium in gaseous
giant stars, their change in temperature from red to blue and final contraction
to red dwarfs. Although the radiation within the giants is much like that
of soft X-rays, their interior being at a temperature of millions of degrees,
such stars are nearly heat tight. The radiation pressure prevents rapid
shrinking and in fact overcomes gravitation in stars of much more than five
times the mass of the sun, causing them to break up. AsTon's experiments
leave no room for doubt that all the elements are built up of hydrogen and
electrons, and the heat of the stars is accounted for by the mass radiated
during their combination. "If indeed the sub-atomic energy in the stars
is being freely used to maintain their great furnaces, it seems to bring a little
nearer to fulfilment our dream of controlling this latent power for the well-
being of the human race, or for its suicide."
In the evening President Herdman suggested a new Challenger expedition
in his address on Oceanography. The next morning Aston described his
APRIL 4, 1921 proceedings: philosophical society 1(37
epoch-making work on mass spectra proving atomic masses of all the elements
to be whole numbers excepting hydrogen. Neon, chlorine, argon and many
other elements are mixtures of isotopes of different masses but of the same
atomic number (the number of positive charges on the nucleus which de-
termines its atomic properties).
Sir Ernest Rutherford followed with a short description of his work on the
disintegration of nitrogen and other gases into hydrogen particles moving
■with, greater velocity than the bombarding a-particles themselves. Thus
without doubt the hydrogen nucleus is the positive electron and stable groups
of minute hydrogen particles, bound together by the much larger negative
electrons, such as the helium nucleus (a-particle) form the nuclei of all the
heavier atoms.
Especially interesting also were the remarkable discussion on the Origin of
Spectra led by Nicholson, the note of Sir Oliver Lodge on Relativity and the
reply of Pres. EddingTon, the evening discourse of Sir Richard Glazebrook
on Aircraft and the vote of thanks moved by Dr. StraTTon of our Bureau of
Standards. The wealth of things of interest in other branches of science,
and the pleasant excursions of all sorts filled every moment of a busy and
delightful week.
Discussion: The paper was discussed by Messrs. Silsbee and SosmaN.
840th meeting
The 840th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, November 6, 1920, with
President Sosman in the chair and 32 persons present. The following pro-
gram was given :
E. F. Mueller and T. S. Sligh, Jr.: The hypsonieter as a precision in-
strument (presented by Mr. Mueller).
A very simple form of hypsometer, consisting of a nearly closed space into
which steam from a boiler can be admitted, will serve to maintain a tempera-
ture in the steam space which differs at most by a very few hundredths of a
degree from that corresponding to saturated steam at the prevailing atmos-
pheric pressure. The well-known Rudberg or Regnault hypsometer is a
Y&ry simple apparatus, and is capable of serving the requirements of all but
the most precise thermometric measurements. In the more elaborate de-
signs which have been developed at the International Bureau and at the
Reichsanstalt, the design has been largely influenced by such considerations
as the desirability of being able to read mercurial thermometers in either a
horizontal or a vertical position, of measuring accurately the difference be-
tween the pressure of the steam and atmospheric pressure, or of avoiding
superheating of the steam, the last named feature being particularly empha-
sized. Apparently the question of purity of material, or the possibility of
the steam being mixed with air, has received only incidental consideration.
In the design of a new portable hypsometer, advantage was taken of the
difference in density of steam and air to insure rapid removal of air from the
steam space by introducing the steam into this space at the top. This has
the further advantage of rendering the temperature stable with no appreciable
excess pressure in the steam space thus dispensing with the water manometer.
Electric heating is used and the volume of the boiler is small, so that heating
up is rapid. Two sheath heating coils are used which, connected in parallel,
provide rapid heating, and connected in series suffice for regular operation.
Experiments with heat inputs from 125 to 640 watts indicate that such
168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 7
variations produced no measurable eflfect in the temperature of the steam
space, thus indicating the absence of both superheating and excess pressure
in the steam space.
Extended experiments were made to determine the reasons for the fortui-
tous errors of about 0.005° usually observed in precise steam point determina-
tions. Apparently such errors are due to irregular fluctuations in atmos-
pheric pressure and to errors in measurement of barometric pressure, indicat-
ing that improvements in this respect will require the use of a closed system
and better temperature control of the barometer.
The instrument described was exhibited and operated.
Discussion: The paper was discussed by Messrs. White, Tuckerman,
SosMAN, Heyl, and Beall.
T. S. Sligh, Jr.: Thermostatics.
In this paper it is shown that the degree of temperature regulation attain-
able in a thermostated bath depends upon the thermal and space relations
of the various elements of the bath to an equal if not greater extent than
upon the characteristics of the thermoregulator alone.
The three desirable characteristics of a thermoregulated bath are: steadi-
ness of controlled temperature, constancy of controlled temperature, and
range of regulation.
Steadiness is measured in terms of the periodic variations of the instantane-
ous temperatures of the working-space as the regulator operates. It is de-
sirable that the amplitude of this variation be small and that the period be
short.
Constancy is measured in terms of the variations of the time-average tem-
perature of the working-space as measured over a complete cycle of operation
of the regulator with variations of average rate of energy gain or loss from
the bath.
Range may be measured in terms of the average energy input controlled
by the regulator or its equivalent, the number of degrees of change in sur-
roundings temperature for which the regulator is able to compensate.
It is shown by reference to the characteristic equations for thermostatic
regulators as derived in the author's paper ^ that some gain is to be secured
by increasing the sensitivity of the regulator but, in view of present practice,
it seems that increased constancy, steadiness, and range can best be secured
by reducing the over-all lag of the system. This lag is made up of the lag of
the heater, the lag, or lapse, due to the time required for the water to circulate
from the heater to the regulator bulb, and the lag of the regulator bulb. The
lag of the heater may be made small by the use of a heating coil of small heat
capacity and large dissipating surface. The stirring lapse may be made
small by securing vigorous circulation and by placing the regulator bulb as
close to the heater as is possible without the inclusion of a temperature
gradient region between the regulator bulb and the working space. The
regulator lag may be made small by the use of bulbs of large surface volume
ratio and by securing a vigorous circulation of water past the bulb, thus
reducing the thermal resistance of the bulb surface.
Great steadiness together with large range may be secured by the use of
the oscillating contact regulator which is described in the paper referred to
above.
' Some characteristics of the Couy thermoregulator. Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. Jan. 1920.
APRIL 4, 1921 proceedings: philosophical society 169
Great range together with constancy may be realized by the use of an
auxiliary compensator which consists of a motor geared to the contact of the
rheostat which controls the fixed heat supply to the bath. The direction of
rotation of this motor is periodically reversed by a relay in such a manner
that the fixed heating tends to be slowly increased or decreased during the
parts of the cycle of operation of the regulator during which an increased or
decreased supply of energy is required by the bath. Thus the fixed heating
is increased or decreased as the bath requires an increased or decreased sup-
ply of energv^ over one or more complete cycles of operation of the regulator.
It is seen that this method of regulation requires only a temporary departure
of the bath temperature from its normal value in order that a permanent
change in the heating be efTected, whereas without the auxiliary' compensating
mechanism the change in the heating persists only during the time that the
bath temperature remains above or below normal.
The auxiliary compensator may be used in connection with the oscillating
contact regulator to secure steadiness, constancy, and range to a high degree.
Discussion: This paper was discussed by Messrs. White, Beall, Breit,
TucKERMAN, Ferner, Wenner, Adams, Van Dusen, Heyl, Mueller, and
SOSMAN.
S. J. Mauchly, Recording Secretary
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
MATTERS OF SCIENTIFIC INTEREST IN CONGRESS.^
The third session of the vSixty-sixth Congress convened on December 6,
1920.
Under a special rule adopted on December 14, the joint resolution (SJ. 191)
to create a joint commission on reorganization of the administrative branch
of the Federal Government was brought up for two hours' debate on that
date and passed by the House, having already passed the Senate on May 10.
The bill became Public Resolution No. 54 on December 30 without Executive
approval. The resolution requires the Committee to make a report in De-
cember, 1922. Mr. Smoot announced in February that the Committee
would do the work personally and would not turn it over to the Bureau of
Efficiency or any other governmental agency. Considerable shifting and
rearrangement of the scientific bureaus has been predicted as a probable out-
come of the reorganization movement.
The House Committee on Patents recommended on December 10 that the
Nolan Patent Office bill (H.R. 119S4) be sent to conference, but unanimous
consent for such reference was refused in the House. Later, on December
14, the bill was sent to conference, and hearings were reopened by the confer-
ence committee in January. Section 9 of the bill, providing for the issuance
of patents to Federal employees, continued to meet with opposition from
commercial and industrial interests, but was retained in the bill. The House
agreed to the conference report on February IG. Opposition developed in
the Senate, and the bill did not reach final action before the end of the session
on March 4.
The bill for Federal supervision of the nitrate plants (S. 3390), including
provision for research on the fixation of nitrogen, was made the unfinished
business in the Senate on December 15. After several debates and the
adoption of a number of amendments, the bill passed the Senate on January
14. The House took no final action.
The American Society of Zoologists, at its annual meeting on December
28-30, 1920, passed resolutions protesting against the passage of that part
of H.R. 7785 (the scientific apparatus tariff bill) which abolishes the "duty-
free privilege" to educational institutions. Occasional protests against this
feature of the bill have been discussed in current scientific and technical
periodicals. This feature of the bill was brought up in a hearing on the
Fordney emergency tariff bill before the House Committee on Ways and
Means on February 14, and the sentiment of the Committee seemed to be
strongly in favor of eliminating the duty-free privilege on chemical glassware,
chemical porcelain and apparatus. The Fordney bill passed both houses,
but was vetoed by the President.
' Preceding report: This Journal, 10: 423. 1920.
170
APRIL 4, 1921 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 171
As for the special bill for a tariff on scientific supplies (H.R. TTSo), although
it had passed the House as long ago as August 2, 1919, the vSenate took no
final action and it lapsed with the adjournment on March 4.
A bill "to fix the metric system of weights and measures as the single stand-
ard for weights and measures" was introduced in the House by Mr Britten
on December 29 (H.R. 15420), and in the Senate by Mr. Freunghuysen
(by request) on December 18 (S. 4675). The bills are said to have been
"fathered" by the World Trade Club of San Francisco. They were referred
to the respective weights and measures committees and no further action
was taken.
The Smith-Towner bill to create a Department of Education (S. 1017
and H.R. 7) after lying dormant through nearly the entire life of the Con-
gress, was reported in the House on January 17 and in Senate on March 1,
but progressed no further.
A step toward the erection of the proposed building for the National
Academy of Sciences was taken in the introduction of S. 4045, "to authorize
the Commissioners of the District of Columbia to close upper Water Street
between 21st and 22d Streets, NW." The bill passed the Senate on February
24, but advanced no further.
With the adjournment of the Sixty-sixth Congress at noon on March 4,
various other bills and resolutions which are of interest to scientists and
which have been commented upon in this section of the Journal either
perished in committees or at the intermediate stage of progress last noted in
these columns.
NOTES
The twenty-third edition of the Directory of the Washington Academy of
Sciences and its affiliated societies (the "Red Book")appeared early in March.
This edition contains 2779 names and data concerning 35 societies.
The following lectures have been presented before the Physics Club of the
Bureau of Standards during the present season: November 1, 1920, W. J.
Humphreys: TJie roaring mountain and associated phenomena. November
15, J. C. Karcher: X-ray spectroscopy, with special reference to X-ray spectra
in vacuo. November 29, R. C. Tolman: The rate of chemical reaction. De-
cember 13, F. C. Brown: Propagated light sensitiveness of selenium. January
10, 1921, I. G. Priest: Chicago meeting of the Optical Society of America;
E. A. Eckhardt: Chicago meeting of the American Physical Society. January
24, R. S. Woodward : The doctrine of relativity and Einstein's theory of gravi-
tation. February 7, P. V. Wells: Statistics, or the theory of sampling, and
its relation to the physical sciences. March 7 and 21, P. D. Foote: Modern
developments of the Bohr theory of atomic structure.
The following-named officers were elected at the annual meeting of the
Scientific-Technical Section of Federal Employees Union No. 2 in December:
President: J. Franklin Meyer, Bureau of Standards; Vice-President: Geo.
A. Hill, U. S. Naval Observatory; and Secretary -Treasurer: C. T. Jarvis,
Bureau of Education. At the meeting of the Board of Delegates on February
24, D. R. Glass, Public Health Service, was elected Secretary-Treasurer,
to succeed C. T. Jarvis, resigned. The following were named members of
the Executive Committee: V. K. Chesnut, Bureau of Chemistry; Miss Eunice
Oberly, Library, Department of Agriculture; W. C. Thurber, Patent
Office; and W. I. Swanton, Reclamation Service.
The section of vertebrate paleontology of the National Museum has just
172 JOURNAL OI' TUB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 7
received, from the Upper Cretaceous deposits along the Red Deer River of
Alberta, Canada, an exhibition specimen of a skull of the crested dinosaur
Stephanosaurus, a unique genus heretofore unrepresented in the collections.
Stephanosaurus is remarkable on account of the development on the top of
the skull of a high thin bony crest resembling that of the living Cassowary.
Dr. D. Borodin, Russian economic entomologist, has been visiting Wash-
ington and has been looking up Russian entomological literature in the
libraries of this city. Before the revolution Dr. Borodin was director of the
Agricultural Experiment Station at Poltawa, in southern Russia.
The honorary degree of Doctor of Sciences was conferred upon Messrs.
Frederick V. Coville, botanist in the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, and Frank vSpringer, paleontologist in the U. S.
National Museum, at the centenary graduation exercises of George Washing-
ton University on February 22.
Mr. C. R. DeLong has been appointed chief of the chemical division of
the U. S. Tariff Commission, succeeding Dr. Grinnell Jones, who has re-
turned to Harvard University but retains a connection with the Commission
in an advisory capacity. The other members of the chemical staff of the
Commission are Messrs. S. D. Kirkpatrick, W. N. Watson, and A. R.
Willis.
Dr. Alfred DoolittlE, professor of mathematics and instructor in as-
tronomy at the Catholic University since 1S98, died on February 23, 1921.
Dr. Pentti Eskola, of the Geological Survey Commission of Finland, is
engaged in petrologic research at the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington.
Dr. Maurice C. Hall, of the Bureau of Animal Industry, has been elected
secretary of the Washington Alumni Chapter of the Society of the Sigma Xi.
The vSociety plans to have a series of informal inspection trips to the scientific
institutions of the city.
Dr. L. I. Shaw, of the Bureau of Mines, has been elected treasurer of the
Chemical Society, succeeding the late Frederic P. Dewey.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 April 19, 1921 No. 8
BOTANY. — Synopsis of the genus Datura.^ William E. Safford,
Bureau of Plant Industry.
A critical study of the genus Datura has revealed great confusion in
botanical literature in connection with the specific identity, as well as
the origin, of some of the most common species.- Some authors,
for example, call a certain species endemic in Mexico and northern
South America Datura metel; but the true Datura metel, described by
Linnaeus in the first edition of his Species Plantarum, is a species based
upon the Asiatic metel nut, or "jouz-methel," which was used as a
narcotic by the Arabs, Persians, and Hindoos long before the discovery
of America, and was described by Avicenna in the eleventh centur}^
Forms of this species, differing from the type in color and in the re-
duplication of the corolla, have been set apart as a distinct species
under the name Datura fastuosa, while the white-flowered type itself
was rechristened Datura alba. Much of the confusion is due to the
treatment which this genus received at the hands of Dunal in the first
part of volume thirteen of De Candolle's Prodromus (1852), in which
the name Datura metel was transferred from the Asiatic plant above
mentioned to an American plant described in 1768 by Miller under
the name Datura innoxia.
Conflicting statements regarding the origin of the well known James-
town weed [Datura stramonium L.) are frequently encountered.^ Cer-
tain authors declare it to be of Asiatic origin, although Linnaeus in
describing it states that it is American. Others assign the typical form,
with green stem and white flowers, to Asia, and the purple-stemmed
lavender-flowered form, commonly called Datura tatula, to America.
Still others have separated a variety with smooth capsules from the
typical prickly-fruited form under the name Datura inermis. Ob-
serN-^ations on growing plants show that both the white-flowered and
purple-flowered forms may bear either smooth or prickly capsules, in
some cases even on the same plant. Experiments in cross-breeding
have demonstrated that of the antagonistic color characters, the
' Received March 14, 192L
2 See Hemsley, Biol. Centr. Am. Bot. 2: 427. 1882.
' See Robinson & Fernald, Gray's Manual ed. 7. 717. 1908. Brixton & Brown,
lUustr. Fl. ed. 2. 3: 169. 1913.
173
174 JOURNAL or THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 8
purple is dominant and the white-flowered form recessive, and of the
contrasted capsule forms the prickly one is dominant and the unarmed
(inermis) recessive ; so that at one end of the series we have the so-
called Datura tatula and at the other the white-flowered "Datttra
inermis." This is discussed in the author's forth-coming paper,
"Datura, an inviting genus J or the study of heredity," to be published in
the Journal of Heredity.
The tree daturas of South America have been segregated as a dis-
tinct genus under the name Brugmansia, chiefly on the score that they
have fleshy spineless indehiscent fruits devoid of a persistent expanded
calyx base; but the section Ceratocaulis is characterized by similar
fruits and may be regarded as connecting the tree daturas with the
section Dutra, in which the capsules are irregularly dehiscent and in-
clined or nodding, quite unlike the erect valvate capsules of the sec-
tion Stramonium.
A study of the tree daturas shows that more than one species has
been included under certain specific names. Thus Datura arhorea of
Ruiz and Pavon and Brugmansia arhorea of Lagerheim are specifically
distinct from the true Datiira arhorea L-, based upon P^re Feuillce's
Stramonioides arhoreum, and the pubescent orange-flowered huantuc
of Ecuador, with sinuate woolly leaves, is also quite distinct from the
typical Datura sanguinea of Ruiz and Pavon, with which it has been
confused.
The following systematic synopsis is part of a paper submitted by
the writer as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George
Washington University. The remainder of the paper, illustrated by
numerous photographs of living plants, will appear in the forthcoming
Year Book of the vSmithsonian Institution.
DESCRIPTION OF THE GENUS
The genus Datura, established by lyinnaeus (Gen. no. 246) with Datura
stramonium as its type, belongs to the family Solanaceae and to the tribe
Datureae, which includes also the closely allied genus Solandra of tropical and
subtropical America. It may be characterized as follows:
Calyx long-tubular, herbaceous, appressed to the corolla tube or inflated,
toothed at the apex or spathe-like and split down the side, in certain groups
circurascissile at the base, leaving a disk which enlarges like a shield or cup
subtending the fruit; in another group either disappearing entirely or per-
sisting like a husk which covers the lower part of the fruit. Corolla funnel-
shaped or trumpet- shaped, in certain species suggesting the corolla of a
Convohndus, the tube usually long and slender, the limb plicate and either
5-lobed with the lobes separated by sinuses, or circular or lo-angled, with the
margin between the 5 teeth entire or obtusely angled, the angles sometimes
cuspidate giving to the expanded limb the form of a lo-pointed star. Stamens
APRIL 19, 1921 safford: synopsis of datura 175
5, perfect, adnate to the inner surface of the tube at the middle or near the
base, shghtly or not at all exserted, the filaments slender and thread-like, tlie
anthers linear, free or rarely cohering, the anther-cells parallel, longitudinally-
dehiscent. Ovary 2-celled (sometimes falsely 4-celled); style thread-like;
stigma 2-lobed. Fruit a dehiscent 4-valved capsule or a more or less fleshy
berry, the surface spiny or smooth. Seeds numerous, compressed laterally,
discoid or imperfectly ear-shaped, sometimes with a cork-like covering;
embryo curved, cotyledons semiterete. — Herbs, shrubs, or small trees, glabrous,
farinaceous, or pubescent. Leaves broad, thin, entire, angulate, or coarsely
sinuate-dentate. Flowers solitary, erect or drooping, sometimes very large.
KEY TO THE SECTIONS
F'lowers erect; calyx circumscissile near the base, the base persistent and ex-
panding like a frill, shield or cup.
Fruit an erect dehiscent 4-valved capsule. I. Stranwnhim.
Fruit inclined or nodding, not dehiscing regularly.
Plants terrestrial; pericarp spiny or tuberculate, with an expanded, frilled
or shield-like calyx-base. II. Dutra.
Plants aquatic or marsh-loving; pericarp smooth, with small discoid or
cup-like calyx-base. III. Ceraiocaidis.
Flowers pendulous; calyx not circumscissile, either falling off entirely or per-
sisting like a husk appressed to the fruit, the latter unarmed and inde-
hiscent, spheroid, lemon-shaped, fusiform, or elongated and terete.
IV. Brugmansta.
vSection I. Stramonium Gaertner.
Flowers erect; calyx tube circumscissile near the base, falling off together
with the corolla, the base persisting and expanding into a disc, the margin of
which is at length turned downward and frilled. Corolla distinctly 5-lobed,
the lobes separated by emarginate sinuses. Fruit (Fig. i. A) an erect regu-
larly dehiscent 4-valved capsule, armed with rigid spines or unarmed.
Type of the section, Datura stramonium L.
KEY TO THE SPECIES
Capsule normally armed with subequal spines, these sometimes much abrevi-
ated or wanting; flowers white or lavender-coloied. i. D. stramonium .
Capsules armed with strongly unequal spines, the upper ones longer and
stouter.
Leaves ovate or oblong; sinuate- toothed or angled. 2. D.ferox.
Leaves pinnately lobed.
Branches, petioles, and calyx downy or woolly. 3. D. quercifolia.
Branches, petioles, and calyx villous or hair}% 4. D. villosa.
1. Datura stramonium L. Sp. PI. 1: 179. 1753.
Datura tatula L. Sp. PI. ed 2. i: 256. 1762.
Datura inermis Jacq. Hort. Vindob. 3: 44. pi. 82. 1776.
Type Locality: "Habitat in America, nunc vulgaris per Europem."
Range: Throughout eastern North America, Central America, and South
America; introduced at a very early date into the warmer regions of Eu-
rope, Asia, and Africa.
A common weed in waste places, used by the Algonquin Indians as a nar-
cotic* The purple -flowered variety is commonly known under the name
D. tatula, the form with unarmed fruits as D. inermis.
* For the origin of its common name, Jamestown, or Jimson, weed, see BEVERLEY, Hist.
Virginia, book 2, p. 24. 1706.
]/(■) JOURNAL Ol' THIv WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIRNCRS VOL. 11, NO. 8
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Fig. 1. Fruits of Datura. A, Datura stramonium L. ; B, D.metel L.; C, D. melel
fastuosa h-; D, D. meieloides Dunal; E, D. ceratocaiila Jacq.; F, D. sangmnea
R. & P.; G, D. arhorea L. All natural size.
APRIL 10, 1021 safford: synopsis of datura 177
2. Datura ferox L. Amoen. Acad. 3: 403. 1764.
Type Locality: "Habitat in China."
Kange: Warmer regions of China; introduced into Sicily and Spain.
A weed growing in waste places, very similar to D. stramonmni, with the
pericarp bearing 4 very large stout spines at the apex. Called in vSpain
Esiramonio de la China.
3. Datura quercifolia H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 3: 7. 1818.
Type Locality: "Cfescit locis temperatis Regni Mexicani prope Zelaya et
Molino de Saravia, alt. 930 hex."
Range : Texas to Arizona and Mexico.
A common weed along the banks of ditches. Leaves pinnately lobed;
pericarps armed with large rigid ascending spines.
4. Datura villosa Fernald, Proc. Amer. Acad. 35: 571. 1900.
Type Locality: Bolanos, Jalisco, Mexico.
R.\nge: Jalisco and vSan Luis Potosi, Mexico, at altitudes of 1800 to 2500
meters.
A weed growing in waste places, related to D. qtiercijolia, with which it has
been confused.
Section II. Dutra Bernhardi.
Flowers erect; corolla trumpet-shaped or funnel-shaped, the expanded limb
either 5-lobed or lo-angled; calyx-tube circumscissile, falling off with the
corolla, the persistent base at length expanding into a membranous frill or
cup, either reflexed or appressed to the fruit. Fruit (Fig. i, B, C, D) borne
on an inclined or nodding peduncle, not valvate but at length breaking open
irregularly, its surface tuberculate or spiny, the spines sometimes flexible and
not pungent, in some species pubescent.
Type of the section, Datura metel L.
KEY TO THE species
Fruiting peduncle usually curved to one side, sometimes cernuous; pericarp
tuberculate or armed with short spines; plant glabrous or nearly so;
corolla white or colored, normally 5-lobed, in cultivation often double
or triple, the outer corolla 5-lobed or 6-lobed, the inner corollas 5-10-
lobed, the lobes separated by acute sinuses. — An Asiatic species including
several well-marked varieties. 5. D. metel.
Fruiting peduncle abruptly nodding; pericarp armed with spines; plants
pubescent or pruinose; corolla white or tinged with lavender or purple,
the expanded limb lo-angled.^ — Plauts of American origin.
Flowers more than 6 cm. long.
Corolla funnel-shaped, w^hite or tinged with purple or lavender; pericarp
armed with weak spines; seeds light brown.
Plant softly pubescent; corolla white, lo-toothed. 6. D. innoxia.
Plant glaucescent; corolla usually suffused with pale lavender, 5-
toothed. 7. D. metel aides.
Corolla trumpet-shaped with broadly flaring lo-toothed limb, white with
purple or violet throat; pericarp armed with stout spines; seeds black.
8. D. discolor.
Flowers not exceeding 6 cm. in length ; corolla w^hite ; pericarp armed with
short slender prickles, which together with the whole surface of the
capsule are finely pubescent. 9. D. pruinosa.
178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 8
5. Datura metel L. Sp. PI. 1: 179. 1753. Fig. 1, B, C.
Datura fashiosa L. Syst. ed. lo. 2: 932. 1759.
Datura alba Nees, Trans. Linn. Soc. 17: 73. 1834.
Type Locality: "Habitat in Asia, Africa."
Range: Tropical and subtropical Asia and Africa; now widely cultivated
throughout the warmer regions of both hemispheres.
In the first edition of the Species Plantarum Linnaeus briefly described this
species as "Datura pericarpiis spinosis nutantibus, globosis," and cited his
earlier description of it in the Hortus Clifortiamis (1737). In the latter work
it is identified with the ''Solanum porno spinoso rotunda longo fiore" of Bauhin
(1023); "Stramonia multis dicta she ponium spinosmn' of Bauhin's Historia
(1651) ; the "hummatu" of Rheede's Hortus Malaharicus (2: 47. pi. 28. 1678) ;
''Stramonia seu Datura, porno spinoso rotunda, longe flore" of Hermann (1687) ;
and ''Stramonium fructo spinoso rotunda, flore albo simplici,'" of Tournefort
and Boerhaave. The range is cited as "Crescit in Oriente, in Malabaria,
Aegyptio, etc."
In the second edition of the Species Plantarum (1762) Linnaeus adds to his
citations Rumph's Herbarium Amboinense (5: pi. 8y. 1755), in which the
simple -flowered Datura metel is figured, ac-
companied by the double-flowered form
called Datura fastuosa by Linnaeus in the
tenth edition of his Sy sterna (1759). He
also adds to his description "foliis cordatis
subintegris pubescentibus," but this is not
applicable to the true Datura metel. This
interpolation, if it can be so called, is re-
sponsible for much of the resulting confusion
of this and allied species. Dunal, in his
description of Datura metel in DeCandolle's
Prodromus, does not cite the original de-
scription of Linnaeus' s Datura 7netel in the
first edition of the Species Plantarum, but
that of the second edition, in which the
plant is erroneously described as pubescent.
In the first edition Linnaeus takes great
care to identify his Datura metel with the
"metel nut" of Asia. Dunal, on the other
hand, amends the original description of the
species, and refers to it a plant collected by
Berlandier in the vicinity of Victoria, in
Illustra- eastern Mexico, undoubtedly distinct from
the true Datura metel L., but identical with
the pubescent white-flowered Datura innoxia
Miller, described from a type also collected
in eastern Mexico. The latter species can-
Fi
g. 2. Datura metel L-
tion of J. Bauhinius under the
name "Stramonia multis dicta sive
Pomum spinosum," Hist. PI. 3:
624. 165L cited by Linnaeus in
his Hortus Cliffortianus.
APRIL 19, 1921 safford: synopsis of datura 179
not possibly be identified with Datura alba Nees, as suggested by Dunal,
as that species is the typical white-flowered form of Datura nietel h. ; and
Datura innoxia, described below, has its "stalks, branches, and leaves, covered
with soft hairs."
It is interesting to note that in the Hortus Clifortianus the first two syn-
onyms cited identify Linnaeus's Datura metel with the Stramonia, or Pomum
spinosum, described and figured by Johannes Bauhin, and clearly identified
by him with the Stramonia of Fuchsius and the Nux methel of Avicenna.
Bauhin's figures agree with that of Fuchsius (1542) in the form and surface
of the fruit, which bears very short and thick spines, not subulate or needle-
like prickles; indeed his second figure, here reproduced, is a reduced copy of
Fuchsius's.^
It is surprising that C. B. Clarke,^ in Hooker's Flora of British India, not
only ignores Linnaeus's references to the authorities above mentioned in con-
nection with Datura metel, but transfers this specific name from the metel-
nut or dhatura of India to a plant of American origin, citing as an illustration
of the species, not the figures of Fuchsius, Bauhinius, or Rumphius, but an
illustration in Curtis s Botanical Magazine (plate 1440) which on investigation
proves to be the drawing of a plant grown in London under the name Datura
innoxia, from seeds of American origin, identical with the Vera Cruz plant
described by Miller in 176S under the latter name. The specific identity of
the white and purple forms of the Asiatic Datura metel L. is recognized by the
best authorities on East Indian botany; but that the perfectly valid name
Datura metel should be discarded for the varietal name D. fastuosa, as by
Trimen/ is inexcusable.
It was this Asiatic plant, called in India Dhatura, or Dtitra, that gave to
the genus its name. True to his principle of not adopting a barbarous word
for a generic name, Linnaeus latinized the East Indian Dhatura or Dutra;
modifying it, however, to the form Datura, and commending the name by the
following pun: "Daturae, licet originis sit peregrinae, vocabulum persistere
valet, cum a latina derivari potest; dantur et daturae forte in Indiis posthac
semina a lascivis foeminis maritis inertibus."*
6. Datura innoxia Mill. Gard. Diet. ed. 8. Datura no. 5. 1768.
Datura metel vSims, Curtis's Bot. Mag. 35: pi. 1440. 1812. Not D. metel L.
D. guayaquilensis H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 3: 8. 1818.
D. metel Dunal in DC. Prodr. 13': 543. 1852.
'•' Compare the second figure of J. Bauhinius, Hist. Pi. 3: 624. (1651), with the colored
engraving in Fuchsius, Hist. Stirp. 690 (1542), which is clearly the true nux methal, or
East Indian dhatura, and is quite distinct from the American plant erroneously called
Datura metel in modern text-books.
'^ Hooker, Fi. Br. Ind. 4: 243. 1885.
' Handb. Fl. Ceyl. 3: 238. 1895.
" Hort. Cliflfort. 56. 1737.
ISO JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. S
Type Locality: "The fifth sort grows naturally at Vera Cruz, from whence
I received the seeds."
Range: Mexico to South America and the West Indies. Introduced at an
early date into the Canary Islands, North Africa, and India.
This "downy thorn-apple," as it was called by Sims, has been frequently
confused with the Old World Datura metel of Linnaeus, from which it may
be readily distinguished by its 10-angled corolla and the soft pubescence of
its foliage and young branches. It was characterized by Miller in 1768 as
follows: "Datura {Inoxia) pericarpiis spinosis inoxiis ovatis propendentibus
foliis cordatis pubescentibus." A plant grown from seeds from Vera Cruz
was described by him as follows: "This rises with a purplish stem three to
four feet high, dividing into seveial strong branches, garnished with oblong
heart-shaped leaves. The stalks, branches, and leaves of this sort are covered
with soft hairs ; the flowers come out at the division of the stalks and branches,
standing erect; they are large, white, and are succeeded by oval fruit covered
with long soft innocent spines, opening into four cells, which are full of brown
seeds."
The above description accords with that of the Mexican Nacazctd, or
Toloatz'in, the leaves of which were characterized by Hernandez^ as "moUia,
pinguia, et hirsuta." It was figured by Sims in 1812, as above cited, from a
plant grown in London from seeds of American origin. Sims referred it to
Linnaeus's Datura metel, but he was not at all confident that he was correct
in doing so. "Our plant was said to be raised from seeds sent from Surinam,"
he says, "and we think it doubtful whether it be the same species as the East
Indian plant, which grows to a much larger size and is not described as being
so pubescent. . . . We were favored with the plant from which our
drawing was taken, by Mr. Salisbur}^ proprietor of the botanic garden in
Sloane Street, under the name of Datura innoxia of Miller; and it is not un-
likely but it may be the same as the one described by him, which he raised
from seeds received from Vera Cruz."
Notwithstanding the uncertainty thus expressed by the author, the name
Datura metel was subsequently transferred by several botanists from the
Asiatic metel-nut, upon which Linnaeus had bestowed it, to this American
"downy thorn-apple," a species which may be readily distinguished from the
true Datura metel L. not only by its soft pubescent but by its 10-toothed
corollas. It seems strange that even in Hooker's Flora of British India the
name Datura metel is applied to this introduced plant of American origin,
while the true Datura metel is called by a varietal name D. fastuosa, with D.
alba Nees given as the name of its typical form, in which the corolla is white
and single.
7. Datura meteloides Dunal. in DC. Prodr. 13^: 544. 1852. Fig. 1, D.
Datura wrightii Hort. ex Regel, Gartenfl. pi. 260. 1859.
Type Locality: "In calidis Novae Hispaniae regionibus."
R.ange : Western Texas to California, Mexico, and northern South America.
* Hernandez, Res. Med. Nov. Hisp. Thesaurus, 113. 1651.
APRIL 10, 1921 safford: synopsis of datura 181
A handsome plant bearing large heavily scented flowers with a decagonal
corolla limb, white, usually suffused with lavender or pale violet. Stems and
foliage glaucescent. Fruit nodding, indehiscent (Fig. 1 D).
This species is held sacred by several Indian tribes of the southwestern
United States. It is without doubt the Ololiuhqui of the Aztecs, who used
it ceremonially and medicinally very much after the same manner as it is still
used by our own Indians in New Mexico, Arizona, and California. An ac-
count of the Zuni myth associated with it and its use by the Luisefio Indians
of southern California in initiating their youths to manhood will appear
in the paper by the writer to be published in the forthcoming Annual Report
of the Smithsonian Institution.
8. Datura discolor Bernh. Trommed. N. Journ. Pharm. 26: 149. 1838.
Datura thomasii Torr. Pacif. R. R. Rep. 5: 362. 1856.
Type Locality: "Habitat in India occidentali."
Range: West Indies, Mexico, and the southwestern United States.
A plant somewhat resembling D. meteloides, but with the corolla 10-toothed
and trumpet-shaped instead of funnel-shaped, and usually stained with purple
at the throat. It is easily distinguished from the former, with which it is not
infrequently associated, by its smaller flower, black seeds, and the long stout
spines with which its smaller nodding fruit is armed.
9. Datura pruinosa Greenm. Proc. Amer. Acad. 33: 486. 1898.
Type Locality: Cuicatlan, Oaxaca, Mexico.
Range: State of Oaxaca, altitude 550 to 1550 meters.
This plant may readily be distinguished from its allies "by the small flowers
and the fine pruinose pubescence of the young leaves and the tips of the young
branches."
Section III. Ceratocaulis vSpach.
Fruit (Fig. i, E) a pendent or abruptly deflexed smooth berry, subtended
by the enlarged persistent base of the calyx; flowers erect, trumpet-shaped,
the calyx spathe-like and split down one side, the corolla tube long and narrow,
the limb lo-toothed; stamens exserted, subequal. This section was segre-
gated from the rest of the Daturas by Rafinesque, under the name Apemon.
key to the species
A single species. — Leaves pinnately lobed, farinose beneath; corollas large,
white stained with blue. An aquatic plant of Mexico and Central
America. 10. D. ceraiocaiila.
10. Datura ceratocaula Ort. Dec. 11. 1798. Fig. 1, E.
Datura macrocaulis Roth, Neue Beitr. 159. 1802.
Apemon crassicaide Raf. Fl. Tell. 2: 11. 1836.
Datura sinuata Sesse & Moc. PI. Nov. Hisp. ed. 2. 24. 1893.
Type Locality: "Prope urbem Mexici et in insula Cuba.
R.\nge: States of Mexico, Ouerctaro, and Oaxaca, usually in shallow water.
A fleshy plant with thick dichotomous stem and horn-like branches, the
narcotic "Torna-loco" ("Maddening-plant") of the Mexican marshes. It
182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 8
was one of the plants called "Atlinan" by the Aztecs, who called it "Sister of
the Ololiuhqui" and invoked its spirit in treating certain diseases.^"
Section IV. Brugmansia (Persoon).
Flowers pendulous, very large; calyx not circumscissile near the base, either
falling off entirely or persisting as a husk-like envelope about the base of the
fruit; fruit unarmed, smooth, spheroid, oblong, fusiform, or linear and terete.
Type of the section. Datura Candida (Persoon).
KEY to the species
Calyx spathe-like, terminating in a point.
Flower white.
Corolla more than 20 cm. long; margin of limb between the teeth entire
or rounded. 11. D. Candida.
Corolla not exceeding 17 cm. in length; margin of limb between the teeth
cordate or emarginate.
Calyx tapering into a horn-like point. 12. D. cornigera.
Calyx without a horn-like apex. 13. D. arborca.
Flower colored.
Corolla large, more than 25 cm. long.
Peduncle, petioles and young branches glabrous; corolla at length
turning red. 14. D. versicolor.
Peduncle, calyx, nerves of the corolla, and margins of corolla teeth
clothed with soft hairs; corolla pink. 15. D. mollis.
Corolla small, not exceeding 15 cm. in length, red. IG. D. rubella.
Calyx toothed at the apex.
Flower white.
Anthers coherent; corolla teeth short, about 1 to 2 cm. long.
17. D. suaveolens.
Anthers distinct; corolla teeth 2 to 5 cm. long.
Fruit ovoid. IS. D.affinis.
Fruit long and slender.
Leaves lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, entire. 19. D. dolichocarpa.
Leaves linear-oblong, sinuate-repand. 20. D. longifolia.
Flower colored.
Calyx deciduous, more than half the length of the corolla.
Apex 5-toothed; fruit narrowly ovoid, beaked. 21. D. aurea.
Apex 2-toothed ; fruit elongate-ovoid, not beaked. 22. D. pittieri.
Calyx persistent, less than half the length of the corolla.
Uppermost leaves entire or repand, puberulent. 2."). D. sanguinea.
Uppermost leaves angular-toothed, densely tomentose.
24. D. rosei.
11. Datura Candida (Pers.) Saflford.
Datura arborea Ruiz & Pavon, Fl. Peruv. 2: 15. pi. 12". 1799. Not D.
arbor ea L. 17-53.
Brtigmansia Candida Pers. Syn. PI. 1: 210. 1805.
Type Locality: "Habitat in Peruviae hortis, versuris et septis, passim ad
Cercado, Chancay, et Huanuci Provincias."
Range : Known only in cultivation ; now widely spread in tropical and sub-
tropical countries.
"> Jacinto de la Serna, in Documentos Ined. para la Hist, de Espana 104: 159-160.
APRIL H), 1921 safford: synopsis of datura 183
This is the large white-flowered Floripondio of the gardens of Northern
Chile, Peru, Honduras, Guatemala, and Mexico. It was figured by Ruiz and
Pavon, as above cited, under the name Datura arhorea, but is quite distinct
specifically from Pere Feuillee's plant, which was the type of Linnaeus's D.
arhorea. It is also distinct from Lagerheim's Brugmansia arborea' (see be-
yond, no. 18), the calyx of which is 2- to o-toothed, and the peduncle glabrous.
The specimens in the National Herbarium, like that figured by Ruiz and
Pavon, are characterized by a relatively short, loose, pointed, spathe-like
calyx. In the illustration of the fruit of the latter the calyx is represented
as persistent, but this may possibly be an error.
12. Datura cornigera Hook. Curtis's Bot. Mag. pi. 42 j2. 1846.
Type Locality: Described from a cultivated plant of unknown origin.
Range : According to Hemsley, it occurs in the Valley of Mexico.
Hooker points out the characters of this plant, which distinguish it from
closely allied species, and adds: "It is not the Datura arborea of Linnaeus
and of Feuillee, plate 46; nor the Datura arborea of Ruiz and Pavon's plate
128, which has a much larger flower, with the calyx deeply cleft but appressed
to the corolla. In the present species it runs out at the apex into a long,
subulate spreading point."
1.3. Datura arborea L. Sp. PI. 1: 179. 1753. Fig. 1, G.
Type Locality: "Habitat in Peru."
R.\XGE: Peruvian Andes. Now widely cultivated in tropical and subtrop-
ical countries.
This species was based by Linnaeus on the Stramonioides arboreum described
and figured by Pere Feuillee in his Journal des Observations Physiques, Mathe-
matiques et Botaniques, 1714, and is quite distinct from D. arborea Ruiz &
Pavon. The flowers of the type were about 15 cm. (6 inches) long, with the
corolla limb distinctly 5-lobed, the lobes separated by distinct sinuses or
notches, the peduncle clothed with whitish velvety pubescence, and the
broadly ovoid fruit quite devoid of calyx, about 6.25 cm. long and 5.6 cm. in
diameter.
14. Datura versicolor (Lagerh.) Saft'ord.
Brtigmansia versicolor Lagerh. Bot. Jahrb. Engl. 20: 666. 1895.
Type Locality: "Habitat in Aequatoria, ad 'Balsapamba' in regions tropica
provinciae Los Rios."
Range : Known only from the type locality.
A beautiful species with fragrant flowers, the corolla of which, at first
white, gradually turns to a brick red color. It is closely allied to D.
dolichocarpa, but differs from it in the form of its spindle-shaped fruit,
which terminates in a ver}^ long slender point. The petioles and peduncles
are quite glabrous.
15. Datura mollis vSafford, sp. nov.
Shrub or small tree, with pubescent, ovate-lanceolate, entire or remotely
1S4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. U, NO. 8
Fi"'. 3. Fruits of South American Tree Daturas belonging to the '■ection Brug-
mansia. A, Datura rubella Saflord; B, D. suaveolens H. & B.; C, D. pittieri
Safford; D. D. rosej Safford. All X 'A-
APRIL 19, 1*)21 safford: synopsis of datura 185
toothed leaves, 22 cm. long, and 10.5 cm. wide; calyx spathe-like, 19 to 20
cm. long, obtusely pointed at apex, somewhat inflated, densely clothed, like
the peduncle, with soft spreading hairs; corolla 25 or 2G cm. long, light pink,
resembling that of D. Candida in form, the lower half of the tube very slender,
the upper part subcylindrical, about 4 cm. in diameter, the limb, flaring to
about 12 cm. in diameter, bearing on its margin 5 caudate teeth 6 or 7 cm.
long, at length recurved ; nerves of the corolla and margins of the teeth clothed
with soft spreading hairs ; margin of the limb between the teeth not emargin-
ate; pistil 25 cm. long, slightly exceeding the stamens; stigma slender, 16 mm.
long; stamens 23 cm. long, anthers free, 37 mm. long.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,022,914, collected in the \\-
cinity of Portovelo, Ecuador, October, 1918, by J. N. Rose (no. 23,418).
16. Datura rubella SafTord, sp. nov. Fig. 2, A.
Shrub 8 to 10 feet high, wdth pubescent, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, en-
tire or repand leaves, the upper ones about 10 cm. long by 4 cm. wide; calyx
pubescent like the peduncle, spathe-like, 10 cm. long, split clown one side and
terminating in a long caudate-acuminate point; corolla red, 13 or 14 cm. long,
not widely flaring, the expanded limb about 5 cm. wide, bearing 5 slender
caudate teeth about 15 mm. long; nerves of the corolla and teeth clothed with
minute spreading hairs; pistil 11 to 11.5 cm. long, terminating in a thick ob-
tuse clavate stigma, slightly exceeding the stamens; stamens 10.5 cm. long,
the lower part of the filaments hairy, the anthers free, linear, 2 cm. long, pale
straw color; fruit (Fig. 2, A) broadly oval or lemon-shaped, 7 cm. long, 5 cm.
in diameter, with a small nipple at tip.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,022,434, collected in the
vicinity of Cuenca, Ecuador, September, 1918, by J. N. Rose (no. 22,828).
Fruit (in formalin) and seeds in Economic Collection, Bureau of Plant In-
dustry.
17. Datura suaveolens Humb. &; Bonpl.; Willd. Enum. Hort. Berol. 227.
1809. Fig. 2, B.
Datura gardneri Hook. Curtis's Bot. Mag. sub pi. 4252. 1846.
Type: A cultivated plant, erroneously stated to be of Mexican origin.
Range: Provinces of Minas Geraes and Sao Paulo, Brazil; now much
cultivated in the tropics and in conservatories; common in the Antilles.
The native country of this species, distinguished from all others by its co-
herent anthers and relatively short, much inflated, 5-toothed calyx, was long
doubtful, and its fruit has remained undescribed. Fruiting specimens in the
U. S. National Herbarium were collected near Caldas, in the province of
Minas Geraes, not far from the boundary of Sao Paulo, May 12, 1873, by
Dr. Anders Frederik Regnell of that city, and presented by him to the Bo-
tanical Museum of Upsala. The 2-celled fruit (Fig. 2, B) is spindle-shaped,
12 to 12.5 cm. long, 2.5 cm. in diameter at the middle, gradually tapering to-
ward each end. It is devoid of all vestige of calyx and is borne on a recurved
peduncle 7 cm. long. The dry brown pericarp is thin and fragile, glabrous,
and longitudinally veined with delicate raised nerves. The large irregular
angular seeds are closely packed in the two cells.
186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. S
18. Datura affinis Safford, sp. nov.
Bnigmansia arborea Lagerh. Bot. Jahrb. Engl. 20: 6U3. pi. ii,fig. i. 1895.
Not D. arborea L. 1753, or D. arborea Ruiz & Pavon. 1799.
Type Locality: Vicinity of Quito, Ecuador.
This species, described by Lagerheim from specimens growing in the vi-
cinity of Quito, Ecuador, is very closely allied to D. aurea (no. 21). The
flowers differ from those of D. arborea I,, in their glabrous peduncle, their
2- to 5-toothed calyx, and in the margin of the corolla limb, which is not emarg-
inate or heart-shaped between the teeth, but entire or rounded, as in D.
Candida. The fruit, like that of D. aurea, is narrowly obovate, acuminate,
and pubescent. The local name is "floripondio bianco."
Lagerheim states that this species accords well with specimens labeled D.
arborea, from Pavon's Herbarium, seen by him in the Paris Museum. This
would identify it with /). arborea R. & P. rather than with D. arborea L. All
specimens of D. arborea R. & P. {D. Candida (Persoon) vSafford) examined by
the writer have the apex of the calyx not toothed, but terminating in a point,
and the peduncle not glabrous but pubescent.
19. Datura dolichocarpa (Lagerh.) Safford.
Brugmansia dolichocarpa Lagerh. Bot. Jahrb. Engl. 20: 605. pi. ii, fig. 6-q.
1S95.
Type Locality: "Hal)itat in Aequatoria, prope 'Santo Domingo de los
Colorados,' in regionc tropica provinciae Pichincha et prope 'Puente
de Chimbos' in rcgione tropica provinciae Chimborazo."
Range: Tropical Ecuador.
This beautiful species grows in the form of small trees of elegant habit. It
is closely allied to D. siiaveolens H. & B. and to D. versicolor (Lagerh.).
From the former it is distinguished by its very long terete fruit (29-31 cm.
long), its free anthers, its very long corolla teeth, and the form of its seeds.
20. Datura longifolia (Lagerh.) Safford.
Brugmansia longifolia Lagerh. Bot. Jahrb. Engl. 20: 066. 1895.
Type Locality: "Habitat in Aequatoria, ad 'Santo Domingo de los Color-
ados' in regione tropica provinciae Pichincha (Sodiro, in Mus. botan.
Univ. Quitensis").
Range: Known only from the type locality.
This species, with white flowers 27-30 cm. long and 2- to 5-toothed calyx,
is distinguished from all the rest by its very long and narrow leaves. Its
fruit is still undcscribed.
21. Datura aurea (Lagerh.) Safford.
Brugmansia aurea Lagerh. Gartenfl. 42: 33. 1893.
Type Locality: "Habitat in Aequatoria, Quito in hortis passim culta."
Range: "In silvis regionis subtropicae probabiliter spontanea."
This handsome species bears long golden-yellow flowers, with spathe-like
calyces 5-toothed at the apex. It is commonl}^ called "floripondio amarillo"
APRIL li), 1021 safford: synopsis of datura ]<S7
l)y the natives of Quito. A specimen in the U. S. National Herbarium (no.
1,023,042) was collected in the garden of the American Legation at Quito in
October, 1010, by Dr. J. N. Rose, who also obtained seeds (No. 28,553) and
a photograph.
Lagerheim says that it may be identical with Datura chlorantha Hook.*^
but this is impossible. Hooker's plant does not belong to the section Briig-
mansia. It is a form of the Old World Datura metel fastuosa, the double
flowers of which are borne on a short, thick, erect peduncle, although inverted
in the illustration, and the calyx is 5-toothed like that of Datura metel L.
Typical specimens of D. chlorantha were seen by the writer during a recent
visit to the Island of Hawaii, growing by the roadside on the west coast of the
Island. The flowers were of a greenish yellow color, identical in form with
that figured by Hooker, and the fruit a prickly indehiscent capsule subtended
by the enlarged persistent base of the calyx. The habit of the plant was
low and spreading, as in the description of the Australian plant quoted by
Hooker, not at all tree-like as in the section Brugniansia.
22. Datura pittieri Safford, sp. nov. Fig. 2, C.
vShrub or small tree with ovate-lanceolate acuminate entire leaves unequal
at the base, sparsely hairy when young, at length glabrous or nearly so, 17
to IS cm. long, 7.5 cm. broad, on glabrous petioles 2.5 cm. long; calyx spathe-
like, more than half the length of the corolla (10 cm. long), glabrous, termin-
ating at the apex in 2 obtuse teeth; corolla IS cm. long, the tuTje narrow below,
subcylindric and 2.5 cm. broad above the middle, the limb flaring and trum-
pet-like, 6 cm. in diameter, bearing 5 very long caudate teeth, about 4 cm.
long, not revolute but curving inward; pistil 14 cm. long, the style slender
and thread-like, the stigma short and thick, about 7 mm. long; stamens 13.5
cm. long, the anthers free, linear, 26 mm. long; fruit (Fig. 2, C) elongate ovoid,
IT, cm. long, 5.5 cm. thick, devoid of terminal nipple or beak, terete, 2 -celled,
the cells closely packed with irregularly angled oblong seeds; pericarp thick,
glabrous.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 531,502, collected in the vicinity
of Huila, an Indian village in the Rio Paez Valley, Tierra Adentro, Colombia,
at an altitude of 1600 to 1900 meters, Januar}^, 1906, by Henri Pittier (no.
1305). Fresh fruit photographed by Professor Pittier; negative no. 8708,
in the files of the Bureau of Plant industry.
23. Datura sanguinea Ruiz & Pavon, Fl. Peruv. 2: 15. 1700.
Brtigmansia hicolor Pers. Syn. PI. i: 216. 1805.
Type Locality: "Habitat in altis, frigidis et ruderatis locis provinciarum
Tarmac, Xauxae, Huarocheri, Cantae, et Huamalies."
Range: Andes of Peru and Ecuador; now much cultivated in tropical and
subtropical countries.
This red-flowered tree datura was collected in 19 15 by Mr. O. F. Cook in
the Andes of Peioi, attaining its perfection at an altitude of 12,000 feet, where
there is frost every night. In his field notes Mr. Cook describes Datura
sanguinea as a woody species, forming a tree somewhat smaller than D
1' Curtis's Bot. Mag. 85: pi. ,5128. 1859. s
188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 8
arborea, from which it differs not only in the color and form of its flowers, but
also in its more open habit and its narrower foHage; leaves narrowly oblong,
tapering at each end, i8 cm. long and 5 cm. broad, the upper ones entire or
slightly repand, puberulent, the petiole 8 cm. long; peduncle 3 to 4 cm. long,
puberulent; calyx 9 cm. long, less than half the length of the corolla, inflated,
terminating in two obtuse teeth; corolla glabrous, about 25 cm. long, the
tube green from the base to beyond the end of the calyx, then light yellow,
followed by red on the upper part including the limb and the teeth, the red
portion having prominent longitudinal yellow nerves; diameter of the limb
(including the teeth) 11 cm.; style 18-20 cm. long (shorter than the corolla
tube), terminating in a thick knob-like stigma, slightly exceeding the stamens;
anthers distinct, hairy, broadly linear, 25 mm. long; fruit broadly ovate or
turbinate, 9 cm. long, 6 cm. thick at its greatest diameter, terminating in an
obtuse nipple, the greater part enveloped in the split persistent husk-like
calyx. Specimens in the National Herbarium (no. 1,022,006) collected at
Ambato, Ecuador, in 1918, by J. N. Rose (no. 22,344) agree in all respects
with those collected in Peru by Mr. Cook. Photographs of the flowers and
fresh fruit, natural size, made by Mr. Cook in the field, will appear in the
writer's forthcoming paper to be published in the Smithsonian Annual Re-
port.
24. Datura rosei Safford, sp. nov. Fig. 2, D.
Bnigmansia hicolor Lindl. Bot. Reg. 20: pi. 1739. 1834. Not B. hicolor
Pers. 1805.
Bnigmansia sanguinea D. Don in Sweet, Brit. Fl. Card. II. 3: pi. 272.
1835; Lagerh. Bot. Jahrb. Engl. 20: 662. 1895. ^ot Datura sanguinea
R. &. P. 1799.
Shrub or small tree with short leafy branches, the younger growth densely
clothed with whitish spreading hairs ; leaves ovate-oblong, obtuse, repand and
sinuate, with short obtuse lobes, copiously clothed on both sides by soft
whitish hairs, 5 to 23 cm. long, 2.5 to 12.5 cm. broad, the base rounded and
often unequal, the upper ones angular-toothed and densely to mentose ; petioles
2.5 to 7.5 cm. long, stout, densely subtomentose-pilose ; flowers solitary,
pendulous; peduncles about 2.5 cm. long, densely subtomentose-pilose; calyx
densely pubescent, ventricose, less than half the length of the corolla, 7.5 to
9 cm. long, terminating at the apex in 2 to 5 obtuse teeth; corolla funnel-
shaped, 15.5 to 18.5 cm. long, pubescent, orange or saffron-colored, with 15
prominent longitudinal green nerves; limb 6 to 6.5 cm. broad, divided into
5 obtuse spreading lobes each terminating in a recurved tooth 10 to 15 mm.
long, the margin of limb emarginate or notched between the lobes; pistil
slightly exceeding the corolla tube, 16.5 to 19.5 cm. long, terminating in a
thickened obtuse stigma; stamens 5, equaling the corolla tube or very slightly
exserted, the anthers closely associated round the style, hairy, 1.25 to 1.5 cm.
long; fruit (Fig. 2, D) ovoid, pubescent, about 7 cm. long, 4.5 cm. in diameter,
abruptly pointed at the apex, the base covered with the husk-like remains
of the calyx.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,022,538, collected in the vi-
cinity of Cumbe, south of Cuenca, Ecuador, vSeptember 24, 1918, by J. N.
Rose (no. 22,965).
Range : Mountains of Ecuador.
This species has been confused with D. sanguinea, from which it differs in
i
APRIL 19, 1921 abstracts: astronomy 189
the form and indument of its leaves, the size and color of its flowers, and the
size and form of its fruit. Dr. Rose, who collected both species, refers to this
species in his field notes, as follows: "Brugmansia sp. — Flowers of a saffron
yellow; corolla lobes acuminate, reflexed; calyx 3-lobed, green: flowers smaller,
throat relatively broader, and calyx lobes more attenuate than in the red-
flowered species collected at Ambato; the leaves are also relatively broader,
and are distinctly lobed, or angular-toothed, and tomentose.
ABSTRACTS
Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared
and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should
conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
ASTRONOMY.^ — Results of observations with the nine-inch transit circle, 1903-
1911. W. S. Hichelberger and H. R. Morgant. Publ. U. S. Naval
Observatory, II. 9^ Pp. 920. 1921.
This publication contains the results and discussions of 49,437 observations
of the sun, moon, planets and 4,526 standard stars made with the 9-inch
transit circle of the U. S. Naval Observatory.
The following new equipment was used in the work: a self-winding clock
kept at almost constant temperature and pressure, the hourly rate of which
is known within 0.001 sec; a personal equation machine for determining the
personal equations of observers in observing stars at all declinations and in
observing the sun, moon, and planets; a high-power microscope for deter-
mining the forms of the pivots ; and a screen system for partially eliminating the
magnitude equation of the observer. Extensive determinations were made
of the forms of the new pivots; of the errors of each of the 10,800 divisions
of the recently graduated circle; of the flexure of the instrument; of the errors
of the new micrometer screws; and of the positions of the two meridian marks.
The personal equations of the observers, both in right ascension and declina-
tion, were derived from extensive inter-comparisons of the observations in
connection with the results from the personal equation machine.
From the discussion of 4,000 circumpolar observations it was found that
the refractions given by the Pulkowa Tables require a correction of
-0".134 tan z to satisfy the observations under the conditions under which
they were taken at Washington. A comparison of the observations of 2,800
zodiacal stars made at Cape of Good Hope and at Washington confirmed this
result. The variation of the refraction for different hours of the night and
different times of the year was found negligible. The latitute of the Ob-
ser\-ator}^ deduced from this discussion is +38° 55' 14 ".34.
From 7,000 observations, made on 410 nights, new and accurate positions
were determined for the clock stars, and these positions were used in
forming the clock corrections for the reduction of the work. The positions
of the pole stars used in the azimuth reduction were determined, also indepen-
dently of any other positions, from observations above and below pole. The
discussion of the observations of the sun and moon gave a correction of
-0.03 sec. to the equinox, and -0".4 to the obliquity of the ecliptic, as
190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 8
given by Newcomb. A comparison of the positions of the equatorial stars in
this volume with those of the general catalogs of Newcomb and Boss gave
the following corrections to the position of these catalogs :
In right ascension,
Aa(Newcomb) = -0^029 -0^005 sin a + 0^005 cos a + 0^000 sin
2a + 0^005 cos 2a -0^00G4 (mg. -4.5)
Aa(Boss) = -0^020 -O.005 sin « + CP.009 cos a -0^002 sin 2a + 0^004
cos 2a + 0^0007 (mg. -4.5)
and in declination,
A8 (Newcomb) = +0".5 A5 (Boss) = +()."<S
Besides giving data for correcting the tables of motions of the sun, moon, and
planets, the volume gives precise recent positions of all the stars observable
in the latitude contained in the national almanacs and ephemerides and in
the fundamental catalogs, and of over 3,000 stars along the zodiac used for
observations of objects in the solar system. H. R. M.
ENTOMOLOGY. — Generic classification of the hemipterous family Aphididae.
A. C. Baker. U. S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 826. Pp. 89, pis. 16. 1920.
This paper presents a generic classification of the aphids, or plant lice.
The classification is preceded by a short description of the superfamily, some
remarks on its biology and phylogeny, and some statements on nomenclature.
The author follows the International Code on problems of nomenclature and
has been forced to make a few changes for well known genera. The type of
each genus is designated and notes on the synonymy are added. The paper
is illustrated by plates prepared from drawings made by the author.
S. A. ROHWER.
ENTOMOLOGY. — Larvae of North American beetles of the family Cleridae-
Adam G. Boving and A. B. Champlain. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 57:
575-649, pis. 42-53. 1920.
This paper consists of two parts. The first, by the senior author, gives
detailed descriptions of the known North American larvae belonging to the
family Cleridae. This part includes a short synopsis and a detailed account
of the morphology of the larval stage of these valuable predators of wood and
bark-boring beetles. The author has carefully stated the material on which
the descriptions are based and has explained many of the characters used.
The relationship of the various forms are discussed and it is to be noted
that there is some difference in the classification proposed for the larvae, and
the present classification used for the adults. This part is illustrated by 133
line-drawings made by the author.
The second part, by the junior author, deals with the habits of the adults
and larvae of the known North American representatives of the groups.
The available information on the life and seasonal history of the various
forms is also included as well as a list of the species upon which they prey.
S. A. Rohwer.
WNTOMOLOGY.— Memoirs on the Coleoptera, TX. Thos. L. Casey.
(New Era Printing Company, Lancaster, Pa.) Pp. 529. 1920.
In this volume of his memoirs on Coleoptera, Colonel Casey gives a re-
visional study of the American Platyninae, a random study of the American
APRIL 19, 1921 abstracts: entomology 191
Caraboidea, and descriptions of the American Barinae. Many new genera
and species are characterized. The species are treated systematically, being
placed in subgenera or unnamed species groups and tabulated. In the re-
\ision of Platyninac, all of the species belonging to the subfamily are described
in tabulated form, and in the part dealing with the Barinue all the species are
described whether they were known to the author or not. The types of all
of the new species are in the author's collection. Comments on the new
species, showing their affinities to described forms, are included and make the
paper more available to students. S. A. Rohwer.
ENTOMOLOGY. — Holarciic tribes of the ichneumon- flies of the subfamily
Ichnenrnoninae {Pimplinae). R. A. Cushman and S. A. Rohwer.
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 57: 379-39(). 1920.
This paper contains a historical sketch of the various classifications and
treatments of the Ichneumon flies belonging to the subfamily Ichnenrnoninae
(formerly called Pimplinae), followed by a synopsis of the tribes. The key
is divided into two parts, the first based entirely on characters taken from the
females and illustrated by insert cuts. The primary characters used in this
key are secondarv sexual, and much value is placed on the shape of the ovi-
positor. It is believed that these characters show the natural relation of the
various groups. The second key includes characters common to both sexes.
After the synopsis, the various tribes are briefly defined and the North Ameri-
can genera included in them are listed. This subfamily has previously been
divided into five tribes, but in the present paper the authors propose eight
new ones, making the total number of tribes thirteen. S. A. R.
ENTOMOLOGY. — The North American ichneumon-flies of the tribes Labenini,
Rhvssini, Xoridini, Odontomerini, and Phytodietini. S. A. Rohwer.
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 57: 405-474. 1920.
In this paper the North American parasitic Ichneumon flies belonging to
the groups listed in the title are described and tabulated, and some of the
more typical members of each group illustrated. A few new species are de-
scribed, but the paper, as a whole, is a revision and endeavors to bring to-
gether the taxonomic and biologic information axailable on these groups of
parasites. S. A. R.
ENTOMOLOGY. — The North American ichneumon (lies of the tribe Acoe-
nitini. R. A. Cushman and S. A. Rohwer. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.
57: 503-523. 1920.
This paper deals with the parasites belonging to the tribe Acoenitini of the
subfamily Ichneumoninae {Pimplinae) and is one of a series of papers by the
authors, who have undertaken to revise the North American parasites of this
subfamily. All of the genera known to occur in the Holarctic region are
tabulated and the species that occur in North America treated in detail.
Only two of the genera of this tribe occur in the Nearctic region. One,
Coleocentrus Gravenhorst, is treated by the senior author, and the other,
Arotes Gravenhorst, by the junior author. Full page illustrations for two
well known species are included. S. A. R,
192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. S
ENTOMOLOGY. — On some Lepidoptera, with descriptions of new species,
larvae and pupae. Carl Heinrich. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 57: o.':5-96,
pis. 1-13. 1920.
This paper deals with new species occurring in the collection of the National
Museum, which have been reared by members of the Branch of Forest Insects
of the Bureau of Entomology. Some thirty-odd forms are treated; one new
genus, sixteen new species and two new varieties are described. Two pre-
viously described species are reduced to the rank of varieties, and full larval
descriptions are given of eight species, six of which represent genera hereto-
fore unknown in the larval stage. Descriptions of five pupae are also included.
vS. A. Rohwer.
ENTOMOLOGY. — Control of aphids injurious to orchard fruits, currant,
gooseberry and grape. A. L. Ouaintance and A. C. Baker. U. S.
Dept. Agric. Farmers' Bull. 1128: 3-4S. 1920.
This paper, while intending primarily to aid fruit growers in the identifica-
tion and control of injurious aphids, contains considerable valuable informa-
tion for the student in biology. The life histories of the more important
species are graphically illustrated by colored plates, which show the alternate
hosts, methods of migration and various phases of the species. The paper
is well illustrated by photographs and line drawings. S. A. Rohwer.
ENTOMOLOGY. — New species of Lepidoptera in the United States National
Museum. William Schaus. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 57: 107-152. 1920.
This paper contains descriptions of new butterflies and moths from Guate-
mala and Mexico, in the collection of the National Museum. The species
described from Guatemala were collected by the author and Mr. F. T. Barnes,
and those from Mexico were donated to the National Collection by Mr. Clark.
S. A. Rohwer.
ENTOMOLOGY. — Descriptions of twenty-five new species of North American
Hyrnenoptera. S. A. Rohwer. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 57: 209-231.
1920.
In this article new sawflies and parasites, most of which have been reared
by members of the Branch of Forest Insects, are described, and a key to the
North American species of Exenterus is included. S. A. Rohwer.
ENTOMOLOGY. — Three new species of Indian Dryinid parasites of rice
leaf -hoppers. S. A. Rohwer. Proc. U. vS. Nat. Mus. 57: 159-1(5 1, pi. 22.
1920.
In this paper three new Dr5dnid parasites reared from the rice leaf -hoppers
Nephotettix bipunctatus Fabricius, Sogata pussana Distant and Sogata pallescens
Distant, are described and figured. S. A. Rohwer.
GEOLOGY. — Geology of the Yellow Pine cinnabar mining District, Idaho.
E. S. Larsen and D. C. Livingston. U. S. Geol. vSurvey Bull. 715-E.
Pp. 11 (73-83), figs. 2. 1920.
The deposits are in a body of sedimentary rocks made up of quartzite,
limestone, and subordinate schist only a few square miles in extent and sur-
rounded by a great body of granodiorite. Tertiary andesite lavas overlie
APRIL 19, 1921 abstracts: geology 193
the sediments and granodiorite only a mile or so from the cinnabar prospects,
and numerous dikes and less regulai bodies of rhyolite porphyry intrude the
sediments and the granodiorite. The cinnabar deposits are in the limestones
or in the sediments immediately adjoining the limestones, and for the most
part thev are verv near the contact between the limestones and quartzites.
The ore bodies appear to be irregular lenses or chimneys of silicification in
the limestone, and the ore is in part the chaledonic silica and in part the
friable marble that adjoins the silica bodies. Cinnabar appears to be the
chief sulfide in the ore, but some pyrite is present and more may be found at
greater depth. Stibnite is present in the district and is associated with some
cinnabar, but it was not observed in the cinnabar ores.
The district has not been sufficiently prospected to justify any definite
prediction as to the future outlook. E. S. L.
GEOLOGY. — Coal in eastern Idaho. George R. Mansfield. U. S. Geol.
Survey Bull. 716-F. (Contribs. Econ. Geol., 1920, Part II.) Pp. 31
(123-153), pis. 2, figs. 3. 1920.
Many of the so-called coal prospects are in phosphate rock that superficially
resembles coal and contains so much carbonaceous matter that upon distilla-
tion it yields small amounts of oil. Other supposed coal is obsidian. The
carbonaceous shales of the Wayan and Bear River formations of Lower
Cretaceous (?) and basal Upper Cretaceous age, respectively, though pros-
pected, have no commercial value. The only producing mines are in Horse-
shoe Creek on the west side of the Teton basin. Here the coal beds, tenta-
tively correlated with the coal-bearing Frontier formation (Upper Cretaceous)
of western Wyoming, lie near and east of a great thrust fault and may be
closely folded in a northward pitching syncline. The coal is bituminous and
of good quality. Large scale production is probably impracticable but im-
provements now in progress will probably make possible a greater annual
yield than formerly. A 32-inch coal bed of probably similar age and quality
occurs on the Continental Divide in Clark County. There is little chance of
finding other valuable coal-bearing areas in this region. A structure perhaps
fav^orable for the accumulation of oil is noted but its exploitation would be
hazardous. G. R. M.
GEOLOGY. — Natural gas resources available to Dallas and other cities of
central north Texas. E. W. Shaw and P. L. Ports. U. S. Geol. Survey
Bull. 716-D. Pp. 35 (55-89), pis. 2, figs. 10. 1920.
The bulletin presents the results of an investigation made on account of
shortage of gas in Dallas in the winter 1919-1920. Natural gas resources
within a circle of 300 mile radius around Dallas are deduced quantitatively
for the more developed fields from figures for the pore space and volume of
the gas-bearing sands and the pressure of the gas in them, with allowance
made for losses in extraction and delivery. Rough estimates based on general
experience and geologic conditions are made for other more or less developed
parts of the area. Especial attention is given to the Petrolia field; earlier
estimates by Shaw for this field are compared with present conditions and new
estimates are made. Water encroachment in this field is given particular-
consideration, and it is concluded that it is not taking place at random but
by creeping up the south flank of the dome. But as the rate of depletion of
gas far exceeds the rate of water encroachment, the future losses from the
latter cause will probably be slight. The bulletin contains a map showing
194 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 8
developments and the axes of some of the larger folds in the area considered,
a structure and well map of the Petrolia field, and several curves illustrating
production, decline, etc. M. I. Goldman.
GEOLOGY. — Preliminary report on the deposits of manganese ore in the
Batesville district, Arkansas. Hugh D. Miser. U. S. Geol. Survey-
Bull. 715-G. Pp. 32, pis. 3, figs. 4. 1920.
The report contains a brief description of the rock formations and their
structure and discusses the principal geologic and economic features of the
manganese-ore deposits. Detailed descriptions of the numerous mines and
prospects are not given but are reserved for the final report.
The manganese ores consist of oxides, and occur as irregular masses in the
nearly horizontal Fernvale limestone and Cason shale of Ordovician age,
and in residual clays. The oxides have been derived from manganese-bearing
carbonates and have been deposited by cold waters of meteoric origin in
limestone, shale, chert, sandstone, and clay which they have replaced. Most
of the masses of ore in the clays, however, are residual, having been freed
from the above-named formations by their decomposition. H. D. M.
PALEONTOIyOGY. — The American species of Orthophragmina and Lepi-
docyclina. Joseph A. Cushman. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 125-D.
Pp. 39-108, pis. 19, fig 1. 1920.
Orbitoid Foraminifera, on account of their short stratigraphic range, have
proved to be excellent horizon markers, and because of their wide geographic
distribution, they are valuable in correlation. The genus Orbitoides, as now
restricted, is found exclusively in deposits of Cretaceous age ; Orthophragmina
appears to be confined to the Eocene; but Lepidocyclina ranges through the
upper Eocene and Oligocene. In the present paper are described all the
known American species of Orthophragmina and Lepidocyclina. This paper
should be looked upon as only a pioneer attempt at making a basis on which
a larger study of the American species can be built. R. W. Stone.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
333rd meeting
The 333rd meeting was held October 7, 1920, at the Cosmos Club, with
President Walton in the chair and 25 members and 3 visitors present.
The Treasurer, S. A. Rohwer, reported a subscription of $80.00 for the
purchase of food parcels to be sent to the two Austrian Entomologists who
had offered rare cavern Coleoptera in exchange for such parcels. The food
parcels had reached their destination, and a letter of thanks had been re-
ceived from one of the entomologists.
Mr. L- H. Weld of the Bureau of Entomology was elected to membership
in the Society.
The Corresponding vSecretary, Mr. Rohwer, reported that he had received
from the house committee of the Cosmos Club a notice of increase in the rent
of the hall. He had investigated other possible meeting places and reported
the most advantageous from the standpoint of both location and expense to
APRIL U), 1921 proceedings: entomological society 195
l:»e Room 42-43 in the New Building of the National Museum. The matter
of the place of meeting was left to the discretion of the Executive Committee.
Notes and exhibition of specimens
Dr. L. O. Howard described briefly the meetings of the Entomological
vSociety of London and the Entomological Society of France which he at-
tended during his recent visit to Europe, describing especially the methods
of procedure in which these famous societies diff'er from our own Society.
He also told of taking with him to France certain colonies of Schizoneura
lanigcra parasitized by ApJielinus mali. In spite of certain abrupt changes
of temperature necessitated by three distinct stops in the journey, some of
the parasites arrived in France in living condition and have bred in numbers,
so that there is a strong possibility of the establishment of this useful species
on the other side.
Dr. A. C. Baker exhibited photographs of crystallized honey dew secreted
by a species of Lachnus in such large quantities that it could be taken up by
the spoonful.
Mr. A. N. Caudell reported that he had demonstrated to two of the other
members of the Society the stridulation of the several legs of the house centi-
pede. He also gave an account of his recent trip through some of the north-
western States and reported great success in the poisoning of grasshoppers.
Col. T. L. Casey reported the finding of Calosoma sycophanta at Wood's
Hole, Mass. Dr. Howard stated that it is also known to be in New Jersey.
Mr. J. L. Webb spoke of the Thurberia pink boll worm, reading portions of
the reports of Messrs. Schwarz and Barber and of Dr. Townsend. Mr.
Gahan mentioned a parasite of this species, a new species of Apanteles de-
scribed by Muesebeck, the description of which is now in press.
Dr. F. C. Craighead reported the finding of a parasitic beetle in a Cicada
pupa. It was determined as Sandahis niger of the famil}^ Rhipiceridae.
Other parasitic coleopetra are found in the families Carabidae, Staphylinidae,
Meloidae, Rhipiphoridae, and Colydiidae.
Mr. S. A. RoHWER spoke of the nesting habits of Vespa, those with the
long malar space being tree-nesting, while the others nest on the ground or
under stones or logs. Mr. George Greene has reported a fallen nest still
inhabited.
Mr. A. N. Caudell told of having been stung on the inside of the lip by a
yellow jacket and of effecting a cure by going in swimming.
Mr. A. B. Gahan reported that 10 species of parasitic hymenoptera have
been reared from the European com borer, Pyrausta niibilalis. Only one of
these has also been reared from the native Pyrausta ainsliei. Mr. Walton
stated that so far as distribution is concerned there is no reason why the same
parasites should not attack both species, for ainsliei is found wherever nubilalis
is. Mr. CuSHMAN discussed certain of the parasites of ainsliei, stating that
their habits are such that they will undoubtedly be found to attack nubilalis.
Mr. J. C. Bridwell, invited by the President to address the Society,
spoke of the damage of Bruchidae to the Algaroba feed industry in the
Hawaiian Islands. The industry on Oahu alone has a value of $500,000.
He also spoke of some new host records on local species of Bruchids and of
the generic characters in the group. He also told of the Hawaiian Entomo-
logical Society, of which he is an active member.
R. A. Cushman, Recording Secretary.
196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 8
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
At a meeting of the Board of Sun^eys and ISIaps held on Februar}^ 8, the
following officers were reelected: Chairman, O. C. Merrill of the Federal
Power Commission ; Vice-Chairnian, William Bowie of the Coast and Geo-
detic Survey; Secretary, C. H. Birdseye of the U. S. Geological vSurvey.
The "Washington Chapter of the American Society for Steel Treating met
at the Bureau of Standards at 8 p.m. on March 18. Dr. G. K. Burgess of
the Bureau spoke on The properties of metals at high temperatures and their
relation to heat treatment.
A "Personnel Research Federation" was organized on March 15 by a general
conference which was held under the auspices of the National Research
Council and the Engineering Foundation. The Federation has been organ-
ized to bring about the interchange of research information among the nu-
merous organizations which are engaged in personnel research. In its mem-
bership it includes scientific, engineering, labor, management, and educational
bodies. Temporary officers were elected as follows: Chairman, Robert M.
Yerkes, representing National Research Council; Vice-Chairman, Samuel
GoMPERS, American Federation of Labor; Treasurer, Robert W. Bruere,
Bureau of Industrial Research; Secretary, Alfred D. Flinn, Engineering
Foundation ; Acting Director, BeardslEy Ruml, assistant to the president of
the Carnegie Corporation of New York.
The Petrologists' Club met on March 14 and discussed the following papers:
F. C. Schrader: Exomorphism at a contact with calcareous rocks; F. C. Calk-
ins: Endomorphism at a contact with calcareous rocks; Sidney Paige: The
Baltimore gneiss; E. G. ZiEs: Fumaroles of the Katmai region.
Mr. R. S. Botsford of Petrograd addressed the Washington Section of the
American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers on ISlarch bo on
Mining in Russia and Siberia after the War.
A section of the Chinese Educational Commission to Europe visited some
of the scientific institutions of Washington in March. The members of the
party were Yum He Eo, Kea Fung Tsung, F. C. Wu, N. T. Tsiang, and C. S.
TSIANG.
Dr. Carl F. Alsberg has resigned as Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, to accept the directorship of the newly es-
tablished Food Research Institute at Feland Stanford, Jr., University. The
Carnegie Corporation of New York has appropriated $700,000 to maintain
the Institute for ten years. The purpose of the Institute is an intensive study
of the problems of the handling and distribution of food products.
Col. E. Lester Jones, director of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey,
was appointed commissioner on behalf of the United States in the Interna-
tional (Canadian) Boundary Commissions just before the close of the last
Congress, as successor to E. C. Barnard, deceased. The work of the U. S.
section of the Boundary Commission has been placed under the administration
of the Coast and Geodetic Survey and its offices have been removed from
719 Fifteenth Street to the vSurvey.
At the last meeting of the American Anthropological Association Dr. John
R. SwANTON, ethnologist of the Bureau of American Ethnology, was elected
editor of the American Anthropologist.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 May 4, 1921 No. 9
PHYSICAL CUUMISTRY— Methods of stating acidity.' Edgap
T. Wherry and Eluot Q. Adams, Bureau of Chemistry.
Both concentration and potential methods are in general use for
stating effective acidity and alkalinity. In the former the quantity
(more precisely, the concentration in gram-mols. per liter) of hy-
drogen ion, in the latter the logarithm of the reciprocal of this quantity,
are given. The concentration method is easier to understand, as is
brought out by table 1.
TABLE 1
Comparison of Methods of Stating Acidity
Starting at normality: Solution 1 Solution 2
Concentration methods
Actual number 0 .0004 0 .000 0002
Power of 10 with coefficient 0.4 X lO^^ 0.2 X 10-^
Power of 10 lO-'-^ 10 -«^
Potential method
Ph : exponent of preceding 3.4 6.7
Starting at neutrality:
Potential method
Xh: 7 - Ph 3.6 0.3
Concentration methods
Power of 10 lO^-e lO^-^
Actual number (specific acidity) 4000 2
In this table is shown the way two values selected at random
appear under various methods; the first solution contains 2000 times
as much acid as does the second. The method used in the last line
obviously brings out their relative acidity with the minimum of cal-
culation on the part of the reader, and may be recommended to writers
who wish to make their data readily comprehensible.
' Before transmitting this article for publication, it was submitted by the writers to
Dr. Wm. Mansfield Clark for reply or discussion, and his comments on the subject are
contained in the article following this one. The discussion is closed by a brief note by
Wherry and Adams. Received February 2, 1921.
197
198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 9
The usefulness of methods in which computation begins at the
neutral point has been urged by several writers' and the "Xh" and
"specific acidity" methods are the result of carrying such methods to
their logical conclusion. The Ph values are subtracted from 7, and
the resulting values are called Xh, or chemical potentials. When
Xh is negative, Xqh, which is equal to — Xh, may be used instead.
The number 7 is the exponent of the hydrogen-ion concentration
of pure, neutral water, and represents the average of the values of
this constant which have been obtained by some 15 different inves-
tigators, at 25°. Even though not absolutely exact, it may be con-
veniently taken as the standard of reference.
Correspondingly, to obtain the new concentration values, on the
acid side divide the usual hydrogen-ion concentration by 10 ~^ or
0.000 000 1 ; and on the alkaline side divide in the reverse direction.
The resulting values, since they are referred to water as a standard,
may be called, respectively, specific acidities and specific alkalinities.
In a recent work,^ W. M. Clark has raised certain objections to
methods in which computation begins at the neutral point, which
may well be answered here. For simplicity, only the respective
potential methods, Xh and Ph, will be discussed, although the
arguments apply equally well to the concentration methods.
(j) The Xh method does, while the Ph (or pH) method does not,
"involve any assumption regarding the nature of that pure water which
is never used, [and] which seldom is considered in calculations "
(Ans.) The Xh method does not, while the Ph method does, involve
assumptions as to the nature and the hydrogen-ion concentration of a
hypothetical acid which is completely ionized in normal solution.
Such an acid is at least as imaginary as is pure water, and its hydrogen-
ion concentration is known with at best no greater certainty. More-
over, on the alkaline side, the Ph method does involve the data for
pure water; for the dissociation constants of bases are expressed
(however measured) in terms of 0H~ concentration, and by definition
pure water contains equivalent amounts of H+ and OH"; any dis-
crepancy, therefore, between the H+ and 0H~ scales will be halved
in the Xh method, whereas the entire error is referred to the range of
alkaline solutions by the Ph method. The facts that the hydrogen-
^ Walker and Kay, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. 31: 1013. 1912; Henderson, Science
46:73. 1917; Wherry, This Journal 6: 675. 1916; 8: 591. 1918; and 9: 305. 1919;
TiLLMANS, Zeitschr. Nahr. Genussm. 38: 1. 1919.
2 The determination of hydrogen ions, p. 28. Williams and Wilkins Co., Baltimore,
1920.
May 4, 1921 wherry and adams: acidity 199
ion concentration of pure water is not exactly known, and that it
varies with the temperature, need introduce no difficulty, just as in
our measuring of lengths it is not a vital matter that the meter is
not an exact fraction of the earth's circumference.
(2) The Xh values are not, while the Ph values are, "directly de-
rived from the potential of the normal hydrogen electrode."
(Ans.) Measurements are actually made against a half-cell, such
as the calomel electrode, whose potential in the scale used, whether
Ph or Xh, must be independently determined in any case. The factor
by which the results of measurement must be multiplied is the same
in both.
(3) Factory workmen can gain a correct picture of the relation of
Ph values to a given process and are not bothered by the fact that the
scale runs in the reverse direction from those in everyday use.
(Ans.) People of even greater intelligence than the average workman
can be taught to use the Baumc hydrometer scale, the Wedgwood
pottery-temperature scale, and other empirical atrocities.
(j/) "Quantities of important data are already recorded in terms
of pH " "To have two scales with numerical values so similar
might produce a confusion "
(Ans.) If this sort of consideration had been taken seriously in the
past, we should still be using Siemens mercury units of electrical re-
sistance instead of ohms; Dalton's instead of Berzelius's symbols for
the chemical elements; and element symbols which would represent
the jumble of equivalent and atomic proportions current before the
time of Cannizzaro.
Finally, this fact may be emphasized: Only if the validity of the
laws of dilute solutions be assumed, is the potential due to hydrogen
ion proportional to the logarithm of the concentration of that ion,
that is, the Ph value; and yet the Ph scale takes its origin in the very
region (normality) in which these laws do not hold.
Is it, then, worth while to continue the use of the Ph system?
PHYSICAL CUUMISTRY.— Reply to Wherry and Adams' article
on methods oj stating acidity.'^ Wm, Mansfiei^d Ci.ark, Hy-
gienic Laboratory,
Wherry and Adams, in their reply to my criticism of xH, have failed
^ Received February 2, 1921. The notation used in Dr. Clark's book is followed in
this article. — The Editors.
200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 9
to deal with several of the more serious objections very briefly noted
in my book. The replies they do give concede nothing to balance of
judgment in weighing argument. For instance, one can sympathize
with the spirit of reform in their answer under (4) ; but the force in
an answer of this type depends upon several factors which are not
apparent when the answer is isolated. Realizing that data in several
distinct branches of science have been recorded in thousands of cases
since 1909 in terms of pH and that there would be great practical
difficulty in establishing the acceptance of Wherry's xH scale among
all these sciences, one can consider the prospect of confusion to be an
unimpeachable argument against the suggested change so long as no
distinct fundamental advantage is shown. Then and then only will
there be found any force in answer (4).
That no very distinct advantage is set forth by Wherry and Adams
should be apparent from the shifting nature of their argument. Set-
ting out originally to simplify the scale for "the worker in the non-
mathematical sciences" Wherry uses the same mathematical steps in
the experimental derivation of his xH that are used in the derivation
of the pH scale. He then introduces another scale, that of "specific
acidities," and at once covers up those logarithmic relationships which
it is of inestimable value to impress upon the student. In using this
specific acidity scale he naively acknowledges the false step for he
expresses series of soil acidities with the following series of numbers-
for specific acidities:
300 100 30 10 3 1
The "worker in the non-mathematical sciences," after reading anew
in Wherry and Adams' exposition of the xH scale that the specific
acidity scale reveals their solution 1 to contain 2000 times as much
acid (sic) as solution 2, will be puzzled to know why Wherry uses such
a peculiar series of numbers for soil acidities.
The secret is that Wherry knows the intrinsic physical value of a
logarithmic scale (pH or xH) and has spaced his specific acidities to
correspond with 0.5 point on a logarithmic scale. In this way specific
acidities are made to come to the defense of xH! Wherry, in his
papers, has not enough confidence in the xH scale to use it.
But a discussion of this and similar matters would be hardly worth
while unless the real source of our difference in point of view could be
reached. I believe I find it in the answer Wherry and Adams give
2 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, April, 1920.
May 4, 1921 clark: acidity 201
under (1). There the point of view of a theorist seems to be confused
with the point of view of an experimentalist. Wherry and Adams
wish to divide the acidity -alkalinity scale into two distinct regions,
a region of "acidity" and a region of "alkalinity," divided from one
another by the theoretical neutral point. Now the experimental
indicator method of determining "reaction," while it need not neces-
sarily be so, is still based experimentally upon hydrogen electrode
measurements. The hydrogen electrode in turn gives us, according
to present conceptions, an indication of hydrogen-ion concentration
or activity and tells us nothing at all directly regarding the hydroxyl
ion. Our two chief methods therefore are concerned only with hy-
drogen-ion concentrations or activities. In view of the fact that our
experimental standards of concentration are somewhat indefinite
it might be wise were we to express our data in terms of electrode
potential differences, but we have chosen to employ pH values which
are a linear function of those potential difTerences. In so doing we
have introduced no consideration regarding hydroxyl ions. Hence
the student employing pH values for any region of the scale, including
that which other considerations lead us to designate as the "alkaline"
region, can easily be taught the physical and experimental significance
of the values.
Furthermore, since the pH scale shows no change of sign or altera-
tion of its continuity at the "neutral point" it gives the student a
correct picture of the continuity in the actual conduct of the hydrogen
electrode as solutions pass this point, and a correct picture of the con-
tinuity in the acid-base system of equilibria at or on either side of a
point which we take into consideration only in calculations of certain
theoretical values.
Wherry and Adams are of course clear in their minds about the
matter, but their remark that the pH method of statement involves
the data for pure water is made in such a way that it tends to confuse
experimental physical facts with theoretical considerations. When
we use the dissociation constant of a base (as determined for instance
by conductance methods) to fix the approximate position of its equi-
libria on the pH scale we introduce several theoretical implications
and should be conscious of the risk. When we use the dissociation
constant of a base, as determined by hydrogen electrode measure-
ments and expressed in pH values, we can correctly use the data to
fix the position of the equilibria on the pH scale but the constant so
found involves additional theory when we compare it with the con-
202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 9
stants found by other methods of measurement. In the translation
of values from one experimental system to another the dissociation
constant of water is frequently involved. But this constant Wherry
introduces at the very beginning while the user of pH introduces it
only in a limited number of cases and when he wishes to make theoret-
ical calculations of the kind which the botanist (for whose benefit
xH was devised) has so far not employed.
Our difference in point of view, then, if it can be traced beyond
matters which the future alone will balance properly, seems to rest
upon this. Wherry's xH scale presents to the student a symmetrical
picture easily grasped when approached with our habitual conception
of a vital distinction between acidity and alkalinity and when the
derivation is not attempted. The pH scale emphasizes the experi-
mental derivation of values and the actual continuity in the acid-
base system of equilibria.
In the use of either scale there are involved difficulties in the experi-
mental setting up of the ultimate standards and recognizing this I
have taken care in my book to suggest (in Chapter XVII) that there
be, tentatively at least, agreement of the same nature that fixes our
scales of length and weight. But I fail to see how the difficulties
which are here involved are in any way lessened for the experimenter by
setting up a definition of a new reference point as Wherry has done in
choosing the hydrogen-ion concentation of pure water in place of nor-
mal hydrogen-ion concentration.
Note by Wherry and Adams.
We readily concede that the 1 : .']+ : 1(3 series has the real disad-
vantage of unfamiliarity, but so does the series 1 : 1.6 : 2.5 : 4.0 :
6.3 : 10 used by Clark. Trisection of the interval between 1 and 10
would give a series, 1 : 2+ : 5~ : 10, which is already familiar,
in coinage, and therefore preferable.
But surely the use of specific acidities no more connotes lack of con-
fidence in the Xh scale than the measurement of electric current in
amperes implies disrespect to Volta, after whom the unit of electrical
potential is named. The Xh (potential) values may well be translated
into the corresponding specific acidities (quantities) whenever the
experience of the readers for whom a contribution is intended makes
the method of statement by quantities more readily understandable.
Edgar T Wherry and Ei^LioT O. Adams
May 4, 1921 smith: geological by-products 20.'>
GEOLOGY. — Scientific by-products of applied geology ^ George
Otis Smith, U. S. Geological Survey.
"By-product" is a term that suggests large-scale industrial engineer-
ing and perhaps even "big business." By-product practice carries the
complex idea of waste turned into profit, of painstaking engineering
converting the raw material into many products, and of persistent
salesmanship that finds a market for commodities as varied as dyna-
mite and toilet sets or hams and violin strings. Yet, except in its
larger commercial aspect, by-product practice is not limited to modern
times or to large corporate enterprise; conserving the incidental or
the "left-over" was also a virtue of our forefathers. The giving of
value to the additional or secondary products and their successful
disposal with profit to all, however, seems the modern expression of
old-fashioned thrift.
So, while no doubt applied geology has always paid its tithes in the
form of incidental contributions to the theoretical side of the science,
it is probably true that as our geologic efforts have been spread over
larger fields, with greater variety of endeavor, these scientific by-
products have come to represent greater values to the world of science.
As a large operator in applied geology, the United States Geological
Survey would be blind to its opportunity if it failed to utilize these
scientific by-products, and indeed it is to be hoped that this Federal
service has caught the commercial spirit at least to the extent of seeing
large profits in by-products. The other type of by-products — eco-
nomic results incidental to research — would make a more impressive
showing; but that is another story, well worth telling under other
auspices.
In the program of geologic work of the United States Geological
Survey for the last decade three phases of applied geology stand out
prominently — land classification, oil and gas exploration, and the
study of mineral reserves both in our own and foreign countries.
Each of these phases represents a task laid upon the Survey by a
national need, but none of them at first glance is expected to include
research into fundamental principles of the science of geology. In
fact, they have all been looked upon as a levy upon the science rather
than as an aid to its progress. However, it may be opportune to
pause and suggest some of the valuable by-products of all this work
that has absorbed so much of the activities of geologists of high scien-
^ Presented before the Society of Economic Geologists at Chicago in December, 1920,
and the Geological Society of Washington on April 13, 1921. Received April 2, 1921.
204 JOURNAL OF The WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 9
tific training and attainments. To list all these scientific by-products,
however, would result in a bibliography imposing in both length and
quality.
The principal beneficial influence of land classification surveys
upon our science has operated through the requirement of quantitative
detail and the necessary training for close observation. The geologist
trained in this work has, through great travail of spirit, attained
notable accuracy in field methods, which has reacted favorably upon
standards of work throughout the field organization.
The results of scientific value incidental to the large expenditures
of effort and money in the classification of public coal, phosphate, and
oil lands have included the increased interest in stratigraphic prob-
lems and the increased attention to structural details, overlooked in
broad regional studies, and to variation in sedimentation. It is not
too much to say that a large part of the present knowledge of the
Cretaceous and early Tertiary stratigraphy and paleontology of the
West can be traced directly to the public coal-land work, broadly
administered by Campbell. The Laramie question became a live
issue; Stanton, Lloyd and Hares recognized and discussed new prob-
lems in the Lance of the northern area, just as Gilmore contributed to
the paleontology of the southern area ; Lee and others made substantial
revisions of the stratigraphic column for the eastern flank of the
Rocky Mountains; and far to the north, Rollick's monographic study
of the Cretaceous flora of Alaska and Martin's work on the Mesozoic
stratigraphy of Alaska, of which the Triassic chapter has been pub-
lished, are a direct outgrowth of the coal and oil investigations. With
these and many other highly scientific contributions in mind, it is not
too much to credit the fifteen years devoted so largely to examination
of the Nation's coal lands with an addition to our geologic knowledge
of the West fully comparable with the pioneer results of the similar
period of exploration over the same area forty years earlier. The
new geologic map of Wyoming now ready for publication is in largest
part the result of the activities directed primarily to classifying oil and
coal land.
Less obvious, perhaps, have been the scientific results of the in-
creased attention given to structure, such as the recognition and de-
scription of the Bannock overthrust by Richards and Mansfield in
mapping phosphate rocks in Idaho or the interpretation of the Hart
Mountain overthrust by Hewett as a by-product of his coal and oil
work in Wyoming, although the discovery of this great overthrust is
May 4, 1921 smith: geological by-products 205
to be credited to Dake. These are displacements on a large scale,
but observations of structural details have formed an essential part of
the general geologic descriptions by other geologists. A few petro-
graphic contributions have also resulted, such as the discovery of the
nepheline basalt on the Fort Hall Indian Reservation by Mansfield
and the detailed mapping of the Leucite Hills by Schultz.
The close observation necessary in tracing coal outcrops and in
valuing public lands according to the thickness and character of the
coal beds has naturally led to intensive study of variation in sedi-
mentation. Thom's work on the Lance and Fort Union sediments,
in which the source of sediment deposited in flood-plain swamps is
traced by means of microscopic examination, and Hewett's discovery
of the persistent presence of bentonite in the Upper Cretaceous series,
proving volcanic activity in four States, are important contributions
to paleogeographic science — despite the bar sinister.
The observed influence of the oil and gas studies by the Federal
geologists has aroused a larger interest in geophysics and in physical
chemistry, an influence which shows itself for the most part only in-
directly but is none the less of large profit to our science. Here again
close attention to structural details is yielding theoretical contribu-
tions, but probably the most noteworthy by-product of the oil and gas
work of the United States Geological Survey has been the augmented
interest in the petrology of sedimentary rocks. For purposes of
correlation and of interpretation of the details of "oil sand" stra-
tigraphy, petrographic methods must be developed and used. Ques-
tions of oil genesis, accumulation, and recovery lead to theoretical
problems whose solution will deepen our insight into earth processes.
The study of mineral resources stimulated by the war also yielded
scientific profits, both subjective and objective. Foremost among
these I would place the appreciation of the physiographic relation of
manganese oxide deposits to stages of planation and of the fact that
degree of rock decay depends more upon physiographic stage than upon
climate; and the fact that the tracing of deposits of manganese ore
in the Appalachian Valley region disclosed a planation stage that
had previously received little attention.
The study of the literature of foreign mineral reserves as a part of
the American problem of raw material supply has also added to our
appreciation of exact statement in geologic reports. The critical
reader of scientific literature may even profit by the faults of others,
and our geologists who have made largest use of the reports on the
206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 9
ore deposits of the world have acquired the keenest understanding of
what standards are needed in geologic work, in both field and office.
This intensive study of the commercial side of geology should tend to
make our science more exact.
In the course of a discussion at the Baltimore meeting of the Geo-
logical Society of America, Dr. Iddings hesitated to characterize pure
geology as unapplied geology, and my suggestion was that pure science
is simply not-yet-applied science. I believe this descriptive definition
stands the test of our experience, and a long list of economic by-
products of pure geology could be cited as proof. One such example
of the later application of the results of a purely scientific investiga-
tion to everyday use of large value may be mentioned here because it
illustrates the final point I wish to make. Alden's glacial studies in
Wisconsin, which were continued over a decade and covered about
10,000 square miles, resulted in two professional papers, one bulletin,
and one geologic folio, each a contribution of high scientific and edu-
cational value. Now, an extensive and intensive program of State
highway construction has given to this geologic study a value not
anticipated. Measured by the commercial standards of value, Alden's
glacial mapping is expected to save the State of Wisconsin in the loca-
tion of road material at least two and half times what the geologic
work cost the Federal Survey. The economic by-product thus more
than repays the production costs, and any economist can see a large
profit in the operation.
The general trend in useful geology is to call for quantitative re-
sults, and indeed exactness is more truly scientific than vagueness.
Moreover, the testimony of experience is that whatever the purpose
of a geologic project, if its execution is thorough-going, its methods
exact, and its standards high, it will yield by-products of value.
It is therefore from the best of scientific research that economic by-
products are obtained and it is only from applied geology well applied
that scientific by-products may be expected. The incidental is not
accidental.
The personal element in geologic by-product practice is not to be
overlooked in this brief resume of the subject. Geologists differ in
both their telescopic and their microscopic vision, and even more in
their catholicity of interest. The field observer whose eyes are open
to every type of geologic phenomena, is pre-eminently a by-product
man; and whether his primary object is the examination of a dam site
or the correlation of two interglacial formations, he returns with note
May 4, 1921 clark: evolution of animals 207
book and mind enriched with all that he saw, so that the by-products
may eventually outvalue the answer to his original problem. Mr.
Gilbert well illustrated the geologist whose researches yielded so great
a wealth of products, and in his work the line between pure geology
and useful geology was not marked. In that type of geology, broad
in scope and accurate in detail, by-products of high value can always
be expected.
ZOOLOGY. — The steps in the evolution oj animals} Austin H.
Clark, U. S. National Museum.
In the following dichotomous table are included all the essential
characters of all the major animal groups, showing the successive
steps by which the two most specialized phyla, the Vertebrata (in
heavy-faced type) and the Arthropoda (in italics), have been evolved,
and at the same time the relationship to the main developmental
line of all the numerous off-shoots which have proved incapable of
further evolution.
This table, which is based upon the body structure of adults,
assumes the evolutionary course to have run as follows:
1. The formation of a multicellular body overcame the limitation
in size inseparable from the unicellular body.
2. The appearance of quadrilateral symmetry (with a right and left
side and a dorsal and ventral surface) and the correlated development
of a head end overcame the inefficiency of a radially symmetrical
body.
3. The development of a vascular and of a respiratory system
facilitated the repair of waste and led to a marked increase in bodily
activity.
4. The development of a skeleton enabled the muscles to function
to better advantage, leading to a more perfect coordination of muscular
action and greater perfection of bodily activity.
5. The appearance of gill clefts indicated the final stage in the
centralization and perfection of the previously unorganized respiratory
system.
6. The development of the dorsal nerve cords led to increased ner-
vous efficiency through the unification and concentration of the
nervous system.
7. The development, in connection with the last, of a definite head,
w^as the final step in the centralization of the nervous control of the
body.
1 Received March 9, 1921.
208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 9
Unicellular
Multicellular
Radially or bilaterally symmetrical
No definite organs nor body form
With definite organs and body form
Quadrilaterally symmetrical, with a head end
No vascular, respiratory or skeletal system
Without a special food collecting mechanism
Flattened
Cylindrical
With a special ciliated food collecting apparatus
With a vascular system and a respiratory system
No true skeleton
Unsegmented
Segmented
With a skeleton
Without gill clefts
Skeleton soft
Skeleton hard
Unsegmented externally
With a tentacular food collecting mechanism
Without a special food collecting mechanism
Segmented externally
With gill clefts
Nerves ventral
With a tentacular food collecting mechanism
Without a special food collecting mechanism
Nerves Dorsal
No definite head, and a special food collecting mechanism
Food collecting apparatus internal
Food collecting apparatus tentacular and external
With a definite head
ABSTRACTS
Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared
and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should
conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
PHYSICS. — TJie efflux of gases through small orifices. Edgar Buckingham
and J. D. Edwards. Bur. Standards Sci. Paper 359. Pp. 47, figs.
7. 1920.
This paper contains a theoretical discussion of the results of experiments
made during an investigation of the effusion method of determining gas den-
sity. The effects on effusion of viscosity and thermal conductivity of the
gas are studied, and formulas for representing these effects are developed and
compared with the observed facts. A physical interpretation is thus obtained
for the most striking of the apparent anomalies observed in the behavior of
gases flowing through very small orifices such as are used in apparatus for
determining density by effusion. The resulting agreement of the theory
with the observations is exhibited graphically. It is fairly satisfactory
but not perfect, and its imperfections suggest the directions in which further
experiments should be made. J. D. E.
PHYSICS. — The constants of radiation of a uniformly heated enclosure. W. W.
CoBLENTz. Bur. of Standards Sci. Paper 357. Pp. 11. 1920.
Experimental data are given on atmospheric absorption. The paper gives
also a recalculation of the coefficient of total radiation of a uniformly heated
enclosure, or so-called black body, giving a value of 5.72 X 10~^^. The
eft'ect of atmospheric absorption is discussed, and the conclusion arrived at is
that, if corrections are made for atmospheric absorption, the value recently
obtained at Naples is close to the average value, viz., 5.7. In the second part
of the paper, the present status of the constant of spectral radiation is dis-
cussed. W. W. C.
PHYSICS. — An integration method of deriving the alternating current resistance
and inductance of conductors. H. L. Curtis. Bur. Standards Sci.
Paper 374. Pp. 35, figs. 4. 1920.
The solution of the problem was met by a process of integration. The
conductor is divided into infinitesimal filaments by surfaces which coincide
with the lines of flow. The magnetic field at any point is the sum of the
magnetic fields of all these filaments. The counter-electromotive force in a
filament is determined by the rate at which the magnetic fields of all the others
cut this filament.
Formulas for the alternating current resistance and inductance of a straight
cylindrical conductor were derived by the use both of real and imaginary
power series. These formulas correspond exactly with the asymptotic form-
ulas of Russell. The same method is applied to a return circuit making use
of imaginary series, and formulas for the alternating current resistance and
inductance are derived. Values computed by these formulas are compared
with experimental results. H. L. C.
209
210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 9
PHYSICS. — The variation of residual induction and coercive force with mag-
netizing force. R. L. Sanford and W. L. Cheney. Bur. Standards
Sci. Paper 384. Pp. 10, figs. 6. 1920.
This paper is a report of an investigation to ascertain whether or not
analytical expressions similar to the reluctivity relationship of Kennelly
correctly represent the variation of residual induction and coercive force with
the maximum magnetizing force. Hysteresis measurements were made on
a number of samples covering a wide range of material using magnetizing
forces up to 2500 gausses. The relationships Hm/Br = Oi + 6iHm and
Hm/Hc = a-j + h{H.,n were found to hold within the limits of the probable
experimental error. W. L. C.
SPECTROvSCOPY. — Relative spectral transmission of the atmosphere. B.
Karrer And E. P. T. Tyndall. Bur. Standards Sci. Paper 389. Pp.
37, figs. 20. 1920.
Data on the relative spectral transmission are given, (1) for a clear atmos-
phere, (2) for the atmosphere of high humidity, and (3) during rains. The
curves for (1) show little selectivity. Between wave-lengths 520 and 6G0 m/x
the transmission is uniform. At 6G0 it begins to decrease. Also from 520 to
440 m^t it gradually and continuously decreases. The curves for the atmos-
pheric condition of (2) and (3) are almost identical for the region from 430
to 560 m/x, the transmission increasing with the wave-length. In the region
from 560 to 670 mju the curve for the rainy atmosphere shows a maximum
near 640 m/x, while that for the atmosphere of high humidity indicates two
maxima, at 5S0 and at 650 m^t, with a miminum near 620 m/x. The de-
crease at 660 mju in both cases is very similar to that noted for the clear atmos-
phere, and is probably to be associated with the absorption band of the oxygen
of the atmosphere. E. K.
SPECTROvSCOPY. — Wave lengths longer than 5500K in the arc spectra of seven
elements. C. C. KiESS and W. F. Meggers. Bur. Standards Sci.
Paper 372. Pp. 29, fig. 1. 1920.
The concave grating spectrograph of the Bureau of Standards was used
to photograph the yellow, red and infra-red arc spectra of titanium, vanadium,
chromium, manganese, molybdenum, tungsten and uranium. This work is a
continuation of a program of standard wave-length determination and spec-
troscopic analysis which has as one of its objects the mapping of the spectra
of chemical elements as far out into the region of long wave-lengths as modern
photographic methods will permit.
The spectrograms were made on photographic plates sensitized to the
long waves by bathing in solutions of dyes. Recently "made-in- America"
dyes were used for many of the plates and were as effective in their photo-
sensitizing action as the imported ones. The wave-lengths of more than
2500 spectral lines were derived from the measurement of the plates. These
wave-lengths extend from the green at 5500 A into the infra-red beyond
9700 A. So far as known, impurity lines and spurious lines have been
eliminated from the wave-length tables. Frequency dififerences which are
suspected of being constant have been found in each of the spectra here pre-
sented. C. C. K.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
PHILOvSOPHICAL SOCIETY
84 1st meeting
The S41st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, November 20, 1920, with
President Sosman in the chair and 50 persons present. The program was as
follows :
C. F. Marvin: The law of the geoidal slope and fallacies in dynamic meteor-
ology.
This paper presented matters of unusual interest and importance relating
to what are beheved to be important fundamental errors in mathematical
meteorolog}^ which have almost completely eluded detection throughout the
past sixty years. Within that time the faults in question have been subscribed
to by many of the highest authorities on the dynamics of atmospheric motions
among both popular and mathematical writers.
The question deals with a correct representation of the possible motion of
the atmosphere or of any bodies on a rotating globe when the motions occur
entirely without friction of any kind. This question has occupied the at-
tention of scientists for nearly 200 years. A correct statement of the under-
lying dynamic principles was first arrived at about 1858 by one of our own
countrymen, William FerrEL, a member of the Philosophical Society after
1872. FerrEL was many years the senior and the leader of all 'other writers
on the mathematical analysis of atmospheric motions, and it is difficult to
adequately commend the originality and completeness of his studies. Not-
withstanding this there appear to be certain errors in his application of the
principles of his own discovery. These have since been perpetuated in many
standard text-books on meteorology which call attention to the super-hurricane
wind velocities required by the operation of the law of equal areas and claim
that these inconceivable velocities are prevented by atmospheric friction,
convection, turbulence, etc.
These conclusions are inconsistent with Ferrel's very lucid demonstration
that the action of gravity upon bodies moving freely over a rotating globe is
expressed in two wholly independent inertia reactions. One of these has
long been known and dignified by a specific title, the law of the conservation
of angular momentum. The other reaction has also long been known, but
strangely enough has never been christened. The important part it pla3^s in
controlling the motions of the air has been overlooked, or ascribed to friction
and turbulence. Beheving these errors to have arisen and spread, at least
partly, because of the lack of an appropriate name, it is proposed that the
neglected principle be designated by the name of the law of the geoidal slope.
For a globe rotating from the west to the east the law may be stated to be :
A geoidal surface is a neutral or horizontal surface only for bodies at rest upon it.
That is, gravity is powerless to set up any lateral motions among such bodies.
The surface slopes towards the equator for every body having a relative motion
eastward and towards the pole for every body with a motion westward. A com-
ponent of the force of gravity pulls the moving bodies down the slopes.
211
212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 9
Without giving a specific name to the tangential pull of gravity down the
slopes, Ferrel nevertheless clearly showed that the resultant of this reaction
and that arising from the law of equal areas was continually at right angles
to the direction of motion of bodies, therefore this deflective influence of the
earth's rotation is powerless to change velocities but tends continually to
change direction of motions. It was made clear in the paper that it is the
pull of gravity down the geoidal slopes, not friction, which prevents the super-
hurricane velocities exploited in the text-books.
The paper discussed briefly the equation for the steady motions of the
atmosphere under balanced forces, both with and without friction, and for
different types of pressure distribution. The application of these equations
was shown for the case of an ideal frictionless circumpolar cyclone based on
pressure charts for January conditions in the free air at an altitude of 1500
meters. The velocities for this circulation are all shown to be reasonable
and moderate and are irreconcilable with the super-hurricane polar winds
required by the generally accepted mathematical theories when friction is
zero.
The paper was illustrated with experiments and lantern slides, and has been
published in full in the Monthly Weather Review for October, 1920.
Discussion: The paper was discussed by Messrs. Lambert, Breit, Sos-
MAN and Kimball.
W. R. Blair: Weather information for operating concerns (no abstract
received) .
Discussion: The second paper was discussed by Messrs. Brooks (C.F.),
Marvin, Smith, White, vSosman, Ferner, Kimball, Frankenfield, and
C A EVERY.
annual meeting
The S42nd meeting and 50th annual meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club December 4, 1920. President Sosman presided, and 25
members were present.
The report of the Secretaries showed the present active membership to
be 21.3, with a net gain of 19 for the year. One active member of the Society,
Mr. C. H. Sinclair, died during the year. Thirty-seven new members were
elected and qualified; 5 were transferred to the active from the absent list,
17 were transferred to the absent list, 2 resigned, and 2 were dropped. During
the year the Society held 16 meetings for the presentation of papers. The
average attendance at these meetings was 44, and the total number of papers
read was 37.
The report of the Treasurer, Mr. J. A. Fleming, showed receipts of $1318.42.
Of this amount, $639.25 was from dues, $632.67 from interest, and $46.50
from miscellaneous sources. Total 1920 maintenance expenses were $958.62.
$490.90 was invested in United States Liberty Bonds. The securities held
by the Society amount to $13,500. The report of the Auditing Committee,
consisting of W. R. Gregg, Oscar S. Adams and H. F. Stimsonf, was pre-
sented by Mr. Gregg, and the reports of the Treasurer and Committee were
accepted.
The report of the Tellers, H. S. Roberts, Charles R. Duvall and S. J.
Mauchly, was presented by Mr. Roberts. The Society proceeded with the
election of officers, which resulted as follows: President, R. L. Faris; Vice-
Presidents, E. C. Crittenden and Walter P. White; Recording Secretary,
H- H. Kimball; Treasurer, John A. Fleming.
May 4, 1921 proceedings: biological society 213
In view of his election as Vice-President, Mr. W. P. White tendered his
resignation as Member-at-large of the General Committee. His resignation
was accepted, and members-at-large of the General Committee were elected
as follows: F. R. Silsbee and O. S. Adams for regular 2-year terms, and
W. R. Gregg for one year, to fill the unexpired term of Mr. White.
In accordance with action of the Society at its last annual meeting, the
General Committee submitted, in the form of a printed memorandum, its
recommendations for changes in the by-laws of the Society. Three of these
were adopted, and one was referred back to the General Committee for further
consideration. The principal change was in the methods of nominating and
electing officers. S. J. Mauchly, Recording Secretary
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY
616th meeting
The 616th meeting was held in the lecture hall of the Cosmos Club on
November 27, 1920. Prof. A. S. Hitchcock called the meeting to order
with 46 persons present. The following were elected to membership: R. A.
CusHMAN, H. E. Ewing, R. M. Fouts, T. C. Greene, Carl Heinrich,
W. M. Mann, H. Morrison, W. Schaus, L. H. Weld, G. E. Thompson,
T. B. Wilson, C. R. Aschmeier, A. L. Bennett, N. H. Boss, W. L. Brown,
T. Horn, J. B. Reeside, Jr., Miss G. O. Visel, P. C. Villannera, D. H.
Adams, Miss L. Allison, G. L. Bowen, T. J. Brineer, C. T. Buckingham,
Miss A. M. Charest, Miss E. E. Chickering, W. F. Coakley, G. W. Cres-
WELL, F. B. Cunningham, W. G. Cusnard, W. Dean, J. Deuterman,
Miss A. E. Drew, Miss M. E. Drew, E. S. Drummond, D. L. DuPre,
E. M. Ellerson, p. S. Gault, W. H. Geisler, W. A. Gersdorf, E. J.
Gr.\ss, Miss H. F. Hadden, Miss E. M. Hamric, Miss Dora Hansen, S. M.
Harding, G. S. Hastings, W. H. Hughes, W. Johnson, J. L. McCarther,
F. A. Mayer, Miss A. J. Mills, F. Moore, R. W. Murray, Miss E. Na-
thanson, A. D. O'DoNNELL, MissH. R. Ostrom, L. A. Passalaequa, C. W.
Parker, H. W. Potter, A. Preece, R. B. Rench, M. Riwchun, G. L.
Roberts, A. S. Rubino, Miss M. Russell, G. P. Savage, H. L. Smith,
Miss L. W. Steever, H. C. vStraup, Miss Lurana Van Doren, L. R. Wat-
son, Jr., S. Weinshellbaum, Miss D. V. Nichols.
Informal communications
Dr. L. O. Howard referred to Humboldt's statement that mosquitoes
occurred in enormous numbers on the Amazon, and Dr. Bradley's statement
that they occiu-red only in spots, and asked Dr. Bradley for comments.
Dr. J. C. Bradley in reply said that his experiences might have been in an
off season; he was, nevertheless, struck by the comparative absence of mos-
quitoes. On the Amazon no Anopheles, and no malaria; on certain tributaries
some Anopheles, and some malaria; elsewhere only scattering mosquitoes,
and no malaria; at other places no mosquitoes, yet malaria is reported.
In general the distribution of mosquitoes seems to be quite local.
Dr. H. M. Smith exhibited specimens of "unnatural historv^" from Peking,
China — artificial lizards, scorpions, millipeds, etc., made from beads, seeds,
and common materials. Dr. T. S. Palmer called attention to the special
exhibit of bird drawings at the Library of Congress, some very ancient,
some recent and the best of their kind. Dr. L. O. Howard also announced
the special exhibition of insect drawings at the Corcoran Art Gallery.
214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 9
Regular program
J. Chester Bradley: Plumarius, an aberrant genus of Hynienoptera.
In 1S73 Philippi described a male hymenopterous insect under the name
Plumarius, referred tentatively to the family Evaniidae. From that time
to the present the identity and relations of this insect have been a puzzle to
zoologists. In 1909 Andre described the genus Konowiella, also from the
male sex only, remarking that he was unable to assign it to any family.
vSpecimens from Argentina in the hands of Professor BruES and the writer,
evidently of Konowiella, brought out the probability that it is synonymous
with Plumarius, that it is an arid region foim, and nocturnal.
Entomologists in Argentina were not able to throw any light upon the
time of year, habits, occurrence or identity of these insects, but in the arid
foothills of the Eastern Andes near Mendoza the speaker obtained last
March about 100 specimens, attracted to light, of five or six species, and later
two specimens on the western side of the Andes in Peru. It is thus evident
that the insects represent a numerous and not uncommon group in the Andean
arid regions, and perhaps may be analogous in their economy to Brachycistis
of our Southwestern deserts.
Subsequently, at Santiago, the speaker found in the National Museum
Philippi 's type of Plumarivis, and has been able to prove the identity of
Konowiella with that insect.
Ashmead and Szepligeti had placed Plumarius in different subfamilies of
Braconidae, and the speaker, eleven years ago, had inclined to the belief
that it represented a distinct ichneumonoid family. Andre believed his
Konowiella allied with the Mutillidae, Thynnidae and Scoliidae.
With the Evaniidae and Braconidae Plumarius has no affinities. It is an
aculeate, possessing 1 -segmented trochanters, 13-segmented antennae (not
more than 16-segmented, as stated by Philippi), and a distinct preaxillary
incision in the hind wings, a character of many aculeates, but of no Ichneu-
monoidea. The hind wings are also in venation quite of the aculeate type.
Two accessory veins in the forewing appear at first sight without analogy
in other wasps. A study of the forewing of Scaptodactyla and Photopsis,
howe\cr, demonstrates the manner in which these veins have really arisen
from the accessory spurs characteristic of many Mutillidae.
In many respects the insects resemble male ants, but lack petioles. The
body characters are neither strongly dissimilar, not do they entirely agree
with the Mutillidae and their allies. The genitalia are of a type not dissimilar
to Myrmosidae. Cerci are present.
Andre was undoubtedly correct in suggesting the affinities of these insects
with genera which we now place in the Myrmosidae. Yet the relation must
not be considered too close. The only justifiable conclusion is to erect for
these insects a new family which must take its place as related to Mutillidae
and Myrmosidae.
It is to be regretted that we do not know the female, but it is undoubtedly
apterous. (x\uthor's abstract.)
This paper was discussed by L. O. Howard and vS. A. Rohwer.
W. E. Safford: Hawaii revisited.
The Hawaiian Islands have been visited several times by Dr. Safford.
In the paper presented by him he dwelt upon the changes which have taken
place in the natural and social conditions between his first visit thirty-three
May 4, 1921 proceedings: entomological society 215
years ago, when Kalakaua was King, and his last visit, when he was sent to
the islands as delegate from the U. S. Department of Agriculture to the First
Pan-Pacific Scientific Conference, held at Honolulu from August 2 to August
20, 1920.
During the Conference Dr. Safford presented papers treating of the dis-
semination of plants by ocean currents, the introduction of plants in prehis-
toric times through human agency, and the role played by the vernacular
names of economic plants as indices to the origin not only of the plants but
of the people who introduced them. A number of lantern slides were shown
illustrating the arts and customs and the physical appearance of the primitive
inhabitants and showing the contrast of the Hawaiian Islands as first seen
by the lecturer with the Territory of Hawaii of today, with its great sugar
and pineapple industries, the rice-fields and water-lily ponds of the Chinese
and Japanese, which have almost supplanted the taro-patches of the natives,
and the magnificent modern city which has grown out of the early Honolulu,
with its homely residences embowered in palms and ferns, and the grass-
covered houses of the natives nestling in the valleys surrounded by taro-
patches and clumps of 'awa plants from which their narcotic drink was pre-
pared.
Slides were also shown illustrating the former lava flows on the Island of
Hawaii, and the crater of Kilauea, whose activity still continues.
Dr. Safford paid a tribute to the generous hospitality received bv the mem-
bers of the Conference and called attention to the admirable organization of
the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association and to the impctant work ac-
complished by the U. S. Department of Agriculture Experiment Station at
Honolulu, under the management of Mr. J. M. Westgate.
The part of this paper relating to the flora of the Islands and the role played
by economic plants introduced in prehistoric times in the daily life of the
primitive Hawaiians will be published elsewhere. (Author's abstract.)
A. A. DooLiTTLE, Recording Secretary.
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
334th meeting
The 334th meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington was held
in Room 43 of the new building of the National Museum on November 4,
1920. President Walton presided and there were present 33 members and
9 visitors. Messrs. J. C. Bridwell, of the Bureau of Entomology', and L. L.
Buchanan, of the Biological Survey, were elected to membership.
Regular program
L. O. Howard: A recent visit to certain European entomologists.
This was a running account of Dr. Howard's recent visit to Europe, illus-
trated by many lantern slides of the entomologists whom he met and of places
of entomological interest. The personal characteristics, work, and special
interests of the various entomologists were discussed.
N. E. McIndoo: The auditory sense of the honey bee.
Beekeepers are agreed that bees can hear, yet they cannot prove it, and
critics still contend that it has never been experimentally proven that any
insect can hear; nevertheless, within the last few years some good experimental
results have been obtained.
The special sound-producing apparatus of the honeybee consists of the
membranes lying between the axillaries at the bases of the front wings.
216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 9
Muscles, lying in the thorax and attached to these axillaries, contract and re-
lax very quickly, thereby causing the axillaries to vibrate; consequently
the above membranes are caused to vibrate rapidly, thus producing the piping,
teeting, or squealing noise, commonly heard when a bee is squeezed.
Up to date, five so-called auditory organs have been found. Judging
from their anatomy, the pore plates, Forel flasks, pit pegs and Johnson's
organ, all located in the antennae, do not seem to be well fitted to act as sound
receptors; but the chordotonal organs, lying in the tibiae, seem to be better
adapted for this purpose. The Johnson's organ consists of the peculiarly
modified articular membrane between the second and third antennal seg-
ments, and of many sense cells whose fibers unite with peculiar knobs extend-
ing inwardly from the articular membrane. The chordotonal organs are
quite complicated, resembling those in certain Orthoptera.
The sound-producing apparatus and Johnson's organ in the honeybee,
and also a minor detail in the histology of the pore plates, are here described
for the first time.
Notes and exhibition of specimens
Mr. August Busck showed specimens of the Oscophorid Carsina quercana
Fabricius which had recently been received by him for determination from
Mr. E. H. BlackmorE, of Victoria, British Columbia. This is the first
American record of this European genus and species and is an interesting
addition to our list of Microlepidoptera. The species is a striking form both
in structure and in color, with long thick light yellow antennae reaching be-
yond the tips of the yellow and purple wing. The species is common and
well known in Europe; the larva feeds under a slight web on the under side
of oak, beech, apple and pear. The species has hitherto been recorded only
from Central and South Europe and from Asia Minor and the occurrence in
British Columbia is difficult of explanation. Mr. Busck had assured himself
of the identity of this European and American specimen by careful slides of
the male genitalia.
During the discussion Mr. Busck mentioned two other Oscophorid species,
Borkhausenia pseudospretella Stainton and Endrosis lacteella Schififemuller,
both common to Europe and to the West Coast of North America — in fact,
both nearly cosmopolitan, but not occurring in eastern United States. Both
these species are scavengers on stored seeds and refuse and are more or less
domestic in their habits.
Dr. A. C. Baker stated that certain European plants are found in restricted
localities in British Columbia and not elsewhere in North America.
Mr. Wm. MiddlETon presented a note on Adult feeding and its effect on the
longevity of Dibrachys (Pachyneuron) nigrocyaneum Norton. In the study
of the life and seasonal history of Diprion simile, a recently introduced enemy
of pine from Europe the advent of which species in America was noted by
Mr. S. A. Rohwer in the June 1, 1916 meeting of the Society, a considerable
number of a small chalcid parasite {Pachyneuron) Dibrachys nigrocyaneum
Norton emerged from a quantity of cocoons in one of the general rearing cages.
This parasite, which is an American species, was originally described from
Connecticut where the cocoons from which it was this time reared were col-
lected, and is recorded in The hymenoptera of Connecticut ^ as bred from
cocoons of Diprion abietis and D. simile. The parasites were reared in the
latter part of August, 1915, and D. simile was first discovered in this country
at New Haven, Connecticut, in August, 1914.
' Connecticut Geol. Natural Hist. Survey, Bull. 22.
May 4, 1921 proceedings: entomological society 217
Among the experiments performed with these parasites several were con-
ducted to obtain information on the longevity of the adults, with the following
results :
Sixty-five adults were placed in vials without food, all the males dying
within 3 days and the females within S days.
Forty adults were place in a vial with a piece of cotton soaked in sugar
water; all the males died within 3 days but all the females, except 1, were
living on the 13th day and all were not dead until the 17th day.
This experiment would seem to indicate that either the female alone took
nourishment or at least they were the only ones to benefit by food with in-
creased length of life.
Mr. RoHWER reported for the Executive Committee that the committee
had decided on the National Museum as the meeting place, at least tempo-
rarily, and asked for an expression of opinion by the members. Several
members expressed themselves as pleased with the arrangement.
335th meeting
The 335th meeting of the Society was held December 2, 1920, in Room 43
of the new National Museum building. Vice-President Gahan presided and
there were present 36 members and 3 visitors.
The Corresponding Secretary reported that he had been advised that the
collection of cavern coleoptera secured from Austrian entomologists in ex-
change for food parcels had been sent. The collection contains 100 species
representing many interesting genera not represented in the National Museum
collection. The Secretary stated that these insects are to be accessioned as a
gift to the National Museum through the Entomological Society.
Dr. H. E. Ewing, of the Bureau of Entomology, and Mr. C. F. W. Muese-
BECK, of Cornell University, were elected to membership.
Election of Officers for igzi
The officers for 1920 were re-elected. They are as follows: President,
W. R. Walton; First Vice-President, A. B. "Gahan; Recording Secretary,
R. A. Cushman; Editor, A. C. Baker; Corresponding Secretary-Treasurer,
S. A. Rohwer; Executive Committee, the Honorary President, E. A. Schwarz,
the officers, and A. L. Quaint ance, A. N. Caudell, and E. R. Sasscer;
Vice-President to represent the Society in the Washington Academy of
Sciences, S. A. Rohwer.
Regular program
E. R. Sasscer: Quarantine work on the Mexican border.
Mr. Sasscer prefaced his paper with some remarks concerning the early
history of the Pink Bollworm in the Laguna District of Mexico, and the place-
ment of inspectors at the main avenues of entrance along the Mexican border
to prevent the entry of this insect in cotton seed concealed in freight cars
and other vehicles, and in passengers' baggage. It was pointed out that at
the present time the Federal Horticultural Board has twenty-four inspectors
located at various ports on the Mexican border, and that fumigation houses
of sufficient size to fumigate freight cars are located at Browns\alle, Laredo,
Eagle Pass, and El Paso. Two of these houses will accommodate from one to
fifteen cars, one from one to six cars, and one from one to eight cars. At
Del Rio, where there is at present no railroad connection between the United
States and Mexico, a small house has been erected to fumigate wagons,
automobiles, etc., requiring such treatment. He stated that steps were now
218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 9
being taken to erect a fourteen-car fumigation house at Nogales, Arizona.
7,772 cars were fumigated as a condition of entry from October 1, 1919, to
June 30, 1920. In addition to the fumigation houses, sterilization plants
have been erected by private concerns at three of the principal ports of entry
for the purpose of sterilizing, by the use of heat, com arriving from Mexico.
The arrival of com fouled with cotton seed made it necessary to adopt this
safeguard before permitting the entry of Mexican corn.
Reference was made to the inspection work conducted at the foot-bridges
of the various ports, and it was indicated that living larvae of the Pink Boll-
worm had been intercepted on several occasions in cotton seed found in suit-
cases and in pillows. Other injurious insects not known to occur in the United
vStates have been repeatedly intercepted. During the first six months of this
inspection work there were no less than 1018 interceptions of contraband
material. Various phases of the work on the border were illustrated with
lantern slides.
Notes and exhibition of specimens
Mr. R. C. Shannon recorded the collection by himself on Moscow Mt.,
Idaho, of specimens of the peculiar fly, Ambopogon hyperboreus Greene,
originally described and hitherto known only from Alaska near the Arctic
Circle.
Dr. J. M. Aldrich discussed the use of caterpillars for food by the Pahute
Indians of Mono Lake, California. The species used is found to be Color adia
pandoria. The eggs are deposited on the bark of pine trees in the spring and
hatch in midsummer. The larvae feed on pine needles until cold weather
and hibernate in the clusters of needles as small larvae. They finish feeding
the following summer, pupate, and emerge the next spring. The life cycle,
therefore, requires two yeais. The larvae are collected in very large numbers
by means of trenches, placed on hot earth for about an hour, and dried in the
sun. They are used in the making of soup. Other insects used as human
food were cited by various members: the pupae of the dipterous genus
Ephydra, eggs of the hemipterous genus Corixa, etc. Other cases of two-
year life-cycles in Lepidoptera were cited by Mr. Busck and Mr. Heinrich,
the latter attributing it in many cases to climatic conditions. Mr. Rohwer
spoke of the suspended development in a portion of the brood in certain saw-
flies. He cited especially Neodiprion lecontei, which has two periods of emer-
gence of adults from the same batch of eggs, one period in the spring and one
in the fall from eggs the previous fall, and one in fall and one in spring from
eggs laid the previous spring. Mr. Caudell stated that certain katydids and
walking-sticks have two periods of hatching. Mr. Morrison cited the case
of the Coccid genus Margarodes in which life-cycles of 15-17 years are known.
336th meeting
The 336th meeting of the Society was held January 6, 1921, in Room 43
of the new building of the National Museum. President Walton was in
the chair and there were present 32 members and 3 visitors. The Editor,
Dr. A. C. Baker, reported that the contract for the printing of the Proceedings
for 1921 had been awarded to the McQueen Co., of Washington. As chairman
of the Auditing Committee, Mr. Caudell reported the accounts of the trea-
surer correct.
The Corresponding Secretary-Treasurer, Mr. S. A. Rohwer, presented his
report for 1920, the tenth year of his tenure of office, including his report as
May 4, 1921 proceedings: entomological society 219
custodian of literature. After hearing a report by Mr. Rohwer on the re-
sults of the conference between the house committee of the Cosmos Club
and representatives of the scientific societies, regarding the rental of the hall
at the Club, the Society voted to continue to meet at the National Museum.
As a delegate representing the Society at the dinner given by the American
Association of Economic Entomologists at Chicago on December 20, 1920,
President Walton reported a very profitable and enjoyable occasion, listing
the representatives of the various entomological societies of the United States
and Canada.
Regular program
W. R. Walton: Entomological drawings and draughtsmen; their relation
to the development of economic entomology in the United States.
This was a historical account of the artists who have added so much to
the value of entomological publications since the beginning of entomology
in America. Especial attention was given to those who illustrated the earlier
works. This paper is to be published in the Proceedings.
R. A. CuSHMAN, Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
The Division of Graphic Arts of the National Museum has installed an
exhibit showing the materials and processes involved in the manufacture of
hand-made paper. The exhibit was presented by Mr. Dard Hunter, of
Chillicothe, Ohio, one of the few makers of hand-made paper in America.
The Petrologists' Club met at the Geophysical Laboratory on April 19.
Prof. W. J. Miller, of Smith College, Prof. R. A. Daly, of Harvard Uni-
versity, and Drs. N. L. Bowen and P. Eskola of the Geophysical Lab-
oratory, discussed The origin and structure of the Adirondack anorthosites.
A Mathematics Club has been organized at the Bureau of Standards by
members of the staff. Dr. F. D. Murnaghan addressed the Club on March
28 on Relativity and vector analysis; modern methods in vector analysis.
The collections in the Division of Physical Anthropology of the National
Museum have been enriched by an important accession. Dr. Edward A.
Spitzka, formerly professor of anatomy at Jefferson Medical College, Phila-
delphia, and for many years a student of brain morphology, has donated to
the Museum his complete collection of brains of distinguished persons.
Dr. E. Q. Adams, of the color laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, has resigned to accept a position at the Nela
Research Laboratory of the General Electric Company, Nela Park, Cleve-
land, Ohio.
Mr. Lincoln Ellsworth, of New York City, has forwarded to the National
Museum a 193-kilogram iron meteorite from Owens Valley, California.
Dr. Reid Hunt, formerly of the Hygienic Laboratory, now professor of
pharmacology at the Harvard Medical School, has been appointed a member
of the advisory board of the Hygienic Laboratory of the Public Health
Service, to succeed the late W. T. Sedgwick.
Mr. Ector B. Latham, hydrographic and geodetic engineer with the U. S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey, died on April 7, 1921, at New Orleans, where he
was in charge of the Survey's local station. Mr. Latham was bom in Mc-
Minn County, Tennessee, June 9, 1864. He was appointed assistant at the
Survey in 1895, and had been in the service since that date, engaged in tri-
angulation and topographic, photo- topographic, hydrographic, and magnetic
work. He took part in the Survey's work in the Philippine Islands, and was
with the first expedition to the Mt. St. EHas region in Alaska. He was a
member of the Society of Engineers.
Mr. B. H. Rawl, assistant chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, has resigned, effective April 30, to take charge
of the educational work of the California Central Creameries, with head-
quarters in San Francisco.
220
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 May 19, 1921 No. 10
CHEMISTRY. — Note on the ice crystals which form on hare soils and
on the stems of plants.'^ Victor Birckner, Bureau of Chemistry.
(Communicated by Edgar T. Wherry.)
The formation in frosty weather of ice crystals on certain soils and
on the stems of certain plants early attracted the attention of scien-
tists. The literature- on these very fascinating phenomena dates back
about a century and contains many speculations as to the cause and
the mode of formation of these structures. The explanations usually
offered rest almost entirely upon physical grounds, it being assumed
that the ice in question consists of pure frozen water. My own find-
ings have shown that ice structures both from bare soil and from the
stems of dittany {Cunila origan oides) contain organic material.
A quantity of ice crystals from bare soil was taken to the laboratory
in a small tin pail. The well-known ice structures from Cunila stems
were also gathered, practically free from dirt, in a glass vessel and
taken to the laboratory. Both kinds of ice, after melting and filter-
ing, yielded a colorless opaque solution. After evaporation of 100
cc. of each solution in a platinum dish, the residue was weighed and
then ignited. From 100 cc. of filtrate from soil ice, 0.0032 gram of
residue was obtained, yielding 0.0016 gram of ash. The same quantity
of Cunila ice gave 0.0032 gram of residue, but only 0.0006 gram ash.
While, therefore, the two filtrates contained the same amounts of
stable solids, the proportion of the ash was much greater, and the
amount of organic matter correspondingly smaller, in the case of the
soil ice than in the ice from dittany. This may well be due to the
fact that the Cunila ice can be collected without difficulty in a state
of very high purity.
Some of the earlier observ^ers of the ice formation on Cunila have,
it is true, suspected the presence of a foreign substance in these struc-
tures. In their papers they state that they have tasted the ice, but,
1 Received February 10, 1921.
^ Among the most important references to this subject are the following: W. W.
CoBLENTz, Jouru. Franklin Inst. 178: 589. 1914; Monthly Weather Review 42: 490.
1914; Scientific Monthly 2: 334. 1916. J. Sachs, Lehrb. Bot. (4th Ed.), 703. 1872.
221
222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 10
finding it devoid of all flavor, they concluded that their suspicion had
been unfounded. The low percentage figure of the organic matter
present may explain the fact that it is imperceptible to the taste.
However, if the ice is allowed to melt, the presence of the organic
substance readily manifests itself to the eye through the pronounced
turbidity of the solution. The organic substance is, therefore,
probably of colloidal character. The question as to whether or not
its presence in these ices bears any relation to the peculiar shapes of
these structures is, of course, unanswerable at the present time. Our
knowledge of the properties of colloidal organic substances is still too
incomplete.
An attempt was made to obtain an idea as to the chemical nature
of the organic substance present in these ices. Upon concentrating
the opaque solution on the steam-bath, a yellowish brown fluid was
obtained which had a pleasant odor, similar to freshly baked bread.
With ferric chloride solution, a yellow coloration was produced. Per-
manganate solution, made slightly alkaline, was readily reduced with
the formation of an aldehydic odor (not of benzaldehyde, however) .
Bromine solution was decolorized. These tests would indicate an
aromatic unsaturated compound. The latter was tentatively assumed
to belong to the styrolene group, of which cinnamic and cumaric acids
are members. This assumption was strengthened by the following
biological observation. A solution of melted ice from bare soil, after
thorough filtration, was kept in a cold storage compartment at a con-
stant temperature of about 1° C. After two weeks, on examining
the liquid microscopically, I found it to contain a bacterium in what
appeared to be practically a pure culture. The liquid was turned
over to Dr. Edwin Le Fevre of the Microbiological Laboratory, who
made a careful study of the organism. In this connection. Dr. Wil-
liam J. Robbins has isolated from soil a bacterium which is capable of
utilizing cumarin as a source of carbon.^ Dr. Robbins was kind
enough to send us a culture of the bacterium, and the two organisms
were subjected to a comparative study by Dr. Le Fevre, who reported
that the classification of both organisms should be the same.
From these observations, it would appear that the present physical
explanations for the above-mentioned frost phenomena are inadequate
and that they cannot be fully explained until the nature and the
physical properties of the organic substance present in these ice
structures have been elucidated.
3 W. J. Robbins, Science, N. S. 44: 894. 1916.
May 19, 1921 hopkins: problems in bioclimatics 223
BIOCLIMATICS. — Intercontinental problems in bioclimatics; with
special reference to natural and artificial distribution of plants and
animals} Andrew D. Hopkins, Bureau of Entomology.
One of the most important subjects for the consideration of ento-
mologists, botanists, general biologists and agriculturists in the past,
and for the future, relates to the introduction of plants and animals
from one part of the world to another. This subject is largely one of
the relations between life and climate, with regard to the original
home of a species, the environments under which it has developed,
the range and limits of its natural distribution on one continent, the
place of its artificial introduction to another, its establishment there,
and its natural or artificial spread from the point of entry.
This address is concerned with some of the principles of the bio-
climatic law, methods of application and results as revealed by a
study, just completed, of the relations between the advance of spring
in eastern North America and western Europe as based on certain
phenological events that characterize a particular phase of such ad-
vance. This study was made in connection with, and as a prelim-
inary to, a more comprehensive investigation of the relation of the
law to the bioclimatic zones of the continents, as a key to solving
some of the problems in artificial distribution of desirable plants and
animals, in the belief that the true guide to success is to be found
in zones of similar bioclimatic types.
While the subject of the bioclimatic law and its application to re-
search and practice has been discussed in papers before this Society,
and in recent publications, it is apparent that some of the principles
on which the law is founded, and some of the features in the system
of application, are not generally understood. Consequently there
are skeptics as to the sound basis and the scientific and practical
value that we claim for it, which is an excuse for repeating our inter-
pretations.
The bioclimatic law is a law of life and climate as related to the
geographical coordinates latitude, longitude and altitude. It includes,
as one of its principles, an average, or constant, rate of variation with
variations in geographical positions, as manifested by the advance of
the seasons and coincident phenomena, and. by the geographical dis-
tribution of living organisms and types of climate.
'Address of the retiring president of the Biological Society of Washington, presented at
a joint meeting of the Academy and the Biological Society on April 2, 1921. (Received
April 12, 1921.)
224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 10
In accordance with this law the country-wide average rates of var-
iation in time, temperature, and distance, as related to periodical
phenomena, geographical distribution, range and Hmits of zones, etc.,
are represented by the unit constants of 4 days to each equivalent
constant of 1 degree of latitude, 5 degrees of longitude (or 1 degree
isophane), 400 feet of altitude and 1 degree F. of the thermal mean.
These unit constants are equivalent, one to the other, and, there-
fore, the terms of one unit may be converted into those of another as
required in the computation and expression of results.
The application of the law to the study of any problem relating to
life or climate in which the elements and data are subject to expression
in terms of quantity, as to time, temperature, and distance, falls
within the category of a mathematical concept of variable nature
and, therefore, in the solving of bioclimatic problems, involves the
determination of certain evidence and facts by mathematical methods.
Principles involved in the application of the law. — In this mathe-
matical concept of the bioclimatic responses to the solar and other
fundamental factors of control there are a number of basic principles,
namely :
1. The principle of geographical unit constants which relates to rates
of variation or gradients of time, temperature, and distance, with
variations in geographical position.
2. The principle of the isophane and altitude in which the isophane
is an expression of the combined unit constant of the latitude and
longitude coordinates while the altitude unit constant is a measure
of variation with elevation of a place above its sea-level isophane in
terms of time, and equivalent units of feet, meters, thermal mean,
etc. This principle is fundamental in the systems and methods of
application of the law, because it serves to locate and designate a
geographical position and to fix its unit value relative to another posi-
tion designated as the base.
3. The principle of the sea-level constant. This represents a uniform
element of the system of computation of tables of altitude, time or
thermal constants in accordance with the unit constants of the law.
Thus, the isophanes of a map or a table, unless otherwise designated,
represent a sea-level base and all computations for altitude positions,
unless otherwise mentioned, are to or from this base.
4. The principle of the base station and base data. This principle,
in connection with that of the sea-level constant, serves as a central
or basic element of a uniform system of computation and comparison
May 19, 1921 hopkins: problems in biocumatics 225
of quantities. Thus, the geographical position of a continental or inter-
continental base station serv^es as the central unit or key from which,
or relative to which, continental and intercontinental tables of sea-
level, time, thermal or altitude constant quantities are computed as
a basis for making predictions for any given isophane or altitude
position on any continent of the northern and southern hemispheres.
It also serves as a basis for the establishment of any number of regional
and local stations as equivalent bases for the computation of regional
or local tables of constants.
5. The principle of the constant and variable. This relates to the
study of variability with reference to a "constant" as the measure of
the relative intensity of the factors of variation. In other words,
the variation of the variable from its "constant" magnitude, is the
measure, in terms of time, temperature, and distance, of the intensity
of the controlling influence from whatever source.
This principle is of fundamental importance because, like the de-
clination of the magnetic needle from its normal position, which en-
ables the surv^eyor to reach a desired point, the variations of a recorded
quantity from its "constant" enable us to determine certain desired
facts and evidence in comparative studies of the bioclimatic relations
between geographical positions, countries or continents.
6. The principle of equivalents as related to equal unit values of
certain elements of the law and of the system of application, such as
the geographic unit constants, coincident dates in the events of dif-
ferent species, variations from the constant in equivalent terms of
time, temperature, and distance; local base stations equivalent to
the intercontinental base in conforming to a standard regional or
local variation constant.
7. The principle of the average or norm as related to variable quan-
tities.
8. The principle or law of averages as related to the compensation
of errors in reported dates of events, temperatures, general computa-
tion of data, etc.
(Examples were given of predictions from records at an intercon-
tinental base station at Kanawha Farms, West Virginia, for places
in western Europe. These predictions consisted of dates for the
advance of a certain stage of spring to a large number of places in
the British Isles and in Germany as characterized by the date of the
flowering of the English hawthorn, Crataegus oxyacantha; also predic-
tions of bioclimatic or life zones of stations and places represented by
226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 10
recorded dates of the hawthorn event and recorded normal mean tem-
peratures. It is shown that when the predicted dates are compared
with the recorded dates at the same places the variation of the re-
corded from the predicted gives a reliable guide to the relative dif-
ference between eastern North America and western Europe as related
to the advance of spring by latitude and by the equivalents of latitude
and longitude in accordance with the bioclimatic law.)^
It has been found that, for the same latitudes and a 4-year average,
spring advances 13 degrees farther north in western Europe than in
eastern North America or on the average is 44 days earlier in western
Europe than in the same latitude in eastern North America.
In a general comparison of the results of the study as to the rela-
tions between the predictions and the actual dates, etc., it is concluded
that the significance of the results of this study, based on the pheno-
logical facts and evidence represented by the hawthorn event and
by the thermal mean, is in showing not only the relations between
eastern North America and western Europe, as to the relative ad-
vances of spring, but the general range of variations, of the recorded
dates and thermal mean equivalents, from the dates, and from the
thermal means, predicted from an intercontinental base. These re-
sults indicate, as nothing else has heretofore, the amount of regional
and local diflference in days to be expected for a spring event between
a place in eastern North America and places in western Europe.
Indeed, the greatest significance of these results is, that the predicted
agree so closely with the actual recorded dates, at such a large num-
ber of widely separated stations in western Europe, that we may
assume that it is practicable to predict dates for certain seasonal
events in any given year or average of years for any place on the
eastern continent and to do this from a recorded date of the same
or equivalent event at the intercontinental base station at Kanawha
Farms, West Virginia, and in many cases as accurately as they are
usually observed and recorded.
The results relating to the prediction of bioclimatic zones repre-
sented by the recorded dates and thermal means are of special sig-
nificance in indicating the zonal relations between eastern North
America and western Europe and in showing that the law may be
applied to the preliminary prediction of zones of equal adaptation to
certain species and varieties of plants and animals, farm and garden
crops, as a guide to the successful introduction of desirable species
"^ The address was illustrated with maps and tables which, together with a part of
the paper, are omitted at the suggestion of the author.
May 19, 1921 hopkins: biocumatic zones 227
and varieties and the prevention of the introduction of pests from
one to another part of the world. These, together with the results
relating to variations in equivalent days and to the variations of the
recorded from a constant thermal mean, are new and represent new
methods and principles. The preliminary prediction of minor bio-
climatic zones represented by the meteorological stations of the Brit-
ish Isles and Germany is perhaps one of the most important yet
attained from the study and application of the bjoclimatic law. The
close agreement between the zones and variations in days indicated
by this method, as compared with those indicated by the phenological
method for western Europe, together with the close agreement found
between the predicted zones for North America and the Merriam
life zones, are significant, not only in this agreement of results from
two quite different methods and as related to two continents, but in
opening a new field of research and practice of exceptional promise,
in scientific and economic results, as related to a wide range of human
interests.
The general results of this study of an intercontinental problem
in bioclimatics should leave little or no reasonable doubt as to the
fact of, and prevailing responses represented by, the bioclimatic law.
Neither should there be any doubt as to its practical application to
almost any problem in any branch of natural science which involves
a consideration of the responses of living organisms and climatic
elements to continental, regional and local influences, or to problems
that require a measure of the relative intensity of the factors of var-
iations as related to periodical manifestations and geographical dis-
tributions.
BIOCLIMATICS. — Bioclimatic zones of the continents; with proposed
designations and classification^ — Andrew D. Hopkins, Bureau of
Entomology.
The Major Zones are the Frigid, Temperate and Tropical, desig-
nated as Majors I, II, and III. These majors are divided into Minor
Frigid, Minor Temperate, and Minor Tropical, and are designated by
Arabic numerals, as follows:
I. Major Frigid Zone. — Arctic and Antarctic, and Alpine, with
Minor Frigid 1, 2, 3 and 4 from the poles and from higher to lower
altitudes.
' In connection with the author's address at the joint meeting of the Academy and Bi-
ological Society (see the preceding article) these designations and classification of biocli-
matic zones for the continents of the world were suggested. (Received April 12, 1921.)
228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 10
II. Major Temperate Zone.— South and north of and below Major
I with Minor Temperate 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. South and north of
and below Minor Frigid 4.
III. Major Tropical Zone.— South and north of and below Major
II, with Minor Tropical 1, 2, 3, and 4. South and north of and below
Minor Temperate 7.
This suggested system of designations and classification of the zones
is put forward with the idea of replacing names based on geographical
features or political divisions of one country, continent, or hemi-
sphere with designations that would be applicable to any continental
or insular area of both hemispheres.
The Minor Temperate 1 to 7, Minor Frigid 4 and Minor Tropical
1, are wholly, or in part, equivalent to the Merriam life zones as
related to North America. Thus:
Minor Frigid 4 = Merriam's Boreal or Arctic- Alpine.
Minor Temperate 1 = Hudsonian; 2 = Canadian; 3 = Transition;
4 = Upper Austral and Upper Sonoran in part ; 5 = Lower section of
Upper Austral, Sonoran and Carolinean and upper section of Lower
Austral, Lower Sonoran and Austroriparian, and represents a transi-
tion between 4 and 6; 6 = Lower Austral and Sonoran in part; and
7 = Gulf strip as a transition between Minor Temperate 6 and Minor
Tropical 1 which latter = Merriam's Tropical.
The range and limits of the minor zones are characterized pri-
marily by certain average ranges of temperature and, as related to world
distribution, may be designated as terrestrial thermal zones.
Each Minor Zone may embrace in its world-wide range many types
of climate and life peculiar to certain regions, local areas and places.
Therefore, while their numerical designations and relations are main-
tained throughout, each minor is subject to division into many recog-
nizable sections and subsections; each characterized by some peculiar
regional or local conditions as to life, climate, weather, and physical
adaptation of the land to various types and associations of life.
In general the position occupied by a given place may represent
the upper, middle, or lower section of a zone designated as follows:
( — ) lower, ( — .) lower middle, (.) middle, ( + •) upper middle, ( + )
upper; and ( h) the lower of one and upper section of another or
the colimits of two zones, as ( — 3 -f 4) = lower 3, upper 4.
The index or characterization elements of the minor zones and their
subdivisions into sections are many and varied. Some of the prin-
cipal ones are the thermal index; life type and ecological index; the
May 19, 1921 pittier: bursera 229
isophane and altitude index; and the phenological index; each modi-
fied by topographic, geologic, soil, and other features so as to define
local subdivisions, even down to specific places only a few rods or
feet in extent which may represent an element or feature of distinction.
When we learn to recognize and properly interpret these various
guides to the major and minor features of a bioclimatic zone, it will
be an easy matter to determine not only what zone is represented by
a given region and section of the country, but what section or minor
element of a zone is represented by a given place on a given farm.
Then we will realize all and far more than Dr. Merriam and others
have claimed for the life zones as guides to the development of human
welfare in food, health, and prosperity.
BOTANY. — Two new species c/ Bursera.^ Henry Pittier.
The two new species of Bursera here described have been found by
the writer in the course of study of the Central American material of
this genus in the United States National Herbarium.
Bursera panamensis Pittier, sp. nov.
Low tree or shrub; branchlets short, thick, glabrous, grayish; leaves pin-
nate, small, the rachis pubescent, 1 to 4 cm. long, narrowly winged be-
tween the two lower pairs of leaflets, more broadly so between the upper pair;
leaflets 5 to 9, subcoriaceous, sessile or almost so, ovate to ovate-lanceolate,
the lateral ones rounded, the terminal one acute at base and apex, serrate
and slightly revolute on margin, sparsely hairy above, grayish tomentose
beneath; flowers unknown; fruiting racemes pubescent, 2 to 3 cm. long,
sparsely branched; drupes pedicelled, glabrous, subglobose, 6 mm. long, the
pedicels 5 mm. long, bearing at the apex the persistent calyx.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 715171, collected near the salt
works at Aguadulce, Province of Code, Panama, December 6, 1911, by
H. Pittier (no. 4993).
This species belongs to the group of Bursera tontentosa (Jacq.) Tr. & PI.,
with pedicellate flowers and membranous, serrate or crenate leaflets, these
more or less hairy on both faces. It is called "almacigo de^cruz" by the
natives of Aguadulce. The fluid oleo-resin which distils from the trunk and
the decoction of the young leaves are popular medicines, the first being used
.as a calmant and the latter as a diuretic.
Bursera verapacencis Pittier, sp. nov.
Small tree or shrub; branchlets short, at first densely hairy; leaves clus-
tered at the ends of the branchlets, alternate, bipinnate at the base, pilosulous
above, densely brownish-hairy beneath, up to 5 cm. long and 4 cm. broad,
the rachis very slender and narrowly winged; pinnae and leaflets 17 to 23,
the former 6 to 10, each with 7 to 11 pairs of leaflets, these sessile, ovate or
*oblong, entire, rounded at the base, subacute at the apex, 2 to 8 mm. long,
' Received February 11, 1921.
230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 10
1.0 to 4 mm. broad; racemes axillary, few-flowered, up to 3 cm. long; flowers
unknown; drupes pedicellate, globose, about 5 mm. long, glabrous, the
rachis of the racemes hairy, the pedicels 3 mm. long.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 858,992 collected between
Salama and Rabinal, Baja Verapaz, Guatemala, May 31, 1904, by O. F.
Cook and C. B. Doyle (no. 283).
This species is closely allied to Bursera gracilis Engler, but differs in the
greater number of pinnae and leaflets, in the hairiness of the latter, and in
having the racemes much shorter than the leaves.
ZOOLOGY. — The selection of family names in zoology.'^ W. L.
McAteE, Biological Survey. (Communicated by S. F. Blake.)
The principles upon which the names of families and higher groups
in zoology shall be selected have not received much attention, chiefly,
no doubt, for the reason that the problems of genera and species have
been more pressing. Indeed before action can be taken by the Inter-
national Zoological Commission (presumably to be reconstituted) it
is highly desirable, if not necessary, that there shall be some crys-
tallization of opinion on the point among zoologists.
The leading Codes of Nomenclature have little to say upon the sub-
ject, the most explicit rule being found in the Stricklandian Code of
1842.^ It states that families should be named for "the earliest-
known or most typically characterized genus in them." The A. O.
U. Code, 1886, says that such names "take the tenable names of
some genus, preferably the leading one." The Paris-Moscow Code,
1889-92, states that family names are formed on "the root of the
genus serving as the type," a remark paraphrased in the International
Rules (1913) as "the stem of the name of its type genus."
The A. O. U. provision is intentionally vague; those of the last two
codes mean nothing unless they are intended to be understood in the
sense of the Stricklandian canon. Since, with the exception of the
words "earliest-known" in the latter rule, none of these codes specifies
a method of selecting "typical" genera of families, nor states what
the preference shall be among competitors for the rank, references in
them to the selection of family names are practically meaningless.
1 This paper, prepared in its original form in 1918, was laid aside on the principle of
"letting sleeping dogs lie," but recent contributions in Science showing the slumber to
be ePfectually broken, a little more disturbance should do no harm. (Received March 2,
1921.)
2 To save time reference is made to iV. ^. Fauna, No. 23, pp. 722-3 (1904), where Dr..
T. S. Palmer has quoted, with references, the code clauses relating to family names.
May 19, 1921 mcateE: nomenclature 231
Recently a set of rules has been proposed in Science,^ the most im-
portant requirement of which is that "The type genus of a family or
subfamily is the included generic group from the name of which the
family or subfamily name was originally^ formed, and is to remain
the type genus irrespective of changes in its name." In other words,,
the name of the family changes with every change in that of the
so-called type genus. Thus if a family or subfamily name had been
based on the genus to which the rose-breasted grosbeak is assigned,
in following all of the mutations of its type genus it would have been
changed to conform with the 5 generic names listed hereunder, during
the period that family names have been generally used in ornithological
nomenclature: Guiraca, Hedymeles, Goniaphaea, Habia, Zamelodia;
and in earlier periods the species has been referred to at least 5 addi-
tional genera. The writer does not undertake to say whether or not
this is an extreme case ; at any rate it illustrates how the system might
work.
The opposed method of selecting family names is basing each upon
that of the oldest included genus. If for any reason the oldest name
becomes unavailable the next oldest is used, and so on. It stands to
reason that if the bases of family names are exclusively the oldest
generic names, there will be fewer nomenclatorial casualties than if
any later names are used. For the more recent the name the more
likely it is to prove a homonym or synonym.
In the absence of definite rules on the subject, how has the selec-
tion of family names worked out in actual practice in zoology? Un-
questionably the general practice has been to use family names based
on the earliest available generic names. Whether they were delib-
erately selected from this point of view may be questioned, but the
evidence is strongly that way, for as will be pointed out in the sequel
the chances of general agreement upon family names having priority
in themselves are very remote. To illustrate usage in the selection
of family names we may cite the "Index Generum Mammalium,"^ in
which 159 of the accepted names are based on the oldest generic name
(not preoccupied) or upon one of a group of names of the earliest
year date, while 34 (chiefly of fossil groups) are not. Of the total
3 Science, N. S. 52: 142-147. Aug. 13, 1920.
* Discussion later in this paper shows that it is by no means easy to decide where and
when the family name was "originally formed." Priority in family names is not the com-
paratively simple matter that it is in generic names.
»T. S. Palmer, N. A. Fauna 23. 1904.
232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 10
number of accepted family names 157 also have priority as such
among family names cited in the work, which include only those
originally published in approved classical form, but it is interesting
to note that of 33 "oldest"'' family names not used, 22 are displaced
by names based on the oldest genera. In 3 cases the "oldest" family
name based on the oldest genus is not accepted.
Of the family names of birds used in the A. O. U. check-list^ 63 are
based on the oldest generic name, while 7, or possibly 8, are not.
Without going into the matter statistically, the writer feels justified
in stating that in entomology it has been a very general practice to
found family names on those of the earliest available genera.^
The earliest genera certainly deserve consideration as bases for
group concepts, if for no other reason than that they represent the
first attempts to segregate groups in the families involved. Genera
were established before families and the older among them, in many
cases, had as broad scope as modern families. After decades upon
decades of effort, priority in generic names is now pretty well worked
out and family names founded in each case on the oldest available
generic name will be little subject to change. Working on this basis,
we have a system that comprehends both the original selection of
the n'ame and its replacement if necessary.
Under the type-genus system replacement of a family name is pro-
vided for, as the name once selected follows that of the type genus in
all its mutations. But what of the original selection? In brief, the
proposal is that the earliest family name shall be selected. What
does this mean? In view of the facts of nomenclatorial history and
practice, it means that every supergeneric group name (based on that
of a genus) proposed since 1758 must be taken into consideration.
These names for the most part have never been catalogued, and dis-
covering priority among them no doubt would take years of research.
Does it not seem we are invited into a new nomenclatorial game in
which for years and years when the question is asked, "Who has the
oldest name for this family?" there will pop up here and there zealous
bookworms each shouting "I have it," each "I have it" portending
a change in family nomenclature?
« Quoted because names cited in the work do not include vernacular and other names
that are available for choice in selection of family names.
7 Check-list of North American birds. American Ornithologists' Union. Third ed.
(revised), 430 pp. 1910.
« The Entomological Code (Nathan Banks and A. N. Caudell, 1912, p. 22,) rules that
the root-genus for a family name should be "preferably the oldest."
May 19, 1921 mcateE: nomenclature 233
In the search for earliest family names the following difficulties,
among others, will be encountered. Names based on those of genera
are understood in each case.^
1. Family nomenclature as such was not in general use until more
than 50 years after the Systema A^a/«ra; therefore what are now con-
sidered distinctive endings need not be looked for in the earlier names
of supergeneric groups; names of whatever endings will have to be
considered.
2. Rank of supergeneric groups was not always indicated and cer-
tainly cannot be closely correlated as between diverse authors.
Families and genera of various authors equal in scope modern orders
and families. Names of every rank will have to be considered. Any
name for a group agreeing chiefly in composition with one that now is,
or shall in future be, considered of family rank is on the eligible list.
Opinion will enter largely into the decision as to whether there is a
sufficient degree of coincidence.
3. It is impracticable to choose between names set forth in the
formal language of science and vernacular names. Van Duzee, who
is quoted as a disciple of priority in family names and of the type-
genus method, says: "It was my intention to follow Dr. Horvath's
scheme in all its details but as the work advanced it was found neces-
sary to abandon his plan to discard all names not strictly in latin
form. His method would have thrown out a large number of groups
founded by Amyot and Serville in their great work which is really
the foundation of all our modern classification of the Hemiptera."^°
Here it may be added that in numerous well-conceived systems the
family and higher groups were given vernacular names only; indeed,
in some cases only numbers were used.
As between a family or subfamily name in classical form and prop-
erly used, a scientific-appearing name casually used, a vernacular name
appearing in an evidently good system, and a vernacular simply in
text, who is to be the arbiter.-^ and who will accept his judgment?
4. It would appear that names of whatever form, whatever rank,
whatever language, wherever proposed, in fact every supergeneric
' This restriction is necessary of course on account of the ex post facto rules in modern
codes relating to the formation of family names. Many names not based on generic
names have been used for supergeneric groups, which in other respects are as logical and
worthy of consideration as those embodying generic stems. Such names are available
for suborders and higher groups but for families, never. Our system of priority is indeed
garnished with many an exception.
'" Check-list of the Hemiptera . . . of America north of Mexico, pp. vi-vii. 1916.
234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 10
name since 1758^^ must be taken into consideration in the selection
of family and subfamily names on the basis of intrinsic priority. A
great part of these have never been catalogued; who is to do it.^ and
how long will it be until we shall be reasonably secure against the
resurrection of names which may supersede a family name anywhere
in the system? Under this plan would not the way be opened up for
an indefinite number of changes in family and subfamily names?
Will we not be much better off if we base our family and subfamily
nomenclature upon a set of names, the priority in which is already
almost completely worked out, than to adopt a rule compelling us to
search out priority in another set of names hitherto largely neglected
by bibliographers, and in which the problems to be met are more
complex and confusing even than they are among genera?
In other words, the present view is that due to inevitable difference
of opinion as to whether only latinized names of subfamily and higher
groups shall be considered, or whether vernaculars shall be included;
as to what are classical forms and what vernacular; as to whether all
supergeneric names, regardless of the rank given by their proposers,
shall be considered; and as to whether the groups defined agree well
enough in scope with modern concepts — differences of opinion, we
would repeat, as to all these controversial points, would seem to block
attainment of real priority in subfamily and family names. If sub-
stantial justice cannot be done, and this would further appear certain
because of the necessity of ignoring numerical systems and the
probability that vernacular-named subfamily and family groups even
if considered would not receive consistent treatment, why would it
not be better to record attempts at higher classification, formal and
informal, only in technical taxonomic discussions and not try to
convey this history in connection with the names themselves?
We can fix family names by an automatic process, that of basing
them on the oldest included genera. Authorities for the names (sel-
dom cited under present practice) would of course be unnecessary,
but credit or responsibility for family and subfamily groupings could
be separately recorded and include not only the more modern pro
forma efforts, but also the earlier ones, however crude.
With choice between an automatic method having nearly clear sail-
ing ahead, and another beset by the complications as to priority here
" Unless indeed some other date be selected for the beginning of family nomenclature;
substantial agreement upon which probably could not be obtained.
May 19, 1921 abstracts: geology 235
alluded to, there would seem to be no reason for hesitation, unless
thorough-going application of the former method should involve an
entirely disproportionate number of nomenclatorial changes.
As evidence on that score it may be said that if 159 out of 193 fam-
ily names in a standard work on mammals and 63 out of 71 in another
on birds are now based on the oldest genera (and undoubtedly these
are fair samples), the percentage of change required to bring all fam-
ily names into agreement in this respect is by no means appalling.
On the other hand, the search for priority among possible family
designations has hardly begun and we know not through what no-
menclatorial upheavals pursuit of that policy might lead us.
ABSTRACTS
Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared
and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should
conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
GEOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY.— (7^o/og:^' and ground waters of the western
pari of San Diego County, California. Arthur J. Ellis and Charles
H. Lee. U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 446. Pp. 321, pis. 47,
figs. IS. 1919.
The report treats of the physiography, geology, and ground-water resources
of that part of San Diego County, Calif., which is drained directly into the-
Pacific Ocean, and includes a geologic map of this area. This region consists
of a mountainous highland area, and a narrow belt along the shore character-
ized by broad flat-topped sea terraces. The mountains of the highland area
are believed to be due principally to erosion, but differential crustal move-
ments have also been largely effective in mountain building.
Comparatively flat tracts, or "highland basins," some of them surrounded
by steep mountain walls, cover many square miles within the highland area.
These tracts lie in three belts parallel to the trend of the main drainage divide,
and may be remnants of a peneplain, many other remnants of which are
preserved as flat-topped mountains. Several faults, presumably of consid-
erable magnitude, have been identified, and numerous others are suggested
by topographic evidence.
The drainage pattern shows a tendency for the streams to follow parallel
courses and to make rectangular changes of direction. The drainage basins
are unsymmetrical. There are places in all the principal valleys where the
bed-rock floor is deeply buried beneath detritus, and several of the principal
streams, after crossing deep valley fill, flow through narrow rock-bottomed
gorges.
236 JOURNAL. OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO 10
Repeated submergence and emergence has been the dominant factor in the
development of the physiographic features of the coastal belt. These fea-
tures comprise several extensive and numerous small sea terraces, ranging in
elevation from 2() to 1200 feet above sea level, and dissected by streams to
depths as much as 200 feet below the present sea level. The major valleys
in the coastal belt have wide, flat, gently sloping floors, bordered by very
steep slopes or bluffs several hundred feet high. They contain deposits of
valley fill as much as 200 feet in depth.
The geologic formations exposed in the highland comprise igneous and
metamorphic rocks most of which are considered to be post-Carboniferous
and not younger than early Cretaceous. Thick deposits of Quaternary
alluvium occupy parts of the principal river valleys. In the coastal belt,
sedimentary formations ranging in age from Cretaceous to Recent are ex-
posed. Undifferentiated Miocene and Pliocene deposits, parts of which have
been referred to in earlier literature as the vSan Diego beds, are designated
as the San Diego formation.
The portion of this report prepared by Charles H. Lee treats of the ground-
water hydrology of the shallow water-bearing formations of the Pacific vSlope
of the county, and the utilization of ground water from these formations
Complete precipitation records at 106 stations and a detailed map are pre-
sented. Conclusions are drawn regarding the amount of rainfall in any season
necessary to produce run-off and also the relation of rainfall to run-off.
Evaporation observations are given and comparison made between evapo-
ration from a pan floating on a large reservoir surface, and the reservoir
surface itself, which indicate that there is little difference between the two .
Data r egarding soil evaporation and transpiration from mixed natural
vegetation are also given.
Detailed physical descriptions are given of the largest ten underground
reservoirs of the region lying in the principal river valleys, with detailed
geological and other data. The conclusion is drawn that ground water in
the San Diego County river valleys has very Uttle movement and seldom
occurs as underground streams, but occupies underground reservoirs. Sim-
ilar data are also presented for other underground reservoirs of the region.
Tests of existing pumping plants of various types are presented, which, for
working conditions on the farm, show pump and pumping-plant efficiency
and cost of pumping for inigation. The selection and installation of pumping
machinery are also discussed. A. J. E. and C. H. L.
GEOLOGY. — The origin of the faults, anticlines, and buried "Granite Ridge"
of the northern part of Mid-Continent oil and gas field. A. E. Fath.
U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 128-C. Pp. 10 (75-84), pis. 3, figs. 3.
1920.
The paper is an attempt to find a common cause for the more or less parallel
or continuous alinement in a general N.-NE. direction of the buried "granite
ridge" of Kansas, certain larger folds, and a line of en echelon faults in Okla-
homa and Kansas. Beginning with the discussion of the belts of faults the
author assumes that the Pennsylvania strata would be incompetent to trans-
mit the stresses which produced the faults but that the deeper-lying rocks from
the Mississippian limestones down into the pre-Cambrian would be. He
shows that horizontal movement along deep -lying faults coinciding in position
and direction with the belts of en echelon surface faults could produce them.
He also shows that folds and lines of folds might result from vertical move-
May 19, 1921 abstracts: geology 237
ment along such deep faults, but admits that the folds in the region considered
have characters which could not be accounted for in this way. The "granite
ridge" which is overlain directly by Pennsylvanian rocks must have originated
in late Mississippian or early Pennsylvanian time, perhaps by movement
along one of these deep-lying faults. Successive movements along these
lines at distinct periods have resulted in different effects at different depths.
The origin of the assumed deep-lying faults is ascribed to pre-Cambrian moun-
tain-building movements, as all subsequent movements in this Mid-Continent
region are considered inadequate to have produced them. M. I. Goldman.
GEOLOGY. — The Lance Creek oil and gas field, Niobrara County, Wyoming.
E. T. Hancock. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 716-E. Pp. 32 (91-122), pis. 4.
1920.
The Lance Creek field lies in east-central Wyoming, west of the Hartville
uplift which connects the Rocky Mountains and the Black Hills. It is
probably separated from that uplift by a broad syncline. Cretaceous and
Tertiary formations from about 1660 feet below the top of the Cretaceous
Pierre shale up to the Tertiary White River formation and Quaternary'' al-
luvium are exposed. The sinuous anticline from which oil and gas are being
obtained, as represented on a map by 100-foot contours, has a dominant
east- west trend but turns north at its east end and south at its west end.
The total length of the a:xis is probably about 20 miles, the closure of the
anticline about 1,000 feet. The north and west flank is steep with dips up
to 27° but on the south flank the dips run from 2^/2° to 5°.
Production is being obtained from what the author considers the Newcastle
sandsto-ne about 200 feet above the Dakota sandstone, around 3,500 to 4,000
feet below the surface. The yield of the principal wells ranges from 250 to
2,500 barrels of oil and from 8 million to 30 million cubic feet of gas per day.
The author suggests testing deeper beds at least to include the Jurassic Sun-
dance formation which he estimates could be reached, by a well located on the
top of the anticline, at a depth of about 4,200 feet. He also draws attention
to the possibility of production from the Wall Creek sandstone which lies
about 1,050 feet above the Newcastle sand. M. I. Goldman.
ENTOMOLOGY. — The colonizing reproductive adults of termites. T. E.
Snyder. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 22: 110-150. 1920.
This paper, which was presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of
George Washington University as part of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy, summarizes the literature and the author's extensive
field notes of the colonizing habits of the reproductive adults of white ants.
The three types of reproductive forms are discussed in detail, the nymphs
characterized, and methods of colonization described. The results of the
breeding experiments and attempts at cross-breeding are set forth. A sum-
mary of the paper and conclusions drawn is given and the article concluded
by a list of the literature cited. S. A. Rohwer.
ENTOMOLOGY. The subfamilies of Formicidae, and other taxonomic notes.
WiLLLVM Morton Wheeler. Psyche 27: 47-55. Figs. 3. 1920.
This short paper gives a phylogenetic tree of the various subfamilies of ants.
It also includes descriptions of new genera and subgenera and some remarks
on the digestive system. S. A. Rohwer.
238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 10
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
843d MEETING
The 843d meeting of the Philosophical Society of Washington was held
in the Cosmos Club, December 18, 1920, with President Faris in the chair,
and 52 persons present.
The first paper was by R. W. G. WyckoFF, on The determination of the
structure of crystals, and was illustrated with lantern slides.
An outline of the development of the methods thus far used serves to show
the point of view from which the studies of the arrangement of the atoms
in crystals have been carried out. The essential steps in this development
are the experiments of Laue and of the Braggs, the determination of the ar-
rangement of the atoms in some one crystal and the consequent measurement
of the absolute wave lengths of X-rays. In nearly all of the structures
which have been studied a procedure based upon the point of view of these
experiments has been followed. This procedure consists in getting a lim-
ited amount of experimental data with the aid of one of the three existing
methods of obtaining diffraction effects — ^the Laue method, the spectro-
meter method or its modification, and the method of powders. Bearing
these experimental facts in mind, the analyst has tried to imagine some
arrangement of atoms which will explain them. If he has succeeded in
devising such a grouping, it is considered to be the structure of the crystal.
This method of procedure is both cumbersome and haphazard and there is
no means of knowing whether many other ways of arranging the atoms of
the crystal under examination do not exist, all equally capable of explaining
the data.
This method is to be contrasted with the general method for studying
the structure of crystals which can be built around the theory of space
groups. The results of this geometrical theory can be given an analytical
representation which states in terms of suitable coordinates all of the posi-
tions in space that atoms in crystals can occupy. With its aid, and knowing
the crystallographic symmetry, it is thus possible to write down in the case
of any particular crystal, independently of any X-ray experimentation, all
of the ways in which the atoms can be arranged. Suitable calculation will
give the kind of dift'raction effects to be anticipated from each of these pos-
sible arrangements of atoms. The experimenter may then obtain, by which-
ever of the various methods will yield the desired information most readily,
those data which the calculations show to be necessary to distinguish be-
tween the possible atomic groupings.
The second paper, by I. G. Priest and Mabel K. FrEhafer, on The optical
basis of Bitiinger's camouflage paintings, was presented by Mr. Priest, and
was illustrated with slides and with examples and copies of the paintings.
Viewed in daylight, or any illumination approximating to this, these paint-
ings appear no different from other paintings of the same kind ; but if viewed
through a red glass, or in red light, the aspect of the picture is changed
materially. A picture of the sea, with a wave breaking, shows under the red
illumination, a mermaid rising from the wave. A summer scene in which
May 19, 1921 proceedings : philosophical society 239
are depicted a tree and a house, beside a dam, is transformed by the change
in illumination into a winter scene, with ice and snow. In another, the
smoke screen from a battleship shows concealed a large American flag, and
the inscription, "Victory." The picture of an airplane bearing a cross, the
German insignia, shows up the concealed circle, insignia of the Allies. The
portrait of a lady is completely transformed by the red light, into a land-
scape, with a horse and man in the foreground.
The explanation of these effects lies in the two kinds of paints that Mr.
Bittinger uses. Any pair of these pigments is very well color-matched in
daylight, that is, there are two dark greens, two light greens, two lavenders,
etc. But one pigment of each pair reflects a considerable amount of red
light, so that in red light one is a highlight and the other a shadow. In any
painting the two color-matched pigments are applied, side by side; but that
of high reflecting power in the red is so manipulated that a complete picture
in this kind of paint is produced which is visible as such only when the
ordinary pigments are darkened by the use of the red light.
Experimental demonstrations of the above phenomena were made. The
spectral reflection curves of the several paints as determined at the Bureau
of Standards were shown by lantern slides. These curves have been pub-
lished in the Journal of the Optical Society of America, September, 1920,
p. 391.
The third paper, by I. G. Priest, on A relation between color and spectral
distribution of light, was also illustrated with slides.
In a study of colors of the same quality evoked by stimuli of different
spectral distributions the following rule has been found to hold : If any two
lights, however different in spectral distributions, evoke colors of the same
quality the wave lengths of the centers of gravity of their spectral distribu-
tions are coincident.
This paper has been published in the Journal of the Optical Society of
America, September, 1920.
The last two papers were discussed by Messrs. SilsbeE, Tuckerman,
White, Lloyd, Ferner, and Sosman.
844th meeting
The 844th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, January 15, 1921, with
President Paris in the chair, and 58 persons present.
The address of the evening was by the retiring President, Robert B.
Sosman, on The distribution of scientific information.
The paper was discussed by Messrs. Pawling, C. A. Briggs, FernER,
White, Brooks, Crittenden, Humphreys, Wright, Williamson, Bur-
gess, Watson Davis, and others. It has been published in full in the
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences.'^
845th meeting
The S45th meeting of^the Society was held in the Cosmos Club, January
29, 1921, with President Paris in the chair, and 47 persons present. The
following program was given :
G. Breit: The distributed capacity of inductance coils.
The distributed capacity of inductance coils affects their behavior in elec-
trical circuits. It changes the effective resistance and inductance of induc-
tance coils. It is important for the radio engineer to be able to predict from
the construction of the coil the influence of its distributed capacity. The
» This Journal 11: 69-99. February 19, 1921.
240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 10
paper dealt with the principles underlying the calculation of the effects of
the distributed capacity and with the experimental verification of the cal-
culation of these effects.
One of the effects due to the distributed capacity is the change in the
apparent inductance of the coil. This change may be shown to be due to
the fact that the current distribution in the coil is not uniform. On this
basis a calculation of the apparent inductance was made and hence the
"effective capacity" of a coil was derived.
Similarlv the resistance of a coil was discussed. On account of the non-
uniform current, distribution based on the definition of resistance used for
the case of uniform current-distribution becomes inapplicable. The resis-
tance of the coil is redefined in such a way that it can be determined experi-
mentally and used to calculate the current in the coil when the coil is placed
in a known electric field. The experimental verification of the conclusions
derived was discussed.
A considerable portion of the distributed capacity of a coil is due to the
capacity of the coil to ground. This capacity manifests itself when two
condensers are used in series with each other and with the coil. The assump-
tions underlying a theory of these phenomena were discussed and the theory
was shown to be verified experimentally.
J. H. Bellinger and L. R. Whittemore: Radio signal fading phenom-
ena (presented by Mr. Bellinger, and illustrated).
When radio first began to be used for long distance communication it was
noticed that signals were not transmitted as far during the day as during
the night-time. It has also been observed that night signals using the
shorter radio waves vary greatly in intensity from minute to minute.
More recently, since radio direction finders have come into use, it has
been learned that great variations may occur in the direction of radio waves
as they arrive at the receiving station during the transmission of signals from
a given transmitting station.
These and related phenomena have been recorded from time to time in
the literature, and various hypotheses have been brought forward in expla-
nation. The phenomena are dependent upon a large number of variable
quantities, such as the weather conditions, the nature of the country over
which transmission occurs, the surroundings of the transmitting and receiv-
ing stations, and the method of handling the receiving apparatus. Only
by a statistical study in which the results obtained simultaneously at a
large number of receiving stations are collected and tabulated may reliable
averages be obtained.
Such a cooperative study is being carried on by the American Radio League
and the Bureau of Standards, tests being conducted in June and October,
1920, and January and April, 1921. In these tests from five to ten radio
stations transmit signals in succession. These signals are received simul-
taneously at about one hundred receiving stations whose operators are pro-
vided with forms for recording the variation in the intensity of the signals
as received.
The paper described the results of the tests so far conducted and proposed
an explanation of the phenomena. This explanation associates the long-
distance radio transmission accomplished at night wnth the boundary of the
highly conducting outer portion of the atmosphere, which is also the origin
of auroral disturbances. Fluctuations in intensity are probably caused by
irregular absorption of the waves by masses of slightly ionized air through
May 19, 1921 proceedings: biological society . 241
which the waves travel in their course. The "fading" phenomena are
closelv associated with the strays or atmospheric disturbances which affect
all radio communications. This paper will be published in the Journal of
the Wasliingtoii Academy of Sciences.
F. B. Littell: The variation of latitude and the constant of aberration
from four years' work with the photographic zenith tube at Washington.
A brief account was given of the principles of the photographic zenith
tube devised by Dr. F. E. Ross. The average probable error of a single
latitude for the four years 1916-20 was ±0.089 second. A curve was shown
giving the path of the North Pole as deduced from a combination of the
results of the Washington observations with the results of observations
made at Greenwich with the Cookson photographic floating zenith telescope.
A value for the constant of aberration of 20.454 =t O.OOS second was
deduced from the observations, and curves showing the Kumiro or 2;-term
for the years 1916 and 1917 were shown. An analysis of the meteorological
conditions showed that the s-term could not be accounted for by the baro-
metric gradients.
This paper will appear in full in the Astronomical Journal.
Dr. R. S. Woodward characterized the subject as most important; and
regretted that there was not time for its full discussion.
H. H. Kimball, Recording Secretary.
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY
617th meeting
The 617th regular (41st annual) meeting of the Biological vSociety of
Washington was held in the lecture hall of the Cosmos Club on December
11, 1920, with President A. D. Hopkins in the chair and 2S persons present.
It was announced that on May 15, 1920, the resignations of N. Dear-
born as Treasurer and A. Wetmore as Corresponding Secretary were re-
ceived, and that F. C. Lincoln became the new Treasurer and T. E. Snyder
the new Corresponding Secretary.
Reports of officers and committees were received, and officers and mem-
bers of the council were elected, as follows:
President, N. Hollister; Vice-Presidents, A. S. Hitchcock, J. W. Gid-
LEY, S. A. RoHW^ER, H. C. Oberholser; Recording Secretary, A. A. Doo-
LiTTLE; Corresponding Secretary, T. E. Snyder; Treasurer, F. C. Lincoln;
Members of the Council, Wm. Palmer, E. A. Goldman, H. H. T. Jackson,
R. E. Coker, R. W. Williams.
61STH meeting
The 61Sth meeting of the Society was held in the lecture room of the
Cosmos Club at 8.10 p.m. on January 8, 1921. President N. Hollister
called the meeting to order with 62 persons present. On recommendation
of the Council, Mr. E. G. Runyan was elected to membership.
The President announced the following committees: Committee on Pub-
lications, C. W. Richmond (Chairman), J. H. Riley, T. E. Snyder, F. C.
Lincoln. Committee on Communications, S. A. Rohwer (Chairman), C. E.
ChAMBLISS, J. S. GUTSELL.
Informal communications
J. M. Aldrich exhibited dried specimens of caterpillars of Coloradia pan-
dora Blake, which are used as food by Indians in the vicinity of Mono Lake,
California. The species has a two-year cycle. Feeding on the Jeffrey pine
242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 10
as larvae, they descend at the end of the second summer to pupate. They
are then caught, and thrown into a pile of hot earth. After partial cooking
they are dried in the shade, and thereafter will keep indefinitely. The
specimens shown were eleven years old. There is but one brood, and cater-
pillars can be taken only in alternate years.
Mr. David Fairchild spoke upon the edibility of certain borers with
which he had experimented.
Prof. A. S. Hitchcock reported progress toward agreement among the
various botanical codes. The desire is to unite the American and Vienna
Codes and to agree upon the principle of types.
Regular program
L. O. Howard: Some views of the fight in southern France last summer
against the Moroccan locust. (Illustrated.)
This locust lives all around the Mediterranean coast, and at times is threat-
ening to vegetation; it was especially so in 1920 in southern France in the
sheep pastures. The government detailed soldiers to assist farmers in the
campaign against the locusts, the farmer furnishing lodging, food, and all
materials. In early morning when the locusts were comparatively sluggish,
they were driven to the center of the fields where a flame was played over
the mass of insects. A poisoned mash could not be used on account of the
scarcity and expense of materials. Views were shown of the farm quarters,
the fields and locusts, and the methods of fighting the insects.
Dr. Howard also availed himself of the opportunity to visit the home of
Henri FabrE, at Avignon. The home is kept by one of his daughters
exactly as left by Fabre at his death, five years ago. Fabre was very active
to the time of his death, and in his garden there remain many plants which
he brought from the Alps. Views of the house, garden, and the medal
which was struck in commemoration of the esteem in which Fabre is held
by the French were shown.
S. F. Blake: Sexual differences in coloration of the spotted turtle.
This paper will appear in full in the Proceedings of the U. S. National
Museum. It was discussed by Drs. Shufeldt and Howard.
A. A. DooLiTTLE. Recording Secretary
BOTANICAL SOCIETY
149th meeting
The 149th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was
held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., February 1, 1921,
with lis members and guests present, and President Chambliss in the
chair. Among the guests were: Prof. H. W. Anderson, of the University
of Illinois, Prof. F. D. Fromme, of Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Prof.
J. F. Collins, of Providence, R. I., Dr. Rudolph Kuraz, Secretary, Czecho-
slovak Legation, Dr. Dobroslav Todorovic, Agricultural attache from
Serbia, and Mr. Soren Sorenson, Agricultural attache of Denmark. Mr.
Joseph W. Wellington was elected to membership.
Brief Notes and Reports of Literature
Dr. C. L. Shear called attention to an article in Science concerning the
formation of a committee of 14 by the British to aid men of science in Russia,
the main idea being to provide literature for Russian scientists. The meet-
ing instructed the Executive Committee to give attention to the matter of
providing scientific literature to Russian scientists, and instructed the So-
May 19, 1921 proceedings: botanical society 243
ciety's representative, Dr. Hitchcock, to bring this to the attention of the
Washington Academy of Sciences.
Mr. Pierce called attention to the series of articles by Dr. John Harsh-
BERGER, which began to appear in the October, 1920, number of the Garden
Magazine on Old gardens oj Pennsylvania. These articles dealing with the
early botanists of Pennsylvania and their collections should be of interest
to all students of botanical history.
Mr. Lewton called attention to the new edition of Dr. MarcellE Hardy's
Geography of plants, a copy of which was passed around for inspection.
Regtdar program
H. L. Shantz: Natural vegetation of Africa. (Illustrated with lantern
slides.)
The vegetation of Africa ranges from the absolute desert of the southwest
coast and portions of the Sahara, through desert shrub, desert grass, desert
grass and acacia, and acacia tall grass to the great tropical savannas and
in the Congo basin to the tropical rain forests, as higher elevations, moun-
tain grass land and mountain forests appear. The distribution of these more
important types was outlined and the agricultural potentiality of the land
occupied by each type discussed and compared with somewhat similar types
in the United States. Much of Africa is high, cool and dry, and is occupied
by desert or semi-desert types, and only a relatively small portion by tropical
jungles. The more important agricultural crops are corn, cassava, grain
sorghums, bananas, beans and rice.
Ivar Tidestrom : Notes on the flora of the Iberian Peninstda. (Illustrated
with lantern slides.)
The flora of the Iberian Peninsula is richer in species than any other of the
European floras. The reason for this great wealth of species is the geo-
graphical position of Spain, the high elevation of the land surface above the
sea-level, the various mountain ranges, and the proximity to Africa.
The littoral from Lisbon to Valencia, including the valley of the Guadal-
quivir, is semi-tropical, and appears to be analogous to the Pacific Coast
region from San Francisco southward to Arizona, including the valleys
between the Coast Range and Sierra Nevada. The Castilian and North
African plateaus have a great number of plants in common, which fact tends
to prove that there was a land bridge between the two continents at some
remote time — a fact already noted by paleontologists.
The meteorological conditions of these plateaus show resemblances to
those of the southwestern United States where the minimum temperature
does not fall below — 17° C. The general aspect of the plateaus and moun-
tains is that of our western country, and the types of plants are similar.
The upper belts of the mountains in Spain have a northern flora typical of
the aspen, spruce, and alpine belts of the Rocky Mountains and Sierra
Nevada.
The cultivated plants of Spain thrive equally well in our southwestern
states. Of the trees in cultivation, the Lombardy poplar is the most inter-
esting. Community planting of this tree has been attempted in northern
Spain, where plantations now exist for the purpose of supplying timber and
pulp.
R. G. Pierce, Recording Secretary.
244 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 10
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Messrs. William Bowie and H. G. Avers went to Ottawa, Canada, in
March, to consult with the superintendent of the Geodetic Survey of Canada
in regard to the coordination of precise-level nets of the two countries. It
is proposed that the two nets be adjusted together in order that the eleva-
tions on the boundary may agree in the maps and reports published in the
two countries.
Prof. F. W. Clarke of the U. S. Geological Survey, and Dr. H. S. Wash-
ington of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington, have been elected Fellows of the Geological Society of London.
Messrs. HippolyTE Copaux, of the School of Industrial Physics and
Chemistry of Paris; PiERRE Lelaudoux, of the Tunisian Phosphate Com-
pany; EuGENio DoNEGANi, of the Sicilian Sulphur Company; and Georges
Flusin, of Grenoble, visited the scientific institutions of Washington in April.
They are in the United States to make a study of the fertilizer situation.
Mr. William Valley Hagar, junior hydrographic and geodetic engineer
in the Coast and Geodetic Survey, died at Tarrytown, New York, March
24, 1921. Mr. Hagar was born March 25. 1888, at Weybridge, Vermont.
In 1912 he was appointed an assistant engineer in the United States and
Canadian Boundary Service and was transferred to the Survey in 1913.
The will of the late Miss Caroline Henry, daughter of Professor Joseph
Henry, first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, gives $1,000 to the
Institution and names it as residuary legatee of an estate with provision
for several beneficiaries during their lifetime.
Dr. A. S. Hitchcock of the Smithsonian Institution left Washington
in April for a trip to the Philippine Islands, Japan, China, Indo-China,
Singapore, and Java, for the purpose of studying the bamboos. He expects
to be absent about eight months.
Mr. Douglas Karr, junior hydrographic and geodetic engineer in the
Coast and Geodetic Survey, died at his home in Passaic, New Jersey, March
20, 1921. Mr. Karr was born in New York City March 1, 1891, and was
appointed an aid in the Survey in 1913. He was retired on account of phys-
ical disabiUty only a short time before his death.
Mr. A. H. Miller, of the Dominion Astronomical Observatory of Canada,
is at the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey engaged in a determination of the
Washington periods of a set of pendulums for the purpose of determining
the difference in the constant of gravity between Ottawa and Washington.
This determination is to supplement and strengthen a determination of the
difference in gravity between the two stations made just before the War.
Mr. William Palmer, taxidermist in the National Museum, died on
April 8, 1921. He had been connected with the Museum since its earliest
days. The numerous specimens, both casts and mounted animals, in the
exhibition series testify to his skill. The exhibit of the vertebrates of the
District of Columbia in the National Museum is almost entirely his work.
Dr. H. S. Washington of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institu-
tion of Washington, has been elected a foreign honorary member of Viden-
skabs Selskabet i Kristiania (the Norwegian Academy of Sciences) in the
section of geology, mineralogy, and physical geography. The other American
members are W. M. Davis and J. F. Kemp.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 * JUNE 4, 1921 No. 11 '
RADIOTELEGRAPHY.— i?aJ/o sigfial fading phenomena.' J. H.
Bellinger and L. E. Whittemore, Bureau of Standards.
INTRODUCTION
In actual communication by radio, many difficulties are encoun-
tered that would not be expected by one who is familiar only with the
rather precise and clear-cut theory of the subject in books. Some
of the phenomena in radio-frequency circuits may be represented
accurately by ordinar}^ alternating -current theory, the m-athemxatical
treatment being even simplified at radio frequencies. However, the
phenomena of transmission of radio waves from one place on the earth's
surface to another are of quite a different kind, and involve so many
variables that they are very difficult of analysis.
The difficulties which are peculiar to the transmission and reception
of the waves in actual radio communication may be divided into:
(1) "fading" or "swinging" of the received wave intensity; (2) strays;
and (3) interference from other radio stations whose signals it is not
desired to receive.
"Fading" is the rapid variation of intensity of the signals received
from a given transmitting station, all circuit arrangements at the
transmitting and receiving stations remaining constant. It is char-
acteristically a night phenomenon.
"Strays" are electrical disturbances giving rise to irregular inter-
fering noises heard in the telephone receivers of a receiving circuit.
They are present in some degree at all times, though they are usually
worse at night and in the summer time.
Interference from other stations differs from the other phenomena
in that it can be eliminated. The means by which this may be done
' Presented before the Philosophical Society of Washington, January 29, 1921. Pub-
lished by permission of the Director, Bureau of Standards. Received May 5, 1921.
245
246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 11
are: (a) frequency selection, {b) selection of wave direction, and
(c) guiding the waves along a channel; for example, along a wire.
It is interesting to note that the first and last of these means for elim-
inating interference are also used in sound, while the second, the
selection of the direction, cannot be used in sound, since sound waves
are longitudinal while the electric waves are transverse. The matter
of station interference will not be discussed further in this paper.
In regard to fading and to strays, a considerable literature now exists,
much of it being contradictory. The present authors have attempted
to coordinate some of the outstanding and fairly well established
facts, and to present recent results. Because of the complexity and
uncertainty of many of the phenomena, exceptions can be found to
almost all generalizations.
Complexity of the problem. — The following four functions are
characteristic of radio reception:
Intensity of received signals.
Fading of signals
Direction of signals.
Strays
In order to determine the facts regarding these functions, from
the analysis of which the causes might be determined, research has
to be undertaken to determine their behavior with respect to the
following variables:
Frequency of wave,
Kind of wave (as continuous or damped).
Distance,
Place (e. g., sea, sea-shore, plain land, mountainous land, rivers).
Time (e. g., day, night, sunrise, sunset, time of year),
Occurrence of eclipse,
State of solar activity.
Atmospheric electricity,
Terrestrial magnetism,
Miscellaneous (as discontinuities observed in space and in time) .
These variables are by no means independent; for instance, the
frequency and kind of wave affect differently the phenomena observed
at various places and distances. A complete study of the problem
would require about 500 separate researches, each of them on a large
scale. The completion of some of these researches would cost millions
of dollars. The entire mass of data at present available can be con-
sidered as completing only a very few of these researches. The known
facts about the variation of the four functions with a few of these
variables will now be summarized. Following that, a theory will
be given interpreting these facts.
June 4, 1921 dellinger and whittemore : radio fading 247
EXPERIMENTAL AND OBSERVATIONAL DATA
Intensity of signals in day. (Variation with distance, place, and
wave-length.) — The current in a receiving antenna is given by the
following expression :
T 1 -a d
/, ^ ^ e vx . (1)
where X is the wave-length, d is the distance from the transmitting
station, e = 2. 718. ...and a is a constant known as the absorption
coefficient. Quantitative measurements by L. W. Austin and others
have shown that signals transmitted in the daytime follow this law
within about 50 per cent particularly for the longer waves (over 1000
meters) . Variations in received current are associated with variations
of the absorption coefficient a. It is a minimum for transmission
over ocean water and varies greatly over land, apparently depend-
ing largely upon the nature of the ground over which the waves travel.
It has been observed that city buildings obstruct short waves.
There is some evidence that waves tend to follow water, thus travel-
ing greater distances along the coast than inland, and following rivers
very readily. The Alps and other mountains are said by Schwartz-
haupt to obstruct signals greatly by day, but little by night.
The intensity of signals received from a given transmitting station
varies greatly from day to day. Very long w^aves, such as those from
the Lafayette station in France, vary as much from day to day as they
do between day and night. Greater distances are covered by stations
of a given power when transmission is along the Mississippi Valley
than in other directions in the United States.
For small distances, the factor containing the absorption coefficient
in equation (1) is very nearly unity. Within these distances (up
to 200 miles in many cases), the intensities of signals during day and
during night are about the same, over sea-water at any rate, according
to Austin. In transmission entirely in mid-ocean, very little fading
has been observ^ed.
The absorption factor of equation (1) also approaches unity as
the wave-length is increased. Thus for a given distance long waves
are absorbed less than short waves and the falling off in intensity with
distance is less marked for long than for short waves.
Intensity and fading of signals at night. (Variation with distance,
place, wave-length and kind of wave.) — The average signal intensity
is much greater at night than by day, and the fluctuation or fading
248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 11
is violent at night, these tendencies being more pronounced the shorter
the wave-length. Thus abnormally great distances are obtained at
night by stations using short waves, even though the power employed
is as small as one kilowatt. Signals from such stations in the north-
eastern part of the United States have been heard across the Atlantic,
and off the coast of South America, as well as across the North Ameri-
can continent.
The phenomenon of fading is much better known among amateurs
than among commercial radio men because amateurs do most of their
radio transmitting and receiving at night and they are limited by law
to short wave-lengths. The great fluctuations in the intensity of
signals and the extraordinary distances of transmission at night which
have been reported by amateurs have not been taken very seriously
by professional radio men because there are so many difficulties with
radio apparatus that reliable results are hard to get.
What is probably the most comprehensive series ever made of co-
operative transmission tests on the phenomenon of fading was con-
ducted during the past year through the cooperation of the American
Radio Relay League and the Bureau of Standards. Transmission
took place from stations at a number of points in the northwest quar-
ter of the United States according to a prearranged schedule, and
simultaneous records of received signal intensity were made by about
one hundred specially appointed receiving operators. Through the
hearty and enthusiastic cooperation of the officers and members of
the American Radio Relay League it has been possible to obtain
many thousands of these records and to gain a great deal of informa-
tion which it would be difficult if not impossible to obtain otherwise
without an enormous expenditure. The handling of the records
made during these tests as well as many details of the management
of the tests have been in the hands of Mr. S. Kruse at the Bureau of
Standards. These tests have given an opportunity to confirm in a
statistical way what had previously been the impressions received
by operators and experimenters in the course of receiving signals for
other purposes.
Fading of signals as well as signals of abnormal intensity are ob-
tained only at distances beyond which the absorption has been found
to be appreciable. On 200 meter communication, fading is not often
found within a distance of 20 miles from the transmitting station, but
fading is usually found at a distance of GO miles or more from the trans-
mitting station.
June 4, 1921 dellinger and whittemore: radio fading 249
Three kinds of fading are observed : (1) Fading or swinging having
a period of swing of the order of one second or less. This is associated
with a given transmitting station. (2) Fading having a period of
the order of one minute. This is associated with a region which may
be that of either the transmitting or the receiving station. (3) Fad-
ing having a period of the order of one hour. This is associated with
a general direction of transmission or with a group of transmitting
stations.
Signals from a given transmitting station may be received with
violent fading by some transmitting stations and simultaneously
with very small fading by others. Certain transmitting stations
are heard very well by many receiving stations in all directions on
some evenings, and heard by very few receiving stations or in only
one direction on other evenings. A given receiving station usually
"hears" certain transmitting stations with great fading and others
with little fading.
Transmission wholly over water (both transmitting and receiving
stations far from land) shows little if any fading, while a narrow strip
of land intervening introduces fading, according to Nichols. Stations
near the coast fade worse than inland stations.
For three successive nights, no short-wave signals were heard in
Virginia, though signals 800 meters or longer in wave-length came in
with usual intensity. The same phenomenon occurred one night
a week later in Baltimore and the District of Columbia. Later on,
the ninth radio district (the Middle West) suffered a similar blank.
During the District of Columbia anomaly the atmospheric conductivity
was very abnormal, changing from a very high to a very low value
without a corresponding change in the atmospheric potential gradient.
At 12:17 a.m. normal conditions abruptly returned, transmission
becoming very good.
Signals on long wave-lengths, up to 23,500 meters, show very little
variation in intensity. There is little if any difference in the fading
from continuous wave and from spark stations on any wave-length.
Strays. (Variation with place and time.) — Strays are more intense
in the summer than in the winter, and in the night than during the day.
They are more frequent and more severe in the tropics than in temper-
ate latitudes.
At a given locality most strays come from a given direction. For
the northeastern part of the United States this direction is south or
south west. Strays are much less common in mid-ocean than near
250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 11
land, both by day and night. The change from day to night con-
ditions is much more abrupt at sea than on land. Stray storms us-
ually accompany convective weather.
On October 5, 1920, severe strays were observ^ed by receiving stations
in New England, and no New England short-wave transmitting sta-
tions were heard outside of that locality. Transmission elsewhere
was excellent.
Direction of signals. (Variation with time, wave-length, distance
and kind of wave.) — Changes in the direction of the wave front of
waves reaching a receiving station from a given transmitting station
are observed only at long wave-lengths, but are especially marked
with continuous waves. They are far more noticeable at night than
in the daytime. On 15,000 meters enormous changes in direction
are observed at night (as much as 90 degrees within half an hour),
while the changes observed during the daytime are very small, seldom
exceeding ten degrees. On 1000 meters, direction changes as great
as ten degrees are seldom observed.
The readings of direction can seldom be made sharply while changes
in direction are occurring. Sometimes when it has been changing
very rapidly it becomes impossible to determine on any direction,
the direction-finder giving no indication of a minimum signal in any
position. The minima observable are less distinct at night than
during the day. All direction changes are greater at night than in
the daytime.
Direction changes are very small at very short distances from the
transmitting station, are great at medium distances, and small again
at very great distances from the transmitting station. These facts
have been observ^ed particularly regarding signals from the New
Brunswick, New Jersey, radio station.
Eckersley states the belief that waves are refracted in passing from
sea to land and vice versa. Tests of radio compass stations indicate
that those stations which receive signals entirely over water have
no error.
Effects of sunrise and sunset. (Intensity, fading, strays, and di-
rection. Variation with wave-length.) — Great variations in the
intensity of radio signals of all wave-lengths, even up to 15,000 meters,
are observed at sunrise and sunset. Such variations are especially
noticeable when transmission is in an east and west direction.
Transmission is not as good between stations when the boundary
between dark and daylight intervenes as at other times of the day.
JUNB 4, 1921 DELLINGER AND VVHITTEMORE: RADIO FADING 251
It has been reported that at sunrise and sunset the shorter waves
have the advantage over the longer ones in transmission across the
Atlantic.
At sunrise or sunset at the sending or receiving stations the intensity
of signals on long wave-lengths becomes abnormally great. On short
wave-lengths, at sunrise at the receiving stations, the signals from
distant stations merely become steadier for a moment before they
suddenly become inaudible.
It is possible that the reported differences in the abilities of inland
and coastal stations in the United States to receive transatlantic
signals may be the result of differences in their relation to the line of
sunrise or sunset.
Effects of time of year. (Intensity and strays.) — Signals from
distant stations are much louder on winter nights than on summer
nights. Signals become poorer in the spring and it is a question
whether this is caused by vegetation, ionization, change in tempera-
ture, or other factors.
Strays are much less frequent and normally much less intense, in
winter than in summer.
Effect of eclipses.— The occurrence of an eclipse has been found
to improve signals, even when they pass only through the penumbra.
Effects of atmospheric electricity, terrestrial magnetism, solar activity.
(Intensity.) — In contrast to its effect on wire telegraphy, an aurora
has very little effect on radio, except possibly short-wave signals.
On an auroral evening none of the usual western stations could be
heard at Hartford, Connecticut, but that city did succeed in com-
municating with Boston, a thing which, curiously, is usually impossible.
On the day after an aurora a Chicago station copied signals from a
station in Los Angeles.
An aurora is preceded by violent variations in the earth's magnetic
field, and usually occurs during periods of great sunspot activity.
An aurora would seem to be an extreme case of disturbance at or
below the Heaviside surface, producing ionization and also strays.
The conductivity of the atmosphere is somewhat greater at night
than during the day. The atmospheric conductivity decreases and
the potential gradient increases at the ground level at sunrise and
sunset.
Culver reports that when the potential gradient and the conduc-
tivity of the air fluctuate greatly, strays are intense. He reports
also that the intensity of strays varies inversely as the solar constant
252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 11
and directly as the intensity of the earth's magnetic field.
Over sea the electrical conductivity of the air fluctuates less and
is more uniform from day to day than over land.
Discontinuities in space and time. (Intensity and strays.)— It
is found that some stations have great difficulty in establishing com-
munication with other stations quite near them though they have
no difficulty in reaching other stations much farther away. Stations
in the neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, furnish examples of
this. It has also been found impossible to transmit over 70 miles
east from Hartford, Connecticut.
Silent zones, where signals cannot be heard from certain stations,
are frequently found at sea, the most noted ones being along the
coast or between two bodies of land.
Inland stations have been found to get copy when coastal stations
cannot. This may possibly be a sunset phenomenon or the result
of the location of the stations with respect to sources of strays.
Stations less than a mile apart may differ radically in the intensity
of strays observed and in the intensity of signals received from a
given transmitting station.
Meteorological effects. (Intensity, fading, strays.) — A good radio
night, that is, one when the signals are loud and the strays are weak,
is usually cloudy or is preceded by a cloudy day. Fading, however,
is not affected by clouds. Transmission is usually good during and
immediately after a rain storm.
While correlations between meteorological and radio conditions
have been sought repeatedly, little proof of such correlations has
been found.
Indirectly, meteorological conditions such as temperature, convec-
tion, etc., at the earth's surface may somewhat affect the regularity
of the boundary surface of the Heaviside or aurora layer, and may
thus cause night strays and the disappearance of signals. Thus the
difference in temperature between land and sea may cause an effect
extending far up into the air.
The effect of weather conditions on the insulation of an antenna
and the resistance of the ground are principally important in day
transmission. The effect of weather conditions on ionization and
on the boundaries of the ionized regions in the upper atmosphere are
more prominent at night.
During the October, 1920, fading tests conducted by the American
Radio Relay League and the Bureau of Standards, it was observ^ed
June 4, 1921 delunger and whittemore; : r.\dio fading 253
that fading was small, signals were good, and strays were weak when
it was raining at the receiving station. (Cases of little fading, 17;
medium fading, 18; severe fading, 9. Signals were weak 4, moderately-
loud 31, and very loud 7 times. Weak strays 24, medium strays
13, and loud strays 6 times.)
Clouds at the receiving station are conducive to good signals. (Weak
signals 9, moderately loud 75, and very loud 17 times.)
It is possible that clouds blanket the upper air from the distur-
bances of temperature and other effects on the earth's surface.
DISCUSSION AND EXPLANATION
The complexity of the phenomena suggests that the causes are
complex, so that no one explanation will fit all the observations. How-
ever, many of the more clearly established facts lend themselves
very well to the explanation of the transmission of radio waves pro-
posed below.
Daytime transmission. — The waves that travel along the earth's sur-
face (roughly, the sliding waves), and not the waves in the upper at-
mosphere, are those which are utilized in the daytime. This is in-
dicated by the formula given in equation (1) in which the absorp-
tion coefficient, a, varies with the character of the surface over
which transmission takes place. It is a minimum for sea water, and
is greatly dependent on land characteristics.
For short distances, short waves give the loudest signals, the ab-
sorption being negligible. For long distances, during the day time
when formula (1) holds true, long-wave signaUing is more efficient,
for the absorption factor predominates and limits the transmission
for short wave lengths.
During the day the waves which get up into the atmosphere can
be considered as entirely absorbed by the upper ionized regions, known
as the stratosphere. Thus the intensity of the transmitted waves
depends on the ground conditions. This is borne out by the fact
that day transmission over sea varies very little with time. This
is to be expected, because the sea exhibits entire uniformity in its
effect on waves passing over it, thus tending to confirm the idea that
ground conditions determine wave intensity in the daytime.
The idea that waves are retarded by ionization is a very old one.
Elihu Thomson and Fessenden, however, first locaHzed the ionization
on the ground, but it has since been assumed to have its seat at higher
and higher levels. The ionization of the air, which is not nearly large
254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 11
enough near the ground to produce any effect, becomes larger as the
distance from the earth increases.
The extreme ultraviolet rays of the sun ionize the air, but these
rays are entirely absorbed during their penetration of the upper at-
mosphere. In the daytime, ionization in the higher levels is therefore
unquestionably much greater than at lower elevations. Fleming states
that the conductivity of the air near the earth's surface is 100,000
times too small to explain the observed absorption of radio waves.
The ionization of the upper atmosphere, however, is so very great that
it is probable that the waves which penetrate into the higher parts
of the air in the daytime are totally absorbed, and that the observed
absorption of waves received at a receiving station is to be explained
by the losses in the poorly conducting earth itself.
While the variations from day to day in daytime transmission
may not be entirely a ground phenomenon, it seems probable that
they are attributable to variations in ground conditions.
Intensity and fading of signals at night. — The short radio waves
on which signals are heard at great distances during the night must
travel detached from the earth's surface, for along the surface these
waves are highly absorbed. It is probable that they reach an upper
surface of the atmosphere, which is so highly ionized that its electrical
conductivity is far greater than that of the surface of the earth, and
hence they can travel with relatively little absorption.
The idea of an upper conducting surface between which and the
earth's surface electrical waves would be propagated, antedates the
use of radio for long-distance communication since it was considered
by Fitzgerald in 1893 and by Heaviside in 1900. Considerations
largely independent of radio phenomena suggest the following structure
and boundaries of the atmosphere, as indicated in figure 1.
(1) The earth's surface, a relatively poor conductor.
(2) The troposphere, about 10 kilometers thick, within which
are the causes of our meteorological phenomena, and an atmosphere
similar to that which we breathe.
(3) A radioactive layer, separating the troposphere from the region
above it. (The existence of this layer is not as well established as
the others, nor is its existence so important in explanation of the radio
phenomena.)
(4) The stratosphere, or isothermal layer, having a thickness of
approximately 100 kilometers. The stratosphere is ionized in the
June 4, 1921 delunger and whittemore: radio fading
255
daytime but quickly loses this property by the recombination of the
ions at night.
(5) The Heaviside surface, permanently ionized, and an almost
perfect conductor.
The boundaries of these layers are obviously not absolutely horizon-
tal surfaces. The stratosphere is ionized during the day only, the
sun's rays being the cause of the ionization. The permanently ionized
region above the Heaviside surface is the region of permanent aurora,
Heamide surface
Stratosphere
^Isothermal layer)
Ior)/zed fyay onk/)
100 km.
/^Radioactive layer
Earth's surface
Fig. 1. — Vertical cross-section of the earth's atmosphere.
and is so good a conductor that the waves cannot penetrate it. Any
waves reaching it can only slide along it, just as waves slide along the
even less perfectly conducting surface of the earth.
Previous explanations of radio transmission phenomena have con-
sidered the waves as being constantly reflected back and forth or
progressively refracted between the Heaviside surface and the earth,
both by day and by night, their intensity being reduced in the day-
time by the ionization in the stratosphere. That view does not ex-
plain why the waves have the characteristics of ground absorption
256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 11
in the daytime only, nor why they fade only at night. It seems more
nearly correct to consider the daylight transmission of waves as being
mainly along the earth as a guiding conductor, none of them being
able to reach the Heaviside surface because of the intervening
ionized stratosphere, while the waves at night reach the Heaviside
surface and travel or slide along it without appreciable absorption.
If this be true, then the waves should reach enormous distances
at night, short waves traveling farther than long ones. Because
of the variable absorption which may be introduced by the irregulari-
ties of the Heaviside surface and the adjoining regions, the waves
may vary rapidly in intensity. Small irregularities would affect
short waves more than long waves; hence short waves would fade
most. These conclusions are in precise agreement with the facts.
Within the distance from a transmitting station in which ground
absorption is negligible there is no fading and the night and day in-
tensities are equal, since the waves are not affected by conditions
in the upper atmosphere. If the theory given here be correct the
maximum intensity of signals received at night should be that given
by the transmission formula with the absorption factor equal to unity,
and this has been observed to be true. This should be taken as a
standard transmission distance. Certainly this is the only unique
value, the only value in which the nature of the location of the trans-
mitting and receiving stations does not enter. Thus the transmission
formula cannot predict the varying intensity of signals observed
at night, but it does give the limiting value of signal intensity. It
also shows why extraordinary ranges are more likely to be obtained
at night with short waves than long waves.
This theory of night wave transmission is strikingly like the ex-
planation of the flight of the projectile from the German long-range
gun. In both cases it is now realized that there exists a region of
the upper atmosphere of surprisingly low opposition or resistance.
G. Sagnac says that "zones of weak signals" observed between
moving ships are due to the earth's orbital motion dragging the sur-
rounding ether with it. It seems more probable, however, that such
phenomena are caused by regions of exceptionally great absorption
either of the wave transmitted along the ground or of the wave trans-
mitted along the Heaviside surface, depending upon the conditions.
The relatively small fading on long wave-lengths is partly attri-
butable to the fact that the transmission is along the ground.
June 4, 1921 dellinger and whittemore: radio fading 257
If fading were to be explained by reflection and interference be-
tween the direct wave and the reflected wave it would seem obvious
that fading will be greater in the case of continuous wave stations
than spark stations, but apparently this is not the case. It seems
probable that the reflection in the upper regions may more truly be
considered a quasi-refraction resulting from an increase in the velocity
of the waves as they enter the more highly ionized air.
Strays. — Of the several kinds of strays, some have their origin
near the receiving station while others are waves sent out by electrical
disturbances in certain definite regions such as the western part of
the Gulf of Mexico or the central part of Africa. vSuch regions are
mostly tropical. The fact that strays are more intense at night than
in the daytime is explained by the greater ease of propagation of all
waves at night so that strays which are only local in their effects
in the daytime spread to a distance at night.
The strays at night seem to be caused by occurrences at or above
the Heaviside surface, because there are times when the strays are
intense and yet signals are inaudible or very weak and fading violently.
This indicates a turbulent region of ionization over the area involved,
which gives rise to strays and which absorbs waves that come into
it. The aurora itself represents an extreme case.
Direction of signals.— There is no correlation between fading and
direction changes except that both are greater at night. Thus fading
is greatest for short waves and direction changes are greatest for long
waves. This makes it appear that the explanations of the two may
not be closely related. The interference caused by waves from the
Heaviside surface may explain the direction changes observed at
night (rapid direction changes on long waves), as it is too remote
to cause interference with short waves.
Kinsley has suggested that the direction changes may be the result
of reflection at the radioactive boundary between the troposphere
and the stratosphere.
Effects of sunrise and sunset. — The change from the ionized sun-
light condition to the insulating condition of darkness introduces a
surface of discontinuity which acts as an obstacle to the waves, partly
reflecting them back. It is to be noted that the change takes place
in the stratosphere, above the clouds. This deflection of the waves
depends on a change in velocity of the waves, produced by the ioniza-
tion. Since this change in velocity is proportional to the square of
258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 11
the wave-length, the sunrise and sunset effects are greater for the
longer wave-lengths.
Effects of time of year.— The increase of signal strength at night
and the scarcity of strays in winter indicate that the Heaviside surface
is more nearly level and encumbered with fewer masses of ionized
air which are emitting disturbances. This more quiescent condition
is probably a result of the sun's acting on the atmosphere for fewer
hours each day.
Effects of atmospheric electricity, terrestrial magnetism, solar activ-
ity.— There is slight connection between radio phenomena and the
usual variations of atmospheric conductivity and similar quantities
at the surface of the earth. During intense strays and fading, the
conductivity and potential gradient have been known to fluctuate
more than usual. This indicates that the masses of ionized air that
cause the radio phenomena have a slight effect extending down to
the earth's surface.
The visible aurora seems to involve a lowering of the Heaviside
surface far down into the stratosphere or even lower. It is known
to extend down to about 60 kilometers above the earth's surface.
This is done with much turmoil so that it usually stops short-wave
radio altogether, or, if signals can be heard, the strays are violent.
It completely upsets all usual radio conditions, in fact, in special
cases it improves short-wave signal intensity over a certain territory,
probably because in this case the lowering of the Heaviside surface
envelops the usual source of disturbances.
Discontinuities. — While often difficult to explain, discontinuities
are probably caused by some local ionization which acts like a barrier
for that particular region. The fact that transmission is good for
points beyond the silent zone substantiates the general theory of trans-
mission of waves at night by the upper part of the stratosphere. In
such a case they probably go around the barrier.
The origin of this local ionization is unknown. Apparently some
local condition on the earth's surface may cause it. It may be direct,
as by radioactive emission, or indirect, as by extreme temperature
dift'erences or vertical convection currents in the air. Such indirect
causes seem probable since there are many cases of discontinuities
on or near the coast or in mountainous regions.
The cause of discontinuities is doubtless related to some sort of
ionization change such as that accompanying sunrise and sunset.
June 4, 1921 abstracts: geoi^ogy and hydrology 2o9
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that the causes or sources of fading and of
strays are in the atmosphere between the earth's surface and the Heavi-
side surface. However, the origin of these causes, in turn, is un-
doubtedly from below the ground or from outside of the earth's at-
mosphere.
Daytime transmission is effected entirely by means of the waves
carried along the ground, while night transmission, especially at great
distances and on short waves, is by means of waves transmitted along
the Heaviside surface. The latter, at night, are thus free from the
absorption to which ground waves are subject in the daytime. They
are, however, subject to great variations, caused by irregularities in
the Heaviside surface and absorbing masses of more or less ionized
air at or near that surface. These variations account for fading.
The theory here given may be only a very rough approximation
but it has the advantage of giving a clearer picture than has been
available. The inter-relation of radio phenomena and the atmos-
phere's electrical condition is very close. Subordinate in importance
to the atmospheric conductivity are the other electrical properties,
the solar constant, and the terrestrial magnetic and meteorological
conditions. The properties of the stratosphere seem to be far more
important than those of the troposphere, since the stratosphere seems
to be the seat of the immediate causes of the observed radio trans-
mission phenomena.
ABSTRACTS
Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared
and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should
conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
GEOLOGY AND KYBROLOGY. —Ground water in Pahrmnp, Mesquite, and
Ivanpah valleys, Nevada and California. Gerald A. Waring. U. vS.
Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 450-C. Pp. 30, pis. 5, figs. 2. 1920.
The report comprises a geographic and geologic sketch and a discussion of
the ground waters of the regions named. The valleys consist of detached
basins with interior drainage, mountain-rimmed and deeply filled with al-
luvium. Alluvial fans slope, from the mountain areas and grade into the
playas which occupy the lowest portions of the basins. Springs occur in all
of the valleys, and artesian flows have been obtained in Pahrump Valley.
Records of springs and wells are included in the report, and also a brief state-
ment of the quality of the water. The extent of irrigation already practiced,
the possibilities of further irrigation development, and the limits of agricul-
tural projects are discussed. N. E. D.
2G0 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 11
GEOLOGY. — Geology of Alamosa Creek valley, Socorro County, New Mexico,
with special reference to the occurrence of oil and gas. Dean E. Win-
chester. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 716-A. Pp. 15 (1-15), pis. 5. 1920.
This report is based on a field study of the coal resources of the region.
Structure is therefore discussed only in a general way and not represented by
contours. The geography of the valley lying between the Continental Divide
on the west, smaller Tertiary mountain ranges to the south, and the Sierra
Ladron on the east, is briefly described. About 8,000 feet of sedimentary
rocks from Carboniferous to Recent are exposed. Carboniferous and Triassic
represented by red beds are unconformably overlain by Cretaceous consisting
of the Dakota sandstone at the base, with a series of shales, sandstones and
coal beds overlying it. This upper series is divided into the Miguel formation
roughly equivalent to the Mancos shale but more sandy; and the overlying
non-marine Chamiso formation containing a Mesaverde flora. Unconform-
ably on the Cretaceous lies the Tertiary Datil formation, largely volcanic
with associated sandstones and conglomerates. Quaternary terrace gravels
overlie all of these, and all formations except the younger terrace gravels are
capped by lava flows. Structurally the area is the southeastern part of the
San Juan Basin from the rest of which it is largely separated by the northwest
trending Zuni Mountain uplift. The prevailing dip at low angles to the west
is interrupted by many faults and minor folds and cut by dikes, most of which
trend roughly parallel to the Zuni Mountains. As possible source of oil three
larger anticlines are described, the largest 13 miles long. The presence of
abundant carbonaceous shales, of coal with about 55 per cent fixed carbon,
and of several massive persistent sandstones in the Miguel formation, which
can be tested by holes less than 2,000 feet deep, afi"ord favorable indications
for the presence of accumulations of oil. The formations older than the
Cretaceous may also contain oil accumulations. M. I. Goldman
BOTANY. — Another conidial Sclerospora of Philippine maize. William H.
Weston, Jr. [ourn. Agric. Research 20: 669-684. Pis. 4, figs. 1.
1921.
Another conidial Sclerospora is involved in the destructive maize downy
mildew of the Philippines in addition to Sclerospora philippinensis, the
casual fungus previously described. This second species, found in the
Islands of Cebu' Bohol and Leyte, occuring commonly on maize, rarely on
the wild grass, Saccha-um spontaneum, and once on sugar cane, differs from
5. philippinensis in that the conidiophores are generally longer and more
slender, the basal cells are of much greater length in relation to the main
axis, while the conidia especially are longer and less broad; and is described
as new under the name of Sclerospora spontanea. These specific morpholog-
ical differences remain constant even through several generations on a
range of hosts, including maize, teosinte (Euchlaena spp.), Miscanthus japoni-
ciis, and Saccharum spontanem. The size and shape of the conidia, the
most valuable criteria of interspecific distinction, are given in detail, meas-
urements of 700 conidia of each being presented in tables and graphs, and
the more significant biometric constants being compared. Although morpho-
logically distinct, the two species are alike physiologically in their effect
on and in their virulence to the same host species. The probable relation-
ship of the two fungi to the other conidial Sclerosporas of the Orient and to
the oogonial stages of the Philippines is discussed. The occurrence of
June 4, 1921 abstracts: analytical chemistry 261
Sderospora spontanea on the wild Sacchanmi spontaneume is regarded as
evidence that the disease has passed and is passing from this native host to
introduced maize. W. H. W.
ENTOMOLOGY. — The North American ichneitmon- flies of the tribes Lycorini,
Polysphinctini, and Theroniini. R. A. Cushman. Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus. 58: 7-48. PI. 2. 1920.
This paper adds another to the series of papers revising the American
tribes of the subfamily Ichnenmoninae {Pimplinae). In it the genera and
species are tabulated and described, and notes on the location of the types,
biology of the species, and other valuable taxonoraic information given in
detail. As is usual for papers of this series, the host list and an index of the
species treated is included. Several text figures illustrating the structural
characters and some drawings and photographs showing the habitus of the
insects are added. S. A. Rohwer.
ENTOMOLOGY. — A^ew Serphidoid, Cynipoid, and Chalcidoid Hymenoptera.
A. A. GiRAULT. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 58: 177-216. 1920.
This paper contains descriptions of new parasites which have been received
for identification by the Bureau of Entomology. Most of the forms char-
acterized are from North America and some few of them are known to be of
considerable economic importance. S. A. Rohwer.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.— 5«/p/z Mr in petroleum oils. C. E. Waters.
Bur. vStandards Tech. Paper 177. Pp. 28, fig. 1. 1920.
Short accounts are given of the theories concerning the origin of the sul-
phur and sulphur compounds which are found in crude petroleum. The
forms of combination in which the element occurs, their identification and
significance are briefly discussed. Tests for the detection of sulphur are de-
scribed, and the copper test is shown to be one of great delicacy. Although it
will show the presence of very minute amounts of free sulphur or of hydrogen
sulphide, it may be of no value at all when the sulphur is in stable organic
compounds. Various methods that have been used for the determination of
sulphur in oils, and finally a new procedure, are described. The new method
is based on the preliminary treatment of the oil with nitric acid saturated with
bromine, followed by fusion with a mixture of sodium nitrate and carbonate.
Data obtained by the analysis of certain oils by this and other methods
are given. From these it appears that there is no loss of sulphur by the new
method, which is recommended for laboratories which do not have a bomb
calorimeter. C. E. W.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.— .4« electrolytic resistance method for de-
termining carbon in steel. J. R. Cain and L. C. Maxwell. Bur.
Standards Tech. Paper 141. Pp. 24, figs. 6. 1919.
Method and apparatus are described for rapidly and accurately determining
carbon in steel by absorbing in a solution of barium hydroxide the carbon
dioxide resulting from direct combustion of the metal in oxygen, and deducing
the carbon content from the change in electrical resistance of the barium
hydroxide solution. J. R. C.
262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 11
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY
619th meeting
The 619th meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held
in the lecture hall of the Cosmos Club at 8.00 p.m., January 22, 1921, with
President N. HoLLisTER in the chair, and 112 persons present. Upon rec-
ommendation of the Council, Mr. Arthur J. Poole and Mrs. Marion
G. Brown were elected to membership.
Informal communications
Dr. Paul Bartsch stated that the Hiraci collection of Japanese and Pacific
molluscs had been given to the U. S. National Museum. This with other
large collections makes the collection of molluscs in the National Museum
the largest in the world. Dr. Bartsch also stated that a mocking bird was
spending a third winter in his yard. It seemed to be the supply of water
which is most appreciated.
Dr. R. W. vShufeldT exhibited a file fish, part of a collection from Argen-
tina, with an apparently abnormal file, it being double.
Dr. T. S. Palmer, referring to the height at which birds fly, stated that
W. E. D. Scott at Princeton, and Dr. Chapman telescopically observing
birds crossing the disk of the sun, estimated their height at 10,000 feet. Photo-
graphs of geese crossing the sun's disk yielded an estimate of 29,000 feet
or about 5.5 miles. Direct observation from aeroplane has been made up
to 10,000 feet.
Dr. H. M. Smith made the first public announcement of the taking of the
large forked-tailed swift, Microperus pacificus (Latham), upon the North
American Continent. The capture was made by Mr. G. D. Hanma of
the Bureau of Fisheries in the Pribiloff Islands.
Mr. A. H. Howell stated that the crow roost at Laurel, Maryland, oc-
cupied for some ten years, has been abandoned for some other place farther
north. Dr. L. O. Howard conveyed to the Society the greetings of former
President Dr. F. A. Lucas, who was recently in the city.
Regular program
The speakers were introduced by Dr. J. C. Merriam, President of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington.
L. H. Miller, of the University of California: A^^^/za/^ beds of Rancho
La Brea. ^
The asphalt beds, small and few in number, lie a few miles north of Los
Angeles. The asphalt has varied in viscosity from time to time, and has
been in a more or less vertical circulation. vSince Pleistocene times the beds
have served as a constantly baited trap for all kinds of animals, and have
gathered a characteristic fauna from that region in great numbers. Re-
ferring principally to the birds. Dr. Miller said that, local as the deposits
are, their richness and completeness threw light upon several large biological
problems. (1) Questions of phylogeny. fhe deposits at Rancho La Brea
show a very plastic condition of the genus Haliaetiis in the Pleistocene. Many
forms of bald eagles, some larger and some smaller than those now existing.
June 4, 1921 proceedings: biological society 263
occurred, and out of this stock the present species seem to have crystallired.
(2) Questions of homoplasy. A walking vulture, Tcratornis, also a walking
eaglel occur, both simliar to Serpentarius, the secretary bird of Africa, but
the former only superficially. (3) Questions of variability. The great
variability already referred to exists in other genera also, as in Bubo and
Cathartes'. Some forms of these were of tremendous size. Others such as
the Calif ornian condor, had reached more stable form. (4) Questions of
distribution. Many forms, now Central and South American in distribution,
occur at Rancho La Brea. Thus the caracara and the black vulture, rare
along the Californian border, are common. Morphus, the eagle hawk, and
certain storks of Brazil and Argentina, occur in lesser numbers. Here is
found Parapavo, a peacock-like bird, forming a link, both in distribution
and development, between the pheasants of the old world and the ocellated
turkey of Yucatan and the turkey of the eastern United States. (5) Indices
of climate. Inferences from the present chmatic distribution of birds, iden-
tical with or similar to those found at Rancho La Brea, indicate a climate
more tropical than that of recent times, and supporting a vastly richer assort-
ment of forms. The paper was illustrated with pictures of the asphalt beds
and specimens from the beds, and restorations of the life and environment
there in Pleistocene days.
H. C. Bryant, of the University of California: Birds and mammals of
Yosemite Park.
The speaker called attention to the changing distribution of birds
during the day, or season, or with changes in weather. The white-throated
swift, apparently on the wing all the daylight hours, feeds on the floor
of the valley in the morning, later it flies at middle heights, and in afternoon
only about the highest cliffs. As the season progresses many birds
spread from the breeding and feeding grounds of the valley to the higher
hill region, such as the jay shrike, and kingbird. On the other hand, storms
in the highlands drive birds into the valley, such as the nighthawk. Further
notes upon many birds were given. Protection to birds does not 1 ad in all
cases to their increase. This is true of grouse and quail, suggesting unsolved
problems. Protection cannot be given to all animals alike. The interrela-
tion between deer and panther is an example.
The speaker emphasized the impossibility of appreciating the fauna and
flora of Yosemite or other National Parks or Preserves without familiarity
with nature in the field. The interest taken by young and old alike in studies
afield of animals and plants justifies a greater development of the naturalist
who can interpret the work of the specialist and make it accessible to the
nonscientific public. The paper was illustrated by numerous views of Yosem-
ite and of individual birds and animals.
The papers presented by Drs. Miller and Bryant were discussed by
R. W, Shufeldt, a. S. Hitchcock, David White, and J. C. Merriam.
A. A. DooLiTTLE, Recording Secretary.
264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 1 1 , NO. 1 1
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
The Pick and Hammer Club met at the Interior Department at 8 p.m.
on Saturday, April 30. Prof. E. W. Berry of John Hopkins University
gave an illustrated talk on Impressions of Peru and Bolivia.
The National Academy of Sciences held its annual meeting in Washington,
April 25-27. Sessions for the presentation of scientific papers were held
at the National Museum on April 25 and 26. The following-nam.ed 15 per-
sons were elected to membership: Frank Michler Chapman, ornithol-
ogist, American Museum of Natural History, New York; Willi^vm Leroy
Emmet, electrical engineer, General Electric Company; William Draper
Harkins, chemist, University of Chicago; AlES Hrdlicka, anthropologist,
National Museum; Arthur William Kennelly, engineer, Harvard Uni-
versity; William George MacCallum, pathologist, Johns Hopkins Med-
ical School, Baltimore; Dayton Clarence Miller, physicist, Case School
of x\pplied Science, Cleveland, Ohio; George Abram MillER, mathemati-
cian. University of Ilhnois; Benjamin Lincoln Robinson, botanist. Harvard
University; Vesto Melvin Slipher, astronomer, Lowell Observatory, Flag-
staff, Arizona; Lewis Buckley StillwELL, electrical engineer. New York
City; Donald Dexter Van Slyke, biochemist, Rockefeller Institute for
Medical Research, New York City; Thomas Wayland Vaughan, geologist,
U. S. Geological Survey; Henry Stephens Washington, geochemist. Geo-
physical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington; Robert Sessions
WoODWORTH, psychologist, Columbia University.
Mr. Arthur E. Fath returned to the U. S. Geological Survey on April
29, after several months' furlough.
Dr. Joseph GrinnEll, director of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology,
Berkeley, California, was in Washington in May studying the ornithological
collections at the National Museum.
Mr. O. B. Hopkins has submitted his resignation as geologist in the U. S.
Geological Survey, effective April 1, to continue his work in the prospective
oil fields of Canada.
Dr. Robert Ricgway, of the U. S . National Museum, receixed the Daniel
Giraud Elliot Medal of the National Academy of Sciences on April 26, for
his studies of the birds of North America.
Dr. H. L. Shantz, agricultural explorer of the Department of Agriculture,
lectured before the Cosmos Club on April 25 on Some experiences of a trip
from the Cape to Cairo.
Mr. E. W. Shaw, geologist, resigned from the U. S. Geological Survey on
March 30 to take up consultation work in oil and gas.
Dr. C. W. Stiles, of the Hygienic Laboratory, U. S. Public Health Service,
received on April 26 a gold medal of the National Academy of Sciences "for
eminence in the application of science to the public welfare," in recognition
of his work on the hookworm disease.
Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, re-
ceived the first award of the Mary Clark Thompson Medal of the National
Academy of vSciences, for distinguished achievement in geology and paleon-
tolog^^ The medal was awarded at the meeting of the Academv on April 26.
Mr. Arthur R. Willis, chemist with the U. S. Tariff Commission, met
death by accidental drowning in the Potomac River on April 24, 1921. Mr.
Willis was a native of Ohio, and was 29 jxars of age. He was a member
of the Chemical Society.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACx\DEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 June 19, 1921 No. 13
MATHEMATICS AND BACTERIOLOGY.— 0« the dilution method
of counting bacteria} P. V. WELLS and W. F. WElls. (Com-
municated by S. W. Stratton.)
The dilution method of counting the number of bacteria in water
is an example of the use of a geometric scale when the variations are
so large that an arithmetic scale is cumbersome. We shall investigate
briefly the theoretical basis of this method, with a view to the stand-
ardization of the experimental procedure, and shall show that its re-
sults have a remarkably simple interpretation.
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM
Consider a "universe" containing .4 cc. of water, and B bacteria. If
a sample of a cc. is examined, the chances of finding n, n — l,....2,
1, 0 bacteria, respectively, in the sample are given by the terms of
the hypergeometric series
B{B - 1)...{B - n-^ 1)
A^(A^- l)...iN -n-\-l)
r __W__ 7i(n^-^ W{W-1) 1
[^+''B-n+l~^ 2! {B-n + l)iB-n + 2)^--\ ^^^
where the water is conceived as composed of W "particles," giving
the total "population" N = B + W, and the sample contains m parti-
cles. Each particle, whether bacterium or water, is assumed to have
an equal chance of being sampled. The general term, for the proba-
bility of finding C bacteria in the sample is
^^(^-1) .... (B-n-fl)
^ A^(A^ -1)....{N -n+ 1)
rnjn - 1) .... {n - C -f 1) W{W - 1) .... {W - n + C + 1)1 .
L a {B-n + l){B -n-{-2)....{B-C)l ^
But since the population N is arbitrary, this result is of little use as it
stands.
Taking the population N as infinite, and n as extremely large, but
small compared with A^, and placing X^B/A as the number of bac-
' Received April 29, 1921.
265
26G JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIEXCES VOL. 11, NO. 12
teriapercc, we have B/N = aX/n. Hence equation (2) reduces to
P^ = exp ( — aX) *
^^ C! ^ (3)
which is the fundamental expression for the probability Pc of finding
C bacteria in an a cc. sample of water containing X bacteria per cc.
The sample usually taken is a = 1 cc. From the form of the expres-
sion we have
00
^C{Pc)=l (4)
0
as it should, to represent probability. The probability Pq of a neg-
ative result, on plating out, is
Po = exp(-aX) (5)
and of a positive result is 1— Po- This reduces to McCrady's- result
when aX = 1, namely 1 — Po = 1 — l/e = 0.63.
As there has been some misunderstanding of McCrady's work, per-
haps due partly to the form in which it was expressed, a few remarks
on the theory here given may be appropriate. The only assumptions
are: (1) that in a large number of samples of a cc. each, the bacterium
considered is on the whole as often in one of the samples as in another
(random distribution), and (2) that the presence of one bacterium in
a sample does not affect the chances of the others being there (inde-
pendent probabilities). These assumptions can hardly be doubted in
this particular case, because one bacterium occupies about 10~^^ cc,
so that one million per cc. would occupy only one millionth of the vol-
ume. From studies of Brownian particles it is known that there are
considerable fluctuations in density.
Now suppose the samples are diluted, /3 cc. in D cc. of water, then
the probability of finding C bacteria in a cc. of the diluted sample is,
from (3)
where
zC
Pc=~exp.{-z) (6)
X
a|3 —
D
2H. H. McCrady. Journ. Infectious Diseases 17: 183. 1915.
June 19, 1921 wells and wells: counting bacterl\ • 267
As a function of z, this equation is a special case of Pearson's Type III
frequency curve, and the mode Mz, or most probable value of z is
simply Mz = C.
"per cent negative" method
The quantities a and /3 are usually taken as 1 cc.(q! = /3= 1). The
probability of a negative result (no bacteria) in the diluted sample is
simply the negative exponential
Po = exp. (— -) (7)
This is the frequency curve of the negative plates in dilutions D.
The mode {Md= ^), or most probable value of the negative dilution
D is infinite, as it should be. The fraction of negative plates in dilu-
tion D is Pq, and the percentage of negative plates 100 Pq, when the
number of samples taken is sufficiently large to overcome the
fluctuations of sampling, and when there is no constant error in the
experimental procedure.
In practice the sample (1 cc.) is diluted in the definite dilutions
D=10, 100, 1000, etc., cc. of water, and Fo observed. In order to
compute X from these results, place in (7)
E = \n
Then
f-^) = ^ (8)
\Pj D
x= d +e (9)
Where x = log X
d = \ogD\ (10)
e == log E ]
The arithmetic means d and e are therefore related by the simple ex-
pression
x=d+~e (11)
and the number of bacteria per cc. X is given by the product of the
geometric means
X = GdGe (12)
Where
e — log Ge J
The "per cent negative" method requires for convenient application
a table giving e in terms of Po, as in table 1.
It is evident from the magnitudes in the second column of table 1
268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. U, NO. 12
that the arithmetic mean e in any actual case will be merely a cor-
rection to be applied to the "average log dilution negative" d. The
number of bacteria per cc, X, is therefore roughly equal to the geo-
metric mean Gd of the numbers of cc. (D) into which the sample
(Ice.) is diluted. Its precise value is given by (12) which is used
in the form (11).
The computation of the "log count" (x) is very simple. The dilu-
tions are D = 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, etc., and the corresponding "log
dilutions" are d = \, 2, 3, 4, etc.; only those dilutions are chosen for
which the "per cent negative" (lOOPo) is between 5 and 90 per cent.
The values of e are taken from table 1, and the sum {d ■{- e) recorded.
The simple average of these figures gives x. The antilogarithm of
X is the number of bacteria per cc. (X). The following examples
illustrate the method.
Example i
(20 samples, 3 negative in D = 10 cc, 13 in 100 cc, and all in 1000 cc.)
d Per cent Neg. d -\- e
1 20 1.21
2 65 1.63
.T = 1.42
X = 26 bacteria per cc.
June 19, 1921 wells and wells : counting bacteria 269
Example 2
(20 samples, 11 negative in 10,000 cc, all negative in 100,000 cc.)
d Per cent Neg. d •\- e
4 55 « = 3.78
X = 6 X 10^ = 6,000 bacteria per cc.
To determine Po with precision, more samples must be taken at
each dilution than is practicable for a single specimen of water, but
the method is very useful where many bottles of water are collected,
or where the samples represent a seasonal distribution. The use of
the geometric mean in such cases is justified only by the type of such
frequency distributions. This point will be considered in a subse-
quent paper.
METHOD OF BACTERIAL COUNTS
No information is gained in the "per cent negative" method from the
number of colonies found on the positive plates. Returning to the
fundamental equation (6) , the probability of finding C bacteria in the
diluted sample is
Pc=-exp.(-2) (6)
Now the bacterial counts are usually fairly large (OlO). In this case
Stirling's formula gives
C./ = CfV2^exp. (-C) (14)
Comparing (6) and (14),
Pc =
V
= f-Yexp.(C-.) (15)
This is the frequency curve of bacterial counts of a given sample (at a
fixed dilution). The mode {Mc)^ or most probable value, of C is
given by the condition
^^ = ln ^ - ^ = 0 (when C^Mc) (16)
PdC C 2C
Neglecting — compared with In C, involving an error of 2 per cent when
C= 10, and less for larger values, we have
Mc = z = a0^ (Oio) (17)
That is, when q: = /3 = 1, the number of bacteria per cc. (X) is simply
the product of the dilution D and the mode Mc of the frequency dis-
270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. U, NO. 12
tribution of bacterial counts C as would be guessed from "common
sense."
The frequency distribution (6) is mathematically very complicated.
Its graph, represented in figure 1 for the values 2 = 10 and 100 bac-
teria per cc, shows it to be nearly symmetrical about the mode, the
1 1^ i.
c
H««i>*r »\ dacter'to.
Fig. 1. — Graph of frequency distribution.
maximum becoming very accentuated as z increases. This is obvious
from the variability of the curve, computed by Pearson's method of
moments, and given in table 2 together with the other constants.
Thus the curve possesses the remarkable property that although
it is unsymmetrical, the mode and the arithmetic mean coincide
within the errors of the computation. The geometric mean is of course
slightly smaller, but either mean is quite close enough for practical use.
Replacing the mode in (17) by the arithmetic mean (C), we have
X = DC (18)
so that the number of bacteria per cc. is calculated simply.
June 19, 1921 wells and wells: counting bacteria 271
Representing the mode by the geometric mean {Gq), equation (17)
becomes
X = GdGc (19)
where Gd is the geometric mean of the dilution (D) . Changing varia-
bles to the logarithm, this gives
x=^d + 'c (20)
as the relation between the arithmetic means of the logarithms, and
x~\ogX }
d = \ogGD\ (21)
c = log Gc
TABLE 2
Constants of Bacterial Frequency
Number of Bacteria per cc. (s) 10 100
Arithmetic Mean Bacterial Count (C) 9 .995 100 .001
Geometric Mean " "(G^) 9 . 54 99 .76
Standard Deviation {a) 3 .02 9 .55
Variability (100^) 30 percent 9.6 percent
The logarithms can be read conveniently from the two-place table.
(Tab. 3).
TABLE 3
Two-Place Logarithms
0 1234 5 6789
To illustrate the computation, an example is worked out. (Ex-
ample 3.)
In any actual experiment the discrepancy between the two means
is almost certainly due to experimental errors, and not to theoretical
fluctuations of sampling. These errors are largest in the largest dilu-
tions. The geometric mean is less affected by large errors in excess
than is the arithmetic mean. On the other hand negative plates must
be ignored, for a single one would make the geometric mean vanish.
The question of what mean to use in this work, however, has little
272 JOXJRNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OE SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 12
theoretical importance. It is in space and time distributions that large
variations and skewness may arise, and then the means dififer signifi-
cantly. In many such cases the geometric mean is more probable
than the arithmetic mean, as will be shown in a later paper.
Example 3
Explanatory Form
Dilution
D
1 cc.
10 cc.
100 cc.
1000 cc.
10,000 cc.
Bacterial
count
C
Too many to
count.
(200)
130
190
82
53
None
DC Deviation
d
logZ?
13,000
19,000
82,000
53,000
29.000
23
40
11
c
log C
2.11
2.28
1.91
1.72
Sums 167,000 103,000
Arith. means 42,000 ± 13,000
Arith. mean of logs = x = 4.51
Geometric mean = antilog x = 32,000 ± 14,000
f Geom. mean^Gx^Gi) Gc
5
2.5
Number of bacteria
per cc.
I Arith. mean := X z^ DC =
Actual Routine Form
DC d d+c
13,000 2 4.11
19 .28
82 3 .91
53 .72
4 1 167
4 1202
d + c Deviation
8.02
2.01
4.11
4.28
4.91
4.72
18.02
4.51^
0.40
.23
.40
.21
1.24
.16
32,000 ± 14,000
(3.2 ±1.4) X 10^
42,000 ± 13,000
(4.2 ± 1.3) X 10^
Dev.
40
23
40
21
124
DC = 42,000
Gx = 32,000
a4,000. X = 4.51 ± 0.16
It should be emphasized that the logarithm itself furnishes a most
convenient scale for the expression of results in bacteriology. Thus,
instead of bothering to find the antilogarithm of x, this value itself can
be used; x = S.67 means quite as much as X = 4.7X10^ = 4700, when
equally familiar, and it is much more convenient for very large num-
bers, as well as for graphical work. Moreover, the significant changes
June 19, 1921 mohler and foote: soft x-rays 273
are those in x, not X, for in bacterial phenomena the population must
be taken into account. The logarithm of the number of bacteria,
and not the number itself, should therefore be used for routine pur-
poses.
SUMMARY
The chance {Pc) of finding C bacteria in a cc. of water containing
X bacteria per cc. is
Pc = —^ exp. (- aX)
This theorem is applied to the "per cent negative" (100 Po) method of
counting bacteria and to the method of counting positive plates.
It is shown that the variability in samples containing more than ten
bacteria is small, so that differences between the arithmetic and
geometric means cannot be due to fluctuations of sampling.
The extreme variability usually found in bacteriology is due to
differences of locality and time. In any case where the data vary very
widely, a few very large values, representing perhaps less than one
per cent of the results, may double the value of the arithmetic mean ;
their effect upon the geometric mean is but slight. This renders the
arithmetic mean practically valueless.
Bacteriological frequency distributions usually possess not only
wide variability, but positive skewness. In such cases the geometric
mean is more probable than the arithmetic mean, but the most impor-
tant reason for preferring the geometric mean is its stability as an
average.
PHYSICS. — Soft characteristic X-rays from arcs in gases and vapors.^
F. L. MoHLER and Paul D. Foote, Bureau of Standards.
If an electron current is maintained by a potential V between a hot
cathode and anode in a vapor at low pressure, then as V is increased
successive changes occur in the spectrum excited by electron impact.
The highest frequency v of each additional group of lines is related to
the least potential required to excite the group by the quantum equa-
tion Ve = hv.
The authors have studied the stages in the discharge by measuring
the photo-electric effect of the radiation on two other electrodes en-
tirely shielded from ions produced in the arc. This photo-electric
current plotted as a function of the exciting voltage shows nearly a
linear relation with changes of slope at critical potentials. In this
1 Received June 15, 1921.
274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 12
manner potentials have been found which are determined by the
limiting frequency of the softest X-ray series of a number of elements.
Table 1 gives the observed potentials, and the corresponding wave
lengths for these X-rays. Carbon was studied in the compounds
CO, COo, C2H4 and CCI4. The latter compound also gave the chlorine
points. The nitrogen point was obtained from air and the other
points from the various elements at temperatures giving suitable
vapor pressures.
The limits La of the L series for light elements, computed from X-ray
spectral data by the relation La = Ka- K^, are included in table 1.
A plot of V Vx against atomic number shows that both the observed
(column a) and computed points from magnesium to chlorine fall on
the same straight line within the probable observational error. The
points h for these elements lie on a nearly parallel line. They indicate
a new X-ray series of feeble intensity. The value of L^ for sodium
falls above the extrapolated straight line but is consistent with Milli-
kan's recent observation of the L„ lines as X = 372 and 376A. The K
limits found for carbon and nitrogen fall close to the extrapolated Ka
line. The carbon point is in fair agreement with the value X = 42.6 A
found by Kurth- who observed the radiation from a solid carbon
anode. Theories of atomic structure indicate that the potassium
points must be related to the M series.
The above preliminary results emphasize the value of this method
of stud^dng radiations in the region between the range of the vacuum
spectroscope and the X-ray crystal spectrometer.
2 Abstract in Phys. Rev. 17: 528. 1921.
June 19, 1921 swann: earth's size; and magnetization 275
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— 7/^(7 bcarmg of the earth's size
upon changes in its magnetization ^ W. F. G. Swann, University
of Minnesota.
H. Lamb- has shown that if a system of currents is started in a
sphere of the size of the earth, endowed with a conductivity equal to
that of copper at normal temperature, a period of ten million 3'^ears
will elapse before the magnetic field becomes reduced to 1/e of its
original value as a result of the decay of the currents. The physical
reason for this result lies in the very large effect of self induction in a
body of the size of the Earth, as compared with the effect of resistance.
The purpose of this note is to examine the bearing of this matter upon
one or two questions relating to the Earth's magnetism. For the pur-
pose in hand, it is unnecessary to give an exact mathematical analysis,
and it wdll sufhce to handle the problem in a way which does not claim
more than a determination of the orders of magnitude of the elements
involved. Such a simplified procedure serves, moreover, to keep the
physical principles more prominently to the fore. In the first place,
it may be of interest to verify Lamb's result by this method.
Decay of currents in a sphere. — If B is the average magnetic flux
through a section of the sphere containing the equator of the axis of
magnetic flux, the e. m. f . around the equator is ira-dB/dt, so that, con-
sidering an equatorial ring of unit cross section and specific resistance p
we have :
Tta- h27rapz = 0 (l)
dt
where i is the current density.
Now, at each instant, B is of the order of magnitude of the magnetic
field at the equator of a sphere of radius a due to a current density
which may be taken for convenience as proportional to the distance
from the axis, and such as to have the value i on the equator. For
this case, it may readily be shownHhat the field at the equator is
4.Tria/\b, so that, as regards order of magnitude, we may write
B = 0.25Tria (2)
for a sphere of unit permeability. Substituting in (1) we have, as
^ Presented at the Washington meeting of the American Physical Society, April 29-30»
1921. Received May 25, 1921.
^ Quoted by A. Schuster in A critical examination of the causes of terrestrial magnetism.
Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond. 24: 124. 1911-1912.
3 See for example, W. F. G. Swann, The Earth's magnetic field, Phil. Mag. (6) 24:
97. 1912.
276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 12
regards order of magnitude:
^+ 5£b=o
dt ira^
leading to :
Putting p = 1.6X10"^ ohm/cm.^ =1.6X10^ e. m. u, for copper, and
(2 = 6.5X10^ cm., as corresponding to the radius of the earth, we read-
ily find that 7raV8p = 10^'* seconds; so that, for B/Bo=l/e, we have
t = 10^* seconds, that is, 3X10^ years, which, in view of the approxima-
tions involved, is in sufficiently good agreement with Lamb's result.
Case of the destruction of a state of permanent magnetization. — It is
usually maintained that the Earth cannot be a permanent magnet on
account of the high temperature of its interior. It is interesting to
observe, however, that if it had been a permanent magnet originally, the
destruction of this magnetization would set up induced currents which
would tend to perpetuate the field; and, as will appear, the net result
would be that, for a body of the Earth's size, and with the conductivity
of copper, about three million years would elapse before the field had
sunk to a value 1/e of that prevailing before the magnetization was
destroyed.
Suppose that B represents the average induction through a great cir-
cle of the order of magnitude of the radius of the sphere. Then
equation (1) applies as before. Now if B is the induction due to the
permanent magnetization, then for a sphere of unit permeability,
which it will suffice to consider, i is of the order of magnitude obtained
by replacing Bhy B — B in equation (2), that is,
B - B = 0.25Wa
so that, using (1), we have, as regards order of magnitude,
7ra2— +8piB-B)=0 (3)
at
Suppose now that the permanent magnetization B decreases according
to the law:
5 = ^oe~"'
Then, from (3),
dB 8p 8p- ,
— + —,B = -^Boe-'" 4)
dt Ta^ ira^
The solution of this equation, subject to B =Bo when f = 0, is:
June 19, 1921 swann: earth's size and magnetization 277
1 2£. 1
To fix our ideas, suppose that the permanent magnetization is
practically destroyed in a time short compared with ira^/Sp, which, for
copper, and for a equal to the radius of the Earth, amounts to 10^^
seconds. Then 8p/ra-a is a small quantity, and we have approxi-
mately :
8pt
so that, even though the permanent magnetization is destroyed rapidly,
the order of magnitude of B will still be So/e after a lapse of 10^^
seconds, or three million years.
APPLICATION TO THE SECULAR VARIATION
Such evidence as exists with regard to the secular variation appears
to indicate that the magnetic poles describe closed curv'^es about the
geographic axis with a period of the order of 500 years. The curv^e
is possibly accompanied by smaller loops, which need not concern us
here, however.
Suppose that, as a first approximation, we divide the Earth's mag-
netization into two uniform magnetizations, one parallel to and one
perpendicular to the geographic axis, and regard the latter as ro-
tating, with regard to the earth itself, once in 500 years. We do not
know the mechanism of the process; but, it is interesting to inquire
as to what would follow by considering it merely as a rotation of a
state of permanent magnetization in the above manner. We shall
find that the induced currents play a very important part, both as
regards their power to almost cancel the effect of the rotating perma-
nent magnetization, and also as regards their influence in producing a
lag of the resultant magnetization behind the permanent magnetization.
If Do refers to the permanent component of magnetization perpen-
dicular to the geographic axis, then, on considering the case of^ me-
ridian circle, we shall have an equation similar to (4), but with Boe~°'
replaced by Do cos 2x^/7, where 2Trt/T represents the angle between
the direction of Do and the perpendicular to the plane of the me-
ridian circle in question. As regards order of magnitude we thus have :
1 B = — Do cos — -
dt tto^ ira^ T
The complementary function may be neglected after a sufi&ciently
long time, and we shall be left with the particular solution :
278 JOURNAL, OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 12
Do
B =
where tan 6
(2^ \
cos \~ t — Q J
4pT
There is thus a lag, and a reduction of amplitude in the ratio unity to
(i + Tr^aVier^p-)'/^
If T is of the order of 500 years, and p corresponds to copper,
this ratio amounts to 0.27 X10~"^. Thus, if the resulting apparent
magnetization perpendicular to the geographic axis is to be at all
comparable with the permanent magnetization (or its equivalent^)
perpendicular to that axis, the internal conductivity of the Earth must
be smaller than that of copper at least in the ratio 0.3 XI 0~Ho unity.
Of course, there is nothing remarkable in this since presumably nobody
would wish to consider the conductivity of the Earth's interior as
comparable with that of copper; but it is nevertheless of interest to
observe that the period of the secular variation has something to say
as regards an upper limit to the conductivity in question.
When one pictures the flow of currents left to themselves in a
sphere, he is likely, at first sight, to regard resistance as the main in-
fluence controlling them. We see, however, that in the case of a large
sphere, such currents are more analogous in their behavior to highly
frictionless gyroscopes, and the problems of precession, etc., associated
with gyroscopic motions naturally invite attention.
The pertinence of the above to problems concerning magnetic fields
in sun-spots is obvious.
PETROLOGY. — Preliminary note on monticellite alnoite from Isle
Cadieux, Quebec.'^ N. L. Bowen, Geophysical Laboratory,
Carnegie Institution of Washington.
The occurrence of alnoite in the vicinity of Montreal, Canada, has
been known for some years. The first discovery was made by Adams, -
and a paper by Harvie^ describes a number of separate intrusives of
this nature. During the past summer Doctor Harvie called to my
'' We are not limited to the case of a rotating permanent magnetization as the active
agency. Thus we mighc consider a system of e. m. f.'s of unspecified origin, whose effects
were to generate currents which would act as the equivalent of the permanent magneti-
zation cited.
' Received June 11, 1921.
2 F. D. Adams. Amer. Journ. Sci. (3) 43: 269-279. 1892.
' Robert Harvie. On the origin and relations of the Palaeozoic breccia of the vicinity of
Montreal. Trans. Roy. vSoc. Canada. (3) 3: Sect. 4, 249-299. 1909.
June 19, 1921 bowen: monticelute alnoite 279
attention the fact that some new occurrences had been found in the
course of a road-materials survey of the area which involved, in a
petrographic way, merely the identification of the rock as alnoite.'*
An examination of one of these occurrences, that at Isle Cadieux,
proved it to be of particular interest, and I am greatly indebted to Dr.
Harvie and to the Director of the Geological Survey of Canada for
the opportunity of making a more detailed study.
The rock is on the whole particularly fresh for a rock of this kind
and the paragenesis of its minerals unusually clear. A fuller descrip-
tion will be given in a paper now in course of preparation which em-
bodies also experimental studies designed to throw some light on the
mineral relations. In the meantime it was thought desirable to pub-
lish a note on the petrography of the rock mass.
The greater part of the rock is a fine-grained dark gray mass in
which the individual minerals are not distinguishable in the hand
specimen except in the case of large poikilitic biotites that are its
principle constituent.
Under the microscope the rock is seen to consist of biotite, olivine,
augite, melilite, perovskite, apatite, titaniferous magnetite, and al-
teration products, largely carbonates. It is therefore a typical alnoite
but differs from all alnoites as hitherto described in that it contains
two olivines, namely, ordinary chrysolite and also monticellite, the
latter usually in amounts considerably in excess of the amount of
chrysolite.
IVIonticellite, biotite, and melilite constitute groundmass minerals
and often poikilitically include augite and chrysolite. Plainly a great
deal of resorption of augite and chrysolite has occurred, their places
being taken by biotite, monticellite and melilite. There is therefore
a marked difference between the chrysolite and monticellite in the
manner of their occurrence. Not infrequently monticellite forms a
reaction rim about chrysolite with the two olivines in optical contin-
uity. In such cases the great difference in birefringence is particu-
larly clear on account of their uniform orientation. In addition to
the different mode of occurrence and the greatly inferior birefringence
of the monticellite it is further contrasted with the chrysolite in being
plainly optically negative, whereas the chrysolite is just upon the
border between the positive and negative members of the forsterite-
fayalite series and its sign is therefore doubtful.
* Geol. Survey Canada, Summary Rept. 1916: 198-206.
280 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 12
Only those distinctive features of the two olivines that are readily
seen in thin section are given here. Chemical evidence and more
detailed optical measurements are available, but await the final
paper in which the characters of the other minerals and variations
within the mass will be discussed.
An analysis of one of the freshest specimens has kindly been made
by Dr. H. S. Washington and is given in table 1.
TABLE 1.
Chemical Analysis of Monticellite Alnoite.
Isle Cadieux, Quebec. H. S. Washington analyst.
Sum 100.44
This specimen was chosen primarily for its freshness and, while not
an uncommon facies, is not altogether representative of the usual
type. It contains more melilite than biotite and somewhat more
chrysolite than monticellite, whereas these conditions are reversed
in the average rock of the mass. If the amounts of CO2 and H2O be
taken as criteria, this is the least altered alnoite that has yet been
analyzed.
Monticellite as an igneous rock mineral. — Monticellite, the lime
magnesia olivine, has hitherto been supposed to occur only in contact
metamorphic rocks. That it can crystallize directly from melts of
the appropriate composition has been shown by Ferguson and Merwin.^
That it has not been found in igneous rocks before is in part due to the
fact that natural magmas have usually not been of appropriate com-
position and it was not present, but it may also be due to the fact that
it has, at times, escaped detection even though present. I have
examined a series of slides made from specimens from the original
Alno locality. Only one of these is of alnoite (labeled fine-grained
alnoite Aldersnaset, Alno^) and in this I find that many of the chryso-
lite grains are surrounded by rims of monticellite, always in optical
6Amer. Journ. Sci. (4) 48: 81-123. 1919.
« The specimens are the property of Dr. Washington and were collected by Dr. Hog-
BOM. A duplicate of this collection is in the U. S. Geological Survey Petrographic Reference
Collection, where this rock is No. 1044.
June 19, 1921 abstracts: physics 281
continuity. The resorption relation between the two minerals is
plain and the monticellite is here again a groundmass mineral, while
the chrysolite occurs as resorbed early crystals. It seems not im-
probable that other related rocks may contain monticellite and they
should be examined carefully with this in mind. It should be noted
that monticellite is readily altered, apparently even more readily than
melilite, and its presence is to be expected only in the freshest material.
Summary. — In this paper monticellite alnoite from Isle Cadieux,
Quebec, is described. The rock shows the two olivines chrysolite and
monticellite, the latter usually in greater amount. The chrysolite,
together with augite, occurs in early formed crystals, while the monti-
cellite, as well as melilite and biotite, occur as groundmass minerals
that have attacked and resorbed the chrysolite and augite. Monti-
cellite often forms reaction rims around chrysolite that are in optical
continuity with it.
Monticellite alnoite is a newly recognized but not a new rock
type, for some of the alnoite of the original type locality is found to
hold monticellite showing the same relationships.
ABSTRACTS
Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts preferably prepared
and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should
conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
PHYSICS. — Polarized light in the study of ores and metals. Fred. E. Wright.
Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 58: 401-447. 1919.
In this paper the attempt has been made to present in connected form the
electromagnetic theory of the reflection of light from absorbing media, and
especially that part of the theory which treats of the reflection phenomena
resulting from vertically incident light-waves under the conditions usually
encountered in the use of the reflecting or metallographic microscope. Nor-
mally incident white light contains, after reflection by an anisotropic sub-
stance, a certain amount of plane-polarized light, and this amount increases
with the strength of the birefringence and the biabsorption in the crj^stal
plate. The presence of plane-polarized light in natural light can be detected
by several different methods, such as are used in determinations of sky
polarization. For this purpose Koenigsberger adopted the Savart method
with rotating glass compensator. A second and new method is proposed
which employs either a single calcite cleavage plate with proper aperture or a
small portable Koenig-Martens photometer. This method is more sensitive
than the first. Methods of this kind, which are based on differences in in-
tensity of the reflected components of vertically incident light, are fifty or
more times less sensitive in the detection of anisotropism than methods based
on the phenomena produced by plane-polarized transmitted light-waves.
In case vertically incident, plane-polarized light is used, the difference in
amplitude of the reflected components causes a rotation of a plane of polariza-
tion, and this can be detected and measured by any one of a number of devices
282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 12
in common use by petrologists, such as the sensitive-tint quartz plate, the Biot-
Soleil sensitive-tint biplate, the Bertrand eyepiece, and the biquartz- wedge
plate. Of these, the last is the most sensitive, because in it the sensibility is
variable and can be adjusted to meet the conditions of illumination.
In opaque substances the precision attainable by these methods is, in general,
small, and the phenomena which can be observed are relatively few and re-
stricted in scope. As a result, one can not expect from the application of
polarized light to such substances the harvest of optical data which has been
gathered from transparent crystals. F. E. W.
PHYSICS. — The measurement of the intensity of transmitted and reflected
light by polarization photometers. Fred E. Wright. Joum. Opt. Soc.
Amer. 2: 65-75. 1919. (Geophysical Lab. Papers on Optical Glass,
No. 22a.)
In this article a brief statement is given of the methods used by the writer
during the war period for the measurement of the light transmission of optical
glasses and of optical instruments. Several new attachments and im-
provements on the Koenig-Martens photometer are described ; also the method
for their use in the practical measurement of the amount of light transmitted
and reflected by optical glasses, and of the light transmission of optical
instruments. F. E. W.
PHYSICS. — Polarization photometer prisms. Fred E. Wright. Journ.
Opt. Soc. Amer. 2: 93-96. 1919. (Geophysical Lab. Papers on Opti-
cal Glass, No. 226.)
In this paper is considered the quantitative effect of external and internal
reflections on the intensity of light-waves transmitted by the calcite rhomb
and the Wollaston prism, when these are used in photometric work. This
discussion is necessary to an adequate understanding of polarization photom-
eters and the factors underlying their use. F. E. W.
GEOLOGY. — The future of Alaska mining. Alfred H. Brooks. U. S.
Geol. Survey Bull. 7 14-A. Pp. 56, pis. 3, fig. 1 .
Although many local factors affect the future of Alaska mining, the most
important consists of the mineral reserves. An estimate of Alaska's mineral
reserves would be difficult enough, even with complete geologic maps. Only
twenty per cent of the Territory has been covered by even reconnaissance
geologic surveys, and less than one per cent by detailed surveys. The
information at hand does not permit of even approximate quantitative
estimates of reserves. It indicates, however, the areal distribution of the
mineral deposits and a study of their geologic occurrence gives a basis for
forecasting their availability to the miner.
The wide distribution of placer gold in Alaska and the known occurrence of
many gold-bearing quartz veins shows the large areal extent of the auriferous
mineralization. Furthermore, the wide distribution of intrusive granites,
with which the occurrence of gold is genetically related, augurs well for future
discoveries. The Alaska placers have during 40 years of mining produced
$218,000,000 worth of gold. A careful consideration of all the facts avail-
able indicates that the placer gold reserves have a value of at least $360,000-
000.
The Alaska copper deposits are widespread and are found in a number of
different modes of occurrence and geologic relations. It is important to
note that the Alaska copper deposits thus far developed are primary. The
practical deduction from these facts is that no greater variation in the mineral
June 19, 1921 proceedings: phiIvOsophical society 283
composition and copper content of the ores is to be expected at depths to be
reached by future mining than has already been noted a few feet below the
surface. Alaska has produced a total of 272,500 tons of copper.
The Alaska coal reserves include enormous quantities of lignite, con-
siderable low-grade bituminous coal, and much smaller quantities of high-
grade bituminous coal and anthracite. There are many other potential
mineral deposits in Alaska in addition to those listed above. Of these, the
petroleum fields give the most promise for immediate development. Be-
tween 1880 and 1919 Alaska produced mineral wealth to a total value of
$438,160,000. A. H. B.
ZOOLOGY.— r/ze Echinoderms of the Canadian Arctic Expedition, iqij-i8.
Austin H. Clark. Rep. Canadian Arctic Exped. 1913-18, Vol. 8,
Part C, Echinoderms. Pp. 11 (IC-llC).
The echinoderms, 2024 specimens representing 20 species, secured by
the Canadian Arctic Expedition, are herein described and the relationships
of the Canadian Arctic fauna are discussed. A. H. C.
ZOOLOGY. — Additional data for the Report on Echinoderms of the Canadian
Arctic Expedition, based upon specimens from the ''Neptune'' and other
Eastern Arctic Expeditions. A. H. Clark. Rep. Canadian Arctic
Exped. 1913-18, Vol. 8, Part C, Echinoderms. Pp. 3 (11C-13C).
Herein is recorded additional arctic material in the collections of the
Victoria Memorial Museum at Ottawa. A. H. C.
ZOOLOGY. — Sea-Lilies and Feather -Stars. Austin H. Clark. Smith-
sonian Misc. Coll. 72, No. 7, 1-43, pis. 1-16. 1921.
This is a semi-popular summary of the present-day knowledge in regard
to living crinoids ; it includes a considerable amount of hitherto unpublished
information, especially concerning the color of these animals, the extra-
ordinary similarity between crinoids and plants, and the conditions of para-
sitism under which crinoids live. A. H. C.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
846th meeting
The 846th meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club
on February 12, 1921. The meeting was called to order by President Faris
with 66 persons present. The following program was given :
C. LeRoy Meisinger : The meteorological factor in aeronautics (illustrated) .
For various reasons the public confidence, the essential factor in business
success, has not been acquired in commercial aeronautics, and it behooves
enterprises engaged in promoting civil aviation to take advantage of every
agency which will help in this direction. Meteorology is such an agency
and its application to aeronautics is two-fold: climatological, dealing with
average conditions of the elements; and current, dealing with conditions
prevailing at the time of flight.
The functions of the Weather Bureau in relation to aeronautics are (1)
to collect and disseminate observational data; (2) to forecast for specified
regions; and (3) to conduct researches. The limitations of the work of
the governmental agency are expected to evolve the aeronautical meteor-
ologist, privately retained by commercial concerns. His duties will consist
284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 12
in (1) the interpretation and detailing of information for specific craft in
fiight; (2) the dispatching of craft; (3) the furnishing of information to other
departments of the concern; and (4) the instruction of pilots.
Governmental activities must be expanded along lines of the collection of
aerological information. With this assistance, the general flying weather
forecasts will probably keep pace with the development of the demand. The
making of upper air pressure maps is the type of research problem of great
assistance in forecasting. The status of this problem was discussed. The
work of the commercial meteorologist can be surmised by reference to charts
of upper air conditions along flying routes. This paper has appeared
in full in the Monthly Weather Review.
L. H. Adams and E. D. Williamson: The density of strained glass (illus-
trated; presented by Mr. Adams.)
The stresses existing in "strained" glass are such that in the interior portion
of the glass the density is less than that of unstrained (annealed) glass, while
in the outer portion it is greater. It can be demonstrated, however, that in
any strained piece of glass these two efi"ects exactly neutralize each other,
so that the total volume of the piece is unaffected by strain. In order to
reconcile this conclusion with the experimental results which always show a
smaller density for strained glass when compared with unstrained glass, it
is necessary to assume that the apparent diminution of density is due to the
formation of bubbles in the interior, where a hydrostatic negative pressure
exists. This agrees with the conclusion reached many years ago by Barus
that the low density of Prince Rupert's drops is a consequence of the presence
of vacuum bubbles.
G. T. Rude : The tidal work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey (illustrated) .
Tidal work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey had its origin in the necessity
for reducing soundings, in hydrographic surveys, for the fall and rise of the
tides. The needs of the engineer and mariner have necessitated the extension
of the work until now it covers the following fields: Prediction of tides and
preparation of annual tide tables; determination of datum planes; develop-
ment of instruments for observing and predicting tides; study of mean sea
level and its relation to crustal movements; and the study of tidal phenomena
in general.
The issue of tide tables for the use of the mariner began in 1853 with a
condensed table for eight stations for the United States. These tables have
increased in size and scope so that now they appear annually, in advance,
as a volume of about five hundred pages covering the entire maritime world,
with full predictions for each day of the year at eighty-one principal ports
and tidal differences for more than thirty-five hundred subsidiary ports.
Prior to 1882 the tides were predicted by means of empirical tables and
graphs. Beginning with that year the predictions were made on a machine
designed by Mr. William Ferrel of the Survey. This machine was essen-
tially a maxima and minima machine and in 1910 it was replaced by a new
tide-predicting machine designed and constructed in the office of the Survey.
On this new machine the height of the tide at any time between high water
and low water is indicated, and the time and height of the tide are indicated
on the face of the machine, from which they can be recorded directly on
forms for the printer. The setting of the machine and the prediction of tides
for a full year at any station require about ten hours.
It is, of course, out of the question to predict the tides for all ports. To
June 19, 1921 proceedings: philosophical society 285
secure the state of the tide at places where no predictions are made, it is cus-
tomary to refer such places to some port for which predictions are made.
The referring of a subsidiary port to the proper standard port has led to a
study of the different types of tides, the principal ones of which are the semi-
daily, the daily and the mixed. In the semi-daily tide we have two high and
two low waters every day, with morning and afternoon tides very much 'alike.
In the daily tide we have only one high and one low water a day. In the
mixed type of tide, caused by a combination of the two preceding types,
we have two low and two high waters a day, but with differences in duration
and height of morning and afternoon tides.
In all types of tides we find a variation with the moon's declination. When
the declination is small, the forces giving rise to the daily wave are small,
and at such times we may have semi-daily tides even at places where the
daily is the predominating type. When the declination of the moon is large
the daily forces are at a maximum, and we will have even in the semi-daily
tide a difference between the morning and afternoon tides.
Formerly surveyors and engineers made use of arbitrary or local datum
planes. To eliminate the confusion resulting from this practice, which fre-
quently made it impossible to correlate the results of recent with the previous
surveys, the Coast and Geodetic Survey has been establishing datum planes,
based on tidal definition, for the coasts of the United States. The great
advantage of the tidal datum plane lies, not only in its simplicity of definition,
but also in the certainty with which it may be reestablished at any future
time.
For practical purposes a tidal plane determined from a series of observations
covering a period of a month may be considered as well determined. How-
ever, such planes determined at dift'erent times may differ considerably,
and for the accurate determination, it is necessary to have long-continued
observations at selected representative points. At these principal stations
the Survey maintains self-registering tide gauges, which automatically record
the height of the tide. Such observations covering a number of years bring
out changes in mean sea level and furnish the data for a quantitative deter-
mination of relative changes in elevation of land and water.
The space allotted permits the covering of only the practical phases of
the tidal work of the Survey as they relate to the needs of the engineer and
mariner. The theoretical phases, however, as they relate to the development
of the theory of tides, have not been neglected. The tidal papers of William
Ferrel and R. A. Harris were results of the vSurvey's tidal studies along these
lines.
The first paper was discussed by Messrs. Sosman, Lloyd and Humphreys.
D. L. Hazard, Corresponding Secretary.
847th meeting
The 847th meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club
on February 26, 1921. The meeting was called to order by President Faris
with 41 persons present. The program was as follows:
F. Hastings Smyth and Howard S. Roberts: The system cvipric oxide
cuprous oxide, oxygen, (illustrated; presented by Mr. Smyth).
This system has been studied by several investigators, notably by FooTE
and Smith, and L. Wohler has argued rather convincingly that a continuous
series of solid solutions exists between the two copper oxides, and that at
286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 12
any given temperature the oxygen equilibrium pressure is dependent on the
composition of the soHd phase.
The authors' results show that solid solutions are absent, and that the
following reactions may take place in the system:
(1) 4CuO(5)-2Cu20(5) + 02(g) -AH,
(2) 4CuO(5)^2Cu20(/ solution in CuO) + 02(g) — AH2
(3) 4CuO(/ solution in Cu20)^2Cu20 {s)-\-02{g) — AH3 where AHi, AH2, and
AH3 are the heat quantities absorbed in each reaction.
At 1080.2 °C and an oxygen equilibrium pressure of 402.3 mm. Hg, a eutectic
containing 72.7 mol per cent CU2O and 27.3 mol per cent CuO fuses. Below
this point, therefore, Reaction (1) takes place; above this point either Reaction
(2) or (3) takes place, dependent upon the quantity of oxygen originally
present in the solid and liquid phases. The pressure-temperature curves
for these reactions have been traced experimentally up to temperatures of
1085.0°, a metastable point, for Reaction (1); to 1232.5° for Reaction (2);
to 1231.3° for Reaction (3).
Theoretically the course of these curves, which intersect at the quadruple
(eutectic) point of the system can be followed by means of the general equation
dp/dt = An/Av
w^hich, under conditions of constant temperature and pressure, becomes
dp/dt = 1/T.AH/AV
AHi remains substantially constant over the temperature range studied.
AH2 can be considered as the algebraic sum of AHi and of additional heat
absorbed by fusion of CU2O and of additional CuO to form the liquid solution.
AH2 is therefore greater than AHi and the value of dp/dt above the eutectic
point is always greater than that of the extrapolation of curve for Reaction
(1). Likewise A//^ is always less than A//, and the slope of the curve for
Reaction (3) is always less than that of the extrapolation of the curve for Re-
action (1).
The curve for Reaction (2) is tangent to the curve for the condensed system
CuO (5), CuO(/) at the melting point of pure CuO; that for Reaction (3)
is tangent to the curve for the system Cu20(5), Cu20(/) at the melting point
of CU2O. The melting point of pure CuO has not been reached.
The melting-point diagram for mixtures of the two copper oxides, under
equilibrium pressures of oxygen, has been established throughout the range
94.4 mol per cent CU2O to 45.9 mol per cent CU2O.
Lower equilibrium pressures were determined in a fused silica tube reaction
chamber with a mercury manometer attached. Higher pressures were de-
termined with a furnace enclosed in a brass bomb, and with a caHbrated
Bourdon gage. Temperatures were measured by means of a platinum-
platinrhodium thermoelement. Purified electrolytic oxygen was used and
copper oxides were prepared from previously analyzed chemically pure me-
tallic copper.
The paper was discussed by W. P. White.
F. Wenner, J. S. Martin, and Nyna L. Forman: The electrical resistance
of the human body. (Illustrated; presented by Mr. Wenner).
Measurements of the electrical resistance of the human body have given
results differing among themselves so radically that one seeking information
on the subject is led to question either the reliability of the work or the signifi-
cance of the values given.
The difficulties encountered have had their origin mainly in those portions
June 19, 1921 scientific notes and news 287
of the skin through which the test current entered and left the body. The
skin not only has a high and uncertain resistance, but in it there are capacity,
polarization, and possibly other effects which not only make the measure-
ments difficult but largely destroy their significance. It seemed, therefore,
that it might be of interest to measure the resistance of some parts of the
body not including those portions of the skin through which the test current
enters and leaves. To thus limit the parts whose resistance is to be measured,
use is made of four connections to the body. Two of these serve to lead the
test current to and from the body and two serve to bring the potential dif-
ference developed in a particular part of the body, as a result of the test
current, to a place where it can be measured.
Ordinarily we understand the resistance of a conductor to be the ratio of
the drop in potential in it to the current flowing. However, when a conductor
has four terminals to which electrical connections can be made, the resistance
is understood to be the ratio of the drop in potential between the potential
terminals to the current entering and leaving through the current terminals.
In either case the potential considered should be only that caused by the cur-
rent and not that which may arise in some other way.
In some of the measurements the left hand and the left foot were used as
a pair of current terminals, and the right hand and right foot as a pair of
potential terminals. Electrical connections to the hands and feet were made
by placing them in vessels containing a solution of common salt in water.
These vessels are either lined with metal, or contain a piece of metal having
a fairly large surface. Insulated wires are attached to the pieces of metal
or to the metal lining and serve as leads for connecting the body into the cir-
cuits used in making the measurements. The resistance of the four-terminal
conductor formed in this way is substantially the resistance of the trunk
of the body with all the connecting resistances and practically all disturbing
influences eliminated.
In most cases the resistance has been found to be between 20 and 30 ohms.
The paper was discussed by Messrs. Silsbee, White, C. A. Briggs, and
others.
H. H. Kimball, Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
The following officers were elected at the annual meeting of the Maryland-
Virginia-District of Columbia Section of the Mathematical Association of
America, held at the drafting hall of the Capitol on May 7 : President, Oscar
S. Adams of the Coast and Geodetic Survey; Secretary-Treasurer, G. R.
Clements of the U. S. Naval Academy, Annapolis; Member Executive
Committee, F. D. Murnaghan of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.
The National Geographic Society is sending an expedition this summer to
explore and study the Pueblo Bonito and Pueblo del Arroyo ruins in the Chaco
Canyon of northwestern New Mexico. The expedition will be led by Mr.
Neil M. Judd of the U. S. National Museum.
Recent accessions in the Division of Plants of the National Museum include
400 specimens from China and New Caledonia, received as an exchange
from Mr. G. Bonati of Lure, France; 250 specimens of Chinese plants,
collected by Simeon Ten, purchased from the Arnold Arboretum in Boston;
and 713 specimens from Quebec, received as an exchange from the College
de Longueuil.
288 JOURNAL, OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. U, NO. 12
The semi-annual meeting of the Advisory Committee on Non-Ferrous
Alloys was held at the Bureau of Standards on April 20 and was attended by
members of the various technical societies representing the non-ferrous
industries and also by representatives from the technical services of the War
and Na\T Departnients. The subjects discussed included specifications
for hard-drawn brass wire for airplane bomb release, rotating bands for pro-
jectiles, various aircraft problems related to aluminum alloys, questions
concerning the composition of bearing metals, corrosion and etching of metals,
and the part played by gases in metals.
The new Low Temperature Laboratory of the Bureau of Mines was dedi-
cated by Madame CuRiE at 10 a.m. on Saturday, May 21.
The National Screw Thread Commission met at the Bureau of Standards
on Monday, April 18, and considered the Progress Report recently issued
and outlined a program for continuing the work of the Commission.
Messrs. L. H. Adams and E. D. Williamson of the Geophysical Laboratory,
Carnegie Institution of Washington, have received the Longstreth Medal
from the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia in recognition of their work on the
annealing of glass.
Dr. C. F. Brooks, meteorologist at the Weather Bureau and editor of the
Monthly Weather Review, has resigned, effective June 30, to accept the asso-
ciate professorship of meteorology and climatology at Clark University,
Worcester, Massachusetts.
Mr. F. C. Brown of the Bureau of Standards returned in May from a two
months' trip to the scientific institutions of England, France, and Germany.
A meeting in honor of Madame CuRiE was held at the National Museum
on Friday evening. May 20. Dr. Robert A. Millikan of the University
of Chicago lectured on Radium.
Dr. Frederick B. Power, of the Bureau of Chemistry, was presented with
a gold medal by Mr. Henry S. Wellcome, founder of the Wellcome Chemical
Research Laboratories of London, "in commemoration of his eighteen and
one-half years of service as Director of the Laboratories and in recognition of
his many valuable researches in the field of organic chemistry." The pre-
sentation took place at the Cosmos Club on May 9.
Dr. Edward Bennett Rosa, chief physicist of the Bureau of Standards,
died suddenly in his office at the Bureau on May 17, 1921, in his sixtieth year.
Dr. Rosa was born at Rogersville, New York, October 4, 1861. After gradu-
ation at Wesleyan and Johns Hopkins Universities, he became instructor
at the University of Wisconsin, and then professor of physics at Wesleyan.
He was appointed chief physicist of the Bureau in 1901. At Wesleyan he
developed the physical side of the respiration calorimeter with W. O. AtwaTER.
At the Bureau his attention was directed to the determination of the funda-
mental electrical units and constants, including the ampere and the electro-
magnetic-electrostatic ratio, and also to numerous engineering problems,
particularly during the War. During the past three years he had devoted
much thought and labor to the problem of the Federal Government's scien-
tific personnel and its reclassification by Congress, and his papers on this
subject, first published in this Journal^ and widely reprinted, have focussed
much public attention upon this important matter. He was a member of the
Academy and the Philosophical Society of Washington, as well as of many
national scientific and technical organizations.
> This Journal 10: 341-382, 53.3-558. 1920.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. U Jin.Y 19, 1921 No. 13
CHEMISTRY. — The evolution of matter ^ Frank WigglESWORTh
Clarke, U. S. Geological Survey.
During the greater part of the nineteenth century many philosophi-
cal chemists held a vague behef that the so-called chemical elements
were not distinct entities, but manifestations of one primal form of mat-
ter, the proiyle, as it was sometimes termed. Other chemists, more con-
servative, looked askance at all such speculations, and held fast to what
they regarded as estabHshed facts. To them an element was something
distinct from all other kinds of matter, a substance which could neither
be decomposed nor transmuted into anything else. One fact, how-
ever, they ignored, namely, that the elements were intimately con-
nected by many relations, which are best shown in the periodic law of
Mendeleeff, who actually predicted the existence of unknown elements
which were afterwards discovered. This is ancient history, with which
all chemists are now familiar. It became evident to most chemists
that the elements must have had some community of origin, for other-
wise their relations to one another are unintelligible.
In 1873 I ventured to publish the suggestion, ^ based on spectro-
scopic evidence and assuming the nebular hypothesis to be true, that
the evolution of planets from nebulae had been accompanied by an
evolution of the chemical elements. The nebulae are chemically
simple, the hotter stars more complex, the cooler stars and the Sun
still more so, and the solid Earth the most complicated of all. This
was promptly denounced as heresy ; but nearly a year later Lockyer'
put forth an analogous suggestion, based upon the same sort of evi-
dence, but starting from the other end. That is, he assumed that in
the hotter stars some elements were dissociated, and his suggestion
was received with a good deal of favor. The heresy was beginning to
be orthodox. In course of time the discovery of radioactivity by
aecquerel and of radium by Madame Curie established the fact that
> Published with the permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received
June 16, 1921.
*F. W. Clarke, Evolution and the spectroscope. Pop. Sci. Mon. January, 1873.
3N. LocKVER, Proc. Roy. Soc. 21: 513. (Paper dated Nov. 20, 1873).
289
290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 13
some, at least, of the elements were really unstable. The evolution of
helium from radium, discovered by Ramsay and vSoddy, made the
evidence for this instability complete ; a derivation of one element from
another had actually been observed.
These discoveries opened a new field of research; and it was soon
found that the elements at the top of the atomic weight scale, namely,
uranium and thorium, are spontaneously but slowly decaying, yield-
ing more than thirty new substances which differ widely in point of
stability. To each one a half -life period is assigned, measured in
some cases by thousands of years, in others by fractions of a second.
Among these are two new varieties of lead ; one derived from uranium,
the other from thorium, which chemically are not distinguishable
from ordinary or normal lead except by differences in their atomic
weights and their specific gravities. The lead from thorium has an
atomic weight about a unit higher, and that from uranium about a
unit lower, than the atomic weight of normal lead. To this class of facts I
shall refer later, as evidence in support of my arguments. That
chemical elements can decay is the essential fact to be remembered.
That the chemical elements were formed by a process of evolution
from the simplest forms of matter can hardly be doubted now, but the
process is not yet ended. They were developed at high temperatures;
but when a certain stage was reached in the cooling mass they began
to combine with one another to form the new class of substances which
are known as compounds. These, obviously, represent an advanced
degree of complexity, with corresponding instability; and with vary-
ing conditions both combinations and decompositions, such as are
reproducible by human agencies, constantly occur. By this extension
of the evolutionary process the solid Earth was built up, but in princi-
ple the process is the same throughout. From the formation of the
first elements to the chemical changes now taking place upon the
Earth there is no real interruption. One line of progress has been
followed until a maximum of natural complexity and instability is
reached in the organic compounds which form the basis of all physical
life, whether vegetable or animal. The same fundamental matter,
governed by the same fundamental laws, appears from beginning to
end of the evolutionary process.
Between the formation of an element and the formation of a com-
pound there is, however, an apparent difference. The first stage of
the process was one which required a vast period of time, the second
stage is marked by rapidity. The series of elements was slowly
July 19, 1921 clarke : evolution of matter 291
formed, and their rate of decay, as shown between uranium and lead,
is also relatively slow. The formation and decomposition of com-
pounds, on the other hand, is rapid; and in some cases their rate is
measurable. The distinction is not absolutely definite, for some of
the short-lived products of radioactive decay seem to be exceptions to
the rule, which in general may be stated as follows: The process of
evolution is characterized by progressive acceleration, being slow at
first, and becoming gradually more and more rapid. Its rate of
acceleration may not be uniform but the general drift is clear. It
follows the line from the simplest substances to the most complex.
In all vital processes the ease and rapidity with which compounds are
formed and developed is evident, and some of these substances are
extremely complicated.
In any attempt to discuss the evolution of the chemical elements
we have for guidance some facts and many analogies. That the most
complex elements are unstable we have already seen, and it is sus-
pected that all the others follow the same rule. Potassium and rubid-
ium are feebly radioactive, which is an evidence of instability, and
other confirmatory evidence will be cited later. Stability, however,
is a relative term, and a substance which is stable under certain con-
ditions becomes unstable under others. The prime factors which
determine external stability are temperature, pressure, and chemical
environment. For example, some compounds which are stable in
anhydrous surroundings are decomposed in presence of water. Calcium
carbonate, under ordinary conditions, is divided at high temperatures
into carbon dioxide and lime, but heated in a steel bomb it not only re-
mains undecomposed, but it may even be melted, to form upon cooling
a crystalline marble. Examples like these might be multiplied in-
definitely. As a rule stability diminishes with increasing temperature,
but ,is favored by increased pressure. We may also assume that the
more symmetrical an atom or compound is, the more stable it is likely
to be. We are dealing now with compounds; but to the evolution
of the elements the same general rules must apply.
Now, returning to our main problem, was the evolution of the ele-
ments a regular progression, such as might be represented by a smooth
curve or a straight line ; or was it irregular and quite independent of
their order in the scale of atomic weights? To answer this question
we must try to imagine what happened in the development of the
larger masses, the nebulae and the stars. On this subject there is a
plausible hypothesis which has been favored by many astronomers;
292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 13
namely that the nebula at first was relatively cool, that the tempera-
ture gradually rose to that of the hottest stars, and then regularly de-
clined to the end of the series, the solid planet. A gaseous mass, con-
tracting under the influence of gravitation, became warmer; at its
center where the pressure was greatest, the increasing condensation
generated still higher degrees of temperature, until a luminous nucleus
was formed. As condensation went on with increasing intensities of
pressure, the temperature continued to rise until the heat generated
by compression was less than that lost by radiation into space, when
cooling began. Although this hypothesis, in its crude form, is not
universally accepted, it nevertheless gives a fair conception of that
part of the evidence with which we are now concerned. The process
of evolution from cool to hot and then to cool again is fairly outlined.
The nucleus of the original nebula has its modern representative in the
Sun.
In all the foregoing discussion it has been tacitly assumed that the
nebula from which the solar system was developed was similar in all
essential respects to the planetary nebulae. The latter, as shown by
their spectra, consist mainly of hydrogen, helium, andnebulium, with
slight traces in some of them of carbon, nitrogen, and perhaps other
elements. NebuHum is known only from its lines in the spectrum, and
its atomic weight has been estimated by Fabry and Buisson as 2.7,
placing it between hydrogen and helium. In any further study of
relations between the atomic weights of the elements, nebulium must
be taken into account, and perhaps also coronium, so called from its
lines in the spectrum of the solar corona. From its position in the
corona it is assumed to be lighter than hydrogen, and so would seem
to be an even more primitive element. That possibility cannot be con-
sidered here; we must limit ourselves to the conditions actually seen
in the nebulae. No assumption is made as to the possible ancestry of
the nebular elements. They are the visible beginnings.
Now it is easy to see that in the process of evolution from nebula
to sun an orderly development of the elements could hardly have been
possible. With changing temperatures, changing pressures, and
changing environments all the conditions required for a regular pro-
gression according to the order of the atomic weights were lacking.
The order actually followed was that of relative stability. In the
hotter stars only the most stable elements were formed, and naturally
in the greatest abundance. Calcium (atomic weight 40) and iron
(atomic weight 56) were among the earliest to appear, while the others,
July 19, 1921 . clarke : evolution of matter 293
between helium (atomic weight 4) and iron, either came later or were
developed at first in smaller quantities. As cooling went on more and
more elements were generated, and in the Sun all the possible ones are
presumably present. It is conceivable that elements of different
stability may have been formed simultaneously, one in that part of
the cooling mass where temperatures and pressures were highest,
another further away from the center under less rigorous conditions.
This, however, is something which cannot be proved. If the three
nebular elements were the raw material from which the other elements
were built, their relative amounts must have been continually chang-
ing, and so as each new element appeared a new environment was
established for all that followed. How far these changes may have
affected the evolution of the elements it is impossible to say, but in the
evolution of compounds similar conditions would be significant.
That some of the chemical elements are very abundant, and others
comparatively scarce, is a familiar fact which bears directly upon the
theory of evolution. Their relative abundance in known terrestrial
matter has been repeatedly computed, by several workers and by
different methods. The results agree remarkably well, at least in the
orders of magnitude as expressed in percentages. This order, when
we combine the figures for the lithosphere, the ocean, and the atmos-
phere, is as follows. First, oxygen, then silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium,
sodium, potassium, hydrogen, and titanium, and these ten elements
form at least 98 per cent of the whole. Only 2 per cent remains for
all the other elements, some 80 or more in number."*
For present purposes this estimate is obviously defective, for it
covers hardly more than a thin film on the surface of the Earth and
says nothing about the Earth's interior. This objection is easily met
if we take three facts into consideration. The Earth behaves like a
huge magnet, it resembles a huge meteorite, and its mean density is
double that of the rocks forming its crust. From these facts, and other
quite minor considerations which need not be discussed here, we may
fairly assume that the interior of the Earth contains a large propor-
tion of metallic iron, and the quantity of it needed to give with the
crust the mean density of the globe can be calculated. This has been
done by others, and it now appears that in the Earth as a whole,
iron predominates, oxygen and hydrogen fall to subordinate positions
while the order of the other elements is little changed. Probably
*The details of the most recent computation of the relative abundance of the elements
will appear in a joint paper by Dr. H. S. Washington and myself, which is in course of
preparation.
294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 13
nickel would appear among the first ten elements, but such a change
will not affect our argument. Ten or eleven elements, all below
59 in atomic weight, exceed in abundance all the others. They are
structurally among the simplest elements, and therefore, presumably
the most stable.
These conclusions may now be applied to the hypothesis of evolu-
tion. The total amount of matter in the original nebula was of
course finite; a large part of it was absorbed in building the simpler
and more stable elements, and only what remained was available
for the development of all the others. This conclusion, I admit,
is largely speculative, but it is a legitimate interpretation of evidence.
It may be modified by future investigations, but it is not likely to
be completely overthrown. It is possible that the relative abundance
of the elements may be different in different parts of the solar system,
but it is not probable that any of the higher elements can find a
place among the first ten. The whole scheme of evolution may be
figured diagrammatically as a series of waves in which the crests repre-
sent the elements, and the depressions the gaps between them. In
such a series the waves would reach their greatest height at iron, and
then gradually flatten until the end where instability becomes most
clearly evident.
Between the evolution of the elements and their degradation
there is a sharp contrast. The two processes do not follow the same
path. Uranium does not decay to thorium, that to radium, then
to lead, and so on down the line. The same divergence is shown
between the synthesis and decomposition of compounds. It would
be easy, for example, to effect a direct synthesis of calcium carbonate
from its elements ; but to reverse the process without the intervention
of other substances would be extremely difficult. To cite a different
example, trinitrotoluene, the T.N.T. of recent warfare, is prepared
by the action of nitric acid on toluene, a relatively slow operation.
On the other hand, when T.N.T. decomposes it does so instantaneously,
and the products are oxides of carbon, methane, water, and free
nitrogen. Something like this happens in the decay of a radioactive
element, but with a difference; uranium, thorium or radium decom-
poses atom by atom; T.N.T. flies to pieces in mass. The one process
is slow, the other extremely rapid.
I have already specified the external conditions which determine
the stability of an element or compound, but when we consider the
atom by itself, internal conditions are more important. On the
July 19, 1921 clarke: evolution of matter 295
structure of atoms there is not as yet a complete agreement, and
much remains to be done before the problem can be definitely solved.
I cannot go into this subject in detail, but I may take it for granted
that the conception of an atom as consisting of an electropositive
nucleus attended by few or many electrons of opposite sign, is well
established. In such a structure symmetry would be conducive
to stability, and any deficiency in that respect would be unfavorable.
For a simple element, with few electrons, symmetry would be most
easily attained, for a complex element with many electrons it would
be more difficult. Furthermore, an atom to be stable must show an
exact balance between the electropositive and electronegative charges.
With a single ring or shell of electrons the force of attraction holding
nucleus and electrons together should be strongest; with concentric
rings of electrons the outer ones would be more loosely held, and the
atomic structure should be weaker. This seems to be the case with
uranium and its neighbors. Here the structures are the most com-
plex, and the number of electrons greatest. In short, the conditions,
internal and external, which determine stability are by no means
simple, and some of them operate in opposite directions. They all
agree, however, in favoring the evolution of the simpler elements
and so render the fact of their greater abundance more intelligible.
When an atom of uranium decays, an alpha particle, which is
an atom of helium, is first discharged, and with a very high velocity.
By a succession of such discharges a series of products is generated,
each one differing by four units in atomic weight from its predecessor.
The atomic weight of helium is 4. Three of these products, omitting
intermediate forms, are ionium, radium, and an "isotope" of lead.
Ionium is isotopic with thorium, but not identical with it except in
its purely chemical relations. The atomic weights are not the same.
A similar difference is found for the lead derived from radium, which
differs from normal lead in having an atomic weight about a unit
lower. The isotope of lead in the thorium series differs from the
normal by about the same amount in the opposite direction.-' In
short, the degradation path from uranium, and also that from thorium
is approximately parallel to the path of evolution, but not identical
with it. The short-lived products of radioactive decay might be
described as the debris of exploding atoms. They do not appear in
the ascending series of the elements.
*For a discussion of the nature of isotopic lead see Clarke, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 4
181. 1918.
296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 13
For the elements below the radioactive group, that is, those of
lower atomic weight, some evidence of instability has recently been
obtained. Rutherford, by passing swiftly moving alpha rays through
nitrogen, has observ^ed a slight evolution of hydrogen, an indication
that hydrogen is a constituent of the heavier and more complex
element. Oxygen, treated in the same way, yields a product of
different character, something which appears to have an atomic
weight near 3. If, however, the value should be slightly lower, it
would have a curious significance. Attention has already been
called to the existence of nebulium, to which the atomic weight 2.7
has been provisionally assigned. This is very close to 2.666..., or
2 ^/a more precisely.
Now 2 Vs X 6 = 16, the atomic weight of oxygen, a relation
which may possibly be experimentally verified. If the bombardment
of oxygen were carried on for a long time it might yield a gas in which
the spectral lines of nebulium could be detected ; and if that were
done it would be a step forward in the study of the atoms. I offer
this suggestion with some hesitation, but it seems to be worth con-
sidering. It affects a number of other elements of which the atomic
weights are multiples of 16.
By a remarkable series of experiments F. W. Aston^ has obtained
evidence which he regards as proof of the complexity of the atomic
weights as determined by chemical methods. Powerful positive
rays in a magnetic field were applied to a number of elements, which
then gave what he terms their "mass spectra." These spectra show
lines corresponding to whole number atomic weights, which represent,
not the accepted values, but some higher and some lower. Chlorine
gives two such lines, corresponding to atomic weights 35 and 37,
and mercury gives at least six, ranging from 197 to 204. The last
two figures, I may add, are near the atomic weights of gold and thal-
lium, that of mercury being 200.6. These new lines, as interpreted
by Aston, represent isotopes, and the accepted atomic weights are
regarded as mere statistical averages. In other words the atomic
weights known to chemistry relate to mixtures, and are not true
constants.
I must here allow myself to indulge in a very obvious truism.
Whenever new phenomena are discovered an attempt is made to
interpret them, and to bring them into relations with other phenomena.
i 'Science Progress 15:212. 1920.
July 19, 1921 clarke : evolution of matter 297
But it does not always follow that the first interpretation is the only-
one possible, nor even that it is the best. Now it seems to me con-
ceivable, that the lines of Aston's mass spectra may really belong
to decomposition products of the elements, produced by the disinte-
grating effect of the positive rays. This conclusion, I think, is more in
harmony with chemical evidence than the one first proposed. It
is, furthermore, sustained by the fact that the elements of high atomic
weight seem to show as a rule more lines in their mass spectra than
those low in the scale. The most complex elements should undergo
the largest amount of disintegration. If the atomic weights as
actually determined by the best modern methods are mere statistical
averages of widely differing figures, then the elements must be re-
garded as variable mixtures, and uniformity could hardly be expected.
This lack of uniformity would extend to all chemical compounds,
which should vary in composition and also in physical properties;
all chemical calculations would become inexact, and even the spectra
of the elements would lose much of their significance. Chaos would
rule instead of order.
In point of fact the evidence in favor of definiteness of atomic
weight is much better than anything which has been adduced to the
contrary. On that subject I could make a strong argument in support
of my position; but I do not care to overload this paper with details.
In discussing the evolution of the elements, and also their decay,
I must take a pragmatic position and assume their integrity. Their
evolution follows an upward path, with which the downward path
of decomposition is approximately but not exactly parallel. The
two paths, however, coalesce in the region of hydrogen, nebulium,
and helium; and so the beginning and the end are the same. That
hydrogen and helium are the chief constituents of the elements as
we know them is possible, as Harkins in a long series of interesting
papers has attempted to show. I cannot accept all his conclusions
as final, although he has at least discovered some interesting rela-
tions. Nebulium should not be left out of account.
On the mechanism of the process by which the elements were
built up I have nothing definite to say. I can only ask questions.
If a heavy atom, like that of gold or mercury, is formed from simpler
atoms, how are the latter changed? What happens to their nuclei
and their electrons? Is the structure of the carbon atom the same
in graphite and in diamond? Here the tetrahedral atom which
plays so important a part in stereochemistry has to be considered.
298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 13
With compounds these problems become much more complicated,
that is, if we try to explain them in terms of atomic structure. Among
organic compounds we find isomers and polymers, and many of them
contain a hundred or more atoms to the molecule. How are their
electrons rearranged, and what are they doing? All of these com-
pounds, as I have already shown, are items in the general scheme of
the evolution of matter, in which the question of atomic structure
is fundamental. I have in this paper only touched the surface of
a vast general problem, but my imagination has never wandered
far from evidence and reasonable analogies. Perhaps I have made
suggestions which may lead others to the discovery of new truths.
MINERALOGY. — On galenobismutite from a gold-quartz vein in Boise
County, Idaho. '^ Earl V. Shannon, Department of Geology,.
United States. National Museum. (Communicated by E. T.
Wherry).
The mineral galenobismutite, first described by Sjogren from the
Ko Mine, Nordmark, Sweden^ has not heretofore been definitely
identified at any second locality. The material from Fahlun, Sweden,
described by Atterberg^ contains more selenium than sulfur and is
doubtless either a mixture or a variety of weibullite or platynite.
It is listed as a distinct species by Hintze'' under the name "selenblei-
wismuthglanz."^ Alaskaite, included by Dana under galenobismutite,
is regarded by Hintze and also by Wherry and Foshag as a distinct
species.^ The lead sulfo-bismuthite from the tungsten veins of Deer
Park, Washington, analyzed by R. C. Wells and described by Bancroft^
as intermediate between galenobismutite and cosalite is quite probably
distinct from either. It thus appears that galenobismutite, properly
so-called, is an exceedingly rare mineral. For this reason it becomes
of interest to note that this mineral occurs as a constituent of a gold
ore from Idaho preserved in the United States National Museum.
'Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received
May 25, 192L
' H. Sjogren. Geol. Foren. Forh. 4: 109. 1878.
3 Atterberg. Geol. Foren. Forh. 2: 76. 1874.
* C. HiNTZE. Handbuch der Mineralogie, 1: 1012.
* E. T. Wherry and W. F. Foshag. A new classification of the sulfo-salt minerals. This
Journal 11: 1-8. 1921.
* HowLAND Bancroft. Notes on tungsten deposits near Deer Park, Washington. U. S.-
Geol. Survey Bull. 430: 216. 1910.
July 19, 1921 shannon: galenobismutite; 299
The specimen was collected by Edward L. Jones, Jr., of the U. S.
Geological Survey and is included in an unstudied collection of ores
from southern Idaho. The label gives as the field number SI- 106,
and as the locality, Belzazzar Mine dump, Quartzburg district. The
specimen was collected September 15, 1915. Regarding the Belzazzar
Mine, Lindgren states that it is located on the Fall Creek side and has
been opened by sluicing and a tunnel, 200 feet below the summit.
Bodies of heavy sulfurets, chiefly pyrite, are exposed along the vein.
The western part of the vein lies in hornblende porphyrite, while the
eastern end has granite in the footwall and the same porphyrite in
the hanging wall.^ Bell gives the location of the mine as near the
Jerusalem Valley road, a little west of Quartzburg.^ He states that
the ore is merely an altered phase of the enclosing rock traversed
by quartz seams. The ore was free-milling on the first and second
levels and produced fine specimens of free gold. The third level,
however, showed considerable amounts of sulfides and only half of the
gold in this sulfide ore was recoverable by amalgamation. The ore
is said to average from $8.00 to $12.00 per ton.
The specimen which contains the galenobismutite consists in the
main of translucent to transparent crystalline white vein quartz. The
sequence of deposition of the minerals is not entirely clear but there
is a band of more or less pure pyrite adjacent to the wall of the vein
and this pyrite appears to be the earliest mineral of the ore. The
quartz is slightly sheeted parallel to the vein wall, small grains of pyrite
being distributed along the partings. Pyrite occurs also in crystalline
grains through the quartz and also as sharply bounded cubic crystals
in greatly sericitized fragments of wall rock which occur in the quartz.
The quartz is loose textured and contains small angular cavities be-
tween the crystals. The galenobismutite occurs interstitially with re-
lation to the quartz crystals and projects as fibrous bundles of pris-
matic needles into the cavities. It is clearly the youngest mineral of
the vein, the common paragenetic position of the majority of the lead
sulfo-salts.
The galenobismutite is rather light gray in color and tarnishes to a
yellowish color. Its luster is rather more brilliant than that of the
antimonial sulfo-salts of lead, and the mineral greatly resembles
bismuthinite in general appearance. It forms elongated prisms im-
'Waldemar Lindgren. Mining Districts of the Idaho Basin and Boise Ridge, Idaho.
U. S. Geol. Survey. Ann. Rept.18, Pt. Ill: 690. 1896-97.
* Robert N. Bell. Rept. Idaho State Inspector of Mines for 1905, p. 33.
300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 13
bedded in quartz or minute, deeply striated crystals in open cavities.
The streak is black on porcelain or brownish black when rubbed very
thin with a glass rod. The hardness is about 2.5.
Material for analysis was secured free from impurities other than
quartz and a little pyrite, both of which remained unattacked
when the mineral was dissolved in hydrochloric acid. The ma-
terial was found to be free from other impurities by examination of
polished surfaces under the miscroscope. Standard methods of analysis
were used, the bismuth and lead being separated by the basic nitrate
method. It is noteworthy, however, that this method, which is the
one recommended by most textbooks, is one which gives satisfactory
results only when performed with extreme care. The major separation
was accomplished by precipitating the bismuth by means of hydrogen
sulfide in strongly acid solution, the precipitate being almost free from
lead while very little bismuth remained in solution. The separation
by the basic nitrate method was repeated several times on each pro-
duct of this separation before these two metals were obtained free
from each other. The material available for analysis was too small to
permit sulfur to be determined. The results of the analysis, recalcu-
lated after deducting gangue, are given in table 1.
TABLE 1.
Analysis of Galenobismutite from Idaho
Total _ 100.00
The formula thus derived is:
Pb Bi2 S4 or PbS.BisSs.
The copper, iron, and antimony, while present in minor amount,
merit note, f Copper and iron while probably not entirely isomorphous
with lead, can perhaps enter into solid solutions in limited amount, the
copper in all probability being in the cupric state. It is possibly sig-
nificant that copper and iron are molecularly roughly equivalent to
the antimony and may be combined with it. Such an amount of cop-
per and iron compounds might conceivably be present as submicro-
scopic inclusions in the galenobismutite.
July 19, 1921 blake: ichthyothere 301
BOTANY. — A remarkable new species c/ Ichthyothere.' S. F. Blake,
Bureau of Plant Industry.
The genus Ichthyothere of the Asteraceae is of some economic im-
portance among the native tribes of South America, since the bruised
leaves and stems, placed in water, possess the property of stupefying
fish and rendering them easy to capture. This property is shared
with the closely allied genus Clibadium and with many other genera
of various families, among which the Fabaceae and Sapindaceae are
conspicuous.
Ichthyothere itself, as at present constituted, contains about a
dozen species, all South American. All are low herbs or suffrutes-
cent, with the few small whitish discoid heads in close clusters at
the tips of the stems. In most species the heads are sessile, but in
a few they are distinctly pedicellate.
While engaged in the preparation of a key to the species, I found
in the National Herbarium a specimen from Colombia, doubtfully
referred to this genus, and differing from all the species hitherto
described in its loosely racemose-panicled heads and climbing habit.
Through the courtesy of Dr. F. W. Pennell, the collector, I have
had for study the more complete specimen of the same collection
in the New York Botanical Garden. Detailed comparison with
specimens of Ichthyothere terminalis (Spreng.) Blake, ^ the type of
the genus, shows that its differences in habit and inflorescence are
not associated with any important difference in technical characters,
and, although so distinct in appearance, the plant is best considered
a species of Ichthyothere. It may be recognized by figure 1 and by
the following description. /
Ichthyothere scandens Blake, sp. nov.
Shrubby vine; stems slender, branching, obscurely sordid-pilose with
appressed hairs, glabrescent: leaves opposite; petioles slender, sparsely
sordid-pubescent, 3 to 10 ram. long: blades ovate or lance ovate, 7 to 11 cm. long,
2 to 4.5 cm. wide, falcate-acuminate, at base acute or acuminate, finely
serrulate, membranaceous, green on both sides, sparsely sordid-pubescent
on the veins, glabrescent, tripli- or quintuplinerved ; panicles axillary and
terminal, very loose, dichotomous, obscurely puberulous, 16 cm. long or
less; bracts minute, about 1.5 mm. long; heads loosely racemose along the
branches, on pedicels about 4 ram. long, cpmpressed, 4.5 rara. high, 5.5 mm.
wide in fruit; outer phyllaries 5, subulate-triangular, coriaceous-herbaceous,
'Received May 31, 1921.
^Rolandra terminalis Spreng. Syst. Pi. 3: 673. 1826, fide BAKER in Mart. FI.
Bras. 6': 154. 1884. Ichthyothere cunabi Mart, in Buchn. Rep. Pharm. 35: 195. 1830.
For full synonymy see Baker, loc. cit.
302 JOURNAL OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 13
Fig. 1. Ichthy other e scandens Blake, a, branch, X 1/2; b, head, X 5; c, receptacle
and pales, X 5; d, phyllary subtending female flower, X 5; e, achene, X 5;/,
disk flower, X 5; g, stamens, X 5; A, disk flower with corolla and stamens
removed, showing ovary, gland surrounding base of style, and style, X 5.
July 10, 1921 eckhardt and karcher : radio recorder 303
ciliate, 1 mm. long; inner phyllaries (subtending the female flowers) 2, ob-
ovoid, subherbaceous with thin margin, obtuse, glabrous, many-nerved, 5.5
mm. long; receptacle stipitate, bearing nine hermaphroditf sterile flowers;
female flowers 2, their corollas tubular, annulate-pilose at apex, very short;
corolla of the hermaphrodite flowers tubular-funnel form, greenish-white, 1.8
mm. long; achenesobovoid-turbinate, thick but somewhat obcompressed, trun-
cate, about S-ribbed, glabrous, 4.2 mm. long; pales of the disk suborbicular-
cuneate to (inner) cuneate, glabrous, truncate or rounded, many-nerved with
thinner apex, 2 to 3 mm. long.
Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1042822, collected in forest
at Libano, Department of Tolima, Colombia, altitude 1100 to 1300 meters,
December 26-29, 1917, by F. W. Pennell (no. 3430). Duplicate in the
herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden.
Although in all its technical characters this species is clearly a member
of the genus Ichthyothere, it is very distinct from all the previously known
species in its scandent habit and its very loose inflorescence.
RADIOTELEGRAPHY. — A chronographic recorder of radio time sig-
nals ^ E. A. Eckhardt and J. C. Karcher, Bureau of Standards.
(Communicated by S. W. Stratton).
The problem of recording radio signals is one of amplifying the fee-
ble energy in the radio signal to such a degree that in the amplified
amount it is sufficient to operate a recording device. Whether the
recording be done photographically or by means of some form of
stylus, the electrical energy of the radio signal at some stage of the
process gives rise to a mechanical motion. The aim of the experi-
menter is to make the chain of events between the receiving antenna
and the mechanically moving element, as well as the apparatus em-
bodying it, as simple and reliable as possible. If it is desired to use
the recording apparatus in field service these considerations are es-
pecially important. Ruggedness then becomes an additional im-
perative requirement. The recording apparatus described in this
paper was intended primarily for field use, since with it the U. S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey wishes to record Annapolis time signals
at any field station which it may desire to occupy within the borders
of the United States.
So far as we know, success in recording radio signals at long range
has heretofore been attained only by the use of amplifiers of many
stages. Despite the great progress which has been made in the de-
sign and construction of such devices, a field party, which needs to
give considerable attention to the weight of its equipment and which
in general is not accompanied by a qualified radio engineer, will not
' Presented before the Philosophical Society of Washington, March 26, 1921 . Received
May 5, 1921.
304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADSMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 13
contemplate their use with any degree of confidence. When a multi-
plicity of electron tubes is used the storage battery equipment pre-
sents a serious problem to the field party. Either the battery must
be of large capacity or provision must be made for frequent charging.
If, therefore, any radio receiver-recorder is to be available for service
in the field, keeping the number of tubes down to a minimum is an
important consideration.
The nucleus of our receiver-recorder is the regenerative circuit shown
in figure 1. It consists of a capacity Ci and inductance Li in the grid
circuit of the electron tube, the inductance Li being coupled to the in-
ductance Li in the plate circuit of the tube. In order that the circuit
may be regenerative the coupling must
be of such sign that a rise in plate cur-
rent results in a rise in the grid pot-
ential. The potentiometer P serves
to adjust the mean grid potential over
a suitable potential range, both nega-
tive and positive.
Such a circuit is capable of acting as a
generator of electrical oscillations. The
frequency is determined in the main by
the inductance capacity combination
If, by adjusting the potentiometer P,
Fig. 1. Regenerative circuit. t^g gj-id potential is gradually made
more and more negative, the oscillations are stopped. Upon grad-
ually raising the potential it will be found that there is a critical
grid potential at which the oscillations set in. This grid potential is
characteristic for the circuit used.
Figure 2 shows a plate current-grid potential, characteristic of a
typical receiver type electron tube. If the grid be at a mean potential
corresponding to the point Cr and an alternating e.m.f. be applied to
it, the increase of plate current during the positive half of the cycle will
be greater than the decrease during the negative half. This is due
to the curvature of the characteristic. Thus the mean value of the
plate current is increased by the periodic e.m.f. on the grid. If C^ is
the critical point on the characteristic at which the circuit becomes
self -oscillatory, the amplitude of the periodic component of the grid
potential builds up ; Hkewise the amplitude of the periodic plate cur-
July 19, 1921 eckhardt and karcher: radio recorder
305
rent, and there results a rise in the mean plate current as shown by
figure 2. By proper design, conditions may be so chosen that the
rise in plate current occasioned by the initiation of oscillations in the
regenerative circuit is many times the plate current flowing just be-
Fig. 2. Growth of current in a regenerative circuit.
fore the oscillations set in. Regenerative circuits have been operated
by us in which the plate current shoots up from 2 or 3 milHamperes
to 50 milHamperes when by raising the grid potential a small fraction
of a volt the circuit is made to pass from the non-oscillatory to the
oscillatory state. In our recorder the rise is from approximately V*
306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 13"
milliampere in the non-oscillatory to 2 milliamperes in the oscillatory
state.
The rise in mean plate current which accompanies the starting of
the oscillations is an important feature from the point of view of re-
cording radio signals. An ordinary telegraph relay which will operate
on one or two milliamperes may be introduced into the plate cir-
cuit. The starting of the oscillations will cause the relay to function
and the relay contact may be used either to open or close a local circuit.
If the local circuit is one operating a chronographic pen the starting
of the oscillations may be chronographically recorded.
Now the change in grid
potential necessary to pass
from the nonoscillatory to the
oscillatory state is very small,
so small indeed that it may be
provided by a radio signal re-
ceived on an antenna suitably
connected to the grid of the
electron tube of the regenera-
tive circuit. Figure 3 shows a
suitable arrangement for this
purpose. The antenna leads
to the tuned circuit which is
connected to the grid of the
tube through the potentio-
meter. The inductance of
Fig. 3. Radio recording receiver. this tuned cirCUit is COUpled
regeneratively with an inductance in the plate circuit. The
function of the intervening coil we shall consider presently. The os-
cillations due to the incoming radio signal cause the grid potential to
vary periodically about its mean value. If this mean value is just
below the critical one peculiar to the regenerative circuit the incoming
signal will cause the critical value to be reached, and local oscillations
will be initiated. Unfortunately, however, the local oscillations per-
sist even after the mean grid potential has been restored to its orig-
inal value below the critical one. To stop these oscillations by chang-
ing the grid potential it would have to be lowered considerably below
the critical value. We are, therefore, thus far possessed of the means
July 19, 1921 eckhardt and karcher: radio recorder
307
for setting up local oscillations by the incoming signal, but the instru-
ment does not automatically reset itself.
Means must be provided for killing the local oscillations as soon as
the periodic potential variation of the grid has ceased,^ e., when no signal
is being received. For this purpose the telegraph relay in the plate cir-
cuit is provided with a second contact, insulated from the first, which
I
PE^
3
Morm a. //y
C/osed
Vp pr — npor
U
I
I
I
ffad/o ^
(J aerated Re/au
f-
Differentia.lly iVounti
Pan OB»f<^fina Maonlt
ffelcL
i
A/or-ma/Zy
Oaen
3rea.A -Ci rcuit
Chronome^r.
Fig. 4.
is closed when the relay armature is attracted by the relay magnet.
The closing of this rear contact short-circuits a low resistance coil of a
few turns mounted between the regenerating coils. When short-
circuited, this coil provides an effective screen between the grid and
plate inductances and regeneration is promptly stopped. The stop-
ping of the local oscillations occasions a decrease in the plate current,
the relay armature is released and the oscillation-stopping contact is
opened. If the potential oscillations of the grid still persist as the ar-
mature is leaving the rear contact the local oscillations will immediately
build up, the mean plate current will rise, and the relay armature will be
308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 13
attracted to the relay magnet before it gets far enough away to make the
outer, pen-controlHng, contact. Thus, during a long dash signal the
relay armature simply chatters against the rear contact, without at
any time moving far enough to make the outer one. It is clear, there-
fore, that during the arrival of the signal the relay armature is chat-
tering against the rear contact and between signals it rests against
the front one.
Figure 4 shows the front contact of the telegraph relay normally
held closed by the tension spring. The starting of local oscillations
causes the relay to operate in the manner previously described, the
front contact opens and the rear one closes. The opening of the
front contact operates the chronograph pen, and the closing of the
rear one short-circuits the oscillation-choking coil. The making of
the rear contact, therefore, stops the oscillations, causes the plate cur-
rent to fall back to the non-oscillatory value, the relay to release and
the front contact to close.
If a continuous dash signal is being received the local oscillations
build up as soon as the relay armature leaves the rear contact, and it
is drawn back before the front contact is remade. Thus the chrono-
graph pen continues in the released position until the signal stops long
enough for the relay armature to remake the front contact. With no
signal coming in, the front contact of the relay is closed and the
chronograph magnet is energized. The pen-carrying armature is,
therefore, held against the inner stop. When the incoming signal
begins, the front contact is opened, the chronograph magnet is de-
energized and the pen-carrying armature is released against the outer
stop. It remains against the outer stop until the front contact of the
plate circuit relay is again made. The pen then returns to its initial
position against the inner stop.
In the recorder design now in use, a single stage of radio frequency
amplification is provided so that the signal oscillations may be ampli-
fied before being applied to the grid of the tube in the regenerative
circuit. This preliminary stage of amplification increases the over-
all sensitivity somewhat, but the regenerative circuit itself and the
manner of its use account for all but a few per cent of the total sensi-
tivity attained.
The preceding account describes a complete mechanism for recording
radio signals. A similar recording system has recently been described
by Captain L. B. Turner-. His methods of stopping the local oscil-
2 The Electrician 83: 4. July 1919.
July 19, 1921 eckhardt and karcher: radio recorder
309-
lations involve readjustments in the regenerative circuit when the
oscillation-stopping contact is opened. If, for example, the plate
inductance is short-circuited for the purpose of stopping the local oscil-
lations, the removal of the short involves reestablishment of a dif-
ference of potential at the terminals of this coil. This causes a surge
which tends to restart the oscillations and results in the recording of a
spurious signal. The method employed by us of stopping the oscilla-
tions involves no readjustments in the regenerative circuit when the
oscillation-destroying contact is opened and the system is restored ta
the receptive state. We are, therefore, enabled to work very much
nearer the critical grid potential with correspondingly enhanced sensi-
tivity.
It is proposed to use the radio-
time recorder for the determination
of the longitude of any station.
This may be done by comparing in
turn the local time ascertained by
star observations and the radio-
time signal from a known longitude
with a local chronometer. It is,,
therefore, necessary to make sim-
ultaneous records on a chrono-
graphic drum of
1. Local star transits against
local chronometer.
2. Radio time signals against
local chronometer.
From the data thus obtained,,
the longitude of the unknown
station may be computed with re-
ference to that of the radio time
signal sending station.
RrCO/?D/Ne ELEMENT
SAMPLE RECORD
Fig. 5. Circuit recording element.
It is obviously desirable to have the same lag in the recording appar-
atus for both signals. If, therefore, both can be recorded by means of
the same mechanical system, i.e., with the same pen, a serious cause
of difference in lag has been eHminated. How this has been accom-
plished is illustrated in figure 5. The pen-operating magnet is differ-
entially wound with two coils of approximately equal resistance and
equal number of turns. The break-circuit chronometer operates a
relay similar to that in the radio recieving-recording set. The clock-
310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 13
controlled relay energizes one of the pen magnet coils during the brief
period of the clock break. If the pen is in the released position dur-
ing the clock break the pen magnet is momentarily magnetized and
the pen is momentarily moved against the inner stop. If the pen is
in the attracted position the clock break will serve to demagnetize the
pen magnet momentarily and the pen will be released against the outer
stop during the break. The pen will record the clock break, there-
fore, no matter what its status with reference to the radio signal.
When star transits are to be recorded simultaneously with a local
chronometer, the pen magnet winding previously utilized for the re-
cording of the radio signals may be included in a local signaling cir-
cuit. The tapping of the signal key then operates in a manner sim-
ilar to the starting of a radio signal.
Oscillographic study of the performance of a regenerative circuit
with a telegraph relay with double contact in the plate arm and with
the screening coil for stopping the regeneration, has shown that the
oscillations are started and stopped well within 0.001 second. Figure
5 shows clearly that on the one hand we have a chain consisting of
antenna — relay — pen circuit — pen, and on the other, chronometer —
relay — pen circuit — pen. The two relays are similar and their re-
action times are less than 0.001 second. Their difference will be
considerably smaller than this amount. The pen circuits are also sim-
ilar, and finally the pen is identical.
It is seen clearly that the system has been designed to minimize the
lag difference of the two kinds of signals. Since comparisons of two
different kinds of signals are to be made, it is only the consistency and
magnitude of the lag difference which is of importance. Measure-
ments of this quantity are to be made in a number of receiving-record-
ing sets prior to their use in the field. The U. S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey proposes to obtain an additional check by occupying a sta-
tion of precisely known longitude and working the problem back-
wards. Thus the lag will be subjected to independent measurement
in the laboratory and in the field. It is confidently expected that by
the use of this recorder a new order of precision will be attained in
measurements of the kind in which this apparatus may be employed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Simon, Hans. Jahrb. drahtl. Telegr. 2: 409-416. 1908-09.
TuRPAiN. A. Rev. Electrique. 18: 211-214. Sept. 1912.
TuRPAiN, A. Bull. Soc. Int. des Electr. (3) 3: 299-322. 1913.
Abraham, H. Bull. Soc. Int. des Electr. (3) 3: 649-662. July 1913.
CampbELL-Swinton, a. a. Proc. Wireless Soc. London, 1914.
July 19, 1921 abstracts: optics 311
DosNE. Compt. Rend. 158: 473-474. 1914.
Raymond-Barker, E. Electrician 72: 743, 744 and 783. 1914
Waggoner, C. W. Phys. Rev. 3: 500. 1914.
Rainey, R. M. Electr. World 65: 848. 1915.
Lenner, E. Electro, techn. Zeitschr. 36: 598. 1915.
Urie, F. D. Pop. Astron. 23. Nov. 1915.
PouLSEN, R. M. Electr. World 68: Nov. 1916.
Culver, C. A. Joum. Frankl. Inst. 187. May 1919.
Abraham, Block. Compt. Rend. 169: 282-285. Aug. 1919.
Campbell-Swinton, A. A. Wireless World 8: 641-648. Dec. 1920.
Turner, L. B. Electrician 83: 4, 5, 34, 35, 554-557. 1919.
HoxiE, J. A. Elektrotechn. Zeitschr. 41: 73.3-734. Sept. 1920.
Creed Co. Ltd. and D. McLennan. The Engineer. 130: 366. Oct. 1920.
Latour, M. L'Electricien. 51: 452. Oct. 1920.
HoxiE, J. A. Radio Rev. 1: 781. Dec. 1920.
Campbell-Swinton, A. A. Sci. Amer. Monthly. 3: 155-156. Feb. 1921.
CouRSEY, P. P. Wireless World 8: 761-764. Feb. 1921.
Wallace, S. T. Wireless World 8: 768-769. Feb. 1921.
Brun, J. Radio Electricite 1: 477-487. March 1921.
Pratt, H. Proc. Soc. Rad. Eng. 9: 174. Apr. 1921.
ABSTRACTS
Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and'
signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should con-
form in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
OPTICS. — The contrast sensibility of the eye as a factor in the resolving power
of the microscope. Fred. E. Wright. Journ. Opt. Soc. Amer. 2:101-
107. 1919.
In this paper three factors of importance in high-power microscope work
are emphasized, namely: (1) The use of a polarizing prism to eliminate
that part of the field-light which does not contribute to the diflfraction pattern
in the image and hence tends to reduce the contrast and to decrease the
sharpness and crispness of the image. This phenomenon arises because
diffracted beams, which emerge from gratings whose interval is of the order
of magnitude of half a wave length of light, are sensibly polarized in a plane
normal to the lines of the grating. (2) a Diaphragm of the rectangular
type, for use in the image plane of the eyepiece in order to cut out all light
except that from the particular object under examination. The field should,
however, cover at least 10°. (3) The importance of a field intensity of
illumination approaching that of daylight and best adapted for the eye at
any particular time. The simplest method for securing this is by means
of a substage polarizer in conjunction with the polarizing prism ; the polarizer
can be rotated, and with it the intensity of illumination of the field varied.
These factors are not important for ordinary observations, because the
resolving power there required is not great; but in high-power, critical work
they are significant and enable the observer to accomplish with comparative
ea,se that which under other conditions is a matter of difficulty. F. E. W.
312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 13
GEODESY. — Latitude developments connected with geodesy and cartography,
lidth tables, including a table for Lambert equal-area meridional projection.
Oscar S. Adams. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Spec. Publ. 67.
(Serial 143). Pp. 132. 1921.
There are six different kinds of latitude that are found convenient in
various cartographic and geodetic applications. In this publication the
developments of the differences between each of these latitudes and the
geodetic latitude are derived in Fourier series in terms of the geodetic lati-
tude and afterwards expressed in terms of the particular latitude in question.
In the case of two of the latitudes that are, from their definitions, somewhat
complicated in their development, the series have been derived in several
different ways. This procedure serves as a check upon the work and the
methods in themselves are interesting applications of analysis to practical
problems.
The coefficients of the series are expressed in terms of the eccentricity
of the meridian ellipse; in this form they are applicable to any spheroid of
reference. For the computation of tables, these coefficients were afterwards
expressed in terms of the Clark spheroid of 1866, this being the spheriod of
reference of the North American Geodetic Datum. In this form the coeffi-
cients are given in seconds of angle so that the result of a computation may
be expressed in seconds of angular measure. The resulting coefficinets are
given both as numbers for use in machine computation and as logarithms
for work without calculating machine.
Tables are included for these latitudes computed for every half degree of
latitude. In practical applications, these tables will be found of very great
advantage since they give results that would require a great amount of
computation if no table were available.
In addition to these latitude tables, there are given tables for transforma-
tion from latitude and longitude to arc distance and azimuth from a point
on the equator. After these is given a table of the radial distance for a
Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection upon a meridian plane, and finally
there is included a table of the coordinates for this projection. O. S. A.
ZOOLOGY. — Report on the Crinoids collected by the Barbados -Antigua Expedi-
tion from the University of Iowa in igi8. Austin H. Clark. Univ.
Iowa Studies. Studies in Natural History, 9 (First Series No. 45),
5, 1-28. March 15, 1921.
The crinoids collected by the Barbados- Antigua Expedition are minutely
described; a history of the development of the study of the West Indian
crinoids is given, and the faunal characteristics and relationships of the
Caribbean region are discussed in detail; a key to the 30 genera of crinoids
occurring in the Caribbean Sea is included; the author's 25 previous papers
on the Lesser Antillean fauna (dealing with living and extinct birds, mammals,
amphibians, fishes, insects and onychophores) are listed. A, H. C.
METALLURGY. — The inter crystalline brittleness of lead. Henry S. Raw-
don. Bur. Standards Sci. Paper 377. Pp. 19, figs. 11. 1920.
Sheet lead sometimes assumes a very brittle granular form during service,
dne to corrosion. An explanation which has been offered by previous in-
vestigators for this change in properties is that it is due to an allotropic trans-
formation, the product resulting from the change being analogous to the well-
known "gray tin." The rate at which the intercrystalline brittleness is
brought about is proportional to the amount of impurities and to the concen-
July 19, 1921 proceedings: philosophical society 313
tration of acid in the solution in which the lead is placed. Practically all
the impurities which are found in lead are lodged between the grains. The
preferential attack by the corroding agent for these impurities and perhaps
also for the "amorphous intercrystalline cement" accounts for the brittleness
produced. Investigation showed that specimens of exceptionally pure lead
(99.993 per cent), when immersed for 24 days in a neutral solution of lead
acetate, became appreciably embrittled by the formation of minute inter-
crystalline fissures. No evidence of the existence of an allotropic form of
lead similar to gray tin could be obtained. H. S. R.
CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. — Inks — their composition, manufacture, and
methods of testing. Bur. Standards Circular 95. Pp. 24. 1920.
The composition and manufacture are discussed only briefly, but the
methods of testing which are in use at the Bureau of Standards are given in
sufficient detail to enable any chemist to use them. After a brief introduction
on the history of ink, there are discussions of writing and copying inks, ink
tablets and powders, marking, cancelling, stamping, duplicating, and sym-
pathetic inks. The methods used for the laboratory examination of all but
the last of these kinds of ink are next taken up. The circular closes with a
short bibliography.
RADIOTELEGRAPHY. — Principles of radio transmission and reception
with antenna and coil aerials. J. H. Bellinger. Bur. Standards Sci.
Paper 354. Pp. 63, figs. 17. 1919.
Coil aerials are coming to replace the large antennas in radio work. It is
found that the coil aerial is particularly desirable for communication on short
wave-lengths. A coil aerial is as powerful as an antenna only when its di-
mensions approach those of the antenna. For other reasons, however, a
small coil aerial is in many cases as effective as a large antenna. An advan-
tageous type of radio aerial is a condenser consisting of two large metal plates.
This type of aerial has many of the advantages of the coil aerial. The funda-
mental principles of design of aerials are given in this paper. On the basis
of this work the actual functioning of any type of radio aerial can be deter-
mined either from measurements made upon the aerials or from actual trans-
mission experiments. J. H. D.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
848th meeting
The 848th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on
March 12, 1921. It was called to order by President Faris, with 43 persons
present. The program was as follows :
T. S. Sligh, Jr: Recent modifications in resistance thermometer construction.
(illustrated.)
A resume of some of the more important phases of resistance thermometry
led up to a brief discussion of present practice at the Bureau of Standards
regarding the construction of resistance thermometers.
The most important points regarding present practice including recent
modifications are: (1) The use of the potential terminal type of thermometer
with Wheatstone bridge. (2) Thermometer leads made of 12 strands of
No. 28 copper wire instead of the fine flexible strand previously used. (3)
314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 13
Thermometer bridge terminals of thin copper. (4) Smaller and neater
thermometer heads. (5) Sealing of the strain-free type of thermometer.
(6) Elimination of the drying head on calorimeter thermometers. (7) A
method of electrical annealing which seems to effectively relieve all winding
strains in the thermometer coil. The subject matter of the paper is given
in full in Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper No. 407.
The paper was discussed by Dr. W. P. White.
R. H. Wilhelm and Amelia K. Benson : A comparison of the International
Hydrogen Scale with the standard scale of temperature defined by the platinum
resistance thermometer . (Illustrated; presented by Miss Benson.)
The International Scale of Temperature adopted by the International
Committee on Weights and Measures in 1SS7 is the scale of the hydrogen
thermometer set up by Chappuis at the International Bureau, the pressure of
hydrogen at 0° C. being one meter of mercury. Chappuis calibrated four
verre dur thermometers so as to define the mercury-in-glass scale, and com-
pared these thermometers with his hydrogen thermometer to get the cor-
rection necessary to convert the verre dur scale to the hydrogen scale. Since
the platinum resistance thermometer has proved to be a more reliable primary-
standard than the verre dur thermometer, it was decided to compare all the
verre dur primary standards of the Bureau with platinum thermometers,
and then place the verre dur thermometers in the vault.
The two scales have been compared by Griffiths in 1893, Waidner and
Mallory in 1899, Harker and Chappuis in 1900, and the Bureau of Standards
in 1917 and 1920. All the comparisons indicate that the hydrogen scale is
lower than the standard platinum scale by perhaps 0.010 degree in the range
10° to 30° C.
The paper was discussed by Messrs. Burgess, Fenner, Harper, Sosman,
Millar, Sligh, and Dickinson. The President announced that Miss
Benson had the distinction of being the first woman who had ever addressed
the Society.
C. O. Fairchild: New methods of sealing optical glass. (Illustrated.)
A new process for joining optical glass has been developed which enables
one to join glass parts with finished surfaces without distorting the surfaces
except at an edge. It has been applied to the construction of colorimeter
tubes, cells, etc., polarimeter tubes, incandescent lamps with optical glass
windows, haemacytometers, and Nessler tubes, and the protection of surfaces
for internal reflection.
The method is carried out by heating the glass parts while in approximate
contact, in an electric furnace, to a temperature at or near the annealing
range, and applying heat locally (usually at an edge) by means of a small
oxy-gas flame. The progress of joining is viewed through a window in the
furnace.
The process was developed through consideration of the low thermal
conductivity of glass, and the rapid change in mobility near annealing temper-
atures. These properties make it possible to start fusion by local heating
without propagating stress beyond a very restricted portion of the glass.
It has been found that two polished surfaces nearly in contact will join
readily when junction is once started and it is possible to obtain excellent
results without polishing the surfaces. A fine ground surface provides a
good joint and the fusion is accomplished with almost complete disappearance
of the ground part.
July 19, 1921 proceedings: biological society 315
The method has proven to be the simplest and most satisfactory so far
developed for the seaUng of glass without distortion. It is, of course, par-
ticularly adapted to thin walled articles such as absorption cells and boxes.
The paper was discussed by Messrs. White, Fenner, Sosman, Crittenden,
and others.
H. H. Kimball, Recording Secretary.
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY
620th meeting
The 620th meeting was held in the lecture hall of the Cosmos Club on
February 5, 1921, with President Hollister in the chair and 50 persons
present. On recommendation of the Council, Mr. Glenwood C. Roe and
Mr. Maurice K. Brady were elected to membership. The deaths of Mr.
W. J. Bennetts on September 13, 1920, and Mr. W. W. Welsh on January
31, 1921 were announced, both having been members of the Society.
Informal Communications
Dr. H. M. Smith exhibited a string of artificial pearls, and a bottle of
finely comminuted fish scales in suspension. The industry of making arti-
ficial pearls was transferred to this country during the war, the Bureau of
Fisheries assisting by suggesting fish whose scales were of desirable luster.
Dr. Smith also exhibited the smallest and consequently the youngest eel ever
captured. It was 2 cm. long, taken at 150 meters depth about 150 miles
southeast of the Bermudas. This is the locality where fresh water eels of
Europe and America resort to breed. The specimen was taken by Dr.
ScHMiTT in his recent expedition to study eels.
Dr. R. W. ShuFELDT stated that in his studies of birds and mammals
fractured bones are sometimes found. An instance in Oxymicterus rufus,
a large mouse from Brazil, was described, in which the greatly extended
olecranon or elbow process of the forearm was broken, and a false joint had
formed.
Regular Program
Ivar Tidestrom : Notes on the flora of the Iberian Peninsula.
Mr. Tidestrom showed that Spain possessed 60 per cent of Europe's 10,000
species of plants, many of which are peculiar to Spain, and explained this
fact, as well as the relation of Spain's flora to that of other countries, by her
more continuous elevation above sea level in the later geological periods.
The resemblance of Spain's topography to that of our own Southwest, and the
similarity of climatic and botanical zones, was shown in detail. The paper
was illustrated by maps, topographic sections, and landscapes.
R. S. Bassler: Paleontological work at the National Museum.
The work of the National Museum is divided into three principal fields:
the care of the collections, exhibition, and investigation. The space in the
museum building is divided approximately into thirds among zoology, paleon-
tology, and anthropology. In the exhibits of invertebrate and botanical
paleontology', the plan is to have large exhibits, suitable for cursory obser-
vation, in the center of the halls; at one side, a series in geological sequence;
and on the other side, further large exhibits showing details, restorations,
and the like. In the hall of vertebrate paleontology another plan is necessary
on account of the size and variety of the exhibits. The display here is de-
servedly popular on account of the admirable specimens, some of which are
unique.
A. A, Doolittle, Recording Secretary.
316 journal of the washington academy op sciences vol. 11, no. 13
621st meeting
The 621st meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held in the
lecture hall of the Cosmos Club at 8 p. m., February 19, 1921. Vice-President
A. S. Hitchcock presided, and forty seven persons were present. On recom-
mendation of the Council, Mr. O. M. Freeman was elected to membership.
Informal Communications
Professor E. S. Morse, former president of the Boston Society of Natural
History, addressed the Society briefly. The Secretary read by title a paper
by S. Stillman Berry: Notes on some Japanese Cephalopods; a review of
Sasaki's "Albatross" report.
Regular Program
C. E. McClung : Chromosomes in relation to heredity.
Modem biological work is characterized by greater exactness of methods
and by the correlation of effort in different fields. These features are particu-
larly marked in studies on heredity in which the existence of separate or unit
characters has been determined and their exact numerical distribution
observed. Correspondingly, careful and minute studies of the germ cells
have revealed a mechanism which supplies a full explanation for the behavior
of characters in heredity. Of primary importance is the observation that
the character of an organism can be fully known only when the composition
of its germ cells is understood. Thus, commonly, when two white animals
are bred together, it is expected that their young will be white but cases are
known where the result is a progeny of strongly colored coat. Such results
are now understood and may be predicted in cases where the nature of the
germ cells of the parents is known. The basis of all modern work in genetics
was laid by an Austrian monk, Gregor Mendel, in the middle of the last
century, but his results emained unknown for fifty years.
From a study of the mechanism of heredity, as revealed in the germ cells,
it is found that the equivalence of the two parents is explained by their equal
contribution of a substance, called chromatin, of most highly organized
character. As one evidence of this organization the integration into a definite
number of bodies, called chromosomes, is observed in every cell in each in-
dividual of a given species. Not only is the number exact but the size, form
and behavior, so that it is possible to classify some animals by their chromo-
somes alone. In the structure and behavior of the chromosomes we find an
explanation of the alternative inheritance of contrasting characters, of the
chance distribution and recombination of characters, of their transmission in
groups, and of breaks in these groups. An exact analysis of the structure
of the chromosomes shows them to be made up of definite units whose number,
arrangement and movements supply an explanation of the most detailed
genetical studies. Finally it has been discovered that a particular chromo-
some is concerned with the determination of sex. (Author's abstract.)
The paper was illustrated by numerous lantern slides, and was discussed
by Mr. T. L. Casey.
Sewall Wright: Heredity as a factor in the resistance of guinea-pigs to
tuberculosis.
The paper described some experiments which have been carried on by
cooperation between the Bureau of Animal Industry and Dr. Paul A. Lewis
of the Henry Phipps Institute of Philadelphia. The resistance to tuber-
culosis has been tested in about 800 guinea-pigs belonging to five closely
inbred families, crosses between these families, and in a control stock which has
never been inbred. •
July 19, 1921 scientific notes and news 317
It was found that sex, age, rate of gain, and weight at inoculation made
very little difference in the length of life after inoculation, determining in all
less than 10 per cent of the observed variation. On the other hand, marked
differences in resistance were found among the inbred families. Inbreeding
itself was not a factor of great importance in increasing susceptibility although
of the greatest importance in isolating different degrees of resistance. Two
of the inbred families, with fifteen to twenty generations of exclusively
brothersister matings back of them, were superior to the control stock, while
three were inferior. The crosses between the families produced young which
were in general at least equal to the better of the two parental families.
Resistance is thus apparently dominant over susceptibility. There was equal
transmission from sire and dam and to progeny of either sex. In cer-
tain crosses, the progeny were markedly superior to either parent strain,
indicating that these strains were resistant for different reasons, each thus
being able to supply what the other lacks. Among the crossbreds over 30
per cent of the variation in length of life was determined by the amount of
blood of the best family, contrasting with less than 10 per cent determination
by age, weight and rate of gain combined, and leaving something over 60
per cent determined by conditions at or following inoculation.
There was no relation between the rank of the inbred families in resistance
to tuberculosis and their rank in other respects, such as average weight,
fertility, and success in raising young. As in all of these cases, however,
the importance of inbreeding in isolating hereditary differences was brought
out by contrasting the marked differences among the inbred families and their
crosses, with the lack of appreciable correlation between brothers within the
random bred stock. (Author's abstract.)
The paper was illustrated by diagrams and curves, showing the tendencies
discussed.
A. A. DoOLiTTLE, Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
THE PROPOSED CENTRAL ENGINEERING SOCIETY IN WASHINGTON.
The initial step toward the organization of a central engineering society
in Washington was taken by the Washington Section of the American So-
ciety of Mechanical Engineers at its annual dinner on June 9. The plan,
as outlined by Professor George A. Weschler, chairman, and A. R. Citey-
NEY, secretary- treasurer of the Section, suggested that a larger organization
be founded upon one of the existing societies as a nucleus, to be open to all
engineering and technical men in the city, and to be governed by a representa-
tive body nominated by the local sections of the various national engineering
societies. This plan is similar to that of the Academy and its Affiliated
Societies.
Messrs. A. G. Christie and W. F. Ballinger reported on the experience
of the Baltimore and Philadelphia Engineers' Clubs, respectively. Mr.
L. W. Wallace, executive secretary of the Federated American Engineering
Societies, discussed the work of that organization. Dr. R. B. Sosman,
secretary of the Academy, spoke on the experience of the Academy in form-
ing such an organization.
Informal views of the plan were also presented by the following repre-
sentatives of the Washington sections of the engineering societies: John C.
318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. IS
HoYT, American Society of Civil Engineers; E. A. Holbrook, American
Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers; Milton M. Flanders,
American Institute of Electrical Engineers; Harry D. Appleby, American
Association of Engineers; H, C. Dickinson, Society of Automotive Engi-
neers; William Blum, American Chemical Society; S. Tour, American
Society for Steel Treating; and John S. Conway, Washington Society of
Engineers. Mr. Watson Davis offered the aid of the scientific column of
the Washington Herald, and there was informal discussion by W. H. Bixby^
A. M. Holcombe, and others.
The meeting adopted a resolution endorsing the general idea of a central
engineering organization and requesting the various societies interested to
appoint delegates to meet at the call of the chairman of the Mechanical
Engineers and draw up a detailed plan for submission to the societies.
Three societies may be considered available as a nucleus, namely, the
Washington Society of Engineers, the local section of the American Associa-
tion of Engineers, and the Council of the Federated American Engineering
Societies. The last of the three, being a national federation, is less likely
to be considered than the other two. The Washington Society of Engineers
is the older organization of the remaining two, having been founded in 1905
and having at present about 500 members. The American Association of
Engineers is a national organization, but is composed of individuals and not
constituted by the combination of other organizations or their representa-
tives.
Several of the speakers laid special stress upon the desirability of com-
bining scientific, technical and engineering societies into a single federation,,
but no definite plan toward this end was presented.
Among the purposes of the proposed engineering organization would be
the provision of a meeting place for the societies, the maintenance of a library
for reference books and current periodicals, a central secretarial organization
for the routine business of the societies, and the formation of committees
to take an active part in civic affairs involving engineering and technical
questions.
notes
The Washington Section of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
elected the following officers at the annual dinner on June 9: Chairman,
L. A. Fischer, of the Bureau of Standards; Vice -Chairman, O. P. Hood,
of the Bureau of Mines; Secretary-Treasurer, C. E. Oakes, of the Federal
Power Commission.
The 14th National Conference on Weights and Measures was held at
the Bureau of Standards on May 23-26. Among the subjects given special
consideration at the meeting were : The sale of bread by weight, the detection
of shortages, the weighing of coal, and the testing of pumps for measuring
liquids.
The purchase of additional land near the Connecticut Avenue entrance
to the National Zoological Park, provided for in the Sundry Civil Bill for
1921, has been completed. The addition to the Park is about 6 acres, mak-
ing the total area about 175 acres.
The Radio Laboratory of the Bureau of Standards is cooperating with
the Bureau of Markets of the Department of Agriculture in the establishment
of a system of broadcasting market reports by radio. As it is likely that a
July 19, 1921 scientific notes and news 319
wide demand for radio equipment will develop, the Bureau has under way-
plans for the study of commercial apparatus and the preparation of specifica-
tions as to the behavior and usefulness of radio sets designed for general
use.
The cases containing the exhibit of radium ores and radioactive minerals,
prepared incidentally to the visit of Madame Curie to Washington, have
been removed from the Art Gallery of the National Museum and now form
a permanent exhibit at the east end of the Mineral Hall of the Natural His-
tory Building.
Scales for the measurement of length are now being constructed directly
from the fundamental wave lengths of light without the use of any inter-
mediary standard such as the standard meter bars. For example, the Bureau
of Standards has recently completed the rulings on a 6-inch standard
scale for a manufacturing concern, using light waves from a neon tube as
the length standard.
Dr. J. M. Aldrich, associate curator of insects at the U. S. National
Museum, left Washington in May for a two months' study of the insects,
and particularly the Diptera, of central Alaska, along the line of the new
Alaska Railroad between Seward and Fairbanks.
Vice-President Calvin Coolidge has been elected chancellor of the Board
of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution to succeed the late Chief Justice
Edward D. White.
Dr. F. G. CoTTRELL, chairman of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical
Technology, National Research Council, sailed for Europe in June to make
a survey of current applications of oxygen and helium in European countries.
He also expected to attend the meeting of the International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry in Brussels on June 27.
Mr. S. T. Dana, assistant chief of the research branch of the U. S. Forest
Service, has resigned to become land agent and forest commissioner of the
State of Maine, with headquarters at Augusta.
Mr. Robert C. Duncan, physicist at the Bureau of Standards, has re-
signed to accept a position with the Bureau of Ordnance of the Navy Depart-
ment.
Mr. F. C. Fair, formerly Washington representative of the American
Standardizing Bureaus, an organization having supervision of the manufac-
turing of pharmaceutical products for several associated companies, has
become chief chemist of the Central Railway Signal Company at Hammond,
Indiana.
Mr. Charles S. Hawes, in charge of the Bureau of Research and Statistics,
War Trade Board Section, Department of State, died suddenly on Friday,
April 22, 1921, in Chicago, Illinois. Mr. Hawes joined the War Trade
Board in 1918 and remained with the new section when the old Board was
dissolved. As head of its Bureau of Statistics he had been chiefly concerned
of late with the importation of dyes, chemicals, and coal-tar products and
had compiled a recently published report on dyes.
Mr. Carl L. Hubbs, curator of fishes in the Museum of Zoology, Univer-
sity of Michigan, has been studying the lampreys and lancelets of the Nat-
ional Museum collections, having been extended laboratory facilities for
the purpose.
320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 13
Dr. W. J. Humphreys of the Weather Bureau has been elected Secretary
of the American Geophysical Union, to succeed Dr. H. O. Wood, resigned.
Mr. Enoch KarrER has resigned from the Bureau of Standards to accept
a position as physicist at the Nela Research Laboratory, Nela Park, Cleve-
land, Ohio.
Mr. Sidney D. Kirkpatrick, chemist with the U. S. Tariff Commission,
has resigned to join the editorial staff of Chemical and Metallurgical En-
gineering, in New York City.
Mr. Albert G. Loomis has resigned as assistant professor of chemistry
at the University of Missouri to become physical chemist at the new cryo-
ogenic laboratory of the Bureau of Mines.
Dr. William M. Mann, assistant entomologist in the U. S. Department
of Agriculture, left Washington in June to accompany an expedition to the
region of La Paz, BoUvia, under the direction of Dr. H. H. Rusby, dean of
the school of pharmacy at Columbia University. The main object of the
expedition, which is financed by the H. K. Mulford Company, is the collec-
tion of herbs and plants likely to be of use in medicine, but general studies
will also be made of the fauna and flora.
Dr. C. L. MarlaTT, assistant chief of the Bureau of Entomology, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, received the honorary degree of Doctor of Science
from the Kansas State Agricultural College in June.
Dr. J. C. Merriam, president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington,
received the honorary degree of Doctor of Science from Columbia Univer-
sity in June.
Dr. Takejiro Murakami, assistant professor in the iron and steel re-
search institute of Tohoku Imperial University, Japan, visited Washington
in June.
Mr. A. DE C. SowERBY visited the scientific institutions of Washington
in June, on his way to South China, where he will spend three years in an
extensive biological survey, with particular attention to the higher verte-
brates.
Dr. C. G. Storm has been transferred from the position of professor of
chemical engineering at the Ordnance School of Application, Aberdeen
Proving Grounds, Maryland, to the office of the Manufacturing Service of
the Ordnance Department in Washington.
Dr. Alexander Wetmore, of the Biological Survey, U. S. Department
of Agriculture, has returned from a year's collecting trip in Argentina. He
made a special study of the migratory shore birds.
Dr. H. O. Wood, formerly assistant secretary of the National Research
Council, has been appointed a research associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington, and is in California engaged in a reconnaissance of the south-
ern California seismological field, under the general supervision of an ad-
visory committee in seismology appointed by the Institution.
Mr. Harper F. ZollER, formerly chemist with the Dairy Division Re-
search Laboratory, U. S. Department of Agriculture, is at present bacteri-
ological chemist for the Nizer Laboratories Company, manufacturers of
food products at Detroit, Michigan.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 August 19, 1921 No. 14
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY.— C/zem^Va/ structure and phys-
iological action.'^ C. L. Alsberg, Bureau of Chemistry.
The subject matter which I propose to present to you tonight
contains nothing essentially new to the pharmacologist. It deals,
however, with a field of research that, while of the greatest impor-
tance to the welfare of mankind, is still very much in flux. However, a
subject in flux is more interesting than one that is in a static state with
all phenomena accurately ticketed and labeled. It still permits the
exercise of the imagination. Hence what I have to offer to you tonight
must be, in the main, a series of speculations and of observations none
too well coordinated. Only a part of it has found its way into the
general text-books, and this is my excuse for the selection of my
subject. -
Paracelsus wrote many centuries ago, "The real object of chemistry-
is. not to make gold, but to prepare medicine." Schmiedeberg has
defined the aim of the science of pharmacology as the production of
physiological reactions with chemical reagents. The pharmacologist
hopes, therefore, to contribute toward the solution of some of the
problems of biology by using chemical stimuli as the physiologist
uses physical ones. Some pharmacologists have believed that the
reaction of living things to chemical stimuli is necessaril}^ the result of
a chemical reaction between the stimulating chemical and some sub-
stance in the cell stimulated. The hope has been expressed that
eventually it wiU be possible to write the equations for these reactions
as for any other chemical reaction. However, this hope is very very
far from realization, and perhaps never will be realized because, as we
shaU see, it represents far too simple a conception of the matter.
Indeed, almost the only case that occurs to me in which it is possible
^ Address of the retiring President of the Washington Academy of Sciences. Presented
at a joint meeting of the Academy and the Chemical Society on January 20,
1921. Received July 20, 1921.
2 L. Spiegel. Chemical constitution and physiological action. Translated, with addi-
tions, from the German, by C. Luedeking and A. C. Boylston (D. Van Nostrand Co.,
New York, 1915).
321
322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 14
to write such a reaction is carbon monoxide poisoning. In this
intoxication the carbon monoxide gas unites in fixed proportions with
the hemoglobin of the blood to form a very stable combination which
is incapable of transporting oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.
The result is asphyxiation, but even in this case we are not helped
much by our ability to write this equation, for it tells us nothing about
the processes that take place during asphyxia. Indeed, we know
very little about them. Carbon monoxide is the cause of death.
The more immediate cause, however, is oxygen starvation, and if we
are very exacting, we must demand the equations of asphyxia. These,
however, we are quite unable to give.
Of recent years very different conceptions have been developed.
The older men, dominated by the imagery of organic chemistry,
sought the chemical reactions underlying the phenomena of pharma-
cological action, thinking that they are ordinary stoichiometric re-
actions, very complex ones if you will, but still of the ordinary type
and, therefore, dependent upon the chemical properties of the sub-
stances taking part in them. In those days the prevailing conception
of protoplasm was that it consisted of huge, very complex, very un-
stable molecules. The various parts of such a live molecule were
believed to have different functions. According to this conception,
the live molecule might have been pictured as resembling a chestnut
burr bristling with prickles or grappling hooks each capable of grappling
a specific and different food substance.^ Some of the poisons were
supposed to be anchored by such grappling hooks just like foodstuffs
and the specific action of a given substance upon a given cell or tissue
was supposed to be due to the fact that that substance had some in-
herent property that caused it to be anchored by some specific grappling
hook in that cell. Therefore, explanation of the physiological action
of a substance was sought primarily in the structure of its molecules
rather than in its physical properties. To some particular grouping
of the atoms in the molecule solely was attributed the physiological
action of the substance.* Such a group was spoken of as the carrier
of the action, and much was written about "toxophore" groups,
• P. Ehrlich. On immunity with special reference to cell life. Croonian Lecture. Proc.
Roy. Soc. London 66: 432-437, 446.
*0. LoEW. Einnaturliches System derGiftwirkun gen. (Stuttgart, 1893.) P. Ehrlich.
Ueber die Beziehungen von chemischer Constitution und pharmakologischer Wirkung. Vortrag
gehalten im Verein fur Innere Medicin am 12 December, 1898. v. Leyden Festschrift p.
647. (August Hirschwald, Berlin, 1902.)
AUGUST 19, 1921 ALSBERG : PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 323
"anaesthetic" groups, "narcotic" groups, "tetanic" groups, and the
like.
Our present-day conception of protoplasm is dififerent. We no
longer think of a giant living molecule so unstable that its decomposi-
tion and. continuous reconstruction constitute the phenomena of life.
We no longer consider protoplasm as homogeneous. We believe it to
be heterogeneous, to consist of a series of phases, an emulsion, a series
of fine droplets and particles in suspension.^ According to the laws of
surfaces, which I shall have to ask you to take for granted tonight,
as we have no time to consider them now, some substances will con-
centrate at surfaces and this concentration will be greater the greater
the curvature of the surface.^ Therefore, in such a system as an
emulsion you have membranes formed automatically at all surfaces,
and so it seems to be with protoplasm. You must conceive of these as
chemical membranes, as mere surface layers, not necessarily visible
under the microscope, representing the very great concentration at the
surface of a droplet of one or more of the substances dissolved in the
droplet or in the surrounding medium. Each droplet is then a sort
of test tube shut off to a certain degree from the other droplets and from
the liquid in which it is suspended. Phenomena can therefore go on
in such a droplet without affecting the other droplets except indirectly.
Such a conception of protoplasm very greatly simplifies, as we shall
see later, our conception of the physiological action of chemical sub-
stances since instead of being a purely chemical concept it is physical
as well as chemical. It leaves room for such considerations as the
surface effect of the substance, its solubility in the membrane, in the
droplet, in the various phases of a gel, etc., etc.
With the old conception of protoplasm as a homogeneous chemical
entity the physiological action of a substance was referred merely to
its chemical character and reactivity. This point of view impeded
rather than aided progress. With the acceptance of the idea of proto-
plasm as a physical system, rather than as a chemical structure, the
conviction has gained ground that the physiological action of a sub-
stance depends not rnerely upon its chemical structure but also upon
its physical properties, or rather those properties" that lie on the frontier
between physics and chemistry, such properties as solubility, diffusi-
= C. L. Alsberg. Mechanisms of cell activity. Science N. S. 34: 97-105. July 28,
1911.
* W. M. Bayliss. An introduction to general physiology. (Longmans, Green & Co.,
I^ndon, 1919.) Chap. I.
' G. GiEMSA. Neuere Ergebnisse der Chemotherapie. Archiv Pharm. 257: 194. 1919,
324 JOURNAL OF THB WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 14
bility, dissociation, colloidal state, electrical charge and the like.
Of course, in the last analysis the physical state is but an expression
of the chemical constitution and vice versa, but these are problems
for the chemist, not the pharmacologist.
However, I do not mean to be understood as stating that chemical
constitution has nothing to do with physiological action. I mean
merely that very frequently changes in constitution produce changes
in action chiefly because they influence the physical properties of the
substance rather than its power of reacting chemically with other
substances. Certainly very slight changes in constitution often
produce very great changes in physiological action. You all know that
stereo-isomerism influences the taste of simple amino acids, some being
sweet, some bitter;^ that one form of asparagin is sweet while the
enantiomorphous form is tasteless; that 1-adrenalin causes the smaller
arteries to contract greatly while d-adrenalin is far less active.^ The
examples might be multiplied almost indefinitely. Indeed, as we shall
see later, substances of a very widely different chemical structure may
have a very similar action. Of these we may be sure that their action
depends rather upon their physical than their chemical properties.
What I have to say tonight will deal as much with physical or
physico-chemical properties as with chemical constitution. Moreover,
I do not propose to deal with many simple inorganic substances like
arsenic, iodine or phosphorus. The physiological action of many of the
elements seems to be an intrinsic property as much as their atomic
weight. Indeed, within the same group of the periodic system the
toxicity of kations, with certain exceptions, increases with the increase
of the atomic weight.^** Until we know far more than we do now
concerning the underlying causes for the physical properties of the
elements we are not likely to know why, for example, iron is less
poisonous than cobalt. It is much the same question as why bromine
is red and chlorine green. We do know, however, that elements like
arsenic, phosphorus and nitrogen, which exhibit variable valence, maf
be toxic and we suspect that their action is probably in some way
connected with their change from one state of valence to another. We
also know that in some way the toxic action of kations and anions is
* B. Oertly and R. G. Myers. A new theory relating constitution to taste. Journ.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 41: 861. 1919.
^ W. H. ScHULTz. Quantitative pharmacological studies: Adrenalin and adrenalin-like
bodies. Hygienic Lab. Bull. 55, U. S. Public Health and Marine Hospital Service, 1909.
" Blake. Compt. rend. 1839; Proc. Roy. Soc. London 1841. Amer. Journ. Sci. 1874;
Ber. deutsch. Chem. Ges. 14: 394. 1881.
AUGUST 19, 1921 alsberg: physiological chemistry 325
related to their effects upon colloids, especially proteins ;^^ but here
again the power of kations to precipitate proteins and of anions to
produce the reverse effect is, so far as our knowledge at present goes,
an intrinsic property. Since it is, speculation upon these phenomena
is rather fruitless till the physicists have gone a great deal further. I
shall deal tonight therefore in the main with substances more complex
than the simple elements.
There are in the main three general ways in which a substance may
affect a cell:
The substance may attack the surface of the cell.
The substance may affect the cell indirectly without entering it.
The substance may affect the cell in the course of entering, or after
entrance into the cell.
Many substances destroy the surface layer of a cell by precipitating
or coagulating it. This is the effect of many astringents, such as the
salts of many heavy metals, ferric chloride for example, when in
sufficient concentration. Other substances dissolve some of the
constituents of the surface layer as, for example, ether when in sufficient
concentration.^^ Other substances combine with some component of
the surface layer. This may be the action of saponins. ^^
Substances which neither enter cells nor attack the cell surface act
chiefly by affecting the concentrations within the cell. They either
withdraw water from the cell so that it tends to shrivel and become
desiccated, or they cause water to penetrate into the cell so that it
swells. These processes are called plasmolysis because they may, if
carried to extremes, cause the protoplasm to disintegrate. Those
among you who are botanists or physiologists know that this phenom-
enon may be studied by observing the behavior of suitable plant
cells or red blood corpuscles when placed in solutions of the substances
to be tested. In many plant tissues the protoplasm forms a layer
lining a rigid cellulose wall. It is really a sac enclosing a relatively
large space filled with sap. When such a cell shrinks or is plasmolyzed
the protoplasm withdraws from the cellulosic cell wall and this can be
seen very easily under the microscope. In the case of red blood
corpuscles, these become crenated, that is, they shrink and take on the
11 Bayliss, op. cit., p. 35.
12 L. Hermaxn. Ueber die Wirkungsweise einer Cruppe von Giften. Arch. Anat. Physiol,
u. Wiss. Aled. 1866: 27.
1' H. E. Woodward and C. L. Alsberg. A comparison of the effect of certain saponins
on the surface tension of water with their hemolytic power. Journ. Pharm. Exp. Therap.
16: 237. 1920.
326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 14
appearance of a globe studded with projections like the head of a
crusader's mace.
That a substance may plasmolyze a cell it is obvious that it must
fulfill certain conditions. It must exert osmotic pressure; it must not
be able to penetrate into the cell, or if it does, it must do so very slowly,
that is, more slowly than water, for if it passes quickly into the cell the
osmotic pressure within and without will be very quickly equalized
and there will be no plasmolysis. In other words, the cell-membrane
must be semi-permeable to the plasmolyzing substance. A semi-
permeable membrane is one that permits only certain dissolved sub-
stances to pass through it. Now most cell-membranes are semi-
permeable to most salts of organic as well as inorganic bases, to the
sugars and to many other substances. They do not permit these
substances to pass through readily. When brought into solutions of
such substances, cells may be plasmolyzed. One group of organisms
seems to form an exception. A large number of bacteria do not seem
to be surrounded with membranes semi-permeable in this sense;
salts pass into them apparently unhindered. They all can be stained
according to the method of Gram, and are known as the Gram positive
bacteria. They cannot be plasmolyzed.
Considerations of this sort help us to understand the action of
certain salts and other substances upon the intestines. You all know
that Glauber's salt (sodium sulfate) and Epsom salt (magnesium
sulfate) are laxatives. Now one of the characteristics that distinguish
such salts from others, say sodium chloride, is that they are not readily
absorbed through the intestinal wall. Not being absorbed readily
they cause the osmotic pressure of the intestinal contents to remain
great as the food passes down the alimentary canal. In order to with-
draw water from the intestinal contents the intestines would have to do
an amount of osmotic work which would be very great indeed. The
result is that water remains in the intestinal contents or is secreted into
it so that the contents remain bulky and peristalsis is stimulated.
This is one of the main factors, though not the only factor, in the
purgative action of these salts. It is a physical factor dependent upon
the slow absorption of these salts through colloid membranes, rather
than upon any strictly chemical reaction dependent upon the structure
of the molecule or its chemical reactivity.
We have seen that the phenomenon of plasmolysis furnishes a method
to tell what substances do not enter cells. Conversely we can tell
what substances do pass readily into cells, for such substances will not
AUGUST 19, 1921 ALSBERG : PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 327
plasmolyze. A study of the plasmolyzing power of many hundreds of
substances has shown that substances of the most diverse chemical
character can enter cells readily. They have neither molecules of
similar size, nor similar melting points nor similar boiling points, nor
similar chemical affinities. They have one property in common;
they are more freely soluble in fatty oils and lipoids than in water.
If any of these substances be mixed with water and oil, much of the
substance will dissolve in the oil and relatively little in the water. As
the physicist would put it, the distribution coefficient for these
substances between oil and water is greatly in favor of oil.^^
A very good illustration of this phenomenon is furnished by glycerin
and its derivatives, mono- and dichlorhydrin.^' Glycerin enters cells
very slowly, monochlorhydrin quite rapidly and dichlorhydrin almost
instantaneously. Glycerin has no narcotic action, monochlorhydrin
has a fairly strong narcotic action and dichlorhydrin quite a powerful
narcotic action. In the days of the purely chemical conception of
protoplasm, it would have been assumed that chlorine was a "toxo-
phore" group, ^^ that perhaps its action depended upon its electro-
negative character or that mono- and dichlorhydrin had greater
affinity for the cell-substance. The fact is that glycerin is but slightly
soluble in oil and very soluble in water while its chlorine derivatives
are very much more soluble in oils than in water. ^^
Since so many substances that pass readily through the semi-per-
meable cell membranes are oil-soluble, many biologists have concluded
that the cell membrane is, in part at any rate, composed of fat-like
substances, probably lipoids, like lecithin and cholesterin. This in-
ference is based on the fact that it has been shown for a great variety
of semi-permeable membranes that they permit only those substances
to pass through them that are soluble in them. Thus chloroform, but
not alcohol, may be made to pass through rubber membranes. Hence
it was inferred that since only fat-soluble substances pass readily
through the semi-permeable membranes of cells, these membranes
must consist, in part at any rate, of fats or fat-like substances such as
" E. Overton. Studien. ueber die Narkose. (Jena, 1901.) H. Meyer. Arch. exp.
Path. Pharm. 42: 109. 1899; 46: 338. 1901. P. Ehrlich. Therap. Monatsh., March, 1887.
1' E. Overton. Ueber die allgemeine osmottsche Eigenschaften der Zelle. Vierteljahrb.
Naturforscherges. Zurich 44: 889. 1899.
i« C. R. Marshall and H. L. Heath. The pharmacology of the chlorhydrins ,
a contribution to the study of the relations between chemical constitution and pharmacological
action. Journ. Physiol. 22: 1, 2. 1897.
1" H. KioNKA. Zur Theorieder Narkose. Arch. Int. Pharmacodynamie et Therapie 7.
328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 14
the lipoids and cholesterin. This is the more probable as lecithin
and cholesterin have but slight surface tension effect and would
therefore tend to accumulate at surfaces. ^^ Indeed it is probable
that all substances that lower surface tension must tend to accumu-
late at surfaces and take part, to a greater or lesser degree, in the for-
mation of such membranes whether such substances come from
within the cell or from the liquids that bathe the cell.
This hypothesis of the semi-permeability and lipoid character of
the cell-membrane has not been accepted universally. Czapek,^^ for
example, believes that the ability of substances to pass through the
cell-membrane is a function of their ability to affect surface tension
rather than a function of their oil solubility. However, substances
that lower surface tension seem also to be oil-soluble. Perhaps the
two traits are but expressions of the same underlying physical property.
Shryver^° believes the semi-permeability to be dependent upon the
presence of a gel in the membrane. However, all the theories explain-
ing the semi-permeability of cell-membranes that have been advanced
of recent years are based upon physical or physico-chemical consider-
ations. Not one assumes any dependence upon molecular structure
or chemical reaction. That is the important point for us this evening.
We see then that the factors that determine the power of substances
to enter cells are physical properties rather than molecular structure
or chemical reactivity. If we examine the action substances exhibit
after they have obtained entrance into cells, we find that an immense
number of substances cg-use narcosis. In the lower organisms proto-
plasmic streaming and other forms of motion cease. In the higher
organisms endowed with a nervous system, this undergoes a more or
less complete paralysis. The most diverse substances have this
effect: — Pentane, chloroform, ether, alcohol, phenanthrene, salicylamid
monacetin. They have no common chemical properties except that
they are neither acids nor bases. They are spoken of as the "indiffer-
ent narcotics" to distinguish them from the narcotic alkaloids which
are bases. We have here again a common physiological action de-
^8 It should, however, be noted that many food substances, for example glucose, cause
plasmolysis; yet they must enter cells for otherwise they could not nourish them. There
are undoubtedly other factors that enter into the structure of cell-membranes and a number
of theories on the subject have been advanced.
" F. CzAPEK. Ueber die Oberfldchen-spannung mid den Lipoidgehalt der Plasmahaut
in den lebenden Pflanzenzellen. Ber. deutsch. botan. Ges. 28: 480. 1910.
2° S. B. Shryver. Investigations dealing with the phenomena of "clot" formations, Part II.
Proc. Roy. Soc. B 87: 366. 1914.
AUGUST 19, 1921 AI.SBERG : PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 329
pendent apparently upon a common physical property exhibited by
substances of the most diverse chemical structure. ^^
That this relation is not accidental is proven by the fact that the
narcotic power of these substances is broadly proportional to their
relative solubility in oil as compared with their solubility in water;
that is, proportional to their distribution coefficient between these
two solvents. The more this ratio is in favor of oil the more narcotic
the substance. This was proved for a large number of substances,
both by H. Meyer- and by Overton'-^ who experimented with tad-
poles. These animals were placed in water containing varying con-
centrations of the substance to be tested and the effect noted. In
this way the lowest concentration capable of narcotizing the tadpoles
was determined. Comparison of the minimum narcotic concentration
thus determined for a large number of substances demonstrated that
these concentrations show a direct parallelism with the distribution
coefficients of the respective narcotics between oil and water.
This parallelism of the effective narcotic strength of a substance with
its oil-water distribution coefficient is demonstrated strikingly if
experiments be made, as was done by Meyer-^ with the same sub-
stances at different temperatures. The narcotic power of each sub-
stance changes with the temperature in proportion to the shift made
by the temperature in the oil-water distribution coefficient. This is
especially striking in the case of chloral as will appear from an ex-
amination of table 1 which has been adapted from Meyer's publication
on this subject.
It is obvious that experiments analogous to Overton's tadpole experi-
ments can be performed upon animals breathing through lungs instead
of gills only with volatile narcotics like ether or chloroform. The
non-volatile narcotics cannot be tested in any direct way because
when given by the mouth the rate of absorption from the alimentary-
tract may vary in different individuals and in the same individual at
different times. Moreover the rate varies with the solubility of the
narcotic in the contents of the intestinal tract. Thus phenanthrene is
not sufficiently soluble in water to be absorbed and exert any action
though it has actually narcotic power. Long ago Bert showed that
2' L. Hermann, op. cit.
" H. Meyer, op. cit.
" E. Overton, op. cit.
** H. Meyer, Zur Theorie der Alkohol Narkose. Ill Mittheilung. Der Etnfluss wech-
selnder Tetnperatur auf Wirkungstdrke und Theilungs-Coefficient der Narcotica. Arch,
exp. Path. u. PharmakoL 46: 338. 1901.
330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 14
narcosis through the inhalation of air containing vapors of narcotics
did not take place however long such a mixture was breathed unless
the vapor pressure of the narcotic was above a definite threshold
value. 2^ The narcosis-producing vapor pressures run parallel in a
general way with the oil-water distribution coefficients of the different
TABLE 1. — The Rei^ation of the Power of Certain Substances to Narcotize
Tadpoles at Different Temperatures, to the Distribution Coefficients of
These Substances between Water and Oil at These Temperatures
volatile narcotics.-^ It is moreover curious to note that the effective
vapor tension of the narcotic in the blood of the narcotized animal is of
the same general order of magnitude, if calculated for the same body
temperature, in the animal series from the frog to the dog."
Meyer and Overton assumed that since the narcotics are especially
soluble in the lipoids they will, of necessity, accumulate in those parts
of the body that are richest in lipoids. The nervous system is peculiarly
rich in lipoids. Hence these investigators explained in this manner
the accumulation of the lipoids in the nervous system and their selective
action upon it.'-^^ However, just as the lipoid theory of semi-per-
2-' P. Bert. Sur la mortpar Vaction des melanges d'air et de vapeurs dechloroform. Compt.
rend. Soc. Biol. 35: 241. 1883.
Methode d'anaesthesie par les melanges doses d'air et de vapeurs de chloroform. Ibid. 409.
Sur I'anaesthesie par l' ether. Ibid. 522.
*^ E. Overton, op. cit. p. 85.
" jj. Winterstein. Die Narkose (Julius Springer, Berlin, 1919), p. 33.
28 Meyer and also Overton believed that the indifferent narcotics accumulated most in
the cortex because, according to the older analyses of the brain, the cortex is richest in
lipoids. Bethe, however, pointed out that, according to more recent analyses of Thudichum,
Koch and others, the white matter is far richer in lipoids than the gray; and Bethe dwelt
upon this as one of the objections to this hypothesis. However, there is no good reason to
suppose that interruption of the association tracts is not capable of producing narcosis as
readily as direct action on the cortical cells themselves.
AUGUST 19, 1921 ALSBERG : PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 331
meability has not been generally accepted, so the Overton-Meyer
lipoid theory of narcosis is not accepted universally. Traube believes
surface tension effect and not lipoid solubility is the main factor and
others believe that adsorption of the narcotic by the nerve cell is the
main factor.-^ This is not the place to discuss these hypotheses other
than to point out that none of them considers the chemical structure
of the narcotic molecule as of moment except in so far as the chemical
structure of the molecule determines its physical properties.
We may therefore fairly assume that in the case of the indifferent
narcotics we have an apparently specific action upon a specific organ,
the nervous system, dependent quite as much upon the physical
properties of the narcotic as upon its chemical structure. The older
pharmacologists would have said that the narcotic acts upon the
nervous system specifically because the nerve cell or the nerve cell
protoplasm contains a specific chemical group which has a special
affinity for the narcotic and combines or reacts with it.
Now these theories of narcosis explain why the nervous system
attracts the narcotic, in other words, they give a simple physical
explanation for the distribution of the narcotic within the body.
They do not tell us in the least what the narcotic does after it accumu-
lates in the cells. Concerning the nature of the action of the narcotic
after it has accumulated within a cell a number of theories have been
advanced. We have not yet enough experimental data to reach
a decision and there is hardly time tonight for a full discussion of
them. However it will be of interest to indicate the general character
of some of them: — if protoplasm is essentially an emulsion or gel,
one of the phases of which is oil-like, then the solution of the narcotic
in the oil phase must greatly affect the character of this phase and its
surface phenomena.^" There will inevitably be a tendency to change
the permeability of the membranes at the interfaces with a tendency
to the redistribution of the protoplasmic components to conform to
new conditions. The tendency must be to change the composition
of the phases relatively. If the narcotic enters into adsorption
combinations with components of the cell this too must alter the
relative composition of the phases. If the adsorption be upon enzyme
molecules the functioning of the cell would be disturbed correspond-
ingly.^^ In either event, whether the narcotic dissolves in the oil
28 H. WiNTERSTEIN, op. cit.
30 H. Meyer. Zur Theorie der Alkohol-narkose. I Mittheilung. Arch. exp. Path. u.
Pharmakol. 42: 112. 1899.
31 H. WiNTERSTEIN, op. cit. p. 276, ff.
332 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 14
phase or forms a blanketing adsorption layer about enzyme molecules,
or does both, the effect must be to hasten certain normal processes
and retard others. It is a well-established fact that many narcotics
retard extra cor pore many enzyme reactions, especially oxidations.
It is also well established that in narcotized cells the oxidation metab-
olism, that is, respiration, is dampened. That the presence of
narcotics also tends to hasten some protoplasmic processes is evident
from the effect of such substances on the rate of autolysis, that is, the
self-digestion of cells. Even small quantities of such substances as
chloroform or toluol very rapidly hasten the onset of the autolysis of
cells in vitro. ^^ Apparently they hasten it because through lipoid
solubility, surface tension effect, or adsorption, they disturb the balance
of the protoplasmic phases with a resulting destruction of the coordi-
nating mechanisms of protoplasm. ^^ The intracellular enzymes then
run riot and rapid autolysis results. Perhaps physical phenomena,
similar in kind if not in degree, are involved in narcosis. Certainly in
chloroform narcosis katabolism is increased. It is conceivable that in
the manner above suggested a substance may exercise a profound
effect upon a cell without necessarily entering into a chemical union
with some constituent of the cell. That such a chemical union must of
necessity precede the attack of a poison upon a cell was formerly very
generally assumed.
In discussing phenomena of this character we must beware lest we
generalize too widely. No one hypothesis is applicable to all cases.
Thus there are cases in which it is perfectly well known that substances
accumulate in cells because they combine chemically with some
constituent of the cell. The alkaloids furnish an example. Tannic
acid precipitates many alkaloids. Some algae contain tannic acid and
when they are brought into solutions of the free alkaloids, the base,
*2 V. Schroeder long ago showed that the autolysis of yeast went on more rapidly in the
presence of a little ether than without. Evidently ether does to yeast cells exactly what it
does to red blood corpuscles; it lakes them, i.e., it dissolves the lipoids of the cell-membranes
making the latter permeable to intra-cellular substances, among them the enzymes. It
seems that a process similar to hemolysis, called cytolysis, may occur in any cell. Probably
this phenomenon underlies such pathological conditions as acute yellow atrophy of the liver
which is characterized by an ante-mortem autolysis of the liver and perhaps other organs.
It is quite conceivable that a toxic substance absorbed from the gut may lake or cytolize
the liver cells destroying the coordination between their own ferments and setting these
ferments free to work their own cells' destruction. It is significant that yellow phosphorus,
chloroform and chloral hydrate, all lipoid-soluble substances, are capable, when taken by the
mouth, of producing a pathological condition bearing considerable resemblance to acute
yellow atrophy of the liver.
33 C. L. Alsbbrg. Mechanisms of cell activity. Op. cit.
AUGUST 19, 1921 alsberg: physiological chemistry 333
which penetrates into the cells, is precipitated by the tannic acid. The
formation of these precipitates may be obser\^ed under the microscope.
The alkaloid being removed by precipitation, more alkaloid diffuses in
until all the available tannic acid has been consumed. The alkaloid
enters because the cell-membrane is permeable to it. Whether this
permeability is due to lipoid solubility of the alkaloid, surface effect, or
adsorption need not concern us now. Were there no tannin within the
cell, only so much alkaloid would diffuse into it as is required to es-
tablish equilibrium between the interior of the cell and the medium
bathing the cell. More, however, passes in because a part is combined
firmly with the tannin. By such a chemical mechanism, as well as in
the other ways above discussed, substances may accumulate in special
organs or cells. ^^
The indifferent narcotics are substances that are not dissociated.
The majority of the substances which readily permeate cells are not
ionized. This is beautifully illustrated by the difference in the action
of the free alkaloid bases and their salts, as shown by Overton. The
former are more poisonous than the latter, at least to the individual
cell. The free base alone is able to pass through the cell-membrane.
In a solution of the base all of it is free to pass through the membrane.
The solution of the salt only contains free base to the extent that
the salt is dissociated. With a base as weak as the alkaloids united
with the common very powerful acids, the amount of dissociation will
be very slight. The action of the salt is therefore slower than that of
the free base.
Analogous conditions seem to prevail in the case of inorganic salts.
As a rule ions do not pass through cell-membrane and it is very doubt-
ful whether the ordinary salts of the organism, most of which plas-
molyze, enter cells as ions.'^' Certain inorganic salts, however,
'* For other mechanisms, see W. SchulEmann, Die vitale Fdrhung in ihrer Bedeutung
fiir Anatomie, Physiologic, Pathologie und Pharmakologie. Biochem. Zeitschr. 80: 1. 1917.
^ Apparently the fact that the lipoids, as shown by Thudichum, readily form colloidal
solutions in water, has been overlooked by those who have speculated on the subject. Koch
has shown that such solutions change the solubility of inorganic salts and render them
soluble with the lipoid in ether. I myself have observed that if a solution of egg yolk in
10 per cent NaCl be extracted with ether a small amount of material giving the biuret re-
action passes into the ether. A thorough study of the manner in which lipoids and proteins
modify the solubility of such substances as glucose, amino-acids, and inorganic salts is
needed. It may well be that it will furnish the key to the mechanism by which such
food-stuffs enter cells. However, it should also be kept in mind that none of the hypotheses
concerning the character of cell-membranes is capable of explaining completely the entrance
into cells of all substances that undoubtedly get into them. I have been careful to
334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 14
probably enter cells because they are more or less lipoid-soluble, for
example, mercuric chloride, cadmium chloride and copper chloride.
Perhaps for that reason they are so very toxic and antiseptic.
Perhaps the best summing up of the relative importance of chemical
and physical factors in determining the action of toxic agents has been
given by Barger and Dale in one of their papers upon the active
principles of the ergot of rye: "but it by no means follows that the
peculiar distribution of the action of nicotine or of the sympatho-
mimetic amines depends on the existence of specific chemical re-
ceptors in the cells primarily sensitive to them, as supposed by Langley.
Stimulation may be a chemical process but the fact that certain cells
are preferentially stimulated by a certain group of substances such as
our amines may mean that in those cells these substances readily reach
the site of action; a supposition which is in accord with the view
advanced by Straub." "On the whole then the least unsatisfactory
view in the present state of knowledge seems to us to be that which
regards the existence of stimulant activities as dependent on the
possession of some chemical property, the distribution, and, in the
main, the intensity of the activity as due to a physical property. "^^
This thought will help us to understand the reasoning that is used
in the production of synthetic drugs, that is, the science known as
chemo- therapy. Chemo-therapy is the name given to that phase of
pharmacology which deals with the production of drugs for special
and specific purposes. Sometimes its aim is defined more narrowly
as the search for chemical agents that will cure infectious diseases,
that is, agents that will act as internal disinfectants for the diseased
body. Since such substances are usually more or less poisonous for
the body cells as well as for the parasite, much of chemo-therapeutic
research aims to so modify the molecular structure of the toxic sub-
stance as to render it appreciably more toxic to the parasite than to
the body cells of the host."
We can then divide the aims of investigators in the field of chemo-
therapy into two groups ; those that endeavor to influence the physical
properties of drugs and therefore their intensity and place of action
in the organisms, and those that endeavor to influence the chemical
attribute to the lipoid only a part of the observed phenomena. Schulemann, for example,
attributes a large role to phagocytosis, a phenomenon undoubtedly largely dependent
upon surface tension effects.
3" Cf. also W. Schulemann, op. cit.
3' G. GiEMSA, op. cit. p. 190-191.
AUGUST 19, 1921 ALSBERG : PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 335
properties of drugs and their specific manner of action. ^^
As no sharp line can be drawn between chemistry and physics so
these aims of the synthetic chemist in the field of chemo-therapy can
not be separated sharply. The attainment of one aim is very apt to
bring the other in its train. Thus the rate of action of a drug may be
accelerated or retarded by merely changing its solubility. The more
soluble it is the more rapidly may it be absorbed and the more intense
will be its action, since, obviously, the more rapidly it floods the body
the more toxic will it be. At the same time its action is likely to be
more evanescent because just as it will be more rapidly absorbed so
it is apt to be more rapidly eliminated. The less soluble it is the
more slowly will it be absorbed and the milder and more continuous
is apt to be its action. Moreover, at the same time, changing its
solubility may change the site of action of a drug as when it is rendered
insoluble in the stomach but soluble in the intestines. Such an example
is the tannate of an alkaloid. These tannates are insoluble in the
stomach, but soluble in the intestines. Therefore not merely is their
rate of action modified but the action itself may not begin until the
drug reaches the intestines. The rate, the intensity, as well as the
site of action have been modified by the mere change in solubility.
Similar changes in the action of drugs can be brought about by
making derivatives that are inactive in themselves but are decomposed
somewhere in the body setting the active principle free. By such
means it is possible to retard the rate and also to change the site of
action. Salol, a condensation product of phenol and salicylic acid,
is a good example of this sort. It passes through the acid stomach
but is esterified in the alkaline intestines with the gradual liberation
of its component drugs. Thus they act slowly and less intensely,
exerting local antiseptic action in the intestines and, after gradual
absorption, continuous systemic action. A similar result is accom-
plished in the administration of inorganic substances if converted into
un-ionized organic compounds. Such compounds may reach the
tissues before they are decomposed, exerting their action at the site of
decomposition. Salvarsan and its congeners are examples of this
kind. They are organic compounds of arsenic which are but slowly
decomposed within the tissues. By their use it is possible to keep the
body continuously under the influence of arsenic without serious toxic
symptoms. No doubt a part of the value of salvarsan is due to the
'* S. Fraenkel. Die Arzneimittelsynthese auf Grundlage der Beziehungen zwischen
chemischen Aufbau und Wirkung. (J. Springer, Beriin, 1912.)
336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 14
fact that it is retained in the system a long time and but slowly de-
composed. In a very similar manner it is possible to make an element's
action milder, more continuous and free from local irritant action.
Iodoform is a case in point. Its action is that of iodine; but iodine
itself is too powerful for local application to wound surfaces. Iodo-
form is slowly decomposed on wound surfaces subjecting them to the
mild continuous action of iodine so that there is little local irritation.
Except for salvarsan, the cases just given are examples in which the
modification of the action of the drug was in the main designed to
accomplish a modification of the intensity and site of action of a
well-known drug substance rather than to modify its specific action or
to create a new drug with a modified specific or even a totally new
physiological action. The investigations and the line of reasoning
which lead up to the production of the valuable local anesthetic,
novocaine, are perhaps typical of the latter form of chemo-therapeutic
research. The object of these investigations was to develop a drug
with the local anaesthetic action of cocaine but devoid of its objection-
able toxic effects. Ecgonine, the mother substance, of cocaine, has the
following formula:
CH (COOH)
CH (OH)
Kinhorn^^ discovered that if he esterified the carboxyl (COOH)
group of ecgonine with a methyl (CH3) group and the hydroxyl (OH)
group with a benzoyl group (CO.CeHr,) he obtained the very anaesthetic
natural base cocaine :
c coo CHs
CH O CO CeH.
This led him to make a large number of benzoyl esters, many of which
^'A. EiNHORN. Ueber neue Arzneimittel, Ann. d. Chemie 371: 125. 1909.
AUGUST 19, 1921 ALSBERG : PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 337
were anaesthetic. Indeed Filehne^" concluded that the benzoyl group
was responsible for the anaesthetic action. The action may be lacking
if there are interfering groups such as the carboxyl (COOH) group of
ecgonine. Moreover it was found that when, as in cocaine, the benzoyl
group was combined with a nitrogen-containing nucleus its action
became most apparent. Thereupon a large series of nitrogen-contain-
ing nuclei were benzoylated and it was found that so complex a nitrog-
enous nucleus as that of cocaine was not necessary. Many of these
benzoyl esters derived from quite simple nitrogen-containing nuclei
were found to have anaesthetic action. The first very simple sub-
stance of this type to find a practical use was orthoform, which is the
methyl ester of para-amino-meta-oxybenzoic acid:
COOCHs
The objection to this compound is that it is too insoluble while its
salts are too irritant. It was therefore necessary to make soluble
derivatives. This was done by combining it with glycocoU (amino-
acetic acid) derivatives. Thus there was produced a substance which
has been used practically, nirvanin, the methyl ester of di-ethyl-
amine-acetyl-para-amino-ortho-oxy-benzoic acid :
NH CO CH2 N(C2H6)2
A
.OH
COOCH3
Further investigation showed that still greater simplification was
possible by the elimination of the hydroxyl group. This led to the
development of procaine, known by the trade name of novocaine, the
soluble hydrochloride of para-amino benzoic acid di-ethyl-amino-
ethyl ester or para-amino-benzoyl-di-ethyl-amino ethanol :
NH2
' COO-CH2-CH2N(C2H5)2HCl
This is quite a simple substance as compared with cocaine and easily
made synthetically. Another simplification is the removal of the
*° W. FiLEHNE. Die local anaesthesirende Wirkung von Benzoylderivaten. Berliner
klin. Wochenschr. 24: 107. Feb. 14, 1887.
338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 14
amino (NHo) group from the ring as in stovaine and alypine.
However, the power to anaesthetize the sensory nerve endings is
not limited to basic substances like those above described. Many
substances quite unrelated to them possess this power to a greater or
less degree, such as antipyrine, certain inorganic salts, quinoline
derivatives, phenolic and aromatic side-chain alcohols."*^ Some of
the latter, like benzyl alcohol, phenethylol, benzoyl carbinol and
saligenin, promise to compete with substances of the procaine type.
That so many substances of such varying molecular configuration
exhibit similar physiological action arouses the suspicion that, as in
the case of the indifferent narcotics, some as yet unrecognized common
physical property is concerned in their action. Significant in this
connection is the fact that Schleich modified the method of terminal
anaesthesia by showing that if hypotonic solutions, that is, solutions
of a lesser osmotic concentration than the blood, be injected under
pressure until the tissues become rigid, the concentration of the
anaesthetic necessary to prove effective is reduced. Now either
hypotonic or hypertonic inorganic salt solutions tend to produce local
anaesthesia by themselves, perhaps through merely causing swelling or
shrinking of the cells, that is partial plasmolysis.^- It is also signif-
icant as bearing on the possibility of some common physical property
of the local anaesthetics that Gros^^ presents evidence that bases
like cocaine and procaine are made more active if set free by sodium
bicarbonate from their salts, presumably because they, like other
alkaloids, enter cells most readily as the free base.^^
The type of reasoning and experimentation which made a new era
in surgery possible through the development of such substances as pro-
caine is not limited to the production of new and valuable drugs.
It has been applied with success to the production of new perfumes, of
new antiseptics^^ and new flavoring materials.
As an example of the application of this manner of reasoning in
the production of flavoring substances may be cited the work of E. K.
Nelson in the Bureau of Chemistry upon capsaicin, the pungent
principle of red pepper. Nelson first determined that capsaicin is a
^1 H. G. Barbour. Local anaesthetics. Science N. S. 51: 497-504. May 21, 1920.
*2 Barbour, op. cit.
^3 O. Gros. Ueber die Narkotika and Lokalanaesthetika. Arch. exp. Path. u. Phar-
makol. 63: 80. 1910.
" Cf. supra, p. 333.
*^ E. p., Dakin's Di-chloramin T.
AUGUST 19, 1&21 ALSBERG : PHYSIOLOGICAIv CHEMISTRY 339
vanillyl-decenoyl amide. ^^
OCH3
HO—/ y—CUt NH COC9H17
He thereupon made a series of homologous vanillyl-acyl amides with
acids of different molecular weights.^' He found that with increasing
molecular weight there was an increase in pungency up to a maximum
beyond which it decreased. Table 2 gives the relative pungency of
these substances, capsaicin being rated at one hundred.
TABLE 2. — Comparative Pungencibs of Vanillyl-Acyl Amides
Vanillyl n-hexoylamide 5
Vanillyl n-heptoylamide 25
Vanillyl n-octoylamide 75
Vanillyl n-nonoylamide 100
Vanillyl n-decoylamide 50
Vanillyl n-undecoylamide 25
Vanillyl n-dodecoylamide 25
Vanillyl undecenoylamide 25
This phenomenon of increasing intensity of physiological action
up to a maximum with increase in molecular weight and a diminution
beyond the maximum with still further increase in molecular weight is
a phenomenon that has been observed frequently. ^^ There is good
reason to believe that it is due, in part at any rate, to changes in
solubility. For example, for a substance to be odorous it must be
sufficiently soluble in both water and lipoids, since the cells of the
mucous membrane of the nose are covered by a watery fluid and have
in all probability a lipoid semi-permeable cell membrane. ^^ Thus
in the homologous series of pungent substances of table 2 the solubility
in water decreases with rising molecular weight while the solubility
in ether increases. Perhaps this is a plain case in which the manner
of action, that is, pungency, is a function of the chemical structure
of the molecule, while the intensity of action is dependent upon the
physical property of solubility. Perhaps the specificity of the pungent
action is not to be sought in the substances so much as in the taste
buds of the tongue, according to the well-known physiological law of the
specific response of the nerve end-organs. Any stimulus gives the
*^ E. K. Nelson. The constitution of capsaicin, the pungent principle of capsicum.
Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 41: 1115. 1919.
*'' E. K. Nelson. Vanillyl-acyl amides. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 41: 2122. 1919.
*^ Th. H. Durrans. The relationship between odour and chemical constitution. Per-
fumery and Essential Oil Record 10: 107-132. London, May 21, 1919.
*' Backmann. Journ. physiol. path. gen. 17: 1.
340 JOURNAIv OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 14
sensation peculiar to that organ. The capsaicin series is highly
irritating to all cells. Perhaps the sensation of pungency is only the
effect of the irritation of specific cells on the tongue.
The type of reasoning and of investigation above discussed has been
used only recently to produce new repellants for insects, to combat
human parasites. Moore and Hirschfelder^° have made such a study
upon the body louse and have demonstrated that the impregnation
of the garments with certain halogenated cresols will repel this parasite
for considerable periods. It would seem that here is a wide field for
work. Research similar to that of Moore and Hirschfelder should
lead to the discovery of repellants for such pests as black-flies and
mosquitoes, a boon not merely to those who frequent the swampy
lands of our continent but also to those who live in malarial regions.
While Moore and Hirschfelder and a few others have made a be-
ginning in this sort of research in relation to insects troublesome
to man, but little work has been done to improve or devise better
insecticides and fungicides useful in agriculture. The economic
losses from insect and fungous ravages are enormous. Despite such
losses we have been content with relatively few simple insecticides and
fungicides. The organic insecticides in present use are largely natural
plant substances such as the poisons of the hellebore and larkspur,
pyrethrum, and nicotine from the tobacco plant. In addition, cyan-
ides, long known to be poisonous, and mineral oil emulsions are also
used. Recently the employment of certain war gases has been ad-
vocated. Of the inorganic insecticides, arsenates, known for centuries
to be poisonous to higher animals, and lime and sulfur sprays represent
obvious and readily available substances. The use of fluorides
represents a rather distinct and valuable discovery. No really
synthetic organic substance has come into use as an insecticide. It
is evident that the range of our insecticide and fungicide armamen-
tarium at the present time is very narrows There is no reason why
this range could not be extended vastly by the development of a sister
science to chemo-therapy, a science for which I venture to propose
the name chemo-phy to- therapy. The aim of chemo-phyto-therapy
would be to protect plants from the attacks of microorganisms and
insects just as the aim of chemo-therapy is to protect animals from
such attacks. As chemo-therapy demands the working together of
pharmacologists and chemists, so chemo-phyto-therapy would demand
^0 W. Moore and A. D. Hirschfelder. An investigation of the louse problem. Re-
search Publ. Univ. Minnesota 8: No. 4. July, 1919.
AUGUST 19, 1921 WATSON: LAMPROPHYRE DIKE 341
the working together of entomologists, of pathologists and of chemists.
The entomologist indeed has a twofold task. Not merely must he
test out the substances created by the chemist, but he must also create
the science of the pharmacology of insects.
Some desultory work of this type has been done in the past. The
Bureau of Entomology of the U. S. Department of Agriculture from
time to time has tested out numerous substances, often by-products
for which no other use was apparent, such substances as naphthols,
cresols, crude pyridin bases and many others. These were all found
to be comparatively worthless for one cause or another. Few if
any systematic studies in which the chemist and the entomologist
cooperated seem to have been made. Such studies are now in progress
through the cooperation of the Bureau of Entomology and of the
Bureau of Chemistry. Notable progress has been made and it is
hoped that a solid foundation will be laid for a new science — chemo-
phyto-therapy.
My hope in addressing you was to give you a conception of the
pharmacologist which is perhaps not generally current and to indicate
to you how fundamental are some of the problems with which he deals.
If I have succeeded in arousing your interest in this science and if
in so doing I have demonstrated to you that the action of chemical
substances upon living things is quite as much a function of the physi-
cal properties of such substances as it is of their molecular structure,
then I have achieved the goal that I set for myself this evening.
PETROLOGY. — Petrography of a lamprophyre dike cutting a pyrite
body in Boyd Smith Mine, Louisa County, Virginia.'^ Thomas
L. Watson, University of Virginia.
The important large lens-shaped bodies of pyrite in Louisa County,
Virginia, so vigorously worked for many years, are inclosed in schists
of probable Cambrian age. These pyrite bodies, as well as the more
or less closely associated gold deposits, are genetically related to
intrusions of plutonic igneous rocks which are exposed in large masses
in fairly close proximity to the ore bodies. The ore-bearing schists
are also intruded in places by dikes of both acidic and basic igneous
rocks, the latest of which is diabase of Triassic age.
Although the area is one in which igneous rocks, in part younger
than the ore bodies, are fairly common, and in which mining operations
have been in progress for a long period of years, not until recently
1 Received June 16, 1921.
342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 14
has a single instance been known where the pyrite bodies were intruded
by igneous rocks.
The object of this paper is (1) to place on record observations
of the only known case of a pyrite body in one of the principal pyrite
mines of Virginia that is cut by a dike of igneous rock, and (2) to give a
petrographic description of the rock, since it is unlike the usual types
of basic igneous rocks found in the Virginia Piedmont province, and
for the added reason that the mine is closed and is no longer accessible.
OCCURRENCE
The lamprophyre dike^ described in this paper cuts the pyrite body
in the Boyd Smith mine which is located about 2 miles north of Mineral,
Louisa County, Virginia. The mine is one of a group of pyrite mines
located near Mineral that have yielded large tonnages of ore. Accord-
ing to Mr. Neustaedter, the dike was encountered in mining pyrite
near the north heading of the so-called "west vein" on the first level
about 100 feet below the surface. The ore body at this level is about
8 feet wide, strikes approximately N. 25° E., and dips to the southeast
about 60°. The dike does not exceed one foot in thickness, cuts the
pyrite body in an east-west direction, and dips about 85° south. The
same dike was also observed cutting the "east vein" of pyrite. There
is no evidence of the dike on the surface.
PETROGRAPHY
Megascopic characters. — The general appearance of the rock is
that of a typical porphyritic basalt. It is massive and of dark blue-
gray color, with small phenocrysts of biotite and nearly black pyroxene
in roughly equal amount set in a dense aphanitic groundmass. Polished
surfaces of the rock are uniformly darker (nearly black) in color,
with groundmass and phenocrysts rather strongly contrasted.
The dark minerals, biotite and pyroxene, are the only ones rec-
ognized in the hand specimen. Biotite, in small glistening crystals
up to 2 mm. in diameter, but usually less than 1 mm., is seemingly
more abundant than pyroxene in the hand specimen, but not in the
thin section. Pyroxene, nearly black in color, is developed in lath-
like prismatic crystals up to 5 mm. long and 1>2 mm. thick, and in
2 Credit for the discovery of the dike belongs to Mr. A. Neustaedter, former mining
engineer in charge, to whom the writer is indebted both for a statement of facts relat-
ing to its occurrence and for a hand specimen of the rock. The discovery of the dike in
1917 by Mr. Neustaedter was communicated to the writer and a hand specimen sent,
but pressing duties prevented the earlier preparation of a statement of the interesting
occurrence.
AUGUST 19, 1921 WATSON: LAMPROPHYRE DIKE 343
short prismatic nearly equant crystals up to 4 mm. in diameter. The
density of the specimen analyzed is 3.065.
Microscopic characters. — In thin section the rock shows considerable
alteration, especially the goundmass, which is composed chiefly of
clay substance admixed with more or less chloritic and serpentinous
material, derived probably from either feldspars or feldspathoids or
both. Neither feldspar nor glass was observed in the thin section
studied, although both may have been present originally. The
groundmass of the composition indicated above was roughly estimated
at 30 per cent.
Phenocrysts of biotite, augite, and altered olivine make up probably
60 per cent or more of the rock. Augite and much of the biotite
are usually fresh, but olivine is completely altered. The ore minerals,
titaniferous magnetite and apatite, the former predominating, make
up chiefly the remaining 10 per cent of the rock. No evidence of the
presence of sulfide minerals was indicated in either the hand specimen
or the thin section.
Biotite is of the type usually characteristic of the lamprophyres.
It exhibits intense pleochroism in shades of light and dark brown,
and in part dark-colored resorption rims. Much of it is entirely
fresh, but some has altered to a faintly pleochroic red substance
without trace of cleavage. It usually contains some inclusions.
Pyroxene is the variety augite near diopside in composition. Most
of it is colorless but some individuals show narrow faintly pleochroic
borders indicating some admixture of the aegirite molecule. Faint
violet shades indicating the presence of titanium are also noted. The
average extinction angle varies from 35 to 40 degrees. The augite
occurs in several generations and probably formed during the entire
period of crystallization of the rock. It is developed in subhedral
short nearly equant and in elongated prismatic (bladed) crystals, the
latter being predominant and so closely resembling in outline lath-
shaped plagioclase in diabase as to suggest diabasic texture. In
extreme cases the augite prisms are more than six times longer than
thick. A pronounced zonal structure is usually developed in the
nearly equant crystals, and some show hour-glass structure. Some
crystals show a green core that is faintly pleochroic and sharply
defined from the outer colorless part of the individual; others have
a pale green faintly pleochroic outer zone enveloping a colorless core.
The microscope indicates augite low in iron and in part titaniferous.
Cleavage is usually well developed in the nearly equant crystals and
344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOIy. 11, NO. 14
to a less degree in the lath-like forms. Twinning is observed in one
or two of the crystals.
Olivine, originally present in amount roughly estimated at 18 per
cent, is completely altered to greenish yellow serpentine, but the
outlines of the original mineral are usually well preserved,
CHEMICAL, COMPOSITION
The composition of the rock is shown in the chemical analysis
given in table 1 . It is regretted that fresher material was not available
for analysis, for the high water content (5.21 per cent) indicates
considerable alteration of the rock, a fact fully confirmed by microscopic
study.
TABLE 1. — Analysis and Norm of Lamprophyre Dike, Louisa County, Virginia.
S. D. GoocH, Analyst
Si02 37.40 or 15.01
AI2O3 18.60 ab 4.19
Fe203 6.35 an 40.87
FeO 7.95 di 0.68
MgO 3.80 hy 11.67
CaO 11.57 ol 0.48
Na20 .' 0.50 mt 9.28
K2O 2.53 il 7.45
H2O- 1.89 ap 4.70
H2O + 3.32
Ti02 : 3.89 Symbol: II(III).5.4.2.
P2O5 2.04
MnO 0.23 No name for II. 5. 4. 2. in the
- — ■ — "Quantitative System."
100.07
Sp. Gr 3.065
Because of the altered condition of the rock the norm and mode
do not agree. There is no name yet for the position in the "Quantita-
tive System" of classification in which the rock falls, or for the next
one in salfemane, but it is so altered (over 5 per cent of water) that it
seems not advisable to propose one. The high K2O is undoubtedly
contained in the biotite; Ti02 mostly in the titaniferous magnetite or
ilmenite, but partly in the augite, and probably to some extent in the
biotite ; while the high P2O5 is derived from apatite, which is present in
larger amount than is usual for the average rock of this type.
AGE
The exact age of the dike is unknown. The ore body which it
cuts is one of several of similar composition occurring in the same
district in Cambrian schists. The pyrite bodies are genetically re-
lated to intrusions of granitoid rocks that may be later but not older
AUGUST 19, 1921 abstracts: optics 345
than Cambrian, and with which the dike may possibly be correlated as
a late differentiate. The youngest known igneous rocks in the dis-
trict are dikes of Triassic diabase to which the dike cutting the pyrite
body bears no resemblance as it is the first of its kind to be described
from the Virginia Piedmont province. It cannot be older than Cam-
brian and may be as late as Triassic. The rock is more closely allied
in mineral composition and structure with the Triassic dikes of basic
igneous rocks than with the igneous bodies of earlier age occurring
in the area. For these reasons the writer regards the dike as being
probably not older than Triassic.
ABSTRACTS
Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared
and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should
conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
OPTICS. — Dispersion in optical glasses: I. Frkd. E. Wright. Journ.
Opt. Soc. Amer. 4: 148-159. 1920. (Geophysical Lab. Papers on Optical
Glass, No. 27.)
If partial dispersions alone are considered and plotted one against the
other, the result in each case for a series of optical glasses is a straight line.
This fact, that in a series of optical glasses the partial dispersions are re-
lated by linear functions and that these functions are the same for all glasses,
proves that, if a single partial dispersion is given, the entire dispersion-curve
is fixed, irrespective of the type of glass. This means that within the limits
to which this statement holds, namely, about one unit in the fourth decimal
place, if any partial dispersion is given, all other dispersions follow auto-
matically. Thus, a series of standard dispersion-curves can be set up in-
dependent of the absolute refractive index. This means that if for any
substance two refractive indices be given, the dispersion-curve can be written
down directly; that in case two substances of very different refractive
indices are found to have the same actual dispersion for one part of the
spectrum their dispersion-curves are identical to one or two units in the
fourth decimal place throughout the visible spectrum. From these relations
it is possible to build up dispersion formulas containing two, three, or more
constants which represent the data in the visible spectrum with a high degree
of exactness. Certain of these formulas are of such form that they are
valid far into the infra-red and ultra-violet, but break down of necessity
as an absorption band is approached. Certain of the dispersion formulas
thus obtained are well adapted for computation purposes. F. E. W.
GEODESY. — Elements of map projection with applications to map and chart
construction. Charles H. Deetz and Oscar S. Adams. U. S. Coast
and Geodetic Survey Spec. Publ. 68 (Serial 146). Pp. 163, figs. 74,
pis. 8. 1921.
The aim of the authors is to present in simple form some of the ideas that
lie at the foundation of the subject of map projections. Many people have
rather hazy notions of what is meant by a map projection, to say nothing
of the knowledge of the practical construction of such a projection.
346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 14
The subject matter is divided into two parts which are intended to meet
the needs of such readers. The first part treats the theoretical side in a
way that is as simple as it can be made; the second part takes up the con-
sideration of the practical construction of some of the most important pro-
jections, the intention of the authors being to give such detailed directions
as are necessary to present the matter in a clear and simple manner.
The use of mathematical analysis in the first part is studiously avoided
since the intention is merely to illustrate the way in which different kinds
of projection may arise when we attempt to produce maps with specific
properties. Both the first and second part are profusely illustrated with
figures that serve to make clear the statements of the text.
The projections described in the second part belong mainly either to the
conformal class or to the equal-area class. Several tables for projections
are included, the most important being that of a Lambert-zenithal equal-
area projection for the United States or for North America with center on the
parallel of 40°, that of an Albers equal-area projection for the United States,
and finally, the most important of all, that of a general Mercator projection.
As a closing section of part two and of the whole treatise, some general con-
sideration is given to world maps, that is, to maps that are intended to in-
clude as great an extent of territory as a hemisphere or in certain cases to
represent the whole sphere. C. H. D. and O. S. A.
PETROLOGY. — halite: a new leucite rock. Henry vS. Washington. Amer.
Journ. Sci. 50: 33^7. 1920. Atti. Accad. Lincei 29: 424-435. 1920.
A detailed account of the new leucite rock first described in this Journal
10: 270-272. 1920.
ZOOLOGY. — Report on the ophiurans collected by the Barbados-Antigua
Expedition from the University of Iowa in iqi8. Austin H. Clark.
Univ. Iowa Studies. Studies in Natural History, 9 (First Series No. 45),
No. 5, 29-63. March 15, 1921.
A history of the study of the ophiurans of the Caribbean region is given,
with a list of the more important papers ; the Caribbean echinoderm fauna is
discussed, and the peculiarities of the West Indian ophiuran fauna are ana-
lyzed and compared with those of the crinoid fauna of the same region;
the discontinuous distribution of the echinoderms is discussed and explained
as resulting from the extirpation of ancient types from the more favorable
areas in the sea so that they now exist only in isolated localities representing
the extreme limits of their original habitat; a complete list of the West
Indian ophiurans is given; the occurrence of these animals at Barbados and
at Antigua is described, and all previous records from these islands are given;
the specimens secured by the expedition are described in detail. A. H. C.
ENTOMOLOGY.— r/ie ants of the Fiji Islands. W. M. Mann. BuU. Mus.
Comp. Zool. Harvard 64: 401-499, figs. 1-38. No. 5, 1921.
This is a report of the ants collected by the writer while in Fiji as Sheldon
Traveling Fellow of Harvard. The insects of Fiji are not well known ; hither-
to but 53 species of the order Hymenoptera had been recorded from the
islands. The present paper lists 78 species of ants, including many new species
and several new genera and subgenera. Certain genera of ants are well
developed in Fiji, among them the genus Camponotus, which is represented
by ten forms belonging to a subgenus {Myrmegonia) which is confined to
AUGUST 19, 1921 proceedings: philosophical society 347
the islands. About 70 per cent of the species listed are supposedly endemic
This number of endemic forms is an unusually high percentage for an island
favma and indicates a very long isolation.
In a preUminary discussion of the zoogeographical position of the islands
it is shown that the ant fauna is not related to that of any one region but
consists chiefly of types that formerly were of wide distribution and thus
supports the idea that Melanesia has served, as far as the land fauna is con-
cerned, as a biological conservatory. Fiji is the eastern limit of this region
and has been isolated longer that the islands further west. W. M. M.
ENTOMOLOGY. — Diptera of the superfamily Tipuloidea found in the Dis-
trict of Columbia. C. P. Alexander and W. L. McAtee. Proc. U. S.
Nat. Mus. 58: 385-435, pi. 26.
This paper forms another one of the series of insect papers which endeavors
to make it possible for local workers to become acquainted with the fauna
of the District of Columbia and vicinity. The insects belonging to the
superfamily Tipuloidea were commonly called crane-flies, and this paper
tabulates all the species known to occur locally, gives notes on the habits
of the adults and larvae, and distribution and dates of flight of the various
species. The introduction briefly summarizes the history of this science as
far as pertains to this region and the paper is followed by a bibliography of
titles. One plate illustrates the venation, 40 genera are included. Of the
species listed 87 are described from material which was collected in this region,
chiefly by the activities of the late C. R. Osten Sacken. S. A. Rohwer.
ENTOMOLOGY. — A revision of the North American species of Ichneumon-
flies belonging to the genus Apanteles. C. F. W. Muesbeck. Proc. U.
S. Nat. Mus. 58: 483-576. 1921.
The Ichneumon-flies of the genus Apanteles are small, usually black,
insects which in the larval stage are parasitic on the larvae of lepidopterous
insects. The above-mentioned paper is a revision of the species of North
America, including the West Indies. The revision is based largely upon
the extensive collections of the National Museum and 164 species are recog-
nized. The types of most of the species have been studied by the author and
besides pointing out some synonymy he has described 36 new species. The
descriptive part of the paper is preceded by a synoptic key and followed by
an aphabetical list of hosts, and a species index. S. A. Rohwer.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
849th meeting
The 849th meeting of the Philosophical Society of Washington was held in
the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on March 26, 1921. It was called to
order by President Faris, with 65 persons present. The program was as
follows :
O. S. Adams: Authalic latitude, a cartographic expedient. (Illustrated.)
It has been found by many scientific investigations of various kinds that
the shape of the earth, as a whole, is very nearly that of an ellipsoid of revo-
lution with the equatorial diameter about 26 miles longer than the polar
diameter, the axis of rotation of the generating ellipse. It is evident that
348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEJMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 14
some regular body of this kind must be adopted to form the surface of ref-
erence for geodetic investigations as well as for geographical purposes; any
irregularities that may be found to exist are viewed as departures from this
regular form and can be taken into consideration, as such, whenever necessary.
Since this spheroid is taken as the surface of reference, it becomes the
problem of cartography to take it into account in all mapping projects.
It is comparatively easy to determine projections of various kinds for the
sphere; hence mapping can be simplified if we determine an intermediate
projection of the spheroid conformally upon a sphere with radius equal to the
equatorial radius of the earth. This is done by applying a correction to the
geodetic latitude and results in what is called the isometric latitude. In
considering equal-area mapping of the spheroid with this fact in mind, the
idea arose that the spheroid could be projected equivalently upon a sphere of
equal surface by computing a correction to the geodetic latitude, the longitude
being left unchanged just as in the case of the conformal mapping. This
sphere could then be mapped upon the plane by any desired equal-area
projection, and the result would be an equal-area projection of the spheroid.
This idea of an intermediate projection was then developed analytically
and the resulting latitude has been christened Authalic latitude. The term
"authalique" was used by Tissot as a general term for equal-area. Authalic
latitude is therefore "equal-area" latitude.
The difference between the geodetic latitude has been developed in a
Fourier series and tables computed for every half degree of latitude. These
results are published in U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Publication
No. 67, entitled Latitude developments connected with geodesy and cartography.
The paper was discussed by Messrs. C. A. Briggs, Pawling, Sosman
and William Bowie.
E. A. EcKHARDT and J. C. Karcher: A chronographic recorder of radio
time signals. (Presented by Mr. Eckhardt, and illustrated with slides and a
demonstration of the apparatus.)
The radio time signal recorder described in this paper was devised at the
Bureau of Standards for the field use of the Coast and Geodetic Survey.
By its use the Survey will be enabled to record simultaneously on a chrono-
graphic drum the time signals sent out by Annapolis on the breaks of the
local chronometer without mutual interference. Radio signals originating at
Lyons, France, maybe recorded at the Bureau of Standards whenever that
station is sending, the air line distance between sending and receiving stations
being approximately 3800 miles. It is inferred, therefore, that the sensi-
tivity of the apparatus is sufficient to record Annapolis time signals at any
field station which the Coast and Geodetic Survey may occupy anywhere
within the borders of the United States.
The apparatus is sufficiently rugged for field service, and a 50-foot, 6-wire
flat-top antenna 40 feet above the ground is sufficient for all ordinary con-
ditions.
The radio apparatus proper may be used with any kind of chronograph
drum or tape recorder. Dot and dash signals are indicated by short and
long excursions of the recording pen from the datum line. In an Annapolis
time signal these excursions are Vs of a second long, while the pen traces the
datum line during 2/3 of every second.
The receiver equipment includes a regenerative electron tube circuit in the
plate circuit of which there is a telegraph relay. This regenerative circuit
starts to oscillate when the grid potential is made to exceed a certain critical
AUGUST 19, 1921 PROCEEDINGS : PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 349
value. The passing of the circuit from the non-oscillating to the oscillating
state results in a rise in plate current sufficient to operate the telegraph relay.
The operation of the relay results successively in a pen excursion and in the
killing of the local oscillations. The circuit is thus restored to the receptive
state and the pen to the datum line.
A very small change in grid potential is sufficient to start oscillations if the
grid potential is initially adjusted to a value near to and just below the
critical potential. This potential rise may be provided by a radio signal
received on an antenna suitably related to the regenerative circuit.
The circuits are so located that during the reception of radio signals the
breaks of a local break-circuit chronometer may be recorded simultaneously by
means of the same pen. This obviates lags which would be encountered if
independent pens were used.
850th meeting
The 850th meeting of the Philosophical Society was held in the Auditorium
of the Cosmos Club on April 9, 1921. It was called to order by President
Paris with 31 persons present.
The first paper, on Mollier diagrams, by E. F. MuELLER and C. H. Myers,
was presented by Mr. Myers and was illustrated.
In 1904 Mollier published an article^ in which he described the properties
of heat content and its uses in refrigeration problems. This article is illus-
trated with (1) a heat content-entropy diagram with rectangular coordinates
for steam, (2) a heat content-entropy diagram with oblique coordinates
for CO2, and (3) a heat content-pressure diagram for CO2.
In the present paper the properties and uses of heat content were discussed,
and illustrations of six diagrams shown in which the ordinates were heat
content and the abscissas were entropy (rectangular coordinates), entropy
(oblique coordinates), volume, log volume, log pressure, and a scale of pressure
corresponding to a uniform scale of saturation temperature, respectively.
The choice of coordinates is a matter determined by conditions. Where
the whole range from saturated liquid to a considerable superheat in the
vapor is required the heat content-entropy diagram is poor even with the
oblique coordinates since it covers only a small portion of the paper and the
lines cross at sharp angles. The use of volume as abscissa is very little if
any improvement, although the use of log volume is much better. The
diagrams in which a function of the presstu-e serves as abscissa are very read-
able, although the pressure corresponding to a uniform temperature scale
is probably the best when the diagram does not extend above the critical.
Some function of the heat content might be used for the ordinate in order
to magnify the scale in parts desired to be especially accurate. The use of
uneven coordinates should cause very little trouble if sufficient lines are
entered in the diagram so that linear interpolation may be used.
The second paper, on The heating of substances by expansion, was presented
by Mr. ly. H. Adams, and was illustrated.
The pressure to which a fluid is exposed may be released by three princi-
pal methods :
(1) Isentropic expansion, i.e., at constant entropy.
(2) Isenergic or explosive expansion, i. e., at constant energy.
* Zeitschr. Ver. Deutscher Ingen'.eure.
350 JOURNAI. OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 14
(3) Isenkaumic or extrusive expansion, z. e*. at constant cnkaumy,^ or
constant heat content.
These three methods were discussed and attention was called to the large
heating effects when liquids are expanded according to (3). Thus, water
by expansion through a porous plug from a little over 4000 atmospheres
should heat itself from 20 deg.' to 100 deg. C.
Although the ordinary thermodynamic equations are applicable only to
fluids, at pressures far in excess of their ultimate strength solids fulfill to a
sufficient extent the condition of equality of pressure in all directions, and
therefore the equation for isenkaumic expansion may be applied to such
phenomena as the extrusion of wires and other solids through small openings.
The paper was discussed by Messrs. White, Mueller, C. A. Briggs, and
Humphreys.
The third paper, on Specific and latent heats of nickel and monel metal, was
presented by Dr. W. P. White, and was illustrated.
The addition of heat makes all bodies hotter, but the amount of heat re-
quired to raise a body 1 degree is different for different bodies. This quantity
is the specific heat. It has important relations with the nature of atoms
and energy. The principal key to this relation was one of Einstein's earlier
discoveries. The specific heat at high temperatures is also of practical im-
portance in the treatment of metals, fire brick, and all materials which have
to be heated or cooled. An important economy in portland cement manu-
facture was effected some years ago by a recovery of heat based on a knowl-
edge of the specific heat of the cement at high temperatures.
The simplest way to determine specific heat is to give a sample of the
material in question a known amount of heat by means of an electric heater,
measuring the change in temperature produced. This method works best
in a vacuum and at low temperatures where the heat losses are small. It
is almost the only method used at the low temperatures of liquid air and
liquid hydrogen. Its value at high temperatures is questionable, and it
has been little used. The irregularity which is unavoidable in most electric
furnaces and the very rapid rate of heat loss at such temperatures are both
difficulties. It is possible that by improved technique this method might
be used at high temperatures. If so, it would be a very interesting research.
A more successful method at high temperatures is to heat a body in a fur-
nace and then drop it into a water calorimeter so that the most difficult
measurement, the measurement of heat, is carried out at room temperatures
with all the refinements of modern technique. The only thing to be done
in the furnace is then the heating of a body to constant temperature, for
which abundant time can be allowed. The greatest source of error is still
in the furnace, but this can be diminished if the distribution of temperature
within the furnace is carefully studied. If the material is a metal which will
oxidize in air it must be protected. One very ingenious method had been
the inclosing of the furnace in a high vacuum. A long tube, also evacuated,
led down into the calorimeter so that the body was in a vacuum from begin-
ning to end. In work at the Geophysical Laboratory, the metal specimens
were sealed up bulbs of sihca glass which held up to 1450° C, the melting
point of nickel, although they were somewhat soft at that temperature. Ordi-
nary glass would have run like molasses in April at this temperature. The
heat that may be lost in dropping the body through the air is not so serious
as might be supposed, but it cannot be neglected. This source of error was
^ A proposed new term derived from the Greek Kavixa, heat.
AUGUST 19, 1921 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 351
eliminated in the present work, by first dropping empty containers and sub-
tracting the heat given out by the empty container. If the heat loss is the
same in each drop the subtraction eHminates it. To keep it the same it has
been found necessary not to allow the escape of steam, which is likely to be
irregular. Hence, second, the calorimeter contained a steam dome into
which the steam could rise without getting out. A quick drop has often
been accomplished by melting a platinum wire from which the specimen
was hanging. After considerable trial a mechanical arrangement for drop-
ping has been developed which is more convenient and less expensive. It
was necessary to find a suitable material and then a compact design not
calling for great strength.
The only results for many metals at high temperatures were recently ob-
tained by three German investigators, who used the vacuum-closed furnace
already mentioned. The results obtained in the Geophysical Laboratory
for the latent heat of nickel were about 30 per cent higher than theirs. It
is beheved that the Geophysical Laboratory method, though simpler and
easier to carry out, was free from several sources of error caused or aggravated
by the limitations of working in vacuum, and that the result obtained at
the Geophysical Laboratory, 73 calories per gram for the latent heat of nickel,
is accurate at least to 5 per cent.
The paper was discussed by Messrs. FooTE, Mueller, Sosman, and others.
H. H. Kimball, Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Observations have recently been made by a Coast and Geodetic Survey
party on the Explorer to verify the magnetic disturbance reported in the
vicinity of Sentinel Point, southeastern Alaska. The maximum disturbance
was foimd to be just west of the Point, the ship's compass changing its di-
rection 55 degrees within a very short distance. The disturbance extends
entirely across Port Snettisham, at one place amounting to more than 20
degrees in midchannel.
The securing of sea-water densities and temperatures has been begun by the
Coast and Geodetic Survey observers at Portland, Maine, and Boston,
Massachusetts. It is the intention of the Survey to secure similar obser-
vations at all the principal tidal stations.
At the invitation of Mr. Northcott, owner of the Luray Caverns,
Virginia, Dr. AlES Hrdlicka of the National Museum visited the
caverns on June 27 for the purpose of examining and removing certain bones,
enclosed in stalagmite, which were believed to be human. After considerable
difficulties, the entire deposit containing the bones was taken out in pieces
which showed the remains of most of the parts of a human skeleton ; but no
trace remained of the skull with the exception of a portion of the lower jaw.
The specimens have been donated to the Museum for further study.
The headquarters of the Chemical Warfare Service in Washington have
been moved from the temporary buildings at 1800 Virginia Avenue to the
seventh wing of the Munitions Building.
The Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, together with about a half
million dollars from the original appropriation made for the investigation of
nitrogen fixation, was transferred on June 30 from the jurisdiction of the War
Department to the Department of Agriculture. The Laboratory is now an
independent unit of the Department of Agriculture, under the direction of
352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 14
Dr. Richard C. Tolman, who has the assistance of an advisory com-
mittee made up of a representative of the War Department and representa-
tives of the agricultural bureaus which are directly interested in the fixation
of nitrogen. It is expected that the present allotment will maintain the
Laboratory about two years.
A farewell dinner to Dr. Carl h. AlsbERG, chief of the Bureau of
Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, was given at the Cosmos Club
on June 17 by the chiefs of bureaus of the Department. Dr. Alsberg left
Washington in July to become director of the new Food Research Institute
established by the Carnegie Corporation at Stanford University, California.
Mr. Charles H. Behre, Jr., of Illinois, has been appointed assistant
geologist with the U. S. Geological Survey.
The following have been appointed geologic aids with the U. S. Geological
Survey: Messrs. WilmoT H. Bradley, of Connecticut; PlaTT C.
Benedict, of Massachusetts; James Gilluly, of Washington; Harold
W. Hoots, of Kansas; Kenneth K. Landes, of Washington; and
Lloyd W. Fisher, of Pennsylvania.
Mr. Milton N. Bramlette, of Wisconsin, has been appointed
assistant geologist with the U. S. Geological Survey.
Dr. Hardee Chambliss, formerly research chemist with the General
Chemical Company, and lieutenant colonel in charge of U. S. Nitrate Plant
No. 1 during the War, has been appointed to take charge of the work of the
department of chemistry at the Catholic University on account of the pro-
longed illness of Rev. Dr. John J. Griffin, who has been in charge of the
department since 1895.
Mr. Lloyd C. Fenstermacher, of Pennsylvania, who was recently
appointed assistant geologist with the U. S. Geological Survey, was killed
on July 9 in an automobile accident while engaged in field work for the
Survey near Wilder, Montana.
Mr. G. J. Fink, formerly with the Hooker Electrochemical Company of
Niagara Falls, is now associated with Dr. M. E. Holmes in the chemical
department of the National Lime Association in Washington.
Mr. Paul M. Frank, of Allentown, Pennsylvania, has been appointed
assistant curator in the Division of Mineral Technology of the National
Museum.
Dr. Michael E. Gardner has been apointed chief of the bureau of
preventable diseases and director of the bacteriological laboratory of the
U. S. Public Health Service.
Mr. Joseph L. Gillson of Illinois has been appointed assistant geol-
ogist with the U. S. Geological Survey.
Dr. F. H. Knowlton of the National Museum received the honorary
degree of Doctor of Science from Middlebury College in June.
Mr. Charles E. Mirguet, who has been associated with the National
Museum for several years, has been appointed taxidermist to succeed the late
Mr. William Palmer.
The sections of Eastern and Western Areal Geology in the U. S. Geological
Survey have been merged into one section under the direction of Mr. Sidney
Paige.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 September 19, 1921 No. 15
GENERAL SCIENCE.- — .4 list of one hundred poptdar books in sci-
ence.'^ Compiled by a committee of the Washington Academy
OF Sciences.
At the request of Dr. George F. Bowerman, Librarian of the Public
Library of the District of Columbia, a committee of the Academy
has undertaken the compilation of a list of scientific books which can
be recommended for popular use. The Editors believe it to be of
sufficient interest to the members of the Academy and other readers
of the Journal to warrant the preliminary publication of the report,
particularly as it is hoped that criticisms and suggestions from readers
may be brought forth and the list thereby improved. It is to be em-
phasized that the list is strictly tentative, and that neither the Com-
mittee as a whole nor any one member of it can assert that the books
named are the very best for the purpose. It will be obvious also
that broad areas of the field of science are hardly touched at all, and
that the relative number of books treating of different subdivisions
of science must not be taken to represent the relative importance
of each subdivision or the relative activity of modern research therein.
Readability is an essential criterion for selection, and books that are
"readable," from the public's point of view, are very unevenly dis-
tributed as to subject-matter.
The first test for the kind of book that is desired for the list is this :
Would the average reader who uses a public library, after beginning
to read the book in question, read it through to the end and come back
to the Librarian for another on the same subject? Such a book
should be included. Or would he lay it down after a little while and
turn to some other kind of book as being more interesting, and not
return to the subject again? Such a book should not be included,
' Received August 25, 1921.
353
354 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 15
however accurate, thorough, and complete it might be from the stand-
point of a specialist.
It is also desirable that the book should not be professedly a text-
book, nor should it be written in text-book style ; that is, it must not
be a book intended primarily for the seeker after information regard-
less of whether the information be interesting reading or not. It
is perhaps needless to add that it should have been written by an author
who knows his subject thoroughly, and should not be so old as to be
obsolete in its facts and speculations.^
The user of such a list may well be reminded at the outset that the
field of science is not sharply divisible into little compartments labeled
"Chemistry," "Botany," and the like. On the contrary, there is
one vast field of human knowledge, and facts concerning any part
of that field have a bearing on every other part. The usual subdi-
visions, which are those employed here, are not fundamental; they
are largely accidental and have arisen merely as a matter of human
convenience.
If we believe with Pope that "The proper study of mankind is
Man" we may well begin with books about Man himself, rather than
follow the austere and logical order laid down by philosophers, be-
ginning with mathematics and ending with sociology. The natural
order of human education is just the reverse, beginning with impres-
sions of human nature and reaching formal logic and philosophy last,
if ever. In this preliminary list, however, the Committee does not
attempt to recommend any books in the fields of psychology, sociology,
and related sciences, but begins with Man considered rather as a
species or as an organism, suggesting the following books in anthro-
pology and physiology :
2 These specifications are not easy to meet. Popular scientific books of a class which
might be described as "interesting if true" are not uncommon, but the production of such
books seems to demand primarily a sufficient dearth of conscience and professional pride
on the part of author and publisher. Others fall on the borderline between the merely
"unorthodox" and the "misleading" or "misinforming." It is no great objection to a
popular scientific book that its speculations are somewhat wild, provided its statements
of fact and principle are based on knowledge and not on ignorance.
Librarians and interested readers can be depended upon to compile lists of scientific
books that are interesting, but they have no good way of finding out which of these are
reliable. It is here that the Academy can do a service, for there are on the shelves and
recommended in library lists books of popular science which, under even the most
liberal of "pure food laws" for books ought to be labeled "misbranded" or "adulterated"
if not "poisonous." They are particularly common in those branches, such as meteo-
rology and anthropology, in which every man considers himself something of an expert.
SEPT. 19, 1921 POPULAR BOOKS IN SCIENCE 355
Mason, O. T. The origins of invention. 419 pp. ("Contemporary-
Science Series," Walter Scott, London, 1895.) Although old, this book is
thoroughly reliable and will remain authoritative for decades to come. It
is readable and entertaining, and at the same time based on a wide knowledge
of anthropology and ethnology.
Mason, O. T. Woman's share in primitive culture. 295 pp. (D. Appleton
and Co., New York, 1894.) Like the preceding book by the same author,
this work remains a standard. It will be particularly welcome to readers
who have been irritated by the irresponsible pseudo-science that is sometimes
written about the relative status of the sexes in primitive, as compared with
modern, society.
OsBORN, Henry Fairfield. Men of the Old Stone Age, their environment,
life and art. 545 pp., 268 illustr., 33 pp. of bibliography and index. (Charles
Scribner's Sons, New York, 1915.) This book is a popular synthesis of the
findings and opinions of many specialists, including the author himself,
in the fields of archeology', paleontology, geology, anthropology and primitive
art.
Haddon, a. C. The study of man. 410 pp. (G. P. Putnam's Sons,
New York, 1898.) A reliable and readable work by one of the foremost
ethnologists and anthropologists of Great Britain. It deals interestingly
with the distribution of Man and his varieties over the Earth's surface.
KiDD, Dudley. Savage childhood, a study of Kafir children. 314 pp.,
32 illustr. from photographs. (Adam and Charles Black, London, 1906.)
This book is less general than the preceding but it is particularly attractive.
The games, stories and songs of Kafir children as well as Kafir customs per-
taining to children are described in a charming and instructive manner
The book is artistic rather than scientific but is a distinct addition to popular
knowledge of anthropology and ethnology.
Hough, Walter. The Hopi Indians. 265 pp. (Torch Press, Cedar
Rapids, Iowa, 1915.) This is one of the best examples available of descriptive
anthropology applied to a particular group. It is entertainingly written,
and the author's long experience in the field is a guarantee of its accuracy.
McCoLLUM, E. V. The newer knovuledge of nutrition. 199 pp. (The
Macmillan Co., New York, 1919.) This book contains an authoritative,
non-technical statement of the principles underlying proper human nutrition
as developed from a great number of experiments and observations, some
of the experiments having been carried out by the author and described by
him in an interesting way in the book, with illustrations. The literature
on the subject of nutrition has been survey^ed and condensed reference is
made to this extended field.
Sherman, H. C. Food products. 594 pp. (The Macmillan Company,
New York, 1918.) The chemistry, physiology, availability and economics
of human foodstufi's are authoritatively discussed in essentially nontechnical
language.
Man shares with every other member of the animal and vegetable
kingdoms that remarkable capacity, still a mystery to every investi-
gator, whether biologist, chemist, or physicist — the capacity of re-
producing his kind and handing down his qualities to his descendants
The following books on heredity are standard works in this field
356 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OE SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 15
Darwin, Charles. The origin of species (with additions and corrections
from sixth and last English edition). 338 pp. (D. Appleton and Co., New
York, 1917.) No collection of works on biology should be without this classic.
The observations of Darwin are still the current material in biological dis-
cussion. His brilliant imagination, together with the thorough and pains-
taking way in which all conclusions are checked and tested without bias,
cannot fail to impress the reader that the study of heredity is a noble and
engrossing subject.
East, E. M., and Jones, D. F. Inbreeding and outbreeding. 285 pp.
(Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, 1919.) Although confined to a restricted
field, this work presents the most modern interpretation of the phenomena
of inheritance in comprehensible form.
Castle, W. E., Coulter, J. M., Davenport, C. B., East, E. M., and
Tower, W. L. Heredity and eugenics. 315 pp. (Chicago University
Press, 1912.) A collection of lectures proposed for an audience not especially
trained in biology. Although many important facts have come to light
since these lectures were delivered, they give, in readable form, the general
conceptions of heredity that are held by leading investigators.
Morgan, T. H. A critique of the theory of evolution. 197 pp. (Princeton
University Press, 1916.) The author is one of the foremost investigators
of heredity. His work in the field of genetics, together with that of his stu-
dents, has resulted in discoveries that rank with those of Mendel. This
book, written for undergraduates, is semi-popular in style and although
special emphasis is laid on the phases of the subject in which the author is
especially interested, it introduces the reader to the important discoveries
made in genetics.
CONKLIN, E. G. Heredity and environment. Third edition. 361 pages.
(Princeton University Press, 1919.) Newer and technical aspects of a
difficult science are not shunned in this treatise but the direct bearings of the
results of recent studies in this field upon the welfare and the future of man are
presented in a most readable manner.
Galton, Francis. Hereditary genius. 390 pp. (D. Appleton and Co.,
New York, 1884.) Old, but emphasizes in a delightful way the most impor-
tant side of genetics.
PoPENOE, Paul, and Johnson, R. H. Applied eugenics. 459 pp. (Mac-
millan Co., New York, 1918.) A clear and forceful presentation of the
bearing and importance of studies in heredity as applied to the human race.
Certain phenomena are common to all kinds of living organisms,
whether "animals" or "plants." Reproduction and inheritance
have already been spoken of, but there are also growth, and death,
and standing behind them waiting to be explained in terms that satisfy
the physicist as well as the biologist the fact of evolution :
Thomson, John Arthur. The wonder of life. 658 pp. (A. Melrose,
Ltd., London, 1915.) "An unconventional introduction to Natural History
and Biology, taking broad views of the actual lives of living creatures and
working inwards." A bookful of "wonders," not exploited for the curious,
but all bringing their evidence to bear on general laws of life and its evolution.
HeadlEy, F. W. Problems of evolution. 373 pp. (Crowell and Co.,
New York, 1900.) The author is a skilled lecturer and introduces his book
with an elementary chapter for the general reader, also avoiding technical
terms throughout the work.
SEPT. 19, 1921 POPULAR BOOKS IN SCIENCE 357
LoTSY, J. p. Evolution by means of hybridization. 166 pp. (M. Nijhoff,
The Hague, 1916.) A brief and stimulating essay on the origin and trans-
formations of living beings.
On the more purely descriptive side of the biological sciences there
exists a wide variety of books. It is convenient to roughly divide
the field into "zoology" and "botany," and the following readable
books in each of these two subjects can be recommended :
In zoology :
Buckley, A. B. Life and her children. 312 pp. (Appleton and Co.,
New York, 1881.)
Buckley, A. B. The winners in life's race. 367 pp. (Appleton and Co.,
New York, 1883.)
These two books are elementary but fascinating, forming a delightful
introduction to the study of invertebrate and vertebrate zoology, respectively.
In botany :
Ganong, W. F. The living plant: a description and interpretation of its
functions and structure. American Nature Series. 478 pp. (Henry Holt
and Co., New York, 1913.) A thoughtful and suggestive book by a leading
American plant physiologist. Written in the form of an essay rather than
the usual college text-book and designed to appeal to those interested in know-
ing how living things "work," rather than to professional botanists. Well
illustrated.
OsTERHOUT, W. J. V. Experiments with plants. 492 pp. (The Mac-
millan Co., New York, 1905.) An introduction to plant physiology with
descriptions of many ingenious experiments requiring only simple home-made
apparatus. The author is one of the leading plant physiologists of the United
States. The reader should take note, however, that much progress has been
made in this branch since 1905.
SoRAUER, Paul. A popular treatise on the physiology of plants for the
use of gardeners or for students of horticulture and agriculture. Translation
by F. E. Weiss. (Longmans, Green & Co., London, 1895.) This well-
written and comparatively brief but highly authoritative work presents
a ver>^ satisfactory treatment of the structure and nutrition of plants. It
might be entitled "the plant at work." As the subtitle indicates, the prac-
tical application of the principles set forth is constantly in view.
Lubbock, John (Lord Avebury). Flowers, fruits and leaves. Nature
Series. (Macmillan Co., New York, 1908.) A readable and suggestive
little book by the well-known statesman and botanist.
A special field of botany is that devoted to the distribution of plants
over the earth's surface- — ecology :
Hardy, Marcel E. The geography of plants. 339 pp. (Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1920.) A short readable account of the distribution of vege-
tation over the surface of the Earth. It is concerned largely with dis-
tribution, and only to a slight extent with the relations of plants to their en-
vironment.
There are many books dealing in an interesting way with restricted
groups of living organisms. Some describe the life of a given lo-
cality; some tell about the members of a certain family, wherever
they may be found. It is much easier to make a list of good manuals
358 JOXIRNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 15
and information-books in this field^ than to select a list of the type
described in our specifications, but the following will serve as good
introductions :
Darwin, Charles. Insectivorous plants. 462 pp. (Appleton and Co.,
New York, 1896.) An extremely interesting book, and a classic for nearly
fifty years. Darwin did his work so thoroughly and well that no one else
has touched the subject since to add anything of importance.
Townsend, C. W. Sand dunes and salt marshes. 311 pp. (Dana
Estes and Co., Boston, 1913.) Avery readable and interesting book, highly
suggestive to anyone spending a vacation at the seashore. Contains much
about plant and animal life, and the physiography of the shore region.
The zoologists have provided more abundantly the kind of books
wanted for this list than have the botanists, though their subject
matter is hardly more diverse. A sketchy view of their field, beginning
with the mammals and coming down the scale to the protozoa, may
be had from the following books :
Stone, Witmer, and Cram, W. E. American animals. A popular guide
to the mammals of North America north of Mexico. 318 pp. (Doubleday,
Page and Co., New York, 1902.) Not simply a manual, but a good book
to look through and read. It is abundantly illustrated with plates and half-
tones, and tehs just the things about the mammals that the average reader
who has met them in the woods or seen them in the "Zoo" is interested to know.
Roosevelt, Theodore. African game trails. 583 pp. (Charles Scrib-
ner's Sons, New York, 1910.) No American needs to be told that the late
ex-president was one of the most versatile of men. Though some of his
critics accused him of substituting vigorous assertion for calm argument
his zoological writings have often proved to be more reliable than others
with a greater appearance of erudition.
Beebe, C. Jungle peace. 297 pp. (Henry Holt and Co., New York,
1919.) A combination of zoology and philosophic reflections which makes
very interesting reading, written by a keen and scientifically trained observer.
Chapman, Frank M. Camps and cruises of an ornithologist. 432 pp.
(D. Appleton and Co., New York, 1908.) Bird books for nature lovers are
abundant, but are usually written for a particular locality. This one of
Chapman's can be read with interest and profit in any part of the United
States, and its author is a recognized authority in his subject.
Herrick, F. H. The home life of wild birds. 148 pp. (G. P. Putnam's Sons,
New York, 1901.) Although the author's subtitle calls the book a descrip-
tion of "A new method of the study and photography of birds," it is much
more than that. His methods are interestingly described, but are followed
up with entertainingly written examples of the additions that anyone who
is really interested can make to ornithological science.
Fabre, J. H. Social life in the insect world. (Translation by Bernard
MiaU.) 327 pp. (Century Co., New York, 1912.) It is difficult to select
from Fabre's books. All of them might weU be recommended for such a
' The preliminary circulation of this list has evoked so many requests for a list of re-
liable manuals which students in one branch of science can depend upon for information
in other branches, that the publication of such a list is recommended to the attention of
a future committee.
SEPT. 19, 1921 POPULAR BOOKS IN SCIENCE 359
list as this. They are most interestingly written, and while they are not free
from minor inaccuracies, no book dealing with so complex a subject as a
living organism can hope completely to avoid that criticism.
Peckham, S. W., and Peckham, E. G. Wasps, social and solitary. 310
pp. (Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1905.) A well written record of the
habits of our common wasps. Mr. and Mrs. Peckham spent years in careful
and patient observation, and have written some of our standard manuals,
as well as this very popular work.
Maeterlinck, Maurice. Tlie life of the bee. (Translation by Alfred
Sutro.) 427 pp. (Dodd, Mead and Co., New York, 1902.) The author
is more widely known as a poet and dramatist than as a zoologist, but he
is also a careful student and observer and has contributed in this work one
of the reliable books in its field.
Darwin, Charles. The formation of vegetable mould through the action of
worms. 362 pp. (D. Appleton and Co., New York, 1892.) A model of
the scientific method of attacking a biological problem.
Blatchley, W. S. Gleanings from nature. 348 pp. (Nature Pubhshing
Co., Indianapolis, 1899.) One of the few books that give a popular and at
the same time accurate account of our common reptiles. The book contains
also observations of many other animals and plants.
Abbott, Charles C. Upland and meadow. 397 pp. (Harper and Bros.,
New York, 1886.) A charming book by an author who devoted his life
to the study of living organisms as they appeal to the "naturalist" — a type
of scientist which has become, temporarily, we may hope, almost extinct.*
Mayer, Alfred G. Sea-shore life. 181 pp. New York Aquarium Nature
Series. (A. S. Barnes and Co., New York, 1906.) A book intended for read-
ers who may be unfamiliar with the technical terms in use among specialists.
Ever}- dweller or visitor at the sea-shore will find it of interest, though most
of the illustrations are of species along the northern Atlantic coast of the
United States.
Uncounted multitudes of species of living organisms have risen
and then declined in past ages. Their study is far from being the
dry subject that the word ' 'bones' ' suggests :
Lucas, F. A. Animals of the past. 258 pp. (McClure, Phillips and Co.,
New York, 1902.) A very entertainingly written book about a few of the
better known or more remarkable of the extinct animals of the ancient world,
written partly "to ease the strain on these venerable animals, caused by
stretching them so often beyond their due proportions."
Hutchinson, H. N. Extinct monsters and creatures of other days: a
popidar account of some of the larger forms of ancient animal life. 329 pp.
(Chapman and Hall, London, 1910.) The field selected by the author is
that part of paleontology which is best adapted for arousing and holding
the interest of the general reader. Technicalities have been omitted as far
as possible. A fairly good idea is given of the progress of animal life through
the geologic ages. Copiously illustrated, with many restorations.
* Good books of travel, exploration, and adventure written by scientists, or by persons
who are keen observers of natural phenomena, are fairly numerous. Such are Thomas
Belt's The naturalist in Nicaragua (.306 pp., Button and Co., New York, 1911), and Lyell's
Travels in North America, but as librarians usually place such books with "travel and de-
scription" or some similar classification, no attempt at a selection will be made here. The
Academy could do a service by preparing a list of reliable books of this kind.
360 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 15
There are not many hard and fast lines of division in science, but
there is one that so far has not been wiped out — the line between
"living" and "dead" matter. For the rest of our booklist we shall
be dealing with sciences not primarily concerned with organic life.
The first general group of these is comprehended under the term
"geology," including all the sciences which are concerned with the
Earth as a whole, with the constitution and structure of its surface
and its interior, and with the existing evidences of its past history :
DwERRYHOUSE, Arthur R. Geology. 301 pp. ("Romance of Reality"
Series. T. C. and E. C. Jack, London and Edinburgh, about 1917.) This
up-to-date book is attractively written in clear and simple language for
the general reader by a competent geologist. The larger part of it is de-
voted to the description of an imaginary geological excursion to a hypothetical
country. Thus the book loses something of its force from the fact that its
descriptions are not taken from actually known and named localities. In
the course of the supposed excursion many interesting geologic facts are
brought out and are made to bear directly upon the history of the country
and upon the development of its natural resources. Methods of field study
are also shown.
Seely, H. G. The story of the Earth in past ages. 190 pp. (Appleton
and Co., New York, 1910.) An elementary little book, with references
mostly to British geology, but containing much matter of general interest.
Cole, Grenville A. J. The changeful Earth. 223 pp. (Macmillan
and Co., Ltd., London, 1911.) "Inspiration rather than information"
is the keynote of the series of which this little book is a member, and it is
most effectively carried through, yet without sacrifice of accuracy.
Lull, R. S., and others. The evolution of the Earth and its inhabitants.
208 pp. (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1918.) A very readable
book, well illustrated, and written by a group of skilful and inspiring lecturers
(Barrell, Schuchert, Woodrufi", Lull, and Huntington).
Ball, Robert S. Time and tide. Third edition. 192 pp. (Society
for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London, 1895.) Justly described as
a "Romance of the Moon." Two lectures in popular language devoted to
the evolution of the Earth-Moon system.
Spurr, J. E., Editor. Political and commercial geology and the world's
natural resources. 562 pp. (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1920.) The
political and commercial aspect of Earth-science is usually put under the
heading of "geography." This book is in that sense a geographic book,
for it tells of the location and accessibility of the world's mineral supplies
rather than of their origin and geologic relationships. Mr. Spurr is well fitted
to present this readable and accurate account of the subject by his training
as an editor, mining geologist, and member of the Government's boards on
war minerals.
Brigham, Albert P. Geographic influences in American history. 285
pp. Chautauqua Home Reading Series. (Chautauqua Press, Chautauqua,
New York, 1903.) A popular account by a well-known American geographer.
The treatment is unbiased and scientific ; the presentation is orderly, thorough
and mainly accurate, though weak in some details; the style readable, not
catchy, but attractive and stimulating.
SEPT. 19, 1921 POPULAR BOOKS IN SCIENCE 361
Water is perhaps the most active of all the agents that are con-
tinually modifying the surface of our changeful Earth :
BoNNEY, T. G. The work of rains and rivers. 144 pp. Cambridge
Manuals of Science and Literature. (Cambridge University Press, Eng-
land, 1912.) This is practically the only modern book in its field. It can
be called neither abstruse nor popular, but is written in fairly simple language
suitable for the reader of average education, and is a logical, thorough, and
accurate presentation.
Cornish, Vaughan. Waves of the sea and other water waves. 374 pp.
(Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago, 1911.) A well written book in non-
technical language, beautifully illustrated, dealing in descriptive form with
the size, speed, and action of waves in the sea and in rivers.
Volcanoes, although they represent only one among dozens of agents
that are active in altering the Earth's surface, have always focussed
popular attention upon themselves by the amount of noise they can
make and the amount of human destruction they can do in a short
time:
BoNNEY, T. G. Volcanoes, their structure and significance. 321 pp.
(G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1899.) By taking up in narrative style
the characteristics of some "live" volcanoes the author leads the reader
on to do some thinking and speculating for himself as to the cause of vol-
canicity — and there is still much room for study though important additions
to our knowledge have been made since this book was written. Nevertheless,
the new facts have by no means rendered this excellent work obsolete.
Russell, Israel C. Volcanoes of North America. 346 pp. (Macmillan
Co., New York, 1897.) The author calls his book "a reading lesson for stu-
dents of geography and geology" but it is more than that. It is a very read-
able account of some of our own volcanic mountains, which are already familiar
to most Americans but which gain added interest through comparison with
the volcanoes of other countries and through discussion of the agencies which
built them.
No subject in all the range of man's interests is more commonly
used in introducing friendly conversation and in maintaining it than
the weather. Well-told information about the atmosphere and the
causes of meteorological phenomena, such as is contained in the books
listed below, cannot fail to add to its interest :
Harrington, Mark W. Abottt the weather. 246 pp. (D. Appleton
and Co., New York, 1899.) Attractively written. Antedates many in-
teresting discoveries, but otherwise is one of the best of the popular works on
meteorology.
Dickson, H. N. Climate and weather. 256 pp. (Williams and Norgate,
London, 1911.) Brief sketches on special topics, interestingly done.
Lempfert, R. G. K. Weather science. 94 pp. (T. C. and E. C. Jack,
London, 1912.) Chiefly a very brief popular account of weather forecasting.
Ward, R. de C. Climate, considered especially in relation to Man. Second
edition. (G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1918.) The best book on cHmate
addressed to the general reader.
Talman, C. F. Realm of the air. (P. F. Collier and Son, 1921.) Inter-
esting, accurate and up-to-date.
362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 15
Besides being blanketed with a layer of air, which is the domain of
meteorology and "the weather," the Earth is also covered in large
part with a thin layer of water, from a few inches to several miles
deep — the ocean. The geography of the ocean, the science which
treats of the distribution, the physical properties, and the tides and
currents of the ocean is known as oceanography :
Murray, John. The ocean. 256 pp. (Henry Holt & Co., New York,
about 1913.) An interesting, non-technical, yet thoroughly reliable account
of the methods, instruments and results relative to the depths, temperatures,
physical properties, tides, currents and plant and animal life in the ocean.
The structural units of the solid earth — the "bricks" of which it
is built — are the rocks, whose composition, properties, and origin
form the subject matter of petrology :
Cole, Grenville A. J. Rocks and their origins. 175 pp. Cambridge
Manuals of Science and I^iterature. (Cambridge University Press, England,
1912.) Neither abstruse nor popular, but adapted to a well-informed reader
rather than a beginner. The treatment is unbiased and thoroughly scien-
tific, and covers the whole field, though briefly. It is logical, thorough, accu-
rate, and stimulating; readable, but not catchy. There is no other book
in the field of just the same sort, for comparison.
The constituent crystals or particles which make up the rocks
.'including the valuable ores) form the subject of "mineralogy" — from
^ne point of view a branch of chemistry :
Bennett, Lee F. Rocks and minerals. Third edition. SS pp. (Bo-
garte Book Co., Valparaiso, Indiana, 1914.) An excellent little elementary
book, describing in an interesting way 40 minerals and 40 rocks. Suited to
give the general reader with a minimum of time at his disposal a good idea
of the scope of the sciences of mineralogy and petrology.
Gratacap, Louis P. A poptilar guide to minerals. 330 pp. (D. Van
Nostrand Co., New York, 1912.) A splendidly illustrated work, based on the
collections in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City.
The text is not up to the standard of the plates, being rather chmisily put
together, although reasonably accurate and elementary in most places.
Will appeal to the users of books who gain more from illustrations than from
text matter.
The oldest of the sciences, and still the one with the most permanent
popular appeal, notwithstanding the fact that its 5000-year competitor
from the field of superstition — astrology — is still active, is astronomy :
Abbot, Charles G. The sun. 448 pp. (D. Appleton and Co., 1911).
The best book on the subject of the Sun; readable, though technical in places.
Ball, Robert S. The story of the heavens. 556 pp. (Cassell and Co.,
London, 1892.) Delightfully written, and in popular language.
Dyson, F. W. Astronomy. '247 pp. (E. P. Dutton and Co., New York,
1918.) Elementary, yet thoroughly reliable.
Hale, George E. The study of stellar evolution. 252 pp. (University
of Chicago Press, 1908.) An interesting, well illustrated, and authoritative
summary of results relating to the constitution of the stars and the Sun.
SEPT. 19, 1921 POPULAR BOOKS IN SCIENCE 363
Lewis, Isabel M. Splendors of the sky. 343 pp. (Duflfield and Co.,
1920.) Popular, accurate, and up-to-date.
McKready, Kelvin. A beginner's star book. 148 pp. (G. P. Putnam's
Sons, 1912.) Many fine illustrations.
Turner, H. H. A voyage through space. (Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge, London, 1915.) Pleasingly written and reliable.
The Adolf 0 Stahl lectures in astronomy. 257 pp. (Stanford University
Press, California, 1919.) Twelve lectures on modern astronomy by members
of the Mount Wilson and Lick Observatory staffs. Accurate, interesting,
and nontechnical.
The properties of matter w^ithout regard to its particular form
make the subject matter of physics and chemistry. The carbon in
a star has the same interest to the chemist and the physicist as the
carbon in a tree-trunk or in a diamond. But it is impossible to write
a definition that will divide physics from chemistry and still include
under each all that we commonly understand by the two terms.
In a general way, the chemist is interested in the composition of things,
the physicist in their qualities. The titles of a few chemical books
follow.^
Slosson, E. E. Creative chemistry. 311 pp. (Century Co., New York,
1920.) A ver}^ interesting and readable book, showing particularly the im-
portant place of chemistry in modern industry and in warfare. It is a book
abotit chemistry and what it can do, rather than a book of chemistry, but can
be recommended to the general and technical reader alike.
Hendrick, Ellwood. Everyman's chemistry. 374 pp. (Harper and Bros.,
New York, 1917.) This book is specifically "designed for those who declare
that they do not know an3i:hing about the subject."
Duncan, Robert Kennedy. The chemistry of commerce. 263 pp. (Harper
and Brothers, New York, 1907.) An interesting interpretation of various
phases of modern industrial chemistry.
Martin, Geoffrey. Modern chemistry and its wonders. 358 pp. (D.
Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1915.) A description in non-technical lan-
guage of some of the striking modern advances in chemistry.
Although the chemist has made contributions to almost every other
portion of the field of science, it remains unfortunately true that most
of his books are written for specialists and not for the general reader.
The "physico-chemical" and "physical" portions of the field of physics
and chemistry are not quite so lacking in readable books; the titles
of some of these follow :
SoDDY, Frederick. Matter and energy. 255 pp. (Henry Holt and Co.,
New York, 1912.) This is one of the best available accounts of fundamental
physical and chemical principles. It is very brief and comprehensive, yet
authoritative.
^ Acknowledgments are due to the American Chemical Society's committee on chemical
reading courses, of which W. A. Hamor is chairman. This committee has published a
full and well annotated list of books in all branches of chemistry. See Journ. Ind. Eng.
Chem. 12:701,800. 1920.
364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 15
Tyndall, John. Fragments of science. Fifth edition. 589 pp. (D.
Appleton and Co., New York, 1884.) Though now fifty years old, these
spirited essays by the most ardent proponent of the scientific method re-
main essentially correct and only the more firmly established by the later prog-
ress which has amplified our knowledge in the variety of fields touched upon.
EiNSTEi>J, Albert. Relativity. Translation by R. Lawson. 168 pp.
(Methuen, London, 1920.) As simple an account as is readily possible of
the old and new theories of relativity by the originator and leader of this
revolutionary school of thought.^
Whetham, W. C. D. The recent development of physical science. 347 pp.
(Blakiston's Son and Co., Philadelphia, 1909.) One of the Cambridge
school of physicists tells of the work on the borderland of physics and chemis-
try during the important period to which he and his colleagues made valuable
contributions.
Ames, Joseph S. The constitution of matter. 242 pp. (Houghton, Mifflin
and Co., Boston, 1913.) Professor Ames' long and varied experience and
his close association with developments of modern physics enabled him to
produce this valuable book, which combines comprehensiveness in subject
matter with simplicity of expression.
Fleming, J. A. Waves and ripples in water, air, and aether. 299 pp.
(Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London, 1902.) This book
is old but much of the field which it covers has not changed in recent years.
It represents a course of Christmas lectures delivered to a "juvenile audience"
at the Royal Institution, London. It is a most readable, instructive, and
delightful book.
Perry, John. Spinning tops. 136 pp. (Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge, London, 1901.) This popular lecture stimulates the imagi-
nation by illustrating both the wealth of interesting phenomena connected
with a commonplace toy and the elegant simplicity with which the science
of mechanics unifies these effects.
Miller, Dayton C. The science of musical sounds. 286 pp. (Mac-
millan Co., New York, 1916.) This book, written by one of the foremost
authorities in America, is very readable and particularly strong on the ex-
perimental side.
Bragg, Wilham. The voorld of sound. 203 pp. (Bell and Co., London,
1920.) A very well done and up-to-date treatment of a branch of physics
that appeals to everyone. The material was prepared for a juvenile
audience, the most difficult of all audiences to write for.''
MiCHELSON, A. A. Light voaves and their uses. 166 pp. (University of
Chicago Press, 1903.) This is a readable popular account of the applications
of light waves to the most delicate and refined scientific measurements.
The author is a universally recognized leader in this field of science and the
examples which he quotes of the conquest by the human mind of the realm
of the "infinitely little" are (although he does not say so) in large part the
result of his own efforts.
^ This book does not fully fit the specifications in the early paragraphs of this list, but
neither does any other of the flood of books and essays on relativity. The reader is not likely
to be any better off for having read "Einstein made easy" before reading Einstein himself.
^ Agassiz required of his students in each department of study "first a monograph,
second a scientific lecture, third a popular lecture, fourth, a simple child's tale." ShalER,
Autobiography {1^91). v-^O^.
SEPT. 19, 1921 POPULAR BOOKS IN SCIENCE 365
Abney, W. de W. Colour measurement and mixture. 207 pp. (Society
for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London, 1891.) In spite of the age of
this book, the subject is one which has not suffered as much change as most
of the branches of physics, and the book, which deals with the principles and
measurements underlying color sensation, is well worth reading at the present
time.
Boys, C.V. Soap bubbles: their colours and the forces which mould them. 190
pp. (Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London, 1920.) This book,
written by a man noted for his skill in devising experiments, contains a very
interesting account of the properties of soap bubbles, and describes a large
number of interesting experiments which may be made with them. (See
also his companion book Splash of the drop.)
SoDDY, Frederick. The interpretation of radium. 284 pp. (G. P. Putnam's
Sons, New York, 1912.) A readable non-technical account of the subject
by one of the pioneers in this field.
Mathematics is not ordinarily considered a subject to arouse popular
enthusiasm, yet it is full of human interest and is a constantly growing
and developing science. The following books will give an insight
into its variety and interest :
CoNANT, Levi Leonard. The number concept, its origin and development.
218 pp. (Macmillan Co., New York, 1896.) An interesting and readable
account of the probable origin and nature of the concept of number, with a
description of number systems, past and present, among different races of
mankind.
Whitehead, A. N. Introduction to mathematics. 256 pp. (Home
University Library, Henry Holt and Co., New York, 1911.) A brief survey
of the principal topics treated of by mathematics, handled in a popular way.
YouN'G, John Wesley. Lectures on the fundamental concepts of algebra
and geometry. (Macmillan Co., New York, 1911.) An excellent elementary
treatment of the subject.
Shaw, James Byrnie. Lectures on the philosophy of mathematics. 206 pp.
(Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago, 1918.) An unexcelled elementary
survey of the entire field of mathematics, including content, principles,
methods, significance, and nature of mathematics, with references to litera-
ture. Although the treatment is popular and readable, a considerable
knowledge of mathematics is required for a full appreciation of this work.
De Morgan, Augustus. On the study and difficulties of mathematics.
288 pp. (Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago, 1902.) A classic.
A wealth of material is at hand in the history of science from which
the following are selected, though the choice of only a few is difficult :
LiBBY, Walter. An introduction to the history of science. 288 pp. (Hough-
ton Miffiin and Co., Boston, 1917.) Well-written essays on a few selected
topics of the history of science. Perhaps the best elementary introduction
to the subject.
Sedgwick, W. T., and Tyler, H. W. A short history of science. 474
pp. (Macmillan Co., New York, 1917.) The most comprehensive, if not
the most accurate, elementary English book on the subject.
White, Andrew D. A history of the warfare of science with theology in
Christendom. 2 volumes. 415 and 474 pp. (D. Appleton and Co., New
366 JOURNAL OF' THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OE SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 15
York, 1896.) An excellent book treating a delicate subject with tolerance,
kindness and wisdom.
Smith, David Eugene. Number stones of long ago. 136 pp. (Ginn and
Co., Boston, 1919.) Stories on the history of arithmetic written for children.
Accurate and entertaining. Probably the only book on the history of science
which was written especially for children.
Berry, Arthur. A short history of astronomy. 440 pp. (Charles Scrib-
ner's Sons, New York, 1910.) Apparently there is no difference between this
edition and a previous one published in London in 1898. Perhaps the best
general elementary textbook. A very good introduction to the subject.
Thorpe, Edward. History of chemistry. 2 volumes, 185 and 190 pp.
(G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1909-10.) Less complete but more ele-
mentary and far more easy to read than Ernst von Meyer's standard book.
GeikiE, Archibald. The founders of geology. 289 pp. (Macmillan and Co.,
London, 1897.) The book embodies a series of lectures delivered by this
distinguished English geologist before students of Johns Hopkins University.
It is a charmingly written account of the beginnings of geological science and
of the principal workers in that subject down to the latter half of the nine-
teenth century. Only European and British geologists are considered.
The book is intended for the mature reader who knows something of geology,
but it may be enjoyed as well by those who have no technical knowledge
of the subject.
Merrill, George P. Contributions to the history of American geology.
546 pp. Part of Report of U. S. National Museum for 1904. (Washington,
1906.) An interestingly written series of sketches of the leaders in American
geology since its earliest days, well illustrated, and enlivened with anecdotes
and comments. (A new edition is in preparation.)
LocY, William A. Biology and its makers. 477 pp. Third edition,
revised. (Henry Holt and Co., New York, 1915.) Good introduction;
simple, clear and entertaining.
PHYSICS. — The wave lengths of X-rays.'^ Ralph W. G. Wyckoff,
Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.
(Communicated by Arthur L. Day.)
It is commonly assumed that the length of X-rays has been uniquely
and definitely determined from the study of the structures of crystals.
In the following discussion it will be shown, taking the case of sodium
chloride as an example, that with the existing knowledge it is impossible
to determine definitely the structure of any crystal in advance of a
knowledge of the wave length of X-rays. Viewed then from this
position only, the problem of the length of X-ray waves and of the
structures of crystals becomes indeterminate and recourse must be had
to other sources of information.
The customary method of determining the wave length of X-rays. — The
wave length of X-rays has been determined through the following
course of reasoning.- If a crystal is considered as composed of a
1 Received June 16. 1921.
" W. H. and W. L. Bragg. X-rays and crystal structure. (London, 1918.)
SEPT. 19, 1921 WYCKOFF: WAVE LENGTHS OF X-RAYS
367
regular and orderly repetition of a certain grouping of atoms through-
out space (as seems entirely permissible) , and if we assume the correct-
ness of the Laue theory^ that the atoms in this crystal act as diffracting
centers of a three-dimensional diffraction grating, then it follows that
the wave length of the X-rays diffracted by this crystal, the "spacing
between like planes" in the direction of the diffraction, and the angle
of the diffraction effect are connected by the familiar expression
fi\ = 2d sin d (1)
Fig. 1.
where n is the "order" of the reflection,
X is the wave length of the diffracted X-rays,
d is the "spacing," that is, the distance between like
planes in the chosen direction, and
6 is the angle of the diffraction.
In figure 1 ADEFCGBO represents the unit cell which is repeated
along the axes of coordinates in a cubic crystal. The length of the
side of this unit cube, AO, is (iioo, the "spacing" against the cube face.
The volume of this unit is then
mM
V = (J.oo)^ = — (2)
P
where M is the weight of one chemical molecule of the substance,
»M. Laue. Ann. Phys. 41: 971. 1913.
368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 15
m is the number of these molecules in the unit,
p is the density of the crystal, and
V is the volume of the unit.
In this expression the density is known and the value of M is simply
the molecular weight of the salt multiplied by the weight of an atom of
hydrogen, which has been show^n to be close to 1.64 X 10"-"^ grams.
The other term upon the right hand side of this equation, m, can be
known, however, only when the crystal structure of the salt is also
known.
Fig. 2.
In first studying the wave lengths of X-rays the alkali halides were
investigated, and of these the one which is from all points of view the
most satisfactory to treat is sodium chloride. Since no information
immediately useful for the present purpose can be obtained from a
consideration of any other available crystals, it will be permissible to
limit attention to this one salt.
The only data for establishing the structure of sodium chloride which
are truly independent of assumptions more or less tacitly based upon
an imagined structure of some crystal are (1) the observation (from
Laue photographs) that only planes all of whose indices are odd are
SEPT. 19, 1921 WYCKOFF: WAVE LENGTHS OF X-RAYS 369
found to give effects in what must correspond with the first order
region, and (2) the confirmatory observation (from spectrometer
measurements) that the first observable reflections from the (100),
(110) and (111) faces stand in the ratio of
' V2 ' V3
The familiar "sodium chloride arrangement" (Fig. 2), with four
chemical molecules associated with the unit cell, is in agreement with
the above data, so that it has been taken as the structure of this
crystal. Accepting such an identification as correct, a substitution
of m = 4 in expression (2) yields dioo, and since the value of n is also
directly determinable from a knowledge of the crystal structure, it is
but a step to obtain the wave length of the X-rays (diffracted through
the angle 6) .
Other possible structures for sodium chloride. — The most serious
objection to this determination of the wave length of X-rays obviously
rests in the implied statement that because it agrees with these rather
meager data, the "sodium chloride arrangement" is the correct one
for this salt.
It will now be shown that other structures are possible. The
effect of this observ^ation will of course be to render this determination
of the wave length of X-rays based upon the study of the structure of a
crystal indeterminate (and along with it all determinations of the
structures of crystals),
A factor which gives the effect of phase differences between the waves
scattered by the atoms in any arrangement and which is therefore
proportional, under certain conditions, to the intensity of the X-rays
seemingly "reflected" by a plane of atoms can be written as*
I ^ ^[pm cos 2 irn ihxm + kym + Izm) Y -\-
m
S]p „, sin 2 irn {hx,n + ky^ + IzJ ]-,
m
where / is the intensity of reflection from planes hkl having the same
relative spacings,
p is the scattering power of the atom m whose coordinate
position is Xj^ymZmt and
n is the order of the reflection.
« Ralph W, G. Wyckoff. Amer. Journ. Sci. 50: 317. 1920.
370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 15
The summation is to be taken over each atom in the unit cell. The
spacings between like planes in a simple cubic lattice (Fig. 1) is pro-
portional to
-==^= (1)
where h, k, and / are the indices of the plane.
With the aid of these two expressions, and without any precise
knowledge of the "laws" of scattering, it is possible to determine the
ratio of the spacings between like planes to be observed from any
arrangement of atoms. jP$
Every such, structure which possesses complete (holohedral) cubic
symmetry must be either a general or a special case of one of the ten
space groups O/, ^~^". The ratio of the spacings to be observed from
each of these space groupings for the (100), (110) and (111) planes has
been calculated.^ Of these ten groups but one, 0;^^ shows the sequence
observed for sodium chloride. Any number of conceivable structures
for sodium chloride can be developed from this space group by simply
assigning different coordinate values to the positions of the sodium and
chlorine atoms ; and except for very special values of these coordinates
the ratio of the spacing from the three planes under discussion will
always be the same as that experimentally observed for sodium
chloride.*' For the sake of simplicity of illustration the least compli-
cated of the special cases of this space group will be treated. The
three special cases containing the fewest number of molecules within
the unit cell are:^
Four equivalent positions :
(1)000; Il0;l0h0ll
(2)^2-2; OO^OiO;,^00.
Twenty-four equivalent positions :
(3) uOO;u-\- 1, 1,0; u-\- i, 0,1; uH;
uOO ; \ - u,io ;\-u, 0,\ ;u\\;
OuO;\,u + \,0; 0,u -\-\,\;\u\;
OuO;\,i-u,0;0,\-u,\;lu\;
00u;\,0,u-\-\;0,\,u-\r-2;\\u;
00u;2,0,-2-u;0,\,\-u;-2 \u.
^ p. NiGGLi. Geometrische Krystallographie des Discontinuums , p. 492.
^ In the general case there are 192 equivalent positions within the unit cell of this
group so that there may be as many as 192 molecules of sodium chloride within it.
' These results are taken from a book now being prepared for publication which con-
tains an analytical expression of all of the special cases of each of the space groups.
t
SEPT. 19, 1921 WYCKOFF: WAVE LENGTHS OF X-RAYS 371
Placing sodium and chlorine (or chlorine and sodium) atoms at the
positions of (1) and (2) yields the "sodium chloride arrangement."
The next simplest structure that can be developed is obtained from
arrangement (3) by placing atoms of sodium at the 24 points corre-
sponding to a value of ii = Ui and chlorine atoms at the points where
For such a structure the intensity of a reflection from a plane whose
indices are h, k and / is proportional to (compare equation (1)) :
A = pj,a [2cos2irnhui + 2c.os2irnkui +2cos2xw/wi +
cos7rw(2/'2M] -^h-\- k) -\- coswJtih-hui + ^) + costtw {h + 2kni + h) +
cosrw(/i + k-2kui) + cosTTiiQi + ^ + 2hti) + costtw {h + k-2lui) +
cos7rn(2/zMi + fe + /) + cosTruih - 2hui + /) + cost;z {h + 2kui + /) +
cosirn(h - 2kui + /) + cos7r?i(/i + 2/wi + /) + costtw {h + l-2lui) +
QOS-Kn{2hUi -\-k -\- I) -f C0S7rw(/j + I ~2hUi) + COS7rw(2feM.i + ^ + /) +
COSx«(fe - 2kUi + 0 + COS7rn(fe + 2/Mi + /) + COSttW (k + /-.2/?ii)] +
Pci[a similar set of terms involving Wo] .
The B term, a similar sine expression, is not in this instance qualita-
tively important. When h, k and / are two odd and one even {h = 2m
-\- 1, k = 2p -\- 1, I = 2q, w^here m, and p and q are any integers)
or when they are two even and one odd (/i = 2m -f l,k = 2p,l = 2g)
this expression is invariably equal to zero forn = 1. When, however,
the indices are all odd, the intensity becomes
A = 8 cos 2Tru (2m + 1) + 8 cos 2xzi {2p -fl) + 8 cos 27rM {2q + 1),
for 11 = 1. Except perhaps for very special values of i/i and ii2,
this expression will invariably have a value other than zero. In
case M =2 all three types of planes will give factors of appreciable
value. This arrangement is consequently in entire agreement with
the data that we now possess^ upon which to base the first determination
of the structure of a crystal.^
* This need be no longer true if we possessed accurate measurements of the relative
intensities of the X-rays reflected from different planes of this type, combined with a knowl-
edge of the positions of the electrons as the scattering centers within the atom.
^ The agreement with the spectrometer experiments is readily shown. By substituting
the appropriate values for h, k and / in expression (1), the ratio of the spacings for the
1 1
(100), (110) and (111) planes in the cubic lattice is seen to be 1 '■~T'' ;-■ Since the calcu-
lations given above have shown that the first order reflections from the first two of these
planes is blotted out, the first observable reflections would occur at twice the angle of
the first reflection and would consequently give apparent spacings of
1 _J_ J_ J_ . _?
2 2V2 "VS^"^^ ■V2 ■ V3'
372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 15
It will be sufficient for the present purpose to have pointed out a
single structure for rock salt, besides the generally accepted one, which
is in agreement with the experimental data. There are undoubtedly
numerous others which would serve equally well. It is not, however,
feasible to indicate even all of the different types of structures that
would fulfill the present requirements. This arises in part from the
fact that besides those other structures which can be developed from
0A^ it is conceivable that such special values could be assigned to the
coordinates of arrangements developed from other space groups that
the intensity of the reflections from certain types of planes would be
either obliterated entirely or would be so weak as to pass detection.
As a result the sequence of spacings found for such an arrangement
might agree with that for rock salt.^"'^^
The wave lengths of the X-rays calculated upon the basis of struc-
tures representing sodium chloride but possessing various numbers of
molecules in the unit cell must of course differ from one another.
For instance the wave lengths of the rays diffracted through the angle
6 when calculated upon the assumption of the correctness of the
sodium chloride structure and when calculated upon the assumption
of the structure just considered which has twenty-four chemical
molecules within the unit cell will stand in the ratio of v^i to -s/'IA.
Quantum calculations of the wave lengths of X-rays. — It was early
pointed out that the quantum hypothesis furnishes an independent
way of obtaining the wave lengths of X-rays. By identifying the
energy of the electrons required to excite either the characteristic
X-rays^" or those of the short wave length limit of the continuous
spectrum ^^ (as the case may be) with the energy of the rays that are
produced, it is possible from the quantum relationship
E = nhv
to get the frequency (i^) and hence the wave length of the correspond-
ing X-rays.^"* If it is assumed that such X-rays correspond with the
" This sort of agreement with experiment is illustrated in the course of the treatment
of the structure of magnesium oxide. Ralph W. G. Wyckoff. Amer. Journ. Sci. 1: 138.
1921. (See the grouping there called (j).)
" In the light of present knowledge such a structure as we have just discussed need not
be immediately disregarded as impracticably complicated, especially when it is borne in
mind that it offers the chance of so placing a sodium and a chlorine atom nearer to one
another than to other atoms as to preserve, in the existence of a chemical molecule, the
older idea of the nature of solid sodium chloride.
12 W. H. and W. L. Bragg, op. cit., p. 72.
13 W. DuANE and F. S. Hunt. Phys. Rev. (2) 6: 166. 1915, etc.
1* W. DuANE and F. S. Hunt, op. cit.
SEPT. 19, 1921 WYCKOFF: WAVE LENGTHS OF X-RAYS 373
expenditure of a single quantum of energy (n = 1), as would seem
probable, then the resulting wave length is in agreement with that
calculated from the "sodium chloride arrangement."
The fact that it is not possible at the present time to obtain the
structure of any crystal with surety without at the same time knowing
the wave lengths of X-rays would consequently make it seem more
logical to think of our determination of the wave lengths of X-rays
(and with it all of our studies of the arrangement of the atoms in
crystals) as based directly upon this quantum hypothesis, to stand or
to fall with it.
Of course even this determination of the wave length of X-rays is
not entirely satisfactory. For instance if, for some reason, it should
seem desirable to suppose that the expenditure of two quanta of
energy were required to excite X-rays, then we should have a value of
the wave lengths corresponding to a structure for sodium chloride
having thirty-two chemical molecules associated wdth the unit. Fur-
thermore the extension of the quantum relationship from the range
of Hght radiation to that of X-rays was indeed a large extrapolation.
In spite of this, the most persuasive evidence that a satisfactory deter-
mination has been obtained is to be found in the fact that the appli-
cation of the quantum relation to the limit of the continuous radia-
tion^^ yields values for wave lengths which are in such close accord
with a reasonable determination of crystal structure. This structure
happens to be the "sodium chloride arrangement" (in the case of sodium
chloride) .
Summary
Taking the case of sodium chloride as typical, it is shown that there
are other structures besides the commonly accepted "sodium chloride
arrangement" which are in agreement with the present experimental
data. As a result of this lack of definiteness it is emphasized that it is
more logical to consider the value of the wave lengths of X-rays as
based upon the quantum hypothesis.
^* E, the energy, can be obtained from a knowledge of the voltage required to produce
X-rays of the frequency v and of the charge (e) on the electron ; h is the universal constant
of Planck; and n is an integer.
ABSTRACTS
Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared
and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should
conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
OPTICS. — Dispersion in optical glasses: II. Fred H. Wright. Journ.
Opt. Soc. Amer. 4: 195-204. 1920. (Geophysical Lab. Papers on
Optical Glass, No. 29.)
In this paper proof is given that, because of the relatively short range of the
visible spectrum, the substitution in a dispersion formula of the reciprocal of
the refractive index, or of the excess refractivity, or by analogy of other func-
tions of the refractive index for the direct values, leads to dispersion formulas
which are fairly satisfactory. Thus, if in the two-constant Cauchy formula,
w = A + B-X"^orw— 1 =A' + B •X"^, the reciprocal of the refractive index
or of the excess refractivity be written: m~^ = C' + D-X~- or (w — 1)"^ =
C + D-X~^, the new equations represent rectangular hyperbolas in case X"^ is
considered to be the independent variable. The last equation was recently
suggested as a substitute for the Hartmann dispersion formula. A series of
computations demonstrates, however, that for the crown-glasses this equation
is less satisfactory than the Cauchy formula, while for the flint-glasses none of
the foregoing equations is especially good. The last equation is, moreover,
always less satisfactory than the Cauchy formula for computation purposes.
The usefulness of the last equation appears, therefore, to be limited and less
satisfactory for general application than the two-constant Cauchy formula.
F. E. W.
GEODESY. — Modern methods for measuring the intensity of gravity. Clar-
• Ence; H. Swick. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Pub. 69.
Pp. 96, figs. 26. 1921.
The measurement of gravity on land by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey is made with an accuracy of about 2 or 3 parts in a million. Such
accuracy with a field instrument requires more than ordinary care and skill
on the part of the observer. At the present time all gravity measurements
are made with pendulums only a quarter of a meter in virtual length, which
are placed in an air-tight receiver and swung under a pressure of about 1/15
of an atmosphere. The cost and time required for a determination are very
much less than they were and the results obtained are far more accurate
than with the old types of apparatus.
This publication is primarily a working manual for field and office use.
Aside from one chapter of historical data the entire book is given over to a
detailed description of the instruments and to instructions for making the
observations and computations. All the necessary formulas and tables
are included. Sample records are shown and a sample computation for
one station is carried through all the required steps.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— r/j^ binary system dkermanite-gehlenite.
J. B, Ferguson and A. F. Buddington. Amer. Journ. Sci. 50:
131-40. 1920.
The binary system akermanite (2CaO.Mg0.2SiO)-gehlenite (2CaO.Al203-
SiOs) was studied by the quenching method and the solidus and liquidus
curves were determined. The system forms a complete series of solid so-
lutions with a minimum melting-point about 70° below the melting-point
374
SEPT. 19, 1921 abstracts: geology 373
of akermanite, the component of lower melting-point, at a composition of
about 74 per cent Akermanite and 26 per cent gehlenite.
The densities of crystals and glasses of akermanite, gehlenite, and several
intermediate mixtures were determined and found to confirm the isomor-
phous character of the system. Akermanite was found to show the unusual
feature of its glass having a greater density than the corresponding crystals
at 25° C. This peculiar character is checked by the indices of refraction
for glass and crystal, respectively, the index of refraction of the glass being
greater than the maximum index of the crystal.
The optical characters of the crystals are a continuous function of the
composition. In optical characters akermanite is positive and gehlenite
is negative. Crystals of certain intermediate compositions are isotropic
for light of a definite wave length and constitute a transition phase between
positive and negative crystals. J. B. F.
GEOLOGY.- — Mining in the Matanuska coal field and the Willow Creek dis-
trict, Alaska. Theodore Chapin. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 712-E. Pp.
46(131-76). 1920.
This report describes developments in the Matanuska coal field up to the
end of 1918 and records some recently acquired knowledge of the structure
and stratigraphy of the coal-bearing rocks and the character and persistence
of the coal beds, details of which are becoming more apparent with the open-
ing of the underground workings. The areal distribution, character, chemical
analysis, steaming and coking quahty of the coal are discussed, stratigraphy
and structure of the region are described, and the mining developments
depicted. R. W. Stone.
GEOLOGY.— Mmmg in northwestern Alaska. S. H. Cathcart. U. S.
Geol. Survey Bull. 712-G. Pp. 14(185-98). 1920.
Discusses the adverse conditions which caused greatly decreased mineral
production in Seward Peninsula in 1918; describes the use of cold water in
thawing perpetually frozen muck and gravel and its application to placer
mining. Tungsten and platinum were produced, but wholly incident to
the mining of placer gold. A small quantity of coal was mined, and drilling
for oil in a locality where the hard rocks are granite and schist was unsuccess-
ful. R. W. Stone.
GEOLOGY.— r/ie Mogollon district, New Mexico. Henry G. Ferguson.
U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 715-L. Pp. 34(171-204). 1921.
The Mogollon or Cooney district is in the southwestern part of Socorro
Coimty, New Mexico, about 14 miles from the Arizona line. The rocks
of the district are nearly all lavas, or sedimentary rocks composed of materials
derived from lavas. Flows of rhyolite and andesite, together with sedimen-
tary and pyroclastic rocks, had reached a total thickness of several thousand
feet when faulting of considerable magnitude took place and the region was
broken up into irregular blocks bounded by normal faults. The faulting
was closely followed by the introduction of mineral-bearing solutions, which
followed channels determined by the previous faulting, so that practically
all the faults are the sites of veins.
The ores of the district are valuable mainly for silver. Argentite, pyrite,
bomite, chalcopyrite, and tetrahedrite, together with small amounts of horn
silver and native silver, are the principal ore minerals. The ores are princi-
pally sulfides and give evidence of being in part due to enrichment, although
376 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 15
the relative importance of secondary processes has not yet been fully deter-
mined. R. W. Stone.
GUOLOGY .—Potash resources of Nebraska. W. B. Hicks. U. S. Geol.
Survey Bull. 715-1. Pp. 15(125-39). 1921.
Describes the location, area, and probable potash content of the alkali
lakes in the sand-hill region of Nebraska, and discusses the composition of
the brine and origin of the potash. R. W. Stone.
GEOLOGY.- — Mineral resources of the Goodnews Bay region, Alaska. George
L. Harrington. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 714-E. Pp. 22(207-28).
1921.
The Goodnews Bay region as here considered embraces the territory lying
south of Arolic River and draining into Kuskokwim Bay, Alaska. In
many respects this region is one of the most inaccessible in Alaska for a
small expedition. For a number of years it has been necessary to come
overland from the Yukon either by the portage or by way of Iditarod, or
to travel in a kayak or canoe, or by small schooner or sailing boat from
Togiak.
The sedimentary rocks comprise limestone, argillite, sandstone, and con-
glomerate, and the metamorphosed equivalents of most of these. A con-
siderable variety of igneous rocks is also found, including basalt flows,
dikes that were taken in the field to be andesites, and intrusive granites,
with some massive intrusives that are probably intermediate in composition
between the granite and the basalt. A large part of the region is covered
by unconsolidated deposits of alluvial, glacio-fluviatile, and marine origin.
Gold placer mining is the principal interest. The original deposition
of the gold in fissures associated with quartz was probably genetically re-
lated to the intrusion of the late Mesozoic granites into the sedimentary
and earlier igenous rocks, which range from Paleozoic to probably late Meso-
zoic in age. From the original deposits the gold has been eroded by streams
and other agencies, not including glaciation, and has been concentrated in
placers by some streams, mainly those in the vicinity of the granites. Glacial
erosion has removed most of the gold-placer deposits and has scattered the
gold widely over a considerable area in amounts not suitable for profitable
mining.
Postglacial concentration has been effected by some streams in connection
with the erosion of the rocks containing auriferous veins. R. W. Stone.
GEOLOGY.^ — Potash deposits in Spain. H. S. Gale. U. S. Geol. Survey
Bull. 715-A. Pp. 16, pis. 3, figs. 3. 1920.
Potash was discovered in Spain in 1912, during an attempt to open a salt
mine near Suria, Province of Barcelona. Evidence gained in a shaft and
several borings convinced local engineers that the deposits contain 200,000,000
tons of piure potash (K2O), and in 1918 a mine shaft and a refining plant were
begun. The shaft is located near the axis of an anticline, in a zone of intense
folding, and the potash and associated salt beds are probably much con-
torted; such contortions are seen in the beds in the crest of the anticline at
Cardona, 8 miles distant, where salt is extensively mined. The evidence
of the existence of potash in the Cardona deposits, however, is not very
definite, and information as to the occurrence in the surrounding region is
meager. Many concessions for prospecting and exploitation in an area
of 400 square miles have already been granted, and the Government has re-
SEPT. 19, 1921 proceedings: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 377
served about 1800 square miles for future exploration. Restrictive legis-
lation, as outlined in this paper, somewhat hampers activities in the district.
The prospects indicate an output of potash ample for Spanish needs, but no
judgment can yet be ventured as to the influence of the Spanish field on the
world market. J. D. Sears.
CERAMICS.— -A^o/^ on the motion of the stirrers used in optical-glass manu-
facture. E. D. Williamson and L. H. Adams. Journ. Amer. Ceramic
Soc. 3: 671-677. 1920. (Geophysical Lab. Papers on Optical Glass,
No. 25.)
Perhaps the most noticeable difference between the manufacture of optical
glass and that of other types of glass (bottle, window, and plate) is that the
melt must be stirred vigorously in order to get complete mixing. The reason
behind this necessity is the close approach to homogeneity specified in the
tests to be passed by the finished article. The stirrers used are necessarily
of a very simple nature, generally consisting of a clay rod attached at right
angles to an iron water-cooled pole, the other end of which is driven at steady
speed in a horizontal circle, while supported near the center by a pulley or
other support. Such a device does not cause circular motion of the stirring-
rod, but causes it to describe an egg-shaped figure at a variable speed. A
slightly more uniform motion is obtained if a pin attached to the pole slides
in a fiked slot instead of the pole passing over the pulley, but the general
results are not very different. If the support is not close to the center of the
pole, the motion of the rod is far from circular and a large part of the glass
in the pot is not stirred. E. D. W.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
548th meeting
The 54Sth meeting of the Society was held at the United States National
Museum on October 26, 1920, at 4.45 p.m. Dr. AlES Hrdlicka, curator
of physical anthropology, U. S. National Museum, addressed the Society on
The anthropological problems of the Far East and the Pacific. The lecture
was carefully prepared and dealt with a subject with which Dr. Hrdlicka was
most familiar both because of long study and recent field work. The paper
was discussed by Mr. Holmes, Mrs. Zelia Nuttall, Dr. Michelson, and
Dr. Swanton.
549th meeting
At the 549th meeting of the Society, held at the National Museum at 4 . 45
p.m. on November 16, 1920, Mr. Sylvanus G. MorlEy, Associate of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington, addressed the Society on The hiero-
glyphic writing of the ancient Mayas. Mr. Morley illustrated his excellent
presentation with charcoal drawings of the glyphs. At the conclusion of
Mr. Morley's lecture, Mr. W. E. Gates, of Baltimore, gave an interesting
and enthusiastic talk of ten minutes on the subject of Maya writing, and told
especially of recent progress which he has made in the deciphering of color
symbols, to which IMr. Morley had referred in his talk.
378 journal of the washington academy of sciences vol. 11, no. 15
550th meeting
The 550th meeting was held in the National Museum at 4.45 p.m. on
December 14, 1920, and had as program an illustrated lecture by Mr. S. D.
Bullock, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture,
entitled Ten years among the Araucanians of Chile. Mr. Bullock has lived
for ten years among the Araucanian Indians of the vicinity of Valdivia,
Chile, as industrial teacher of the Indians, and knows them and their customs
intimately. At the close of the lecture Mr. Bullock exhibited some Arau-
canian costumes and other objects. Questions were asked by Lieut. W. E.
Safford and others.
55 1st meeting
The 551st meeting was held at the National Museum at 4.45 p.m. on
January 18, 1921. Mr. William E. Myer, of Nashville, Tennessee, gave an
interesting lecture on Recent explorations in the Cumberland Valley, Tennessee,
being an account of archaeological field work done by him in 1920 for the
Bureau of American Ethnology. The talk was illustrated by lantern slides.
The lecture was discussed by Dr. Fewkes and others.
552d meeting
The 552d meeting was held at the National Museum at 4.45 p.m. on
February 8, 1921. Lieut. W. E. Safford, of the Department of Agriculture,
spoke on Old and new Samoa. The lecture was illustrated by original slides.
Lieut. Safford made his first visit to Samoa on the U. S. Ship Mohican in
1888, before Robert Louis Stevenson came to the islands, and made a second
visit in 1899, two years after Stevenson's death. The lecturer spoke through-
out from first-hand information. At the close of the lecture there was a dis-
cussion by Dr. Hough, Mr. Holmes, and others,
553d meeting
At the 553d meeting, held at the National Museum at 4.45 p.m., March
21, 1921, Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
spoke on The fire temple of the Cliff Dwellers. The ruin of the Fire Temple
was excavated by him in the Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, during
the summer of 1920. The lecture was beautifully illustrated by slides.
It was discussed by Dr. Hough, Mr. Holmes, and others.
554th meeting
The program of the 554th meeting, held at the National Museum at 4.45
p.m., March 22, 1921, was a paper by Mr. G. N. Collins, of the Department
of Agriculture, on The origin and early distribution of maize. Mr. Collins
agrees on the whole with Harzberger, who advocated the theory that maize
has been hybridized with some other close relative, but puts the relationship
a little further off — for genetic reasons. The paper was discussed by Dr.
Hough, Prof. Hitchcock, Lieut. Safford, Mr. La Flesche, and others.
555th meeting
The 555th meeting of the Society was held in conjunction with the Medical
Society of the District of Columbia, at the new home of the latter at 1718
M Street, N. W., on April 5, 1921, at 8.00 p.m. Dr. George M. Kober
presented as address of the retiring president of the Anthropological Society
of Washington, 1920, a paper entitled A plea for the prevention of permanent
disabilities in childhood. In pursuance of the established custom of the So-
ciety, there was no discussion of this paper, it being a presidential address.
SEPT. 19, 1921 SCmNTlFlC NOTES AND NEWS 379
556th meeting
The 556th regular meeting (42nd annual meeting) of the Society was held
at the National Museum at 4 .45 p.m., April 19, 1921. Dr. C. Hart Merriam,
President of the Society, dehvered a lecture on The Indians of the Vosemite
Region, California. The lecture was illustrated by a large number of slides
showing the distribution of the dialects of the stock, the history of the In-
dians, the landmarks of the region, and the present survivors. At the close
of the lecture the annual meeting of the Society was held.
The Secretary, John P. Harrington, reported that the Society has at
present 51 active members, 6 life members, 4 associate members, and 2
honorary members, making a total membership of 63. New members added
during the year were: Mr. W. E. Meyer, Mr. M. J. Caples, Mr. R. E-
Montgomery, and Miss Ellen Hayes. One active member was lost through
death: Dr. Edwin LEE Morgan. The Treasurer's report showed a bal-
ance to the credit of the Society of $139.56, and total assets of $667.47.
The following officers were reelected for the ensuing year: President,
C. Hart Merriam; Vice President, Neil M. Judd; Secretary, John P.
Harrington; Treasurer, J. N. B. Hewitt; Board of Managers, Charles
L. G. Anderson, Felix Neumann, Francis La Flesche.
John P. Harrington, Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
The topographic survey of the Virgin Islands was completed by the U.
S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in June.
An interdepartmental conference was held on July 25 at the Interior
Department to discuss the status of patents arising within the government
service. The purpose of the conference was to coordinate and formulate
the views held in the various bureaus and departments on this subject.
After discussion, a committee of five was appointed to report in detail ways
and means for the suggested coordination, and another committee of three
was appointed to develop a plan for a general clearing house of information
for the departments with respect to licenses, shop rights, and titles in patents
which the Government has acquired or may acquire.
Mr. Walter G. Campbell was appointed acting chief of the Bureau of
Chemistry in August.
A geological party of four, consisting of Professors R. A. Daly and
Charles Palache of Harvard University, Professor G. A. F. MolEngraaf
of the University of Delft, Holland, and Dr. F. E. Wright of the Geophysical
Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, will spend the coming
winter in southern Africa, in a geologic and petrologic study of the Bushfeld
igneous complex in Transvaal.
Dr. H. C. Dickinson, chief of the automotive investigations division
of the Bureau of Standards, has been granted a leave of absence to become
director of research for the Society of Automotive Engineers. He will con-
tinue to assist in the work of the Bureau in a consulting capacity.
Dr. Graham Edgar, professor of chemistry at the University of Virginia,
has been associated with the Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory at the
American University during the summer, completing some work which he
began there during the War.
Major Louis Albert Fischer, chief of the division of weights and measures
of the Bureau of Standards, died on July 25, 1921, in his fifty-eighth year
380 JOURNAL OF' THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIEJNCES VOL. H, NO. 15
Mr. Fischer was born in Washington, D. C, January 4, 1864. He was
educated at George Washington University, and afterwards joined the staff
of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, where he was in charge of the ofifice
of weights and measures, the forerunner of the present Bureau of Standards.
He took an active part in the organization of the Bureau in 1901, and had been
in charge of its special division on standards of length, volume, and mass
since that date. He was a leader in the movement to promote uniform
standards of weights and measures in the States and municipalities of the
country. He was a member of the Academy, past president of the Philo-
sophical Society, and chairman of the Washington Section of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Dr. F. E. Matthks, of the U. S. Geological Survey, has been spending the
summer in exploration of the crest of the Sierra Nevada as far south as Kings
River Canyon, in search of data on the earlier glaciation of the region.
Mr. J. D. Northrop has been reinstated as geologist in the U. S. Geological
Survey, and has been assigned to duty in the mineral division of the Land
Classificat'-on Board.
Dr. T. Okada, director of the recently established Imperial Marine Ob-
servatory at Kobe, Japan, visited the scientific institutions of Washington in
August.
Prof. J. F. Rock returned in June from an eleven months' exploring trip
through remote parts of Siam, Burma, Assam, and Bengal for the U. S.
Department of Agriculture. He showed the Botanical Society on June
27 the first photographs ever exhibited of the tree, Taraktogenos k^irzii,
in its native habitat. The seeds of this tree are the source of chaulmoogra
oil, a remedy for leprosy, and Professor Rock secured enough of the seeds to
assure the establishment of a plantation of the tree in Hawaii.
Dr. J. H. Shrader, formerly with the Bureau of Chemistry, U. vS.
Department of Agriculture, became director of the bureau of chemistry and
food of the Health Department of Baltimore on July 1.
Dr. George Otis Smith, director of the U. S. Geological vSurvey,
attended a meeting on July 20 in London as a member of the organization
committee of the International Geologic Congress.
Dr. W. W. vSkinnER, chief of the water and beverage laboratory of the
Bureau of Chemistry, has been appointed assistant chief of the Bureau.
Mr. R. S. Tour, chemical engineer of the Nitrate Division, Ordnance
Department of the Army, has been appointed dean of the department of
chemical engineering at tlae University of Cincinnati.
Dr. TsAi, chancellor of the National University of Peking, China, visited
the scientific institutions of Washington in June.
Mr. RosENDO Vargas, a member of the Taos tribe of Indians of New
Mexico, has been assisting Mr. J. P. Harrington of the Bureau of Ethnology
in the study of the ethnology of the tribe. Mr, Vargas is at present an em-
ployee of the office of Indian Affairs, Department of the Interior.
Mr. C. J. WEvST has resigned as director of the information department
of A. D. Little, Inc., of Cambridge, Massachusetts, to become managing
editor of the Tables of Physical and Chemical Constants now being compiled
under the joint auspices of the National Research Council, the American
Chemical Society, and the American Physical Society.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol.11 October 4. 1921 No. 16
PHYSICS. — A radioactive quantity requiring a name.'^ N. Krnest
DoRSEY, Bureau of Standards.
The problems that are encountered in the quantitative study of
radioactive materials and processes may be divided into two classes.
In one class will be placed the strictly chemical problems; such as,
the amount of the element that is contained in a ton of ore, the ratio
of the amounts of different elements that are found associated, the
atomic weights and the chemical properties of the several elements.
In the other class will be placed the problems that are primarily con-
cerned with radioactive phenomena; such as, the rate of transforma-
tion, the rate of emission of energy, the rate of production of alpha
or of beta particles or of gamma pulses.
In problems of the first class one is concerned with the total weight
or with the total number of atoms present, and the amount of the
element may appropriately be expressed in grams or in terms of the
number (N) of atoms present. These problems do not differ in any
essential respect from those encountered in dealing with other ele-
ments ; the radioactiA^e properties of the element enter into the problem
mainly as a means by which different amounts of the material can be
compared.
In problems of the second class the results may likewise be expressed
as functions of the total weight, or of the total number of atoms, of
the element present, but when this is done certain fundamental rela-
tions are obscured. Only a relatively small fraction (XA^ of the
atoms present take part in the phenomenon studied, and the thing
that is of fundamental interest is the effect produced per atom actively
concerned. It is in this eft'ect per active atom that information re-
garding the atomic forces, structure, and instability, and the way
these vary from element to element, are to be sought. In such prob-
lems one is concerned with the number of atoms that have trans-
formed in a certain time ; he is but incidentally interested in the pres-
ence of atoms that have remained untraiisformed. He wishes to know
' Contril)ution from the Bureau of Standards. Received August I, 192L
381
382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. IG
the energy emitted per transformed atom, the number of alpha parti-
cles emitted per transformed atom, etc. If his observations extend
over a time t, he wishes to know the number of atoms transformed
during that time; i.e., 'KNt where X is the transformation constant,
and N is the total number of atoms present. He is primarily inter-
ested in XA^, rather than N.
When only a single element is being considered it is a matter of
indifference whether the result is expressed in terms of grams, or of
N, or of \N. But when similar measurements have been made for
two different elements, and it is desired to compare the results obtained
these must each be expressed in terms of the quantity, XA^, involved,
if fundamental relations are to be obtained. For example, if it is
desired to compare the heating effect produced by the transformation of
radium with that produced by the transformation of rad'um emanation,
then these effects are expressed in gram calories per hour per gram of
radium, and per that amount of radium emanation that can exist in
equilibrium with one gram of radium ; \N is the same for each of these
quantities. This is quite satisfactory when only related elements in an
unbranched portion of a family are being considered ; but if a lateral
branch arises between the first and the second element, then a more
complicated description of the reference amount of the second element
is required. For example, uranium-II branches into uranium-Y
and ionium, some 4 per cent going into the former ; consequently the
heating effect of one gram of uranium-II is not strictly comparable with
the heating effect of the amount of ionium that can exist in equilibrium
with one gram of uranium-II, but with 1/0.96 of the latter amount.
When the effects of elements belonging to unrelated families are to
be compared, they will likewise be referred to quantities having the
same value for \N; i.e., to quantities so chosen that the same number
of atoms take part in the production of the effect. For one element
the result may be expressed in terms of the effect per gram, but the
corresponding quantity of the other element cannot be very directly
expressed with our existing terminology.
This difffculty would be removed if there were a name to denote the
amount of a radio-element corresponding to a fixed value of XA^^.
For example, if XA^ for one gram of radium is equal to k, and that
amount of any element for which XA^ = fe is called an r, then an r
of any element will be radioactively comparable in amount to an r
of any other element, whether related or not. A gram of radium will
contain one r of radium, a curie will contain one r of radium emanation,
Oct. 4, 1921 dorsey: radioactivte quantity 3S3
the amount of radium-A that can exist in equilibrium with one gram
of radium will contain one r of radium-A, the amount of ionium that
can exist in equilibrium with one gram of radium will contain one r
of ionium, the amount of uranium-II that can exist in equilibrium
with one gram of radium will contain (1/0.96) r of uranium-II, etc.
As thus defined, an r of any material is that amount of the material
that will produce transformed atoms at the same rate as transformed atoms
are produced by one gram of radium.
The value in grams or in atoms of an r of any element depends upon
the ratio of the transformation constant and of the atomic weight of
the element to those of radium ; denoting the transformation constant
of radium by Xo, the number of atoms in one gram of radium by No
and the atomic weight of radium by Ao the number of atoms (A^)
in one r of any other element is determined by the equation
N= ^- No
X
and the weight in grams of one r of the element is
Xo .1
X -4o
since NqAq is by definition equal to one gram.
To the precision with which the transformation constants are known,
an r of radium emanation weighs 6.55 X 10~^ gram; pf radium-A,
3.54 X 10~^ gram; of uranium-II, 1.51 X 10^ gram; of actinium, 1.29
X 10~^gram; of mesothorium-1, 4.29 X 10~^gram.
The quantity that we have denoted by the letter r plays in radio-
activity a part that is analogous to that played by the gram-molecule
in physical chemistry; the adoption of some name for it will appreci-
ably facilitate the recording, discussion, and presentation of radioac-
tive observations and phenomena.
One illustration of the increased facility that will be secured by the
adoption of a name for this quantity is afforded by the frequent use
of expressions of the form "radium-C corresponding to one gram of
radium" (Rutherford), "von der mit 1 g. Ra in Gleichgewicht
stehenden Ra-C Menge" (Hess) ; these would be replaced by the much
simpler "one r of radium-C," where the letter r stands for the name
adopted.
Another illustration may be taken from the surgical application of
the active deposit of radium. When it is desired to state the amount
of, say, radium-C present, a circumlocution like those in the preceding
paragraph is required. This long and awkward expression is fre-
384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. U, NO. 16
quently abbreviated to the form "% mg. of radium-C," or to ''% milli-
curies of radium-C." Such abbreviations may lead to serious mis-
understanding and confusion, and can readily be replaced by the
exact and unambiguous expression "x mr of radium-C," so soon as a
name has been given to the quantity r.
The customary expression for the rate of accumulation of a radio-
element is
= Xl A^2 - >^2 ^2
where A^i and N2 denote, respectively, the total number of atoms of
two successive elements. The rate of accumulation of element 2 is
made to depend upon both Xi and Xo, although it is evident that the
instantaneous growth of element 2 can ultimately depend upon only
its own constant and its departure from equilibrium. This is brought
out plainly when quantities of the elements are measured in terms of
r. Let there be Ri r's of element 1 and R2 r's of element 2 ; as before,
let k denote the number of transformed atoms produced in unit time
by one gram of radium; i.e., by one r. Then kR2 will be the number
of atoms of element 2 that transforms in a unit of time, hence kRo =
XiNt, where N2 is the number of atoms of element 2. Whence
dA/"2 ^. dRa
"d^ ^2 d^
But
dt
Hence
dRo
dt
— X2 [Ri — R2)
If Ri = R2 the two elements are in equilibrium. The differential
equation shows at once that the instantaneous growth of element
2 is equal to the product of X., by the departure from equilibrium.
The coefficients in the equation applying to the decay of a group of
elements initially in equilibrium (Case 2 of Rutherford) are unsym-
metrical when the equations are written in the usual notation, the
total number of atoms present being the unit. For example, the
coefficients for the third element (Rutherford's R) are
X2 Xi Xi X2
a = 7^ — TTTi^ — n; 0 =
(X2-Xi)(X3-Xi)' " ~ (Xi-X2)(X3-X2)' ' ~ X3(Xi-X3)(X2-X3)"
Oct. 4, 1921 dorse y: radioactive quantity 385
When the unit is the r these coefficients become
X2 X3 X3 Xi Xi X2
^ " (X2-Xl)(X3-Xl)' ^" (Xl-X2)(X3-X2)' ^" (Xi-X3)(X2-X3)'
In these the symmetry is perfect.
A name for the quantity r would be most useful when curves similar
to those given by Rutherford as figures 102, 103, 110 {Radioactive
substances and their radiations) have to be plotted. The ordinates of
these curves are proportional to the number of r's of the several ele-
ments, and to the sum of these r's. If the alpha particles from each
element are equally effective in producing the effect measured, the
total effect is proportional to the sum of the r's and on this assump-
tion the ordinates are proportional to the "activities." In lieu of a
name for the quantity r the ordinates are labeled "activities," and the
assumption is explained in the text. Were there a name for the quan-
tity r the ordinates could be so marked and no assumption would be
required.
It has been shown how the weight of an r of any element can be
computed. Consequently there is no serious difficulty in determining
the number of r's contained in a given amount specified in grams;
or conversely. In the portion of the radium family comprised between
ionium and radium-C, both inclusive, the elements are now actually
measured in terms of r, which in this region may be regarded as merely
an abbreviation of the oft recurrent phrase "amount that is in equili-
brium with one gram of radium." Beyond these branch points a
factor depending upon the branching ratio must be introduced. Sev-
eral methods are available for determining the value in r's of a radio-
actively defined amount of an element of another family. If a chemi-
cally pure salt of known composition either of this element or of another
genetically related to it and not separated from it by a branch point
has been prepared, we can determine at once the value of \N for a
gram of that element. The ratio of this to k will be the number of
r's in a gram of that element, and likewise in such amounts of its
derivatives as can exist in equilibrium with a gram of it. Or the num-
ber of alpha particles emitted per second by the material considered
or by an equilibrium amount of a related element might be determined.
This number divided by 3.72 X 10 ^'^ (the value for one gram of radium,
i.e., the quantity we have denoted by k) will be the number of r's in
the quantity considered, unless more than one alpha particle is emitted
during a single transformation of an atom; this can be determined by
suitable observ^ations.
386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 16
For many reasons it is desirable to have a name for the quantity
which we have designated by the letter r. Thus arises the question
whether the term "curie," which by international agreement is an r of
radium emanation, shall be redefined so as to cover the entire field
embraced by our definition of the quantity r, or whether a new name
shall be added to the nomenclature of the science. In the latter
case the name rutherford seems most appropriate.
In order to obtain an expression of opinion regarding the advisa-
bility of adopting a new name for the quantity we have denoted by the
letter r, the Bureau of Standards submitted the preceding portion of
this paper, in essentially its present form, to a number of chemists
and physicists. While agreeing that it is desirable to have a name for
the quantity r, the replies were divided regarding the advisability of
adding a new name to the nomenclature. The majority of the re-
plies favored the extension of the "curie" to cover the entire field, so
as to avoid the existence of two names to denote the same amount
of radium emanation.
Such an extension involves a redefinition of the curie. The extended
term cannot be defined as the amount of an element that is in equiUb-
rium with a known amount of any other element, though for the ele-
ments of the uranium family from ionium to radium-C it will actually
denote the amount of these elements that can exist in equilibrium with
one gram of radium. Neither should it be thought of as that amount
of an element that under certain conditions will give a fixed, specified
ionization current. Its definition must be equivalent to the one we
have given for r; namely, as thus extended, a curie of any material
will be that amount of the material that will produce transformed
atoms at the same rate as transformed atoms are produced by one
gram of radium.
MINERALOGY. — Lazulite of Graves Mountain, Georgia, with notes
on other occurrences in the United States.'^ Thomas L. Watson,
University of Virginia.
Graves Mountain, Georgia, is located in Lincoln County about
10 miles west from Washington, Wilkes County, the nearest raihoad
point. The locality has long been known to mineralogists for the
occurrence of rutile and lazulite in association with a group of more
common minerals. These are, named without regard to order of
abundance, lazulite, rutile, cyanite, pyrophylHte, hydrous antho-
1 Received July 18, 1921.
Oct. 4, 1921 watson: lazulite 387
phyllite, hematite, quartz, and muscovite. In addition to these,
Shepard" reported barite, minute perfectly formed transparent crystals
of sulfur, crystals of pyrite, and traces of gold. The locality is
probably best known for the occurrence of rutile, crystals of which
have been figured and described by European crystallographers.
The ridge locally known as Graves Mountain has a length of 2
miles along an approximate northeast-southwest direction, is less
than half a mile wide, and rises several hundred feet above the surface
of the surrounding Piedmont Plain. The slopes of the ridge are very
unequal, and are greatly roughened from weathering.
Graves Mountain is composed of Cambrian quartzite of which
there are two facies:^ (1) a foliated quartzite schist which forms
the basal portion of the ridge and extends some distance up the slope
on the northwest side, and (2) a fine-grained massive quartzite (ita-
columite), which forms the crest and upper slopes. Both are com-
posed dominantly of quartz with the difference in chemical compo-
sition shown in the following partial analyses:
Quartzite Massive quartzite
schist (itacolumite)
SiOa 79.18 69.74
AI2O3 14.14 24.86
FeaOs 3.17 0.53
Igneous rocks are not known to occur in the ridge proper, but are
common in the surrounding area.
Lazulite, a rare basic phosphate of aluminum, magnesium, and
ferrous iron, corresponds to the formula (Fe, Mg) (A10H)2(P04)2 in
which the ratio of Fe: Mg(Ca) varies^ from 1:12 to 2:3. It and the
associated minerals occur in the itacolumite of the crest and higher
slopes of Graves Mountain. The lazulite is irregularly distributed
through the itacolumite in rude nests or bunches of single crystals
and crystal aggregates. Quartz veins of a few inches thickness cut
the quartzite on top of the ridge and sometimes carry rutile, pyro-
phyllite, and iron oxide, but lazulite has not been observed in them.
The lazulite is imbedded in the itacolumite usually as crystals which
range in size up to an inch in length, but as a rule the individual
crystals are much smaller. It also occurs massive without distinct
crystal boundaries. The crystals are usually acute pyramidal in
2 C. U. Shepard. Amer. Journ. Sci. 27: 36-39. 1859.
^ For a detailed description, including petrography, of the two facies of the quartzite,
see Thomas L. Watson and J. Wii,Bxni Watson, A contribution to the geology and mineralogy
of Graves Mountain, Georgia. Univ. of Virginia Publications, Bull. Philos. Soc, Sci. Sec,
1: 220-221 (No. 7). 1912.
* E. S. Dana. A system of mineralogy, pp. 798-799.
388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OV SCIENCES VOL. U, NO. 16
habit and frequently twinned. Shepard^ described and figured
five crystals of lazulite from the Georgia locality, and stated that a
twin (his fig. 5) "is by far the most abundant form equalling in fre-
quency all the others combined."
The mineral is opaque, of azure blue color when fresh, has uneven
fracture, indistinct cleavage, and vitreous luster. Blow-pipe tests
gave the usual reactions characteristic of the mineral. The lazulite
is frequently intergrown with greenish to colorless columnar cyanite
which is partly altered to muscovite (damourite), and is less often
intergrown with coarse white quartz. Small grains of red rutile
and of colorless quartz, especially the former, form frequent inclusions
in the blue lazulite. The cyanite weathers yellow-brown in color and,
like the lazulite, also contains inclusions of red rutile and colorless
quartz. Similar red grains of rutile are also frequent in the quartzite.
Weathered surfaces of the lazuli te-bearing portions of the itacolumite
are generally rough from the more resistant coarse lazulite and cyanite
standing in relief. Scales of colorless mica are more or less conspicu-
ous in weathered specimens of the rock.
When weathered, the lazulite is of lighter or paler blue color, some-
times almost entirely white or colorless, but is frequently spotted
or mottled white and blue. Microscopically, thin sections show al-
teration of some of the lazulite along the periphery and fractures,
into minute scales and fibers of a light gray nearly white substance,
sometimes stained with iron oxide, having high refraction and double
refraction, which probably can be referred to hydrargillite.
Under the microscope thin sections of the lazulite show inclusions
of rutile and quartz, and occasionally cyanite and muscovite, all of
which are common associates in hand specimens of the lazulite.
The lazulite is light blue in thin section and distinctly pleochroic,
with Z = Y > X. It is optically negative (-), with 2V large.
The dispersion is slight, p < V. The values for the indices of
refraction and the birefringence determined by Dr. E. S. Larsen on
specimens of the lazulite yielding the analysis given below are as follows :
a = 1.604, nearly colorless
/3 = 1.633, deep blue
7 = 1.642, deep blue
T-« = 0.038
A chemical analysis of the lazulite yielding the above optical data
is given in table 1.
^ C. U. Shepard. Op. cit.
Oct. 4, 1921 watson: lazulite 389
The formula derived from the column of ratios in table 1 is that
given in the standard texts for the mineral, except that CaO is usually
not expressed :
(Fe, Mg (Ca)) O . AI2O3 . P2O5 . H2O
withFeO:Mg(Ca)0 = 1 :5, FeO: CaO = 1 : 1, and MgO: CaO = 4: 1.
When compared with analyses of lazulite from other localities
the Georgia mineral shows a high percentage of CaO (3.30 per cent),
the largest reported in any analysis of the mineral of which the writer
has found record. The analysis of lazulite from North Carolina
quoted by Dana'' shows no CaO. With two exceptions, Georgia and
North Carolina, analyses of lazulite thus far published represent
TABLE 1. Analysis of Lazulite III
I II " .
P2O0 38.25 40.61 286 1
AI2O3 33.92 36.02 353 1.2
FeO 3.99 4.24 59]
MgO 9.08 9.64 241}- 1.3
CaO 3.12 3.30 59 j
H2O 5.83 6.19 343 1.2
Si02 6.05
100.24 100.00
Sp. G 2.958
I. Lazulite collected by Thomas L. Watson from Graves Mountain, Lincoln County,
Georgia. J. Wilbur Watson, analyst.
II. Analysis I with the Si02, which represents admixed quartz, deducted, calculated
to 100 per cent.
III. Ratios from II.
foreign localities, in which CaO is indicated as being either absent or
present in quantity of less than 1 per cent. The only exception found
by the writer is an analysis of lazulite quoted by Dana^ from near
the mouth of Churchill River, Keewatin, Canada, in which CaO
is given as 2.83 per cent. Based on CaO content, published analyses
of lazulite, most of which are old, would group the mineral under (o)
calcium lazulite, apparently the less frequently occurring variety,
to which the mineral from Graves Mountain, Georgia, and Keewatin,
Canada, belongs; and (6) essentially calcium-free lazulite which
includes the more common variety of the mineral represented by
analyses from many European localities.
OTHER OCCLTRRENCES OF LAZULITE IN THE UNITED STATES.
Lazulite occurs both as crystals and as massive granular to compact
material in quartz veins and in metamorphic rocks, especially quartz-
• E. S. Dana. Op. cit., p. 799.
' E. S. Dana. Op. cit., p. 799.
390 JOURNAL Olf the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCONCES VOL. 11, NO. 16
ites of the variety itacolumite. When fresh its azure blue color,
vitreous luster, indistinct cleavage, and hardness (5-6) are the more
important megascopic properties. It is sub translucent to opaque,
and has a specific gravity of 3 =^ .
The known occurrences of lazulite in the United States are limited
to North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia in the southeast
Atlantic States, ^ and to California on the Pacific coast.
The localities are Graves Mountain, Lincoln County, Georgia;
Chesterfield district. South Carolina ; Clubb and Crowder Mountains,
Gaston County, and Sauratown, Stokes County, North Carolina.
The largest number of occurrences is in California, where the mineral
has been reported from the following localities:^ Breyfogle Canyon
in Death Valley, Inyo County; San Gabriel Mountain, Los Angeles
County; near Mono Lake and in Green Creek Canyon near Bodie,
Mono County; and Oceanside, San Diego County. Foreign occur-
rences of lazulite have been reported from localities in Austria,
. Switzerland, Sweden, Brazil, and Canada.^"
Probably the first occurrence of lazulite noted in the United States
was by H. S. Hunter in 1822, near Crowder Mountain in the southern
part of Lincoln (now Gaston) County, North Carolina. The mineral
was found later in greater abundance near the southern end of Clubb
Mountain, about 30 miles northeast of Crowder Mountain. Its
occurrence in the North Carolina and Georgia localities is in Cambrian
quartzite, as crystals and crystal aggregates irregularly distributed
through the rock, usually in nests or bunches. With the exception
of corundum, which is unknown in the Georgia locality,- the mineral
associates of lazulite in the two states are the same. They include
rutile, cyanite, pyrophyllite, quartz, and damourite. The mineral
association in the Chesterfield district. South Carolina, is, according
to Genth,^^ pyrophyllite and cyanite.
Unlike the occurrences of lazulite in the Carolinas and Georgi a
8 C. L. Hunter. Amer. Journ. Sci. 15: 376-377. 1853. J. L. Smith and G. J. Brush.
Amer. Journ. Sci. 16: 370. 1853. C. U. Shepard. Am. Journ. Sci. 27: 36-39. 1859.
F. A. Genth. Amer. PhiL Soc. 13: 367, 382, 383, 404-405. 1873. E. S. Dana. A
system of mineralogy (1900), p. 799. G. F. Kunz. N. C. Gaol. Survey BuU. 12: 57. 1907.
T. L. Watson and J. W. Watson. Univ. of Virginia. PubL BuU. Phil. Soc, Sci. Ser.,
211-214 (No. 7). 1912.
9 A. F. Rogers. Sch. of Mines Quart. 33: 375. 1912. D. B. SterrETT. U. S. Geol.
Survey, Min. Res. for 1911. Pt. II, p. 1060. A. S. Eakle. Calif. State Mining Bureau,
Bull. 67: 162. 1914.
i" For more details of foreign localities see E. S. Dana, loc. cit.
11 F. A. Genth. Amer. Journ. Sci. 18: 410. 1854.
Oct. 4, 1921 abstracts: inorganic chemistry 391
the mineral is found in quartz veins in some of the California locali-
ties, but its occurrence at Mono Lake in quartzite is similar to that
in the southeast Atlantic states. Fewer minerals are associated with
lazulite in the California localities, but those noted are also found
in the southeast Atlantic states. In Green Lake Canyon, i- near
Bodie, lazulite is developed in deep blue anhedra associated with quartz
and muscovite in a quartz vein; and in Breyfogle Canyon, ^^ Death
Valley, it is distributed as crystals and crystal aggregates of pale to
fairly deep azure blue in patches through a white quartz vein cutting
schist. At Mono Lake ^^ it is associated with rutile in bands in a white
quartzite.
ABSTRACTS
Authors of scientific papers are requested to see tbat abstracts, preferably prepared and
signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should con-
form in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. — The crystal structure of some carbonates of
the calcite group. Ralph W. G. Wyckoff. Amer. Journ. Sci. 50:
317-360. 1920.
By the same general method that has been employed in studying caesium
dichloriodide and sodium nitrate, a unique solution has been obtained for the
crystal structures of calcite and rhodochrosite. Of the assumptions commonly
made in crystal-structure study, the only one required in this determination
was that the atoms reflect X-rays in an amount roughly proportional to
their atomic numbers. The structure of siderite was shown to be so nearly
the same as that of rhodochrosite as to be indistinguishable by the means at
hand. Magnesite was also found to give the same sort of pattern and hence
to have the same general arrangement of atoms as the other members of the
group.
The positions of the oxygen atoms, as determined by the present method and
by the spectrometer results, are compared. In this particular case, the "nor-
mal" decline of intensities is in surprising agreement with the reflections.
Evidence is obtained from these crystal structures to show the existence of
groups of atoms, as carbonate groups, in the crystal. It is also pointed out
that unless every atom in the crystal is electrostatically charged, the outside
electrons of the atoms making up these crystals cannot be arranged at the cor-
ners of cubes.
Some connections are pointed out between the development of faces on cal-
cite and its crystal structure, and a way is indicated of deciding the most prob-
able indices of a plane when they are in doubt. The bearing of these struc-
tures upon the question of what constitutes a series of isomorphous substances
is mentioned.
A criterion is suggested for determining, in the case of an hexagonal crystal,
whether the fundamental unit is a rhombohedron or an hexagonal prism.
" A. F. Rogers. Op. cit., p. 375.
»» D. B. Sterrett. Op. cit., p. 1060.
1* A. S. EaklE. Op. cit., p. 162.
392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 1()
The use of gnomonic projection in studying Laue photographs is mentioned
and a ruler is described, the use of which reduces the time and labor of making
such projections. The effect of the voltage impressed on the X-ray tube upon
the character of the Laue photograph is considered and the best conditions
for operating a tungsten tube for this work are stated. R. W. G. W.
PETROLOGY. — The rhyolites of Lipari. Henry S. Washington. Amer.
Journ. Sci. 50: 446-462. 1920.
Typical obsidians, pumice, lithoidal rhyolite, and a hyalo-dacite of Lipari
are described, with six new analyses. As these rhyolites are regarded as typi-
cal and have never before been completely analyzed, this work is of use in
characterizing the type. The refractive indices of the obsidians and pumice
are discussed. There is also given an analysis of an obsidian of the island of
Milos, of which the refractive index was also determined. The data corre-
spond well. This is compared with analyses of obsidian of Nisyros by Martelli.
The observation is made that ferrous oxide dominates ferric oxide in the
glassy forms of the same magma, while the converse is true of the crystalline
forms in the Lipari rhyolites. The same holds good for the rhyolites of Sar-
dinia and the pantellerites and basalts of Pantelleria, described some years
ago by the writer. The possible relation of this to the magmatic gases in
lavas is briefly discussed. H. S. W.
GEOLOGY.— 7/z^ potash deposits of Alsace. H. S. Gale. U. S. Geol.
Survey Bull. 715-B. Pp. 39, pis. 2, figs. 2. 1920.
The discovery of potash in Alsace in 1904 broke the monopoly of the potash
industry which since 1860 had rested with the producers in north-central
Germany. The return of Alsace to France now divides the monopoly between
two nations. The new field, although of less extent, is in some ways better
than the older field ; the beds are very regular, and the salts average remarka-
bly high in potash. The deposits, which were discovered accidentally in
boring, underlie an area of 65 square miles beneath the valley of the Rhine in
southern Alsace. They consist of two regular beds of sylvinite, a simple
mixture of potassium and sodium chlorides, included in dolomitic grayish
shale of middle Oligocene age. The writer believes that the beds were de-
posited by evaporation in an inland salt-lake in the Rhine graben, which
probably had no connection with the sea. Forste estimated the reserve of
the field as 300,000,000 tons of pure potash, but by no means all of this can
be recovered in mining. The crude salt mined in 1913 is reported as 350,341
tons, probably averaging 18 per cent in pure potash. J. D. Sears.
GEOLOGY. — A deposit of manganese ore in Wyoming. Edward L. Jones,
Jr. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 715-C. Pp. 3. 1920.
One of the few manganese deposits known in Wyoming is on the western
flank of the Laramie Mountains, near the head of Sheep Creek. The core
of the Laramie Mountains is a coarse-grained red granite of pre-Cambrian
age, but flanking it on the west side is a series of sedimentary rocks ranging
in age from Carboniferous to Cretaceous. The manganese deposit is inter-
bedded in limestone and sandstone of the Casper formation, of Carboniferous
age. The ore consists of the manganese oxides manganite and pyrolusite,
in mammillary crusts and nodular aggregates, and is unusual for its number
of crystals. It is contained in two beds of chert a few feet apart, from which
it is thought to have been derived by weathering and leaching. J. D. Sears.
Oct. 4, 1921 abstracts: geology 393
GEOLOGY. — Some deposits of manganese ore in Colorado. Edward L. Jones,
Jr. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 715-D. Pp. 12. 1920.
Many deposits of manganese ore in Colorado have been described by J. B.
Umpleby in 1917 and the Colorado Geological Survey in 1918. A number of
other localities were examined by the writer in 1917; these are located in
Gunnison, Hinsdale, Ouray, Dolores, Custer, and LaPlata Counties.
Deposits of manganese ore in Colorado occur in sedimentary and igneous
rocks ranging in age from pre-Cambrian to Tertiary. They are found in
veins and brecciated zones; as replacement deposits; and as probably original
bedded deposits. The veins and brecciated zones constitute by far the most
numerous type of manganese deposits in Colorado, but economically they have
proved of little importance. Replacement deposits of manganese ores occur
principally in the oxidized parts of lead-silver deposits in the Leadville dis-
trict, and of deposits containing zinc and iron sulfides in the Red Cliff district.
A deposit of manganese ore which probably represents the oxidized and en-
riched part of an original sedimentary bed occurs in sandstone and shale in
western San Miguel County. The manganese ores are composed domi-
nantly of the oxides pyrolusite, manganite, psilomelane, and wad, generally
mixed with iron oxides. . J- D. Sears.
GEOLOGY. — Deposits of iron ore near Stanford, Montana. L. G. Westgate.
U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 715-F. Pp. 8, figs. 4. 1920.
The iron ores known as the Running Wolf hematite deposits lie just within
the northern border of the Little Belt Mountains, in Cascade and Fergus
Counties, Montana. A great series of sedimentary rocks, ranging in age
from Algonkian to Cretaceous, rests unconformably upon Archean granite
and gneiss. The deposits occur in tabular bodies in the Madison limestone
(Carboniferous), at the contact with intrusive porphyry. The ore is a com-
pact gray or reddish-gray hematite, which contains in places enough magne-
tite to make it react to the magnet; it is not to any large degree limonitic at
the surface.
Development work has not gone far enough to make possible any estimate
of the quantity of ore that can be mined, although several suggestive calcula-
tions are included in the paper.- At the surface the ore body is of varying
width, reaching a maximum of 50 feet. As it is a contact deposit in limestone,
it will vary in dimensions from place to place according to the character and
course of the solutions at work. The depth to which the ore extends below
the surface is unknown. J. D. Sears.
GEOLOGY. — Phosphate rock near Maxville, Granite County, Montana. J. T.
Pardee. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 715-J. Pp. 5, pi. 1, fig. 1. 1921.
The phosphate bed and its inclosing rocks are bent into several parallel,
tightly squeezed folds that trend northward. The westernmost fold, a
large syncline, is partly overridden by a huge mass of rock brought by thrust
faulting from the west, and the strata that form the western limb of the syn-
cline appear as if overturned by a force acting from the west. East of the
syncline and beyond the area of the overthrust mass all the anticlines lean
to the west as if they had been pushed over by a force acting from the east.
Presumably the thrust acting from the west was the later. On the south
the folds are lost in areas of faulted and intrusive rocks, and on the north,
owing to a persistent pitch in that direction, they disappear beneath a cover
of later rocks. As a result of the structure and erosion combined, the out-
394 JOURNAL OF THS WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SClENCEvS VOL. 11, NO. 16
crop or surface trace of the phosphate bed forms a sinuous line that sweeps
north and south, alternately bending sharply around the anticlines and
synclines.
One hundred million tons of phosphate rock are estimated in reserve, of
which a considerable part lies above the natural drainage channels in situa-
tions especially favorable for mining. J. T. P.
VOIvCANOLOGY. — The Katmai region, Alaska, and the great eruption of
IQI2. Clarence N. Fenner. Journ. Geol. 28: 569-606. 1920.
A preliminary account is presented of observations made by the writer
as geologist of the expedition sent in 1919 by the National Geographic Society,
in cooperation with the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington, to the Katmai region, Alaska.
The volcanoes of this region, which form a continuation of the Aleutian
loop or festoon, are situated in an area of sedimentary rocks remarkable for
the absence of folding or obvious faulting. The more recent lavas are basic
andesites, contrasting greatly in composition with the highly siliceous rhyolite
of the last eruption.
It is believed that in the fumarolic area of the Valley of Ten Thousand
Smokes the injection of a sill or closely similar body of magma into the under-
lying strata at the beginning of the eruption caused shattering of the rocks
above it, and these openings permitted the ascent of magma. The extrusion
and inflation of this magma gave rise to a great ash-flow or sand-flow, analo-
gous in many respects to the nuees ardentes of Pelee and La Soufriere, and
also led to the formation of the parasitic cone of Novarupta. The fumaroles
are thought to be due to the continued evolution of volatile constituents from
this body of magma. The development of the new vent of Novarupta is
ascribed to the enlargement of a channel along one of the fissures. The later
extrusion of the stiff lava forming the dome of Novarupta is found to have
been similar in many respects to that of the "spine" of Pelee.
A study was made to determine the manner in which the top of Mount
Katmai disappeared and the great crater-pit was formed. It seems quite
certain that the material was not blown out directly, but must be accounted for
otherwise. Crater subsidence may have been a factor, but it is believed that
collapse of the crater-walls and incorporation of the material in the new
magma were chief features. It is recognized that the latter process demands a
large quantity of heat for its accomplishment, and the magma evidently was
not at very high temperature prior to extrusion; therefore accessions of heat
seem to be demanded. A considerable problem is thus presented, but it
does not seem at all insuperable, and it is believed that the evidences of solu-
tion are so strong that they cannot be disregarded.
One of the important features of the eruption brings up for consideration a
phenomenon to whose significance little attention seems to have been paid
hitherto. It is that of a gas-charged magma gradually developing the explo-
sive condition after some interval has elapsed subsequent to its ascent from
the depths. The Katmai magma seems to have followed this com-se, and the
phenomenon is apparently not uncommon. This is believed to have great
significance and to imply changes of physical environment during its ascent,
effected with such rapidity that internal readjustments were not able to keep
pace with them. C. N. F.
Oct. 4, 1921 proceedings : philcsophical society 395
ENTOMOLOGY. — The Dipterous genus Dolichopus Latreille in North
America. M. C. Van Duzee, F. R. Cole and J. M. Aldrich. Proc.
U. S. Nat. Mus., Bull. 116. Pp. 304, pis. 16. 1921.
This paper is a revision of the North American species of the genus Doli-
chopus. It is divided into three parts. The introduction by J. M. Aldrich
gives a historical account of the genus and notes on the habits of certain
species. The second part, entitled "Classification," by M. G. Van Duzee,
occupies the largest portion of the work. In it 219 North American species,
many of which are new, are described, the location of the types is stated
and there is an account of material before the author. This section is in-
troduced with a synoptic table of the species. The males are treated first
and are divided into nine groups. The females are also tabulated, but do
not fall into the same groupings as do the males. This is due to the unusual
and peculiar secondary sexual characters of the males. The third part
is by F. R. Cole and consists of considerably more than 217 figures illustrat-
ing various characters of the species treated. Each species is assigned a
number and when two or more figures are given for the same species they
are given subletters of the species numbered.
This division of the paper in three parts makes it appear that the new
species are to be accredited to Mr. M. C. Van Duzee and no statement to
the contrary is definitely made, but in the introduction it is implied that
new forms should be accredited to the three authors. The present writer
understands that such is the intention of the authors of this important and
comprehensive work. S. A. Rohwer.
ETHNOLOGY. — The Owl sacred pack of the Fox Indians. Truman Mich-
ELSON. Bur. Amer. Ethnology, Bull. 72. Pp. 83, pis. 4.
The greater part of this bulletin consists of a text in the language of the
Fox Indians and a translation of the same setting forth the ritual connected
with it, its history, and the benefits supposed to follow upon the performance
of the ceremonies. Some linguistic notes on the text are appended and a list
of stems fills the 12 concluding pages. It contains contributions to the study
of Indian linguistics, sociology, and religion. John R. Swanton
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
851st meeting
The 85 1st meeting of the Philosophical Society of Washington was held
in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, May 7, 1921. It was called to
order by President Faris with 30 persons present.
The first paper, on The self contained base range finder and its errors, was
presented by Mr. I. C. Gardner (by invitation) and was illustrated.
Tlie self-contained base range finder is probably the most interesting and
highly developed optical instrument employed in warfare. The range is
determined by triangulation with the base of the triangle actually contained
within the instrument. It follows that the angle of parallax which is measured
is extremely small and must be measured with great accuracy. For example,
with a one-meter instrument at a range of 5000 meters the angle is approxi-
mately 40 seconds. The error of measurement for this angle must be less
890 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 16
than one second if an accuracy of 2 per cent in the determination of range is
to be secured. To build an instrument which shall successfully attain this
accuracy under service conditions and in the hands of men not thoroughly
grounded in laboratory practice calls for the greatest refinement of optical and
mechanical design.
The errors to which a range finder is subject are of two kinds. The adjust-
ment error is a systematic error which is constant, when measured in angular
units, for all settings of the instrument and may be considered as correspond-
ing to a bodily shifting of the entire scale of the instrument with respect to
the index. An adjustment is provided for correcting this error in the field.
The dispersion error is an accidental error arising from the inability of the
observer to correctly determine precise coincidence in the field of the instru-
ment. It may be either positive or negative and its distribution for a large
number of observations may be expected to be in accordance with the ordi-
nary frequency curve for errors. This error can be studied satisfactorily only
by a laborious statistical method. A test has recently been completed at
Fort Sill by the Ordnance Department with the cooperation of the Field
Artillery and the Bureau of Standards which was represented by Mr. W. O.
Lytle. Approximately 21,000 separate readings of range were taken by a
group of average observers with 17 different instruments on a selected series
of targets. The most probable value of the dispersion error was found to be
of the order of 0.9 second. Much greater differences were found in the
dispersion errors of the different observers than in those of the different
instruments. This indicates that at present the selection and training of
observers offers a much better prospect for an immediate and spectacular
increase in the accuracy of range finding than does the careful selection of an
instrument from those types now available. For the poorer observers the
dispersion error was approximately twice that of the better. In other words
the poorer observer requires a two-meter base range finder in order to obtain
an accuracy equal to that of the better observer with the one-meter instrument.
The paper was discussed by Messrs. Hawkesworth, Wright, Sosman,
Humphreys, and Faris.
The second paper, on The spectral distribution of energy required to evoke the
gray sensation, was presented by Mr. Irwin G. Priest and was illustrated.
The chief significance of this paper lies in the development and testing
of an experimental method for determining an objective physical standard
of "white light." The standard to be determined is the Planckian ("black
body") distribution of energy required to evoke the hueless sensation of
brilliance, commonly called "white" or "gray," under certain standard con-
ditions stated in detail in the paper.
The method of producing and adjusting the spectral distribution of the
stimulus is this: Light from a lamp of known spectral distribution is modi-
fied by rotary dispersion in a system of quartz plates and nicol prisms in such
a way that by rotating one of the nicols the light emerging from it can be made
to assume the spectral distribution of a Planckian radiator at any desired
temperature between 4000° and 7000° K. Such a system is, in effect, a selec-
tive light filter of adjustable spectral transmission.
Two methods of observation were described: (1) The method of adjust-
ment by trial, in which the observer himself adjusts the stimulus until he
calls the sensation "white." (2) The method of answers, in which the opera-
tor conducting the experiment adjusts the stimulus to correspond to certain
fixed temperatures of the hypothetical Planckian radiator; and records the
Oct. 4, 1921 proceedings: philosophical society 397
observer's reactions as "blue," "white," or "yellow," as the case may be.
The second method proved to be the more satisfactory.
Experimental results were given from four observers. The average results
of these observers indicate that "white light" may be represented : (1) theoret-
ically, by the light from a Planckian radiator at a temperature of about 5200°
absolute; (2) practically, to a fair approximation, by average noon sunlight
at Washington. It is, however, emphasized that the final establishment
of such a standard should be based on a more extensive statistical investiga-
tion.
The paper was discussed by Messrs. Gardner, HawkesworTh, Faris,
Burgess, Tuckerman, Sosman, and others.
The complete paper is being published as a Bureau of Standards Scientific
Paper.
852d meeting
The 852d meeting of the Philosophical Society of Washington was held in
the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, May 21, 1921. It was called to
order by President Faris with 36 persons present.
The first paper, on Relation of coastal currents and winds on the Pacific
Coast was presented by Mr. H. A. Marmer and was illustrated.
This paper presented the results of an investigation of the speeds and
directions of the current along the Pacific Coast of the United States brought
about by local winds. The investigation was undertaken primarily for the
purpose of aiding the mariner and was based on observations made under the
direction of the Coast and Geodetic Survey by members of the crews of the
five light vessels stationed along the coast from San Francisco Bay to the
Strait of Juan de Fuca. The apparatus used for measuring the speed and
direction of the current was necessarily the simplest, and consisted of a 15 foot
current pole, a log line graduated to knots and tenths for a run of one minute,
a stop watch, and a pelorus. The wind velocity was estimated in accordance
with the Beaufort Scale.
Since the current as observed is the resultant of a number of different cur-
rents due to various causes, such as tides, winds, river discharge and differences
in density, the observations are tabulated with reference to various arguments.
Thus by tabulating with reference to time of tide at a nearby port for periods
of 29 days, the tidal current is derived. This current on the Pacific Coast,
off'shore, is of the rotary type, the direction of rotation being clockwise, and
shows considerable diurnal inequality. The wind current is derived by tabu-
lating the observations with reference to winds of particular velocity and
direction; then by summing for each such wind a large number of observa-
tions, the tidal-current may be considered as very nearly eliminated.
In the present investigation the observations were tabulated with reference
to winds from a given direction divided in groups covering a range of wind
velocity of 10 miles. The results derived show that on the Pacific Coast at
a distance of from 4 to 10 miles from the land, winds from 10 to 70 miles per
hour will give rise to currents from ^ 4 of a knot to over a knot; and this current
will set, not in a direction of the wind, but in a direction of about 20° to the
right of the wind. This has an important bearing on navigation, since winds
blowing parallel to the coast or even away from the coast may give rise to
currents tending to set a vessel on shore.
In the results presented for each of the light vessels the effect of fresh- water
run-off at the light vessels stationed off San Francisco, Columbia River and
398 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 16
Swiftsure Bank was sufficiently large in some cases to change the direction
of the current brought about by winds of moderate velocity from the char-
acteristic deviation of 20 degrees to the right of the wind direction. But with
increasing wind velocity the direction of the current approximated toward
the direction of 20 degrees to the right of the wind.
This paper, which was illustrated by lantern slides, will form part of a
Special Publication of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, dealing with currents
on the Pacific Coast, to be published in the near future. It was discussed by
Messrs. LittlehalES, Faris, White, William Bowie, and Humphreys.
The second paper, on New results concerning the diurnal variation of atmos-
pheric electricity, was presented by Mr. S. J. Mauchly, and was illustrated.
It has long been known that for any given locality the electrical potential
difference between the ground and a point in the air, say 1 meter above ground
(potential gradient), varies throughout the course of the day in an approxi-
mately cyclical manner; also that the amount and nature of this variation is
not the same for all localities ; that some localities have two maxima and two
minima during a 24-hour cycle while others have only a single "wave."
Although various authorities have assumed that the occurrence of the princi-
pal minimum about 4 p.m. was a rather general characteristic for nearly all
stations, Mache and Schweidler^ long ago pointed out that the phase angle
of the 24-hour wave varied greatly from station to station while the phase
angle of the 12-hour wave was approximately the same for nearly all the
stations. The results of the observations made aboard the Carnegie since
1915, representing about half the Earth's surface, indicate that the average
diurnal variation of the potential gradient at sea is of the single-wave type,
i.e., most days show only one maximum and minimum. However, a much
more significant fact is the indication that the time of maximum, or of mini-
mum, is approximately the same over all the different oceans, occurring on a
universal rather than local-time basis.
Observations for the diurnal variation of the number of positive ions in the
air, and also those for the variation of the electrical conductivity of the air
due to its positive ions, indicate that in general both these quantities are,
over all oceans, above average value during the day and below average value
during the night. But in both cases the average range found was of the order
of only 10 per cent of the respective mean values, while for the potential
gradient the average range was between 30 and 40 per cent of the mean
value. Thus it turns out, on the basis of the Carnegie diurnal-variation data
now available, that the computed vertical current density due to positive
ions (and probably the total current density) is also subject to a diurnal varia-
tion in which a single wave predominates, whose chief maximum (or mini-
mum) occurs approximately at the same universal time over all the ocean
areas.
Attention was directed to the fact that the diurnal-variation curves for
the potential-gradient derived from the Carnegie observations are very similar
to curves which represent the relative frequencies of the aurora borealis as
observed at several stations and also to curves representing the diurnal dis-
tribution of magnetic disturbances when all are referred to the same time
basis. It was pointed out that owing to the non-coincidence of the Earth's
magnetic axis with its axis of rotation, the time of daily potential-gradient
maximum, as indicated by the ocean curves, corresponds approximately to
' H. Mach^ and K. v. SchwEidlER. Die Atmosphdrische Electrizitdl, p. 27 (Braunsch-
weig, 1909).
Oct. 4, 1021 proceedings: phii.osophicai, society 309
the time when the Earth's north magnetic pole, for example, is farthest from
the sun. The actual times of maximum and minimum, however, appear to
depend upon the positions of both magnetic poles and the fact that their
longitude difference is not 180 degrees. These correlations support the
assumptions of various investigators that the Earth's electric charge and re-
sultant field may be very intimately related to an electric radiation from the
Sun.
A more complete summary will appear in the current volume of Terrestrial
Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity. The paper was discussed by Messrs.
C. A. Briggs, White, and Humphreys.
The third paper, on New relations between terrestrial magnetism, terrestrial
electricity, and solar activity was presented by L. A. Bauer and was illustrated.
Connections between sun-spot activity, disturbances of the Earth's magne-
tism, earth-currents, and polar lights have been worked out by various in-
vestigators. The recent severe magnetic disturbances and earth-currents
which accompanied a week ago the remarkable sunspot activity and brilliant
display of polar lights have drawn renewed attention to the relationships
between these four classes of natural phenomena.
The present paper shows that there is a fifth natural phenomenon — atmos-
pheric electricity — with which an interesting and suggestive relationship with
solar activity is exhibited. Owing to the many disturbances to which the
atmospheric-electric elements are subject, as for example during cloudy and
rainy weather, it has been difficult to establish the existence of definite varia-
tions of the chief atmospheric-electric elements during the well-known sun-
spot cycle of somewhat over 11 years than in the case of magnetic effects,
earth currents, and polar lights. The new results found are based upon
atmospheric electric data obtained chiefly at four European observatories
between 189rS and 1910, the combined data, in the case of the potential grad-
ient, thus covering about two sun-spot cycles. Recent observations on board
the Carnegie indicate a decrease in the electric potential -gradient since 1017,
when sun-spot activity was at a maximum.
The following chief facts have resulted :
(1) The Earth's average intensity of magnetism, as well as the strength of
the normal electric currents circulating in the Earth's crust, suffers a diminu-
tion during increased solar activity, i.e., the currents induced in the Earth
during periods of increased solar activity are in general reversed in direction
to the normal currents, the strength of these superposed currents increasing
with increased solar activity. The diurnal range of the strength of the
normal earth currents, as in the case of the diurnal range of the Earth's
magnetic elements, increases with increased sun-spot activity.
(2) The atmospheric potential gradient, or the deduced negative charge on
the surface of the Earth, increases with increased solar activity, the range in
the variation between minimum and maximum sun-spot activity being about
20 per cent. The electric conductivity of the atmosphere, on the other hand,
shows but little, if any, systematic variation during the sun-spot cycle. Ac-
cordingly, since the vertical conduction current of atmospheric electricity is
derived from the product of the potential-gradient and the electric conductiv-
ity, it is found that this vertical current increases in strength with increased
solar activity. It would thus appear that atmospheric electricity, like ter-
restrial magnetism, is controlled by cosmic factors. The results derived
here may have an important bearing upon theories of atmospheric electricity.
(3) Instead of using for short periods, as for example a month, the sun-
400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO, 16
spot numbers direct for comparison with magnetic and electric variations,
it is found that a more satisfactory measure of solar radiations and emana-
tions affecting the Earth's magnetic and electric condition may be based
upon the monthly range of sun-spot frequency, or upon some quantity indica-
tive of the rate of change, or variability of sun-spottedness.
(4) A discussion of the sun-spot data for the period of 44 years, 1876-1920,
confirms the existence of an annual periodicity in sun-spottedness, the mini-
mum occurring about the time (January) when the Earth is nearest the Sun,
and the maximum occuring on the average in July, when the Earth is farthest
away from the vSun ; the average difference between maximum and mimimum
is about 6 sun-spot numbers. There would thus be given additional support
to the view of planetary influence upon sun-spottedness.
(5) The electric potential-gradient, on the average, for both hemispheres
shows a minimum value in July and a maximum in January; the annual
range is about 50 per cent. On the other hand, the Earth's magnetic energy,
as well as the strength of earth-currents, show on the average a higher value
during the summer months than during the winter months for the northern
hemisphere.
The paper was discussed by Dr. Humphreys.
A more complete summary will appear in the current volume of Terrestrial
Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity.
H. H. Kimball, Recording Secretary
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Mr. Louis V. Dieter has resigned as bacteriologist of the Health De-
partment of the District of Columbia. He had been with the department
since 1909.
Dr. Henry Gordon Gale, professor of physics at the University of Chi-
cago, has been made chairman of the Division of Physical Sciences of the
National Research Council, for the year ending June .30, 1922.
Captain Anthony Francis Lucas, retired mining engineer, died at his
home at 2.300 Wyoming Avenue on September 2, 1921, in his sixty-sixth
year. Captain Lucas was of Montenegrin origin and was born at Trieste
on September 9, 185.3. He was for a number of years an officer in the Aus-
trian navy. He took an active part in the development of the oil and gas
fields of the Gulf Coastal Plain, and was particularly interested in the geo-
logical problems of the origin of petroleum and the origin of the salt domes of
Louisiana and Texas. He was a member of the Geological vSociety and the
Society of Engineers.
Mr. J. E. Noble has been appointed bacteriologist of the Health Depart-
ment of the District of Columbia.
Dr. George B. Roth, pharmacologist with the Hygienic Laboratory of
the U. S. Public Health Service, resigned in September to accept a teaching
and research professorship at Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio.
Mr. Charles K. Wead, for over twenty years an examiner in the U. vS.
Patent Office in the Class of Music, has resigned, and will reside at Ann
Arbor, Michigan.
Professor Charles E. Weaver, non-resident member of the Academy,
has returned to the University of Washington at vSeattle to resume his work
as professor of paleontology, after a leave of absence of three years in Central
and vSouth America as geologist for the Standard Oil Company.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 October 19, 1921 No. 17
PHYSICS.— i4 furnace temperature regulator.''- Howard S. Roberts,
Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington,
(Communicated by Arthur L. Day.)
In 1919 White and Adams described a temperature regulator for di-
rect current resistance furnaces- in which the heating coil of the furnace
was placed in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge and the heating current
was varied by a motor-driven switch controlled by the galvanometer
of the bridge. The switch opened or closed the circuit through a
shunt around a fixed resistance in series wdth the furnace but
outside the bridge. This arrangement causes the temperature of
the source of heat (the platinum wire) to oscillate within rather nar-
row limits at such a rate that the oscillations in the temperature of
a body within the furnace are imperceptible.
Regulators of the Wheatstone bridge type are particularly adapted
to long narrow furnaces where the heating element covers nearly
all of the surface of the cavity; their use obviates the need for plac-
ing any part of the regulator within the furnace, and there is no ther-
mal lag whatever between heater and regulator as there is where the
regulator employs a thermocouple placed inside the furnace.
The apparatus set up by White and Adams included a specially
constructed galvanometer-relay, and it was with the primary idea
of replacing the latter with stock apparatus that the present reg-
ulator was devised. Incidentally, the choice of a different type of gal-
vanometer has overcome one rather serious defect in their apparatus.
DESCRIPTION OF THE REGUI^ATOR
Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of the present regulator. It is
intended for use with furnaces whose resistance when hot lies between
2.5 and 10 ohms, requiring not more than 15 amperes at 110 volts
direct current. For heavier currents a different form of main relay
is necessary.
1 Received September 2.3, 1921.
2 Phys Rev. 14: 1 !-l8. 1919.
401
402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 17
The galvanometer A is essentially a millivoltmeter having a short
contact arm or boom in place of the usual pointer, and two contact
stops. It differs from the White-Adams instrument in that contact
is made as soon as the boom reaches one or the other stop. B is an
ordinary polarized telegraph relay, and C a "main line" telegraph re-
lay. . The main relay C is operated by current taken directly from the
line through the resistance coils Ri and Ro. It opens when its coil
/'
Fig. 1. — Schematic diagram of furnace temperature regulator.
is short-circuited by the contacts of the polarized relay B. The gal-
vanometer contacts are so connected that the movements of the
galvanometer place the polarized relay B either in parallel with the
main relay C or in parallel with 150-ohm resistance Ri. The opera-
tion of the polarized relay, however, immediately short-circuits the par-
ticular coil with which it has just been connected, thus stopping the
flow of current through the contacts of the galvanometer.
This arrangeinent was intended to prevent these contacts from be-
coming welded together, but was found to be insufiftcient. There-
fore, the secondary (low-voltage winding) 5 of a "bell-ringing"
transformer was connected in series with the galvanometer, and the
OCT. 19, 1921 ROBERTS: FURNACE REGULATOR 403
primary P connected through a "thermal lamp flasher" F to the
battery corners of the bridge. The operation of the main relay C
increases or decreases the current through P and induces a momen-
tary surge of current through the coil of the galvanometer. The
current is caused to pass through the primary P in such a direction
that this surge causes a rather violent deflection of the boom away
from the contact stop.
The "lamp flasher" F also causes sudden changes in the current
through P and corresponding deflections of the galvanometer, which
occur independently of the movement of the relay. The violence
of the deflection serves to make contact when the contacts have been
brought together but have been prevented from touching by a chance
accumulation of dirt.
CYCLE OF OPERATION OF THE RELAYS
In describing the various operations of the relays by which the
regulator controls the temperature of the furnace we shall arbitrarily
assume that a rise in the temperature of the furnace causes a movement
of the boom of the galvanometer A toward the left; and that clos-
ing the galvanometer contacts to the left sends a current through the
polarized relay B in such a direction as to cause its boom to move
over to the left-hand contact.
At a given instant, let us say, the contacts of the polarized relay
B are closed on the left; the main relay C is then short-circuited
and open ; the current to the furnace is passing through the resistance
Rz, being cut down thereby to its lower value, and the furnace is
therefore cooling.
As it cools, the boom of the galvanometer .4 moves toward the
right, and when it touches the right-hand contact, completes a cir-
cuit through the coils of the polarized relay B in parallel with the re-
sistance Ri. This causes the armature of the polarized relay to start
to move over towards its right-hand contact. The main rela}^ C
is now no longer short-circuited, and closes, cutting out the resistance
Rz.
When the armature of the polarized relay reaches the right-hand
contact it short-circuits Ri and thus stops the flow of current through its
own coils and through the right-hand contacts of the galvanometer A .
Since it is a polarized relay, its armature does not swing away from
the contact, but remains pressed against it because of the action of
the permanent magnetic field of the relay.
404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 17
With the resistance R^ cut out, the temperature of the furnace
rises and the boom of the galvanometer swings toward the left.
^Vhen it reaches the left-hand contact it completes a circuit through
the polarized relay in parallel with the coils of the main relay C, and the
armature of the polarized relay moves over to the left hand contact.
This short circuits the coils of the main relay C, whose armature
drops back and restores the resistance R3 to the furnace circuit.
The action of the polarized relay B in short-circuiting the main relay
C stops the flow of current through its own coils and through the
left-hand contact of the galvanometer
The furnace is now cooling, the relays are in their original positions,
and the apparatus continues to pass through repetitions of the same
cycle which differ only in the time element.
DESCRIPTION OF THE REI.AYS, ETC.
The galvanometer A, in this particular apparatus, was obtained
from the Weston Electrical Instrument Company ; it has an internal
resistance of about 50 ohms and a period of about ^/s second, and is
provided with two fixed contacts and one movable contact, said to be
of "iridium alloy." I have separated these contacts to allow room for
the ballistic swing, caused by the bell transformer, so that they close
at about plus and minus five millivolts. Experience has indicated
that the instrument might better have a resistance as low as 10 ohms
and a somewhat shorter period even if the sensibility were halved
by the change. The contact buttons need to be cleaned about once a
day, and polished with fine emery cloth, or a carborundum stone,
about once a month.
The polarized relay B of the ordinary telegraph or burglar alarm
type is also provided with two fixed contacts. The coils are wound
with Number 40 B. & S. gage (O.OS mm.) copper wire to a resistance
of 2000 ohms in order to reduce the current through the galvanom-
eter contacts.
The main relay C is of the ordinary telegraph type, wound to a re-
sistance of 150 ohms. It was found well worth while to replace the
original silver contacts of this relay, as well as those of the polarized
relay, with molybdenum.
The bell transformer is of the size designed to operate an elec-
tric bell from a 110-volt lighting circuit.
The "thermal lamp flasher" is a device which depends for its oper-
ation on the thermal expansion and contraction of a strip of metal
OCT. 19, 1921 ROBERTS: FURNACE REGULATOR 405
wound with a heating coil connected in series with the lamp. A
suitable contact is arranged to short-circuit the heating coil when the
strip has expanded to a certain point, whereupon the strip cools and
the contact opens. This particular model is mounted in a tube pro-
vided with a lamp base at one end and a lamp socket at the other.
For the present purpose, a 60-watt, 110-volt lamp flasher, with a lamp
in it, is placed in parallel with another lamp. The effect on the gal-
vanometer may be adjusted by changing from one size lamp to another.
A satisfactory combination of lamps in the present apparatus is one
which causes the flasher to complete about four cycles per minute.
A satisfactory value for the resistance R3 is about V3 the resistance
of the furnace. The rest of the apparatus consists of switches and
resistance coils and need not be described. However, it may be per-
tinent to point out that the resistance wire used in the bridge should
be of constantan, advance, ideal, manganin, therlo or some other al-
loy having a very low temperature coefficient of resistance ; that the
resistance coils should have ample current-carrying capacity; and
that where copper connectors are used in the bridge, these should be
short and of large cross section.
PRINCIPLES AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF A GALVANOMETER
This discussion applies particularly to resistance furnaces having
a wire resistor wound on an insulating tube and imbedded in a thin
layer of insulating cement, both tube and cement, as well as the wire,
being good conductors of heat. The heating element as a whole is
surrounded by a thick layer of loose magnesia or other nonconductor
of heat. With this type of construction, the difference between the
average temperature of the wire and that of the tube amounts at high
temperatures to several degrees and adjusts itself much more quickly
to changes in the heating current than does the temperature of the
tube. Consequently, if the heating current is alternately increased
and decreased at short intervals the temperature of the heating wire
will oscillate through a considerable interv^al,^ while that of the tube
remains nearly constant.
The average temperature of a point within the furnace depends,
among other things, upon the average rate at which energy is sup-
plied to the furnace. Since the regulator must choose between two
rates over whose value it has no control, it can only obtain the de-
3 In the only case studied this interval amounted to at least 2° C. with a half period of
about one second.
406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 17
sired average value by adjusting the ratio of the length of time the
one rate is being supplied to the length of time the other is being
supplied. In the case of a galvanometer having mechanically operated
contacts, the circuit may only be closed at particular instants sepa-
rated by arbitrarily fixed time intervals. Consequently, the ratio
referred to must be approximated by a fraction whose numerator and
Time
Fig. 2. Diagram to illustrate the periodic fluctuations in temperature of a furnace con-
trolled by a galvanometer having mechanically operated contacts.
denominator are integers. This may consume a considerable num-
ber of time interv^als and allow considerable fluctuation in the tem-
perature of the furnace tube.
An attempt has been made to show this graphically in figure 2.
The wavy line represents the excursions of an idealized galvanometer
OCT. 19, 1921 ROBERTS: FURNACE REGULATOR 407
boom, while the strip between the parallel lines represents the zone
in which the boom may lie without causing a movement of the switch.
The black dots indicate the positions of the boom at the instants
when the mechanically operated contact mechanism is depressed.
The ratio of heating time to cooling time in the upper diagram is 13 :12
and there is a slow, cyclic variation in temperature extending over
25 of the equal time interv^als. In the lower diagram, where the ratio
is 19:31, this slow variation is much less serious. Decreasing the
time interval between the successive instants at which contact can
be made \vould undoubtedly improve matters greatly, even if the
period of the galvanometer could not be decreased."*
The galvanometer with fixed contacts, as used in the present ap-
paratus, is free from this restriction and may make contact at any time.
Neither type of galvanometer follows the temperature of the heater
very closely; the inertia of the moving coil causes a considerable
lag which, however, seems to do no harm.
The regulator has thus far been used only on direct current furnished
by a battery or generator. The pulsating direct current furnished
by a mercury arc rectifier causes the galvanometer to vibrate seri-
ously because of the alternating current induced in the bell trans-
former by the pulsations. Several plans have suggested themselves
to make it operate on alternating current: partially rectifying the
current with an aluminum cell; putting a 6-volt storage battery in
series with the source of suppl}^; or making an alternating-cinrent
galvanometer. In any case, it would be necessary to operate the bell
transformer from a separate source of direct current, or to adopt some
other scheme, such as rotating the galvanometer contacts, in order
to prevent their sticking. The alternating-current galvanometer
has seemed most hopeful and one is now under construction.
Although the foregoing discussion has confined itself to discussing
the regulator in combination with a particular type of furnace, there
is nothing to prevent the same principles from being applied to other
purposes, such as baths of oil or molten metal, or even gas fired fur-
naces, since it is not necessary to use any part of the bridge as a heater.
PERFORMANCE
When it is used with platinum resistance furnaces at tempera-
tures below 1250° C, this regulator has been found to maintain the
'' A recent experiment indicates that this interval may be decreased to 'A second by a
suitable design.
408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 17
temperature constant within =t 0.1°C.for hours without any atten-
tion. At higher temperatures the furnace cools slowly, 2 or 3° per
hour at 1450°. This cooling, which is perfectly regular, is undoubt-
edly due to slow changes in the furnace for the resistance of the heat-
ing coil is held constant by the regulator. The cooling can be com-
pensated for by an occasional manual adjustment of the slide wire
contact on the bridge.
1070
1060
1600 jD.
13
s_
0)
a
£
0)
1050
iii» » »>• »
Time
-^0
Fig. 3.
Curves to illustrate the performance of the regulator in the steady heating of the
furnace to determine a melting point.
In a particular experiment, a platinum wound furnace of the type
described was being maintained by the regulator at 1269°. Its re-
sistance at this temperature was 9.9 ohms. The galvanometer
contacts were set to close at ± 5 millivolts, corresponding to a change
of about ± 1° in the temperature of the heating wire. With the
rheostat adjusted so that the times of heating and cooling were ap-
proximately equal, and the current 10.0 and 7 . 3 amperes respectively,
OCT. 19, 19lM parsoNvS and harper: engine r.\diators 409
the relays operated 59 times per minute. When one ohm more re-
sistance was put in, causing the current to fall to 9 . 3 and 6 . 9 amperes,
the relays operated 38 times per minute, and the temperature within
the furnace fell only 0.1°. This change in the heating current cor-
responded to a fall of about 6 per cent in the line voltage, about as
large a fluctuation as is likely to occur in the voltage of a lighting
circuit.
ATTACHMENT FOR STEADY HEATING OR COOLING
If the furnace is to be used in making heating or cooling curves,
the adjustment of the regulator must be changed either continuously
or by small, frequent steps. The slide wire of the Wheatstone bridge
may be used for this, but it has been found more convenient to shunt
the 75 ohm coil of the bridge with a rheostat giving steps of 10 ohms
from 1000 to 2000 ohms, placed beside the potentiometer used for meas-
uring the furnace temperature. A 10 ohm slide wire rheostat is in-
cluded in the circuit and used as an alternate fine adjustment for
work at constant temperature.
Figure 3 is the heating curve obtained from the melting of a small
sample of gold in calibrating a thermocouple. Curve I is the temper-
ature of the gold; II, that of a thermocouple placed a little above it;
and III, the resistance in parallel with the 70 ohm coil of the bridge.
The heating curve, II, of the furnace is not linear, but it is smooth,
and the cur\^e, I, furnished by the sample of gold is entirely satisfactory.
A linear heating or cooling rate can be obtained by means of a sim-
ple potentiometer connected in series with the galvanometer.
TECHNOLOGY. — Radiators for aircraft engines.'^ S. R. Parsons
AND D. R. Harper, 3d, Bureau of Standards.
The technologic paper from which this article is condensed will
describe the laboratory investigations relating to aircraft engine ra-
diators which were conducted by the Bureau of Standards during the
World War and in the two years immediately succeeding it. Indi-
vidual reports covering many phases of the subject have been pub-
lished previously in the technical series of the National Advisory Com-
mittee for Aeronautics and in scientific and engineering journals.
These reports, however, lack the systematic coordination, uniform
terminology, and unified mathematical treatment which should
' Condensed from a forthcoming official publication of the Bureau of Standards, U. S.
Department of Commerce. Comnmnicated by the authors with the permission of the Di-
rector of the Bureau of Standards. Received September .24, 1921.
410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 17
characterize a handbook on the subject. Moreover the problems
which were investigated first because of their greater importance
and which were the subjects of the reports published earliest, are
for that reason not so well covered as is now possible because the later
work threw much additional light upon matters not settled at the time
of publication of the early reports. Accordingly, the present paper
is much more than a reprint of earlier reports, being a complete revi-
sion and recompilation of the material available.
The special investigations reported included development of the
methods of measuring air flow in radiator tubes ; experiments upon the
effect of nature of surface upon air flow and upon heat dissipation
from the surface of metal tubes to a high velocity air stream; experi-
ments to ascertain the degree of turbulence in the air tubes of a radia-
tor core; mapping of temperature distribution, axially and trans-
versely, in the air tubes of radiator cores. In addition to recording
these special investigations, the paper contains a full description of
laboratory methods and instruments for those tests of radiator cores
properly made in the laboratory both of physical properties and geo-
metrical characteristics such as size and shape of air tubes and of
water tubes.
The work included laboratory measurements of cooling power,
head resistance, and geometrical characteristics of over one hundred
types of radiator core. These data are tabulated in an appendix
and the performance characteristics of 66 types of core are given in
graphical form. The general conclusions from these measurements and
from the special laboratory experim.ents mentioned above are incor-
porated into an exposition of the fundamental relations between the
conditions under which a radiator operates, its characteristics of form
and construction, and the properties which describe its performance.
This portion of the designer's field is by no means the whole, however,
and the paper does not treat the important considerations of stur-
diness, ease of construction and repair, cost, form of design imposed
by the structure of the aircraft, etc.
The heat-dissipating power of a given type of core construction
was found to be specified completely when the mass rate of air flow
was specified. It makes no difference whether a given mass rate is
obtained by high velocity and low density or low velocity and high
density, a relation which was studied in some detail because of its
significance in respect to behavior of aircraft radiators at high alti-
tudes of flight. The empirical relation
OCT. 19, 1921 PARSONS AND HARPER: ENGINE RADIATORS 411
(where H is heat dissipated per unit time per unit frontal area of
core, M is mass of air per unit area per unit time through the air
tubes of the core, and T is difference between the average tempera-
ture of the water in the radiator and the temperature of the air at
entrance to the core) was found to hold for all ordinary types of core
construction, h and n being constants pertaining to any particular
core. The numerical value of n was usually in the neighborhood
of 0.8, indicating that the relationship between heat dissipation and
air flow through the core of a radiator is not far from the relationship of
direct proportionality, although too far to assume such a relation
over any considerable range of air flows.
A second equation for computing the cooling power of a core is
H = CpMT (1 - e~""')
where H, M, T have the significance quoted in the preceding para-
graph, e is the logarithmic base 2.718, Cp is specific heat of air at
constant pressure, Xi is the depth of the radiator core (dimension par-
allel to air flow) and « is a constant for a given core and given air
flow through it. Since a chosen value for a permits no latitude in
air flow, or in changing core construction, the equation in this form
is intended primarily for study of the effect upon cooling power of
changing the depth of core. Giving due consideration to head re-
sistance as a function of frontal area and depth, the formula permits
computation of the optimum depth of radiator for given conditions.
For very high speed flight, it is advantageous to use cores much deeper
than was the common practice in early days of airplane development,
8 to 10 or 12 inches depth being desirable for some types of the usual
quarter inch to half inch air tube core, in unobstructed positions.
The formula just quoted is not entirely empirical in its origin,
but has a rational basis. The assumptions underlying it are plausible
and it is not surprising to find that in applying it to results of measure-
ments with almost all common types of core these results are rep-
resented very' well. The parameter a is an abbreviation for pq/MCp,
where M and Cp have their former significance; p is total perimeter
of the air tubes in unit frontal area, provided the cooling surface is all
direct surface (and an equivalent value for the cases where part is
indirect cooling surface) ; q is the cooling coefficient between the metal
and an air stream of velocity corresponding to M, namely, q is heat
transferred per unit time per unit area of metal per degree tempera-
412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 17
ture difference between the metal and air flowing past it. The nu-
merical values of q were found to agree very well with values com-
puted from a formula given by vStanton and Lanchester:
CpRf
q. =
V
and by Lees / m V ''
Rf = pV- [0.0765 \V^) + 0.0009]
the comparison being made for radiator cores with smooth round and
square and hexagonal air tubes, nearly all direct cooling surface.
The formulas given were originally stated for long circular cylindrical
tubes with smooth walls, Cp being specific heat of air at constant pres-
sure, V the velocity of the air through the tube, p its density, and
M its viscosity. Rj is the surface friction, or force per unit surface be-
tween the air stream and walls of the tube, and D is tube diameter.
The above formulas m.ay be combined into a single expression
(making some reductions not given here in detail), so as to compute
heat dissipation of a core from its dimensions, and for simple type
regular cellular cores it seems highly probable that results will be
reliable within 10 per cent.
// = MCpT (1 - e"""')
.., = ^ [o.047l(^^J"'V 0.0009]
H = heat dissipated, units of power per unit frontal area of core,
M — mass of air per unit time per unit frontal area,
Cp = specific heat of air at constant pressure,
T = temperature difference water and air entering core.
Any consistent set of units whatever may be used for the above
four quantities, but care must be exercised to avoid any inconsis-
tencies; i.e., the heat units for H and Q must match, the mass units
for M and Cp, the area unit for H and M, etc. The same is true for
the following sets of quantities, although the units for these need
not be the same as the first set.
Xi = depth of radiator core, in same units as f,
r = hydraulic radius of air tube (quotient of area by perimeter) ,
M = mass of air per unit time per unit frontal area,
p. = viscosity of air in a unit consistent with M and r,
a = free area of core ; the ratio of the total cross section of the tubes
to the frontal area. (Being a ratio it is independent of units.)
OCT. 10, 1921 PARSONS AND HARPER: ENGINE RADIATORS 413
The laboratory measurements of heat-dissipating power were made
with two sources of heat, steam and hot water. For superheated
steam, the effective temperature is computed by weighting properly
the heat derived in each stage (loss of superheat, condensation, cool-
ing of water) :
T
(^ + 1)
CpS + T,L
CS + L
where T^ is mean effective temperature, T^ is temperature of con-
densation, 5 is superheat (in degrees), L is latent heat of condensa-
tion and Cp is specific heat of superheated steam. The condensate
was usually not cooled significantly below the temperature of conden-
sation and the formula above is in the simplified form resulting from
neglecting such cooling. An intercomparison of test data on ten cores,
using both superheated steam and hot water as sources of heat for
the calorimetric measurements, showed that no appreciable difi'erence
existed between the results obtained by the two methods. A series
of measurements using water as the source of heat were made with
the rate of water flow varying over a wide range. As might be ex-
pected, a wide range of variation of heat dissipation occurred with
change of rate of water flow when the rates were extremely low,
but at the rates of flow common in radiator use, the effect was not
significant. It seems safe to assume that heat dissipation for con-
ditions all constant except rate of water flow will attain a value within
5 per cent of the maximum which it will reach with any rate of flow,
if the rate be as much as 3 gallons per minute per inch depth of core
1 foot wide. This flow is well within the margin of circulation found
in most aircraft cooling systems.
The effectiveness of indirect cooling surface, namety, cooling sur-
face not backed by flov^ring water, is considered in detail and the math-
ematical relations are developed which describe its behavior. The
eft'ectiveness of indirect surface is defined as the ratio of its heat-
dissipating power to that of an equal area of direct cooling surface
all at the temperature of the edge of the indirect surface which has
contact with the source of heat. For long narrow fins such as the in-
direct cooling surface found in a square cell or hexagonal cell con-
struction, the effectiveness is
_, tanh U
414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. U, NO. 17
where U takes the form
^ yk
b is the width of fin where good thermal contact- occurs along one
edge of the fin only, and is half the fin width where good thermal
contact is made by both parallel edges. The fin thickness is y and
the thermal conductivity k, the quantity q being the surface heat
dissipation coefficient in units consistent with k and the dimensions
b and y. For the combinations of values usually occurring in radia-
tor practice, the effectiveness exceeds 70 per cent and quite commonly
averages 85 per cent to 95 per cent. The formula was applied to
calculate optimum dimensions for fins under various conditions,
the results being tabulated. The equations of thermal conduction
are also used to compute a table of temperature drop through water-
tube walls of various thickness and materials.
A considerable amount of detail not suited to abstracting is to be
found in short notes on such topics as effect of yaw on performance,
slipstream mountings, wing radiators, shuttering, radiator require-
ments at altitude and methods of computing performance at alti-
tude from test data obtained at ground level. A brief treatment is
included of the subjects of partially streamlined casings to enclose a
radiator, and of nose mounting.
From the point of view of an airplane designer, it is desirable to
specify radiator performance in terms of flying speed of the plane.
In general this cannot be done directly because too many factors are
involved in the relation between flying speed and the air flow through
the radiator core. It becomes necessary, therefore, for describing
characteristics of the radiator, to adopt air flow through the core as
the prime variable, there being no other quantity or entity available
for the purpose. The ease or difficulty of applying such a description
of performance to plane design rests then with the difficulty in esti-
mating the probable air flow through the core for given flying speed.
For a radiator mounted in an unobstructed position the difficulties
are inappreciable, the estimation process is replaceable by actual
measurement and the results are obtainable with satisfactory accuracy.
For a nose mounting, or other obstructed position too many factors enter
into the determination of the air flow to make generalizations possible.
Consequently, the authors are unable to include in the paper material
^ Soldered or integral rnetal. Mere contact, unsoldered, of two pieces o[ metal is ther-
mally a discontinuity.
-OCT. 19, 1921 PARSONS AND HARPER: ENGINE RADIATORS 415
of direct application, without any intervening step, for the nose ra-
diator, a mounting which is today probably the most common in
American practice. The designer who is interested in such a mount-
ing must first secure a measurement or estimate of the air flow to be
expected in the core of his radiator, taking into account the size and
shape fuselage, engine, propeller, and all the objects which will de-
termine this air flow, and then with such data in hand he can apply
all the results of this paper.
The paper is carried one step beyond expressing radiator perform-
ance in terms of air flow through the core, and states the results of
the measurement in terms of flying speed for a mounting in an un-
obstructed position. Comparative performance is stated in terms of
figure of merit which is the ratio of the power dissipated as heat to
the power required to sustain the weight of the radiator and overcome
its head resistance in pushing it through the air. The relative fig-
ures of merit of two cores in an unobstructed position do not, of course,
furnish an index of value in an obstructed position. The compara-
tive behaviors of various classes of core are discussed in some detail
for the unobstructed position and it is shown that for this mounting
and high speed of flight, the flat plate core construction has a figure of
merit sufficiently above other types to deserve attention. Its chief
disadvantage is inherent mechanical weakness, a feature of extreme
importance in selecting a design for use, and the data presented
should afford the designer definite information regarding the sacri-
fice in figure of merit which must be balanced against increased stur-
diness, when choosing between types of core.
For flying speeds of 60 to 200 miles an hour' it seems certain that
an unobstructed radiator plus a streamline nose to the fuselage offers a
figure of merit so much above that of a nose radiator installation as
to justify considerable effort toward overcoming the structural difii-
culties attendant upon such a mounting.
The measurements made on a very wide range of variety of cores
indicate that vaneS, holes in the air-tube walls, and all devices
intended to ncrease turbulence in the air tubes are detrimental
to radiators in an unobstructed position, lowering the figure of merit
for a given flying speed. The effect is to decrease the air flow more
than is compensated by the increased heat-dissipating power at a
stated rate of air flow. On the other hand, in obstructed positions,
where the air flow is determined more by the radiator surroundings
than by its own core construction, the cores with turbulence devices
41G JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 17
may be advantageous. For regularly shaped cellular tubes, with
straight walls, parallel to the wind, and with no vanes or holes, an
empirical formula was developed which was found to express air
flow through the core in terms of flying speed, with a surprising de-
gree of accuracy :
M — 10 ^ )
ni = a [1
where r is hydraulic radius of an air tube (quotient of cross section
by perimeter) and % is depth of the core (length of an air tube) , both
these dimensions being measured in the same unit of length; a (the
free area of the core) is the ratio of the total cross sectional area of
the air tubes in a given frontal area to that frontal area; m is the
air flow constant, the fractional part of the air flow approaching the
core which passes through it, hence, unity minus the fractional part
deflected around the core. In a wind stream of 5 pounds per second
per unit area, a core of unit frontal area which transmitted 3 pounds
of air per second and deflected the other 2 around it, would have an
air flow constant of 0.60. The presence of headers or water boxes
would modify the direct application of the formula to a radiator since
the formula is for a core alone, but with the exercise of suitable judg-
ment in making an allowance for water boxes and connection piping,
it should be possible, from the geometrical characteristics of a simple
core, to compute with a satisfactory degree of accuracy the air flow
which would correspond to any stated flying speed with the core in an
unobstructed position.
ABSTRACTS
Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared and
signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should con-
form in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
GEODESY. — Radio-compass bearings. Oscar S. Adams. U. S. Coast
and Geodetic Survey vSpec. Publ. 75. (Serial 167.) Pp. 39. 1921.
The radio-compass is coming into very general use for the determination
of the positions of vessels at sea. For this reason, it seemed advisable to
investigate the methods of plotting bearings thus obtained, both on the Mer-
cator projection and on the gnomonic projection. In investigating the subject
it is sufficiently exact to consider the earth as a sphere. It is further as-
sumed that the path of the wireless wave over the surface of the earth is a
great circle, joining the position of the vessel with that of the radio-compass
station.
A straight line on a Mercator projection represents a rhumb line and not a
great circle. A great circle on this projection is represented by a curve
OCT. 19, 1921 abstracts: physics 417
which is concave towards the equator. If an observed bearing is laid down
upon such a projection without correction, the line so determined is a tangent
to the great circle curve at its point of origin, because the Mercator projec-
tion is conform al. This publication gives a mathematical derivation of
the correction that must first be applied before the bearing is plotted on the
projection. A practical method is then devised so that the required cor-
rection may be determined by means of three graphic charts with as small
an amount of effort as possible.
For convenience in application the description of the practical use of the
method is given first in the publication and the theoretical discussion is given
in the final part of the same for the benefit of those who may be interested
in this phase of the matter. A Mercator projection table for the sphere is
also included as it is of use in connection with the graphic charts, one of the
arguments for the same being obtained from it.
On the gnomonic projection a great circle is represented by a straight
line, but the angle at the station is not preserved. It is necessary then for
any particular gnomonic chart to have a table computed for each radio-
compass station that gives the angles that must be laid off on the projec-
tion in order that the straight line may represent the great circle with any
given observ'ed bearing upon the earth. In this publication, tables are given
for ten radio-compass stations along the eastern coast of North America,
based upon the U.S.Hydrographic Office Chart No. 1280. O. S. A.
PHYSICS. — The annealing of glass. L. H. Adams and K. D. Williamson.
Journ. Franklin Inst. 190: 597-631, 835-870. 1920. (Geophysical
Lab. Papers on Optical Glass, No. 32.)
It is shown that the process of annealing glass can best be carried out if we
know for the various glasses and for the various temperatures the rate of
release of the internal stresses. The results of such measurements for nine
kinds of glass are presented. The release of stress at constant temperature
was found to proceed usually according to the equation
F Fo
in which F is the stress at any time, t, F^is the initial stress, and .4 is a constant
for the particular glass at a particular temperature, and is a measure of the
rate at which stresses are relieved. The variation of this rate with tem-
perature follows the equation
log A = Mid — Ma
in which Mi and Mo are constants for a particular glass and 6 is the tempera-
ture.
At any temperature, a glass requires a certain annealing-time. This is
arbitrarily defined as the time required to reduce the stress (in optical units)
from 50 to 2>^ nn per cm. For convenience of reference, the 150° interval
of temperature lying immediately below the temperature at which the anneal-
ing time is 2 minutes is called (also quite arbitrarily) the annealing range.
At temperatures below the annealing range as thus defined, very little perma-
nent stress can be introduced.
Concrete directions are given for annealing optical glass. The procedure
to be followed for other kinds of glass, such as plate glass, bottles, chemical
glassware, etc., is also indicated. Mathematical analysis of the problem shows
418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 17
that the best method for annealing requires that the glass be held at constant
temperature (below the customary annealing point) for the appropriate time
and then cooled at an increasing rate. It is of interest to note that the larger
the piece of glass the lower the annealing temperature. Finally, there are
presented a number of equations which are convenient for calculating the
internal stresses due to heating or cooling solids of various shapes.
While the original object of this investigation was to put on a quantitative
basis the operations connected with the annealing of glass, it was found that
many of the results have an important bearing on certain problems of geo-
physics. Thus, for example, the relief of internal stresses in glass probably
belongs in the category of elastico-viscous flow and is thus connected with such
processes as the tidal deformation of the earth's crust. Moreover, the for-
mulas expressing the relation between temperature-differences and stress
distribution are directly applicable to the phenomenon of the "jointing"
of rocks. L. H. A. and E. D. W.
GEOLOGY. — Oil possibilities in and around Baxter Basin, in the Rock Springs
uplift, Sweetwater County, Wyoming. Alfred Reginald Schultz.
U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 702. Pp. 107, pis. 17, figs. 9, inserts 3. 1920.
The data for this report were collected in 1907 and 1908 while the area
involved was being mapped for its coal resources, and are now made available
to meet the demand for information about oil and gas resources. As a
consequence the report lacks the detailed information, especially the structure
contour maps, usual in reports on this subject, but makes up for that de-
ficiency by the fullness of the information on larger structural features,
stratigraphy, oil shales, oil and gas bearing formations, etc. that is brought
together for this and surrounding regions. Drilling for oil and gas was active
in the Baxter Basin about 1900 but yielded mainly small amounts of gas.
A recent revival of drilling had at the time of the report also struck mainly
moderate flows of gas and little oil. Land surveys and geography are briefly
discussed, and water supply somewhat more fully. In general water supply
is poor except that available from deep artesian sources. Sixteen pages are
given to a discussion of stratigraphy with detailed description of the principal
exposed units which extend from the Baxter shale near the base of the Mon-
tana to the Eocene-Green River formation. Valuable correlation tables
bring out the naming and subdivision of the entire section down to the
pre-Cambrian at various times in this and adjacent areas. Twelve pages
devoted to structure in conjunction with the geological map define the prin-
cipal lines of folding, faulting, and overthrusting and their relation to the
adjacent Uinta Mountains. Fifty-foot structure contours on the Rock
Spring anticline are the only ones on the map, and it is only in relation to this
structure that the possible localization of oil or gas accumulations is disscused.
A conspicuous feature of the report is the general review of the oil shale
situation. In the area under discussion oil shale occurs in two portions of the
Green River formation. Very full sections of this formation bring out the
position of the oil shales ; and the character of the beds, their oil content and
so forth is discussed. A brief review with map shows the known reserves
of oil shale in Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah. There follow 13 pages of
discussion of the beds from the lower Montana to the Cambrian that might
be reservoirs or sources of oil. The discussion is based mainly on evidence
from adjacent areas and is accompanied by a valuable table showing the beds
that yield oil and gas in various surrounding Rocky Moimtain fields. The
OCT. 19, 1921 abstracts: geochemistry 419
remaining 21 pages of the bulletin are given to a rather detailed account of
previous drilling in or near Baxter Basin, that is, mainly on the Rock Springs
dome, with brief discussion of the beds that would probably yield oil and of
analyses of oils from nearby fields. The author believes that the Frontier
sandstones and the Aspen formation, both of which are at the base of the
Upper Cretaceous and which in most of the area would be reached at depths
of from 2U00 to 4U00 feet, will prove to be the principal oil-producing beds.
Marcus I. Goldman.
GEOLOGY. — Coal in the middle and eastern parts of San Juan County, New
Mexico. Clyde M. Bauer and John B. Reeside, Jr., U. S. Geol.
Survey Bull. 716-G. Pp. 82, pis. 19. 1921.
This report describes briefly the geography and geology of San Juan Coimty,
New Mexico, and in detail the coal deposits of the middle and eastern parts.
The geologic section includes 9 formations assigned to the Upper Cretaceous
and 4 formations assigned to the Eocene. Coal occurs in 2 Upper Cretaceous
formations — the Menefee formation of the Mesaverde group and the Fruitland
formation. The coal beds of the Menefee formation are in 2 groups, one in the
lower part of the formation and one in the upper part, with a barren interval
between. Individual beds are lenticular and very variable in thickness and
composition. The coal beds of the Fruitland formation are usually grouped in
the lower part of the formation and are more persistent and thicker than those
of the older jMenefee formation. The number of beds and the quality of the
coal decreases from north to south. The coal of both formations is of bitu-
minuous rank in the northern part and of sub-bituminous rank in the southern
part of the county. The total quantity of coal is large but under present
conditions will be developed for local use only, J, B. R.
GEOLOGY. — The iron-ore resottrces of Europe. Max RoeslER. U. S.
Geol. Survey Bull. 706. Pp. 152. 1921.
This bulletin, which is the outgrowth of a report compiled by the U. S.
Geological Survey for use at the Peace Conference, is the result of the study
of a wealth of literature by many writers in many languages. The author
has attempted to reduce the available information to nearly common scale,
and to present briefly the distribution, character, and extent of the deposits
in the various countries of Europe. The graphic review of the deposits is
preceded by a brief sketch of the nature and geology of iron-ore deposits in
general and a few notes on the methods of utilizing the ores. The production
and consumption of the principal countries is given. The report contains
many maps and diagrams and an extensive bibliography. R. W. Stone.
GEOCHEMISTRY. — Chemical researches on sediments. H. E. Merwin.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 31: 419-424. 1920.
A general discussion of various phases of the chemical problems connected
with the study of sedimentary rocks. The problems are difficult because
of the complexity of the chemical solutions, the small solubility and lack of
definite crystallinity of many of the substances, and the persistence of unstable
phases. Diffusion in the solid state, consolidation under difi"erential stress,
adsorption, slow reactions, and effects of catalysis are discussed both in
general terms and in their relation to the formation of dolomite and phosphate
rocks and the oceanic red clay. H. E. M.
420 JOURNAL OF The; Washington academy of sciences vol. 11, no. 17
GEOCHEMIvSTRY.— T/ze chemistry of ike Earth's crust. Henry S. Wash-
ington. Journ. Franklin Inst. 190: 757-815. 1920.
The number of essential rock-forming minerals is very small. They are
mostly silicates of Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, and K. Any two or more of these
minerals (with two exceptions) may occur together and in all proportions.
The chemical characters of igneous rocks are summarized in the paper and
the ranges and maxima of the various constituents are given. The average
igneous rock is considered and, after some discussion of the sources of error in-
volved in the calculation, a new average (based on 5179 analyses) is given.
The average rock is shown to be approximately a granodiorite. The average
composition of the Earth's crust in terms of elements is also given. Twelve
elements (O, vSi, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg, Ti, H, P, and Mn) make up 99. Gl
per cent of the crust.
The elements are referred to two main groups in the periodic table: (1)
the petrogenic elements, characteristic of and most abundant in igneous
rocks, of low atomic weight and occurring normally as oxides, silicates,
chlorides, and fluorides; (2) the metallogenic elements, rare or absent in ig-
neous rocks, but occurring as ores, of high atomic weight, and forming in
nature metals, sulfides, arsenides, etc., but not oxides or silicates. The
suggestion is made that beneath the silicate crust of petrogenic elements
is a zone essentially of nickel-iron, and beneath this a central core of the
metallogenic elements. This vertical distribution is in accord with Abbot's
views as to the distribution of the elements in the Sun.
In igneous rocks and minerals the elements show a correlation, in that
certain of them are prone to occur with others, and a similar limited correlation
is apparently true of the animal and vegetable kingdom.
The idea of "comagmatic regions," that is, the distribution of igneous
rocks in regions of chemically related magmas, is discussed, and some of these
are briefly described.
The calculation of rock densities from their chemical composition is dis-
cussed, and the average chemical compositions and densities of the conti-
nental masses and oceanic floors are given. It is shown by these that the
average densities of the continents, ocean floors, and various smaller regions
of the earth stand in inverse relation to their elevations. The bearing of this
relation of average density and elevation on the theory of isostasy is pointed
out, and it is shown that the data presented are confirmative of the theory.
H. S. W.
VOLCANOIvOGY.— Two gas collections from Mauna Loa. E. S. Shepherd.
Bull. Hawaiian Volcano (3bs. 8: 65-67. 1920.
Through the courtesy of Dr. T. A. Jaggar, Jr., of the Hawaiian Volcano
Observatory, two tubes of gas were received which he collected in November
1919 from the flow on Mauna Loa. These are the first gases collected at
this volcano. Dr. Jaggar had great difficulty in finding a suitable source
for collecting, and greater difficulty in approaching it. The analysis of the
gases accounts for part of the difficulty, since they show 2 and 8 per cent of
vSOs respectively. The combustible gases had practically all disappeared
and the samples may be regarded as completely burned. It wi.l be noted,
however, that the amount of nitrogen present is not high and could not possi-
bly account for the amounts of water present, namely, 67 and 75 per cent
respectively. The argon group is present in rather larger amounts than at
Kilauea, but amounts to a maximum of only 0.6 per cent. Free sulfur
and chlorine were absent. Compared with similarly oxidized gases from
OCT. 19, 1921 proceedings: geoi.ogical society 421
Kilaiica, the Loa gas seems entirely similar in composition. The analyses,
in A^olume per cent at 1200° and 760 mm., are given in the table below.
CO-. 3.84 0.42
CO 0.03 0.19
Ho 0.01
SO. 1.22 1.95
SO3 2.08 8.12
S2
CI2
N2 16.80 15.39
A 0.58 0.42
H2O 75.44 67.43
E. S. S.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
342d meeting
The 342d meeting of the Geological Society of Washington was held at
the Cosmos Club at S p.m., on Wednesday, January 28, 1920.
Regtilar Program
G. R. Mansfield: Types of structure in Southern Idaho. (Illustrated.)
F. E. Matthes: Physiographic history of the Yosemite region. (Illustrated.)
W. Taylor Thom, Jr. : The structttre of the so-called Poplar Dome in north-
eastern Montana.
343d meeting
The 343d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., February 11, 1920.
Informdl Comnmnication
Laurence LaForge spoke on the correct use in physiography of the terms
mature and maturity.
Regular Program
H. W. Cornell: Constitutional questions involved in the statutory classifica-
tion of mines and minerals for purposes of taxation.
]M. R. Campbell: Abandoned meanders of James and Potomac Rivers and
their bearing on Coastal Plain history.
special meeting
A joint meeting with the Washington Academy of Sciences was held in
the auditorium of the Cosmos Club at 8:15 p.m. on Thursday, February
19, 1920. The occasion was a lecture V>y Alfred H. Brooks on The appli-
cation of geology to war. An abstract of the lecture has been published with
the Proceedings of the Academy in this Journal.^
344th meeting
The 344th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., on Wednesday,
March 10, 1920.
' This JouR.v.\L, 10: 331-333. 1920.
422 JOURNAL OF THK WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 17
Informal Communications
David T. Day spoke on some substances extracted from oil shale.
R. C. Wells spoke on a deposit of aragonite on the inside of a sealed
glass tube containing a standard sample of sea water. This commimication
has since been published in the Journal.^
Regular Program
F. C. Calkins: Thrust fatilting in the Cottonwood District, Wasatch Moun-
tains, Utah.
The thrust faults discovered in the Cottonwood district during 1912 by
Loughlin and Butler and independently by Hintze dip in general eastward and
hence were naturally supposed at first to have been caused by westward over-
thrusting. Recent field study, however, has brought out the following facts :
(1) The main thrust plane dips westward in part. (2) The eastward dip
is in places steeper than it could have been at the time the thrust-faulting
occurred, so that some eastward tilting must have taken place; this tilting
may well have sufficed to reverse an original low dip to the westward. (3)
Most of the drag folds associated with the thrust faults indicate an eastward
drag. It is therefore believed that the overthrusting was mainly eastward
though a little westward thrusting may have taken place later.
The Cottonwood district lying at the intersection of the Wasatch and Uinta
axes and affected by the stresses that caused the birth of both ranges is a
favorable place for determining the position of the overthrusting in the his-
tory of the region. The order of the early events in that history is believed
to be as follows:
At the close of the Mesozoic the site of the Great Basin, instead of beinef
depressed relatively to the region at the east, was largely dry land, and the
site of the Wasatch and Uinta Mountains formed part of an area of sedimen-
tation. Deformation of the ofi"-shore sediments began with "Wasatch" fold-
ing on north-south axes. This was followed by thrusting of the land mass
over the lower basin at the east. Further movement in the same sense
caused the thrust faults to be bent into folds whose axial planes lean eastward.
The east-west uplift which gave rise to the Uinta Range, and which was ac-
companied or closely followed by the intrusion of granitoid rocks under the
crest of the Uinta arch, was antedated by the overthrusting and probably
by most of the north-south folding that affects the thrust planes. The thrust-
faulting can therefore hardly be more recent than the end of the Cretaceous
Sidney Paige : Interpretation of the Moon craters.
Kirk Bryan : Mountain pediments. A discussion of the erosion of desert
ranges.
345th meeting
The 345th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., on Wednesday,
March 24, 1920.
Informal Communication
Mr. David White exhibited some highly polished chert pebbles found in
residual clay of limestone in Missouri.
Regular Program
Leon Dominian: Geography of Asia Minor. (Illustrated.)
H. S. Washington: The chemistry of the Earth's crust. (Illustrated.)
This paper has been published in full.*
2 R. C. Wells. This Journal, 10: 249-254. 1920.
»H. S. Washington. Journ. Franklin Institute. 190: 7.57-815. 1920.
OCT. 19, 1921 proceedings: geologicaIv society 423
346th meeting
The 34Gth meeting was held at the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., on Wednesday-
April 14, 1920.
Info rm al Communica tion
Dr. G. R. Mansfield showed some enlarged photographs of grains of
glauconite from the glauconite-bearing deposits of New Jersey, showing
the characteristic forms and microstructure of the grains.
Regular Program
J. S. Brown: Fault features of the Salton Basin, California. (Illustrated.)
Salton Basin is in the southeastern corner of California. Its lowest point,
now covered by Salton Sea, is 273.5 feet below sea level. The basin is flanked
by mountain ranges on the southwest and northeast, but at the southeast
it opens toward the Gulf of California, from which it is separated by the delta
of Colorado River which is only 50 feet above sea level. The basin floor is
a desert plain covered at some places by large sand dunes. At many places
the basin is bordered by badlands. The stratigi'aphy consists essentially of
three groups:
(1) Pre-Tertiary crystalline rocks, chiefly Paleozoic and Mesozoic, which
underlie the basin and compose the surrounding mountains.
(2) Soft, saliferous sandstone and clay beds of late Tertiary age, usually
folded, exposed in the badlands.
(3) Quaternary alluvium, generally undisturbed, forming the basin floor.
Salton Basin is generally conceded to be a graben. Numerous faults have
been traced to its borders, the most notable being the San Andreas rift,
which extends to the northwestern tip of the basin. Topographic and geo-
logic evidence adduced by the writer indicates the existence of a fault 50 miles
long between the Tertiary of the badlands and thepre-Tertiary crystalline rocks
northeast of Salton Basin. The name Indio fault is suggested. The Indio
fault probably is a continuation of the San Andreas rift. Southwest of Sal-
ton Basin two systems of faults are distinguished whose intersections are re-
lated to the mountain spurs that project into the basin. These faults have dis-
turbed the pre-existing drainage and created a number of isolated mountain-
walled valleys. All the faulting observed is of the normal type. The fault-
ing that shaped the basin began before late Tertiary time, but has progressed
more or less continuously to the present day, as evidenced by movement
along certain faults in recent earthquakes.
A. E. Fath: Origin of the faults, anticlines, and buried ''Granite Ridge''
of the northern part of the Mid-Continent oil and gas field. (Illustrated.)
J. B. Mertie, Jr.: The Salt Chuck palladium mine near Kasaan, Alaska.
347th meeting
The 347th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., on Wednesday,
April 28, 1920.
Regular Program.
David G. Thompson: Pleistocene lakes along Mohave River, California.
. Mohave River is a typical desert river. It rises in the San Bernardino
Mountains in southern California, and flows north to Barstow, thence
northeastward along the Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad. Except in
the mountains its channel is dry for many months at a time. Near the sta-
tion of Baxter the river emerges from a canyon and spreads over a large
alluvial fan, distributar}^ channels carrying the flood water to playas in two
separate closed basins, where it disappears by evaporation and absorption.
424 JOURNAL OV THE WASHINGTON ACAD13MY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 17
Lake cliffs and terraces and beach ridges show that a perennial lake once
occupied the largest basin which is now occupied by two playas called Silver
Lake and Soda Lake. The maximum depth of this ancient lake, which may
be called Lake Mohave, was about 40 feet and the area about 75 square
miles. A small but distinct channel at the north end shows that it overflowed
toward Death Valley.
Evidence of another ancient lake, much smaller than Lake Mohave, was
found recently in the second basin, which is now occupied by a playa called
Cronise Lake. The name Little Mohave Lake is suggested for this lake.
Buwalda has described Manix Lake that existed in the Pleistocene along
Mohave River about 25 miles upstream from Little Mohave Lake. No
evidence has been obtained as to the relative ages of these lakes. At present
the flood run-off of Mohave River from the San Bernardino Mountains is
the only important factor in flooding the playas in the Lake Mohave Basin.
Under similar conditions in Pleistocene time, if the ancient Mohave River
followed approximately its present course, after Manix Lake was formed no
great supply of water would have reached the Lake Mohave Basin until Manix
Lake overflowed. If, however. Lake Mohave was wholly contemporaneous
with Manix Lake, the precipitation in the area directly tributary to the Lake
Mohave Basin below Manix Lake must have been considerably greater
than it is today. Evidence on the relative age of these lakes will aid in inter-
preting the climatic conditions under which they existed.
In January, 1916, floods from Mohave River covered Silver Lake playa to a
depth of 8 or 10 feet. When the water disappeared 18 months later, maay
dead fish were found on the playa. These had been carried at least 25 miles
from their regular habitat along the river. Fish remains have been reported
under similar conditions on the other desert playas. Such occurrences
show that fresh-water remains in desert deposits do not necessarily indicate
the existence of an ancient perennial fresh- water lake.
The fish belong to two species. — One the common catfish, and the other
Siphateles mohavensis, which is found only in Mohave River. Other species of
the latter genus live in the San Joaquin River, Owens River, Lahontan, and
other systems. It is not certain how Siphateles mohavensis reached its present
habitat, but it is suggested that members of the genus may have migrated
from Owens River to Death Valley, through a chain of lakes described by
Gale, and thence up the ancient Mohave River, through Lake Mohave.
If such a migration took place the same genus ought to be found in Amargosa
River which now enters Death Valley.
O. E. Meinzer: Ground-water problems in the Hawaiian Islands.
Mr. Meinzer spent February and March, 1920, in the Hawaiian Islands
to start a systematic geologic and ground-water survey of the Islands. Work
was in progress in 1920 in the Kau district on the Island of Hawaii, by W. O.
Clark and L. F. Noble, and in the Honolulu district by H. S. Palmer.
The present paper outlined the ground-water problems as seen in this visit
of two months.
The rocks of the Hawaiian Islands consist chiefly of small irregular bodies
of extrusive lava which is very permeable. This great permeability results
in (1) heavy absorption of rain by the rocks, (2) flatness of the water tables,
(3) scarcity of springs and streams, (4) large yields of aquifers, and (5) large
yields and specific capacities of wells.
The ground water can be divided into two kinds : high-level water and low-
level water. The low-level water does not occur much above sea level; the
OCT. 19, 1921 proceedings: geological society 425
high-level water may occur hundreds or even thousands of feet above sea
level and is held up by definite rock structures such as dikes and interbedded
soils and imper\dous ash.
The high-level water may belong to the main body of ground water or may
be a perched body of water not associated with the main body. This water
is valuable especially because it does not generally have to be lifted as does the
low-level water. The problems of its discovery relate to rock structure and
require geologic methods of investigation. The geologic studies should
indicate effective but inexpensive methods of prospecting.
The low-level water is in some places non-artesian, but in other places
it occurs in artesian basins produced by nearly impervdous sedimentary
beds overlying the water-bearing lavas. The problems with respect to this
water relate chiefly to the quantities available and to contamination by sea
water. They require studies of the coasts with respect to emergence and sub-
mergence, the consequent development and position of sedimentary^ deposits,
and the effectiveness of these deposits in producing artesian conditions and
in protecting the ground water from sea w^ater. They also require quan-
titative studies of absorption, pumpage, head, and correlative salt content,
and studies of the underground leakage of wells and methods for conserving
the artesian supply. A valuable contribution to the methods of ground-water
investigation developed in the Hawaiian work is the use of current meters
for detecting leakage of wells.
Prof. L. C. Graton spoke on the relation of secondary enrichment to to-
pography and ground water, and especially on the problem of the accumula-
tion of the iron minerals in gossan.
Prof. Wm. M. Davis was invited by the President to address the Society,
and spoke on some reef limestones found in the floors of valleys penetrating
the lower slopes of the volcanoes on the Island of Oahu, and their bearing on
the diastrophic history of the Hawaiian Islands.
348th meeting
The 348th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., on Wednesday,
May 12, 1920.
Regular Program
Stratigraphy of the Bend Series and contiguous formations in north-central
Texas.
P. V. Roundy: Micro-paleontology.
M. I. Goldman: Lithology.
The two papers were discussed by Messrs. Girty, Went worth, Heald,
David White, H. Bassler, Stose, Alden, Loughlin, and G. R. Mans-
field.
Mr. Goldman's paper on Lithology of the ''Bend Series" and cmitiguoiis
formations of north-central Texas is the result of the study of a nearly complete
series of samples (representing mostly intervals of 10 feet) from 2400 to 4510
feet in the Seaman No. 1 well, Roxana Petroleum Corporation, Palo Pinto
County, Texas. In each sample as many types of ingredients as could be
recognized were differentiated under the hand lens, and their proportions
estimated. Peculiar types and at intervals the common types were made
into thin sections, studied under the compound microscope, and the proportion
of sand, clay, and lime in each type estimated. Three graphic logs were pre-
sented; one showing the estimated proportion of sand, clay, lime, sand flint
in each sample, another the usual type of graphic log showing the succession
of beds as indicated by the above examinations, the third the usual graphic
42G JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 17
presentation of the driller's log. From the first-named log (the "percentage
log") it appeared that there are in this well distinct lithologic units charac-
terized by the proportion of the four ingredients differentiated, and that the
boundaries between these are usually well defined. From the second log it
appeared that these boundaries are usually marked by some distinct bed, some
times by a conglomerate or sandstone, but in most cases by a coarsely glauconitic
sandv bed. In this way it was possible to place the boundary between the
Marble Falls (Pennsylvanian) and the Lower Bend (Mississippian) with ab-
solute precision and in conformity with the paleontologic evidence. Boun-
daries between the Marble Falls, Smithwick, and Milsap were also suggested,
though in the absence of paleontologic evidence these are uncertain. Other
lithologic units not hitherto distinguished by names were indicated. It
was shown that the driller's log gives little if any evidence for the most sig-
nificant criteria.
In further support of a hypothesis previously offered that unconformities
are marked by glauconitic beds it was shown that a glauconitic layer occurring
at the base of the Lower Bend just above the EUenberger limestone in out-
crops in San Saba County had been traced north through all wells (3) exam-
ined in which this contact appeared including the Seaman well more than
100 miles north of the outcrop. It was also indicated that pyrite or other
sulfides are associated with glauconite and phosphate at unconformities,
and it was suggested that the presence of all three minerals is due to the abun-
dance of organic matter encountered by a transgressing sea.
T. Wayland Vaughan: Results of recent studies of the geology of the North-
ern West Indies. (Illustrated.) (Read by W. P. Woodring.)
349th meeting
The 349th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., on Wednesday,
November 10, 1920.
Informal Communication
C. K. Wentworth: A sizing scale for the constituents of sedimentary rocks.
(Presented by M. I. Goldman.)
Regtdar Program
Courtenay De Kalb: The Rio Tinto and other historic mines of Spain.
(Illustrated.)
C. W. GiLMORE: Remarks on the reconstruction of extinct reptiles. (Illus-
trated.) Laurence LaForge, Secretary.
350th meeting.
The 350th meeting was held in the auditorium of the New National Museum
at 8 p.m., on Saturday, November 20, 1920.
Regular Program
Willis T. Lee: An evening "in the air." A popular presentation of the
use of aerial photographs in geography.
Stereopticon views of natural scenery and of objects of geographic interest
as seen from an aeroplane were shown, including views of submarine ob-
jects and drowned land forms, shown here for the first time. There was also
a series of moving pictures taken from hydroplanes, showing scenes along the
Potomac, the Pacific fleet passing through the Panama Canal, and scenes
along the coast of California. The films were loaned for the evening by the
Navy Department. W. T. Thom, Jr., Secretary.
OCT. 19, 1921 proceedings: geological society 427
351st meeting
The 351st meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club at
S p.m., on Monday, December 6, 1920.
Regular Program
O. E. Meinzer: Recent volcanic events on the Island oj Hawaii. (Illus-
trated.)
This paper was a concise and graphic presentation of the exceptionally-
spectacular events in 1919 and 1920 on Kilauea and Mauna Loa — the two
active volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands. It included lantern slides show-
ing one of the lava flows in action, with the two kinds of lava — aa and pahoehoe —
being extruded at the same time. The outstanding events of 1919 and 1920,
named in chronological order, were (1) long-continued overflow of Hale-
maumau, the crater of Kilauea; (2) a vigorous lava flow on the flanks of
Mauna Loa, nearly 3,000 feet above the level of Halemaumau, this flow
reaching the sea, l4 miles from the vent, within 24 hours of the beginning of
the eruption; (3) a drop of 600 feet in the lava column in Halemaumau in
one night; (4) gradual and quiet opening of fissures radiating from the cra-
ter of Kilauea, some of them to a width of 15 feet; (5) gradual rise of lava in
some of the fissures and ultimate overflow which developed into a vigorous
lava flow with vents about 6 miles from the crater of Kilauea. The specific
facts are recorded in the monthly bulletin of the volcano observatory by
Prof. T. A. JAGGAR.
The volcanoes of Hawaii have a wide reputation for their gentle habits.
When eruptions occur, the inhabitants, instead of fleeing, hastily assemble
to see the show. There have, however, been two catastrophes within his-
toric times — an explosive eruption of Kilauea in 1790 which is said to have
destroyed an Hawaiian army, and a violent earthquake in 1868 which caused
a huge landslide that destroyed many lives. The geological survey of this
part of the island begun last year by L. F, Noble and the speaker and now
being carried out by W. O. Clark, has, however, revealed numerous beds of
volcanic ash and deposits of land-slide material interbedded with lavas at
many widely separated horizons, showing that, from the standpoint of geo-
logic time, violent eruptions and huge landslides have not been unusual
occurrences.
Baron Gerard De Geer: Geochronology and its application to America
and to other parts of the Earth. (Illustrated.)
352d MEETING
The 352d meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club at
8 p.m., on Wednesday, December 22, 1920.
Regular Program
Bailey Willis: Evidences of compression on the Pacific Coast.
After a brief recess the twenty-eighth annual meeting was called to order.
The reports of the Secretaries, Treasurer, and Auditing Committee were
read and accepted. The following officers were elected for 1921:
President, G. W. StosE; Vice-Presidents, G. F. Loughlin and F. E. Wright;
Treasurer, G. R. Mansfield; Secretaries, W. T. Thom, Jr., and Laurence
LaForge; Members-at-large of the Council, C. N. Fenner, K. C. Heald,
Miss A. I. Jonas, F. J. Katz, E. T. Wherry.
Laurence LaForge, Secretary.
428 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 17
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
The following educational courses are being offered at the Bureau of Stand-
ards this winter: C. A. Skinner, Advanced optics; L. H. Adams (Geophys-
ical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington), Chemical thermo-
dynamics; Chester Snow, Interpretation of data, including the theory of
errors and methods for numerical, graphical, and mechanical computation;
L. B. Tuckerman, Differential equations. The committee in charge consists
of L. B. Tuckerman, Chairman; F. B. Silsbee, Secretary; Miss A. K.
Benson, L. J. Briggs, L. V. Judson, and C. E. Waters.
Prof. Ernst Cohen, of the University of Utrecht, Holland, and Prof.
J. W. McBain, of the University of Bristol, England, visited the scientific
institutions of Washington in September.
Mr. William H. Gamble, topographer and map engraver with the U. S.
Geological Survey, and the oldest employee in the Federal service at the time
of his retirement in August, died on September 16, 1921, at the age of eighty-
five. Mr. Gamble was born in Philadelphia November 4, 1835. He was
engaged in map publishing in Philadelphia until 1895, when he joined the
U. S. Geological Survey in Washington.
A department of botany has been organized at George Washington Uni-
versity, in charge of Prof. R. F. Griggs, formerly of Ohio State University
and recently director of the Katmai Expeditions of the National Geographic
Society.
Mr. Ralph C. Holder has resigned as junior chemist in the food research
laboratory, Bureau of Chemistry, to take charge of the chemical laboratory
of the CoUis Products Company of St. Paul, Minnesota.
Dr. Walter Proctor Jenney, mining engineer, died at his home at 1417
Park Road on September 16, 1921, in his seventy-third year. Dr. Jenney
was born at Fairhaven, Massachusetts, January 11, 1849. He was mining
engineer for several railroad and mining companies during the period of
development of the mineral resources of the West, and was with the U. S.
Geological Survey in the years 1889-1892. In 1909 he became interested in
the investigation of ship forms for the Navy Department and was in that work
through the War period. Since 1919 he had been engaged in research work for
the Department of Agriculture.
Mr. Hugh Miller, recently captain in the U. S. Army and instructor in the
engineers' school at Camp Humphreys, and formerly a member of the en-
gineering faculties of Clarkson School of Technology at Potsdam, New York,
and Rice Institute of Houston, Texas, has been appointed professor of civil
engineering at George Washington University.
Mr. Samuel Stockton VoorheES, engineer and chemist at the Bureau
of Standards, died at Portland, Maine, on September 23, 1921, in his fifty-
fifth year. Mr. Voorhees was born at Springfield, Ohio, January 15, 1867.
During the first fifteen years of his professional work he was chemist or en-
gineer of tests for several of the eastern railroad companies. From 1901 to
1908 he was with the supervising Architect's Office of the U. S. Treasury,
and then went into chemical work at the U. S. Geological Survey. Since
1910 he had been in the chemical division of the Bureau of Standards, in charge
of the chemical work on structural materials. He was a member of the Acad-
emy, a past president of the Chemical Society, and a member of the Bio-
logical Society.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 November 4, 1921 No. 18
INORGANIC CHEMIvSTRY.— r/^t- crystal structures of the alkali
halides} I. Ralph W. G. Wyckoff, Geophysical Laboratory,
Carnegie Institution of Washington. (Communicated by Arthur
L. Day.)
Introduction. — A knowledge of the cr^^stal structures of a large
number of chemical compounds will furnish information concerning
the nature of the atoms themselves and of their manner of combination
one with another. Though the structures of most complicated com-
pounds, especially those having a symmetry that is other than cubic
or rhombohedral, cannot yet be obtained with certainty and exactness
because of the absence of precise knowledge concerning the laws of
scattering, there are many simple substances in which the arrangement
of their constituent atoms can be determined with all of the assurance
of correctness with which the structure of any crystal can now be
obtained. Of these substances the simplest, aside from the elements
themselves, are compounds of the type RX, where R is an electro-
positive atom and X is a more electronegative (electron-seeking) atom
of equal valence. This paper furnishes an account of the study of
the crystal structures of one class of the compounds RX, the alkali
halides.
The possibility, which seems to arise from a consideration of the
structures of simple crystals, of assigning definite sizes to the various
atoms and building up crystals by the close packing of these atoms
has already been given especial attention.- Most of the data upon
which this work was based were obtained by assuming a particular
arrangement of the atoms in the crystals and by calculating the di-
mensions of the unit cells with the aid of the published values of the
densities of the crystals. In view of the unreliable character of these
density determinations and because of the inabiUty to choose between
the different structures that are possible for these simple crystals,
' Received October 10, 192L
2 W. L. Bragg. PhiL Mag. (6) 40: 169. 1920.
429
430 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. IS
it is evident that a satisfactory decision concerning the constancy of
atomic dimensions can only be made after more direct information
is available through studies of the crystal structures of these com-
pounds.
A detailed discussion of the bearing of these results upon the prob-
lem of the shapes and sizes of atoms will be deferred until data upon
other simple structures have been given.
The method of determination. — The structures of these alkali halides
were obtained from a study of their powder photographs.^ A dis-
cussion of all of the simple ways of arranging the atoms of the com-
pound RX that are geometrically possible, together with the manner
of calculating in a qualitative fashion the nature of the diffraction
effects to be expected from each of these possible arrangements, has
been given elsewhere.^ With the following exception this same
method of calculation is pursued in these determinations.
A closer accord of the "normal decline" of intensity of "reflection"
with the spacing of the reflecting planes as observed by spectrometer
measurements upon sodium chloride and other simple crystals^ is
obtained by assuming that the intensity is proportional to the 2.35
power of the spacing instead of the simple square. The calculated
intensities thus obtained by writing
fid/n) = {d/ny-''
give, as the following results will show, a surprisingly close qualitative
agreement with the intensities of the corresponding difTraction effects
as estimated from the photographs.
Since a study of four or five of the most intense lines in the spectrum
was in all cases sufiicient to decide between the different possible struc-
tures, the accompanying tables will be limited to recording the data
from them only. In many cases, however, the number of observed
lines was as great as ten or fifteen. Many lines could not be observ^ed
in the spectra obtained with rubidium salts and from bromides be-
cause of the large amount of secondary radiation emitted by rubidium
and bromine." The dimensions of the unit cell were obtained in each
3 A. W. Hull. Phys. Rev. (2) 10: 661. 1917; P. Debye and P. ScherrER. Phys.
Zeitschr. 17: 277. 1916.
* Ralph W. G. Wyckoff and Eugen Posnjak. The crystal structures of tlie cuprous
halides. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. (in press).
* W. H. Bragg and W. h- Bragg. X-rays and crystal structure. (London, 1918).
* Trouble from this secondary radiation could have been eliminated for the most part
by the use of a second filtering screen placed next to the photographic plate. Such a film
was not, however, available at the time these experiments were carried out.
NOV. 4, 1921
WYCKOFF: STRUCTURE ALKALI HALIDES
431
case by averaging the values calculated from these first three or four
lines.
Unless the true s}'mmetry of these crystals is either tetrahedral or
tetratohedral cubic, — and there is no evidence for either of these two
kinds of symmetry, — the number of arrangements having four mole-
cules within the unit cell is limited to two: the "sodium chloride"
arrangement or the "zinc sulfide" arrangement.
R • X
Fig. 1. The unit cell of the sodium chloride grouping.
Sodium chloride
The spectrograph used in all of these experiments was standardized
using sodium chloride, the length of the unit celP of which was taken
to be 5.628X10-^ cm.
Sodium bromide
The positions of the spectrum lines together with the previously
determined value of the density clearly show four molecules to be
associated with the unit cell.
hkl
Hid)
100(2J
110(2)
Calculated density' =3.20
Spacing: </ioo = 5.95=^0.01 A. U.
Structure: XaCl grouping (Fig. 1).
»W DuANE. Bull. Xat. Research Council 1:383. 1920.
432
18
kkl
111(1)
100(2)
110(2)
113(1)
111(2)
Calculated density =3.62.
Spacing: Jioo = 6.47 ±0.01 A. U.
Stractnre: NaCl grouping.
Potassium chloride
It has been shown that potassium chloride has the same structure
as sodium chloride.^ The length of the side of the unit cell is givea
as~6.26 A. U.
Potassiitm bromide
Calculated intensity
NaCl ZnS
grouping grouping
9,030 55,900
55,000 4,830
48,500 48,500
32,900 2,890
26,800 26,800
Calculated intensity
NaCl ZnS
grouping grouping
40,700 111,800
97,700 21,800
86,700 86,700
26,400 72,500
35,600 7,940
chloride
Calculated intensity
NaCl ZnS
grouping grouping
54,800 7,530
48,400 48,400
19,950 2,740
32,900 4,520
NOV. 4, 1921
WYCKOFF: STRUCTURE ALKALI HALIDES
433
Rubidium bromide
The structure of this crystal has already been determined^ as iden-
tical with that of sodium chloride; (iioo = 6.93 A. U.
® R • X
Fig. 2. The unit cell of the body-centered grouping.
Rubidium iodide
Caesium chloride
Caesium chloride has been shown^" to be body-centered; Jioo = 4.12
A. U.
Caesium bromide
Calculations based upon the positions of the lines in the photographs
and the previously determined density show that but one molecule
3 W. p. Davey. Phys. Rev. (2) 18: 103. 1921.
10 W. P. Davey and F. G. Wick. Phys. Rev. (2) 17: 403. 1921.
434 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 18
is to be associated with the unit cell. The arrangement is thus a
body-centered one (unless a complicated structure having at least
eight chemical molecules in the unit cube is to be assumed). ^V
Calculated density = 4.54.
Spacing: <iioo = 4.55±0.015 A. U.
Structure: Body-centered grouping (Fig. 2).
Results of the determinations of the crystal structures of other
alkali halides will be given in a subsequent number of this JournaIv.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Three new birds of the family Tinamidae from
South America.^ Alexander Wetmore, Biological Sun'-ey.
Study of tinamous in the United States National Museum of the
genera Rhynchoins, Nothura, and Calopezus, has led to the identifi-
cation of three forms that have been unrecognized hitherto. They
may be known from the following detailed descriptions.
Rhynchotus arcanus, sp. no v.
Characters. — Similar to Rhynchotus rufescens (Temminck) ; outer webs of
three outermost primaries, alula, and both webs of greater wing-coverts
barred narrowly with blackish; more heavily barred with black above;
bill slightly more slender at base.
Description. — Type, Cat. No. 21061, U. S. Nat. Mus., adult, sex not known,
collected at Parana, Entre Rios, Argentina, March, 1860, by Capt. T. J.
Page. Crown black, lateral feathers and those on fore part of crown margined
narrowly with chamois, forming an indistinct median stripe on anterior third
of crown, median feathers of hinder portion of crown margined with cinnamon;
sides of head dull cream-buff, lighter on lores and below eyes, changing to
chamois behind eyes ; streak from eye through ear, ear coverts, and a narrow
" Ralph W. G. Wyckoff and Eugen Posnjak, op. cit.
' Received October 3, 1921.
NOV. 4, 1921 WETMORE: NEW TINAMOUS 435
rictal streak dull black; hindneck tawny-olive, paler on sides of neck ; base
of hindneck becoming pale Saccardo's umber, barred with black ; back, tertials,
inner secondaries and rump, Saccardo's umber, barred heavily with black,
the black bars margined distally with pinkish buff, tips of feathers pinkish
buff; outer secondaries, wing-coverts, tail, and upper tail-coverts similar
but with black markings greatly restricted so that they are less in area than
the lighter colors, outer greater coverts with Saccardo's umber replaced by
orange-cinnamon; alula and primaries hazel, outer webs of alula and of three
outermost primaries barred narrowly with black, dark markings faintly indi-
cated on outer webs of other primaries; tips of primaries becoming mouse
gray, outer webs paling to cinnamon; secondaries hazel, barred across tips
and on outer webs with black ; chin and throat whitish (apparently discolored
by stain) ; foreneck and upper breast tawny-olive, feathers of neck in front
and on sides with dark streaks extending to ends of shafts, nearly concealed
except on foreneck, broader basally and narrowed distally ; rest of underparts
drab, feathers of breast and lower sides of neck with indistinct markings of
chamois; sides, flanks and under tail-coverts barred strongly with black,
the black bars margined distally with pale olive-buff; abdomen and tibiae
barred narrowly with black; under wing-coverts hazel; anterior margin of
shoulder drab barred with black, with occasional lighter bars of pinkish buff.
Maxilla dull black, becoming brownish at margins; mandible and maxilla
below nostril honey yellow, darker at tip of mandible ; tarsus and toes mikado
brown, more or less discolored from grease (in dried skin) .
Measurements of type. — Wing 188.5 mm., tail (from base of coccyx to tip
of longest feather) 63 mm., exposed culmen 42 mm., tarsus 61.3 mm.
Range. — Known from Parana in the Province of Entre Rios, Argentina.
Remarks. — The bird described above as Rhynchotus arcanus is so distinct
from any of the known forms of the rufous-winged tinamou, R. rufescens
(Temminck), as to necessitate recognition as a full species. For some time
I was under the impression that the strongly barred wing feathers in this
individual might possibly represent the juvenal plumage of rufescens, but
examination of a three-quarters-grown Rhyncholus rufescens alleni Chubb
from Matto Grosso, borrowed from the American Museum of Natural Histor^^
through the kindness of Dr. F. M. Chapman, shows that the immature bird
agrees with the adult in plain, uniform flight feathers without prominent
markings. The presence of dark lines on the foreneck and of squamate
paler markings on the breast in arcanus suggest the condition found in R.
maculicollis G. R. Gray, a species known from present published records
from Bolivia (the type locality) and the Province of Tucuman, Argentina.
It is possible that the bird from Parana eventually may prove to be a pale
eastern form of mactdicollis.
Nothura maculosa savannarum, subsp. nov.
Characters. — Similar to Nothura maculosa nigroguttata Salvadori but less
mottled above, with black markings on dorsal surface much more extensive,
covering the major part of the feathers of back and rump; hindneck paler,
with finer streaks ; markings on breast darker, confined to small heart-shaped
spots or elongate marks toward tips of feathers; lateral bars on underparts
bolder, not extending so far inward toward the median line.
436 JOURN'AL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 18
Description.— Type, U. S. Nat. Mus., Cat. No. 283655 (Biological Sur\'ey
Collection), adult female, collected near San Vicente, Department of Rocha,
Uruguay, January 27, 1921, by Alexander Wetmore (collector's no. 5827).
Crown black, the feathers tipped irregularly with cinnamon-buff, with poorly
defined median stripe of cartridge buff and chamois ; broad superciliary stripe
and lores dull cream-buff, with slight admixture of whitish, the feathers
bordering the crown lightly streaked with dull black; sides of head between
cream-buff and chamois; auricular region dull black; feathers behind rictus
streaked with black forming a distinct stripe; hindneck cream-buff with an
admixture of cartridge buff, with median streak of black that becomes broader
and heavier toward the back; back, rump and tertials black, the feathers
bordered by lighter margins shading from chamois at the base through cream-
buff to cartridge buff near the tip ; each feather faintly and irregularly barred
with dark chamois, these vermiculations greatly reduced in extent; upper
tail-coverts barred and margined broadly with chamois ; wing-coverts between
chamois and honey yellow, tipped with cartridge buff and barred broadly
with black ; primaries and secondaries fuscous (paler through wear and fading
at tips) ; outer primaries with outer webs barred regularly with cinnamon-
buff at base, the light bars becoming white toward tip of feathers ; both webs
of inner primaries and secondaries barred broadly with cinnamon-buff; throat
and lower margin of cheeks white; breast, abdomen, lower tail-coverts, flanks,
and under wing-coverts between chamois and honey yellow, the tips of the
feathers on breast and abdomen washed with olive-buff; upper breast with
small heart-shaped spots of dull black, these becoming narrow and more
linear on fore neck, and broader and heavier laterally; sides and flanks barred
heavily with dull black; lower breast and abdomen immaculate; under tail-
coverts marked indistinctly with fuscous; outer side of leg with vermicula-
tions of dull black; extreme outer under wing-coverts barred with dull black.
Maxilla slightly darker than natal brown, at base becoming benzo brown,
mandible very dull pinkish buff, duller toward tip; tarsus and toes between
fawn color and army brown (in dried skin).
Measurements of type. — Wing 139.5 mm., taiP 43 mm., exposed culmen
18 mm., tarsus 37.5 mm., middle toe with claw 35 mm.
Geographic range. — Eastern Uruguay (known from Department of Rocha).
Remarks. — This distinct form differs from typical Nothura maculosa macu-
losa (Temminck) from Paraguay in much paler, less brownish coloration,
and in the characters assigned in the diagnosis as distinguishing savannarum
from N. m. nigrogntiata. It differs so markedly from other described forms
of spotted tinamous that it requires no further comparison with any save
Nothura m. minor (Spix) described from Tejuco (now called Diamantina),
Minas Geraes, Brazil. This form, according to Hellmayr,^ is related to A^.
m. maculosa but is smaller (wing 110 to 116 mm.), more chestnut above, and
paler with darker more restricted spottings and streakings below. No speci-
mens of this bird are available at present. In color of underparts minor is
similar apparently to savannarum, but it differs in its smaller size and its
much more rufescent color above. The form described here from eastern
Uruguay is supposed to range through Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
^ Measurement of the tail is taken from coccyx to tip of longest filaments of the mixed
rectrices and tail coverts.
5 Abh. Kan. Bayer. Akad. Wiss. II KI. 22: 707. 1905.
NOV. 4, 1921 WETMORE: NEW TINAMOUS 437
Calopezus elegans albidus, subsp. nov.
Characters. — Similar to Calopezus elegans morenoi Chubb but much paler
white spots and broken bars of upper surface large, the light markings of
the dorsal surface more extensive than the darker ones; feathers of lower
hindneck marked extensively with dull ivory yellow; Hght markings on under
surface more extensive.
Description. — Type, U. S. Nat. Mus., Cat. No. 71061, adult (sex not indi-
cated), San Juan, Argentina. Feathers of crown and nape light drab, each
feather with a narrow median streak of dull black; loral region dull pinkish
buff, each feather streaked with dull black; superciliary streak paler than,
cartridge buff ; a narrow line extending beneath eye from base of nasal groove
dull pinkish buff, becoming whiter as it expands on the cheeks where it is
lined with dull black; malar streak dull black, the feathers bordered with
whitish; sides of head dull black, the feathers bordered narrowly with light
drab; elongate crest, composed of slender feathers slightly recurved at tip,
dull black, bordered narrowly toward base with light drab; hindneck between
smoke gray and light grayish olive, shghtly streaked with black; feathers
of lower neck and upper back dull ivory-yellow, with shaft streak and five
or more narrow bars of fuscous-black, the dark bars more or less broken and
interrupted; feathers of back, inner wing-coverts and tertials mottled and
barred with mixed ivory-yellow and fuscous-black, with an admixture of
drab replacing part of the lighter markings; rump and upper tail-coverts
similar to back but with bars of light and dark heavier and more distinct,
the light markings varying from ivory-yellow to nearly white; outer wing-
coverts barred irregularly but heavily with ivory-yellow and fuscous-black,
the light markings in places almost white; primaries and secondaries dull
fuscous-black; outer webs of primaries barred narrowly with ivory-yellow,
an indefinite broken bar of the same color on inner web; secondaries crossed
with irregular bars of ivory-yellow; rectrices barred narrowly with fuscous-
black and ivory-yellow ; throat dull white ; f oreneck and upper breast dull
ivory-yellow, each feather with shaft streak and several faint wavy vermicu-
lations of fuscous-black; breast, abdomen, sides, flanks and under tail-coverts
ivory -yellow barred broadly with fuscous-black; abdomen ivory yellow, the
abdomen tending to become immaculate toward center; thighs pale ivory-
yellow; under wing-coverts and axillars dull white, barred with fuscous-black.
Measurements of type. — Wing 211 mm., tail 97.5 mm., tarsus 40.6 mm.,
culmen 25 mm.
Range. — Province of San Juan, Argentina.
Remarks. — The pale coloration of Calopezus e. albidus distinguishes it at
a glance from other subspecies of the crested tinamou. It is as distinct from
C. e.formosus LiUo of eastern Tucuman and northwestern Santiago del Estero,
as from C. e. morenoi which ranges north into the Province of Mendoza.
The peculiarities of this pale form were described to me by sportsmen who
were familiar with it in the field, and who distinguished it from the darker
subspecies of other regions. The type, an old specimen in the U. S. National
Museum, has no definite locality assigned on the label other than the Province
of San Juan, but it seems probable that albidus ranges through the plains of
eastern San Juan.
438 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 18
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— T/zr effect of alum on silicate
colloids} C. S. ScoFiELD, Bureau of Plant Industry.
On the irrigated lands of the western United States there are numer-
ous instances where the soil contains soluble silicates, chiefly combined
with sodium. Where the stronger acids, the sulfates and the chlorides,
are removed by the leaching action of irrigation these colloidal silicates
cause serious trouble by checking the free movement of water through
the soil and by cementing the soil particles into a solid mass when the
water is evaporated.
The complete reclamation of salty irrigated land is often difficult
or impossible because of the presence of these colloidal silicates, which
cannot readily be leached from the soil. The occurrence of sodium
silicate as an important component of the salt complex of arid soils
has not been generally recognized, probably because it does not readily
leach out of the soil. It is also often confused with sodium carbonate
or "black alkali" since both salts give an alkaline reaction with phenol-
phthalein. It now seems probable that the well-known puddling
effect in soils usually ascribed to sodium carbonate is to be explained
as due to sodium silicate.
In attempting to improve the physical condition of certain irrigated
soils that are relatively impermeable to water and that become very
hard on drying, it has been found that aluminum sulfate is very effec-
tive. This salt is readily soluble and in solution reacts directly with
sodium silicate forming an insoluble aluminum silicate and leaving
in the soil solution the resulting sodium sulfate which may be removed
easily by leaching.
The results of such laboratory and field experiments as have been
made indicate that aluminum sulfate may be used freely on alkaline
irrigated land without injury to succeeding crops. In fact an exam-
ination of the leachings from soils to which liberal applications of
aluminum sulfate have been made shows that practically all the alum-
inum is precipitated in the soil and that corresponding quantities of
sodium, calcium, and magnesium are released into the soil solution
combined with the sulfate radicle.
In view of the possibility that aluminum sulfate may come to be used
extensively in the reclamation of alkali lands under irrigation it is
fortunate to find that there are numerous deposits of alum in the
western United States. Some of these deposits appear to contain
alum in soluble form while in other cases it occurs as alunite which
1 Received October 10, 1921.
NOV. 4, 1921 abstracts: physics 439
may be converted into the soluble form by grinding and heating with
sulfuric acid, a commodity readily available at western smelters.
It remains to be determined what rate of application of aluminum
sulfate will be required for different alkali soils. Marked improvement
in permeability to water and in physical condition on subsequent dry-
ing have been noted from applications at the rate of one ton per acre
while much heavier applications have not shown any deleterious effect
on subsequent crop growth. It is believed that the discovery of the
beneficial effect of alum on alkaline irrigated land opens a wide field
of investigation in this perplexing subject.
ABSTRACTvS
Authors of scientific papers are requeste 1 to see that abstracts, preferably prepared
and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should
conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
PHYSICS. — The present status of the constants and verification of the laws of
thermal radiation of a uniformly heated enclosure. W. W. CoblENTz.
Bur. Standards Sci. Papers 17: 7-i8. (No. 406.) 1921.
An examination is made of the instruments, methods, and experimental
data pertaining to various determinations of the constant, (x, of total radiation
and the constant, c, of spectral radiation of a black body. After making
obvious corrections for reflection from the receiver and for atmospheric ab-
sorption, the determinations of various experimenters are in close agreement,
giving a value of o- = 5.72 X 10 ~^ ergs, and c = 14320 micron degrees. W. W. C.
SPECTROSCOPY. — Wave-length measurements in arc spectra photographed
in the yellow, red and infra-red. F. M. Walters, Jr. Bur. Standards
Sci. Papers 17: 161-177. (No. 411.) 1921.
For several years the Bureau of Standards has been conducting grating
measurements in red and infra-red arc spectra by the aid of specially sensitized
photographic plates to improve the data and to find some element which
would furnish lines suitable for wave-length standards in this region. To
the measurements on 25 elements already made, the following are here added :
Silver, Aluminum, Gold, Bismuth, Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Antimony,
Tin, Zinc. The wave-length measurements are in the international system
and are given to 0.01 A.
The elements were brought to luminosity by inserting a sample in copper
or graphite electrodes between which the arc was maintained. The grating
used had 297 lines per mm. and a 640 cm. radius. The spectra were photo-
graphed in the first order on plates sensitized with pinacyanol or dicyanin.
The comparison spectrum was iron in the first, second, or third order, and in
the reductions the wave-lengths established by interference methods were
used. F. M. W.
PHYSICS. — The use of the Ulbricht sphere in the measurement of reflection
and transmission factors. Enoch Karrer. Bur. Standards Sci. Papers
17:203-225. (No. 415.) 1921.
A brief historical survey is given of the methods and instruments used in
measuring the reflection factor of surfaces. The various ways in which the
440 JOURNAL OF THE WAvSHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. ]S
Sphere has been used up to recent years are briefly described. The recent
appHcations of the sphere in a manner that affords the absolute determination
of the reflection factor are also described, and several new ways of using the
sphere are pointed out. One of the new ways consists in a combination of
the sphere with the Martens polarization photometer, which enables a direct
comparison to be made between the brightness of the sphere wall and the
brightness of the test surface which closes an aperture in the sphere. The
sphere wall is illuminated by directing a narrow beam of light through an
aperture on to a spot of the sphere walls adjacent to the aperture that is
closed by the sample. The sample is illuminated by the sphere wall, but is
screened from the direct light from the illuminated spot. The ratio of bright-
ness which is obtained by means of the Martens photometer is exactly the
reflection factor of the test surface.
Thus the reflection factor is determined by one observation without further
calculation, and without the use of a standard reflecting surface. This method
may be modified so that the transmission factor may likewise be determined
absolutely. The theor}^ of the hollow sphere (commonly referred to in tech-
nical literature as the Ulbricht sphere) is given to show how this reflectom-
■eter in theory and practice conforms with it. The use of the sphere in
some such manner as this is a step toward standardization. E. K.
METALLOGRAPHY. — The structure and related properties of metals. Bur.
Standards Circular 113. 1921.
This circular is a comprehensive discussion of the phase of metallography
indicated by the title. With but very few exceptions, the numerous illus-
trative examples which have been used throughout the text as types have
been taken from the results of examinations of metallographic specimens
submitted to the Bureau for examination and test.
In the discussion of the methods for revealing the structure of metals, the
various reagents used in the macroscopic study of metals are described par-
ticularly as related to the purpose for which they are used, that is, for reveal-
ing chemical unhomogeneity, crystalline heterogeneity, physical unsoundness
and mechanical nonuniformity. The principles underlying the action of
etching reagents are discussed, and a list of suitable reagents for revealing
the microstructure of the common industrial metals and alloys given.
Chief among the conditions which affect the structure of an alloy is chemical
composition, and for any particular system of alloys this is graphically sum-
marized in the constitutional or structural diagram. The structure is also
profoundly affected by temperature; for example, upon heating, an alloy
tends to assume a condition of physico-chemical equilibrium by diffusion,
etc., so that after heating, the structure may be profoundly different from
the initial state. Grain growth and phase changes upon heating are also
of importance, particularly the latter, as it is to this property that the value
of heat treatment as a means of obtaining wide variations in the physical
properties of steel and other alloys is due. The mechanical deformation
which constitutes the "working" of a metal also has a decided effect upon
its structure.
GEODESY. — Relation between plane rectangular coordinates and geographic
positions. Walter F. Reynolds. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey,
Spec. Publ. 71 (Serial 159). Pp. 89, figs. 2. 1921.
Control surv^eys covering large areas are made and computed by the use
of geographic coordinates (latitudes and longitudes) because of the curvature
of the earth. For this reason results of triangulation in publications of the
NOV. 4, HI21 abstracts: geology 441
U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, the U. vS. Geological Survey, and the U. S.
Corps of Engineers are always given in geographic coordinates. \\Tien sur-
veys are made over small areas such as are occupied by cities and small coun-
ties, the use of plane coordinates is more convenient and the computations
are simplified.
The tables in this publication enable the county or city surveyor w^ho wishes
to use the stations given in the above-mentioned government publications
for the control of his surveys, to convert quickly the geographic coordinates
given there into plane coordinates without the use of difficult formulas. The
development of the formulas used in the computation of the tables is given
in an appendix at the end of the book. W. F. R.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— r/i^ crystal structure of magnesium oxide.
Ralph W. G. Wyckoff. Amer. Journ. Sci. 1: 138-151. 1921.
An attempt has been made, using Laue photographs and X-ray spectrum
measurements, to get a unique solution for the crystal structure of magnesium
oxide. If it possesses holohedral symmetry-, then the only simple structure
which is possible is the "sodium chloride arrangement." Certain cases of
grouping showing tetratohedral symmetry, and two more complicated holo-
hedral arrangements, each with thirty-two molecules associated with the
unit, are in agreement with the existing experiments. These other possi-
bilities, however, differ but slightly from the "sodium chloride arrangement,"
and cannot be positively treated by the experimental facilities now available.
R. W. G. W.
MINERALOGY. — Note on augite from Vesttvius and Etna. Henry S.
Washington and H. E. Merwin. Amer. Journ. Sci. 1: 20-30. 1921.
The paper includes a description and analysis of crystals of augite collected
at the bottom of the crater of Vesuvius in 1914. The chemical composition
of the cr>'stals is almost identical with that of pyroxenites of Monte Somma,
described by Lacroix. The relative merits of the gravitative-adjustment
and fraction al-cr}-stallization theories of certain forms of differentiation are
discussed.
Crystals of augite from Monti Rossi, from the eruption of Etna in 1669
are also described, with a new analysis and optical determinations. No
good analyses of the augites of either Vesuvius or Etna are to be found in
the literature. Spallanzani (circa 1790) was the first to determine the relative
melting points of the feldspars and augite, and to measure their relative mag-
netic susceptibility; he is therefore to be regarded as the first experimental
geophysicist. The paper also gives a comparison of the chemical compositions
of various Italian augites with the lavas that contain them. H. S. W.
GEOLOGY.— r/t^ Divide silver district, Nevada. Adolph Knopf. U. S
Geol. Survey Bull. 715-K. Pp. 24 (147-170). 1921.
The Divide district, one of Nevada's newest silver camps, centers at Gold
Mountain, 5 miles south of Tonopah. The discovery of silver ore that started
the great activity at this camp was made late in 1917, wholly by chance.
A crosscut was being driven to cut a small gold vein that had been worked
higher on the slope of Gold Mountain intermittently since 1902, and before
it had been driven far enough to cut the gold vein it quite unexpectedly inter-
sected a rich silver-bearing lode. Further exploration indicated that a large
and valuable ore body had thus accidentally been discovered.
The prevailing rock in the Divide district is the Fraction rhyolite breccia.
This is intruded by several stocks of the Oddie rhyolite and by a large mass
442 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 18
of andesite. Later than all of these is a series of latite lava flows, which cap
the highest peaks of the district.
The ore bodies are zones of fracturing and shearing in the Fraction rhyo-
lite breccia; strictly speaking they are lodes, not veins. The chief silver-
bearing mineral is cerargyrite (horn silver), which is commonly concentrated
in rich masses along irregular seams of sericite that traverse the lodes. The
primary metalliferous material is leanly mineralized rhyolite breccia carrying
a small amount of finely disseminated pyrite and threaded by thin veinlets
of exceedingly fine-grained quartz. What the primary silver-bearing mineral
is has not been determined. The scarcity of quartz or of silicification is a
noteworthy feature of the ores of the Divide district, especially in contrast
with the high silica content of the ores in the adjoining district of Tonopah.
The silver in the lean primary material of the lodes was concentrated by
downward enrichment as soft "sooty" argentite, and subsequently most of
this supergene argentite was converted to horn silver. A. K,
GEOLOGY and HYDROLOGY.— ii;t;^/orator>' drilling for ivater and use of
ground water for irrigation in Steptoe Valley, Nevada. W. O. Clark
and C. W. RiddELL, with an introduction by O. B. Meinzer. U. S.
Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 467. Pp. 70, pis. 6, figs. 6. 1920.
Steptoe Valley, in east-central Nevada, is about 95 miles long and 900
square miles in area. It lies in a structural trough between northward-
trending mountain ranges and contains thick deposits of alluvium with under-
lying lake beds. Ancient shore features show that the valley once contained
a lake about 30 miles long which discharged northward into Gosiute Valley.
The valley is too arid for agriculture without irrigation, and the supply of
surface water is meager.
The paper gives the results of test drilling that was done b)^ the Geological
Survey, as authorized by Congress, for the purpose of finding water for irri-
gation. The test wells demonstrate that beneath the desert surface are
stored supplies of water adequate in quality and quantity for irrigation.
The paper also comprises a systematic description of the hydrology of the
valley with special reference to the interpretation of the results obtained in
drilling. It includes numerous measurements of stream flow and absorption,
on the basis of which it is estimated that the perennial streams contribute
about 20,000 acre-feet a year to the ground-water supply and that the total
annual ground-water supply is probably not less than 50,000 acre-feet. Cer-
tain plant species were found to feed habitually on the water in the zone of
saturation, and different species were found to indicate different depths to
the water table. The detailed map shows the zones of the principal water-
indicating plants, the areas of active and intermittent ground-water dis-
charge, and the estimated depths to the water table. It shows that water
is being discharged from the zone of saturation, through soil and plants, in
an area of about 115,000 acres. The paper also describes a number of large
springs, some of which are thermal. It includes a map of Nevada showing
38 Pleistocene lake beds thus far discovered lying wholly or partly in the
State, four of which were mapped in the present investigation. O. E. M.
NOV. 4, 1921 proceedings: academy 443
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF MANAGERS
At the 24Sth meeting of the Board, on February 28, 1921, the Editors of
the Journal were authorized to classify the Academy's excess stock of sepa-
rates from the Proceedings (1898-1911) and to publish lists of these papers
on the back cover of the Journal, offering the papers for sale for a limited
period at prices from one third to one fifth the regular price. (Publication
of the lists was begun on March 4.) Messrs. C. I,. Alsberg, F. V. CoviLLE,
H. S. Graves, A. D. Hopkins, and E. W. Nelson were appointed a committee
to represent the Academy at the Lubin Memorial Meeting. At the suggestion
of the Botanical Society, the President appointed a committee to investigate
the facts regarding the sending of scientific literature to Russian scientists,
the committee consisting of A. S. Hitchcock, Vernon Kellogg, and Raphael
ZON.
The 249th meeting, on March 14, and the 250th, on March 28, were de-
voted to elections of members and routine business. The committee to
consider transmission of literature to Russia reported on the existing situation,
but not enough information was available to warrant the Board in adopting
any definite proposals for action. At the 251st meeting, on May 2, the Board
voted to endorse the Mt. Hamilton project for a National Botanic Garden,
and Messrs. H. S. Graves, F. V. Coville, and T. Wayland Vaughan were
appointed a committee to cooperate with the Washington Society of the
Fine Arts and any other interested organizations in forwarding the project.
Mr. A. S. Hitchcock resigned as Vice-President from the Botanical Society
on account of absence from the United States, and Mr. Michael Shapo-
VALOV was elected to succeed him.
At the 252d meeting, on May 23, the committee on distribution of the
Proceedings reported that sets in libraries which had been on the mailing-list
had been completed in about 90 cases, and that complete sets were being
offered to a selected list of libraries which had not formerly received the
publication.
The following Committee on Meetings for the season 1921-1922 was an-
nounced at the 253d meeting, on August 1 : W. J. Humphreys, Chairman;
W. D. BiGELOw, O. C. Merrill, A. C. Spencer, and W. T. Swingle. The
preliminary^ report of the committee on a list of popular books in science for
the Public Library was considered in detail, and approved for publication
in the Journal as a tentative list subject to revision.^ Election of members
and routine business were taken up at the 254th meeting, on September 26.
The following persons have become members of the Academy since the
last report in the Journal (March 19, 1921, p. 139):
Dr. Sumner Gushing Brooks, Hygienic Laboratory, U. S. Public Health
Service, Washington, D. C.
' See This Journal U: .353-.366. September li), 1921.
444 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 18
Dr. Frederick Gardner Cottrell, National Research Council., 1701
Massachusetts Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Prof. Robert Fiske Griggs, National Geographic Society and George
Washington University, Washington, D. C.
Prof. Mayo D. Hersey, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts.
Dr. Earl S. Johnston, Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station, CoUege
Park, Maryland.
Dr. E. Lester Jones, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C.
Dr. Robert Hamilton Lombard, Geophysical Laboratory', Carnegie
Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C.
Dr. Henry C. Macatee, 1478 Harvard Street, Washington, D. C.
Dr. Richard Bishop Moore, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C.
Dr. Robert W. SaylES, Geological Museum, Harvard University.
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Assistant Surgeon General J. W. Schereschewsky, U. S. PubUc Health
Service, Washington, D. C.
Dr. Michael Shapovalov, Bureau of Plant Industr>% U. S. Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
Dr. Edwin Emery Slosson, Science Servdce, 1701 Massachusetts Avenue,
Washington, D. C.
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
,353d meeting
The 353d meeting of the Geological Society of Washington was held in the
auditorium of the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m. on Wednesday, January 12, 1921.
Regular Program
H. G. Ferguson: Lode deposits of Manhattan, Nevada. (Illustrated with
lantern slides.)
C. N. Fenner: Structural and volcanic geology of the Katmai region, Alaska.
(Illustrated with lantern slides.) This paper has been published.^
H. D. Miser: Llanoria, the Paleozoic land area in Louisiana and eastern
Texas.
Evidence for a Paleozoic land area that occupied at least a part of Louisiana
and eastern Texas has been published from time to time by different geologists.
The most important paper on the subject is one by J. C. Branner, published
in the American Journal of Science in 1897. Considerable information on
the subject was obtained by the late Dr. A. H. Purdue and the writer during
several years' study of the rock formations in the Ouachita Mountains and
Arkansas Valley of Arkansas and Oklahoma, beginning in 1907. The follow-
ing conclusions are based on this information and on the data published by
other geologists. A land area which has been called Llano by Willis, Schu-
chert, and Ulrich, and Llanoria by Dumble and Powers, existed in Louisiana
and eastern Texas during much, if not most, of the Paleozoic era, and during
the Triassic and Jurassic periods of the Mesozoic era. It varied in outline
from time to time. It may have occupied a part of the area of the present
Gulf of Mexico; at times it was doubtless connected with large land areas
1 Journ. Geol. 28: 569-606. 1920.
NOV. 4, 1921 proceedings: geological society 44.")
occupying at least much of central and northern Texas, southern Oklalioma,
and southern Arkansas, and for short periods it may have extended eastward
across the lower Mississippi Valley and joined the southwest end of the Appa-
lachian area. It furnished most of the sediments that formed the clastic rocks
of Pennsylvanian age in north-central Texas, and for those of Ordovician,
Silurian, Mississippian, and Pennsylvanian age in the Ouachita Mountains
and Arkansas Valley of Arkansas and Oklahoma. At times, as during the
Devonian period, it had very little relief, but at other times, as during the
Ordovician and Silurian periods and the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian
epochs, it was mountainous. It was depressed and entirely submerged
during Lower Cretaceous time and later depressions carried the sea across
it during Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary time, so that its rocks are now
covered and entirely concealed by deposits of these ages. The discover}'-
of pre-Cambrian schists directly beneath Cretaceous strata at Waco, George-
town, Maxwell, San Antonio, and Leon Springs, Texas, suggests that the
rocks of this old buried land area were similar to the crystalline rocks now
exposed in the Piedmont Plateau of the eastern United States. If so, such
rocks underlie the Cretaceous strata over much of Louisiana, eastern Texas,
and perhaps adjoining areas to the south and east. Prominent structural
features of the Gulf Coastal Plain, including the Preston anticline and Sabine
uplift, may mark the location of some of the folds that were produced in the
rocks on the old land area but that have undergone further movement since
they were buried by Cretaceous and later sediments.
The results of future deep drilling in the Gulf Coastal Plain and further
study of the Paleozoic and older rocks that are exposed around the borders
of the Gulf Plain will add greatly to our imperfect knowledge of the old land
area considered in this abstract. Laurence LaForge, Secretary.
354th meeting
The 354th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club at
8 p.m. on Wednesday, January 20, 1921.
Regular Program
D. F. Hewett and E. V. Shannon: Orientite, a new silicate of manganese
and calcium. A. — Chemical properties (Shannon). B. — Genesis and signifi-
cance (Hewett).
As Mr. Shannon was out of the city the entire paper was presented by Mr.
Hewett. -
Charles Butts: General results of recent work on the Mississippian of the
Mississippi and Ohio valleys.
J. B. Reeside and Harvey Bassler: Phases of the Carboniferous and
Triassic of southwestern Utah.
The geologic section of southwestern Utah includes rocks assigned to the
Redwall limestone of Pennsylvanian age, the Supai and Coconino sandstones
and Kaibab limestone of Permian age, the Moenkopi formation of Lower
Triassic age, the Shinarump conglomerate and Chinle formation of Upper
Triassic age. Comparison with the formations of areas to the southeast
in Arizona and to the west and north in Nevada and Utah warrant the follow-
ing conclusions: The Supai formation, passing from east to west and north-
west, loses its red color and its shale members and merges with the Coconino
to form a continuous massive yellow sandstone. The Kaibab limestone
becomes thicker but has everywhere two cliff-forming limestone members
separated by g^^psiferous beds. The red continental deposits of the Moen^
446 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. IS
kopi pass with considerable interfingering into marine limestone. The Shina-
rump conglomerate and the Chinle formation maintain the same general
character though quite variable locally. There is a pronounced hiatus at
the base of the Moenkopi formation and another at the base of the Shinarump
conglomerate. The age assignment of the Redwall, Kaibab, and Moenkopi
formations is based on fossils ; the assignment of the other formations is based
on lithology and stratigraphic position only. W. T. Thom, Jr., Secretary.
355th meeting
The 355th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club at
8 p.m. on Wednesday, February 9, 1921.
Regular Program
H. S. Washington: The Deccan traps and other plateau basalts.
R. C. Wells: Utilization of some western salines and saline lakes. (Illus-
trated with lantern slides.)
R. S. BasslER: Paleontological work at the National Museum. (Illustrated
with lantern slides.)
Laurence LaForge, Secretary.
356th meeting
The 356th meeting of the Society was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos
Club, at 8 p.m. on Wednesday, February 23, 1921.
Informal Communications
Dr. R. C. Wells called attention to an inadvertent misstatement in his
paper given at the previous meeting, and corrected the same.
Mr. Laurence LaForge gave a brief review of a paper by J. W. Gregory
on The eskers of Ireland and compared Professor Gregory's conclusions with
those derived by American glacialists from the study of American eskers.
Regular Program
F. E. Matthes : Torrent channels and torrent levees in the Yosemite Valley.
(Illustrated with lantern slides.)
Sidney Paige : Structure of the Homestake ore body (illustrated with black-
board drawings and a wooden model). W. T. Thom, Jr., Secretary.
357th meeting
The 357th meeting of the Society was held in the lecture room of the Cos-
mos Club at 8 p.m. on Wednesday, March 9, 1921.
Regular Program
G. R. Mansfield: Igneous geology of southeastern Idaho. (Illustrated
with lantern slides.)
A. I. Jonas and E. Bliss Knopf: Stratigraphy of the metamorphic rocks of
southeastern Pennsylvania and Maryland.
The oldest metamorphic rocks of the southeastern border of the Piedmont
Plateau are of pre-Cambrian age. The oldest formation is the Baltimore
gneiss which is a composite gneiss comprising a thoroughly recrystallized
biotite gneiss of undeterminate origin, possibly sedimentary, and a granitic
intrusion that has interpenetrated the biotite gneiss and produced in many
places an injection gneiss. The age of the granite has not yet been definitely
determined and it is probable that the Baltimore gneiss has been cut by several
granites of widely separated periods of intrusion.
The Baltimore gneiss is overlain by a series of sediments that are tentatively
considered to be lower Cambrian. The base of this series is the Setters form-
NOV. 4, 1921 SCIRNTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 447
atioii which has hitherto been connected with the lower Cambrian fossiliferotis
Chickies quartzite of Pennsylvania. The work of the writers in the last two
years has led them to conclude that the Setters formation is older than the
Chickies quartzite. The vSetters is overlain by the Cockeysville marble and
the Wissahickon formation. An upper member of the Wissahickon formation
that is less highly anamorphosed than the Wissahickon itself has been sep-
arated and named by the writers the Peters Creek schist. The Peters Creek
schist may represent the Harpers schist member of the Mont Alto quartzite
of central Pennsylvania, in which case the metamorphic series comprising
the Setters formation, Cockeysville marble, Wissahickon formation, and
Peters Creek schist would be, as suggested by the writers, basal Cambrian.
The Chickies quartzite in Pennsylvania has been shown to be GOO feet above
the base of the Cambrian.
The Camargo schist is the name given by the writers to a porphyritic albite
schist that comformably oAcrlies a dolomite of probable Beekmantown age.
It forms the ridge that flanks Chester Valley on the south and comprises a
portion of the formation formerly known as the Octoraro schist. It may
represent the metamorphosed equivalent of the Normanskill shale found
near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. The contact between the Wissahickon
formation, Peters Creek schist, and the Camargo schist on the southwest
border of the Camargo schist is a thrust fault called in the report the Drumore
fault. It has been traced from Trenton. New Jersey, 150 miles southwest
to Carroll County, Maryland. Further work on the northeast continuation
of this fault will help to establish a correlation between the geology of New
England and of the Pennsylvania Piedmont formations.
O. E. Meinzer: a map of Pleistocene lakes in the Basin-and-Range Province,
and its interpretation. (Illustrated with lantern slides.)
Laurence LaForge, Secretary.
35STH MEETING
The 358th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club at
8 p.m. on Wednesday, March 23, 1921.
Regular Program
h. H. Adams: The elastic properties of rocks.
Laurence LaForge : Suggested modification of the doctrine of peneplanation
in the light of recent knowledge. - W. T. Thom, Jr., Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
The thirty-eighth annual convention of the Association of Official Agricul-
tural Chemists was held at the Washington Hotel on October 24-26.
An Executive Board meeting of the American Engineering Council was
held at the Cosmos Club at 10 a.m. on Friday, September 30. Reports were
presented from the Council's committees on licensing of engineers, classifi-
cation and compensation of engineers, Employment Service, and other
matters.
The following lectures have been given before the Physics Club of the
Bureau of Standards since the last report in this Journal (p. 171): April
4, 1921, S. J. Mauchly: The methods and problems of atmospheric electricity;
May 27 (joint meeting with Mathematics Club), J. S. Ames: Some appli-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11 NO. IS
cations of hydrodynamics to aeronattttcs; October 17, Arthur L. Day: The
study of California earth movements; October 24, H. G. Gale: Earth tides.
The National Museum has received the Hubert Ward collection of African
ethnologica from Paris, containing 19 sculptures by Mr. Ward and 2(300
specimens of the arms and implements of the Africans of the Congo.
Dr. Elmer D. Ball, formerly Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, has
entered upon his new duties as director of scientific work for the Department
of Agriculture.
Mr. E. F. HiCKSON, until recently associate engineer in the department
of technical control, American Writing Paper Company, Holyoke, Massachu-
setts, has returned to the Bureau of Standards as associate chemist.
Mr. C. E- Mangels has resigned as chemist in charge of the commercial
dehydration laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistr}^ U. S. Department of
Agriculture, to accept the position of cereal chemist at the North Dakota
Agricultural Experiment Station at Fargo, North Dakota.
Dr. Truman Michelson, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, returned
in October from three and a half months' field work among the Fox Indians
of Iowa.
Prof. Edward E. Richardson discussed the Philosophical aspects of Ein-
stein's theory of relativity before the Society for Philosophical Inquiry at the
Public Library on October 1.
Dr. L. I. vShaw, assistant chief chemist of the Bureau of Mines, has been
transferred to the Columbus, Ohio, ceramic experiment station of the Bureau,
where he will have charge of some newly organized research on refractory
products.
Dr. George Otis Smith, director of the U. S. Geological Survey, addressed
the annual meeting of the New York State Oil Producers' Association at
Olean, New York, on September 31, on The real value of oil.
Dr. Merwin Porter Snell, a member of the scientific staffs of the Smith-
sonian Institution and the Bureau of Fisheries in the years 1SS1-1S89, died
at his home at Stamford, Connecticut, on September 23, 1921, at the age of
fifty-eight.
Prof. A. Tadakadate, of the Imperial University of Tokyo, visited Wash-
ington in August, while on his way to the international conference on weights
and measures at Paris.
Dr. C. W. Waidner, Chief of the Heat Division of the Bureau of Standards,
has been appointed Chief Physicist of the Bureau to succeed the late E- B.
Rosa.
Secretary Charles D. Walcott of the Smithsonian Institution returned
from his field work in October. He reports the coldest and most disagreeable
field season he had ever known in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Paleon-
tological and geological work was greatly hindered by mist and snow.
Messrs. J. E. Walters, F. W. Schroeder, and Frank Porter, chemists
at the helium plant of the Bureau of Mines at Petrolia, Texas, have been
transferred to the new cryogenic laboratory of the Bureau in Washington.
Dr. R. C. Wells of the U. S. Geological Survey has been appointed treasurer
of the Chemical Society of Washington to fill the vacancy caused by the re-
moval of Dr. L. I. Shaw from Washington.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 November 19, 1921 No. 19
MATHEMATICS.- — On the correlation between any two functions and
its application to the general case of spurious correlation.'^ TowELiv
J. Reed, Johns Hopkins University. (Communicated by Ray-
mond Pearl.)
In problems where correlation methods are employed it is often
necessary to determine the coefficient of correlation between one of
the measured variables and some function of the others. In certain
cases we need to go still further and determine the correlation between
two different functions of the measured variables. Such cases arise
where two different index numbers are correlated with each other
or when an index number is correlated with one of the measured
variables. In all problems of this type the coefficient of correlation
may be found by computing the value of the function in question
at each position for which the values of the variables themselves
are known and then finding the correlation coefficient in the usual
way. In a great many cases however there would be a considerable
saving of labor if this coefficient could be determined directly from
the means, standard deviations, and first order correlation coefficients
of the variables themselves. The following general equation has
been derived to accomplish this and it should prove to be of use in
problems of the type outlined above. The proof of the formula
is too long to be given in the present paper, but will be published
later, together w4th additional illustrations of its application.
Let Xi, X2, Xn be a set of n variables,
and Xi, 00^, x^ be a second set of k variables.
Let Wi, Wo, m„ be the means of the variables of the first
set,
0-1, 0-2, (Tn be their standard deviations,
and rxix,, fxiXz >'xn-ixn be the coefficients of correlation between
these variables taken in pairs.
1 Papers from the Department of Biometry and Vital Statistics, School of Hygiene,
Johns Hopkins University, No. 38. Received October 18, 1921.
449
450 JOURNAL OP THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 19
The same notation will be used for the means, standard deviations
and coefficients of correlation of the primed variables.
Now lety = f {x^, x.^, x„)
and z = f{x[,x'„ x'k)
represent any two analytic functions of these two sets of variables.
Then the correlation between these two functions is measured by
X^j ^j fa Fp rxaXp(Ta<r0
a=l ^=1
I'yz —
r n n
n r /^
(1)
1
J
in which
/« =
d f(if2i,m2, mn)
d m
a
and
F^ =
c) F (ni{, mj, m'k)
The derivation of equation (1) yielded as a by-product the ex-
pressions for the mean and standard deviation of any function of
a set of variables in terms of the means, standard deviations and first
order coefficients of correlation of the variables themselves.- These
formulae are
(a) for the mean value of y = f{xi, x^, Xn),
n n
niy = / + 3^ ^ ^ /a/3 rxaX^(^a(^0 (2)
a=l /3=1
where / = / (wi, 7no, ntn)
^^/(wi, mo, m„)
and
f al3 =
d nia ^fn ft
(b) for the standard deviation of y — f{xi, Xo, Xn),
n n
crv =
VX'i Xl f'^Jt^ *'XaXfi (Ta^-ft
« = ! /3=1
(3)
2 For another derivation of equations (2) and (.3) see E- Czuber, Uber Funktionen von
Variablen zzvischen welchen Korrelationen bestehen. Metron 1, No. 1, July, 1920.
NOV. 19, 1921 REED : CORRELATION BETWEEN FUNCTIONS 451
Equations (1), (2) and (3) furnish a complete set of formulae for
the determination of the means, standard deviations, and coefficient
of correlation of any two functions of two sets of variables in terms
of the means, standard deviations, and coefficients of correlation
of the variables themselves.
It should be noted that, in the derivation of these formulae, all
r 1 • Ci (To
terms of the third or higher orders in the variables — .-^' etc., were
nil mi
disregarded. Therefore in a practical problem when the standard
deviation is large as compared with the mean the formula might not
give a sufficiently close approximation to the true value of the cor-
relation coefficient. In the majority of cases, however, the ratio
of the standard deviation to the mean is a sufficiently small decimal
so that disregarding its powers higher than the second can have no
appreciable effect on the result.
To illustrate the use of equation (1) we may first apply it to the
case of the correlation between ratios. Let the variables be Xi, %i
and x[, x'l and the ratios be >- = — and 2 = — .
X<i X-i
1
Then
Substituting these values in (1) and replacing "=— by ^i, — by i^i, etc.,
Wi W2
we have
ry:.= (4)
This is Pearson's^ well known formula for the coefficient of cor-
relation of two indices or ratios. Formulae for the means and standard
deviations of y and z can be obtained from equations (2) and (3).
They are m = — [1 -f 1-2^ - rriX2^i^2]
nu
and o-y = — V i'r + i'2- - 2r x^x^x 112
mi
' Pearson, K. On a form of spurious correlation which may arise when indices are used
in the measurement of organs. Proc. Roy. Soc, London 60. 1896.
452 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. U, NO. 19
As a second illustration let us consider the correlation between
products of the variables.
Let y = XiXo and z — X\X% .
Then from (1) we have
Ty, = , =• (5)
^ (c'l^ + V.' + 2r^,x.v,v,) W + v." + 2rx,'x/nW)
The mean and standard deviation, derived from equations (2) and
(3), are given by
niy = Wim2 [1 + r.Y,T, ?'i^'?]
and (Ty = WiWo V vr + ^'2^ + ^rx^XiWd-z
If we consider x-z' to be constant we have a special case of formula (5)
of considerable importance ; that is, the case of the correlation between
the product of two variables, y = x^Xi, and some third variable
z = Xi'.
For this case
rr,r,'^'i + rx2Xi'V2
Tyz = ~ — • (6)
^v i'^ + V2^ -\- 2rx,x2'Vi'V2
Formulae (5) and (6) will be found useful in those cases in which the
product of two measurable linear functions is used as an index number
for a surface that cannot be directly measured, as is the case for
instance in dealing with the surface of the human body.
The problem of finding the coefhcient of correlation between some
function of a set of variables and some other measured variable is
so common that it is advisable to consider the form taken by equation
(1) in this case. We would have
y = f {xi, Xi, xn) and z = F (xi') = Xi'.
Then
n
y'i Ja't'xaXi' Ca-
a=l
TyZ —
(7)
n n
\ a=l ^=1
NOV. 10, 1921 reed: CORRELATION BETWEEN FUNCTIONS 453
It should be noted that the standard deviation of the variable x/
does not enter this equation directly, the only factor involving Xi'
being the correlation coefficient r.T„.Ti'- Equation (6) which was
derived as a special case of formula (5) might have been obtained
directly from (7) .
SPURIOUS CORRELATION
Attention was first called to the subject of spurious correlation in a
paper by Pearson^ where he considered the case of the spurious cor-
Xi Xo
relation between two ratios of the form — and - . Pearson showed
Xs Xs
that although Xi, x-i, and x^ were uncorrelated variables there would
Xl X'y ...
be correlation between the two ratios — and — , this correlation arising
Xs Xs
from the fact that Xs is common to the two indices. Since this cor-
relation exists where there is no correlation between Xu Xi and Xz he
gave it the name of spurious corr elation. The arguments used by
Pearson in connection with the spurious correlation between ratios
will hold in the case of correlation between any two functions, and a
general definition of spurious correlation might be given as follows.
Though no correlation exists between any two of a set of variables
there will still exist correlation between any two functions of these
variables whenever these two functions have any of the variables in
common. The correlation existing under these conditions will be
called spurious correlation.
A general formula for spurious correlation may be derived directly
from equation (1). Using, as before, y = f{xi, JC2, Xn) and
2 = F{xi', Xt' Xk') we shall have spurious correlation only
when some of the variables X\, x-i, Xn are identical with some of
the variables x^' , x-i Xk'-
Let Xi = X\
Xo = x-->'
^ .... ^
^h = ^h where h <k and h < n.
Then, from the definition of spurious correlation, rxaX0= 0 except
for the cases where a = P < hin which event Txax^ = 1 •
^ Op. cit.
454 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEjMY OF SCONCES VOIv. 11, NO. 19
Thus we shall have
^J^j /a " a^a
Pyz
(8)
r
n
J L
where p is used to denote spurious correlation.
All of the special cases considered under equation (1) will exhibit one
or more forms of spurious correlation.
Xi Xi
For example, when y = — and z = — ; we may have three different
Xi Xi
cases of spurious correlation:
(a) when the fractions have the same denominator, 2. ^., ^^2 = ^i
(b) when the denominator of one is the same as the numerator of the
other, i. e.,X2 = Xi'
(c) when the fractions have common numerators, i. e.,Xi = Xi'.
The formulae for the spurious correlation in these three cases are
(a)
(b)
(c)
V2'
Pyz
Pyz
P yz
^ (^^1^ + ^2^) K'^ + ^2^)
-"02^
V ivi' + v^') iv^' + ^.'2'^)
Vi'
(9)
(10)
(11)
V (Di^ + 1)2-) (^1^ + ^'2'^)
Of these three cases the first one is the one which usually arises in
practice.
When the functions considered are products they may have a
common factor so that y = ^^1:^2 and z = Xx'xi.
Then
2
'01'
Pyz —
^{ih^- + V2') (vr- + c^2-).
(12)
NOV. 19, 1921 bridgman: the discontinuity of resistance 455
The foregoing illustrations show a few of the equations for specific
cases of spurious correlation that can be derived from the general
formula. Similar expressions may be obtained from equation (8)
for the spurious correlation between any two functions. The value
of the spurious correlation involved should always be considered
when drawing conclusions from the coefficient of correlation of any
two index numbers regardless of their functional form.
PHYSICS. — The discontinuity of resistance preceding supraconductiv-
ity} P. W. Bridgman, Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Harvard
University.
The phenomenon of supraconductivity has to the present time been
found in mercury, tin, thallium, and lead.- The resistance of the first
three of these metals changes discontinuously by a factor of the order
of 10** at a definite critical temperature. This temperature is 4.2° K.
for Hg, 3.78° for Sn, and 2.3° for Tl. The probability is that the
resistance of lead decreases discontinuously in the same way on
entering the supraconducting state, but the temperature has not yet
been definitely measured because it is in the range between 4.3°
and 20° which cannot as yet be controlled by a suitable cryostat.
Onnes estimates that the temperature of discontinuity of lead is about
6°K.
The discontinuous change of resistance has often been supposed
to be in some way intimately connected with the supraconducting
state. For instance, J. J. Thomson has a theory accounting for the
sudden disappearance of resistance.^ Now if such a phenomenon
of discontinuity occurred at an ordinary temperature, one would
almost certainly look for a polymorphic change as the cause of the
discontinuity. The thesis which I wish to support in this paper is
that the discontinuous change of resistance on entering the supra-
conducting state is also a mark of a polymorphic change, and that
discontinuity and supraconductivity are not as intimately* related
as sometimes supposed, but are due to quite distinct mechanisms.
According to this view, the normal condition in an individual
crystal grain of any metal at very low temperatures is supraconduc-
tivity. Any ordinary metal is an aggregate of crystal grains in ran-
' Received October 12, 1921.
' C. A. Crommelin. Phys. Zeitschr. 21: 274, 300, and 331. 1920.
3 J. J. Thomson. Phil. Mag. 30: 192-202. 1915.
45G JOURNAL Olf THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 19
dom orientation with respect to each other. Between the crystalline
grains there are localities in which the atoms are not regularly ar-
ranged, but the metal is more or less amorphous in character, and
in these localities there is a residual resistance that persists to ab-
solute zero. The curve of resistance against temperature of such
a metal becomes asymptotic at absolute zero to a low but finite re-
sistance. Suppose, however, the metal is one having a polymorphic
transition in the region of low temperatures. Normally the growth of
the polymorphic form will start from a single nucleus, so that after
the transition the wire will consist of a single crystalline grain with-
out amorphous regions. On raising the temperature again beyond
the transition point the wire recovers its original crystalline structure
and its original resistance. The recovery of the original structure
is of course evidence of some sort of residual nuclear structure in
the low-temperature modification. This appears at first sight not
what one would expect, but it is exactly what is found in the transition
of ordinary polymorphs at higher temperatures.
Apart from its intrinsic probability and the fact that this view
does not need to invoke a new mechanism to explain the discon-
tinuity, there is considerable evidence in its favor. In the first place
the original belief that supraconductivity was in some way connected
with the purity of the metal, and that only those metals would show
that it could be obtained in a state of extreme purity, has not turned
out to be true. It has been found that amalgams show the effect,
and that gold, which has been obtained in a higher state of purity
than lead or tin, does not show the effect.
The appearance of supraconductivity is to a certain extent ca-
pricious, and occasionally samples are prepared which for some un-
known reason do not become supraconducting. This is to be ex-
plained by some accident of structure or handling which caused
the growth of the polymorphic form to start from more than one
nuclear center, so that regions of separation between the different
grains persist beyond the transition point.
The temperature of the discontinuity of resistance is known to
be depressed when the current in the conductor is increased, and
also when the conductor is placed in a magnetic field. Silsbee'* has
shown in this Journal that the probability is high that the phenomena
are not unrelated, but that the threshold value of the current is that
at which the magnetic field within the wire due to the current itself
*F. B. SiLSBEE. This Journal 6: 597-G02. 1916.
NOV. 19, 1921 bridgman: the discontinuity of resistance 457
reaches the threshold value. It is sufFicient to explain, therefore,
the effect of the magnetic field on the temperature of discontinuity.
I show in the following that the temperature of a polymorphic tran-
sition is altered by a magnetic field, so that again we do not have to
invoke any unusual or new connection between the conduction mechan-
ism at low temperatures and the magnetic field in order to explain
the facts. In addition to the effect on the temperature of discon-
tinuity, the magnetic field exerts a large effect on the resistance
above the transition point ; we are not here concerned with this effect,
but merely with the relation between the field and the discontinuity
(or polymorphic transition).
Since it requires energy to magnetize a body, a simple thermody-
namic argument is capable of finding the effect of a magnetic field
on a transition temperature. The argument runs precisely like
that used in deducing Clapeyron's equation for the connection be-
tween an increment of pressure and the change in the temperature of
a transition point. The classical Clapeyron's equation is
dr (c'2 — Vi)dp
This is obtained by a direct application of the second law of ther-
modynamics to a cycle consisting of a transition from phase (1) to
phase (2) at temperature t and pressure p, transfer of the substance
to temperature t -f dr and pressure p -f- dp, transition here in the
reverse direction from phase (2) to phase (1), and transfer of the sub-
stance back to the initial temperature and pressure. In the equation
above, X is the latent heat absorbed when phase (1) passes to (2),
and (i'2 — Vi)dp is the work received by the external forces during
the cycle.
The analysis is precisely similar in the case of a magnetic field
except that the work done by the external forces, which in the pre-
vious case was work done by the external pressure, now becomes work
done by the magnetic forces. The cycle consists of a transition from
phase (1) to (2) at temperature r and magnetic field H, transfer of the
substance to temperature t -\- dr and field H -\- dH, transition in
the reverse direction from (2) to (1), and transfer of the substance
back to the initial temperature and field. In Clapeyron's equation
as written above we merely have to replace (^2 — Vi)dp by the work
done during the cycle on the magnetic forces. Now the work done
by the magnetic forces during a change of magnetization is Hdl.
458 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES .VOL. 11, NO. 19
During the first transition H remains constant, but I changes from
kiHtohH. Hence the total work during the transition is 7/2(^^2 — ki).
During the transfer from t and H to t + dr and H + dH, the sus-
ceptibility remains constant, but H changes by dH. The work
during this stage is k^HdH. Similar expressions give the work during
the other two stages of the cycle. The total work of the cycle is
HdHiki — ko), and the equation for which we are searching is there-
fore
dr (^2 - k,)HdH
Under ordinary conditions the change of transition temperature
in a magnetic field is very small, but at low temperatures the effect
may become large. For the energy content of a body decreases as
the fourth power of the absolute temperature, so that X varies as r^
and if Curie's law is true, the susceptibility varies inversely as the
temperature, so that, other things being equal, the change of transi-
tion temperature in a magnetic field varies inversely as the fourth
power of the temperature.
The formula as given above applies to an infinitesimal tempera-
ture range. When approaching zero, the actual change of tempera-
ture in a finite field must be found by an integration of this equation.
If we make the assumptions of the last paragraph, we have
tMt = Const. Hd/f
which on integration goes into
r^ - ro' = Const. H\
The data by which this equation may be checked are meager, but
they are at least consistent with it. In default of measurements of
energy content and susceptibility at low temperatures, the equation
could be checked from measurements of the normal temperature of
discontinuity and the corresponding temperature in two different
magnetic fields. The only metal for which Onnes gives the effect of
two different magnetic fields on the temperature of discontinuity
is lead, and we have already mentioned that the normal temperature
for this substance has not been accurately measured. However it
is interesting to show that the data for lead are at least consistent
with this point of view. From a diagram given by Onnes'' (he does
not publish the values numerically) I deduce that the temperature
of discontinuity in a field H = 930 is 4.25°, and in a field 1130 is
• H. KamBRUNch Onnes. Proc. Amst. Acad. Sci. 16: (2) 991. 1914.
NOV. 19, 1921 WASHINGTON: GRANITES OF WASHINGTON 459
2.0°. The rapid fall of temperature with comparatively slow rise
of field is what w^e would expect from the equation. Now if we assume
that the equation above is true, and find tq by substituting the known
values, we shall get 5.3° for the normal transition temperature, against
the estimate of Onnes of 6°. This I believe must be considered to be
within possible experimental error.
Another detail of the behavior of the magnetic field is also con-
sistent with this view. Onnes found that at a fixed temperature
the threshold value of the field was slightly higher for a field parallel
to the wire than for one transverse to it. The probable reason is
that when the field is transverse there are regions inside the wire
itself where the circumferential field due to the current in the wire
is in the same direction as the external applied field, whereas this
is not the case for the longitudinal field. Hence in the transverse
case the maximum field is greater than the measured field, and the
applied field does not have to be raised so high in order that the
critical value may be reached.
The temperature of transition of the four metals hitherto measured
is depressed in a magnetic field. This means that the phase stable
at the lower temperature has the greater susceptibility. It does
not appear to me whether there is any reason why this should be
universally true, or whether it is possible that there may be substances
whose temperature of discontinuity is raised in a magnetic field.
This view of the discontinuity as due to a polymorphic change
ought to be capable of independent experimental verification. It
should be possible to detect discontinuous changes in other physical
properties — so far as I know the search has not been made for these —
and it may be possible to realize supraconductivity in metals which
do not normally show it, by recrystallizing a wire at higher tempera-
tures, as can now be done for tungsten, before subjecting it to low
temperatures.
PETROLOGY.— r/z^ granites of Washington, D. C} Henry S.
Washington, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of
Washington.
The granites of the District of Columbia and its vicinity belong
to the great belt of Archean intrusives (mostly granite with smaller
' Received October 21, 1921. Presented before the Geological Society of Washington
October 26, 1921.
460 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 19
amounts of diorite, gabbro, diabase, and pyroxenite) that extends
along the Piedmont Plateau from Georgia through Maryland, and
northward into New England. The granites and other igneous rocks
of the District have been little studied; or, at least, little detailed
information regarding them has been published. Merrill,- Williams,^
and Keith^ give us but very summary descriptions, although Keyes^
describes in great detail the related and closely similar granites of
central Maryland. Only one analysis, and that one incomplete,
of a fresh Washington granite has been published, together with
one of a weathered granite.
Mr. L. H. Adams of this Laboratory selected a specimen of the
Tilden Street granite for his study of the compressibility of rocks.
I made a chemical analysis of this for him, and was thus led to analyze
other specimens from the District. The results of these analyses,
accompanied by brief petrographic descriptions, are given in this
paper, in the hope that they may be of use to some geologist who in
the future will study the region thoroughly. No attempt is made
here to discuss, even summarily, the structural geology or the
relations of the granites to the other igneous rocks or to the intruded
gneisses (fig. 1).
Types. — Keith refers the granite of the Washington Folio to three
classes: granite-gneiss, granitic dikes in the gneiss, and intrusive
granite. All the specimens described in the present paper are of
intrusive granite, so far as has been ascertained, although some of
them are markedly foliated or gneissoid. Whether some of these
last belong in reality to the granite-gneiss or to the Carolina gneiss
must be left to the structural investigator.
The granites studied may be referred to two fairly distinct types,
biotite granite and muscovite-biotite granite. Although all the
specimens of granite show evidence of crushing and other results
of pressure, non-foliated or slightly foliated forms of each occur,
and from these they pass into intensely foliated, gneissoid forms.
It would appear that the two extremes of the types are quite distinct
chemically, the type with muscovite being considerably higher in
silica than the type with biotite alone, but that they are connected
by intermediate forms.
2 G. P. Merrill. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 6: 321. 1895. Rocks, rock-weathering and
soils, p. 206. 1897.
3 G. H. WiLLL\MS. U. S. Geol. Survey Ann. Rep. 15: 657-684. 1895.
*A. Keith. U. S. Geol. Survey Folio 70 (Washington Folio). 1901.
5 C. R. KeyES. U. S. Geol. Survey Ann. Rep 15: 685-737. 1895.
NOV. 19, 1921
WASHINGTON : GRANITES OF WASHINGTON
461
of Wa^hinalon and Vi'cini Tu
Geoloau £ta5ec/ on U.S.G.S. Folio 70
Fig. 1. Geological map showing location of analyzed specimens of granite.
462 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 19
BIOTITE GRANITE (TILDBN STREET TYPE)
Megascopic characters. — This granite is of a general light gray
color, almost white in the mass, and is generally quite coarse grained.
Glistening, black plates of biotite are very conspicuous, the thin
streaks being up to 1 or 2 cm. long. These may be quite uniformly
distributed, but without definite orientation, as in specimens from
Newark Street; or arranged in roughly parallel position, producing
a markedly foliated texture, as in the Tilden Street and Pierce Mill
Road quarries. This foliation becomes more intense in two old
quarries on Broad Branch Road, about 1.3 kilometers north of Pierce
Mill. The spur on which are situated the Geophysical Laboratory
and the Holy Cross Academy seems to be composed wholly of this
(slightly foliated) type. The weathering of this granite has been
described by Merrill in the works cited above. This biotite granite
appears to be the most abundant type in and around the District.
Microscopic characters. — ^In thin section this type is seen to be com-
posed chiefly of untwinned, alkali feldspar and quartz, with sub-
ordinate oligoclase, epidote, biotite, and muscovite. There is no
hornblende, no allanite was seen, and there are rare, small grains
of magnetite and prisms of apatite. The texture is cataclastic, but
not uniformly so. Much of the area of the section is rather coarsely
granoblastic, composed almost wholly of irregular grains of alkali
feldspar and quartz, which show some undulatory extinction. A
few smaller anhedra of finely twinned oligoclase occur here and there,
and there is considerable brownish biotite in irregular shreds, with
an occasional small plate of muscovite, some of which is intergrown
with the biotite and is primary. These areas contain no epidote.
Between these areas are streaks and patches of finer grained, crushed
material. This is mostly untwinned alkali feldspar, with fewer
grains of quartz and oligoclase, and a little biotite. These areas
contain considerable secondary epidote in the form of small, color-
less, euhedral or subhedral crystals and prisms, v/hich occur in the
feldspar and are frequently agglomerated into clusters. There is
also a little secondary muscovite in very small shreds and plates.
No allanite was seen with any of the epidote; this is somewhat
remarkable in view of its common occurrence in the Maryland granites
described by Keyes, who regards the epidote as primary. A large
number of traverses across thin sections of the Tilden Street granite,
including areas of both kinds of material, gave the mode shown in
table 1, in volumes and weights.
GRANITES OF WASHINGTON 4G3
100 100.0
Composition. — Two specimens of this type were analysed. That
from the Tilden Street quarry (analysis (1) in table 2) was used by
Mr. L. H. Adams for the determination of its compressibiHty and
density. The density was found to be 2.739 at 30° C. The other
(2), was taken from a small quarry recently opened between Newark
and Ordway Streets near and west of Connecticut Avenue. This
is somewhat finer grained and less foliated than the Tilden Street
granite. An analysis (3), of the Broad Branch biotite granite,
described by Merrill, and one of the Rowlandsville, Maryland, granite
(4), described by Williams and by Keyes, are given for comparison.
(See first four analyses of table 2, and map, figure 1.)
Norm. — These are analyses of rather "basic" granites, low in
silica, high in lime, and not high in alkalies, with a tendency to dom-
inant soda. Their chemico-mineral characters are well shown in
their norms, given in table 3, that of No. (3) being omitted, as the
analysis is incomplete.
The resemblance between the three is manifest in the symbols.
All are near the border between classes I and II, all are in the quardo-
felic order and in the alkalicalcic rang. The two from Washington
are sodipotassic, but near the border of the dosodic subrang, while
that of Rowlandsville is dosodic.
Comparing the norm of No. (1) with its mode, certain discrep-
ancies are cAddent. Much of the abundant anorthite of the norm en-
ters into the modal epidote, along with some of the ferric oxide. As
epidote has an excess of CaO over (Al,Fe)203 this will liberate some
alumina for the biotite, in which the normative hypersthene finds
place. The alkali feldspar is evidently a highly sodic orthoclase.
From the two sets of figures, however, even after all possible read-
justments have been made, it would appear that the sections used
for the Rosiwal determination of the mode were made in portions of
the rock which contained more alkali feldspar and less biotite than
464 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 19
100.15 100.68 99.60 100.32 100.74 100.73 99.96 100.11 99.90 99.06
(1) Biotite granite, Tilden Street quarry. Washington analyst.
(2) Biotite granite, Newark Street quarry. Washington analyst.
(3) Biotite granite. Broad Branch Road quarry. Packard analyst. G. P. Merrill.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 6: 321. 1895.
(4) Biotite granite, Rowlandsville, Maryland. HillEbrand analyst. G. H. Williams,
U. S. Geol. Survey Ann. Rep. 15: 672. 1895.
(5) Muscovite-biotite granite, River Road quarry. Washington analyst.
(6) Muscovite-biotite granite (foliated). Rodman Street opening, Washington analyst.
(7) Mu.scovite-biotite granite. Guilford, Maryland. HillEbrand analyst. C. R.
Keyes. U. S. Geol. Survey Ann. Rep. IS: 716. 1895.
(8) Quartz vein in granite, River Road quarry. Washington analyst.
(9) Northfieldite, Pelham, Massachusetts. E. T. Allen analyst. B. K. Emerson,
Amer. Journ. Sci. 40: 215. 1915.
(10) Quartzose border of granite. A. R. DwerryhousE analyst. DwERRYHOUSE,
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 65: 64. 1909.
TABLE 3. Norms of Biotite Granite
(2)
27.06
17.79
27.77
15.85
0.41
8.63
1.86
0.76
0.34
(4)
28.26
12.23
22.53
22.52
none
1.19
8.90
2.32
0.91
0.34
(1) Tilden vStreet. Symbol (1)11.4. "3.3(4).
(2) Newark Street. Symbol I(II).4.(2)3.3(4).
(4) Rowlandsville. Symbol (I)II."4.3."4.
NOV. 19, 1921 WASHINGTON : GRANITES OF WASHINGTON 465
the larger and more representative amount of material used for the
analysis.
MUSCOVITE-BIOTITE GRANITE (rIVER ROAD TYPE)
A binary granite, containing about equal amounts of muscovite
and biotite, occurs in and near Washington, but is less abundant
than the biotite granite. Similar general quantitative relations
between the types seem to hold good in the Maryland granites as
described by Williams and Keyes, as well as in the granites of Georgia,
as described by Watson.*^
Megascopic characters .—The binary granite occurs in massive,
unfoliated form, as at the River Road quarry of the Bethesda Blue
Granite Company, about 1.3 km. northwest of the District line, in
Maryland, which is being actively worked. The rock of this quarry
may be regarded as typical. An intensely and finely foliated, gneissoid
form was collected by Dr. M. Aurousseau of this Laboratory at a small
opening on Connecticut Avenue, near the corner of Rodman Street.
This last was thought by him to be a highly foliated portion of the
granite exposed at Newark Street, about 0.3 kilometer to the south,
but the exact relations are unknown.
The River Road granite is light gray and of finer grain than the
Tilden Street type. Small plates of both muscovite and biotite
are abundant ; they are arranged in small, irregular streaks and patches,
producing a slightly foliated structure. The Rodman Street specimen
is darker gray, much finer grained, and with a highly foliated, gneissoid
texture.
Microscopic characters. — In thin section the two are much alike,
except for the distinctly foliated arrangement shown in sections of
the Rodman Street granite cut across the foliation. The texture
is highly cataclastic, both rocks giving evidence of intense crushing
and some recrv^stallization. Irregular, fragmental granules of quartz
and alkali feldspar are abundant, with few of finely twinned oligo-
clase. Irregular shreds of biotite, which is a decidedly greener brown
than in the other type, and tables of primary muscovite, are common.
The two micas are frequently intergrown, the muscovite being
generally included in the biotite, and these larger crystals of
muscovite are clearly primarv^ There is no amphibole nor magnetite,
and small grains of epidote are very rarely seen. Small irregular
areas composed of grains of quartz and highly crushed and sericitized
« T. L. Watson. Amer. Geol. 27: 199. 1901; Georgia Geol. Survey, Bull. 9-A. 1902.
466 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 19
orthoclase are rather common; the small plates of secondary musco-
vite in these show a tendency to a latticed arrangement. Rosiwal
measurements on the sections of the River Road granite gave figures
corresponding to 7.2 per cent of biotite and 7.4 per cent of muscovite
by volume. The River Road granite resembles that of Guilford,
Maryland, as described by Keyes.
Composition. — Chemical analyses were made of specimens both
from the River Road quarry (5) and the Rodman Street opening (6),
and the results are given in table 2, together with an analysis of the
Guilford, Maryland, granite (7), described by Keyes.
The two Washington muscovite-biotite granites closely resemble
each other, that of the River Road quarry being slightly higher in
both alkalies, and with inverse proportions of magnesia and lime.
In their general chemical characters, and in their modal details, they
are very like the common granites of New England, Maryland, Vir-
ginia, South Carolina, and Georgia.^ The Guilford granite is slightly
higher in silica and alumina,^ and lower in magnesia; it is probable
that this has a higher content of muscovite than the Washington
granites.
Norm. — The norms, shown in table 4, call for no special comment.
As shown by the symbols the three granites fall in toscanose, the
subrang to which belong more of the igneous rocks than to any other,
and in which most of the Piedmont granites fall.
QUARTZOSE PHASES
The granite of the River Road quarry contains some small stringers
and veinlets of a white, finely granular, highly quartzose aplite,
with sharp boundaries between the veins and the granite. The
microscope shows that this material is composed almost wholly of
small, irregular, interlocking grains of quartz, with very few of ortho-
clase, and rare small muscovite flakes. The quartz and feldspar
grains show slight undulatory extinction. The analysis (8) of the
quartz aplite of one of these veinlets shows that it is almost pure
quartz, with about one per cent of feldspar and mica. This quartz
aplite closely resembles the northfieldite described by Emerson,^
except that the latter is rather more coarse grained, contains more
feldspar and mica, and is more decidedly pegmatitic. A highly
^ Cf. Chemical analyses of igneous rocks, 1884-1913. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper
99: 167-175.
8 The higher alumina is caused, in part, by the non-determination of titanium and
phosphorus oxides.
9 B. K. Emerson. Amer. Journ. Sci. 40: 212. 1915.
NOV. 19, 1921 WASHINGTON: GRANITBS OF WASHINGTON 4()7
quartzose rock found by J. E. Spurr near Helvetia, Arizona, but as
yet undescribed, also is closely similar. ^° This was provisionally
named arizonite by Spurr and me, but Emerson's name, north-
fieldite, would seem to have priority. As pointed out by Emerson,
as well as by Spurr in the manuscript of his paper, such rocks are
to be considered as the ultra-silicic, hydrated portions of the magma,
which were the last to solidify in shrinkage cracks of the still hot
and recently solidified mass.
GENERAI. REI.ATIONS
Although this paper aims only to present the results of several
analyses of the granites of Washington, as a contribution to our scanty
knowledge of the petrology of the District of Columbia, yet a few
remarks may be permitted on the general relations of the igneous
rocks. The published data are very few, and my personal acquaint-
ance with the field geology is of the slightest. It would seem, how-
ever, that there is possibly an approach to regularity in the structural
arrangement of the igneous rocks of the batholithic (?) intrusive
mass.
Referring to the Historical Geology Sheet of Folio 70, we see that
a broad band of "granite-gneiss" cuts obliquely across the western
portion of the area. This has a mode much like that of the River
TABLE 4. Norms of Muscovite-Biotite Granite
(5) (6) (7)
Quartz 27.82 32.16 28.68
Orthoclase 26.69 23.35 25.58
Albite 31.96 * 28.82 33.01
Anorthite 5.28 5.00 8.34
Corundum 0.20 2.24 0.92
Hypersthene 4.75 4.26 2.12
Magnetite 2.32 1.86 0.93
Ilmenite 0.61 1.52
Apatite 0.67 0.34
(5) River Road quarry. Symbol I".4.(l)2.3.
(6) Rodman Street opening. Symbol I".(3)4."2.3.
(7) Guilford, Maryland. Symbol 1.4.2.3".
Road binary granite, but the chemical analysis ^^ of one specimen
much resembles that of the biotite granite of Tilden Street. Toward
the northern part of this gneiss (within the Washington quadrangle)
are two long areas of biotite granite, with some muscovite-biotite
'" An analysis of this is given in U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 99: 51.
" Cf. G. H. Williams, op. cit. p. 670; also U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 591: 49. 1915.
4f)S JOURNAL OF run WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 19
granite. Whether these are part of the same intrusive complex
as the granite-gneiss I am unable to say. In the northwestern corner
of the sheet we meet with a broad band of diorite, as well as a narrow
streak and what are apparently small outcrops cutting the Carolina
gneiss along Scott's Run. Diorite is also met with in Georgetown
and in the old tunnel of Rock Creek Park, analyses of which have
been published.^' A small exposure of "gabbro" occurs about 2
kilometers west of Bethesda, in the northwest part of the quadrangle.
Few exposures of diorite and none of gabbro seem to have been found
or recorded in the central granitic part of the igneous area. Thus,
although the structural relations are apparently somewhat complex,
and their study and interpretation in the field offer difficulties, as
Keith points out, the distribution of the various kinds of igneous
rock points to some magmatic differentiation in the intruded mass,
in the sense that it is more silicic and salic near the center and more
femic toward the borders. This is a mode of differentiational
arrangement which is commonly met with, and which is so well known
as not to call for the citation of corroborative examples here.
The available chemical evidence bears out this suggestion, in
that the few analyses that have been made of the Washington igneous
rocks show serial relations between them, indicating a community
of origin. A very brief statement of this topic must suffice here.
The serial and comagmatic relations are shown most succinctly
by the symbols denoting the positions of the various rocks in the
quantitative classification, which, it is assumed, are intelligible to
the reader. The analysis of the, fresh Broad Branch granite given
by Merrill is included. The series of rocks and symbols is given in
table 5.
Inspection of these symbols shows clearly the gradual and pro-
gressive change in all the most essential chemical characters. As
regards the relation of salic to femic molecules, the highly silicic
binary granites are well within persalane, the less silicic biotite
granites are all on the border between persalane and dosalane, and
the diorites are in dosalane and salfemane. The amount of excess
silica, shown in the ordinal positions, remains almost constantly
quardofelic. There is a steady and almost uniformly regular decrease
in alkalies as compared with salic lime as we go down the list, and a
concomitant decrease in potash and increase in soda.
The same story is told by plotting the analytical data in the usual
12 U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 591: 47 (E and F).
NOV. 19, 1921 WASHINGTON: GRANITES OF WASHINGTON 4G9
way, using the molecular numbers as ordinates and the molecular
silica percentages as abscissas; or still more clearly, by plotting the
relative percentages of the basic oxides (alumina to potash) taken
together against the silica percentages. The graphs for each constitu-
ent thus obtained show very regular decreases or increases, quite in
accordance with such observ^ations as have been made on rock series
from other regions. The points thus indicated furnish cur^^es that
need scarcely any "smoothing out," with the exceptions of certain
data for the Rodman Street granite and the Rock Creek Tunnel
hornblende diorite, some of the figures for which fall quite markedly
outside the smooth curves given by the others, indicating that they
are aberrant for some reason, such as possibly assimilation of intruded
gneiss.
SUMMARY
The igneous rocks of the District of Columbia are intruded into
Archean gneisses. Granites are most abundant, with small amounts
of diorite, gabbro, and pyroxenite.
There are two types of granite: biotite granite (which seems to be
the more common"), and muscovite-biotite granite. Both contain
small amounts of oligoclase, but they differ chemically as well as
regards the kind of mica present, the biotite granite being lower in
silica and higher in lime. Transition forms probably occur. The
biotite granite has silica percentages from 67.5 to 69.0 while that of
the binary granite is about 72. Both types have undergone pressure,
giving rise to more or less well marked foliated textures, although no
very decided difference in chemical composition seems to be asso-
ciated with the foliation. Epidote is developed in the more intensely
TABLE 5. Igneous Rocks of Washington, D. C, Arranged in -
Chemical Series
Name Locality ^"p'relerence SiO= Symbol
Binary granite River Road (5) 71.92 I".4.(l)2.3
Binary granite Rodman vStreet (6) 71.66 I".(3)4."2.3
Biotite granite Broad Branch (3) 69.33 (1)11.(3)4.3.3(4)
Biotite granite Newark Street (2) 69.19 I(II).4. (2)3.3(4)
Biotite granite Tilden Street (1) 67.46 (I)II.4."3.3(4)
Biotite diorite Georgetown 56.41 II".4"."4.4
Hornblende diorite Rock Creek Tunnel 56.18 "III.4.4.4
crushed portions of the biotite granite, and this mineral is apparently
wholly secondary in origin. Epidote is very rare or absent in the
binary granite. No allanite, hornblende, or pyroxene was observed
in the Washington granites.
470 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADKMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 19
The igneous rocks of the District have been but little studied,
but there is reason to believe that the igneous complex is more femic
toward the borders through magmatic differentiation. The analyses
indicate a close comagmatic relationship between the various rocks.
Further study of the igneous rocks of the District is very desirable.
ABvSTRACTS
Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared
and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should
conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
GEOLOGY. — Geology of the igneous rocks of Essex County, Massachusetts.
Charles H. Clapp. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 704. Pp. 132. 1921.
Essex County is the northeasternmost county of Massachusetts. The
special area whose geology is more particularly discussed in this bulletin
lies almost wholly in the southern part of the county. Geologically the
area is well known, chiefly because of its alkaline igneous rocks, among
which are the types essexite and bostonite. Besides presenting local problems
the area illustrates certain general features of the geology of igneous rocks,
the more important of which are: (1) The sequence of the volcanic, batho-
lithic, and dike phases of an igneous cycle. (2) The differentiation of two
contrasted groups of rocks, the sub-alkaline, or calci-alkalic, and the alkaline.
(3) The origin of shatter breccias along molar contacts of batholiths and the
slope of molar contacts. (4) The contact assimilation of country rock by
invading igneous magmas, forming hybrid rocks. (5) The formation of
diabase dikes contemporaneously with irruptions of alkaline granitic rocks.
The writer throws light on some of the broader principles of the geology
of igneous rocks, notably the formation of hybrid rocks by contact breccia-
tion and assimilation and by impregnation of invaded rocks, and the differ-
entiation of subalkaline magmas. The report discusses in detail the litho-
logic character, alteration, contact and structural relations of the consider-
able variety of igneous rocks found in the region. R. W. Stone.
G'EOhOQY .—Permian salt deposits of the sottth-central United States. N. H.
Darton. U. S. Geol. vSurvey Bull. 715-M. Pp. 19 (205 to 223), pi. 1
^ (21), figs. 10. 1921.
The bulletin presents a review of knowledge about the area of underground
salt in eastern New Mexico, the Panhandle of Texas, and adjacent parts
of Oklahoma and Kansas. A map shows the probable approximate extent
of the area which is at least 650 miles long and 150 to 250 miles wide. Infor-
mation about the salt beds is derived from drilling for oil, gas, and water,
but the difficulty of recognizing salt when penetrated in the ordinary methods
of drilling is pointed out. The salt succession undoubtedly occurs in the
Permian beds known as the Manzano group in New Mexico and the Marian
formation in Kansas associated with red beds, gypsum, anhydrite, dolomite,
and limestone. The salt is not a continuous body, but probably composed
of separate lenses and the sections in which it occurs in different places are
not comparable in detail.
The deposit lies in a wide synclinal basin with minor folds. The thick-
est salt is approximately at the bottom of the basin. This basin may there-
NOV. 19, 1921
ABSTRACTS : PALEONTOLOGY
471
fore have existed at the time the salt was deposited. The greatest thick-
ness reported is 700 feet. Thicknesses of 200 to 400 feet are not uncommon.
For several years commercial deposits of potash salts have been sought
in this salt mass but so far without success. Verbal records and graphic
logs of the principal wells penetrating the salt in this area are given for each
State involved. The author believes that the salt was formed by the evapora-
tion of sea water in shallow basins with occasional deeper marine submer-
gences indicated by beds of [marine?] limestone.
Marcus I. Goldman.
GEOGRAPHY and HYDROLOGY .—Routes to desert watering places in the
Salton Sea region, California. John S. Brown. U. S. Geol. Survey
Water-Supply Paper 490-A. Pp. SG, pis. 7, figs. 2. 1920.
.This is the first of a series of detailed guidebooks on watering places in
the desert region of the United States that is being prepared by the U. S.
Geological Survey as authorized by Congress. The text comprises a brief
description of the Salton Sea region — about 10,000 square miles in extent —
practical suggestions to travelers, detailed logs of all desert roads with special
reference to water supplies, and a list of watering places with brief descrip-
tions. There is also a preface by O. E. Meinzer, which outlines the desert
region of the United States (about 500,000 square miles in extent) and de-
scribes the scope and methods of the watering-place survey. The maps
include a general map of the desert region of the United States and detailed
relief maps of the Salton Sea region showing roads and watering places.
The relief shading is by John H. RenshawE- O. E. M.
PALEONTOLOGY.— Orthaulax, a Tertiary guide fossil. C. Wythe Cooke.
U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 129-B. Pp. 15 (23-37), pis. 4 (2-5). 1921.
Had this paper been written even so late as five years ago, it might well
have been entitled, "Orthaulax, a guide fossil of the Middle Oligocene."
The more conservative caption is necessitated by recent discoveries in Santo
1 slraligraphic occurrence of OrOumUtx.
• FmuwI vvldeDce
vtdmce U iwcumul^ilDi. Kcordlog to T. W. V«ush«D, tbsi tbsM lormatlons cIbsmI by him in Drcrious t«porti as TortonUa (uppfrr Miocene), ar« ol IlelwtiKD (middle Uioccne) i>i;«. Thli is
cplnlon suted by DtJlla IMH.
472 JOURNAIv OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 19
Domingo and by the downward trend of the arbitrary line dividing the
Miocene from the Oligocene. The article is concerned with the value of
Orthaulax as a kit fossil, the biological peculiarities of the genus, the his-
torical development of the knowledge about it, the distribution of the known
species and the systematic treatment of the five forms referred to it.
Orthaulax is unique among the gastropods in that the entire spire is en-
cased in a shelly envelope, a modification of the outer lip analogous to the
finger growths and flanges upon the closely related stromb, the common
conch of the West Indies. As in most highly specialized groups, the term
of life is short, and, even with the increased knowledge, the limits of dis-
tribution remain comparatively narrow. The tabular occurrence of the
genus indicates its importance stratigraphically.
The systematic treatment is remarkable for the refinement of method
emxployed. The determination of the species is based finally upon the sec-
tioning of the specimens, though the characteristics are, as a rule, suffi-
ciently distinct to justify a confident field determination.
Julia Gardner.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
153d meeting
The 153d meeting of the Academy was held jointly with the Chemical
Society of Washington in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club, the evening
of Thursday, January 20, 1921. The retiring President of the Academy,
Dr. C. L. Alsberg, Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department
of Agriculture, delivered an address entitled The relation of chemical structure
to physiological action . This has subsequently been published in the Journal
of the Academy.^
154th meeting
The 154th meeting of the Academy was held at the Cosmos Club, the
evening of Thursday, February 17, 1921. Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of
the Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, delivered
an illustrated lecture entitled. How the Government is fighting insects. He
discussed briefly the work of the Bureau over which he has presided for the
last 27 years and with which he has been connected for more than 40 years,
and traced the extraordinary growth of the service, which has been due to
the increasing realization of the monetary importance of remedial work
against insects affecting crops, the health of man and animals, stored food,
and so on. From a beginning with one entomologist and an assistant, the
Bureau has grown to a large organization with a budget of nearly two million
dollars, with field laboratories scattered all over the country to the number
of 75 or more, and with a corps of trained expert assistants numbering several
hundreds.
Lantern slides were shown of the operations being carried on at a number
of these stations against some of the principal crop pests, and the lecture
closed with a moving picture film showing the latest discoveries in the fight
against the cotton boll weevil.
In the course of his talk the speaker emphasized the point that the greater
part of the work carried on in the Bureau is of the highest scientific character,
requiring men of intensive training.
' This Journal 11: 321-341. August 19. 1921.
NOV. 19, 1921 proceedings: botanical society 473
155th meeting
The 155th meeting of the Academy was held at the Cosmos Club, the
evening of Thursday, March 17, 1921. Dr. A. McL. Nicolson, research
engineer of the Western Electric Company, Inc., New York, delivered an
address on TJie piezo-electric effect in certain crystals. The address was
illustrated with lantern slides, and demonstrations were given of some of the
practical applications of the crystals to the transmission and reception of
sound.
156th meeting
The 156th meeting of the Academy was held jointly with the Biological
Society of Washington at the Cosmos Club, the evening of Saturday, April
2, 1921. Dr. A. D. Hopkins of the Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, delivered an address entitled Intercontinental problems
in nattiral and artificial distribution of plants and animals. In condensed
form this has since been published in two papers in the Journal of the Acad-
emy: (1) Intercontinental problems in biocliniatics ; with special reference to
natural and artificial distribution of plants and animals."^ (2) Bioclimatic
zones of the continents; with proposed designations and classification.^
157th meeting
The 157th meeting of the Academy was held at the Cosmos Club the
evening of Thursday, April 21, 1921. Dr. C. G. Abbot, Assistant Secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution, delivered an address on The solar constant
observing stations of the Smithsonian Institution.
In the course of his lecture the speaker described the studies of solar radia-
tion carried out at Washington, D. C; Bassour, Algeria; Hump Mountain,
North Carolina; Mount Harqua Hala, Arizona; Mount Wilson, California;
Calama, Chile; Montezuma, Chile; and Mount Whitney, California, at
altitudes ranging from sea level to 14,500 feet. He summarized results
accomplished in perfecting processes of investigation, in the invention and
construction of highly precise standardized instruments, and in the securing
of simultaneous determinations of the solar constant of radiation at Washing-
ton, Mount Wilson, and Mount Whitney; and the bearing of these results,
notably with respect to meteorological investigations. The data are brought
together in a paper of 20 printed pages, entitled Studying the sun's heat on
mountain peaks in desert lands, which will appear shortly in the Appendix
to the Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1920.
WiLLLf^M R. Maxon, Recording Secretary.
BOTANICAL SOCIETY
150th meeting
The 150th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was
held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., Tuesday, March
1, 1921. 112 members and guests were present. Among the visitors were
Dr. Robert F. Griggs of Ohio, Prof. Leo E. Melchers of Kansas, Dr. A. G.
Johnson of Wisconsin, Mr. Paul Siggers, about to leave for his new work
with Johnston and Carleton in Panama, and IMr. C. VallEJO, Agricultural
Attache of the Argentine Republic. In the absence of President Cham-
bliss, the meeting was called to order by Vice-President P. L. RickeR-
2 This Journal II: 223-227. 1921.
3 This Journal 11: 227-229. 1921.
474 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 19
A preliminary report was made by Dr. A. S. Hitchcock on the question of
providing Russian men of science with scientific literature.
Regular Program
Haven Metcalf: The story of a plant introduction. (Address of the
retiring President, illustrated with lantern slides.)
Because of various diseases and other factors, rice culture in the South
Atlantic States was on the decline in the early nineteen hundreds. One
rice disease in South Carohna called "blast" or "rotten-neck" was very
serious. In order to study the disease further, Dr. and Mrs. Metcalf took a
trip to Italy and found that the "Brusone" was the same as blast in South
Carolina. Resistant rices were secured and introduced into the United
States. They did not retain their resistance, but one of them, now known
as Colusa, by still further selection, has become the second in production
in California, producing in 1919 1,655,000 bushels of grain, with an estimated
farm value of over four million dollars. (A fuller discussion of Dr. Met-
calf s address will be published elsewhere.)
Roy G. Pierce, Recording Secretary.
151ST meeting
The 151st regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall
of the Cosmos Club at 8:00 p.m. Tuesday, April 5, 1921. 51 members
and guests were present. President Charles E. Chambliss presided.
Mr. Soren Sorenson and Mr. D. Rudolf Kuraz were elected to member-
ship. Mr. P. L. RiCKER reported on the work of the committee on the
preservation of the Shaw water lily garden. A contribution from the Botan-
ical Society toward the printing of a pamphlet and map in furtherance of the
project was requested, and was authorized. Mr. RickER announced a
series of "hikes" conducted by the Wild Flower Preservation Society and
invited the members to join them.
Regular Program
W. H. Weston: Following a fungus through the Philippines.
This lecture was illustrated with lantern slides exhibiting various phases
of the botany of the islands, particularly the terraced rice fields, the tropical
jungles, and the conditions surrounding the development and spread of the
downy mildew of maize.
All but one of the known species of the downy mildews of corn occur in
the Orient. No conception of the terrifically destructive effect of this dis-
ease can be gained from comparison with any disease known in America.
Whole fields are destroyed. The disease is carried through the season by
the production of enormous numbers of conidia. Saccharmn spontaneum,
wild grass, Miscanthus japonicus, and a primitive type of cultivated sugar
cane growing in the remote interior of Northern Luzon were also found to be
hosts of this disease. Maize of flinty, poor yielding, tropical types was
found to be grown under widely varying conditions, ranging from the swampy
soil and coral sand of the hot, humid coast, to the precipitous rocky slopes
of high elevations in the cooler mountainous interior. Waxy maize, hitherto
known only from China and Burma, was collected from two widely separated
localities. On all these types the mildew was, under favorable conditions,
almost equally destructive, its ravages, which were aided greatly by the
NOV. 19, 1921 proceedings: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 475
primitive agricultural practices of the people, being largely instrumental
in bringing about such serious local food shortages as that which recently
caused great hardship in Bohol.
J. F. ClEVEnger: Zamia integrifolia Chapm., and its starch, Florida
arrowroot. (Illustrated with lantern slides).
Zamia integrifolia Chapm. is a small plant with a crown of leaves charac-
teristic of the Cycadaceae, to which family this plant belongs. It has an
enlarged tuberous-like stem which grows below the level of the ground. It
is of interest that numerous prominent root tubercles occur on the roots of
this plant. It is restricted to a limited region in the vicinity of Miami,
Florida. It has not been found very far south of Miami and not much north
of Dania, Florida, nor in regions which are liable to overflow.
GifTord reports "that in its raw state the leaves, seed and stems are
undoubtedly poisonous." He further states "that animals which drink
the red water from washing the starch usually die of slow poisoning." There
are no available statements relative to the nature of this poison.
The starch has been prepared by the Seminole Indians and natives of
South Florida by rather crude mills. The starch thus obtained constitutes
an important source of food. For some time there existed in southern
Florida two mills of comparatively large capacity, one at Dania and one at
Little River. At the present time only the mill at Little River is engaged
in the manufacturing of this starch.
The method for the preparation of this starch consists in grinding the
rhizomes in the undried condition, mixing the ground material thus obtained
with water, and subsequently running it over a fine screen. The starch
is thus separated from the main portion of the fibrous material. This starchy
material is then conveyed to settling tanks where the starch becomes further
purified by a sedimentation process. This starch is subsequently dried and
readv for the market.
It is believed to have been used by the natives who preceded the Seminoles,
as a source of food. It supplied the early settlers with food, and to some
extent, at least, enters into the arrowroot biscuit of commerce. It is in-
teresting to point out that the people frequently dig up these rhizomes,
soak them in water, and subsequently use them for fertilizer. The plant
has been used as a pot plant, by transplanting.
Judging from the rapidly diminishing areas over which this plant grows,
the apparent improbability of growing the plant profitably on new areas,
and the long periods of waiting before the rhizomes from any given region
may be subsequently dug up with profit, it is improbable that the starch
will ever have anything more than a limited use.
The paper of Mr. Arno Viehoever was postponed to the 152d regular
meeting. R. Kent Beattie, Acting Secretary.
476 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 19
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
The Section of Vertebrate Paleontology of the U. S. National Museum
has recently received as a gift from the John A. Savage Company of Crosby,
Minnesota, an extensive collection of bones of an extinct buffalo, named
Bison occidentalis some years ago by Dr. F. A. T^ucas. These remains were
discovered in Pleistocene deposits which overlie a body of iron ore at the
Sagamore Mine near Riverton, Minnesota. It has been comparatively
easy to select a complete composite skeleton, which it is proposed to mount
for the exhibition collection.
Secretary of Agriculture Wallace has appointed a committee of six
scientists from the Department to consider the problem of land utilization.
The committee consists of Messrs. L. C. Gray of the Office of Farm Manage-
ment and Farm Economics, C. V. Piper of the Bureau of Plant Industry,
G. M. Rommel of the Bureau of Animal Industry, C. F. Marbut of the
Bureau of Soils, E. E- Carter of the Forest Service, and S. H. McCory
of the Bureau of Public Roads.
The Bureau of Standards announces that in testing a number of imported
sets of analytical weights it has been found that the weights from 500 to
50 mg. were made of a decidedly magnetic material. This property caused
them to behave very irregularly under test. Such weights can readily
be detected with a small hand magnet, and it would be well for purchasers
of analytical weights to be on their guard against them, as under some cir-
cumstances serious errors might be introduced thereby.
Dr. C. G. Abbot of the Astrophysical Observatory sailed from New York
on October 26 for Antofagasta, Chile, to inspect the solar radiation station
at Mt. Montezuma. He expects to return in January.
Dr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, anthropologist, visited the scientific institu-
tions of Washington in October, on his way around the world on the Kahn
traveling fellowship from Oxford University, England.
Dr. ImmanuEL Friedlander, Director of the Volcanological Institute
of Naples, visited the Geophysical Laboratory and the U. S. Geological
Survey in October.
Mr. James E. IvES has resigned as research associate and lecturer in
physics at Clark University to become physicist in the office of industrial
hygiene and sanitation of the Public Health Service in Washington.
Dr. William C. Kendall, scientific assistant and ichthyologist of the
U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, has resigned after 33 years of service with the
Bureau, to accept the position of ichthyologist in the Roosevelt Wild Life
Forest Experiment Station of the New York State College of Forestry,
Syracuse, New York.
Mr. George M. Rommel, chief of the animal husbandry division of the
Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, has resigned
to become editor-in-chief of the American International Publishers, New
York City. Mr. Rommel had been with the Departmicnt since 1901, and
had been chief of his division since its organization in 1910.
Dr. Ralph W. G. Wyckoff, of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie
Institution of Washington, is on a year's leave of absence, which he will
spend at the California Institute of Technology at Pasadena, California.
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 December 4, 1921 No. 20
GEOCHEMISTRY.— iVoi^ on the water of Borax Lake.^ Roger C.
Wells, U. S. Geological Survey.
Borax Lake is of interest, being the first locality in the United
States at which borax was produced commercially. It is a broad,
shallow lake, seldom over a few feet deep, situated east of the narrow
arm of Clear Lake in Lake County, California. It has been described
by J. A. Veatch, J. D. Whitney, G. F. Becker, J. A. Philipps, and
others. -
Borax was first noted in the water by J. A. Veatch in 1856 and
shortly afterwards a bed of borax cr3'stals was found in the mud in
the bottom of the lake which was worked for borax by means of mov-
able coffer-dams. The water of the lake in September, 1863, contained
41.1 grams of solids to the liter, according to an analysis by G. E-
Moore, quoted by Whitney, and of this about 4.8 grams is anhydrous
borax. Melville's elaborate analysis published in Becker's monograph
on the quicksilver deposits of the Pacific slope shows total solids of
about 76.6, of which 5 grams per liter is borax. (This sample was
probably collected in 1887.)
In August, 1921, Hoyt S. Gale collected a sample of water from
the lake and very kindly forwarded it to the writer for study with
the suggestion that a comparison of the present borax content with
previous determinations would be interesting. The material thus
presented was welcomed as being also suitable for the study of the
alkalinity and hydrogen ion concentration, the latter being a physical
property of alkali lake waters that has not yet been widely studied.
The total solids obtained on evaporation and drying at 180° C.
amounted to 32.0 grams per liter. The water is therefore now more
dilute than the early samples mentioned above. This is perhaps not
1 Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geological Survey. Re-
ceived October 21, 192L
2 For references see bibliography by H. S. Gale, U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources,
1913: Pt. II, p. .52.3.
477
478 JOURNAL OF THS WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 20
surprising as it is said that in 1861 the lake dried up entirely. The
proportions of the principal salts appear to have changed somewhat
since 1863 as shown by the following percentages:
The figures for 1863 give the approximate composition stated by
Whitney from Moore's analysis.^ The statement is incomplete and
the borax determination is open to question, but may be of the right
order. The figures for 1887 and 1921 are calculated from CI, total
CO2, and B2O3 and are therefore somewhat arbitrary inasmuch as
bicarbonates and metaborates are neglected. The latter are evaluated
as shown below. Since 1887 there appears to have been a slight gain
in borax and sodium chloride and a loss in sodium carbonate. In the
1921 sample the CI found was 11.6; SO4, 0.05; Ca, 0.06; Mg, 0.07;
CO2, 4.90; B2O3, 1.62; K, 0.56 grams per liter. The titration al-
kalinity to methyl orange was 0.214 normal.
The alkaline character of the water may be expressed through the
hydrogen ion concentration as ^^ = 9.75. This measurement was
made electrometrically, as described elsewhere.* The water is actually
somewhat more alkaline than the Searles lake brine (for which p^ =
9.48) although it is far less concentrated in total salts. This peculiarity
is caused by the large salt effect in Searles brine.
In order to represent the dissolved alkaline matter in the form of
the customary buffer salts, as has been done for Searles brine, ^ an
artificial water, containing 18.5 g. sodium chloride, 0.5 g. magnesium
chloride, 1.0 g. potassium chloride, and 0.03 g. calcium sulfate per
liter was made up as a medium to which buffer salts could be added
and the resulting ^^ values determined. A set of p^^ determinations
was then made with various proportions of sodium carbonate and
bicarbonate, keeping the total CO2 equal to that found in the lake
water. Another similar set was made with mixtures of borax and
sodium metaborate keeping the total B2O3 the same as found in the
lake water. The results are given in table 1 and plotted in figure 1 .
3 Calif. GeoLSurv.l: 98.
* Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 42: 2160. 1920. For general directions, Clark, The
determination of hydrogen ions.
^ Joum. Eng. Chem. 13: 691. 1921.
DEC. 4, 1921
WELLS : WATER OE BORAX LAKE
479
The cur\^es shown in the figure are drawn to pass through the
observational data and also approximately parallel to the curves
for the corresponding buffer mixtures in pure water. ^ The effect
TABLE 1
Results of p^ Determinations Made after Adding Carbonate and Borate Buffers
TO AN Artificial I/AKE Water. Total C02= 4.26 g. per Liter. Total Bo03 = 1.62 g.
PER Liter
Percentage of total B2O3
present as Na2B204 ^jj
50 9.42
70 9.74
80 9.95
90 10.27
of the salt in Borax Lake water seems to be about 45 and 75 per cent
of that in Searles Lake brine in decreasing the p^ values for the car-
10.8
10.6
10.4
101
T
8.8
20
80
100
^0 60
Per Cent
Fig. 1. pH for mixtures of NaHCOa and Na2C03, and of Na2B407 and Na2B204 in an artificial
brine resembling Borax Lake water. Curve 1 : per cent of total CO2 present as Na2C03
(balance NaHCOs). Curve 2: per cent total B2O3 present as Na2B204 (balance Na2B407) .
8 Data given in Prideaux, The theory and use oj indicators, pp. 279 and 299.
480 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADKMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 20
bonate and borate buffers, respectively. The addition of salt makes
the buffer solutions more acid. Until more measurements on the
salt effect are obtained each case must be studied by itself, although it
is evident that the salt effect increases only slowly with increasing
concentrations of salt.
From the curves it is easily seen that in order to yield the value
pji = 9.75 the CO2 and B2O3 should be distributed as follows in the
respective salts:
CO2
57 per cent as NaoCOs
43 per cent as NaHCOs
or, as grams per liter:
NaaCOs 5.9
NaHCOs 3.5
B2O3
C7]
(2c
71 per cent as Na2B204
29 per cent as Na2B407
Na2B204 2.17
Na2B407 .68
It is concluded that the proportions last given approximately
represent the concentrations of the salts that determine the alkalinity
of the water of Borax Lake. One factor that is not allowed for is
the salt effect of the carbonate buffers on the borate buffers, and vice
versa, but this effect is probably small compared with the salt effect
of the sodium chloride present which has been allowed for. By a
strange coincidence the percentage of total B0O3 present as borax is the
same as that found for vSearles Lake, but the percentage of CO2 present
as carbonate is 57, compared with 78 for Searles Lake.
Below (Table 2) is given a statement of the analysis deduced
from the present investigation, in the form of gram ions per liter,
with a similar one of Searles Lake brine for comparison. The minor
constituents noted by Melville were not determined.
TABLE 2
Analyses Deduced from the Present Investigation in the Form ok Gram Ions per
Liter
31.58
444.5
DEC. 4, 1921 WASHINGTON : OBSIDIAN FROM COPAN 481
Borax cr^^stals remain in the mud of Borax Lake although the water
is not now saturated with borax. It is not unusual to find certain
crystallized salts in the bottom mud of a lake containing water that
is not saturated with those salts. Water from the bottom mud and
lower is also frequently more concentrated than the lake water. Such
relations have been noted in the Wyoming lakes carrying sodium
sulfate, in the Nebraska lakes carrying potassium salts, and in the
Great Salt Lake, where Glauber's salt has been found below sand
and clay. The explanation probably is that in the coldest or driest
weather crystals are deposited and fall to the bottom where they be-
come covered with silt and clay. The reverse process of solution,
being chiefly dependent on diffusion, is too slow to occur in the alter-
nate warm or wet seasons or even in several such seasons. Certain
salt deposits may therefore owe their origin in some cases to extreme
or unusual conditions rather than to average conditions, provided
they become silted over.
PETROLOGY. — Obsidian from Copan and Chicken Itza} Henry
S. Washington, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of
Washington.
OBSIDIAN FROM COPAN
In 1920, during his study of the Maya ruins at Copan, Honduras,
Dr. Sylvanus G. Morley obtained a number of obsidian cores, that is,
the remnants of rock nodules from which knives and other implements
had been flaked off by the ancient Maya. Dr. Morley very kindly gave
these cores to me for examination, a courtesy for which I would express
mv thanks. It appears that many such cores are found by the natives
among the ruins and along the valley floor, and that nodules of ob-
sidian are said to occur in the tuffs of the neighborhood. As such cores,
valueless in Copan, would scarcely be articles of trade, it may be safely
assumed that the obsidian of those studied comes from the vicinity
of Copan.
Little is known of the volcanic rocks of Central America. Obsidian,
dacite, andesite, and basalt are mentioned and described briefly by the
few petrologists who have dealt with the subject, but (except for the
rocks of Panama and the Canal Zone) there are only five analyses of
Central Am.erican rocks, and only one of these is of an obsidian.
The cores are from 10 to 13 cm. long, and from 2.5 to 3 cm. at the
greatest thickness. They are roughly spindle-shaped (Fig. 1), with
the greatest width near the middle in some of them, but near one end in
1 Received November 4, 1921.
482 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCFS VOL. 11, NO. 20
others. The ends are not sharply pointed, but are broken cleanly
across. The cores are bounded laterally by 8 to 10 curved, narrow
faces, produced by the perfect conchoidal fracture of the material,
and nearly all these faces extend the whole length of the core. These
narrow faces are slightly concave across their width.
The obsidian is of a uniform, jet-black color, perfectly vitreous, and
with perfect conchoidal fracture. There are no streaks, and no
phenocrysts are visible. In splinters the glass is brownish and very
transparent. The thin section shows a clear colorless glass, homo-
geneous and with little or no evidence of flow. There are no bubbles
but some very minute microlites are scattered sparsely through the
glass; the larger (0.01 mm.) being irregular crystal fragments of
pyroxene, and the smaller (0.001 mm.) opaque grains of magnetite.
Their total percentage cannot amount to more than about 0.01 of
the rock.
-^ - -^-> -^^~L
rjy)>)
0 )
IfJJj
pyfpTj^'J '■)'jV Jr I I ;
Fig. 1. Obsidian Cores from Copan.
Dr. H. B. Merwin very kindly determined the refractive indices,
these being measured on a specially ground prism. They are as
follows: «c = 1.4896, 71d = 1.4920, tip = 1.4976, and Wg'= 1.5022.
It will be seen that the value for yellow light (D) is slightly higher
than the indices (determined by Merwin) of the obsidians of I^ipari
(Rocche Rosse = 1.488-9, Forgia Vecchia = 1.490), Monte Arci
(1.487-9), and Milos (1.490).- The first three have about the same
percentage of silica as the Copan obsidian, but are slightly more
potassic and with less lime; while that of Monte Arci is higher in
silica by about 2 per cent, with a little less soda, but about the same
2 H. S. Washington. Amer. Journ. Sci. 50: 462. 1920.
DEC. 4, 1921
WASHINGTON : OBSIDIAN FROM COPAN
483
percentages of potash and lime. These observ^ations are in conformity
with the general rule, that silica and alkalies tend to lower, and lime
tends to raise, the refractive indices of obsidians.
The specific gravity, determined with the balance on a piece weigh-
ing about 31 grams, is 2.372 at 23.2 °C., giving a density of 2.366.
SiOo...
AI2O3. .
FeaOs. .
FeO...
MgO..
CaO...
NaoO..
K2O...
H2O+.
H0O-.
Ti02..
P2O3...
MnO. .
100.26
100.11
100.42
100.29
(1) Obsidian, Copan, Honduras. Washington analyst.
(2) Obsidian, Corinto, Nicaragua. J. PETERSEN analyst. J. PETERSEN. Neues Jahrb.
1898: II, 157.
(3) Obsidian, Cerro de los Navajos, Mexico. F. Baerwald analyst. C. A. TennE.
Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges. 37: 616. 1885.
(4) Obsidian, Cerro de los Navajos, Mexico. F. Baerwald analyst. C. A. Tenne.
Loc. cit.
Chemical analysis gave the results shown in No. 1 of table 1, analyses
of obsidians from Nicaragua and Mexico being given for comparison.
In chemical composition the Copan obsidian closely resembles many
others from widely separated localities, as may be seen by reference
to U. S. Geological Sur\^ey, Professional Paper 99, pages 113 to 151.
Its norm is as follows, represented by the symbol 1.4. 1 (2). 3(4).
Quartz 28.86
Orthoclase 26 . 13
Albite 38.25
Anorthite 2.22
Diopside 2.75
Magnetite 0 . 70
Ilmenite 0.91
Apatite 0.30
The Corinto (Nicaragua) obsidian, which is the only other Central
American obsidian of which we have an analysis, is higher in silica
and with lower alkalies, the soda greatly dominating over potash.
One of the analyses of the Mexican obsidian is like that of Copan,
but none of the analyses cited can be regarded as quite satisfactory.
484 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 20
It is probable, however, that the Copan obsidian is much like the
general run of Central American and Mexican obsidians, if we may
judge from analogy with similar regions in the western United States
and along the Andes, a comagmatic zone to which the volcanic rocks
of Mexico and Central America belong.
OBSIDIAN FROM CHICHEN ITZA
Among a large accumulation of sacrificial offerings (mostly of jade)
found some years ago in a cenote, or natural well, at the ancient Maya
city of Chichen Itza in Yucatan,'^ were a few beads of obsidian.
The beads are cylindrical, from 2 to 5 cm. long and about 5 mm,
thick, with a shallow groove running spirally around them from end
to end. The smooth but unpolished surface is brownish black, with
irregular streaks of scarlet, which appear to be painted or burnt into
the surface, as the color does not extend into the material below. They
are apparently intended to simulate similarly mottled obsidians,
which are fairly common, but discussion of this question of technique
will be taken up elsewhere.
The obsidian is of a somewhat peculiar hair-brown color, quite
different from the more usual brown of the Copan obsidian, but is
colorless in thin section. It contains some bubbles, which vary in
length from 0.02 to 0. 10 mm. These are mostly spindle- or pear-shaped,
the former frequently with one end drawn out to a sharp point. The
bubbles are arranged in streaks, evidence of flow texture. Apart
from these bubbles, the glass is perfectly clear and contains no mi-
crolites or phenocrysts.
Dr. Merwin determined the refractive index of this obsidian by
the immersion method, and I would express my thanks to him for
his kindness in making this and the other determinations on the Copan
obsidian. He found the value Wd = 1.489 ±0.001. This is notably
lower than the refractive index of the Copan obsidian, but is about
the same as the indices for the Lipari and Milos obsidians. It is
in accord with the rather high silica and alkalies and low lime and
alumina.
The density was not determined, because the small amount of
material available and the presence of the bubbles would have made
the determination of little value.
^ This collection, now in the Peabody Museum in Cambridge, Massachusetts, is to be
described under the editorship of Prof. A. M. TozzER, to whom I am much indebted for
the privilege of studying the stone objects and publishing the present description, which
deals only with the petrological aspects of the obsidian.
DEC, 4, 1921 WASHINGTON: OBSIDIAN FROM COPAN 485
TABLE 2
Analyses of PantellErite Obsidian and Cognate Rocks
(1) (2) (3) (4)
SiOa 75.88 72.21 70.14 74.09
AI0O3 9.67 9.72 8.61 10.88
FeoOs 2.23 3.26 6.01 3.35
FeO 0.83 1.07 2.73 0.42
MgO 0.21 0.29 0.20 0.30
CaO 0.72 0.82 0.45 0.16
Na.0 5.13 4.42 5.44 4.56
K2O 4.56 4.98 4.20 4.45
H2O + ] f 1-96 0.35]
[ 0.38 ^ \ 1.52
HoO- J ^ 0.24 0.17 J
TiOo 0.10 0.62 0.86 n.d.
Zr02 n.d. n.d. 0.14 n.d.
P2O5 n.d. 0.10 0.12 n.d.
SO3 n.d. n.d. 0.06 n.d.
MnO trace 0.05 0.38 n.d.
99.71 99.74 99.86 99.73
(1) Obsidian bead, Chichen Itza, Yucatan. Washington analyst.
(2) Comendite, Cuddia Nera, Pantelleria. Washington analyst. H. S. Washington.
Jour. Geol. 21: 697. 1913.
(3)JPantellerite, Monte San Elmo, Pantelleria. Washington analyst. H. S. Wash-
ington. Op. cit., p. 703.
(4) Comendite, San Pietro, Sardinia. A. Johnsen analyst. A.Johnsen. Abh. preuss.
Akad. Wiss. 1912: 22.
A chemical analysis, incomplete because of paucity of material,
gave the results shown in No. 1 of table 2. In the figures for silica,
magnesia, and the alkalies, it is much like the analysis of the Copan
and other common obsidians, but is somewhat lower in lime and ti-
tanium. In its low alumina and rather high ferric oxide (especially
as compared with ferrous oxide), however, it differs widely from most
obsidians, and shows close analogies with the more silicic pantellerites
and comendites, as may be seen by comparison with the other analyses
given in the table.
The alumina is, indeed, so low that there is a notable excess of
soda and potash over the total amounts of alumina and ferric oxide,
so that the norm contains, not only considerable acmite, but some
of the sodium metasilicate molecule.
The close analog)^ of the Chichen Itza obsidian with the peculiar
rocks of the Italian volcanoes will be evident, and the obsidian may
properly be called a hyalo-pantellerite, the glass of which is also brown.
The occurrence of such a lava within the area from which the votive
offerings may be supposed to have come is an unexpected one. Lavas
486 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OE SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 20
TABLE 3
Norms of Pantellerite Obsidian and Cognate Rocks
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Quartz 35.34 31.14 27.60 31.32
Orthoclase 27.24 29.47 25.02 26.69
Albite 24 .10 22 .01 20 .44 30 .92
Acmite 6.47 9.24 17.56 6.93
Sodium metasilicate... 2.68 1.10 1.34 none
Diopside 3.10 2.57 1.21 0.65
Hypersthene 0.23 0.46 4.10 0.50
Magnetite none none none 1 .39
Ilmenite 0.15 1 .22 1 .67 none
Apatite none 0.34 0.34 none
(1) Obsidian, Chichen Itza. (I) II. 3".1.3.
(2) Comendite, Pantelleria. (I) II. (3) 4.1.3.
(3) Pantellerite, Pantelleria. II. 3(4). 1.3.
(4) Comendite, Sardinia. I (II). (3) 4.1.3.
of these types are rather rare and are invariably connected with
characteristically sodic comagmatic regions. We know of no such
sodic region in or near Central America or in southern Mexico, the
nearest being the locality of nephelite syenite, in the State of Tam-
aulipas,^ in northeastern Mexico. The lavas here, however, are
apparently dacite, andesite, and basalt, Finlay mentioning no highly
sodic lavas, such as phonolite or pantellerite. There are occurrences
of pantellerite and other sodic lavas in western Texas, and I have
pointed out elsewhere the probable existence of a zone of sporadic
occurrences of sodic rocks along the eastern border of the North
American continent, and that it probably continues down along the
east coast of South America.
As has been said above, we know very little of the volcanic rocks
of Central America, or of Mexico, for that matter, so it is quite possible
that another isolated district of sodic rocks occurs in southern Mexico
or northern Central America. The finding of these beads made of
pantellerite obsidian in the Chichen Itza cenote gives warrant for
this belief, which is further strengthened by the abundance of jade
objects found in this general region, the material of which may be
considered of Mexican or Central American provenance.
It would seem to be clear, from the descriptions above, that the
Chichen Itza obsidian is derived from a volcanic source quite distinct
and, we may reasonably suppose, far distant from that of the Copan
cores. The occurrence of two such widely different obsidians, one
of which belongs to a chemically very peculiar kind of rock, serves
* G. I. Finlay. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 14: 247. 1904.
DEC. 4, 1921 CAUDELi^: the phaneropterae 487
to emphasize the desirability, for archaeological as well as for petro-
logical reasons, of a better knowledge of the volcanic rocks of Central
Arnerica and Mexico.
ENTOMOLOGY. — On the Orthopterous group Phaneropterae ( =
Scudderiae) , with descriptions oj a new genus and species.^ A. N.
CaudelIv, Bureau of Entomology.
The genus Phaneroptera was erected by Serville in 1831,- with two
originally included species, Locusta lilifolia Fabr., and Locusta curvi-
cauda DeGeer. The only designation of genotype for this genus, so
far as now known to the writer, was by Kirby in 1906,^ when the
Gryllus falcatus of Poda was so indicated. In his treatment of this
matter Kirby followed Brunner in considering the Locusta lilifolia
included by Serville as being a misdetermination, the real species
being presumably the Gryllus falcatus of Poda. But, when an author
names a particular species as originally included in a genus that species
is presumed to be correctly determined, the sane and only rational
reasoning applying, it seems, as in the case of genera based wholly on
a misdetermined species, and covered by opinion No. 65 of the Inter-
national Code of Nomenclature and by paragraph No. 96 of the
Entomological Code. Thus the Fabrician lilifolia included by Serville
in his genus is not to be considered a misidentification, and is eligible
for genotype citation. The designation by Kirby of the non-included
species falcatus being invalid the genus Phaneroptera is therefore as
yet without a designated genotype, and one of the two originally
included species, lilifolia and curvicauda, must be selected as the type.
The first of these species, Locusta lilifolia Fabr., is the genotype of the
monobasic genus Tylopsis of Fieber, 1858. The second species,
Locusta curvicauda DeGeer, is the type of the genus Scudderia of Stal
1873, by original definite designation and by virtue of being the sole
species of that monobasic genus. Now paragraph 98a and 101 of
the Entomological Code and opinion 6 of the International Code re-
strict one to the selection of curvicauda as genotype, which I here-
by do by definitely designating Locusta curvicauda DeGeer as the
genotype of the genus Phaneroptera of Serville. This selection,
being in accord with both recent codes governing such matters, can
scarcely fail to meet with the approval of most nomenclatorialists.
^ Received October 21, 1921.
2 Ann. Sci. Nat. 22: 158.
3 Syn. Cat. Orth. 2:'434.
488 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 20
From the above it is clear that Stal's genus Scudderia must fall
as a synonym of Phaneroptera Serville, having the same genotype
and being more recent by almost two decades. This leaves the
species listed under Phaneroptera by Kirby* (except attenuata Walk.,
marginalis Brunn., and annulata Brunn., as noted below) without
valid generic assignment. For these species and grandis, nakoensis
and tympanalis M. &. S., I propose the new generic name Anerota,
with Gryllus falcatus Poda as the designated genotype.
The synonymy is as follows:
Anerota Caudell, nom. nov.
Phaneroptera Brunner (not Serville), Monogr. Phaneropt. 23, 209. 1878.
Phaneroptera Kirby (not Serville), Syn. Cat. Orth. 2: 424. 1906.
The writer sincerely regrets these changes, the sinking of an old
and well-known American genus and the introduction of a new generic
name to replace an older one. However, such acts, being based on
sound nomenclatorial grounds, are necessary if we attempt to comply
with codified rules. And, as therein lies our only hope for an ulti-
mately stable nomenclature, the sooner such changes are wrought
the better.
The type of Phaneroptera attenuata Walker is in the British Museum,
where it was studied by the writer in 1913. It is a female in poor
condition, the abdomen being missing and the rest of the insect glued
on a card. Most of the parts used in classification were, however,
well preserved and prove that the species was wrongly placed by
Walker and Kirby. It has conchate foramina and belongs to the
genus Tylopsis, where it is a synonym of the older species T. hilin-
eolata Serville. Phaneroptera marginalis Brunn. was described from
an imperfect female, the anterior and intermediate legs being wanting.
Kirby assumed the character of the missing parts to be the same as in
Walker's attenuata and so synonymized it under that species. It
seems probable that in this Kirby was correct, and the synonymy is
as follows :
Tylopsis bilineolaris Serville, Orth., p. 419. 1839.
Phaneroptera attenuata Walker, Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. 2:338.
1869.
-Phaneroptera marginalis Brunner, Monogr. Phaneropt. 210, 214.
1878.
♦ Syn. Cat. Orth. 2: 4-34-437 and 3: 574.
DEC. 4, 1921 caudell: the phaneropterae 489
Phaneroptera annulata Brunn. has been made the type of the
genus Xenodoxus of Carl, described in 1914, thus eliminating it
from other generic assignment.
Inscudderia, genus nov.
This is a member of the group Phaneropterae (= Scudderiae), but
tends towards the Insarae, standing between the genera Phaneroptera
(= Scudderia) and Insara, hence the generic name Inscudderia.
Superficially it resembles Insara, especially I. elegans, but structurally
it seems more like Phaneroptera, though in this respect also it tends
towards the Insarae, especially in the narrow tegmina with their
slightly concave caudal margins, two or more branched radial sectors
and variegated color, and the longer and more slender legs. The
greatly prolonged and non-style bearing subgenital plate of the male,
the fastigium of the vertex failing to meet that of the face, the slightly
spinose genicular lobes and the non-sellate pronotum exclude it from
the Insarae. In the group Phaneropterae (= Scudderiae) this genus
runs out in Brunner's keys, Monogr. Phaneropt., to Scudderia on
page 16 except that the fore and middle femora are slightly toothed
ventrally, which is also often true of the anterior femora of Scudderia,
or Phaneroptera, as we have above shown this American genus must
now be called. But there are various characters for the ready sepa-
ration of this new genus from that older one, the more prominent ones
being the twice or more branched radial sector, the more slender and
posteriorly slightly concave tegmina, the comparatively longer and
more slender legs, the more rounded lateral carinae of the pronotum
with the posteriorly flattened disk of the same, the ventrally subspinose
intermediate femora and the more decidely armed ventral margins
of the posterior femora.
Description. — (o^, the ? unknown). Head with the fastigium of the
vertex very narrow, not exceeding a fourth the width of the basal
segment of the antenna, subhorizontal and failing to meet the frontal
fastigium, the presenting face rounded; eyes almost round, prominent.
Pronotum rounding into the lateral lobes without distinct lateral
carinae except in the posterior fourth, where the disk, which is other-
wise gently convex, is wholly and conspicuously flattened, and there
the lateral carinae are sharp and distinct; lateral lobes about equally
high as long, the humeral notch deep.
'Organs of flight fully developed ; wings hyaline with the tips, which
project beyond the closed tegmina a distance approximately equal
490 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OE SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 20
to the pronotal length, green, especially in the costal area where it is
coriaceous like the tegmina; tegmina narrow, slightly over five times
as long as broad, at the widest point being very slightly broader than
the pronotal length, the posterior margin barely concave; first radial
branch two or three forked and joined near the base to the ulnar vein
by a diagonal cross vein. Legs slender, the posterior femora just
reaching the tips of the closed tegmina; spine of anterior coxa long
and sharp; anterior tibiae with open foramen on each face; all the
tibiae sulcate dorsally and armed on both ventral margins with several
black spines of moderate size; above the intermediate and posterior
tibiae also bear sharp black spines on both margins, only one to three
on the cephalic margin of the middle ones, and on that margin there
is no apical spine, as there is on the opposite margin and on both
margins of the hind tibiae; anterior tibiae wholly unarmed on the
dorso-cephalic margin, the opposite margin with a basal spine (often
very small) near the lower margin of the foramen, a terminal spine
and from one to three additional ones at irregular intervals between
the above; posterior femora armed beneath on both margins with
several black triangular teeth, the fore and middle ones with from
none to two very minute teeth on the caudal margin beneath and
the anterior ones may have one or two exceedingly minute teeth on
the ventro-cephalic margin; posterior genicular lobes very briefly
but acutely pointed, the others rounded.
Abdomen with the segments evenly truncate except the terminal
one, which is slightly prolonged and apically broadly notched, as
shown in figure 1, c; subgenital plate greatly prolonged and up-
curved, as in Phaneroptera (= Scudderia), without apical styles
but the latero-apical angles roundly tubercular, the apex notched;
supraanal plate elongate-triangular, deeply concave above; cerci
heavy, about twice as long as the last dorsal segment of the abdomen,
subcylindrical, tapering moderately to about the middle and then
again growing stouter to the noticeably swollen apex, where there is
a heavy, sharply pointed and inwardly directed tooth about a third
as long as the body of the cercus. (See fig. 1, b and c.)
Type Inscudderia taxodii, sp. nov.
Inscudderia taxodii, sp. nov.
This is undoubtedly one of the most distinct species of Orthoptera,
and that such a striking katydid inhabiting the southeastern United
States should so long escape notice is indeed remarkable.
DEC. 4, 1921
caudell: the phaneropterae
491
(\
\
Fig. 1. a, Left tegmen of type; b, end of abdomen, lateral view; c, end
of abdomen, dorsal view. Figures by Dr. A. Bowing.
492 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 20
Description. — (cf, the 9 unknown). Head slightly broader than
the pronotum; labial palpi slender, the terminal segment cylindrical,
slightly and gradually thickening apically, the tip truncate, the whole
three times as long as the preceding one, which in turn is about one-
half as long as the penultimate segment; eyes yellowish brown, the
rest of the head yellowish green, the slender antennae being darker
green with some very narrow black bands scattered along the length.
Pronotum green with a narrow longitudinal mesial stripe on the disk
and with the cites of the lateral carinae somewhat lighter; pronotal
disk truncate anteriorly, posteriorly broadly and uniformly rounded;
lateral lobes with the humeral sinus rounded and margined with black,
the callous large but indistinct ; there is a small black splotch anterior
of the center of each lateral lobe and there are two small transverse
black spots on the posterior margin of the pronotal disk, the mesial
longitudinal stripe separating them. Legs as noted in generic descrip-
tion, the posterior femora shaped as in Insara; foramina of fore tibiae
shining black. Wings slender, over twice as long as broad, the
posterior apical margin evenly curved, the membrane transparent
with green venation, the apex green and thickened as noted in the
generic diagnosis. Tegmina green with the radius, the anal vein,
which continues to near the tip of the tegmina, and the heavier of
the stridulating veins of the singing area piceous and a series of several
conspicuous short, pointed, diagonal, basally directed piceous streaks
extending from the posterior margin, following the veins as shown in
fig.l, a; these black veins and diagonal markings show very conspicuous-
ly against the greent egmina, imparting to them a very characteristic
appearance. Abdomen moderately heavy; last dorsal segment about
twice as long as the preceding one and apically very broadly notched
and laterally concave, the lateral angles thus formed appearing as
rounded tubercular-like protuberances, as shown in figure l,c, supraanal
plate twice as long as the basal width, the sides straight and tapering
to a narrowly rounded apex, the entire dorsal surface deeply concave ;
subgenital plate very like that of Phaneroptera (= Sctidderia), being
a narrow elongate, upcurved flattened plate with conspicuously thick-
ened margins, concave above, convex beneath and the apex triangularly
notched, the terminal lateral lobes rounded and about as long as
thick, but scarcely at all style-like; cerci characteristic in shape, as
shown in the accompanying figure, figure. 1.
The immature form shows little essential difference from the adult
except that the colors show evidence of the same brilliantly hued
DEC. 4, 1921 caudeIvL: the phaneropterae 493
variegation as exhibited by some of our species of Phaneroptera,
though the second segment of the antenna does not show such con-
spicuous enlargement as is present in the young of some species of
the latter genus. The legs are dotted with black and the posterior
femora have some larger black markings on the upper surface and on
the outer face; the abdomen is ornamented with numerous short
narrow red dashes, the lateral lobes of the pronotum are centrally
reddish with yellowish lower margin and with some black markings.
The pronotal disk of the nymphs, at least the only two examined,
does not show the absolute flattening of the posterior fourth as is so
conspicuously true of the adult form.
Measurements of adult. — Length, pronotum, 4 mm. ; tegmina,
21 mm.; posterior femora, 20 mm. Width, tegmina at widest point,
4 mm. ; pronotum across the posterior flattened portion, 2.3 mm.
Type, d', Durant, Miss., July 15, 1921. C. J. Drake, collector;
paratypes, one adult cf and two immature d'd', one nearly full grown
and one about half grown, Pickens, Miss., July 16, 1921, taken by the
same collector.
Type and paratypes in collection of the United States National
Museum.
Catalog No. 24952, U. S. N. M.
In addition to the above four specimens Prof. Drake distinctly
recalls having seen specimens, adults and nymphs, at the following
localities in Mississippi: Fulton, Columbus, Vicksburg, Natchez and
Port Gibson. Not realizing their interest and importance he un-
fortunately kept but the above described specimens, though many,
he says, might easily have been secured.
Prof. Drake, who is to be congratulated on the discovery of this
unusually interesting addition to our native orthopterous fauna,
found this beautiful little katydid to occur quite common on cypress,
where he often took them while beating the foliage of that tree for
Hemiptera. He also on one occasion swept a few adults from weeds
and grass in the immediate vicinity of cypress. The adults aroused
his interest by the nicety with which their colors blended with those
of the host plant.
494 JOURNAL OF THS WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 20
ABSTRACTS
Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared
and signed by themselves, are fonvarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should
conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
GEOI^OGY. — Contact-metam Orphic tungsten deposits of the United States.
Frank L. Hess and Esper S. Larsen. U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 725-D.
Pp. 65(245-309). 1921.
Contact-metamorphic tungsten deposits have been formed through the
combined action of the heat and solutions emanating from a cooling intrusive
granitic magma on limestones and the other intruded rocks and to a less
extent on the invading granitic rock itself, by which the rocks are altered to
or replaced by an aggregate of garnet, epidote, diopside, quartz, calcite,
scheelite, and other minerals. Most deposits of this class are at or very near
the contacts, and they clearh^ represent replacement of the limestones and
other rocks. The tungsten mineral of such deposits is invariably scheelite.
Most of the known contact-metamorphic tungsten deposits in the United
vStates are in the Great Basin region in California and Nevada and north-
western Utah, but Oregon, Arizona, and New Mexico are known to contain
one deposit each, arid it is probable that other such deposits will be found in
widely different parts of the country.
The geologic features of contact-metamorphic deposits and the causes of
metamorphism are discussed. Most of the paper is made up of a brief pre-
liminary description of the contact-metamorphic scheelite deposits in the
western United States. R. W. StonE-
GEOLOGY.- — Chrome ores in Pennsylvania, Maryland and North Carolina.
Eleanora Bliss Knopf and J. Volney Lewis. U.S. Geol. vSurv. Bull.
725-B. Pp. 55 (85-139). 1921.
Chrome ore was discovered in Maryland as early as 1827. Until 1860
Maryland and Pennsylvania furnished the world's supply of chrome ore,
but in 1860 the chief source of the world's supply was transferred to Turkey.
Since 1882 practically all of the output of chrome ore in the United States
has come from the Pacific coast, and the industry in the Eastern States has
lain dormant.
The chromite is found in rock ore and in alluvial sand. The rock ore is
both massive and granular. It occurs in serpentinized pyroxenites and
peridotites that probably represent ultrafemic differentiates of a gabbro in-
trusion. The massive ore occurs in pockets of variable size. The ore occurs
at intervals in a belt 50 miles long that extends from the southwest corner
of Chester County, Pa., to the neighborhood of Baltimore, Md. It has
probably originated by the sinking of chromite grains during the crystalli-
zation of a highly magnesian magma.
The chrome ores of North Carolina occur in granular olivine rocks (peri-
dotites), which form numerous small isolated outcrops in a belt 5 to 25 miles
wide throughout the mountainous western part of the State, a distance of
200 miles.
DEC. 4, 1921 ABSTR.\CTS: ORNITHOLOGY 495
This report describes the character of the rocks and their hydration and
decomposition products, also the character and classification of the chrome
ores and the nature of the gangue minerals.
The chrome ores are believed to have been formed by the local concen-
tration of suspended grains and crystals of chromite during the cooling of
the molten peridotite magma after its intrusion into the gneisses. Con-
vectional circulation was probably the chief agent in the process. The chance
of large bodies of deeper-seated ore having been formed at the same time
is thought to be very small. R. W. Stone.
BIOLOGY. — A new classification of animals. Austin H. Clark. Bulle-
tin de rinstitut Oceanographique (Monaco), No. 400, pp. 1-24. 20
September, 1921.
This paper is an amplification of the short note on the steps in the evolution
of animals published in this Journal,^ and also includes a consideration of the
corresponding steps in the evolution of plants. A key is given to all of the
animal phyla, in which the larger plant groups are also included, and finally
there is a list of the ph3da and higher groups accepted by the author. Several
of the higher groups and one of the phyla (Calyssozoa) are here proposed for
the first time. ' A. H. C.
ENTOMOLOGY.— Z^w^^z-^/oM of flies by flight. F. C. Bishopp and E. W.
Laake. Journ. Agric. Res. 221: 729-766. 1921.
This paper discusses the dispersion of flies by flight and experiments listed
and described show that under rural and urban conditions many species of
flies have marked powers of diffusion. The house fly spread a maximum
distance of 13.14 miles from the point of release. It is noted that the species
tested often pass feeding and breeding grounds and from the experiments there
are certain facts which indicate that they have marked migratory habits.
The relation of the direction of dispersion and the direction of the winds is
discussed and it is stated that no correlation could be determined because
when the experiments were conducted. the wind conditions were considered
as choppy. The evidence gained by the experiments justifies the conclusion
that passing vehicles on highways are not a dominating factor in the dispersion
of the flies used. There is no marked difference between the dispersion of
males and females. The facility with which flies travel many miles empha-
sizes the importance of the general application of sanitary measures looking
toward the suppression of fly breeding. S. A. RohwER.
ORNITHOLOGY. — A new ptarmigan from Mount Rainier. W. P. Taylor.
Condor 22: 146-152. 1920.
A new ptarmigan from Mount Rainier is here named Lagopus leucurus
rainierensis. Harry C. Oberholser.
ORNITHOLOGY.— TFa/^r/owZ in Nebraska. H. C. Oberholser. Bull.
U. S. Dept. Agric. 794: 2-35. 1920.
The principal waterfowl breeding ground in Nebraska is the sandhill region,
which occupies the middle portion of the State. The most important groups
of lakes are those of eastern Cherry County, Brown County, Garden and
Morrill Counties, and those at the head of the North Loup River. All these
1 This Journal 11: 207-208. IMay 4, 1921.
496 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 20
lakes are relatively small and shallow, and many are more or less ephemeral.
The water in most is fresh, biit in a few is alkaline.
Notes on habits, occurrence, and distribution of 56 species of water birds
are here given, 42 of which are breeding species of the State, and 14 are only
autumn transients. The most abundant breeding duck is Querquedula discors.
H. C. O.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Observations on the habits of the white-winged dove.
Alexander Wetmore. Condor 22: 140-146. 1920.
The habits of Melopelia asiatica mearnsi as observed near Arlington, along
the Gila River in Maricopa County, Arizona, present some interesting fea-
tures. The species were found breeding in colonies, some of them as large
as 2000 pairs. The young are fed by regurgitation for three or four days,
after which they are given fresh food. They remain in the nest three or
four weeks. A regular morning flight from the breeding colonies begins an
hour after sunrise and continues until nearly noon of each day. The species
feeds much on wheat and barley, but as most of this is waste grain, the damage
to the cultivated crops of the region is comparatively slight.
H. C. O.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Observations on the habits of birds at Lake Burford, New
Mexico. Alexander WetmorE. Auk 37: 221-247. 393-412, pis.
1-7. 1920.
Lake Burford lies at an altitude of 7000 feet in the northwestern part of
New Mexico. The observations here recorded relate to 105 species, and
include sometimes extended notes on habits, particularly of the water birds.
H. C. Oberholser.
ORNITHOLOGY. — A peculiar feeding habit of grebes. Alexander Wet-
more. Condor 22: 18-20. 1920.'
The stomachs of grebes usually contain a considerable quantity of feathers.
These are eaten by the birds during the process of preening. Although these
feathers are eventually ground up and enter the intestines, a plug of them
remains in the pyloric lobe of the stomach, apparently serving as a strainer
to prevent the passage of the more indigestible parts of food eaten.
H. C. Oberholser.
ORNITHOLOGY. — A new clifj swallow from Canada. H. C. Oberholser.
Canadian Field-Nat. 33: 95. 1920.
The form of Petrochelidon albifrons inhabiting most of western Canada
is here described as Petrochelidon albifrons hypopolia. It is the largest of the
races of Petrochelidon albifrons, and inhabits northwestern North America,
from Mackenzie and Alaska, south to Montana and Alberta, migrating
through the western United States probably to South America. H. C. O.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a new clapper rail from Florida. H.
C. Oberholser. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 33: 33-34. 1920.
A clapper rail from the Florida Keys is described as Rallus longirostris
helius. H. C. O.
ORNITHOLOGY. — The migration of North American birds. XIII. Euro-
pean Starling and the Bobolink. H. C. Oberholser. Bird Lore 22:
213-216. 1920.
The European Starling (Stiirinis vidgaris vidgaris), was introduced into the
DEC. 4, 1921 proceedings: philosophical society 497
United States about 1890. Since that time it has spread into Maine, central
New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and southeastern Virginia, where
it now breeds. It has wandered also to Ohio, Alabama, and Georgia, and
probably will continue to spread into suitable areas in the eastern United
States. The well-known BoboHnk {Dolichonyx oryzivorus), breeding in
North America, migrates to winter in Bolivia and Argentina. Tables of
dates of its spring and fall migration are here given. H. C. O.
ORNITHOLOGY. — A synopsis of the races of the Guiana flycatcher, Myiarchus
ferox (Gmelin). H. C. Oberholser. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 1918:
304-308. 1920.
Eight subspecies of this bird are here recognized, one of which has not
heretofore been regarded as distinct. H. C. O.
ORNITHOLOGY. — -Description of a new Otocoris from California. H.
C. Oberholser. Condor 22: 34-35. 1920.
The breeding horned lark of the northern Sierra Nevada in California is
here named Octocoris alpestris sierrae. H. C. O.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Fifth annual list of proposed changes in the A. 0. U.
check-list of North American birds. H. C. Oberholser. Auk 37: 274-
285. 1920.
This list includes the changes in nomenclature and status of North American
birds proposed during the calendar year 1919. It comprises the addition of
7 genera, 8 species, and 16 subspecies; together with 67 changes in generic,
subgeneric, specific, and subspecific terms, involving altogether 90 names.
Furthermore, there are 14 eliminations from the North American list as now
understood, these consisting of 7 genera, 1 species, and 6 subspecies.
H. C. O.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
853d meeting
The 853d meeting of the Philosophical vSociety of Washington was held
in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club October 8, 1921. It was called
to order by President F.\ris with 44 persons present.
The first paper of the evening, on A furnace temperature regulator, was pre-
sented by Mr. H. S. Roberts, 3d, and was illustrated. It was discussed by
Messrs. Pawling, White, L. H. Adams, and others.
This paper was a description of a thermo-regulator for use with electric
resistance furnaces and an account of its operation.
The apparatus is a modification of the regulator described by White and
Adams in 1919, in which the heating coil of the furnace is placed in one arm
of a Wheatstone bridge and the supply of energy to the furnace varied in a
single step by means of a switch operated by the galvanometer of the bridge.
In the White-Adams apparatus the switch was moved by a motor-driven
mechanism and could only open or close at particular instants separated
by arbitrarily fixed intervals of about one second. In the present regulator
498 JOURNAL OF* THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 20
the switch is operated by an electro-magnet as soon as a contact button on
the boom of the galvanometer reaches one or the other of two fixed contact
buttons. As the force with which the galvanometer presses the contact
buttons together is very small, it is necessary to employ only a very small cur-
rent through its contacts, in order to prevent their sticking. For this purpose
a high resistance polarized relay is placed between the galvanometer contacts
and the magnet that operates the main switch. As a further precaution,
the secondary of a small transformer is connected in series with the coil of the
galvanometer, while the primary is connected to the heating circuit in such a
way that the operation of the main switch causes a ballistic deflection of the
galvanometer towards its central position. All the appliances used are of
standard make with a few simple changes.
The adjustment of the rate at which energy is supplied to the furnace is
effected by varying the ratio of the time it is supplied at a higher rate to the
time it is supplied at a lower rate. Thus the present type of galvanometer
is able to secure the proper ratio in a single cycle while the type employed by
White and Adams could, in general, only approximate it after several cycles
by a fraction whose numerator and denominator were integers. Under
certain conditions this caused a rather large, slow oscillation of the temperature
of the furnace.
In order to vary the temperature of the furnace slowly for taking heating
or cooling curves, one of the arms of the bridge is shunted by a variable rheo-
stat whose resistance is changed in equal steps at intervals of 30 or 60 seconds.
This arrangement has been found to give a steady change of temperature,
which, however, is not quite linear.
The regulator, when used with the ordinary type of platinum resistance
furnace, has been found to hold the temperatures up to 1250° constant within
0.2° C. for several hours, in spite of variations of 5° in the room temperattue
and of 6 per cent in the line voltage. At higher temperatures the tempera-
ture falls slowly, but may be maintained within 0.2 ° by an occasional manual
adjustment. The temperature coefficient of nichrome or chromel wire is too
low for the regulator; but nickel wire may be used up to perhaps 500° and
some other alloy, such as alumel, may be found to work at still higher temper-
atures. As is the case with the White-Adams regulator, this apparatus, in
its present form, is not suitable for use with alternating current or with the
pulsating current furnished by the mercury arc rectifier.
The second paper, on Aerial navigation, was presented by Mr. H. N. Eaton,
and was illustrated. It was discussed by Messrs. L. J. Briggs, LittlehalES,
A. F. Beal and Pawling.
Aerial navigation is a recent development as it is only since aircraft
have become capable of flying for long distances that the necessity for
navigating them as ocean-going vessels are navigated has arisen. Aerial
navigation resembles marine navigation in general principles but is more
difficult in application owing to the higher speeds of the craft and of the sup-
porting medium, to the impossibility of charting the winds as the ocean cur-
rents are charted because of the variability of the former, and to the fact
that freedom of motion in three dimensions introduces additional problems.
Fortunately it is not necessary to determine position as accurately in the
case of air-craft as in the case of ships on the ocean, since an error of from
10 to 20 miles involves only a few minutes additional flying time.
There are three general scientific methods of aerial navigation; dead reckon-
DEC. 4, 1921 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 499
ing, astronomical observation, and directional wireless telegraphy. Dead
reckoning involves the measurement of air speed, ground speed, heading,
drift, and the amount and direction of the wind. The chief difficulty in this
method of navigation arises from the fact that the motion of the craft over
the ground is due to the resultant of the air velocity of the craft and the effect
of the wind, the latter being often difficult to determine. Instruments have'
been developed to measure directly or indirectly all of these quantities.
In general principles marine and aerial navigation by astronomical ob-
ser\'ations are practically identical. The sextant is the universal instrument
used for observation on the celestial bodies in both cases. In the air, how-
ever, it often happens that no horizon is available to furnish a reference line
and it is then necessary to use an artificial horizon of some type, bubble,
pendulum, or gj^oscopic. Consequently, sextants with these horizons at-
tached are commonly used in aerial navigation. It is worthy of notice that
the aerial navigator often has available natural horizons which are never
visible from the surface of the sea. The top surface of the haze lying over
the ocean and flat layers of clouds often furnish excellent horizons.
The radio direction finder can be used in the air to determine the position
of the craft by measuring the directions in which radio waves from the craft
reach two or more fixed stations or radio waves from the fixed stations reach
the craft.
H. H. KiMBAivE, Recording Secretary.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
THE PUEBLO BONlTO EXPLORATIONS
Mr. Neil M. Judd, curator of American archeology, U. S. National Mu-
seum, returned to Washington recently after having been occupied in New
Mexico for more than five months as director of the National Geographic
Society's Pueblo Bonito Expedition. Pueblo Bonito is one of the largest
and best preserved prehistoric ruins north of Mexico. The Society has
obtained a permit from the Department of the Interior and it is expected
that the ruin can be wholly excavated within five years. No public notice
has yet been issued as to the results of this first season's explorations but it
is understood that the expedition was entirely successful both from the view-
point of excavations actually completed and from the amount of data re-
covered.
A unique feature of this newest National Geographic Society expedition — •
one which has created considerable favorable comment among American
men of science — is a proposed series of annual conferences at Pueblo Bonito
to which specialists in the various humanistic sciences will be invited. The
first of these symposiums, held last August, was attended by archeologists
and agriculturists; geologists, botanists, and soil experts will be present at
next year's meeting. The willing cooperation of these gentlemen — leaders
in their respective fields of research — has made it possible to attack the
problem presented by the marvelous ruins of Pueblo Bonito on a scale not
thought possible heretofore; their combined efforts should result in a very
distinctive contribution to the history of ancient America.
NOTES
The following lectures have been given recently in the Bureau of Standards
Physics Club series on the physics of the Earth: Monday, October 31, WiL-
500 JOURNAL OF the; WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 20
LiAM Bowie : The theory of isostasy; Monday, November 7, Harry Fielding
Reid: The causes of earthquakes; Monday, November 14, Lyman J. Briggs:
The measurement of the acceleration of gravity at sea.
Captain ErnEST h- Bennett, formerly in command of the battleship
New York, has been designated by the Navy Department as director of the
naval experimental and research laboratory now nearing completion at
Belleview, on the Potomac River below Washington. Five buildings, in-
cluding office and laboratory^ machine shop, forge and foundry, pattern
shop, and power plant, are under construction.
Dr. Torbjorn Gaarder, director of the biochemical laboratory of Ber-
gens Museum, Bergen, Norway, visited the scientific institutions of Wash-
ington early in November.
The Directors of the American Chemical vSociety have elected Mr. H. E.
Howe, of the National Research Council, editor of the Journal of Industrial
and Engineering Chemistry to succeed Dr. Charles H. Herty, who has
resigned to become president of the newly organized Association of Synthetic
Organic Chemical Manufacturers.
Dr. William C. Kendall, scientific assistant and ichthyologist of the
U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, has resigned after nearly thirty-three years of
service with the Bureau, to accept the position of ichthyologist in the Roose-
velt V,''ild Life Forest Experiment Station of the New York State College
of Forestry, Syracuse, New York.
The collection of birds of the late William Palmer has been transferred
from George Washington University to the Division of Birds, U. S. National
Museum. This collection is noteworthy for the number of District of Colum-
bia records and for the young and molting plumages it contains.
Dr. GusTAV TroEdsson, paleontologist at the University of Lund, Sweden,
and now traveling on a fellowship in the United States, spent a part of October
in studying the Cambrian and Ordovician collections in the National Museum.
Mr. S. L. Willis, formerly in charge of the preparation of ceramic data
for the U. S. Tariff Commission, has resigned to accept a position with the
Corning Glass Works of Corning, New York.
/■
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vol. 11 Deckmber 19, 1921 No. 21
ZOOLOGY. — A key to the Philippine operculate Imid mollusks of the
genus Ceratopoma.i Paul Bartsch, United States National
Museum.
In 1918 we published in this Journal^ a Classification of the Philip-
pine operculate land shells of the family Helicinidae, with a synopsis
of the species and sub-species of the genus Geophorus. In that paper
we gave keys to the subgenera and species of the largest genus, namely,
Geophorus, of the subfamily Helicinidae. Since then enough ma-
terial has come to hand to enable us to similarly treat another genus,
namely, that of Ceratopoma, a key to the species of which is herewith
furnished (see page 502).
Ceratopoma has the operculum less specialized than any other
Philippine Helicinid. It consists of a simple, horny shell without
calcareous deposit. The type of the genus is Helicina caroli Kobelt.
The animal, like Geophorus, is usually a ground dweller and may
be found among dead leaves as well as in crevices of rocks. At the
present time the genus is known from Luzon, Leyte, Siargao and
northeastern Mindanao, and it is quite possible that careful collect-
ing in the islands between the two extremes will reveal additional
species.
Ceratopoma caroli Kobelt comes from the island of Siargao. It
is a large species, with the parietal callus chestnut brown. In fact,
it is the only Ceratopoma so far known with a brown callus.
Ceratopoma henningiana Mollendorff was described from Pena
Blanca, Luzon, and differs from all the other Ceratopomas in having
a broad brown basal band near the periphery.
Ceratopoma cagayanica, sp. nov., differs from the other two
known large non-color-banded Ceratopomas in having the peripheral
keel limited on the base by an incised line, in which character it agrees
with Ceratopoma henningiana Mollendorff. The type, Cat. No.
*■ Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received
November 8, 1921.
2 This Journal 8: 643-657. 1918.
501
502 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 21
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DSC. 19, 1921 bartsch: key to Philippine operculate mollusks 503
302763, U. S. N. M., comes from Cagayan, Mindanao. It has 4.5
whorls and measures: altitude, 7.5 mm. ; diameter, 13.5 mm.
Two forms of Ceratopoma are known from the island of Leyte, one
having the umbilical callus about half the diameter of the shell, which
is Ceratopoma emaculaia MoUendorff, the other having the umbilical
callus only about one-fourth the diameter of the shell, which may
be known as Ceratopoma emaculata cabaliana, subsp. nov. The
former we collected in the mountains south of Tacloban, Cat. No.
258771, U. S. N. M. The latter comes from Sitio Menoiho, Caba-
lian, Leyte. The type is Cat. No. 302741, U. S. N. M.
The remaining members of the genus are all from the island of
Luzon, and are small, none exceeding 8 mm. in diameter. Two of
these have a subglobose outline, namely, Ceratopoma quadrasi Mol-
lendorff, which comes from Caxiguran, and the shell described by
Wagner as Ceratopoma contermina camiguinensis from Camiguin,
Luzon. The latter I have not seen, and consequently have not placed
in the key. The figure given by Wagner resembles that of Cerato-
poma quadrasi, but from what we know of the distribution of Heli-
cinas there seems little doubt that it is distinct, and if specimens
were at hand characters could be given to key it.
The remaining forms are depressed-conic, and can be divided into
two species, one having the upper surface strongly spirally striated.
This is Ceratopoma contermina (Semper) Kobelt, which was described
from Pancian, northern Luzon, and has a diameter of more than 6
mm., and a smaller race, which may be called Ceratopoma contermina
iota, subsp. nov., from Cagayan, Luzon. The type of this, Cat.
No. 302758, has 4 Vs whorls and measures: altitude, 3.2 mm. ; greater
diameter, 5.6 mm. The other species, Ceratopoma rosaliae Pfeififer,
is without spiral striation on the upper surface. The typical form
we have seen from the eastern side of Isabella and Nueva Viscaya
Provinces, Luzon.
A smaller race occupies the Manila Bay region, to which we now
give the name Ceratopoma rosaliae manilana, subsp. nov.. The
type, Cat. No. 184924, U. S. N. M., comes from Manila. It has
4V3 postnuclear whorls and measures: altitude, 3.8 mm.; diameter
6.7 mm.
A still smaller race comes from the Benguet Province which we have
called Ceratopoma rosaliae igorota, supsb. nov., the type of which
has 4V4 whorls and measures: altitude, 3.2 mm., diameter, 5.7 mm.
504 JOURNAIv OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 21
ZOOLOGY. — -Marionella (Eurystoma Marion, 1870) ; an emenda-
tion, with notes on a new hirefringent substance, marionellin, found
in the intestinal cells. {Contributions to a science of Hematology,
XI.) ^ N. A. Cobb, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
The name Eurystoma, applied by Marion^ in 1870 to a new genus
of free living marine nemas discovered by him near Marseilles, France,
was preempted, having been applied by Rafinesque in 1818 to a genus,
of molluscs. Naturally, investigations, made during the last half
century enable one, at the present time, to emend Marion's original
description. Having examined as many more new, and as yet un-
published, species of the genus as have been already published, I
venture to make this emendation, based on a study of about twenty-
five species, and to propose for the genus the new name Marionella,
in commemoration of its original author.
Marionella, nom. nov.
Eurystoma Marion, Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. V. 13: 19. 1870. Not Eurystoma
Raf. 1818.
Cuticle and setae. — The thin layers of the transparent, colorless cuticle are
traversed by transverse striae so exceedingly fine that they are very difficult
to see even with highest powers of the microscope. Occasionally oblique striae
also are to be seen in the cuticle of the lips, running in the direction of a
left-handed screw. There are no lateral wings to the cuticle, and the striae
are not altered on the lateral fields. There are no longitudinal striae
in the cuticle itself, but the attachments of the somatic muscles give
rise to longitudinal markings of a character somewhat resembling true
striae. The contour of the body is always plain.
The cephalic setae, which are one-third to two-thirds as long as the lip-
region is wide, are six or ten in number. Even when at first sight there ap-
pear to be only six, it is frequently found that in reality there are ten, —
each of the four submedian setae having a very short and very inconspicuous
companion hugging its base. The setae, two lateral and four or eight sub-
median, are usually slightly curved, of medium size to very slender, taper-
ing, and somewhat acute, and have innervations that are most clearly visible
near their bases; they are of medium stiffness to flexible, and spread out-
ward from the lateral surface of the head opposite the apex of the onchium.
Occasionally the larger setae can be seen to be about three- jointed. There
are no special subcephalic setae. On the anterior portion of the neck in
the vicinity of the head there are always to be found a few small, slender
setae, one-sixth to one-eighth as long as the corresponding body diameter;
these usually project at right angles to the neck or incline forward at an angle
of sometimes as much as forty-five degrees. Not infrequently among the
cervical setae there is one, a dorsal one, two to three times as far back as
• Received November 10, 1921.
»Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. V. 13: 19. 1870.
DEC. 19, 1921 COBB: marionei^i^a 505
the base of the head, which is more prominent than the others. The somatic
setae appear always to be reduced to innervations. There are no conspic-
uous pores on the surface of the body, but the ellipsoidal glandular cells of
considerable size inv^ariably found in the lateral fields are connected with
the exterior by means of very small and inconspicuous pores.
Head and pharynx. — The somewhat rounded to subtruncate head is us-
ually continuous with the neck, but is sometimes set off by a slight contrac-
tion, or by a very slight, broad, shallow constriction. The lip-region, on
the other hand, is nearly always set off by a very slight, narrow and shallow,
but usually distinctly visible constriction. The membranous lips are them-
selves thin and confluent, and apparently close by virtue of their elasticity.
Their margins are very finely striated and possibly sometimes fimbriate.
The lips are supplied externally with six forward-pointing papillae (or six
sets of papillae), arranged in a single circlet having a diameter about one-
half as great as that of the lip-region. These papillae are so exceedingly
small as usually to escape observation. Their innervations are also exceed-
ingly inconspicuous. Usually it is only when the papillae happen to project
forward a little in exact profile that they come into view.
At first sight the pharynx appears to have the form of that of Oncholaimus.
It is, however, nearly always divided into tvuo distinct chambers of more or
less equal length, the anterior of which is somewhat the wider and the more
symmetrical. This regular anterior chamber is nearly always a napiform
cavity one-half to two-thirds or even three-fourths as wide as the correspond-
ing portion of the head. The posterior chamber is of smaller size, usually
only about three-fourths as wide as the anterior chamber, and more or less
irregularly spheroidal in form. The refractive walls of the pharynx are
well-developed, but not very thick. The pharynx is usually armed with a
single well-developed, forward-pointing onchium, but there may be one or two
additional smaller onchia in exceptional cases. The apex of the main, and
usually only, onchium, always occupying the right ventral submedian posi-
tion, extends forvvard sometimes as far as the lips. The convex-conoid,
enlarged base of the onchium fills the posterior chamber of the pharynx
comparatively full. This enlarged portion of the onchium is continued in
the front chamber by a narrower, more slowly tapering, convex-conoid,
more or less acute summit. This organ is perforated and so serves as the
outlet of a large oesophageal gland. The posterior pharyngeal chamber is
separated from the anterior by a constriction, marked in its most pronounced
form by the presence of narrow and refractive, transverse, arcuate elements
or thickenings, placed end to end in a circle. Adjacent to this circle, usually
in front of it and close together, there are one to three transverse rows of
denticles, each consisting of either about thirty-two, or about sixty-four
to eighty, somewhat forward-pointing units. These more or less inward
pointing denticles are rather acute, cylindroid-conoid, uniform in size, and
are usually so minute as to be barely resolvable with high powers of the
microscope.
When viewed from in front, the phar^^nx is seen to be very nearly round.
The margin of the lip-region is so thin and filmy that oftentimes it is difficult
to deUmit. An exact count of the denticles in a specimen of an unpublished
but typical species, gave the following figures: — anterior series of denticles
62 ; second series 62 ; back series of larger denticles 20 ; — this decreased number
in the back row being due not only to the fact that the denticles are larger
506 JOURNAL OF The; Washington academy of sciences vol. 11, no. 21
and farther apart, but also to fact the that one-third of the circumference
is destitute of denticles, namely that part of the circumference opposite
the large onchium. In this particular region, however, the interior walls
of the pharynx are very finely longitudinally striated. The back row of
denticles, it should be pointed out, is on the wall of the posterior half of the
pharynx.
The neck is conoid, or occasionally subcylindroid, and ends in a cylindroid
or, more often, a rather decidedly convex-conoid head.
Amphids and eye-spots. — Though the amphids are well-developed, they
are rarely plainly to be seen. Their exterior expression consists of two dor-
sally sub-lateral concavities two to three times as wide as long, impinging on
the bases of the lateral setae. Though the peripheries of the amphids may
seem to be closed, they are, in fact, nearly always found to be open on the
posterior margin near the lateral fields. As a rule their contours are almost
invisible, so that their form and extent are mainly indicated by the apparent
absence in them of the fine structural elements to be seen elsewhere in the
cuticle of the head. When clearly defined, their contours are found to be
reniform with the convex side forward. They are located on or near the
base of the lip-region, and more or less opposite to the rows of denticles.
They are usually one-third to two -fifths as wide as the corresponding diameter
of the lip-region and two to three times as wide as long.
More often than not two eye-spots are present. These take the form of sphe-
roidal, compact collections of about one hundred brownish granules, each
collection lateral in position and lying between the oesophagus and body-
wall,— being about one-fourth as wide as the corresponding portion of the
neck, and removed from the anterior extremity by a distance two to four
times as great as the width of the head. Anteriorly, these ocelli often present
a spherical cavity in which there is at least the suggestion of a spherical
lens.
Oesophagus. — The simple conoid oesophagus is destitute of bulbs and
receives the base of the pharynx in its anterior extremity, where it is usually
about half as wide as the base of the head. Near the nerve-ring it is usually
about one-half, and posteriorly usually about three-fifths, as wide as the
corresponding part of the neck. It is always separated from the intestine
by a distinct cardiac collum about one-third as wide as the base of the neck.
While not conspicuous, the lining of the oesophagus is a distinct feature
throughout its length. Though the oesophageal musculature is usually
fine, the structure is occasionally coarse in the posterior part. Rarely,
yellowish spherical granules are found in the tissues of the oesophagus.
The oesophageal glands are well-developed, or at least one of them is; as
before stated, they empty into the pharynx through pores in the onchia.
The right submedian gland is without exception the largest. There is us-
ually a weU-developed conoid or hemispherical cardia one-third to one-half
as wide as the corresponding portion of the neck.
Intestine. — The intestine becomes at once one-half to two-thirds as wide
as the body, and is made up of cells of such a size that few are required to
build a circumference. Its walls are thick, and its lumen faint. Its cells
invariably contain fine spherical granules of more or less variable size, the
largest of them being one-fortieth to one-twentieth as wide as the body.
The granules are scattered, or sometimes numerous, in the cells, and may
be so arranged as to give rise to a faint tessellated effect, though this is unusual.
DEC. 19, 1921 cobb: marionella 507
Doubly refractive granules (MarionelUn) in the intestinal cells. — In the
single layer of cells composing the intestine, an undescribed species of Mari-
onella presented about twenty scattered special cells, more numerous and
closer together anteriorly, each packed with doubly refractive granules
(marionellin) mostly of very small size. Marionellin occurs in other species
of Marionella.
These special intestinal cells were not distributed along a definite longi-
tudinal line as in Ironus, where there is a decided dorso-ventral symmetry
to the intestine due to the dorsal cells having a different character from
the ventral. The interspaces between these special cells in this species of
Marionella increased rather regularly from front to rear.
The discovery of these special intestinal cells is an additional observation
indicating diferentiation among the cells of the nema intestine. Such differ-
entiated cells are now known to the writer in the following genera, among
others: Enoplus, Bathylaimus, Ironus, Mononchus, Eurystoma (all carniv-
orous). It seems very reasonable to suppose that these differentiated cells
may have functions similar to those of the glands accessory to the intestine
of other and larger animals. Assuming that digestion in nemas has a general
similarity to that of the higher animals, it would seem that gastric, hepatic,
renal and other functions must exist in some form in the nema; thus far,
however, very few of these functions can be assigned to special organs, as
few or no such special organs exist. Instead of each cell of the intestine
carrying out all of these distinct functions, in view of the above observations
there is now morphological evidence of "division of labor," and when these
differentiated cells have been adequately investigated, we shall probably be able
to assign to them definite functions, and, for illustration, be able to apply to
them some such terms as "hepatic cells," "renal cells," "spleenic cells," etc.
Tail. — The tail in Marionella takes on one of two distinct forms, accord-
ing as there is or is not a spinneret present. If there is no spinneret the tail
is conoid from the anus to the acute terminus, sometimes however tapering
a little more rapidly in the anterior portion than elsewhere. In species
possessing this form of tail, usually the tail of the male is the shorter, and
the narrow conoid posterior part may appear rather as an appendage to the
short but bulky anterior part. Most of the species, however, possess three
well-developed unicellular caudal glands and a blunt, conoid, unarmed, and
symmetrical terminal spinneret about one-fourth as wide as the base of the
tail. If any setae occur on the tail, they are exceedingly small and very
inconspicuous. The three quite separate ducts of the caudal glands are
plainly visible in the tail and end posteriorly in three separate ampullae.
The unicellular glands themselves are arranged in a loose tandem in front
of the anus, the foremost being removed a distance from the anus several
times as great as the corresponding body diameter.
Lateral fields: glandtdar cells. — The lateral fields are usually about half
as wide as the body, and contain large, granular, ellipsoidal, glandular cells
about one-third as wide as the body and emptying on the surface of the
cuticle by means of exceedingly minute pores. These large glandular cells
are situated from point to point throughout the length of the body, the
distance between them being from one to four times as great as the width
of the body
Renette. — The renettei^cell is invariably situated behind the neck and
empties by means of a long, narrow, faintly visible duct. The narrow in-
508 JOURNAL OF THS WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 21
conspicuous ampulla is situated nearly opposite the base of the pharynx.
The obscure excretory pore is invariably located in the lip-region opposite the
row of cephalic setae. The presence of the duct and ampulla usually causes
the pharynx as well as the portion of the oesophagus near the head to be a
little nearer to the dorsal side of the body than to the ventral.
Nerve-ring. — ^The nerve-ring is always a rather conspicuous feature. As
a distinct collar it surrounds the oesophagus a trifle obliquely and is of me-
dium size, and has arranged both in front of it and behind it numerous large
nuclei, whose grouping, however, does not appear to be very orderly.
Female organs. — The female sexual organs are invariably double and re-
flexed ('f')- The vulva, though large, is more or less continuous and not
very conspicuous. The well-developed vagina leads inward at right angles
to the ventral surface about two-fifths of the way across the body, and,
though fairly muscular, is not very amply cutinized.
The two straight uteri are of such a size as to contain two or more eggs
at a time, arranged tandem; these latter are thin-shelled, smooth, usually
ellipsoidal or somewhat elongated, and are deposited before segmentation
begins. The reflexed ovaries are broad, or of medium width, taper more
or less, and extend one-half to two-thirds the distance back to the vulva.
The ova in them are arranged single file except near the blind end, where
they are arranged irregularly.
Male organs. — The tail of the male is like that of the female except that
it is usually shorter and more pronounced in its features, especially in species
lacking a spinneret. In all the species that have been carefully examined
in this respect, namely in the majority of the species, there are two outstretched
testes extending in opposite directions, the anterior one ending a neck-length
or more behind the cardia, the other near the beginning of the posterior
fourth of the body. The two equal spicula are invariably arcuate, and
occasionally strongly so. At their widest part they are one-sixth to one-
eighth as wide as the corresponding portion of the body. They are from
one and one-fourth to two times as long as the anal body diameter, and
when viewed in profile their proximal ends appear to lie opposite to or slightly
dorsad from the body axis, — very rarely ventrad. The proximal ends are
almost always very slightly cephalated by expansion, but they are some-
times faintly cephalated by constriction or by contraction. They are some-
what slender, of rather uniform width, and rather blunt at the free end,
where they sometimes terminate in a simple or denticulate crochet. The
gubernaculum, placed at right angles to the distal parts in the spicula, though
sometimes of uniform width, usually tapers internally to a blunt or acute
point, which lies opposite to or dorsad from the body diameter. From
this apophysis muscles lead fore and aft to the dorsal body wall. The por-
tion of the gubernaculum applied to the spicula is one-sixth to one-eighth
as long as these latter.
Supplementary organs. — Invariably two large, ventral, pre-anal supple-
mentary organs are present, though in a few species they are more or less
vestigial. They are placed in front of the anus in such fashion that the
posterior one is about as far in front of the anus as the spinneret is behind
it, and the anterior one about as far in front of the posterior as this latter
is in front of the anus. There is, however, some variation in the situation
of this pair of supplementary organs in the different species. Nearly al-
ways the posterior supplement is a little smaller than the anterior, some-
DEC. 19, 1921 COBB: marionei^la 509
times markedly so. When well-developed, these organs consist of highly
refractive elements, both external and internal, which are very striking in
their appearance. To a considerable extent these supplements can be pro-
truded and withdrawn. When protruded they are very prominent. Wlien
withdrawn they may leave the ventral contour comparatively even; and
yet, even when withdrawn, they are hardly less conspicuous than when
protruded, owing to their highly refractive character. The most striking
internal elements are two in number to each supplement, extending, one
forward and the other backward, and may appropriately be termed ''levers."
These levers are somewhat finger-shaped pieces of cutinized material that
serve for the attachment of muscles. They usually taper but little, and
their internal extremities are invariably blunt. The two levers of a given
supplement are usually practically equal in size. When the supplement
is at rest, the levers lie near the ventral side of the body and parallel to it.
In such circumstances the exterior portion of the organ protrudes only slightly;
but when the free inner ends of the levers are drawn inward so that they lie
at an angle with the ventral surface, sometimes as great an angle as forty-
five degrees, the external portions of the supplements are protruded. The
external portion of each organ has the form of a laterally compressed cup,
or trough, whose profile is exteriorly flat, or more often slightly concave,
and interiorly more or less semi-circular. While the depth of the organ may
sometimes equal its wndth, often it is less, and sometimes only one-half or
one-third as great. Those species showing the maximum development of
the supplementary organs present cases where the depth of the organ is
one-fourth as great as the corresponding diameter of the body. In one species
the supplementary organs are asymmetrical, the anterior lever or anchor
ha\dng become vestigial, and the anterior portion of the cup or trough having
diminished relatively in size, so that the contour of the longitudinal section
of the organ is triangular rather than semicircular. By means of a duct
each supplementary organ is connected internally and forward with a large
glandular cell, as in Bolbella.
Setae on the male. — Just in front of the anus on the male there are usually
to be found a few minute setae, either ventral or subventral in position.
They are very short and very inconspicuous. There may be a single one
at the anus; more often there are one or two subventral ones on each side.
Occasionally there are two rows extending to near the posterior supplement.
These setae are arcuate, acute, and when two are present on each side of
the anus, one of the pair is usually located immediately behind the other
and is of smaller size. No other papillae or setae have been observed on
the tail end of the male. There is no bursa.
Habitat. — The genus Aiarionella has hitherto been supposed to be of rather
small size. It is in reality large, and is widespread in the various oceans.
While the individuals of a given species may not be numerous, or very wide-
spread, the number of specific forms observed is yearly augmenting. The
two sexes are about equally common.
The genus is most nearly related structurally to Bolbella, Syniplocostoma,
Thoonchus and Catalaimus.
Marionella spectabilis (Marion) is still retained as the type species.
510 JOURNAL OF TH^ WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SClENCEvS VOL. 11, NO. 21
ABSTRACTS
Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably prepared
and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. The abstracts should
conform in length and general style to those appearing in this issue.
GEOLOGY. — Geology of the Cement oilfield, Caddo County, Oklahoma. Frank
Reeves. U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 726-B. Pp. 45 (41-85). 1921.
It has long been believed that the region of tilted strata which borders
the Wichita Mountains should contain local anticlines favorable for the
accumulation of oil and gas. The pronounced anticline at Cement and
anticlinal folds at Lawton and to the south in Cotton Count}'- support this
belief. The production of oil at Cement proves not only that the structure
at that locality is of the type favorable for oil accumulation but that there
are adequate reservoir beds and a source of petroleum.
The area lies about 15 miles northeast of the Wichita Mountains, in the
Permian "Red Beds" plain, which encircles the Wichita uplift and out of
which the mountains rise "hke islands in a sea."
The surface rocks of the Cement field and about 1,500 feet of the under-
lying beds are regarded by the writer as of Permian age. They consist of
red and blue shales, red and gray sandstone, gypsum, and limestone.
The geologic structure is described and its relation to the accumulation
of oil is discussed.
The oil produced so far in this field has come from a series of shales and
sandstones, which underlies the surface at depths of 1,500 to 2,400 feet.
The paper concludes with recommendations as to future development
and copies of drillers' logs of wells. R. W. Stone.
GEOLOGY AND KYBROhOGY .—Ground water in the Norwalk, Suffield,
and Glastonbury areas, Connecticut. Harold S. Palmer. U. S. Geol.
Surv. Water-Supply Paper 470. Pp. 171, pis. 12, figs. 18. 1920.
This paper is the third to appear of a series of detailed reports on the
ground water resources of selected areas in Connecticut. The first part
of the report is of a general character and treats of the water-bearing for-
mations, occurrence and recovery of ground water, and its quality. This
is followed by descriptions of the thirteen towns included in the three areas.
Almost everywhere small quantities of water may be obtained from fis-
sures and joints in the bed rocks which include igneous and metamorphic
rocks of pre-Triassic age, and sandstone, shales, and traps of Triassic age.
In the upper levels the bed rock is overlain by till which in general yields
satisfactory domestic supplies. The deposits of stratified glacial outwash
in the lowlands yield abundant supplies of water.
For each of the three areas there is given a geologic map showing the
distribution of the various water-bearing formations, and a map showing
the distribution of woodlands and the locations of the weUs and springs
referred to in the tables in the body of the report. H. S. P.
UYBROLOGY .—Water supply of St. Mary and Milk Rivers, 1898-1917.
B. E. Jones and R. J. BurlEy. U. S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper
491. Pp. 583, pis. 26. 1920.
This report is a compilation of all stream-flow data collected in 1898-1917,
DEC. 19, 1921 ABSTRACT: ORNITHOLOGY 511
at both the international and national stations in the Milk and St. Mary-
River basins (Montana and Canada). It was prepared under the direction
of the United States Geological Survey, the United States Reclamation
Ser\dce, and the Reclamation Service of Canada. Most of the records
assembled appear as originally published in reports of the Reclamation
Service of Canada and the United States Geological Survey, but some have
been revised. Tables of daily discharge not heretofore published have
been taken from the original records. The data presented for each gaging
station in the area covered by this report comprise a description of the station,
a table giving results of discharge measurements, a table showing the daily
discharge of the stream, and a table of monthly and yearly discharge and
run-off. Hydrographs are given for 13 stations. N. E. DowELL.
PALEONTOLOGY. — American species of Operculina and Heterostegina
- and their faunal relations. Joseph A. Cushman. U. S. Geol. Sur.
Prof. Paper 128-E: 125-131, pis. 18-21. 1921.
Before 1915, the presence of nummulites in the upper Eocene limestone
of central Florida was thought to distinguish that rock, to which the name
Ocala limestone was applied, from the otherwise similar "Peninsula lime-
stone." Latterly, nummulitic Foraminifera have been found at many
places in the much wider area in Florida, Georgia, and Alabama throughout
which the Ocala limestone as now defined extends.
Besides Heilprin's two species Nummulites willcoxi and N. floridensis,
which are now referred to the closely related genus Operculina, Doctor Cush-
man describes and figures three new species of Operculina and one new species
and variety of Heterostegina from the Ocala limestone. Nummulites antillea
Cushman, from limestone of the same age as the Ocala in the island of Saint
Bartholomew, is referred to Operculina. A previously described species
of Heterostegina, H. antillea, comes from the Oligocene of Antigua, vSt. Croix,
and Santo Domingo. C. Wythe CookE.
PALEONTOLOGY. — A new species of Orthophragmina from Louisiana.
Joseph Augustine Cushman. U. S. Geol. Siu*. Prof. Paper 128-E:
139, pi. 22. 1921.
This short paper, which is supplementary to the author's "The American
Species of Orthophragmina and Lepidocyclina," describes and figures Ortho-
phraginina advena Cushman from the St. Maurice formation (lower Claiborne
Eocene) of Natchitoches, La. C. Wythe Cooke.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Descriptions of api?arently new South American birds.
W. E. Clyde Todd. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 33: 71-76. 1920.
Study of the material obtained from recent explorations in French Guiana,
the lower Amazon, and the Santa Marta region has resulted in the discovery
of further new birds which are here described. The three new species are:
Polioptila guianensis, from French Guiana; Myrmopagis paraensis, from
Brazil; and Nyctipolus maculosus, from French Guiana. The thirteen new
subspecies are as follows: Myospiza aurifrons meridionalis, from Bolivia;
Brachyspiza capensis argentina, from Argentina; Volatinia lacarini atron-
itens, from Mexico; Sublegatus glaber obscurior, from French Guiana; Say-
ornis latirostris fumigatus, from Colombia; Sirystes albocinereus subcan-
512 JOURNAL, OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 21
escens, from Brazil; Cercomacra tyrannina laeta, from Brazil; Formicarius
ruficeps orinocensis, from Venezuela; Sclerurus rufigularis fulvigularis, from
French Guiana; Microxenops milleri guianensis, from French Guiana; Fur-
narius leucopus exilis, from Colombia; Dendrocolaptes certhia medius, from
Brazil; and Veniliornis oleaginus exsul, from Colombia.
H. C. Oberholser.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Diagnoses of some new genera of birds. Robert Ridg-
WAY. Smith. Misc. Coll. 72*: 1-4. 1920.
In the course of investigations of North American birds, several new
genera have been brought to light and are here characterized. Four of
these belong to the Buteonidae, as follows: Oroaetus, type, Falco isidori
Des Murs; Phaeoaetus, type, Falco limnaetus Horsfield; Morphnarchus, type,
Leucopternis princeps Sclater; and Percnohierax, type, Falco leucorrhous
Quoy and Gaimard. Three others are included in the Rallidae: Hapalocrex,
type, Rallus flaviventris Boddaert; Limnocrex, type, Prozana cinereiceps
Lawrence; and Thryocrex, type, Corethrura rubra Sclater and Salvin.
H. C. Oberholser.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Washington region [October and November, iqiq].
H. C. Oberholser. Bird Lore 22: 47-48. 1920.
The mild weather of October and November, 1919, apparently induced
a large number of birds to remain considerably beyond their former records
in the vicinity of Washington. Details are given for a number of species.
H. C. O.
ORNITHOLOGY. — Federal and State game preserves. H. W. Nelson.
Bull. Amer. Game Protect. Assoc. 9^: 6-8. 1920.
Draining of the lakes and marshes is one of the most serious dangers that
now threaten our waterfowl. These bodies of water in their original state
have as great value as if converted into farm lands, since their annual out-
put of game, fish, and fur-bearing animals will yield as great monetary return
as the crops that might be raised on the same land. Furthermore, the pres-
ence of such areas throughout the country will have in addition to this mone-
tary return a high recreational value. In many States the preservation
of these lands in their original condition is now the most urgent need in wild
life protection, particularly in the conservation of wild fowl, since the elim-
ination of their breeding grounds means the disappearance of the birds.
More refuges should be established like those already under the jurisdiction
of the State and Federal governments. Likewise, public shooting grounds
and refuges should be increased in number in the national forests.
H. C. Oberholser
ORNITHOLOGY. — The crow in its relation to agriculture. E. R. Kalm-
bach. U. S. Dept. Agric, Farm. Bull. 1102: 1-20. 1920.
The present report is a resum^ of the data and conclusions presented in
a prior and more extensive bulletin. From the evidence available it is ap-
parent that the crow, while unfavorably influencing man's interests by its
raids on the poultry yard, its depredations on wild birds, and its attacks
on crops, is at the same time of important economic assistance by reason
of its warfare on insects. It is, therefore, evident that while it would be
unwise to give the crow absolute protection, it would be equally unfortunate
to adopt a policy of extermination. H. C. Oberholser
DEC. 19, 1921 proceedings: philosophicae society 513
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES
PHILOSOPHICAI. SOCIETY
854th meeting
The 854th meeting of the Philosophical Society of Washington was held
in the Cosmos Club auditorium on October 22, 1921. It was called to order
at 8:15 p.m. by President Faris with 45 persons present.
The first paper of the evening, on Sky brightness and daylight illumination
measurements, was presented by Mr. H. H. Kimball, and was illustrated.
It was discussed by Mr. Humphreys.
The brightness of the sky has been measured almost daily at the American
University, Washington, D. C, between April 5 and July 14, inclusive, and
at Chicago, Illinois, between July 19 and August 15, inclusive, 1921.
The illumination from sunlight and skylight combined, and from sky-
light alone, was measured on a horizontal surface, and also on a surface
normal to the incident solar rays; and at Washington, measurements were
obtained of the skylight illumination on vertical surfaces facing 0°, 45°
90°, 135°, and 180° in azimuth from the sun.
About half the Chicago measurements were made on top of the dome of
the Federal Building, in the Loop district, one of the smokiest sections of
the city. The remainder were made at the University of Chicago, which
in summer is comparatively free from smoke when the wind blows from the
lake. Southeast and southwest winds, however, bring considerable smoke
from South Chicago and the Union Stockyards, respectively.
There is little smoke in the atmosphere at the American University, D. C.
A comparison of the Washington and Chicago measurements shows that
towards the sun on cloudless days the sky brightness does not differ mater-
ially at the two places, but opposite the sun the horizon in Chicago is dark-
ened by smoke, especially in the Loop district.
With a cloudless sky the direct solar illumination at Chicago is notice-
ably weaker than at Washington. In the Loop district, with the sun not
more than 40° above the horizon, it averages only 60 per cent as intense.
The illumination on a vertical surface facing 180° in azimuth from the sun,
computed from the sky brightness measurements, averages only about
two-thirds as intense as the illumination computed from similar measure-
ments for Washington.
A method is given of combining computations of illumination on hor-
izontal and vertical surfaces from sky brightness measurements with deter-
minations of the shading effect of buildings or other objects. This makes
it possible to compute for average sky conditions of the various types the
illumination that results from exposure to any given portion of the sky
at any hour of the day or season of the year.
The second paper, on The mathematical equations for heat conduction in
the fins of air-cooled engines, by S. R. Parsons and D. R. Harper, 3d, was
presented by Mr. Harper. It was discussed by Mr. Hawkesworth.
The communication included a very brief historical sketch and a discussion
of the assumptions, both physical and geometrical, which must be necessarily
made to bring the problem within possibility of solution. Then followed
514 JOURNAL OF THK WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 21
the development of an expression for approximate fin eflFectiveness, based
upon rather simple mathematics and very convenient in form for engineering
use, the essence of this paper being an examination into the magnitude of
the errors involved in using this expression without correction, and a deter-
mination of the corrections needed for accurate work, a process involving
considerable mathematics quite outside the range of usual engine design
practice.^
855th meeting
The 855th meeting of the Philosophical Society of Washington was held
in the Cosmos Club auditorium, November 5, 1921. It was called to order
at 8:15 p.m. by President Paris. 48 persons were present.
The President called attention to the revised By-laws under which officers
of the Society are now nominated and elected. The President announced
that the Committee on Elections, consisting of Messrs. C. T. Rude, Chair-
man, C. R. Duval, and Irwin G. Priest, was present, and ready to receive
nominations in writing for president, two vice-presidents, treasurer, cor-
responding secretary, and two members of the General Committee.
The first paper of the evening, on The great tides in the Bay of Fundy , and
their causes, was presented by Mr. H. A. MarmER, and was illustrated. It
was discussed by Messrs. Crittenden, Priest, L. J. Briggs, White, and
Stimson.
In the Bay of Fundy here occurs the greatest known rise and fall of the
tide. In the upper part of this bay, in a period of six hours, the tide rises
a vertical distance of from 40 to 50 feet, and in the following period of six
hours it falls the same distance.
The Bay of Fundy is a funnel-shaped body of water with a gradually
shoaling bottom from mouth to head, and it is to these features that the
great range of the tide in the upper reaches of the bay has been ascribed,
for it is well known that the concentration of the energy of motion of a large
mass of water in a narrowing channel brings about an increase in the range
of the tide. But this explanation does not account satisfactorily for an in-
crease in the range from less than 10 feet at the mouth to more than 40 feet
at the head.
On the southern shore of the bay the range of the tide increases from 9.1
feet at Cape Sable to 44.2 feet in Noel Bay. On the northern shore a sim-
ilar condition prevails, the range of the tide increasing from mouth to head,
and this increase becomes even more striking if one begins with the tide at
Nantucket Island and goes up the coasts of Massachusetts, New Hampshire,
Maine, and New Brunswick, which form the western and northern shores
of the Gulf of Maine and the Bay of Fundy, the mean range at Nantucket
being a little more than one foot and at Moncton 41.2 feet.
An examination of the ranges of the tide on the two shores of the bay brings
out the fact that on the southern shore the range of the tide is greater than
on the northern shore, this difference being due to the deflecting force aris-
ing from the rotation of #ie earth.
From a study of the times of the tide in the bay and of the relation of time
of current to time of tide it develops that the tidal movement is of the sta-
tionary wave type, with the node at the mouth. In consequence of this
'See also the paper by the same authors in this Journal 11: 409^16. October 19,
1921.
DEC. 19, 1921 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 515
there is a gradual increase in the range of the tide from mouth to head. A
further increase takes place in the upper reaches of the bay, because of the
very considerable contraction in width and shallowing in depth.
By applying the formulas for stationary wave oscillation in a body of
water open at one end, as developed by Harris and by Honda and his col-
leagues, the period of oscillation of the Bay of Fundy is found to approx-
imate 12 1/2 hours or the period of the ocean tide. It may, therefore, be
concluded that the tidal phenomena in the Bay of Fundy arise primarily
from the fact that the period of oscillation of the water in the bay closely
approximates the period of the ocean tide. This brings about a stationary
wave movement of the water with the greatest possible rise and fall for the
existing geographic features.
The second paper, on Characteristic soft X-rays, by F. L. Mohler and
P. D. FooTE, was presented by Mr. MohlER, and was illustrated. It was
discussed by Messrs. L. J. Briggs, Humphreys, Tuckerman, and Crit-
tenden.
The paper has been published in brief form in this Journal.^
H. H. Kimball,, Recording Secretary
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
The Horological Institute of America was formally organized at the offices
of the National Research Council on October 20. One of its important pur-
poses is to aid the jewelry trade in raising the standard of watch repair work,
through a system of examination and certification in which samples of re-
pair work on watches will be tested by the Bureau of Standards.
The Petrologists' Club met on November 16 at the home of H. G. Fer-
guson, and discussed the following papers: C. N. Fenner: Evidence of as-
similation during the Katmai eruption; N. L. Bowen: The alnoite rocks
near Montreal.
The non-magnetic ship Carnegie of the Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism, Carnegie Institution of Washington, arrived at Washington on Nov-
ember 10, completing a two-year cruise around the world. The Carnegie
left Hampton Roads in October, 1919, and has touched at points in western
Africa, Argentina, South Africa, Ceylon, Australia, New Zealand, the southern
Pacific islands, and Hawaii, returning by way of the Panama Canal. Capt.
J. P. AuLT was in command, and the rest of. the scientific personnel con-
sisted of Messrs. H. F. Johnston, A. Thomson, H. R. Grummann, R. R.
Mills, R. Pemberton, and F. A. Franks.
The following educational courses are being given at the Department of
Agriculture this winter: (1) H. C. Taylor, of the Department: Agricul-
tural economics; (2) H. R. TollEy: Statistical methods (with special lectures
by Messrs. Murray, Andrews, and Holmes); (3) C. O. Appleman, of
the University of Maryland: Biochemistry; (4) L- R. Jones, of the National
Research Council: Plant pathology; (5) B. E. Livingston, of Johns Hop-
kins University: Plant physiology; (6) Sewall Wright, of the Bureau of
Animal Industry: Genetics; (7) W. J. Humphreys, of the Weather Bureau:
Physics of the air; (8) R. C. Tolman, of the Fixed Nitrogen Research Labor-
atory: Statistical chemistry. Special graduate courses are also being ar-
1 This Journal 11: 273-274. June 19, 1921.
516 JOURNAL OF THE WASHIGNTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 11, NO. 21
ranged, the first of which is being given by B. T. Wherry, of the Bureau of
Chemistry, on Advanced crystallography.
The following Washington scientists have been appointed members of
the technical staff of the American delegation to the Conference on the
Ivimitation of Armament: Dr. L- W. Austin, radio specialist of the Navy
Department; Dr. J. H. Dellinger, chief of radio investigations at the
Bureau of Standards; Gen. Amos E- Fries, chief of the Chemical Warfare
Service of the Army; Gen. George O. Squier, chief of the Signal Corps of
the Army; Dr. S. W. Stratton, Director of the Bureau of Standards.
Mr. Care S. Cragoe, who has been on a year's leave of absence and en-
gaged in graduate study at Johns Hopkins LFniversity, has returned to the
Bureau of Standards.
Mr. T. Ikegami, chief geologist of the Nippon Oil Company, visited the
scientific institutions of Washington in November.
Dr. Sylvanus G. MorlEy, research associate of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington, delivered a public lecture at the auditorium of the Insti-
tution on the evening of November 15 on The chronology of the ancient Maya.
Miss Eunice Rockwood Oberly, since 1908 librarian of the Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, died suddenly at her
home in Washington on November 5, 1921.
Dr. John Augustine Zahm, of Holy Cross College, Brookland, D. C,
died at Munich, Bavaria, on November 11, 1921, in his seventy-first year.
Dr. Zahm was born at New Lexington, Ohio, June 14, 1851. He became
a member of the Order of the Holy Cross in 1871, and was in charge of the
scientific department of Notre Dame University, Indiana, from 1874 to
1895. He accompanied the late ex-President Theodore Roosevelt on
his Brazilian expedition. He was the author of a number of books and
papers on evolution and on the geography and history of South America.
Correction: The Journal was in error in stating in a news item, on page
448, that Dr. Merwin Porter SnELL, who died on September 23, 1921, was
at one time connected with the Smithsonian Institution. He was an employee
of the Bureau of Fisheries from 1882 to 1890.
ERRATA
.VOL. 11, 1921
P. 45 Footnote 4 read L. H. Adams, E. D.
Williamson and J. Johnston,
Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 41:
12-42. 1919.
P. 46 Last item in column 4,
table 1 should read -0.02
P. 48 In Equation (5), for + read X
P. 151 7th hne up from
bottom — For x read Xe
P. 153 Equation (12) for /» read fo
P. 301, line 12 . . . For discoid read disciform
P. 378 553rd meeting, for
March 21 read March 1
P 1 1 li :t A ■'J Y -J3
INDEX TO VOLUME 11
An ♦ denotes an abstract of a published paper. A t denotes an abstract of a paper presented before
the Academy or an afiBliated Society. A { indicates an item published under the head Scientific Notes
and News.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Anthropological Society of Washington. Proceedings: 377.
Archaeological Society of Washington. Proceedings: 23.
Biological Society of Washington. Proceedings: 64, 213, 241, 262, 315.
Botanical Society of Washington. Proceedings: 118,242,473.
Chemical Society of Washington. Proceedings: 40.
Entomological Society of Washington. Proceedings: 140, 194, 215.
Geological Society of Washington. Proceedings: 421,444.
Philosophical Society of Washington. Proceedings: 21, 37, 162, 211, 238, 283, 313, 347, 395,
497, 513.
Washington Academy of Sciences. Proceedings: 114, 138, 443, 472.
AUTHOR INDEX
Abbot, C. G. fSolar constant observ-
ing stations. 473.
Adams, Elliot Q. Acidity, methods of
stating. 197, 202.
Adams, L. H. *Annealing of glass. 417.
t Density of strained glass. 284.
Diamond, compressibility of. 45.
fElastic properties of rocks. 447.
treating of substances by expan-
sion. 349.
*Optical glass manufacture, motion
of stirrers. 377.
Adams, Oscar S. fAuthalic latitude. 347.
*Latitude developments, with table
for Lambert equal-area meridional
projection. 312.
*Map projection, elements of. 345.
*Radio-compass bearings. 416.
Adams, Roger. fOrganic chemical re-
agents. 41.
Aldrich, J. M. fBot flies and their
biology. 142.
fCaterpillars used for food by
Pahute Indians. 218, 241.
*DoUchopus in North America,
Dipterous genus. 395.
Alexander, C. P. *Diptera of the Tip-
uloidea in District of Columbia. 347.
Allen, E. T. fFumaroles, study of. 42.
Alsberg, C. L. Chemical structm-e and
physiological action. 321. t472.
jMuseum of chemical compounds.
41.
Ames, J. S. §Hydrodynamics, some ap-
plications, to aeronautics. 447.
Anthony, Stephen. *Barley kernels in
normal and clipped spikes, develop-
ment of, and limitations of awnless and
hooded varieties. 137.
Austin, L. W. Wave front angle in radio
telegraphy. 101.
Baker, A. C. *Aphididae, generic clas-
sification of hemipterous family. 190.
*Aphids injurious to orchard fruits,
cturant, gooseberry and grape. 192.
Bancroft, W. D. fCon tact catalysis. 41,
Banks, Nathan. *Termites, nearctic, re-
vision of. 55.
Barnett, S. J. fMagnetization by rota-
tion. 162.
BarTsch, Paul. *Birds observed on Flor-
ida Keys and southern end of mainland
in 1919. 60.
517
J
hl/(o(
518
AUTHOR INDEX
*Bird rookeries of the Tortugas. 60.
Mollusks, Philippine land {Cerato-
poriia), key to. 501.
fShip worm, damage caused by. 65.
Bassler, Harvey. fCarboniferous and
Triassic of southwest Utah. 445.
Bassler, R. S. fPaleontological work
at the National Museum. 315, 446.
Bauer, Clyde M. *Coal in San Juan
County, N. Mex. 419.
Bauer, L. A. fMagnetic and meteoro-
logical observations during solar eclipse,
May 29, 1919. 164.
■ fTerrestrial magnetism, terrestrial
electricity and solar activity. 399.
Benson, Amelia K. flntemational hy-
drogen scale, comparison of, with
standard scale of temperature defined
by platinum resistance thermometer.
314.
Berry, S. Stillman. fCephalopods, Jap-
anese; review of Sasaki's Albatross re-
port. 316.
BicHowsKY, F. Russell v. fElectro-
metric determination of zinc. 40.
*Glass, mechanics of the weathering
of. 110.
*Optical glass, test of resistance of,
to weathering. 110.
Birckner, Victor. Ice crystals which
form on bare soils and stems of plants.
221.
BiSHOPP, F. C. * Flies, dispersion of, by
flight. 495.
Blair, W. R. fWeather information for
operating concerns. 212.
Blake, S. F. Ichthyothere, new species of.
301.
Maximilianea (Cochlospermum),
American species of. 125.
fTurtle, spotted, sexual differences
in coloration. 242.
Boving, Adam G. *Larvae of North
American beetles of family Cleridae.
190.
Bowen, N. L. tAlnoite rocks near Mon-
treal.
Monticellite alnoite from Isle Ca-
dieux, Quebec. 278.
Bowie, William. fPan-Pacific Scientific
Congress. 165.
Bradley, J. Chester. fMosquitoes on
the Amazon. 213.
^Plumarius, an aberrant genus of
Hymenoptera. 214.
BreiT, G. flnductance coils, distributed
capacity of. 239.
Bridgman, p. W. Discontinuity of re-
sistance preceding supraconductivity.
455.
Brooks, Alfred H. *Alaska, mining fu-
ture of. 282.
fWar, application of geology to.
421.
Brown, J. S. fSalton Basin, Calif., fault
features of. 423.
*Salton Sea region, Calif., watering
places in. 471.
Bryan, Kirk. fMountain pediments, ero-
sion of desert ranges. 422.
Bryant, H. C. fBirds and mammals of
Yosemite Park. 263.
Buckingham, Edgar. *Gases, efflux of,
through small orifices. 209.
Buddington, a. F. *Akermanite-gehlen-
ite system. Ill, 374.
Bullock, S. D. fAraucanians of Chile.
378.
Burley, R. J. *Water supply of St. Mary
and Milk Rivers, 1898-1917. 510.
BuscK, August. \Carcina quercana from
British Columbia. 216.
BusHNELL, David I. *Cemeteries and
forms of burial east of the Mississippi,
native. 55.
Butts, Charles. fMississippian of Miss-
issippi and Ohio valleys. 445.
Cain, J. R. *Electrolytic resistance
method for determining carbon in
steel. 261.
Calkins, F. C. fThrust faulting in Cot-
tonwood district, Wasatch Mts., Utah.
422.
Campbell, M. R. f Abandoned Meanders
of James and Potomac rivers. 421.
Casey, Thomas L. *Coleoptera, memoirs
on the, IX. 190.
Cathcart, S. H. *Mining in northwest-
ern Alaska. 375.
Caudell, a. N. Phaneropterae, Orthop-
terous group 487.
AUTHOR INDEX
519
Champlain, a. B. *Larvae of North Amer-
ican beetles of the family Cleridae. 190.
Chapin, Theodore. *IMining in Mata-
nuska coal field and Willow Creek dis-
trict, Alaska. 375.
Chapman, Frank M. *Birds, new, from
Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, and Colombia.
111.
Chase, Agnes. *Grasses, revisions of
North American. 54.
Cheney, W. L. *Magnetizing force, varia-
tion of residual induction and coercive
force with. 210.
Clapp, Charles H. *Igneous rocks of
Essex County, Mass. 470.
Clark, Austin H. * Animals, new classifi-
cation of. 495.
tCrinoids. 64.
*Crinoids collected by Barbados-
Antigua expedition. 312.
*Echinoderms of Canadian-Arctic
expedition. 283.
Evolution of animals, steps in the.
207.
*Ophiurans collected by Barbados-
Antigua expedition. 346.
*Sea lilies and feather stars. 283.
Clark, Wn.LL\M Mansfield. Acidity,
reply to Wherry and Adams' method
of stating. 199.
flndicators and hydrogen electrode
in service of bacteriology. 40.
Clark, W. O. *Water, exploratory drill-
ing for, and use of ground water for
irrigation in Step toe Valley, Nev. 442.
Clarke, Frank W. Evolution of matter
289.
Clevenger, J. F. \Zamia integrifolia and
its starch. 475.
Cobb, N. A. Marionella (Eurystoma) and
new substance Marionellin, found in
intestinal cells. 504.
CoBLENTz, W. W. *Radiation, constants
of. 209.
*Radiation, thermal, present sta-
tus of constants and verification of
laws of. 439.
CocKERELL, T. D. A. jHymenoptera in
the British Museum. 144.
CoKER, Robert. *Guano birds of Peru,
habits and economic relations of. 61.
Cole, F. R. *Dolichopus in North Amer-
ican, Dipterous genus. 395.
Collins, G. N. *Maize, heritable charac-
ters of — lineate leaves. 55.
fMaize, origin and early distribu-
tion of. 378.
*Teosinte-maize hybrid, a. 136.
Collins, W. D. f Arsenic in sulfured food
products. 40.
Cooke, C. Wythe. *Orthaulax, Tertiary
guide fossil. 471.
Cornell, H. W. fClassification of mines
and minerals for purposes of taxation.
421.
Cory, Charles B. *Rhynchocydus, re-
lationships and geographic distribu-
tion of species and races of. 111.
CoviLLE, F. V. *Cold, influence of, in
stimulating growth of plants. 54.
Cragoe, C. S. t Ammonia, vapor pressure
of. 43.
Cxirrie, J. N. fCitric acid fermentation
of Aspergillus niger. 40.
Curtis, H. L. fForeign laboratories and
societies. 162.
*Integration method of deriving the
alternating current resistance and in-
ductance of conductors. 209.
CusHMAN, AllERTon S. fChemistry of
military primers. 42.
Cushman, Joseph A. *OpercuUna and
Heterostegina, American species of.
511.
*Orthophragmina and Lepidocyclina,
American species of. 194.
Orthophragmina, new species from
La. 511.
Cushman, R. A. fExtemal egg parasite.
146.
*Ichneumon-flies, Holarctic tribes
of, of subfamily Ichneumoninae (Pitn-
plinae). 191.
*Ichneumon-flies of tribe Acoenitini,
North American. 191.
*Ichneumon-flies of tribes Lycorini,
Polysphinctini, and Theroniini, North
American. 261.
Darton, N. H. *Permian salt deposits of
south-central U. S. 470.
520
AUTHOR INDEX
Davis, J. D. t-A^mmonia made from cyana-
mide, removal of phosphine from. 41.
Davis, J. J. f Japanese beetle and its con-
trol. 142.
Day, Arthur L. fOptical glass. 42.
r §Study of California earth move-
ments. 448.
Deetz, Charles H. *Map projection,
elements of. 345.
DeGeer, Gerard. fGeochronology, its ap-
plication to America and other parts
of the earth. 427.
DeKalb, Courtney. fRio Tinto and
other historic mines of Spain. 426.
DellingER, J. H. Radio signal fading
phenomena. 245, t240.
*Radio transmission and reception.
313.
DetwilER, Samuel B. jWhite pine and
the blister rust. 119.
Dickinson, H. C. f Aircraft engines at
high altitudes. 22.
Dominion, Leon. fAsia Minor, geog-
raphy of. 422.
Dorsey, N. Ernest. Radioactive quan-
tity, name of a {curie or rutherford.)
381.
DusHMAN, Saul. fPressures, production
and measurement of extremely low. 21.
Eaton, H. N. fAerial navigation. 498.
EcKHARDT, E. A. Chronographic recorder
of radio time signals. 303, t348.
EiCHELBERGER, W. S. *Observations with
nine-inch transit circle 1903-11. 189.
Edwards, J. D. *Gases, efflux of,
through small orifices. 209.
Ellis, Arthur J. *Ground water of
western San Diego County, Cal., geol-
ogy and. 235.
Fairchild, C. O. *Optical glass, new
methods of sealing. 314.
Path, A. E. *Faults, anticlines and buried
Granite Ridge of northern mid-conti-
nent oil and gas field. 236, t423.
Fenner, Clarence N. f^^tmai eruption,
assimilation during. 515.
*Katmai region, Alaska, and eruption
of 1912. 394.
t^atmai region, Alaska, structural
and volcanic geology of. 444.
Ferguson, Henry G. *Akermanite-geh-
lenite system. Ill, 374.
fLode deposits of Manhattan, Nev.
444.
*Mogollon district, N. Mex. 375.
Fewkes, J. Walter. fFire temple of
cliff-dwellers. 378.
Finks, A. J. fGrowth experiments with
proteins of navy bean. 42.
FooTE, Paul D. X-rays, characteristic
soft, from arcs in gases and vapors.
273. t515.
Forman, Nyna L. tElectrical resistance
of the human body. 286.
FosHAG, William F. Sulfo-salt minerals,
classification of . 1.
Fox, William H. ]Lathrodectes mactans
in northern N. H. 143.
Frachtenberg, Leo J. *Alsea texts and
myths. 56.
Frehafer, Mabel K. fOptical basis of
Bittinger's camouflage paintings. 238.
Gahan, a. B. fCoru borer, European,
Pyrausla nuhilalis, parasitic hymen-
optera on. 195.
*Sawfly, black grainstem of Europe
in United States. 55.
Gale, H. G. §Earth tides. 448.
Gale, H. S. *Potash deposits of Alsace.
392.
*Potash deposits in Spain. 376.
Gardner, I. C. fRange finder, self-con-
tained base. 395.
Gibbs, H. D. fCatalysis of oxidation re-
actions. 40.
fColor laboratory of Bureau of
Chemistry. 42.
GiLMORE, Charles W. fFossil vertebrate
exhibit in the National Museum. 66.
fReptiles, reconstruction of extinct.
426.
GiraulT, a. a. *Hymenoptera, Serphid-
oid, Cynipoid, and Chalcidoid. 261.
Goldman, M. I. fLithology of Bend Se-
ries, Texas. 425.
fStratigraphy of Bend Series and
contiguous formations in north-central
Texas. 425.
Hall, H. M. fHay fever and its specific
botanical relationships. 115.
AUTHOR INDEX
521
Hancock, E. T. *Oil and gas field, Lance
Creek, Niobrara County, Wyo. 237.
Hansen, Albert A. fDisappearing wild
plants. 118.
Harder, E. C. *Iron-depositing bacteria.
56.
Harger, R. N. tMetol preparation of.
41.
Harlan, Harry V. *Barley, Haunchen,
daily development of kernels of. 136.
*Barley kernels in normal and clipped
spikes, development of, and limita-
tions of awnless and hooded varieties.
137.
*Hordetim intermedium haxloni, oc-
currence of fixed intermediate, in
crosses between H. vulgare pallidum ,
and H. distichon palmella. 137.
Harper, D. R. fAmmonia, thermo-dy-
namic properties of. 40.
fMathematical equations for heat
conduction in fins of air-cooled en-
gines. 513.
Radiators for aircraft engines. 409.
Harper, Francis. *Prunella modularis,
new subspecies from Pyrenees. 63.
Harrington, George L. *Mineral re-
sources of Goodnews Bay, Alaska. 376.
Hayes, H. K. *Hordeum intermedium
haxtoni, occurrence of fixed interme-
diate, in crosses between H. vulgare
pallidum and H. distichon palmella.
137.
Heinrich, Carl. *Lepidoptera, descrip-
tion of new species, larvae and pupae.
192.
Hersey, M. D. fAeronautic instruments.
22.
Irreversible time effects, theory of.
149.
Herty, Charles H. §Reserves of the
Chemical Warfare Service. 147.
Hess, Frank L. *Tungsten deposits in
U. S. 487.
Hewett, D. F. fOrientite, new silicate of
manganese and calcium. 445.
Hicks, W. B. *Potash resources of Ne-
braska. 376.
Hitchcock. A. S. *Grasses, revision of
North American. 54.
HoLLisTER, N. *Ring-necked duck, system-
atic position of. 61.
Hopkins, Andrew D. fBioclimatic law
and its application to entomology.
141.
Bioclimatic zones of the continents;
with classification. 227, t473.
Bioclimatics, intercontinental prob-
lems in, with special reference to dis-
tribution of plants and animals.
223, t473.
HosTETTER, J. C. *Optical glass, manu-
facture and uses of rolled. 110.
Howard, L. O. ^Aphelinus mali parasitic
on Schizoneura lanigera taken to
France. 195.
fEuropean entomologists, recent visit
to. 215.
flnsects, how the Government is
fighting. 472.
fMoroccan locust, fight in France
against. 242.
Hrdlicka, Ales. fAnthropological prob-
lems of the Far East and the Pacific.
377.
Hudson, C. S. fSugars, American sources
of supply for the various. 41.
Hyslop. J. A. fWire worm, introduction
of. 143.
Isaacs, A. fAmmonia absorption ma-
chines, cause and prevention of non-
condensing gas formation. 41.
JODiDi, S. L. t-Amino acids, polypeptides
and similar compounds, and plant dis-
eases. 43.
Johnston, J. R. fProblems in economic
biology in tropical America. 116.
Jones, A.I. fStratigraphy of metamorphic
rock of southeastern Pennsylvaia and
Maryland. 446.
Jones, B. E. *Water supply of St. Mary
and Milk Rivers, 1898-1917. 510.
Jones, D. B. fHydrolysis of kafarin. 41.
Jones, Edward L., Jr. *Manganese
ore in Colorado. 393.
*Manganese ore in Wyoming. 392.
Jones, Grinnell. Tariff commission and
its relation to chemical industries. 41.
Kalmbach, E. R. *Crow in relation to
agriculture. 512.
Karcher, J. C. Chronographic recorder
of radio time signals. 303, t348.
Karrer, Enoch. *Spectral transmission
of the atmosphere. 210.
522
AUTHOR INDEX
*Ulbricht sphere, use of. 439.
Kempton, J. H. *Maize, heritable char-
acters of — lineate leaves. 55.
Maize, linkage between brachytic
culms and pericarp and cob color in.
13.
*Teosinte-maize hybrid. 136.
KiEss, C. C. *Wave lengths in arc spectra
of seven elements. 210.
Kimball, H. H. fSky brightness and day-
light illumination measurements. 513.
Knopf, Adolph. *Divide silver district
Nev. 441.
Knopf, Eleanora Bliss. *Chrome ores
in Penn. Md. and N. C. 494.
fStratigraphy of metamorphic rock
of southeastern Pennsylvania and Mary-
land. 446.
KoBER, George M. fDisabilities in child-
hood, prevention of. 378.
Kraus, C. a. fLaboratory methods and
apparatus. 40.
Laake, E. W. *Flies, dispersion of by
flight. 495.
LaForge, F. B. fSedoheptose, new su-
gar from Sedum spectabile. 40.
LaForge, Laurence. fEskers of Ireland.
446.
fPeneplanation, suggested modifica-
tion of doctrine of. 447.
Lamb, A. B. fPoisonous gases, chemical
protection against. 42.
Lamson-Scribner, F. jLure of Rock
Creek Park. 121.
Larsen, E. S., Jr. Bementite and neoto-
cite from western Washington; iden-
tity of bementite and caryopilite. 25.
*Tungsten deposits in U. S. 487.
*Yellow Pine ciimabar mining dis-
trict, Idaho. 192.
Lawyer, George A. *Migratory birds,
federal protection of. 61.
Lee, Cilarles H. *Ground waters of
western San Diego County, Cal. 235.
Lee, Willis T. fAerial photographs, use
of, in geography. 426.
§Aeroplane photography in geology,
use of. 123.
Lewis J. Volney. * Chrome ores in Perm.,
Md., and N. C. 494.
Lincoln, F, C. *Florida redwing, plum-
age of male. 111.
LiTTELL, F. B. fZenith tube at Washing-
ton, photographic variation of lati-
tude and constant of aberration from
four years' work with. 241.
LiTTLEHALES, G. W. *Vessel-to-shore ra-
dio-compass bearings in aerial and
transoceanic navigation. 59.
Livingston. D. C. *Ye]low Pine cinna-
bar mining district, Idaho. 192.
LoTKA, Alfred J. *Evolution and ir-
reversibility. 56.
*Kinetics of material transforma-
tions. 56.
LuBS, H. A. fToluene, chlorination of.
41.
Mann, W. M. *Ants of Fiji Islands. 346.
Mansfield, George R. *Coal in eastern
Idaho. 193.
t^&neous geology of southeast Idaho.
446.
fTypes of structiure in southern
Idaho. 421.
Marmer, H. a. fCoastal currents and
winds on the Pacific Coast. 397.
fTidal current investigations. 37.
fTides in Bay of Fundy and their
causes. 514.
Martin, J. S. fElectrical resistance of
the human body. 286.
Marvin, C. F. fGeoidal slope, law of, and
fallacies in dynamic meteorology. 211.
fYosemite region, physiographic his-
tory of. 421.
fYosemite Valley, torrent channels
and torrent levees in. 446.
Mauchly, S. J. fAtmospheric electric ob-
servations during solar eclipse of May
29, 1919, and summary of similar ob-
servations. 163.
fAtmospheric electricity, diurnal var-
iation of. 398.
§ Atmospheric electricity, methods
and problems of. 447.
Maxwell, L. C. *Electrolytic resistance
method for determining carbon in
steel. 261.
McAtee, W. L. *Diptera of the Tipu-
loidea in District of Columbia. 347.
Family names in zoology. 230.
AUTHOR INDEX
523
McClung, C. E. fChromosomes in re-
lation to heredity. 316.
McDermott, F. a. fYeast, growth of, in
synthetic media. 40.
McDonnell, C. C. fLead arsenate, in-
vestigations on. 40.
McIndoo, N. E. fAuditory sense of honey
bee. 215.
McKelvy, E. C. fAmmonia absorption
machines, cause and prevention of non-
condensing gas formation. 41.
fAmmonia, liquid, composition and
testing of commercial. 40.
^Meggers, W. F. *Wave lengths in arc
spectra of seven elements. 210.
Meinzer, Oscar E. fGround water prob-
lems in the Hawaiian Islands. 424.
*Ground water, publications of U. S.
Geological Survey relating to. 58.
fHawaii, recent volcanic events in
island of. 427.
fPleistocene lakes in the Basin-and-
Range Province, map of and interpre-
tation. 447.
*Water, exploratory drilling for, and
use of ground water for irrigation in
Steptoe Valley, Nev. 442.
Meisinger, C. LeRoy. fMeteorological
factor in aeronautics. 283.
Mendenhall, C. E. fForeign laboratories
and societies. 162.
Merriam, C. Hart, flndians of Yosemite
region, Cal. 379.
Merrill, C. W. fAmmonia program for
1918. 41.
Merrill, E. D. fPhilippines, man and
nature in the. 114.
fPhilippines, vegetation of the. 120.
MertiE, J. B., Jr. fPalladium mine near
Kasaan, Alaska, the Salt Chuck. 423.
Merwin, H. E. *Augite from Vesuvius
and Etna. 441.
*Sediments, chemical researches on.
419.
Metcalf, Haven. fPlant introduction,
story of a. 474.
Meyers, C. H. fArmnonia vapor, pres-
sure of. 43.
MiCHELSON, Truman. *0w1 sacred pack.
Fox Indians. 395.
MiDDLETON, William. ]Dihrachys nigro-
cyaneum parasitic on Diprion simile.
216.
fSaw-flies, comparison of larval
folds and adult sclerites in. 140.
fSaw-flies, terminal abdominal ap-
pendages of. 144.
Miller, L. H. fAsphalt beds of Rancho
La Brea. 262.
Miser, Hugo D. fLlanoria, Paleozoic
land area in Louisiana and Texas. 444.
*Manganese ore in Batesville dis-
trict. Ark. 194.
MoFKiT, F. H. §Aeroplane photographs,
problem of making maps from. 123.
MoHLER, F. L. X-rays, characteristic soft,
from arcs in gases and vapors. 273, f515.
Monroe, K. P. finvertase, commercial
preparation and applications of the
enzyme. 42.
Morgan, H. R. *Observations with nine-
inch transit circle 1903-11, results of.
189.
MoRLEY, Sylvanus G. f Hieroglyphic writ-
ing of ancient Mayas. 377.
Mueller, E. F. fMollier diagrams. 349.
fHypsometer as a precision in-
strument. 167.
MuESBECK, C. F. W. *Ichneumon-flies of
the genus Apanteles, revision of North
American species. 347.
Myer, William E. fCumberland val-
ley, Tenn., recent explorations in. 378.
Myers, C. H. fMollier diagrams. 349.
Nelson, E. K. fVaniUyl acyl amides. 42.
Nelson, E. W. *Federal and state game
preserves. 512.
NicoLSON, A. McL. fPiezo-electric effect.
472.
NoRRis, J. F. f Carbon compounds, activ-
ity in certain elements in. 41.
NOYES, A. A. fNitrogen problem in re-
lation to the war. 41.
NusBAUM, C. f Magnetic reluctivity and
eutectoid carbon steel. 38.
Oberholser, Harry C. *A. O. U. check-
list, fifth annual of proposed changes.
497.
* Clapper rail, new, from Fla. 496.
* Cliff swallow, new, from Canada. 496.
524
AUTHOR INDEX
*Guiana flycatcher, myiarchus ferox,
races of. 497.
*Lanius ludovicianus , new subspecies
of. 62.
*Larus hyperboreus barrovianus, sta-
tus of. 62.
*Melanerpes erythrocephalus, new sub-
species of . 112.
*Migration of North American birds,
XI. : Canada jay, Oregon jay, Clarke's
nutcracker, pinon jay. 113; XIII.:
European starling, bobolink. 496.
*Mutanda omithologica VIII. 112.
*North American birds, notes on.
63.
*Otocoris, new from Cal. 497.
*Pipilo juscus, new subspecies of.
60.
*Quiscalus quiscula, races of. 62.
*Washington, all-day bird trip at.
112.
— • — • *Washington region (birds of) Oct.-
Nov. 1919. 512.
*Waterfowl in Neb. 495.
Pack, R. W. *Sunset-Midway oil field,
Cal., Part I. 58.
Paige, Sidney. fMoon craters, interpre-
tation of. 422.
fStructure of the Homestake ore
body. 446.
Palmer, H. E. fLactic acid in biological
mixtures. 40.
Palmer, Harold S. *Ground water in
Norwalk, Suffield and Glastonbury
areas. Conn. 510.
Palmer, T. S. jHeight of birds' flight.
262.
Pardee, J. T. Bementite and neotocite
from western Washington; identity of
bementite and caryopilite. 25.
*Phosphate rock near Maxville,
Mont. 393.
Parsons, Charles R. fAmmonia, oxi-
dation of. 42.
Parsons, S. R. Radiators for aircraft
engines. 409. t513.
Peters, C. G. t^ental materials, physi-
cal properties of. 37.
Phelps, I. K. fLactic acid in biological
mixtures. 40.
Pierce, C. H. *Surface waters of Vermont.
137.
PiTTiER, Henry. Bursera, new species of.
229.
Swartzia in Panama and Guatemala.
155.
Ports, P. L. *Natural gas resources avail-
able to cities of Texas. 193.
Power, E. B. fOdorous principles of
plants. 41.
Price, W. Armstrong. Brachiopod, shell
regeneration in. 32.
Priest, I. G. fColor and spectral dis-
tribution of light. 239.
fOptical basis of Bittinger's camou-
flage paintings. 238.
fSpectral distribution of energy re-
quired to evoke gray sensation. 396.
Quaintance, a. L. *Aphids injurious to
orchard fruits, current, gooseberry and
grape. 192.
Ramsay, William. fAnatolia, archeologi-
cal retrospect and prospect in. 23.
Ransome, E. L. *Copper deposits of Ray
and Miami, Ariz. 57.
Ravn, E. Kolpin. fCooperation between
entomologists and plant pathologists.
142.
Rawdon, Henry S. *Lead, intercrystal-
line brittleness of. 312.
Reed, Lowell J. Correlation between
functions, and spurious correlation.
449.
Reeside, John B. jCarboniferous and
Triassic of southwestern Utah. 445.
*Coal in San Juan County, N. Mex.
419.
Reeves, Erank. * Geology of the Cement
oil field, Caddo Co., Okla. 510.
Reynolds, Walter E. *Plane rectangu-
lar coordinates and geographic posi-
tions. 440.
Richardson, Edward E. §Philosophic
aspects of Einstein's theory of relativ-
ity. 448.
RiDDELL, C. W. *Water exploratory drill-
ing for, and use of ground water for ir-
rigation in Steptoe Valley, Nev. 442.
RiDGWAY, Robert. *Birds of North and
Middle America. 59.
* Birds, new genera of. 512.
AUTHOR INDEX
525
Roberts, Howard S. fCupric oxide, cu-
prous oxide, oxygen. 285.
Furnace temperature regulator. 401,
t497.
*Optical glass, manufacture and
uses of rolled. 110.
Rock, J. F. ^Taraktogenos kurzii, source of
chaulmoogra oil. 380.
RoESLER, Max. * Iron-ore resources of
Europe. 419.
RoHWER, S. A. *Dryinid, Indian, para-
sites of rice leaf-hoppers, new species of.
192.
\Hymenoptera in U. S. National
Museum. 145.
*Hymenoptera, new species of North
American. 192.
*Ichneumon-flies, Holarctic tribes of,
subfamily Ichneumoninae (Pimplinae) .
191.
*Ichneumon-flies of the tribe Acoeni-
tini. North American. 191.
*Ichneumon-flies of the tribes Lah-
enini, Rhyssini, Xoridini, Odontomerini,
and Phytodietini. 191.
Nomenclature of supergeneric names.
106.
Rose, R. E. fDye industry in the U. S.
42.
RouNDY, P. V. fMicro-paleontology of
Bend Series, Texas. 425.
fStratigraphy of Bend Series, and
contiguous formations in north-cen-
tral Texas. 425.
Rude, G. T. fTidal work of Coast and
Geodetic Survey. 284.
Safford, William E. Datura, synopsis
of genus. 173.
fHawaii revisited. 214.
tPan-Pacific scientific conference.
118.
fSamoa, old and new. 378.
Sanford, R. L. *Magnetizing force, var-
iation of residual induction and coer-
cive force with. 210.
Sasscer, E. R. tQuarantine work on the
Mexican border. 217.
ScHAUS, William. *Lepidoptera in the
U. S. National Museum. 192.
ScHREiNER, Oswald. fPotash situation in
relation to food crops. 4 1 .
ScHULTz, Alfred Reginald. *Oil possi-
bilities in Baxter Basin, Rock Springs
uplift, Wyo. 418.
ScHWENNESEN, A. T. ♦Geology and water
resources of Gila and San Carlos Valley,
Ariz. 58.
ScoFiELD, C. S. Effect of alum on silicate
colloids. 438.
Seidell, AtherTon. fFuHers' earth for
chemical separation. 41.
Shannon, Earl V. Galenobismutite from
a gold-quartz vein in Boise Co., Idaho.
298.
fOrientite, new silicate of manga-
nese and calcium. 445.
Shannon, R. C. ^Ambopogon hyperboreus
from Idaho. 218.
Shantz, H. L. tVegetation of Africa. 243.
Shaw, E. W. *Natural gas resources
available to cities of Texas. 193.
Shepherd, E. S. *Gas collections from
Matma Loa. 420.
ShufeldT, R. W. tSnake affected with
chiggers. 65.
Shull, F. Marion. fSkunk cabbage,
Spathyema foetida. 121.
SiLSBEE, F. B. fMagneto, physics of high-
tension. 38.
Sligh, T. S., Jr. fHypsometer as a pre-
cision instrument. 167.
*Resistance thermometer construc-
tion. 313.
*Thermostatics. 168.
Smith, George Otis. Scientific by-pro-
ducts of applied geology. 203.
Smith, H. M. fArtificial pearls. 315.
tEel, youngest ever captured. 315.
Smith, W. H. fAirplane dopes. 41.
Smyth, F. Hastings. fCupric oxide, cu-
prous oxide, oxygen. 285.
Snyder, C. L. Oscillograph measurements
in battery circuit of automobiles. 51.
Snyder, T. E. *Termites, colonizing re-
productive adults. 237.
*Termites, nearctic, biology and ge-
ographic distribution of. 55.
SosMAN, Robert B. Distribution of scien-
tific information in the U. S. 69.
§Congress, matters of scientific in-
terest in. 170.
526
AUTHOR INDEX
Speare, a. T. fRelation of fungi to in-
sects. 142.
Stanton, Timothy W. *Fauna of Cannon-
ball marine member of Lance forma-
tion. 138.
Steele, L. L. fHexabromide method for
linseed oil. 42.
Steiger, George. Bementite and neoto-
cite from Western Washington; iden-
tity of bementite and caryopilite. 25.
Sullivan, H. B. §Aerial photography, ap-
plication of, to mapping. 123.
SwANN, W. F. G. Bearing of earth's size
upon changes in its magnetism. 275.
SwiCK, Clarence H. *Modern methods
of measuring intensity of gravity. 374.
Swingle, Walter J. fChinese botany and
botanists. 64.
Taylor, C. S. fAmmonia, vapor pressure
of. 43.
Taylor, W. P. *Ptarmigan, new from
Mt. Rainier. 495.
Thom, W. Taylor, Jr. fStructure of Pop-
lar Dome in Montana. 420.
Thompson, David G. fPleistocene lakes
along Mohave River, Cal. 423.
TiDESTROM, IvAR. fFlora of Iberian pen-
insula. 243, 315.
Thuras, a. L. Electrical conductivity
method of measiwing sea water salinity.
160.
*Problems of physical oceanography.
132.
Todd, W. E. Clyde. *South American
birds, new. 511.
TowNSEND, Charles H. *Expedition to
tropical Pacific in charge of Alexander
Agassiz. 62.
TuTTLE, J. B. fDetermination of rubber
by combustion of the nitrosite. 40.
Tyndall, E. p. T. *Spectral transmission
of the atmosphere. 210.
Van Duzee, M. C. *Dipterous genus,
Dolichopus, in North America. 395.
Vaughan, T. Wayland. *Fauna of Can-
nonball marine member of Lance for-
mation. 138.
*Geology of northern West Indies.
426.
Veitch, F. p. tShoe soling material, in-
vestigation of. 40.
ViNAL, .G. W. Oscillograph measurements
in battery circuit of automobiles. 51.
Walters, F. M., Jr. *Wave length meas-
urements in arc spectra photographed
in yellow, red, and infra-red. 439.
Walton, W. R. fBntomological drawings
and draughtsmen. 219.
Waring, Gerald A. *Ground water in
Pahrump, Mesquite, and Ivanpah val-
leys, Nev. and Cal. 259.
Washburn, F. M. fHexabromide method
for linseed oil. 42.
Washington, Henry S. *Augite from
Vesuvius and Etna. 441.
*Chemistry of earth's crust. 420,
t422.
Crucibles used in rock analysis. 9.
fDeccan traps and other plateau
basalts. 446.
Granites of Washington, D. C. 459.
*Italite, new leucite rock. 346.
Obsidian from Copan and Chichen
Itza. 481.
*RhyoHtes of Lipari. 392.
Waters, C. E. *Sulphur in petroleum oils.
261.
Watson, Thomas L. Lazulite of Graves
Mt., Ga., and other occurrences in U. S.
386.
Petrography of a lamprophyre dike
cutting a pyrite body in Boyd Smith
mine, Va. 341.
Wells, P. V. Bacteria, dilution method
of counting. 265.
fBritish Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, 1920 meeting.
166.
Wells, R. C. tSalines and saline lakes,
utilization of some. 446.
Water of Borax Lake. 477.
Wells, W. F. Bacteria, dilution method
of counting. 265.
WennER, F. fElectrical resistance of the
human body. 286.
Wentworth, C. K. fSedimentary rocks,
sizing scale for constituents of. 426.
West, C. J. fLipoids, chemistry of the
unsaturated. 41.
Westgate, L. G. *Iron ore near Stanford,
Mont. 393.
SUBJECT INDEX
527
Weston, William H., Jr. *Sclerospoar,
conidial, of Philippine maize. 260.
fPhilippine fungus. 474.
Wetmore, Alexander. *Dove, habits of
white-winged. 495.
*Expedition to Pacific in charge
of Alexander Agassiz, scientific results
of. 62.
*Grebes, feeding habit of. 496.
*Lake Burf ord, N. M. , habits of birds
at. 496.
Tinamidae, new birds of the family.
434.
*Whippoorwill, new, from Porto
Rico. 60.
Wheeler, William Morton. *Formi-
cidae, subfamilies of and new genera
and subgenera. 237.
Wherry, Edgar T. Acidity, methods of
stating. 197, 202.
fCrystallography in service of the
chemist. 42.
Sulfo-salt minerals, classification of. 1.
White, A. H. fNitrate industry in the
U.S. 42.
White, W. P. *Melting point curve, esti-
mating impurities by. 113.
fSpecific and latent heats of nickel
and monel metal. 350.
jThermostats, precision in. 162.
WhittemorE, L. E. Radio signal fading
phenomena. t240, 245,
WiLHELM, R. H. flntemational hydrogen
scale, comparison of, with standard
scale of temperature defined by plati-
num resistance thermometer. 314.
Williamson, E. D. *Annealing of glass. 417.
fDensity of strained glass. 284.
*Optical glass manufacture, motion
of stirrers used in. 377.
Willis, Bailey. fEvidences of compres-
sion on Pacific Coast. 427.
Winchester, Dean. E. *Geology of Ala-
mosa Creek valley, N. Mex., with ref-
erence to oil and gas. 260.
Wise, L. E. fElementary organic analysis
by micro-combustion methods. 40.
Wright, Fred E. *Contrast sensibility
of the eye and the resolving power of
the microscope. 311.
*Dispersion in optical glasses. I. 345;
II. 374.
*Measurement of intensity of trans-
mitted and reflected light by polariza-
tion photometers. 282.
*Polarization photometer prisms.
282.
*Polarized light in study of ores and
metals. 281.
Wright, Sewall. fHeredity as a factor
in resistance of guinea-pigs to tubercu-
losis. 316.
Wyckokf, Ralph W. G. Alkali halides,
crystal structures of. 429.
*Crystal structure of some carbonates
of calcite group. 391.
fDetermination of structure of crys-
tals. 238.
*Magnesium oxide, crystal structure
of. 441.
Wave lengths of X-rays. 366.
YuROW, Iv. fDetermination of rubber by
combustion of the nitrosite. 40.
SUBJECT INDEX
Agricultural Chemistry. Effect of alum on
silicate colloids. C. S. ScoFiELD. 438.
Analytical Chemistry. Crucibles used in
rock analysis. H. S. Washington. 9.
*Electrolytic resistance method for de-
termining carbon in steel. J. R. Cain
and L. C. Maxwell. 261.
*Sulphur in petroleum oils. C. E. WA-
TERS. 261.
Anthropology. fAraucanians of Chile. S.
D. Bullock. 378.
fChildhood, prevention of disabilities.
M. KoBER. 378.
fCumberland Valley, Tenn., recent ex-
plorations in. W. E. Myer. 378.
fFar East and Pacific, anthropological
problems of. A. Hrdlicka. 377.
fFire temple of cliff dwellers. J. W.
Fewkes. 378.
528
SUBJKCT INDEX
fHieroglyphic writing of ancient Mayas.
S. G. MoRLEY. 377.
flndians of Yosemite region, Cal. C.
Hart Merriam. 379.
fMaize, origin and early history of.
G. N. Collins. 378.
fSamoa, old and new. W. E. Safford.
378.
Apparatus. fHypsometer as a precision
instrument. E. F. Mueller and T. S.
Sligh, Jr. 167.
Archeology. fAnatolia, archeological ret-
rospect and prospect in. W. Ramsey.
23.
§Pueblo Bonito explorations. 499.
Astronomy. fAtmospheric electric obser-
vations during solar eclipse of May 29,
1919, and summary of similar observa-
tions. S. J. Mauchly. 163.
*Observations with nine-inch transit
circle 1903-11, results of. W. S.
Eichelberger and H. R. Morgan.
189.
fSolar constant observing stations. C. G.
Abbot. 473.
fZenith tube at Washington, photo-
graphic variation of latitude and con-
stant of aberration from four years'
work with. F. B. LiTTELL. 241.
Bacteriology. Dilution method of counting
bacteria. P. V. WELLS and W. F.
Wells. 265.
Bioclimatics. Bioclimatic zones of the
continents; with classification. A. D.
Hopkins. 227.
International problems in bioclimatics
with special reference to distribution of
plants and animals. A. D. Hopkins.
Biology. *Classification, new, of animals.
A. H. Clark. 495.
Correlation between functions, and
spurious correlation. L. J. Reed. 449.
fMan and nature in the Philippines. E.
D. Merrill. 114.
tProblems in economic biology in tropi-
cal America. J. R. Johnston. 116.
Botany. fAfrica, vegetation of. H. L.
Shantz. 243.
*Barley, Haunchen, daily developments
of kernels of. H. V. Harlan. 136.
*Barley kernels in normal and clipped
spikes, development of, and limitations
of awned and hooded varieties. H. V.
Harlan and Stephen Anthony. 137.
Bursera, new species of. H. PiTTiER.
229.
§Chaulmoogra oil, Taraktogenos kurzii,
the source of. J. R. Rock. 380.
fChinese botany and botanists. W. J.
Swingle. 64.
*Cold, influence of, in stimulating the
growth of plants. F. V. CoviLLB. 54.
Datura, synopsis of genus. W. E. Sap-
ford. 173.
fFlora of the Iberian peninsula. Ivar
TiDESTROM. 243, 315.
fFungus, Philippine. W. H. WesTON.
474.
*Grasses, revisions of North American.
A. S. Hitchcock and A. Chase. 54.
fHawaii revisited. W. E. Safford.
214.
fHay fever and its specific botanical re-
lationships. H. M. Hall. 115.
*Hordeum intermedium haxtoni, occur-
rence of, in crosses between H. vulgare
pallidum and H. distichon palmella.
H. V. Harlan and H. K. Hayes. 137.
Ichthyothere, new species of. S. F. Blakb.
301.
*Maize, heritable characters of — lineate
leaves. G. N. Collins and J. H.
Kempton. 55.
Maize, linkage between brachytic culms
and pericarp and cob color in. J. H.
Kempton. 13.
fMaize, origin and early distribution of.
G. N. Collins. 378.
Maximilianea (Cochlospermum), Ameri-
can species of. S. F. BlakE. 125.
fPhilippines, vegetation of. E. D. MER-
RILL. 120.
fPlants, our disappearing wild. A. A.
Hansen. 118.
fRice, introduction of resistant. H.
Metcalf. 474.
*Sclerospora, conidial, of Philippine maize.
W. H. Weston, Jr. 260.
fSkunk cabbage, Spathyema foetida. F.
M. Shull. 121.
Swartzia in Panama and Guatemala.
H. PiTTiER. 155.
SUBJECT INDEX
529
*Teosinte-maize hybrid. G. N. Col-
lins and J. H. Kempton. 136.
t Vegetation of Africa. H. L. Shantz.
243.
fVegetation of the Philippines. E. D.
Merrill. 120.
^Zamia integrifolia and its starch, Florida
arrowroot. 475.
Ceramic Chemistry. *GIass, mechanics of
the weathering of. F. R. v. Bl-
CHOWSKY. 1 10.
*Optical glass, test of resistance of, to
weathering. F. R. v. Bichowsky.
110.
See also Chemical Technology.
Ceramics. *Optical glass, manufacttire and
uses of rolled. H. S. Roberts and
J. C. HOSTETTER. HO.
*Optical glass manufacture, motion of
stirrers used in. E. D. Williamson
and L. H. Adams. 377.
Chemical Technology. *Inks, composition
manufacture, and methods of testing.
313.
See also Ceramic Chemistry.
Chemistry. fChemical Society, 268th to
300th meetings (for titles see author
index). 40.
fCupric oxide, cuprous oxide, oxygen.
F. H. Smyth and H. S. Roberts. 285.
Evolution of matter. F. W. Clarke.
298.
§Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory
transferred to Department of Agricul-
ture. 351.
Ice crystals which form on bare soil and
stems of plants. V. Birckner. 221.
Marionellin, new birefringent substance
found in intestinal cells of a marine
nema. N. A. Cobb. 503.
fOrientite, new silicate of manganese and
calcium. E. V. Shannon and D. F.
Hewett. 445.
§Reserves of the Chemical Warfare Ser-
vice. C. H. Herty. 147.
See also Physical Chemistry, Inorganic
Chemistry, Analytical Chemistry,
Chemical Technology.
Crystallography. fDetermination of struc-
ture of crystals. R. W. G. Wyckofp.
238.
Electrical Engineering. Oscillograph meas-
urements in battery circuit of automo-
biles. G. W. ViNAL and C. L. Sny-
der. 51.
Engineering. §Central Engineering Soci-
ety in Washington proposed. 317.
Entomology. \Ambopogon hyperboreus from
Idaho. R. C. Shannon. 218.
*Ants of Fiji Islands. W. M. Mann.
346.
'\Aphelinus mali parasitic on Schizoneura
lanigera taken to France. L. O. How-
ard. 195.
*Aphididae, hemipterous family, generic
classification of. A. C. Baker. 190.
*Aphids injurious to orchard fruits, cur-
rant, gooseberry and grape, control of.
A. L. QuAiNTANCE and A. C. Baker.
192.
fBeetle, Japanese, and its control. J. J.
Davis. 142.
^Beetles of family Cleridae, larvae of
North American. A. G. Boving and
A. B. Champlain. 190.
fBioclimatic law and its application to
entomology. A. D. Hopkins. 141.
fBot-flies and their biology. J. M. Al-
drich. 142.
^Carcina quercana from British Columbia.
A. BuscK. 216.
Caterpillars used for food by Pahute In-
dians. J. M. Aldrich. 218, 241.
fChiggers, snake affected with. R. W.
Shufeldt. 65.
*Coleoptera, memoirs on the, IX. T.
L. Casey. 190.
fCornborer, European {Pyrausta nu-
bilalis), parasitic hymenoptera on.
A. B. Gahan. 195.
\Dibrachys nigrocyaneum, parasitic on
Diprion simile. W. Middleton. 216.
*Diptera of the Tipuloidea in District of
Columbia. C. P. Alexander and
W. L. McAtee. 347.
*Dolichopus, Dipterous genus, in North
America. M. C. VanDusen, F. R.
Cole, and J. M. Aldrich. 395.
fDrawings and draughtsmen, entomolog-
ical. W. R. Walton. 219.
*Dryinid, Indian, parasites of rice leaf-
hoppers. S. A. RoHWER. 192.
530
SUBJECT INDEX
Entomology (Continued.)
fEuropean entomologists, recent visits to.
L. O. Howard. 215.
*Flies, dispersion of, by flight. F. C.
BiSHOPP and E. W. Laake. 495.
* Formicidae, subfamilies of, and new gen-
era and subgenera. W. M. WheeLER.
237.
fFungi, relation of, to insects. A. T.
Speare. 142.
fHoney bee, auditory sense of. N. E.
McIndoo. 215.
\Hymenoptera in British Museum. T.
D. A. CocKERALiv. 144.
\Hymenoptera in U. S. National Museum.
S. A. RoHWER. 145.
*Hymenoptera, new species. North Amer-
ican. S. A. RoHWER. 192.
\Hymenoptera parasitic on European
cornborer {Pyrausta nuhilalis). A. B.
Gahan. 195.
*Hymenoptera, Serphidoid, Cynipoid and
Chalcidoid. A. A. Girault. 261.
*Ichneumon-flies of the gemis Apanteles,
revision of North American. C. F. W.
MuESBECK. 347.
*Ichneumon-flies of subfamily /c/jwewwo-
ninae (Pimplinae), Holarctic tribes of.
R. A. CusHMAN and S. A. RohwER.
191.
*Ichneumon-flies of tribe Acoenitini,
North American. R. A. Cushman and
vS. A. Rohwer. 191.
*Ichneumon-flies of tribes Lahenini, Rhys-
sini, Xoridini, Odontomerini, and Phy-
todietini. S. A. Rohwer. 191.
*Iclineumon-flies of tribes Lycorini, Poly-
sphinctini, and Theroniini. North Amer-
ican. R. A. Cushman. 261.
flnsects, how the Government is fighting.
L. O. Howard. 472.
\Lathrodectes mactans in northern New
Hampshire. W. H. Fox. 143.
*Lepidoptera, descriptions of new species,
larvae and pupae. C. Heinrich. 192.
*Lepidoptera in the U. S. National Mu-
seum, new species of. Wm. Schaus.
192.
fLocust, Moroccan, fight in France
against. L. O. Howard. 242.
fMosquitoes on the Amazon. J. C.
Bradley. 213.
fParasite, external egg. R. A. Cushman.
146.
Phaneropterae (Scudderiae), Orthopter-
ous group. A. N. Caudell. 487.
fPlant pathologists and entomologists,
cooperation between. F. K. Ravn. 142.
\Pluinarius, an aberrant genus of Hy-
menoptera. J. C. Bradley. 214.
tQuarantine work on the Mexican border.
E. R. Sasscer. 217.
fSaw-flies, comparison of larval folds
and adult sclerites in. W. Middleton.
140.
*Saw-fly, black grainstem of Europe in
U. S. A. B. Gahan. 55.
*Termites, colonizing reproductive adults.
T. E. Snyder. 237.
*Termites, nearctic, revision of. N.
Banks; Biology and geographic dis-
tribution by T. E. Snyder. 55.
fWire worm, serious pest, introduction
of. J. A. Hyslop. 143.
Ethnology. *Alsea texts and myths. L.
J. Frachtbnberg. 56.
*Burial, native forms of, and cemeteries
east of the Mississippi. D. I. BusH-
NELL. 55.
*Owl sacred pack. Fox Indians. T.
MicHELSON. 395.
Evolution. *Irreversibility, evolution and.
A. J. LoTKA. 56.
*Kinetics of material transformations.
A. J. LoTKA. 56.
Genetics. fChromosomes in relation to
heredity. C. E. McClung. 316.
*Fixed intermediate, Hordeum interme-
dium haxtoni, occurrence of, in crosses
between H. vulgare pallidum and H.
distichon palmella. H. V. Harlan
and H. K. Hayes. 137.
fHeredity as factor of resistance of
guinea-pigs to tuberculosis. S.
Wright. 316.
*Maize, heritable characters of — lineate
leaves. G. N. Collins and J. H.
Kempton. 55.
Maize, linkage between brachytic culms
and pericarp and cob color in. J. H.
Kempton. 13.
Geochemistry. *Earth's crust, chemistry of.
H. S. Washington. 420, 422.
SUBJECT INDBX
531
fOrientite, new silicate of manganese and
calcium. E. V. Shannon and D. F.
Hewett. 445.
*Sediments, chemical researches on. H.
E. Merwin. 419.
Water of Borax Lake. R. C. Wells.
477.
■Geodesy. fAuthalic latitude. C. S. Adams.
347.
fCoastal currents and winds on the Pa-
cific coast. H. A. Marmer. 397.
*Gravity, modem methods of measuring
intensity of. C. H. Swick. 374.
*Latitude developments connected with
geodesy and cartography. O. S.
Adams. 312.
*Map projection, elements of. C. H.
Deetz and O. S. Adams. 345.
§Neutral Geodetic Association, with-
drawal of U. S. from. 67.
*Plane rectangular coordinates and geo-
graphic positions. W. F. Reynolds.
440.
*Radio-compass bearings. O. S. Adams.
416.
jTidal current investigations. H. A.
Marmer. 37.
tTidal work of Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey. G. T. Rude. 284.
fTides in Bay of Fundy and their
causes. H. A. Marmer. 513.
Geography, f Aerial photographs, use of,
in geography. W. T. Lee. 426.
fAsia Minor, geography of. L. Domin-
ian. 422.
*Califomia, Salton Sea region. J. S.
Brown. 471.
fHawaii revisited. W. E. Safford. 214.
§Katmai expeditions, publication of re-
sults of. 67.
fPhilippines, man and nature in the.
E. D. Merrill. 114.
Geology. *Alamosa Creek valley, N. Mex.,
geology of , with reference to oil and gas.
D. E. Winchester. 260.
*Alaska mining, future of. A. H. Brooks.
282.
*Alaska, mining in northwestern. S. H.
Cathcart. 375.
"fAsia Minor, geography of. L. Do-
minian. 422.
fAsphalt beds of Rancho la Brea. L. H.
Miller. 262.
By-products of applied geology, scien-
tific. G. O. Smith. 203.
fCarboniferous and Triassic of south-
west Utah, phases of. J. B. ReESIDE
and H. Bassler. 445.
*Chemistry of the earth's crust. H. S.
Washington. 420, t422.
*Chrome ores in Penn., Md. and N. C.
E. B. Knopf and J. V. Lewis. 494.
*Coal in eastern Idaho. G. R. Mans-
field. 193.
*Coal in San Juan Co., N. Mex. C. M.
Bauer and J. B. Reeside. 419.
fCompression on the Pacific coast, evi-
dences of. B. Willis. 427.
*Copper deposits of Ray and Miami,
Ariz. F. L. Ransome. 57.
fDeccan traps and other plateau basalts
H. S. Washington. 446.
*Divide silver district, Nev. A. Knopf
441.
jElastic properties of rocks. L. H
Adams. 447.
tEskers of Ireland. L. LaForge. 446.
*Gas, natural, resources available to
cities of Texas. E. W. Shaw and P. L.
Ports. 193.
fGeochronology, its application to Amer-
ica and other parts of the earth.
G. DeGeer. 427.
Granites of Washington, D. C. H. S.
Washington. 459.
*Ground water in Norwalk, Suffield and
Glastonbury areas. Conn. H. S.
Palmer. 510.
*Ground water in Pahrump, Mesquite,
and Ivanpah valleys, Nev. and Cal.
G. A. Waring. 259.
*Ground water of western San Diego
Co., Cal., geology and. A. J. Ellis and
C. H. Lee. 235.
fGround water problems in the Hawaiian
Islands. C. E. Meinzer. 424.
*Ground water, publications of U. S.
Geological Survey relating to. O. E.
Meinzer. 58.
fHawaii, recent volcanic events in island
of. O. E. Meinzer. 427.
532
SUBJECT INDEX
Geology (Continued)
jHomestake ore body, structure of. S.
Paige. 446.
flgneous geology of southeastern Idaho.
G. R. Mansfield. 446.
*Iron-depositing bacteria and their ge-
ologic relation. E. C. Harder. 56.
*Iron ore near Stanford, Mont. L. G.
Westgate. 393.
*Iron-ore resources of Europe. M. RoES-
LER. 419.
fKatmai region, Alaska, structural and
volcanic geology of. C. N. Fenner.
444.
tLithology of Bend Series, Texas. M. I.
Goldman. 425.
fLlanoria, Paleozoic land area in Louisi-
ana and Texas. H. D. Miser. 444.
fLode deposits of Manhattan, Nev. H.
G. Ferguson. 444.
*Manganese ore in Batesville district,
Ark. H. D. Miser. 194.
*Manganese ore in Colo. E. L. Jones,
Jr. 393.
•Manganese ore in Wyo. E. L. Jones, Jr.
392.
•Massachusetts, igneous rocks of Essex Co.
C. H. Clapp. 470.
fMeanders of James and Potomac riv-
ers. M. R. Campbell. 421.
fMicro-paleontology of Bend Series,
Texas. P. V. Roundy. 425.
•Mid-continent oil and gas field, origin of
faults, anticlines and buried Granite
Ridge of. A. E. Fath. 236, t423.
•Mineral resources of Goodnews Bay,
Alaska. G. L. Harriman. 376.
jMines and minerals, classification of, for
taxation. H. W. Cornell. 421.
•Mining in Matanuska coal field and
Willow Creek district, Alaska. T.
Chapin. 375.
•Mining in northwestern Alaska. S. H.
Cathcart. 375.
tMississippian of Mississippi and Ohio
valleys. C. BuTTs. 445.
•Mogollon district, N. Mex. H. S.
Ferguson. 375.
tMoon craters, interpretation of. S.
Paige. 422.
fMountain pediments, erosion of desert
ranges. Kirk Bryan. 422.
•Oil and gas field. Lance Creek, Wyo.
E. T. Hancock. 237.
•Oil and gas, geology of Alamosa Creek
valley, N. Mex., with reference to.
D. E. Winchester. 260.
*Oil field. Cement, Okla. Frank
Reeves. 510.
•Oil possibilities in Baxter Basin, Rock
Springs uplift, Wyo. A. R. SchulTz.
418.
fPaleontological work at the National
Museum. R. S. Bassler. 446.
fPalladium mine near Kasaan, Alaska,
the Salt Chuck. J. B. Mertie, Jr. 423.
jPeneplanation, suggested modification
of doctrine of. L. LaForgE. 447.
•Permian salt deposits of south central
U. S. N. H. Darton. 470.
•Phosphate rocks near Maxville, Mont.
J. T. Pardee. 393.
fPleistocene lakes along Mohave River^
Cal. D. G. Thompson. 423.
fPleistocene lakes in the Basin-and-Range
Province. O. E. Meinzer. 447.
fPoplar Dome in Montana, structure of.
W. T. Thom, Jr. 421.
•Potash deposits in Spain. H. S. GalB-
376.
•Potash deposits of Alsace. H. S. GalE.
392.
•Potash resources of Nebraska. W. B.
Hicks. 376.
fRio Tinto and other historic mines of
Spain. C. DeKalb. 426.
jSalines and saline lakes, utilization of
some. R. C. WELLS. 446.
fSalton Basin, Cal., fault features of.
J. S. Brown. 423.
fSedimentary rocks, sizing scale for con-
stituents of. C. K. WentworTh. 426.
fStratigraphy of Bend Series and contig-
uous formations in Texas. P. V.
Roundy and M. I. Goldman. 425.
fStratigraphy of metamorphic rock of
southeastern Pennsylvania and Mary-
land. A. I. Jones and E. B. Knopf.
446.
•Sunset- Midway oil field, Cal. Part L
R. W. Pack. 58.
SUBJECT INDEX
533
Ceology (Continued)
fTaxation,* classification of mines and
minerals for. H. W. Cornell. 421.
tThrust faulting in Cottonwood district,
Wasatch Mts., Utah. F. C. Calkins.
422.
fTriassic and Carboniferous of south-
western Utah, phases of. J. B. ReE-
siDE and H. Bassler. 445.
*Tungsten deposits of U. vS. F. L. Hess
and E. S. Larsen. 487.
fTypes of structure in southern Idaho.
G. R. Mansfield. 421.
tWar, application of geology to. A. H.
Brooks. 421.
*Water, exploratory drilling for, and use
of ground water for irrigation in Stepto
Valley, Nev. W. O. Clark, C. W.
RiDDELL, and O. E. Meinzer. 442.
*Water resources of Gila and San Carlos
Valley, Ariz., geology and. A. T.
SCHWENNESEN. 58.
tWest Indies, geology of northern. T. W.
Vaughan. 426.
*Yellow Pine cinnabar mining district,
Idaho, geology of. E. S. Larsen and
D. C. Livingston. 192.
fYosemite region, physiographic history
of. F. E. Matthes. 421.
fYosemite Valley, torrent channels and
torrent levees in. F. E. Matthes. 446.
See also Metallurgy, Mineralogy, Pe-
trology, and Volcanology.
Hydrology. *Ground water in Norwalk,
Suffield and Glastonbury areas. Conn.
H. S. Palmer. 510.
*Ground waters of western San Diego
Co., Cal. A. J. Ellis and C. H. Lee.
235.
*Salton Sea region, Cal., watering places
in. J. S. Brown. 471.
♦Surface waters of Vermont. C. H.
Pierce. 137.
*Water, exploratory drilling for, and use
of ground water for irrigation in Step-
toe Valley, Nev. W. O. Clark, C. W.
RiDDELL, and O. E. Meinzer. 442.
*Water supply of St. Mary and Milk
Rivers, 1898-1917. B. E. Jones and
R. J. Burley. 510.
Ichthyology. fArtificial pearls. H. M.
Smith. 315.
fEel, youngest ever captured. H. M.
Smith. 315.
Inorganic Chemistry. *Akermanite-gehlen-
ite system. J. B. Ferguson and A. F.
Buddington. Ill, 374.
Alkali halides, crystal structure of. R.
W. G. WvcKOPP. 429.
*Crystal structure of some carbonates of
calcite group. R. W. G. Wykofp.
391.
*Magnesium oxide, crystal structure of.
R. W. G. Wyckofp. 441.
Mathematics. Correlation between func-
tions, and spurious correlation. L. J.
Reed. 449.
Dilution method of counting bacteria.
P. V. Wells and W. F. Wells. 265.
Metallurgy. *Intercrystalline brittleness of
lead. H. S. Rawdon. 312.
*Structure and related properties of met-
als. Bur. Stand. Circular. 440.
Meteorology. fAeronautics, meteorological
factor in. C. L. Meisinger. 283.
tLaw of geoidal slope and fallacies in
dynamic meteorology. C. F. Marvin.
211.
fSolar constant observing stations. C.
G. Abbot. 473.
Mineralogy. *Augite from Vesuvius and
Etna. H. S. Washington and H. E.
Merwin. 441.
Bementite and neotocite from western
Washington; identity of bementite and
caryopilite. J. T. Pardee, E. S. Lar-
sen, Jr., and G. Steiger. 25.
Galenobismutite from gold-quartz vein in
Boise Co., Idaho. E. V. Shannon.
298.
Lazulite of Graves Mt., Ga., and other
occurrences in the U. S. T. L. Watson.
386.
Sulfo-salt minerals, classification of. E.
T. Wherry and W. F. Foshag. 1.
Navigation. * Vessel- to- shore radio-com-
pass bearings in aerial and transoceanic
navigation. G. W. LittlEhales. 59.
Necrology. §Barnard, Edward Chester,
148. BuMSTEAD, Henry Andrews,
68. Dewey, Frederic Perkins, 148.
534
SUBJECT INDEX
DooLiTTLE, Alfred, 172. Fenster-
MACHER, Lloyd C, 352. Fischer, Louis
Albert, 379. Gamble, William
H., 428. Hagar, William Valley,
244. Ha WES, Charles S., 319. How-
ell, Ralph W., 24. Jenney, Walter
Proctor, 428. ICarr, Douglas, 244.
Latham, Ector B., 220. Lucas, An-
thony Francis, 400. McKelvy, E.
C, 43. Oberly, Eunice Rockwood,
516. Palmer, William, 244. Ravn,
F. KoLPiN, 143. Rosa, Edward Ben-
nett, 288. Sinclair, C. H., 212.
Snell, Merwin Porter, 448, 516.
Voorhees, Samuel Stockton, 428.
Willis, Arthltr R., 264. Zahm, John
Augustine, 516.
Oceanography. Electrical conductivity
method of measuring sea-water salinity.
A. L. Thuras. 160.
Problems of physical oceanography. A.
L. Thuras. 132.
Optics. tColor and spectral distribution
of light. I. G. Priest. 239.
*Contrast sensibility of the eye and the
resolving power of the microscope.
F. E. Wright. 311.
*Dispersion in optical glasses. F. E.
Wright. I. 345; II. 374.
fOptical basis of Bittinger's camouflage
paintings. I. G. Priest and M. K.
Frehafer. 238.
fSpectral distribution of energy required
to evoke gray sensation. I. G. Priest.
396.
Ornithology. *America, North and Middle,
birds of. R. Ridgway. 59.
*America, South, new birds from Peru,
Bolivia, Brazil, and Colombia. F. M.
Chapman. 111.
*A. O. U. check-list, fifth annual list of
proposed changes in. H. C. Ober-
holser. 497.
*Clapper rail, new from Fla. H. C.
Oberholser. 496.
*Cliff swallow, new from Canada. H. C.
Oberholser. 496.
*Crow in relation to agriculture. E. R.
Kalmbach. 512.
*Dove, white-winged, habits of. AlEX.
Wetmore. 495.
*Duck, ring-necked, systematic position
of. N. HOLLISTER. 61.'
*Expedition to tropical Pacific in charge
of Alexander Agassiz. C. H. Town-
send and Alex. Wetmore. 62.
*Federal protection of migrating birds.
G. A. Lawyer. 61.
fFlight, height of birds'. T. S. Palmer.
262.
*Florida Keys and south end of mainland,
birds observed on, in 1919. P. Bartsch.
60.
*Florida redwing, plumage of male. F.
C. Lincoln. 111.
*Flycatcher, Guinea (Myiarchus ferox)
races of. H. C. Oberholser. 497.
*Game preserves, federal and state. E.
W. Nelson. 512.
*Grebes, feeding habit of. Alex. Wet-
more. 496.
*Guano birds of Peru. R. E. Coker.
61.
*Lake Burford, N. M., habits of birds at.
Alex. Wetmore. 496.
*Lanius ludovicianus, new subspecies of>
H. N. Oberholser. 62.
*Larus hyperboreiis barrovianus, status of.
H. C. Oberholser. 62.
*Melanerpes erythrocephalus, new subspe-
cies of. H. N. Oberholser. 112.
*Migration of North American birds. H.
C. Oberholser. XI. Canada jay,
Oregon jay, Clarke's nutcracker, pinon
jay. 113; XII I. European starling,
bobolink. 496.
*Mutanda ornithologica VIII. H. C.
Oberholser. 112.
* Myiarchus ferox, Guiana flycatcher,
races of. H. C. Oberholser. 497.
*North American birds, notes on.
H. C. Oberholser. 63.
*North and Middle America, birds of.
R. Ridgway. 59, 512.
*Otocoris, new from Calif. H. C. Ober-
holser. 497.
§Palmer collection transferred to U. S.
National Museum. 500.
*Pipilo fuscus, new subspecies of. H. C.
Oberholser. 60.
*Protection, federal, of migratory birds.
G. A. Lawyer. 61.
SUBJECT INDEX
535
*Prunella niodularis, new subspecies from
Pyrenees. F. Harper. 63.
^Ptarmigan, new, from Mt. Rainier. W.
P. Taylor. 495.
*Quiscalus quiscula, races of. H. C. Ober-
HOLSER. 62.
*Rhynchocyclus, relationships and geo-
graphic distribution of species and
races of. C. B. Cory. 111.
*Rookeries of the Tortugas. P. Bartsch.
60.
*£outh American birds, new. W. E. C.
Todd. 511.
*South America, new birds from Peru,
Bolivia, Brazil, and Colombia. F. M.
Chapman. 111.
Tinamidae, new birds of family. Alex.
Wetmore. 434.
*Tortugas, bird rookeries of. P.
Bartsch. 60.
*Washington, all-day bird trip at. H. C.
Oberholser. 112.
*Washington region, Oct.-Nov., 1919.
H. C. Oberholser. 512.
*Waterfowl in Neb. H. C. Oberholser.
495.
*Whippoorwill, new from Porto Rico.
Alex. Wetmore. 60.
Paleontology. Brachiopod, shell regenera-
tion in. W. A. Price. 32.
*Fauna of Cannonball marine member of
Lance formation. T. W. Stanton and
T. W. Vaughan. 138.
tNational Museum, paleontological work
at. R. S. BasslER. 315, 446.
*Orthatilax, Tertiary guide fossil. C. W.
Cooke. 471.
*Orthophragmina and Lepidocyclina,
American species of. J. A. Cushman.
194.
*Orthophragmina, new species, from La.
J. A. Cushman. 511.
*Operculina and Heterostegina, American
species of. J. A. Cushman. 511.
fReptiles, reconstruction of extinct. C.
W. GiLMORE. 426.
fVertebrate, fossil, exhibit in the National
Museum. C. W. Gllmore. 66.
Petrology. Essex Co., Mass., igneous rocks
of. C. H. Clapp. 470.
Granites of Washington, D. C. H. S.
Washington. 459.
*Italite, new leucite rock. H.
vS. Washington. 346.
Lamprophyre dike cutting a pyrite body
in Boyd Smith mine, Va. T. L. Wat-
son. 341.
Monticellite alnoite from Isle Cadieux,
Quebec. N. L. Bowen. 278.
Obsidian from Copan and Chichen Itza.
H. S. Washington. 481,
*Rhyolites of Lipari. H. S. Washington.
392.
Physical Chemistry. Acidity, methods of
stating. E. T. Wherry and E. Q.
Adams. 197, 202.
Acidity, Wherry and Adams' methods of
stating, reply to. W. M. Clark. 199.
Chemical structure and physiological ac-
tion. C. L. Alsberg. 321.
*Melting point curve, estimating impuri-
ties by. W. P. White. 113.
Physics. fAerial navigation. H. H. Eaton.
498.
fAeronautic instruments, old and new
problems of. M. D. Hersey. 22.
fAeronautics, meteorological factor in.
C. L. Meisinger. 283.
fAircraft engines at high altitudes. H.
C. Dickinson. 22.
*Annealing of glass. L. H. Adams and
E. D. Williamson. 417.
fDensity of strained glass. L. H. Adams
and E. D. Williamson. 284.
fDental materials, physical properties of.
W. H. SouDER and C. G. Peters. 37.
Diamond, compressibility of. L. H.
Adams. 45.
fElectrical resistance of the human body.
F. Wenner, J. S. Martin, and N. L.
Forman. 286.
fElectricity, diurnal variation of atmos-
pheric. S. J. Mauchly. 398.
Furnace temperature regulator. H. S.
Roberts. 401, t497
*Gases, efflux of, through small orifices.
E. Buckingham and J. D. Edwards.
209.
fGeoidal slope, law of, and fallacies in
dynamic meteorology. C. F. Marvin.
211.
536
SUBJECT INDEX
Physics (Continued)
fHeat conduction in fins of air-cooled
engines. S. R. Parsons and D. R.
Harper. 513.
fHeating of substances by expansion. L.
H. Adams. 349.
fHypsometer as precision instrument. E.
F. Mueller and T. S. Sligh, Jr. 167.
t Illumination measurements, daylight,
and sky brightness. H. H. Kimball.
513.
flnduction coils, distributed capacity of.
G. BreiT. 239.
*Integration method of deriving the alter-
nating current resistance and induc-
tance of conductors. H. L. Curtis.
209.
flntemational hydrogen scale, comparison
of, with standard scale of temperature
defined by platinum resistance ther-
mometer. R. H. WiLHELM and A. K.
Benson.
Irreversible time effects, theory of. M. D.
Hersey. 149.
fMagnetic reluctivity and eutectoid
carbon steel. C. Nusbaum. 38.
fMagnetization by rotation, experiments
on. S. J. Barnett. 162.
*Magnetizing force, variation of residual
induction and coercive force with.
R. L. Sanford and W. L. Cheney.
210.
jMagneto, physics of high-tension. F.
B. Silsbee. 38.
fMoUier diagrams. E. F. MuELLER and
C. H. Myers. 347.
*Photometers, measurement of intensity
of transmitted and reflected light by
polarization. F. E. Wright. 282.
fPiezo-electric effect. A. M. NicoLSON.
473.
*Polarization photometer prisms. F. E.
Wright. 282.
*Polarized light in study of ores and
metals. F. E. Wright. 281.
fPressures, production and measurement
of extremely low. S. Dushman. 21.
*Radiation, constants of. W. W. Cob-
LENTZ. 209.
*Radiation, thermal, present status of
constants and verification of laws of.
W. W. COBLENTZ. 439.
Radioactive quantity, name of a (curie
or rutherford). N. E. Dorsey. 381.
fRange finder, self-contained base, and
its errors. I. C. Gardner. 395.
fResistance thermometer construction.
T. S. Sligh, Jr. 313.
fvSky brightness and daylight illumination
measurements. H. H. Kimball. 513.
fSpecific and latent heats of nickel and
monel metal. W. P. White. 350.
fSpectral distribution of energy required
to evoke gray sensation. I. G. Priest.
396.
Supraconductivity, discontinuity of re-
sistance preceding. P. W. Bridgman.
455.
fThermostatics. T. vS. Sligh, Jr. 168.
*Ulbricht sphere in measurement of re-
flection and transmission factors. E.
Karrer. 439.
§Weights, magnetic. 476.
X-rays, characteristic soft, from arcs in
gases and vapors. F. L. MohlER and
P. D. FooTE. 273, 513.
X-rays, wave lengths of. R. W. G.
Wyckoff. 366.
Phytopathology. fCooperation between en-
tomologists and plant pathologists. F.
K. Ravn. 142.
fWhite pine and blister rust. sS. B.
DetwilER. 119.
Radiotelegraphy. Chronographic recorder
of radio time signals. E- A. Eckhardt
and J. C. K ARCHER. 303, t348.
Radio signal fading phenomena. J. H.
Bellinger and L. E. Whittemore.
t240, 245.
*Transmission and reception with antenna
and coil aerials. J. H. DellingER.
313.
Wave front angle in radiotelegraphy.
L. W. Austin. 101.
Science, General. fBritish Association for
the Advancement of Science, 1920 meet-
ing. 166.
§Congress, matters of scientific interest in.
170.
Distribution of scientific information in
the U. S. R. B. SosMAN. 69.
SUBJECT INDEX
537
^Educational courses at Bureau of Stand-
ards. 428.
^Educational courses at Department of
Agriculture. 515.
§Interchange of publications between
Germany and the U. S. resumed. 147.
§Lectures at Bureau of Standards. 499.
fPan-Pacific Scientific Congress. W.
Bowie. 165. W. E. Safford. 118.
§Patents arising in government service,
conference on. 379.
§Personnel Research Federation, organi-
zation of. 196.
fRock Creek Park, lure of. F. Lamson-
SCRIBNER. 121.
Scientific Notes and News. 24, 44, 67, 100,
123, 147, 170, 196, 220, 244, 264, 287,
317, 351, 379, 400, 428, 447, 476, 499,
515.
Spectroscopy. *Spectral transmission of
the atmosphere. E. Karrer and E.
P. T. Tyndall. 210.
*Wave length measurements in arc spec-
tra photographed in yellow, red, and
infra-red. F. M. Walters, Jr. 439.
*Wave lengths in arc spectra of seven
elements. C. C. KiESS and W. F.
Meggers. 210.
Technology. jOptical glass, new methods of
sealing. C. O. Fairchild. 314.
Radiators for aircraft engines. S. R.
Parsons and D. R. Harper. 409.
Terrestrial Magnetism. fAtmospheric elec-
tric observations during solar eclipse of
May 29, 1919, and summary of similar
observations. S. J. Mauchly. 163.
Earth's size, bearing of, upon changes in
its magnetism. W. F. G. Swann. 275.
fMagnetic and meteorological observa-
tions during solar eclipse May 29, 1919.
L. A. Bauer. 164.
fSolar activity, terestrial magnetism,
and terrestrial electricity. L. A.
Bauer. 399.
Volcanology. fHawaii, recent volcanic
events in island of. O. E. Meinzer.
427.
§Katmai eruption, assimilation during.
C. N. Fenner. 514.
*Katmai region, Alaska, and eruption of
1912. C. N. Fenner. 394.
fKatmai region, Alaska, structural and
volcanic geology of. C. N. Fenner. 444.
*Mauna Loa, gas collections from. E.
S. vShepherd. 420.
Zoology. fBirds and mammals of Yosemite
Park. H. C. Bryant. 263.
fCrinoids. A. H. Clark. 64.
*Crinoids collected by Barbados-Antigua
expedition. A. H. Clark. 312.
*Echinoderms of Canadian Arctic expe-
dition. A. H. Clark. 283.
Evolution of animals. A.H.Clark. 207.
Marionella (Eurystonia), emendation.
N. A. Cobb. 504.
Mollusks, Philippine land (Ceratopoma).
P. Bartsch. 501.
Names, family, in zoology. W. L.
McAtee. 230.
Nomenclature of supergeneric names.
S. A. RoHWER. 106.
*Ophitirans collected by Barbados-An-
tigua expedition. A. H. Clark. 346.
*Sea lilies and feather stars. A. H.
Clark. 283.
fShip worm, damage caused by. P.
Bartsch. 65.
fTurtle, spotted, sexual differences in
coloration. S. F. Blake. 242.
Vol. II ' January 4, 192 1 No. i
JOURNAL
OP THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
J. Franciix Mbycs RobbkT B. SoaicAM S. F. Bi.An
BUBSAu or atABDABoa aiorBTaiCAi, i^abobatomt busbao or plaht mooarBV
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Hasjlan S. a. Robwvr
BOTANICAL SOCDIYT BBTOMOMXItCAt, aOOSYV
N. HOLUSTBR P- B. SIL8BB8
•tokooicAi, aociam rmxLoaovwncAt. soezBr?
Sidney Paigb J. R. Swanton ^
BBOLOOICAi. SOCIBTT ABVBBOrOIAOieAI. BOCBBTT
PUBLISHBD SVia-l«ONTHI.T
EZCSPT IN JTTtY, AUGDST,' AND SBPTBICBER, WHSN MONTBI.T
BY THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES
OFVICB 0» FUBLICATION
an CHURCH STKBBT >
8A8TOM. PA.
Entered aa S*coud ClAsa Matter. lanuary 25. 1919. at the poBt^^ffica at ButM. Pa.. BBda* tke
Art of ABKoat 24. 1912. Acceptaoce for maUiaK at apcdal rate of paaUfe 9frlAt4 far la
Sactie* 1103 Act af October i, 1917. Aatherianl aa Jmlj ». 191t
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journal, the ofiScial organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and afifiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
ninet eenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essenti al feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the twelfth or the twenty-
eighth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly t5^ewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do . more than correct obvious minor errors
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — :In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. ' 12 pp. 16 pp. Coven
50 $1.40 $2.80 $4.20 $5.60 $1.15
100 1.60 3.20 4.80 6.40 1.40
150 1.80 3.60 5.40 7.20 1.65
200 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 1.90
250 2.20 4.40 6.60 8.80 2.15
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly numbers 25
Monthly numbers 50
Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. I<. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
* Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911, will be sent for $i 00. Special
rates are giveo to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy.
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
President: Carl L. Alsberg, Bureau of Chemistry.
Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory.
Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum,
Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey.
ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Tuesday, January 4. The Anthropological Society, at the National
Museum, at 4.45 p.m.
Tuesday, January 4. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club,
at 8.00 p.m.
Wednesday, January 5. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos
Club. Program:
Haete Cooke: The Diesel marine engine.
Thursday, January 6. The Entomological Society, at the National
Museum, at 8.00 p.m.
Tuesday, January IL The Academy, at the Carnegie Institution,
16th and P Streets, at 8.15 p.m. Program:
J. R. Johnston: Some problems in economic biology in Tropical America.
Annual meeting for the reports of officers, announcemerit of elections, and other
business.
Tuesday, January 11, The Institute of Electrical Engineers, at the
Cosmos Club.
Wednesday, January 12. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos
Club, at 8.00 p.m.
Thursday, January 13. The Chemical Society.
Saturday, January 15. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos
Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program:
Address of the Retiring President, Robert B. Sosman: The distribution of scien-
tific information.
Wednesday, January 19. The Society of Engineers.
Thursday, January 20. The Academy, at the Cosmos Club, at
8.15 p.m. Program:
Address of the Retiring President, C, 1,. Alsberg: The relation of chemical struc-
ture to physiological action.
CONTENTS
Original Papers
Page
Mineralogy. — ^A new classification of the sulfo-salt minerals. Edgar T. Wherry
and William F. Foshag 1
Analytical Chemistry. — Note on crucibles used in rock analysis. Henry S.
Washington 9
Genetics. — Linkage between brach5rtic culms and t)ericarp and cob color in
maize. J. H. KempTon 13
Proceedings
Philosophical Society of Washington 21
Archaeological Society 23
Scientific Notes and News 24
Vol. II January 19, 192 1 No. 2
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
Robert B. Sosman S. F. BivAke Sidney Paige
GBOPHYSICAI. LABORATORY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY GBOI^OGICAI. SURVBY
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Harlan F. B. SilsbeE
BOTANICAL SOCIBTY PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTY
N. HOI^LISTER G. W. STOSB
BIOLOGICAL SOCIKTV G80L0GICAL SOCIETY
S. A. RoHWER J. R- Swanton
BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCIBTY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
}
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
*
OFiflCE OP PUBLICATION
2 1 1 CHURCH STREET
EASTON, PA.
Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Eastou, Pa., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
iu Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, Authorized on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form;
the editors will exercise due care in'seeing that copy is followed.
Authors* Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rale of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly numbers 25
Monthly numbers 50
Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L- Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: WilHam Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not excbtrnge with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
* Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19. 191 1 . will be tent for S3.00 Special
rates are k>v«o to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Wednesday, January 19. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Chib.
Thursday, January 20. Joint meeting of the Academy and the Chemical
Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program:
Address of the Retiring President of the Academy, C. L. AlsbERG : The relation of
chemical structure to physiological action.
Saturday, January 22. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club.
Wednesday, January 26. The Geological Society.
Saturday, January 29. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club,
at 8.15 p.m. Program;
G. BreiT: The distributed capacity of inductance coils.
J. H. Dellinger and L. E. Whittemore: Radio signal Jading phetiomena.
F. B. Littell: The variaiion of latitude and tlie constant of aberration, from four years'
work with the photographic zenith tube at Washington.
Tuesday, February 1. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00
p.m.
Wednesday, February 2. The Society of Engineers.
Thursday, February 3. The Entomological Society.
PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOUR^AL^
Tuesday, January 4. The Botanical . Society, at the Cosmos Club, a 8.00 p.m. Pro-
gram: F. Lamson-Scribner: The lure of Rock Creek Park. J. M. Smn.L: Skunk
cabbage, Spathyeraa foetida.
Thursday, January 6. The Entomological Society, at the National Museum, at 8.00
p.m. Program: W. R. Walton: Presidential address. R. C. Shannon: Notes on
classification of Syrphidae.
Saturday, January 8. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Pro-
gram: L. O. Howard: Some views of the fight in southern France last summer against
the Moroccan locust. S. F. Blake: Sexual differences in coloration of the spotted turtle.
Tuesday, January 11. The Institute of Electrical Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at
8.00 p.m. Program: Ralph D. Mershon: Sofn^ things engineers should knmv con-
cerning the rudiments of corporate financing.
Wednesday, January 12. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m.
Program: H. G. Ferguson: Lode deposits of Manhattan, Nevada. C. N. Fenner:
Structural and volcanic geology of the Katmai region, Alaska. H. D. Miser: Llanoria,
the Paleozoic land area in Louisiana and eastern Texas.
Thursday, January 1.3. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Pro-
gram: R. C. Tolman: The third law of thermodynamics.
Monday, January 17. The Archaeological Society. Program: J. A. Montcomerv:
Archaeological work in Palestine and the American School in Jerusalem.
' Notices ieceived too late for publication before the date of the meeting.
CONTENTS
PaKe
Original Papers
Mineralogy. — -Bementite and neotocite from western Washington, with conclusions
as to the identity of bementite and caryopilite. J. T. Pardee, E. S. LarsEN, Jr.,
and George Steiger 25
Paleontology. — Shell regeneration in a Pennsylvanian brachiopod. W. Armstrong
Price 32
Proceedings
Philosophical Society 37
Chemical Society 40
Scientific Notes and News 44
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
President: AIvFrbd H. Brooks, Geological Survey.
Corresponding Secretary: Robert S. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory.
Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum.
Treasurer: R. h. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey.
Voi,, II February 4, 192 1 No, 3
JOURNAL
OF THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
Robert B. Sosman S. P. Bm>e3 Sidney Paige
GBOPBYSICAI, ItABORATORV BDRBAD OF PLANT INDDSTRY GSOLOOICAL SDRVBT
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Harlan ' P. B. Silsbee
BOTANICAL SOCIBTY PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTY
N. HOI^LISTER G. W. Stose
BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTV OBOLOOICAL SOCIBTY
S. A, ROHWER J. R. SWANTON
BNTOMOLOOICAL SOCIBTY 'ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTY
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES
OFPICE 09 PUBLICATION
211 CHURCH STREET
EASTON, PA.
Entered a3 Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This JotTRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sdences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings <rf
the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journai, is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the JotmNAL for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original artide will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
Tlu rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly numbers 25
Monthly numbers 50
Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the follov/ing issue.
* Volume I, however, (torn July 19, 1911. to December 19. 1911. will be aent for J^S.OO Special
rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy.
PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL*
Tuesday, January 18. The Anthropological Society, at the National Museum, at 4.45
p.m. Program: Wuxiam E. Mybr; Recent explorations in the Cumberland Valley,
Tennessee.
Wednesday, January 19. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m.
Program: H. M, Allbright: Engineering problems in national parks.
Saturday, January 22. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m. Pro-
•gram: L. H. Miller: Asphalt beds of Rancho LaBea. H. C. Bryant: Birds and
mammals of Yosemite National Park.
Wednesday, January 26. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.00 p.m.
Program: D. F. Hewett and E. V. Shannon: Orientite, a new silicate of manganese
and calcium. Charles Butts: General results of recent work on the Mississippian
of the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys. J. B. ReESide and H. Basslbr: Phases of
the Carboniferous and Triassic of southwestern Utah.
Notices received too late for publication before the date of the meeting.
CONTENTS
Page
Original Papers
Physics. — The compressibility of diamond. L. H. Adams 45
Electrical Engineering. — Oscillograph measurements of the instantaneous values of
cxirrent and voltage in the battery circuit of automobiles. G. W. Vinal and C. I/.
Snyder •"" 51
Abstracts
Botany 54
Entomology 55
Ethnology 55
Evolution 56
Geology 56
Navigation 59
Ornithology 59
Proceedings
Biological Society 64
Scientific Notes and News 67
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
President: Al,frEd H. Brooks, Geological Survey.
Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory.
Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum.
Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey,
Voi,. II
Fbbruary ig, 1921
No. 4
JOURNAL
OP TBS
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
ROBSKT B. SOSMAN
O^PHTSICAI, LABOSATOBT
BOARD OF EDITORS
S. F. BtAKB
BDRBAU OF PLANT IMDUSTRT
SiDNBf PAIOB
OSOLOOICAI, 8UKVST
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Hari^n
BOTAMICAL SOCIBTV
N, HOLUSTBR
BIOLOOICAI, aOCIBTV
S. A. ROHWBR
BNTOMOI.OOICAI. SOCIBTV
P. B. Sn^BBB
PBILOSOPBICAI. SOCIBTV
G. W. Stosb
OBOLOOICAI. SOCIBTV
J. R. SWANTON
ANTBROPOI.OOICAI. SOCIBTV
PUBUSHBD SBMI-MONTHtY
EXCEPT IN JUtY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY TBB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OPPICB OF PUBUCATION
2 1 1 CHURCH STREET
EASTON, PA.
Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Baston, Pa., under tb«
Act ot August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, Authorized on July 3, 1918,
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This JOTJRNAL, the ofiScial organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and aflSliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except dturing the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Joxjrnal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly numbers 25
Monthly numbers 50
Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. 1,. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand. London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
vrithin thirty days after date of the following issue.
•Volume 1, however, from July 19. 1911, to December 19. 1 9 1 1 , will be sent for $3.00 Special
rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OP THE ACADEMY AND.
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Saturday, February 19. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at
8 p.m.
Wednesday, February 23. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club,
at 8 p.m. Program:
F. E. Matthes: Torrent channels and torrent levees in the Yosemite Valley.
Sidney Paige : Structure of the Homestake ore body.
G. R. Manspield: Igneous geology of southeastern Idaho.
Thursday, February 24. The Chemical Society, at the Interior De-
partment, at 8 p.m.
Saturday, February 26. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos
Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program:
C. LeRoy Meisinger: The meteorological factor in aeronautics.
L. H. Adams and E. D. Williamson: The density of "strained" glass.
G. T. Rude : TJie tidal work of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.
Tuesday, March 1. The Botanical Society.
Wednesday, March 2. The Society of Engineers.
Thursday, March 3. The Entomological Society.
PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL*
Tuesday, February 1. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program:
H. L. Shantz: Natural vegetation of Africa. Ivar Tidestrom: Notes on the flora of
the Iberian peninsula.
Wednesday, February 2. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m.
Program : T. T. Craven : Naval aviation; the present sitiiation and prospective future
developments.
Thursday, February 3. The Entomological Society, at the National Museum, at 8 p.m.
Program: R. C. Shannon: Notes on classification of Syrphidae, E. D. Ball: Food
plants and adaptation of tree hoppers. I,. O. Howard : Extract from Fenlon's review of
Fabre's work.
Saturday, February 5. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program:
Ivar Tidestrom: Notes on the flora of the Iberian peninsula. R. S. Bassler: Paleon-
tological work at the National Museum.
Thursday, February 10. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m.
Program: Synposium on fertilizers. W. D. Hurd: The present American fertilizer
industry. F. W. Brown: The potash situation. W. H. WAGGAMAtj: ^Phosphates and
phosphoric acid production. D. P. Gaillard: Nitrogen resources, possibilities and
requirements. O. Schreiner: Fertilizer utilization. R. O. E. Davis: Concentrated
chemical fertilizers.
Thursday, February 17. The Academy, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program :
!,• O. Howard :~ How the Government is fighting insects.
. * Notices received too late for publication before the date of the meeting.
CONTENTS
Page
OriginaIv Papers
General Science. — The distribution of scientific information in the United States.
Robert B. Sosman , . 69
Scientific Notes and News 100
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
«
President: Ai^frjSd H. Brooks, Geological Survey.
Corresponding Secretary: Robbrt B. Sosman, Geophjrsical I^aboratory.
Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum.
Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey.
ADVERTISEMENT
The 1921 edition of the Directory op the Washington Academy of
Sciences and Affiliated Societies, containing information concerning
thirty-five scientific and technical societies in Washington and a list of the
members of the societies affiliated with the Academy, together with the
calendar of meetings for 1921-1922, will be ready about March 1. Price,
thirty-five cents. Orders should be sent to the Corresponding Secretary.
Voi, II March 4, 192 1 No. 5
JOURNAL
OP THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
ROBBRT B. SOSMAN S. F. BLAKQ SiONST PAIOV
OSOPHTSICAI. LABORATORY 8URBAU OP PLANT INDDSTRV 080L00ICAL SURVHV
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. HARfcAN P. B. SiLSBBB
BOTANICAL 30CI8TT PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTV
N. HOLUST*BR G. W. Stosb -
BIOLOGICAL SOCISTy GBOLOOICAL SOCIBTV
S. A. ROHWBR J. R. SWANTON
8NTOMOLOOICAL SOCIBTT ANTHROPOLOOICAL SOCISTT
PUBWSHBD SBMI-MONTlILY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY TH8
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OFFICE OF PUBLICATION
2 1 1 CHURCH STRSET
EASTON, PA.
Entered as Second Class Matter. January 25, 1919, at the poit-ofiBce at Boston, Pa., under tb«
Act of August 24, 1912 Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103. Act of October 3, 1917 Authoriied on July 3, 1915
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature publish^]
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.0G«
Semi-monthly ntmibers 25
Monthly numbers 50
Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. h. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
•Volume I. however, from July 19. 1911, to December 19, 191 1, will be sent for 1^3.00 Special
rates are given to ineiubers of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Saturday, March 5. The Biological vSociety, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m.
Tuesday, March 8. The Institute of Electrical Engineers, at the Cosmos
Club, at 8.15 p.m.
Wednesday, March 9. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at
8 p.m. Program:
David White: Presidential addrtss.
Thursday, March 10. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m.
Saturday, March 12. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at
8.15 p.m.
Tuesday, March 15. The Anthropological Society, at the National Museum,
at 4.45 p.m.
Wednesday, March 16, The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club.
Thursday, March 17. The Academy, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m.
Program :
A. M. Nicolson: The piezo-electric effect in crystals.
Saturday, March 19. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at
8.15 p.m.
PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL'
Tuesday, February 8. The Institute of Electrical Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at
8.15 p.m. Program: Harold Goodwin, Jr.: The Superpower System and its rela-
tions to the Capital.
Tuesday, February 8. The Anthropological Society, at the National Museum, at 4.4.'i
p.m. Program: W. E. Sapford: Old and new Samoa.
Wednesday, February 9. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Pro-
gram: H. S. Washington: TJie Deccan traps and other plateau basalts. R. C. Weu*s:
Utilization of some western^ salines and saline lakes. R. S. Basslrr: Paleontologiral
work at the National Museum.
Tuesday, February 15. The Historical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Pro-
gram: Charles O. Paullin: T lie founding of an astronomical observatory in Washing-
ton.
Wednesday, February 16. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at S.lo p.m.
Program: Charles R. Mann: Vocational education in the Army; its relation to the
new military policy.
Saturday, February 19. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Pro-
gram: C. E. McClung: Chromosomes in relation to heredity. Sewall Wright:
Heredity as a factor in the resistance of guinea pigs to tuberculosis.
Saturday, February 26. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m.
Program: F. Hastings Smyth and Howard S. Roberts: The system cupric oxide,
cuprous oxide, 'oxygen. F. Wenner, J. S. Marti.n, and Nyna L. Porman: The
electrical resistance of the human body.
' Received too late for publication before the date of the meeting.
CONTENTS
Original Papers
Radiotelegraphy. — The wave front angle in radiotelegraphy. L. W. Austin 101
Zoology. — The nomenclature of supergeneric names. S. A. Rohwbr 106
•
Abstracts
Ceramic Chemistry 110
Ceramics 110
Inorganic Chemistry Ill
Ornithology Ill
Physical Chemistry 113
Proceedings
Washington Academy of Sciences 114
Botanical Society 118
-Scientific Notes and News 123
ADVERTISEMENT
The Academy has on hand a miscellaneous stock of separates of papers
from the Proceedings (1898-1911). By authority of the Board of Managers,
these separates are offered for sale for a limited period at the reduced prices
indicated below. (Classified lists will be continued in subsequent numbers
of the JOURNAI,.)
GEOLOGY
Becker, George E. vSimultaneous joints. 9 pp., 1 pi $0 . 10
Becker, George F. A feature of Mayon Volcano. 6 pp., 1 pi 0. 10
Branner, John C. Results of the Branner-Agassiz Expedition to Brazil. IV.
Two characteristic geologic sections on the south coast of Brazil. 18 pp.,
3 pi 0.15
Cross, Whitman. The Laramie Formation and the Shoshone Group. 19 pp. 0.15
DiLLER, J. S. Age of the pre-volcanic auriferous gravels in California. 2 pp. 0.05
Hayeord, John F. The geodetic evidence of isotasy, with a consideration of
the depth and completeness of the isostatic compensation and of the bearing
of the evidence upon some of the greater problems in geology. 16 pp 0. 15
Kindle, Edward M. The callapse of recent beds at Staunton, Virginia.
15 pp., 5 pi 0. 15
Merriw,, George P., and Stokes, H. N. A new stony meteorite from
Allegan, Michigan, and a new iron meteorite from Mart, Texas. 28 pp.,
6 pi 0.25
Stanton, Timothy W. The age and statigraphic relations of the "Ceratops
Beds" of Wyoming and Montana. 55 pp 0.25
Walcott, Charles D. Lower Cambrian terrane in the Atlantic Province.
40 pp., 5 pi • 0.25
The set of 10 geological papers 1 .00
This page may be used as an order blank. Send orders with check or stamps to the
. Corresponding Secretary, Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laborator3% Washington, D. C.
Vol.. II March 19, 192 1 No. 6
JOURNAL
OF TH«
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
Robert B. Sosman S. F. Bmkb Sidney Paiob
OSOPHVSICAI. tABORATORY BDRBAU OF PLANT INDOSTKV OSOLOOICAL BURVBV
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Harlan F. B. SasBEE
BOTANICAL SOCIBTT PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTV
N. HOLLISTER G. W. STOSB
BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTY OBOLOGICAL SOCIBTT
S. A. ROHWER J- R. SWANTON
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCI8TV ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBT* .
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OPFJCE OP PUBLICATION
211 CHURCH STREET
EASTON, PA.
Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
, in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
•n or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
che Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected withr the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
foiurth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly tjrpewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
6gures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his _ request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably b^ attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00»
Semi-monthly numbers 25
Monthly numbers 50
•
Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
•Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19. 1911. will be sent for $3.00. Special
rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Wednesday, March 23. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at
8 p.m. Program:
L. H. Adams : The elastic properties of rocks.
L. La Forge: A suggested modification of the doctrine of peneplanation in the light of
recent knowledge.
Thursday, March 24. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m.
Saturday, March 26. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at
8.15 p.m.
Saturday, April 2. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club.
Wednesday, April 6. The Society of Engineers.
PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL.^
Tuesday, March 1. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program:
Haven Metcalf: The story of a plant introduction.
Tuesday, March 1. The Anthropological Society, at the National Museum, at 4.45 p.m.
Program: J. Walter Fewkes: The Fire Temple of the Cliff Dwellers.
/
Wednesday, March 2. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Pro-
gram : WmiAM MiTCHELi< : The development of an air force as a national asset.
Thursday, March 3. The Entomological Society, at the National Museum, at 8 p.m.
Program: R. E. Snodgrass: Life history of the ribbed cocoon maker and the resplendent
shield-bearer of the apple.
Saturday, March 5. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program :
H. M. Hah,: The synthetic method of botanical taxonomy.
Thursday, March 10. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program:
E. T. Wherry: Chemical crystallography. R. W. G. Wyckoff: X-rays and crystal
structure.
Saturday, March 12. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Pro-
gram: T. S. SUGH, Jr.: Recent modifications in resistance thermometer construction.
R. M. Wn^HELM and Amelia K. Benson: A comparison of the International Hydrogen
Scale with the standard scale of temperature defined by the platinum resistant e thermom-
eter. C. O. Fairchild: New methods of sealing optical glass.
* Received too late for publication before the date of the meeting.
CONTENTS
Page
Original Papers
Botany. — The American species of Maximilianea (Cochlospermum) . S. F. Blake. . 125
Oceanography. — The problem of physical oceanography. A. L. Thuras 132
Abstracts
Botany 136
Hydrology 137
Paleontology 138
Proceedings
Washington Academy of Sciences .' 138
Entomological Society 140
Scientific Notes and News 147
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
President: Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey.
Corresponding Secretary- Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory.
Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum.
Treasurer: W. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey.
ADVERTISEMENT
The Academy has on hand a miscellaneous stock of separates of papers
from the Proceedings (1898-1911). By authority of the Board of Man-
agers, these papers are offered for sale for a limited period at the reduced
prices indicated below. (Publication of these classified lists was begun on
March 4 and will be continued in subsequent numbers of the Journal.)
ASTRONOMY
BiGELOW, Harriet W. Declinations of certain North Polar starf determined
with the meridian circle. 61 pp $0.15
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY
Becker, George E., and Day. Arthur L. The linear force of growing crystals.
6 pp .' * 0 .05
Becker, George F., and Day, Arthur L. An interesting pseudosolid. 11 pp.,
1 pi 0.10
Bell, Alexander Graham. Aerial locomotion, with a few notes of progress in
the construction of an aerodrome. 42 pp., 17 pi 0 .20
Clarke, Frank WigglEsworth. A new law in thermochemistry. 37 pp 0 . 15
Clarke, Frank WigglESWorth. On basic substitutions in the zeolites. 10 pp.. 0.10
McBain, James W. The experimental data of the quantitative measurements of
electrolytic migration. 78 pp 0 .20
ScHALLER, Waldemar T. Some calcite crystals with new forms. 16 pp., 8 figs ... 0.10
Send orders with check or stamps to the Corresponding Secretary, Robert B. Sos-
man, Geophysical Laboratory, Washington, D. C.
Vol.. II April 4, 192 1 No. 7
JOURNAL
OF THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
Robert B. Sosman S. F. Blaeq Sidniby Paigb
OBOFHVSICAL LABORATORY BURBAO OF PLANT INDUSTRY OBOLOOTCAI, 8USVST
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Harlan F. B. Silsbee
BOTANICAL SOCIBTY PHrLOSOPHICAL SOCIBTY
N. HOU.ISTER * G. W. Stosb
BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTY OBOLOGICAL SOCIBTY
S. A. ROHWER J. R. SWANTON
BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCIBTY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTY
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OPFICE OP PUBLICATION
211 CHURCH STREET
EASTON, PA.
Entered as Second Class Matter. January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the
Act of Aujrust 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailim; at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103. Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This JoiniNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journal for the following foiu-th or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly t)rpewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
ProoJ. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers
50 $1.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 $1.50
100 2.22 4.44 6.66 8.88 1.89
150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 2.27
200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66
250 3.03 ' 6.06 9.09 12.12 3.05
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate oj Subscription per volume is $6.00«
Semi-monthly numbers 25
Monthly numbers 50
Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
•Volume I, however, from July 19, 191 1, to December 19, 191 1 , will be sent for J3.00. Special
rates are given to members of scieatiGc societies affiliated with the Academy.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Tuesday, April 5. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m.
Wednesday, April G. The Society of Engineers.
Thursday, April 7. The Entomological Society, at the National Museum,
at 8 p.m.
Saturday, April 9. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15
p.m. Program:
L. H. Adams: The heating of substances by expansion.
W. P. White: Specific and latent heats of nickel and monel metal.
C. H. Meyers and E. F. Mtjei^LER: Mollier diagrams.
Tuesday, April 12. The Institute of Electrical Engineers.
Wednesday, April 13. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, 8 p.m.
Program :
G. O. Smith: Scientific by-products of applied geology.
David White: The structure of oil shales (Presidential address).
Thursday, April 14. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club,
Saturday, April 16. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club.
PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNALi
Tuesday, March 8. The Institute of Electrical Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15
p.m. Program: P. A. Meyer: Industrial electric heating.
Wednesday, March 9. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program:
G. R. Mansfield: Igneous geology of southeastern Idaho. A. I. Jonas and E. Buss
Knopf: Stratigraphy of the nietamorphic rocMs of southeastern Pennsylvania and
Maryland. O. E. Meinzer: A map of Pleistocene lakes in the Basin-and- Range
Province and its interpretation.
Wednesday, March 16. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m.
Program: John S. Conway: Radio fog signals,
Saturday, March 19. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program:
F. H. Knowlton: Flora of some newly discovered lake beds of southern Colorado.
H. C. Oberholser: The breeding waterfowl of the Great Plains region.
Tuesday, March 22. The Anthropological Society, at the National Museum, at 4.45
p.m. Program: G.N.Collins: Origin and early distribution of maize.
Thursday, March 24. The Society of Foresters, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program :
R. S. Kellogg : The pulp-wood supply and the paper industry.
Friday, March 25. The Chemical Society, at the Interior Department, at 8 p.m. Pro-
gram: C. R. De Long: Chemical industry from the tariff standpoint. F. L. Hess:
The tariff on certain minerals used in chemical industries.
vSaturday, Mach 26. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Pro-
gram: O. S. Adams: Authalic latitude, a cartographic expedient. E. A. Eckhardt
and J. C. Karcher: A chronographic recorder of radio time signals.
' Received too late for publication before the date of the meeting.
CONTENTS
Page
Original Papers
Physics. — On the theory of irreversible time effects. Mayo D. Hersey 149
Botany. — Notes on the genus Swartzia in Panama and Guatemala. Henry PittiER 155
Oceanography. — Practical application of the electrical conductivity method of mea-
suring sea water salinity. A. L. Thtjras IGO
Proceedings
Philosophical Society. . ' 162
Scientific Notes and News 170
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
President: Ali^REd H. Brooks, Geological Survey.
Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. vSosman, Geophysical Laboratory.
Recording Secretary: WiIvLIAM R. Maxon, National Museum.
Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survev.
MEETINGS OF NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN WASHINGTON
April 18-20. The American Geoph^'-sical Union.
April 20-21. The American Meteorological Society.
April 22-23. The American Physical Society.
April 25-27. The National Academy of Sciences.
May 2-4, The American Society of Mammalogists.
Voi«. II April 19, 192 1 No, 8
JOURNAL
OF run
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
Robert B. Sosman S. F. Blakb Sidnby Paigb
OSOPB¥SICAI. LABORATOBT BDRSAU OF PLANT INDOSTRT OBOLOOICAI, SDKVBV
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Harlan F. B. Silsbbb
BOTANICAL SOCIBTT PHILOSOPHICAI, SOCISTS
N. HOLUSTSR G. W. Stosb
BIOLOOICAL. SOCIBTY GBOLOOICAI, SOCIBTT
S. A. ROHWER J- R- SWANTON
BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCIBTT ANTHROPOLOOICAI, SOCIBTT
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BV THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OFFICE OF PUBLICATION
211 CHURCH STREET
EASTON, PA.
Entered as Second Class Matter. January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103. Act of October 3. 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journal, the ofiBcial organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and afiSliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching tne editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious mitior errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers
50 $1.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 $1.50
100 2.22 4.44 6.66 8.88 1.89
150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 2.27
200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66
250 3.03 6.06 9.09 12.12 3.05
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly numbers 25
Monthly numbers 60
Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
♦Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911. will be sent for f3.00. Special
rates are given to members of scientilic societies afifltiated with the Academy.
ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Wednesday, April 20. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at
8.15 p.m.
Thursday, April 21. The Academy, at the Cosnios Club, at 8.15 p.m.
Saturday, April 23. (The regular meeting of the Philosophical Society is
postponed on account of the meeting of the American Physical Society
on the same date.)
Wednesday, April 27. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8
p.m. Program:
M. AuROUSSEAu: A short account of the structural geology of Australia.
R. A. Daly: The nature of the forces involved in mountain building.
Thursday, April 28. The Chemical Society.
Saturday, April 30. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m.
Tuesday, May 3. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m.
MEETINGS OF NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN WASHINGTON
April 18-20. The American Geophysical LTnion.
April 20-21. The American Meteorological Society.
April 22-23. The American Physical Society.
April 25-27. The National Academy of Sciences.
May 2—1. The American Society of Mc mmalogists.
PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL'
Saturday, April 2. Joint meeting of the Academy and the Biological Societj', at the
Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: A. D. Hopkins: Intercontinental problems
in natural and artificial distribution of plants and animals.
Tuesday, April 5. Joint meeting of the Anthropological Society and the Medical Society,
at the Medical Society Buildmg, at 8 p.m. Program: George M. Kober: A plea
for the prevention of permanent disabilities in childhood.
Tuesday, April 5. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program:
W. H. Weston: Follor<nng a ftmgns through the Philippines. J. F. ClevEnger:
On Zamia integrifoHa Chapm., and its starch, Florida arroiv-root. Arno ViehoevER:
Edible and poisonous beans of the Lima type, Phaseolus lunatus.
Wednesday, April 6. Joint meeting of the Washington Society of Engineers and the
Washington Section of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engi-
neers. Program: Geo. S. RicE: Destruction of French mines and methods used in
tlieir rehabilitation.
Thursday, April 7. The Entomological Society, at the National Museum. Program:
August Busck and Carl Heinrich: On the male genitalia of tlie Microlepidoptera
and their •systematic importance. S. A. Rohwer: Injurious and beneficial cynipid
galls.
.' Received too late for publication before the date of the meeting.
CONTENTS
Page
Original Papers
Botany — Synopsis of the genus Datura. William E. Safford 173
Abstracts
Astronomy 189
Entomology 190
Geology 192
Paleontology 194
Proceedings
Entomological Society 194
Scientific Notes and News 196
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
President: Ai^frkd H. Brooks, Geological Survey.
Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory.
Recording Secretary: WiiyiviAM R. Maxon, National Museum.
Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey.
Vol,. II May 4. 192 1 No. 9
JOURNAL
OF THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
Robert B. Sosican S. F. Blakb Sidney Paios
OSOPBVSICAI. LABOKATOKV BOR8AU 09 PLAKT IMDDSIKV OSOLOOIC&I. BDKVBV
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Harlan F. B. Silsbbs
BOTANICAI. SOCISTV PBILOSOPHICAI. BOCtBTV
N. HOLU8TBR G. W. Stosb
BIOLOGICAL SOCISTY OBOLOOICAI. SOCtSTT
S. A. ROHWER J. R. SWANTON
SNTOMOLOOICAL SOCISTY ANTHROPOLOOICAt SOCISTT
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EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY THB
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OPPICS OP PUBLICATION
211 CHtntCH STREET
EASTON, PA.
Entered as Second Class Matter. January 25, 1919, at the post-ofiSce at Easton, Pa., under tht
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
iu Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly tjrpewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers
50 $1.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 $1.50
100 2.22 4.44 6.66 8.88 1.89
150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 2.27
200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66
250 3.03 6.06 9.09 12.12 3.05
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
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The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00«
Semi-monthly numbers 25
Monthly numbers 60
Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
•Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19. 1911. will be sent for $3.00. Special
rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy.
ANNOUNCKMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFIUATED SOCIETIES
Thursday, May 5. The Entomological Society, at the National Museum, at
8 p.m.
Saturday, May 7. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15
p.m. Program :
I. C. Gardner: Self-contained range finders and their errors.
I. G. Priest: Spectral distribution required to evoke the gray sensation.
Tuesday, May 10. The Institute of Electrical Engineers, at the Cosmos
Club.
Wednesday, May 11. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8
p.m. Program:
B. I/. Johnson: The glacial launching of the Ft. Liscuni landslide, Alaska.
W; F. Foshag; Origin of the colemanite deposits of California.
E. T. Wherry: Relations of vegetation to geological formation.
Thursday, May 12. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m.
Saturday, May 14. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club.
Thursday, May 19. The Academy, at the Cosmos Club.
OTHER ANNOUNCEMENTS
Saturday, May 7. The Maryland- Virginia-District of Columbia Section of
the Mathematical Association of America, at the drafting hall of the Capi-
tol, S. Capitol and B Streets SE., at 11 a.m. and 2 p.m.
FROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL^
Tuesday, April 12^ The Institute of Electrical Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15
p.m. Program: J. Lester Woodbridge: Storage batteries; their characteristics and
applications.
Thursday, April 14. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program:
Edgar F. Smith : A glance at the early organic chemistry of the United States.
Saturday, April 16. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program:
E. W. Nelson: Alaska and the reindeer industry. F. C. Lincoln: The Fall mi-
gration of ducks from Lake Scugog, Ontario.
Tuesday, April 19. The Anthropological Society, at the National Museum, at 4.45 p.m.
Program: C. Hart Merriam: The Indians of the Yosemite region, California.
Annual meeting and election of officers.
Wednesday, April 20. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Pro-
gram: L. W. Wallace: The Federated American Engineering Societies. John L.
Harper: Niagara Falls and its utilization.
Thursday, April 21. The Academy, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15 p.m. Program: C. G.
Abbot: llie solar constant observing stations of the Smithsonian Institution.
» Received too late for publication before the date of the meeting.
CONTENTS
Page
Original Papers
Physical Chemistry. — ^Methods of stating acidity. Edgar T. Wherry and Elliot Q.
Adams 197
Physical Chemistry. — ^Reply to Wherry and Adam's article on methods of stating
acidity. Wm. Mansfield Clark , 199
Geology. — Scientific by-products of applied geology. George Otis Smith 203
Zoology. — The steps in the evolution of animals. Austin H. Clark • 207
Abstracts
Physics. 209
Spectroscopy 210
Proceedings
■r
Philosophical Society ^ 211
Biological Society 213
Entomological Society ^ 215
Scientific Notes and News 220
ADVERTISEMENT
ThcflAcADEMY has on hand a miscellaneous stock of separates of papers
from the Proceedings (1898-1911). By authority of the Board of Man-
agers, these papers are offered for sale for a limited period at the reduced
prices indicated below. - (Publication of these classified lists was begun on
March 4 and will be continued in subsequent numbers of the Journai,.)
ICHTHYOLOGY
Allen, William F. Distribution of the lymphatics in the head, and in the dorsal,
pectoral, and ventral fins of Scorpaenichthys marmoratus. 50 pp., 3 pi $0.20
Allen, William F. The blood-vascular system of the Loricati, the Mail-cheeked
Fishes. 131 pp., 6 pi 0.25
Allen, William F. Distribution of the subcutaneous vessels'in the head region of
the Ganoids, Polyodon and Lepisosteus. 80 pp., 15 pi 0.25
Eigenmann, Carl H. On a collection of fishes from Buenos Aires. 10 pp., 3 pi. . 0. 10
EiGENMANN, Carl H., and Ward, David Perkins. The Gymnotidae. 28 pp., 5 pi. 0. 15
Gilbert, Charles H. Results of the Branner-Agassiz Expedition to Brazil. No.
3. The fishes. 24 pp., 1 pi 0.10
Heller, Edmund, and Snodgrass, Robert Evans. Papers from the Hopkins-
Stanford Galapagos Expedition, 1898-1899. No. 15, New fishes. 41 pp., 19 pi. 0 . 20
Snodgrass, Robert Evans, and Heller, Edmund. Shore-fishes of the Revil-
lagigedo, Clipperton, Cocos and Galapagos Islands. 95 pp 0. 15
The set of 8 ichthyological papers 1 . 00
This page may be used as an order blank. Send orders with check or stamps to the
Corresponding Secretary, Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory, Washington, D. C.
Vol. II May 19, 1921 No. 10
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
'^ BOARD OF EDIT'ORS
Robert B. Sosman S. F. Blake Sidney Paiob
OROPBYSICAI. lABORATORT BORBAD OF PLAMT INDUSTKT OSOI.OOICAL SDRVST
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H V Harlan F. B. Silsbbs
BOTANICAl, SOCISTT PHILOSOPHICAL SOCISTT
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PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
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2X1 CHURCH STREET
EASTON, PA.
Entered as Second Class Matter January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103. Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and affiliated Societies; <4) notes of events connected with the
scientific hfe of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month wQl ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Joxjrnal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As. an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly nmnbers 25
Monthly numbers 50
Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue*
•Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19. 1911. will be •ent for J3.00. Special
rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Saturday, May 21. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8.15
p.m. Program:
H. A. Marmer: Relation of coastal currents and winds on the Pacific Coast.
S. J. Mauchly: New results concerning the diurnal variation of atmospheric electricity
L. A. Bauer: New relations between terrestrial magnetism, terrestrial electricity, and
solar activity.
Thursday, June 2. The Entomological Society, at the National Museum,
at 8 p.m. Program :
Notes and exhibition of specimens.
PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OE THE JOURNAL'
Saturday, April 30. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program: J.
N. Rose: Discovery of a remarkable cactus from Hayti. Joseph Grinnei^l : The principle
of rapid peering, in birds. T. S. Palmer : Notes on some parrots imported into the United
States. E. A. Goldman: Rats in the War Zone.
Tuesday, May 3. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program:
Arno Viehoever: Edible and poisonous beans of the lima type. C. D wight Marsh:
Poisonous whorled milkweeds. Peter BissET: Roses for garden decoration.
Thursday, May 5. The Entomological Society, at the National Museum, at 8 p.m. Pro-
gram: A. B. Gahan: Phytophagous Chalcididae. Notes and exhibition of specimens.
Tuesday, May 10. The Institute of Electrical Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8:15 p.m.
Program: Moving pictures illustrating the production and use of X-rays. Moving
pictures of the lumber industry. Annual elections.
. Thursday, May 12. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program:
Symposium on optical methods as applied to chemical investigations. W. E. MEGGERS:
Quantitative spectrum analysis. W. E. Mathewson: Estimation of colorless substances
by spectro-photometric methods. I. G. Tumsr: A' direct-reading spectro-photometer for
measuring the transmissivity of liquids. Frederick Bates: Polarimetry. F. E- Wright:
Crystal optics in chemistry.
Saturday, May 14. The Biological vSociety, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program: F.
G. Ashbrook: Recent notes on the fur trade in the United States. S. A. Rohwer:/m-
jurious and beneficial insect galls.
Tuesday, May 17. The Geological Society, at the Interior Department, at 8 p.m. Pro-
gram : Emh, S. Fischer : Economic investigations in China.
'Received too late for publication before the date of the meeting.
CONTENTS
ORIGINAL PAPERS Page
Chemistry. — Note on the ice crystals which form on bare soils and on the stems of
plants. Victor Birckner 221
Eioclimatics. — Intercontinental problems in bioclimatics; with special reference to
natural and artificial distribution of plants and animals. Andrew D. Hopkins 223
Bioclimatics. — Bioclimatic zones of the continents; with proposed designations and
classification, Andrew D. Hopkins 227
Botany. — Two new species of Bursera. Henry Pittier 229
Zoology. — The selection of family names in zoology, W. L. McAteE 230
Abstracts
Geology and Hydrology 235
Entomology 237
Proceedings
Philosophical Society 238
Biological Society 241
Botanical Society 242
Scientific Notes and News t 244
ADVERTISEMENT
The Academy has on hand a miscellaneous stock of separates of papers
from the Proceedings (1898-1911). By authority of the Board of Managers,
these papers are offered for sale for a limited period at the reduced prices
indicated below. (Publication of these classified lists was begun on March
4 and will be continued in subsequent numbers of the Journai,.)
PALEONTOLOGY
GiDLEY, James William. Evidence bearing on tooth-cusp development. 20 pp.,
2 pi $0.15
Girty, George H. The relations of some Carboniferous faunas. 26 pp 0 . 10
Hay, Oliver P. On the manner of locomotion of the dinosaurs, especially Diplo-
docM5, with remarks on the origin of the birds. 25 pp., 1 pi 0.15
. Knowlton, F. H. The stratigraphic relations and paleontology of the "Hell
Creek Beds," "Ceratops Beds" and equivalents, and their reference to the Fort
Union Formation. 60 pp 0.15
Knowlton, F. H. Remarks on the fossil turtles accredited to the Judith River
Formation. 15 pp 0.10
Stearns, Robert E. C. Fossil land shells of the John Day Region with notes on
related living species. 10 pp., 1 pi - 0 . 10
Walcott,. Charles D. The Cambrian fauna of India. 6 pp 0.10
Wanner, Atreus. A new species of Olenellus from the Lower Cambrian of York
County, Pennsylvania. 6 pp., 2 pi 0 . 10
Ward, Lester F. Description of a new genus and twenty new species of fossil
cycadean trunks from the Jurassic of Wyoming. 48 pp., 8 pi 0 . 20
The set of 9 paleontological papers 1 . 00
This page may be used as an order blank. Send orders with check or stamps to the
Corresponding Secretary, Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory, Washington, D. C.
/
Vol. II June 4, 1921 No. 11
JOURNAL
OF THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
Robert B. Sosman S. F. Bi^kb Sidney Paiob
OBOPBVSICAI. LABOEATORT BIJK8AD OF PLANT INDCSTKT OBOLOOICAI. SORVBY
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Harlan F. B. Siwbbb
BOTANICAL SOCIBTT PHILOSOPEQCAL 80CIBTT
N. HoivWSTBR G. W. STOSB
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S. A. ROHWBR J- R. SWANTON
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PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY TBS
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OFFICE OF PUBLICATION
211 CHURCH STREET
EASTON, PA-
Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journal, the official organ of the ' Washington Academy of Sciences;
aims to present a brief record of current Scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be .sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illusirations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprinls. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices;
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly nimibers 25
Monthly numbers , 50
Remittances should be ma.de payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
•Volume I, however, from July 19,»1911, to December 19. 1911, will be sent for J3.00. Special
rates are given to members of scientific societies aSliated with the Academy.
CONTENTS
Original Papers Page
Radiotelegraphy. — Radio signal fading phenomena. J. H. Delunger and L. E.
Whittemore 245
Abstracts
•
Geology and Hydrology 259
Botany "260
Entomology 261
Analytical Chemistry 261
Proceedings
Biological Society 262
Scientific Notes and News 264
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
President: Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey.
Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory.
Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum.
Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey.
NOTE
The May and June numbers of the Journal have been delayed on account of strikes in
the printing trades.
Vol. II June 19, 1921 No. 12
JOURNAL
OF THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
Robert B. Sosman S. F. Blakb Sidney Paios
O8OPUYSICAI. (.ABOKATOKT BDKSAU OP PLANT IMDDSTRT OBOLOOICAL BCRVSV
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Harlan F. B. SilsbeS
BOTANICAI, SOCISTV PBII,OSOPBICAL 80CIBTV
N. HOLUSTBR G. W. Stosb
BIOLOGICAI. SOCISTV OBOI,OOICAL SOCIETY
S. A. ROHWER J. R. SWANTON
BNTOMOI.OOICAI. SOCIBTT AMTHSOPOLOOICAL SOCIETY
PUBUSHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OPPICE OP PUBLICATION
211 CHURCH STREET
EASTON, PA.
Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-ofiBce at Eeiston, Pa., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1912'. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
.1
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This JouRNAi,, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of -
the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth 1
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the '^
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an |
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty- 4
fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the ' i,
issue of the JouRNAt for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. J
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
A uthors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. Covers
50 fl.95 $3.90 $5.85 $7.80 $1.50
100 2.22 4.44 6.66 8.88 1.89
150 2.49 4.98 7.47 9.96 2.27
200 2.76 5.52 8.28 11.04 2.66
250 3,03 6.06 9.09 12.12 3.05
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly numbers 25
Monthly numbers 50
Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue. *
•Volume I, however, from July 19,«1911,to DecemberlQ. 1911. will be sent for $3.00. Special
rates are K>ven to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy.
N.
CONTENTS
y
Original Papers
Page
Mathematics and Bacteriology. — On the dilution method of counting bacteria. P. V.
Wells and W. F. Wells 265
Physics. — Soft characteristic X-rays from arcs in gases and vapors. F. L. MohlER and
Paul D. Foote 273
Terrestrial Magnetism. — The bearing of the Earth's size upon changes in its magneti-
zation. W. F. G. SwANN 275
Petrology. — Preliminary note on monticellite alnoite from Isle Cadieux, Quebec.
N. L. BowEN 278
Abstracts .;
Physics ' 281 ;
Geology 282
Zoology 283
Proceedings
Philosophical Society 283
ScxENTiFxc Notes and News 287 ;
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
President: Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey.
Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory.
Recording Secretary: Wii^uam R. Maxon, National Museum.
Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey.
NOTE
The May, June and July numbers of the Journal have been delayed on account of
strikes in the printing trades.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE
OF THE JOURNAL^
Monday, June 27. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program: J.
F. Rock: A trip through North Siam, Burma, and Assam for the Office of Foreign
Seed and Plant Introduction.
Received too late for publication before the date of the meeting.
1
Vol. II
July 19, 1921
No. 13
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
Robert B. Sosman
OBOPBVSICAL LABORATOKT
BOARD OF EDITORS
S. F. Bl^KB
BORBAD OP PLANT INDUSTRY
SiDNBT PAIGB
obolootcai. sdrvbv
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Harlan
botanical socibtv
N. HOLLISTBR
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY
S. A. ROHWBR
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCISTV
F. B. SiLSBBB
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTV
G. W. Stose
OBOLOOICAL SOCIETY
J. R. SWANTON
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTV
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBBR, WHEN MONTHLY
BY THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OPFICB OP PUBLICATION
211 CHURCH STREET
E ASTON, PA.
Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postaEe provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authoriied on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journal, the ofiScial organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly tjrpewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rale of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly numbers 25
Monthly numbers f . .60
7?emi7/ances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L- Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
•Volume I, however, from July 19, 191 1. to December 19, 191 1 , will be sent for $3.00. Special
rates are Kiven to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Acudemj'.
CONTENTS
Original Papers
Page
Chemistry. — The evolution of matter. Frank WigglesworTh Clarke 289
Minerology. — On galenobismutite from a gold-quartz vein in Boise County, Idaho.
Earl V. Shannon 298
Botany. — A remarkable new species of Ichthyoihere. S. F. Blake 301
Radiotelegraphy. — A chronographic recorder of radio time signals. E. A. Eckhardt
and J. C. KarchER 303
Abstracts
Optics 311
Geodesy 312
Zoology 312
Metallurgy 312
Chemical Technology 313
Radiotelegraphy 313
Proceedings
Philosophical Society 313
Biological Society 315
Scientific Notes and New^. 317
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
President: Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey.
Corresponding Secretary: Robi^rT B. Sosman, Geophysical lyaboratory.
Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum.
Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey.
NOTE
The July and August numbers of the Journal have been delayed on account of strikes
in the printing trades.
Vol. II August 19, 1921 No. 14
JOURNAL
OF T£tB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
BOARD OF EDITORS
Robert B. Sosman S. F. Blakb Sidney Paigb
OSOPBYSICAI. LABORATOBT BDRBA0 OF PLANT INDUSTBT OBOLOOICAI. aUBVSV
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Haioan p. B. SilsbbB
BOTANICAI, SOCIBTT PHttOSOPHICAL fiOCIBTV
N. HOI.USTER G. W. STOSE
BIOLOGICAL 90CIBTY OBOLOOICAL SOCIETY
S. A. ROHWBR J- R. SWANTON
BNTOMOLOOICAL SOCIBTT AKTHROPOLOOICAL 80CIBTY
PUBUSHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY. AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BT THB
' WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OFFICE OP PUBLICATION
211 CHURCH STREET
EASTON, PA.
Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authoriied on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington ; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except <iuring the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fomlh of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustratiotis will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form ;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis l^n copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rale of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly numbers 25
Monthly numbers 50
Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L- Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
•Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to Decemberl9, 191 1. will be sent for $3.00. Special
rates are Kiven to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy.
ADVERTISEMENT
The Academy has on hand a miscellaneous stock of separates of papers
from the Proceedings (1898-1911). By authority of the Board of Man-
agers, these papers are offered for sale for a limited period at the reduced
prices indicated below. (Publication of these classified lists was begun on
March 4 and will be continued in subsequent numbers of the Journal.)
ENTOMOLOGY
Entomological Results from the Harriman Alaska Expedition
(1) VII-* KiNCAiD, Trevor. The Tenthredinoidea. 26 pp $0.05
(2) VIII. KiNCAiD, Trevor. The metamorphoses of some Alaska Coleoptera.
22 pp., 5 pis 0.10
(3) IX. CoQUiLLETT, D.W. Diptera. 76 pp 0.10
(4) X. Banks, Nathan. Neuropteroid insects. 12 pp., 2 pis 0 .05
(5) XI. Banks, Nathan. Arachnida. 10 pp., 1 pi 0 .05
(6) XII. Dyar, Harrison G. Lepidoptera. 16 pp 0 . 05
(7) XIII. Heidemann, O. Heteroptera. 4pp 0.05
(8) XIV. Kincaid, Trevor. The Sphegoidea and Vespoidea. 4 pp 0.05
(9) XV. Caudell, A. N. Orthoptera. 2 pp 0 .05
(10) XVI. Pergande, Theo. Aphididae. 6 pp 0 . 05
(11) XVII. Pergande, Theo. Formicidae. 4 pp 0.05
(12) XVIII. ScHWARZ, E. A. Coleoptera. 16 pp 0 . 05
(13) XIX. ScHWARZ, E. A. Psyllidae. 2 pp 0.05
(14) XXII. CtFRRiE, RoLLA P. Odonata. 7 pp 0.05
(15) XXVII. FoLSOM, Justus Watson. Apterygota. 30 pp., 5 pis 0.10
(16) XXVIII. AsHMEAD, WiLLLAjsi Harris. Hymenoptera. 158 pp., 3 pis 0.25
Entomological Results i?rom the Hopkins-Stanford Galapagos Expedition
(1) I.** Heidemann, O. Hemiptera. 8 pp 0 . 05
(2) II. CoQUiLLETT, D. W. Diptera. 10 pp 0 . 05
(3) III. CuRRiE, ROLLA P. Odonata. 10 pp 0 . 05
(4) IV. McNeill, Jerome. Orthoptera. 20 pp 0 . 05
(5) V. Banks, Nathan. Thysanura and Termitidae. 6 pp 0 .05
(6) VII. Banks, Nathan. Arachnida. 38 pp., 3 pis 0. 10
(7) IX. Snodgrass, R. E. Schistocera, Sphingonotus, and Halmenus. 46 pp.,
2 pis 0. 15
(8) X. Kellogg, Vernon L., and Kuwana, S. I. Mallophaga from birds. 43
pp., 4 pis 0.15
Other Entomological Papers
Casey, Thojl\s L. A revision of the American components of the Tenebrionid
subfamily Tentyriinae. 248' pp 0 . 25
Casey, Thomas L. A revision of the Tenebrionid subfamily Coniontinae. 1 16 pp . 0 . 20
Casey, Thomas L. Studies in the American Buprestidae. 132 pp 0 . 20
Howard, L. O. A contribution to the study of the insect fauna of human excre-
ment, with special reference to the spread of typhoid fever by flies. 64 pp.,
2 pis •' 0.15
Kellogg, Vernon L., and Bell, Ruby G. Studies of variation in insects. 130 pp. 0 . 25
Shafer, George Daniel. Histology and development of the divided eyes of cer-
tain insects. 28 pp., 5 pis 0.10
The set of 16 Harriman papers, $1.00; the set of 8 Hopkins-Stanford papers, $0.50; the
set of 6 miscellaneous papers, $1.00. The entire set of 30 entomological papers, $2.50.
This page may be used as an order blank. Send orders with check or stamps to the
Corresponding Secretary, Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratoiy, Washington, D. C.
* Number of the paper in the flarriman Alaska series.
**Number of paper in the Hopkins-Stanford series.
CONTENTS
Original Papers
Page
Physiological Chemistry. — Chemical structure and physiological action. C. L.
Alsberg 321
Petrology. — Petrography of a lamprophyre dike cutting a pyrite body in Boyd Smith
Mine, Louisa County, Virginia. Thomas L. WaTson 341
Abstracts
Optics 345
Petrology 346
Zoology 346
Entomology 346
Proceedings
Philosophical Society 347
Scientific Notes and News 361
Vol. II
September 19, 1921
No. 15
JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
Robert B. Sosman
OBOPUYSICAL LABORATOKT
BOARD OF EDITORS
S. F. Blake
BDKBAU OP PLANT INDUSTBV
SiDNBY PAIGB
OBOLOOICAL BDKVBV
ASvSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Harlan
BOTANICAL SOCIBT?
N. HOLUSTER
BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTV
S. A. ROHWER
BNTOMOLOGICAL 30CIST*
F. B. SiLSBBB
PBILOSOPaiCAL SOCIKTY
G. W. Stose
OBOLOOICAL SOCIBTY
J. R. Swanton
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTV
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BV TBB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OPFICB OF PUBLICATION
211 CHURCH STREET
EASTON, PA.
Entered as Second Class Matter. January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journal, the oflScial organ of the Washingtwi Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of cxurent scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and afiiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Jottrnal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly ts^jewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot imdertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly nimibers 25
Monthly numbers 50
Remittances should be tnaide. payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Straud, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
•Volume I, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19. 1911. will be sent for $3.00. Special
rates are given to members of scientific societies afiBliated with the Academy.
ADVERTISEMENT
The Academy has on hand a miscellaneous stock of separates of papers
from'the Proceedings (1S98-1911). By authority of the Board of Managers,
these papers are offered for sale for a limited period at the reduced prices
indicated below. (Publication of these classified lists was begun on March 4
and will be continued in subsequent numbers of the JournaIv.)
MAMMALOGY
KvERMANN, Barton Warren, and Clark, Howard Walton. Notes on the mam-
mals of tlie Lake Maxinkuckee Region. 34 pp $0.10
Merriam, C. H.'VRT. Papers from the Harriman Alaska Expedition. I. De-
scriptions of twenty-six new mammals from Alaska and British North America,
18 pp 0.05
Merriam, C. Hart. Preliminary revision of the North American Red Foxes.
16 pp., 2 pis 0.05
Merriam, C. Hart. Synopsis of the Rice Rats (genus Oryzomys) of the United
States and Mexico. 2-t pp 0 . 10
Merriam, C. Hart. Descriptions of 23 new Harvest Mice (genus Reithrodon-
tomys). 12 pp 0.05
Merriam, C. Hart. Seven new mammals from Mexico, including a new genus of
Rodents. 6 pp ' 0 .05
« Merriam, C. Hart. Preliminary revision of the Pumas (Felis concolor group).
24 pp 0.10
Miller, Gerrit S., Jr. The Bats of the genus Monophyllus. 8 pp 0 .05
Miller, Gerrit S., Jr. A New Shrew from Eastern Turkestan. 2 pp 0.05
Miller, Gerrit S., Jr. The giant vSquirrels of Burmah and the Malay Peninsula.
10 pp 0 .05
Miller, Gerrit S., Jr. Descriptions of two new Squirrels from Trong, Lower
Siam. 4 pp 0 .05
Miller, Gerrit S., Jr. Preliminary revision of the European Redbacked Mice.
28 pp 0.05
Miller, Gerrit S., Jr. Mammals collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott on islands in the
North China Sea. 44 pp 0.10
ISIiLLER, Gerrit S., Jr. A collection of small mammals from Mount Coffee,
Liberia. 20 pp 0 .05
Miller, Gerrit S., Jr. Mammals collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott on the Natuna
I.slands. 28 pp 0 .05
Nelson, E. W. Revision of the Squirrels of Mexico and Central America. 96 pp.,
2 pis 0.20
Warren, Edward R. Some interesting beaver dams in Colorado. 9 pp., 10 pis. . . 0.10
The set of 17 papers in Mammalogy 1 00
•
ORNITHOLOGY
RiDGWAY, Robert. New birds of the families Tanagridae and Icteridas. 8 pp $0 .05
Snodgrass, Robert Evans and Heller, Edmund. Papers from the Hopkins-
Stanford Galapagos Expedition, 1898-1899. XI. The Birds of Clipperton and
Cocos Islands. 20 pp 0.10
Snodgrass, Robert Evans and Heller, Edmund. Papers from the Hopkins-
Stanford Galapagos Expedition, 1898-1899. XVI. Birds. 42 pp 0 . 10
This page may be used as an order blank. Send orders with check or stamps to the
Corresponding; Secretary, Rorrkt B, Sosvax, Geophysical Laljoratory, Washington, D. C.
CONTENTvS
Originai, Papers Page
General Science. — A list of one hundred popular books in science. Compiled by a
Committee of the Academy 353
Physics. — The wave lengths of X-rays. Ralph W. G. Wyckoff 366
Abstracts
Optics 374
Geodesy 374
Inorganic Chemistry 374
Geology •. 375
Ceramics 377
Proceedings
Anthropological Society 377
Scientific Notes and News 370
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OE THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Tuesday, October 4. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club at 8 p. m.
Program :
W. A. Orton : The Dahlia: group classification, climatic requirements, and aims of breeders.
J. B. S. Norton: The Dahlia: varieties and history.
W. E. Safford: The Dahlia: botany and chemistry.
Thursday, October fi. The Entomological Society.
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
President: Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey.
Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory.
Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum.
Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey.
Vol. II
October 4, 1921
No. 16
JOURNAL
OP THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
Robert B. Sosman
DBOPBVSICAX, LABORATORY
BOARD OF EDITORS
S. F. Blakb
BDRBAD OP PLANT IMDDSTRT
SiDNST PaIOB
080LOOTCAL SUKVBV
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Harlan
BOTANICAL SOCISTT
N. HOLLISTSR
BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTV
S. A. ROHWER
BNTOMOLOOICAL SOCISTT
P. B. SiLSBSS
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTV
G. W- Stose
OBOLOOICAL SOCIBTV
J. R. S WANTON
ANTBROPOLOOtCAL SOCIBTV
PUBLISHED semi-monthly
except in JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
office op PUBLICATION
211 church street
easton, pa.
Entered as Second Class Matter, Tanuary 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
'\a Section 1103. Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of ciurent scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly numbers 25
Monthly numbers 50
Jf?cmj7toKccs should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
'Volume I. however, from July 19, 1911, to Decemberl9. 1911. will be sent for 13.00. Special
rates are given to members of scientidc societies afiSliated with the Academy
ADVERTISEMENT
The Academy has on hand a miscellaneous stock of separates of papers
from the Proceedings (1898-1911). By authority of the Board of Man-
agers, these papers are offered for sale for a limited period at the reduced
prices indicated below. (Publication of these classified lists was begun on
March 4 and will be continued in subsequent numbers of tJ^f Journal.)
ZOOLOGY
(vSce aI?o lists in other numbers of the Journai,, covering general biology, ontomf)l(),L,'y,
ichthyology, ornithology, and mammalogy.)
Andrews, E. A. The sperm-receptacle in the Crayfishes, Cambarus cubensis and
C. paradoxus. 19 pp • $0 .05
BoLKAY, Stefan. On the systematic value of Rana chinensis Osbeck. 17 pp.,
1 pl 0 .05
Dall, William Healey. Linnaeus as a zoologist. 3 pp 0 .05
EiGENMANN, Carl H. The eyes of Rhineura iloridana. 16 pp., 3 pis 0.05
Fisher, Walter K. New Starfishes from the Pacific coast of North America.
29 pp 0.10
Ortmann, a. E. Mexican, Central American, and Cuban Cambari. 24 pp 0.10
Starks, Edwin Chapin. Synonymy of the fish skeleton. 34 pp., 3 pis 0.10
Zoologicai^ Papers from the Harriman Alaska Expedition
n. RiTTER, Wm. E. Harrimania maculosa, a new genus and species of Enter-
opneusta from Alaska, with special regard to the character of its notochord.
22 pp 0 .05
III. RiTTER, Wm. E. and Crocker, Gulielma R. Multiplication of rays and
bilateral synunetry in the 20-rayed Star-fish, Pycnopodia helianthoides (Stimp-
"son). 28 pp., 2 pis 0.10
VI, Robertson, Alice. The Bryozoa. 26 pp., 3 pis 0 . 10
XX. CoE, Wesley R. The Nemertians. 110 pp., 13 p!s 0.20
XXI. Nutting, C. C. The Hydroids. 60 pp., 13 pis 0.15
XXIII. RiTTER, Wm. E. The Ascidians. 42 pp., 4 pis 0.10
XXX. ToRREY, Harry Beal. Anemones, with discussion of variation in
Metridium. 38 pp., 2 pis ". 0 . 10
Zoological Papers from the Hopkins-Stanford Galapagos Expedition, 1898-1899
VI. Richardson, Harriet. The Isopods. 4 pp 0 .05
VIII. Rathbun, Mary J. Brachyura and Macrura. 18 pp., 1 pl 0 .05
XII. Clark, Hubert Lyman. Echinodermata. 12 pp 0.05
XIII. Pilsbry, H. A., and VanaTTA, E. G. Marine Mollusca. 12 pp., 1 pl 0.05
XIV. Heller, Edmund. Reptiles. 60 pp 0.15
Zoological P/pers from the Branner Agassiz Expedition to Brazil
I. Rathbun, Mary J. The Decapod and Stomatopod Crustacea. 24 pp 0.05
II. R1CHARD.S0N, Harriet. The Isopod Crustacea. 4 pp 0 .05
V. Dall, WiLLL-vM Healey. Mollusks from the vicinity of Pernambuco. 9 pp. 0.05
The set of 22 zoological papers 1 . 50
This page may be used as an order blank. Send orders with check or stamps to the
Corresponding Secretary, Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory, Washington, D. C.
CONTENTS
Original Papers " ; Page
Physics. — A radioactive quantity requiring a name. N. Ernest Dorsey 381
Mineralogy. — Lazulite of Graves Mountain, Georgia, with notes on other occurrences
in the United States Thomas L. Watson 386
Abstracts
Inorganic Chemistry 391
Petrology 392
Geology 392
Volcanology 394
Entomology 395
Ethnology 395
Proceedings
Philosophical Society 395
Scientific Notes and News 400
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Wednesday, October 5. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club,
at 8:15 p.m. Program:
John Mxxrphy : Ice formation and prevention, with special reference to frazil and anchor
ice.
Thursday, October 6. The Entomological Society, at the National Museum
at 8 p. m. Program:
J. N. AldriCh: Insect collecting in Alaska. Notes and exhibition of specimens.
Saturday, October 8. The Philosophical Society, at "the Cosmos Club,
at 8:15 p.m. Program:
H. ,S. Roberts, 3d : A furnace temperature regulator,
H. N. Eaton: Aerial navigation.
Tuesday, October 11. The Institute of Electrical Engineers, at the Cosmos
Club, at 8: 15 p. m. Program:
I,. E. Whittemore: Principles of the radio direction finder, and its application to
marine navigation.
Thursday, October 13. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at
8 p.m. Program:
E. E. Si^osson: The constructive chemist.
. Reports from the New York meeting of the American Chemical vSociety.
Saturday, October 15. The Biological Society.
OTHER ANNOUNCEMENTS
The Physics Club of the Bureau of Standards:
Monday, October 17, at 4: 30 p. m. Program:
Arthur L. Day: The study of California earth movements.
Monday, October 24, at 4: 30 p. m. Program:
H. G. Gale: Earth tides.
Vol. II
October 19, 1921
No. 17
JOURNAL
OP THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
Robert B. Sosman
oaoPBTSICAL LABOKATOKT
BOARD 01^ EDITORS
S. F. Blake
BDRBAU or PLANT INDOSTBT
Sidney Paige
OBOLOOfCAL SDBVKV
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Harlan
BOTANICAL SOaSTT
N. HOLLISTBR
BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTf
S. A. ROHVUTER
BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCIBTV
P. B. SiLSBBE
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTV
G. W. Stosb
OBOLOOICAL SOCISTy
J. R. SWANTON
ANTHROPOLOOICAL SOCIBTV
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLT
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OFFICE OF PUBLICATION
211 CHURCH STREET
EASTON, PA.
Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under tht
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journal, the ofiBcial organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Joxjrnal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more tiian correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
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additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
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Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
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As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
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The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly nimibers ; 25
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Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand. London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
•Volume I. however, from July 19, 1911, to Deceinberl9. 1911. will be tent for $3.00. Special
rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Wednesday, October 19. The Society of Engineers, at The Cosmos Club,
at S.15 p.m. Program:
William Bowie; The work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey in relation to engi-
neering activities.
Thursday, October 20. The Academy, at the Pubhc Library, at <S.L5 p.m.
Program :
Discussion and inspection of the Academy's One hundred popular books in
science, and of books proposed for a list of information-manuals.
Saturday, October 22. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club,
at 8.15 p.m. Program:
H. H. Kimball: Sky brightness and daylight illumination measurements.
D. R. Harper, 3d: The mathematical equations for heat conduction in the fins of air-
cooled engines.
Tuesday, October 25. The Chemical Society, at the National Museum, at
8.15 p.m. Program:
Presentation of a portrait of Joseph Priestley, the discoverer of oxygen, to the
National Museum.
Edgar F. Smith: Some remarks on the history of chemistry in the United States.
F. W. Clarke: The organization meeting of the American Chemical Society at the home
of Priestley.
Wednesday, October 26. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club,
at 8 p.m. , Program:
J. B. Eby: Structural geology of Wise County, Virginia.
G. R. Mansfield: Structure of the Teton Coal Field, Idaho.
H. S. Washington: The granites of Washingtoti, D. C.
Saturday, October 29. The Biological Society.
Tuesday, November 1. The Botanical Society.
Wednesday, November 2. The Society of Engineers.
Thursday, November 3. The Entomological Society.
CONTENTS
Original Papers Page
Physics. — A furnace temperature regulator. Howard S. Roberts 401
Technology. — Radiators for aircraft engines. S. R. Parsons and D. R. Harper, 3d. . . .409
Abstracts
Geodesy 416
Physics 417
Geology 418
Geochemistry 419
Volcanology 420
Proceedings
Geological Society 421
Scientific Notes and News 428
ADVERTISEMENT
The Academy has on hand a miscellaneous stock of separates of papers
from the Proceedings (1898-1911). By authority of the Board of Man-
agers, these papers are offered for sale for a limited period at the reduced .
prices indicated below. (Publication of these classified lists was begun on
March 4 and will be continued in subsequent numbers of the Journal.)
BOTANY
Coulter, John M. ; and Rose, J. N. A synopsis of Mexican and Central Ameri-
can Umbelliferae. 50pp., 11 pis $0.10
Evans, Alexander W. Notes on Japanese Hepaticae. 26 pp., 3 pis 0 .05
Ferguson, Margaret C. Contributions to the knowledge of the life history of
Pinus with special reference to sporogenesis, the development of the gameto-
phytes and fertilization. 202 pp., 24 pis 0 .40
Frye, T. C. The Polytrichaceae of western North America. 58 pp 0 . 10
Greene, Edward L. A study of Rhus glabra. 30 pp 0 . 10
HerrE, Albert W. C. T. The foliaceous and fruticose lichens of the Santa Cruz
Peninsula, California- 73 pp 0.15
HerrB, Albert W. C. T. The Lichen flora of the Santa Cruz Peninsula, Cali-
fornia. 244 pp ' 0 . 40
Humphrey, Harry B. Studies in the physiology and morphology of some Cali-
fornia Hepaticae. 50 pp., 2 pis 0 . 10
Botanical Papers from the Harriman Alaska Expedition
IV. CoviLLE, Frederick V. The Tree Willows of Alaska. 12 pp., 1 pi 0 .05
V. Evans, Alexander W. Notes on the Hepaticae collected in Alaska. 28
pp., 3 pis ^ 0.05
XXIV. CoviLLE, Frederick V. The Willows of Ala.ska. 66 pp., 10 pis 0.10
XXV. Saunders, De Alton. The Algae. 96 pp., 20 pis 0.15
XXVI. CoviLLE, Frederick V. Harrimanella, a new genus of Heathers. 8 pp. 0.05
XXIX. Cardot, J., and Theiriot, I. The Mosses of Alaska. 80 pp., 1 1 pis.. . . 0.15
The set of 14 botanical papers 1 .50
This page may be used as an order blank. Send orders with check or stamps to the
Corresponding Secretary, Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory, Washington, D. C.
Vol. II
November 4, 1921
No. 18
JOURNAL
OF THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
Robert B. Sosman
OBOPBYSICAl, (.ABOSATOSV
BOARD OF EDITORS
S. F. Blakb
BDBBA0 OP PLANT OtDOSTKt
Sidney Paiob
OBOLOOICAL 80KVSV
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Harlan
BOTANICAI, SOCISTV
N. HOLLISTBR
BIOLOGICAL SOCiaTT
S. A. ROHWBR
8NTOMOLOOICAL SOCIBTT
P. B. SlLSBSS
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCISTV
G. W. Stosb
OBOLOOICAL SOCIETY
J. R. SWANTON
ANTaROPOLOOICAL SOCISTV
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY. AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BT THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OFFICE OF PUBLICATION
2 1 1 CHURCH STREET
EASTON, PA.
Entered as Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized oa July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This JODKNAL. the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
ben of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of ciurent scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington ; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month wUl ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Joitrnal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly tjrpewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call_
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and ^ many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly numbers 25
Monthly numbers 50
i?«f«t«c«c«5 should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
«hd addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash
tngton, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
•Volume I, kowever. from July 19, 1911, to Decemberl9. 191 1. will be sent for tS.OO. Special
rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
Al^FII^IATED SOCIETIES
Saturday, November 5. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at
8.15 p.m. Program:
H. A Marmer: The great tides in the Bay of Fundy, and their causes.
F. L. M0HI.ER and P. D. KooTE: Characteristic soft X-rays.
Tuesday, November 8. The Institute of Electrical Ehgineers.
Wednesday, November 9. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club,
at 8 p.m. Program:
O. E. Meinzer: An outline of hydrology.
F. E. MaTTues: Gilbert's theory of the mechanics of e.xfoliation.
Thursday, November 10. The Chemical Society. Program:
Annual reports and election of officers.
Five-minute informal communications.
Saturday, November 12. Joint meeting of the Academy, the Botanical
Society, and the Biological Society at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program :
Arthur de Jaczewski: The development of mycology and pathology tn Russia.
Nicholas I. Vavilov: Russian work in genetics and plant breeding.
Vernon Kellogg : The interrelations of Russian and A merican scientists.
Wednesday, November IG. The Society of Engineers.
Thursday, November 17. The Academy, at the Cosmos Club, at 8. 15 p.m.
Program:
H. D. Curtis: The Sun, our nearest star.
Saturday, November 19. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at
8.15 p.m.
PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL^
Tuesday, October 25. The Anthropological So cie^ky, at the National Museum, at 4.45
p.m. Program: Frances Densmore: Some recent developments in the stiidy of Ameri-
can Indian music.
Saturday, October 29. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Pro-
gram: R. S. Bassler: Sex characters in fossils. W. E. Safford: The dahlia, its
origin and development. *
1 Received too late for publication before the dale of the meeting.
ADVERTISEMENT
The Academy has on hand a miscellaneous stock of separates of papers
from the Proceedings (1898-1911). By authority of the Board of Managers,
these papers are offered for sale for a limited period at the reduced prices
indicated below. (Publication of these classified lists was begun on March i
and is concluded in this number of the Journai^.)
BIOLOGY, GENERAL
Cook, O. F. The vital fabric of descent. 23 pp $0 . 10
Cook, O. F. Aspects of kinetic evolution. 207 pp 0 .40
Cook, O. F. Origin and evolution of angiosperms through apospory. 20 pp 0 .05
Cook, O. F. Mendelisra and other methods of descent. 52 pp 0.15
Davenport, Charles B. Heredity and Mendel's Law. 19 pp 0 . 10
Greene, Edward L. Linnaean memorial address. 34 pp 0 . 10
Greene, Edw.a.rd L. Linnaeus as an evolutionist. 10 pp 0 .05
The set of 7 biological papers 0 .75
{Continued on founlh page of cover.)
CONTENTS Page
Originai, Papers
Inorganic Chemistry. — The crystal structure of the alkali halides. I. Ralph W.
G. Wyckoff 429
Ornithology. — Three new birds of the family Tinamidae from South America. Alex-
ANDER Wetmore 434
Agricultural Chemistry. — The effect of alum on silicate colloids. C. S. ScofiELd 438
Abstracts
Physics 439
Metallography 440
Geodesy 440
Inorganic Chemistry 441
Mineralogy .' 441
Geology and Hydrology. 441
Proceedings
Washington Academy of Sciences " 443
Geological Society 444
Scientific Notes and News '■ « 447
ADVERTISEMENT {Continued)
ANTHROPOLOGY
Fewkes, J. Walter. A theatrical performance at Walpi. 26 pp., 3 pis $0.15
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
Davis, Henry E. The political development of the, District of Columbia.
32 pp 0.20
Spofford, AinsworTh R. The coming of the White Man, and the founding
of the National Capital. 32 pp 0.20
Wright, Carroll D. The economic development of the District of Columbia.
28 pp •» 0.20
The 3 District of Columbia papers 0.50
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS
Gilbert, G. K. First Annual Report of the Secretary. 14 pp 0.10
McGee, W J Cardinal principles of science. 12 pp 0.10
Walcott, Charles D., bt al. John Wesley Powell. Proceedings of a meet-
ing commemorative of his distinguished services. 89 pp., 1 pi , 0 . 20
Notices of deceased members. 1901: Charles Anthony Schott. Ip.. 0.05
1904: Marcus Baker, Samuel Clagett Busey, Richard Urquhart Goode, Wil-
liam Harkness, Hemy Barker Hill, Alpheus Hyatt, William Waring Johns-
ton, Richmond Mayo-Smith, James Gushing Merrill, William Manuel Mew,
Charles Mohr, Walter Reed, Miles Rock, Alonzo Blair Richardson, John
Daniel Runkle, Simon Sterne, Robert Henry Thurston. 50 pp 0. 10
1908: William Harris Ashmead, George W. Atherton, Wilbur Olin Atwater,
vS wan- Moses Burnett, James Carroll, Emil Alexander de Schweinitz, Daniel
Coit Gilinan, WiUiam Rainey Harper, Samuel Pierpont Langley, Adolph
Lindenkohl, Henri Louis Francois Marindin, Herbert Gouvemeur Ogden,
WiUiam Bramwell Powell, Nicholas Senn, Samuel Edwin Solly, Ainsworth
Rand vSpofford, R. Stansbury Sutton, Robert Browne Warder. 62 pp 0 . 10
Price list of publications (Proceedings). 13 pp Free
This page may be used as an order blank. Send orders with check or stamps to the
Corresponding Secretary, Robert B. Sosma;*, Geophysical Laboratory, Washington, D. C.
Vol. II
November 19, 1921
No. 19
JOURNAL
OP THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
Robert B. Sosuan
OBOPBTSICAi, LABOKATOKT
BOARD OF EDITORS
S. F. Bi^KB
BUKBAD OP PLANT OfDDSTBT
SiDNBT PaIOB
OBOLOOrCAi, SOBVBV
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Harlan
BOTANICAL SOCIETY
N. HOLUSTBR
BIOLOGICAL SOCIBTV
S. A. ROHWBR
BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCIBTV
F. B. SiLSBBB
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTV
G. W. Stosb
OBOLOOICAL SOCIBTV
J. R. SWANTON
ANTBBOPOLOOICAL SOCIBTV
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY. AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBBR, WHEN MONTHLY
BT THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OFFICE OP PUBLICATION
211 CHURCH STREET
BASTON, PA.
Entered a* Second Class Matter, January 25, I9I9, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103, Act of October 3. 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journal, the ofiScial organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished wfien ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly niunbers 25
Monthly numbers 60
Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, 'D. C.
European Agent: WilHam Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
iFiithin thirty days after date of the following issue.
•Volume 1, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911 will be tent for $3.00. Special
rates are given to members of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Saturday, November 19. The Philosophical Society, at thfe Cosmos Club,
at 8.15 p.m. Program:
H. W. Fisk: Dip needle errors arising from minute pivot dejects.
Walter D. Lambert: The latitude of Ukiah and the motion of the Pole.
Wednesday, November 23. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club,
at 8 p.m. Program:
J. S. Brown : Coastal groundwater.
E. O. Ulrich: Solution of some vexing problems in Appalachian stratigraphy.
Saturday, November 26. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at
8:15 p.m. Program:
R. W. Shufeldt; Changes in the skull of an American Badger (Taxidea americana)
due lo extreme age.
G. W. GiDLEY : The Primates of the Paleocene.
J. M. Aldrich: An entomologist in Alaska.
Thursda}^ December 1. The Entomological Society.
Saturday, December 3. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club,
at 8.15 p.m.. Program:
W. J. Humphreys: Fogs and Clouds.
Annual Reports and Elections.
PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL'
Tuesday, November I. The Botanical Society, at The Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program:
Robert Sterling Yard : Uses and destiny of our National Parks.
Wednesday, November 2. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8:15 p.m.
Program: J. J. Esch: Fish rescue work on the Mississippi River.
Thursday, November 3. The Entomological Society, at the National Museum, at 8 p.m.
Program: L. L. Buchanan: Coleoptera in birds' stomachs. N. E. McIndoo:
Glandtdar structure of the abdominal appendages of a termite guest (Spirachtha) .
Tuesday, November 8. The Institute of Electrical Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at
8 p.m. Program: L. D. Bliss: Hydro-electric developments of the Pacific Coast. A. F.
Bang: Notes on the operation of an Eastern hydro-electric plant. C. E. Oakes: Com-
parative cost of operation of hydro-electric and steam electric plants and the maintenance
cost of transmission lines.
' Received too late for publication before the date of the meeting.
/
CONTENTS
Origin Ai, Papers Page
Mathematics. — On the correlation between two functions and its application to the
general case of spurious correlation. Lowell J. Reed 449
Physics. — ^The discontinuity of resistance preceding supraconductivity. P. W.
Brddgman 455
Petrology. — The granites of Washington. Henry S. Washington 459
Abstracts
Geology " 470
Geography and Hydrology 471
Paleontology 471
Proceedings
Washington Academy of Sciences 472
Botanical Society 473
Scientific Notes and News , ' 476
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY
President: Alfred H. Brooks, Geological Survey.
Corresponding Secretary: Robert B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory.
Recording Secretary: William R. Maxon, National Museum.
Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey.
Vol. II
December 4, 1921
No. 20
JOURNAL
OP THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
Robert B. Sosman
OBOPBTSICAL LABOBATOKT
BOARD OF EDITORS
S. F. Blakb
BDBBAU OF PLANT OIDUSTST
SiDNBT PaiGB
O8OLOOICAL aORVST
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Hari*an
BOTANICAL SOCIBTV
N. HOLLISTBR
BtOLOOICAL aOCIBTT
S. A. ROHWBR
BNTOMOLOOICAL SOdBTt
P. B. SiLSBSB
PHXLOSOPRICAL SOCIBTY
G. W. Stosb
OBOLOOICAL SOCIBTY
J. R. SWANTON
ANTBBOPOLOOICAL SOCIBTY
PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY
EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY
BY THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OFFICE OP PUBLICATION
211 CHURCH STREET
EASTON, PA.
Entered at Second Class Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Easton, Pa., under the
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
in Section 1103. Act of October 3. 1917. Authorized on July 3. 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This JoxniNAL. the ofiBcial organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bers of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington ; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and aflBliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Joitrnal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly tjijewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly nimibers 25
Monthly numbers 50
Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash
ington, DC.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issue.
•Volume £, however, from July 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911 wdl be sent for $3.00 Special
rates are given to members of scientific societies at&Iiated with the Acadeinv.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Tuesday, December 6. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m.
Program :
Wilson Popenoe: Hunting new plants for American horticulture in the highlands of
Central and South America.
L. C. C. Krieger: A sketch of the history of mycological illustrations [higher Funagi).
Tuesday, December 6. The Anthropological Society, at the National Mu-
seum, at 4:45 p.m. Program:
Ales Hrdlicka: How the earth was peopled.
Wednesday, December 7. The Society of Engineers.
Thursday, December 8. The Chemical Society.
Saturday, December 10. The Biological Society.
Tuesday, December 13. The Institute of Electrical Engineers.
Wednesday, December 14. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club,
at 8 p.m.
Thursday, December 15. The Academy, at the Cosmos Club, at 8:15 p.m.
Program :
Wm. E. Sapford: The food plants of America.
Saturday, December 17. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club,
at 8: 15 p.m.
OTHER ANNOUNCEMENTS
Friday, December 16, at 3:30 p.m., a public lecture at the Bureau of .Stand-
ards: Prof. Cavalier: J^es industries ckimiques en France pendant la
Guerre.
PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL^
Wednesday, November 9. The Geological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Pro-
gram: Pentti Eskola: Metamorphic limestone as a geological thermometer. O. E.
Meinzer: An outline of hydrology.
Wednesday, November 16. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8:15 p.m.
Program: Thomas RiGGS, Jr. : The problems of Alaska.
Thursday, December 1. The Entomological Society, at the National Museum, at 8 p.m.
Program: Election of officers. S. Hadwen: On Oestridae.
' Received too late for publication beforethe date of the meeting.
CONTENTS
Originai. Papers
Page
Geochemistry. — Note on the water of Borax Lake. Roger C. Wells 477
Petrology. — Obsidian from Copan and Chichen Itza. Henry S. Washington 481
Entomology. — On the Orthopterous group Phaneropterae ( = Scudderiae), with de-
scriptions of a new genus and species. A. N. Caudell 487
I
Abstracts
Geology 494
Biology 495
Entomology 495
Ornithology : 495
Proceedings
Philosophical Society 497
Scientific Notes and News. 499
^
31
Vol. II
December 19, 1921
No. 21
JOURNAL
OP THB
WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
Robert B. Sosman
OBOFBVSICAL LABOSATOBT
BOARD OF EDITORS
S. F. Blakb
BDK8AIT OP PLANT mODSTBV
SiDNBT PaIQB
asoLoorcAL sdsvst
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
H. V. Harlan
BOTANICAL SOCIETY
N. HOLUSTKR
BIOLOGICAL SOCISTT
S. A. ROHWBR
BNTOMOLOOICAL 90CIBT*
P. B. SiLSBBB
PHILOSOPHICAL 80CIBTY
G. W. STOSB
GBOLOOICAL SOCIBTy
J. R. SWANTON
ANTBBOPOLOOICAI. SOCIBTy
PUBUSHED SBMI-MONTHLT
EXCEPT IN JUtY. AUGUST AND SEPTBMBBR. WHEN MONTHLY
BY THB
WAvSHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OPPICB OP PTTBUCATION
2 1 1 CHURCH STREET
EASTON,» PA.
Bntered u Second CIa«» Matter, January 25, 1919, at the post-office at Ea»ton, P«., under tb»
Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for
io Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authoriied on July 3. 1918.
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences,
aims to present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this
end it publishes: (1) short original papers, written or communicated by mem-
bars of the Academy; (2) short abstracts of current scientific literature published
in or emanating from Washington; (3) proceedings and programs of meetings of
the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4) notes of events connected with the
scientific life of Washington. The Journal is issued semi-monthly, on the fourth
and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer when it appears on the
nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt publication is an
essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the eighth or the twenty-
fourth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the author, in the
issue of the Journal for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively.
Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors; they should
be clearly typewritten and in suitable form for printing without essential changes.
The editors cannot undertake to do more than correct obvious minor errors.
References should appear only as footnotes and should include year of publication.
Illustrations will be used only when necessary and will be confined to text
figures or diagrams of simple character. The editors, at their discretion, may call
upon an author to defray the cost of his illustrations, although no charge will be
made for printing from a suitable cut supplied with the manuscript.
Proof. — In order to facilitate prompt publication no proof will be sent to
authors unless requested. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form;
the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed.
Authors' Copies and Reprints. — On request the author of an original article will
receive gratis ten copies of the number containing his contribution and as many
additional copies as he may desire at ten cents each. Reprints will be furnished at
the following schedule of prices:
Covers bearing the name of the author and title of the article, with inclusive
pagination and date of issue, will be furnished when ordered.
As an author will not ordinarily see proof, his request for extra copies or re-
prints should invariably be attached to the first page of his manuscript.
The rate of Subscription per volume is $6.00*
Semi-monthly numbers 25
Monthly numbers 50
Remittances should be made payable to "Washington Academy of Sciences,"
and addressed to the Treasurer, R. L. Paris, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
European Agent: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex St., Strand, London.
Exchanges. — The Journal does not exchange with other publications.
Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge, provided that claim is made
within thirty days after date of the following issu&.
•Volume I, kowever, frotn July 19, 1911, to December 19, 1911 ivill be aent for ^3.00 Special
rates are giren to membei's of scientific societies affiliated with the Academy.
ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES
Tuesday, December 20. The Anthropological Society, at the National
Museum, at 4 : 45 p.m. Program :
J. Walter Fewkes: Lost Indians of the Willows.
Wednesday, December 21. The Society of Engineers, at the Cosmos Club,
at 8:15 p.m. Program:
L. O. Armstrong: The Lure of the North.
Annual reports and elections.
Tuesday, January 3. The Botanical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8:15
p.m.
Wednesday, January 4. The Society of Engineers.
Thursday, January 5. The Entomological Society.
Saturday, January 7. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m.
Tuesday, January 10. The Academy, at the Carnegie Institution, at 8:15
p.m. Program:
A. H. Brooks: Presidential Address.
Annual reports and elections.
Thursday, January 12. The Chem.ical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8
p.m. Program:
Wm. Blum: Presidential Address: Researches on the electro-deposition of metals.
OTHER ANNOUNCEMENTS
Thursday to Saturday, December 29-31. The Association of American
Geographers, at the National Geographic Society's building, 16th and M
streets.
PROGRAMS ANNOUNCED SINCE THE PRECEDING ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL'
Thursday, December 8. The Chemical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program :
R. B. Moore: Radium, its properties and manufacture. Miss A. H. Armstrong:
TJie testing of radium products. Howard A. Kelly: The therapeutic use of radium.
Saturday, December 10. The Biological Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Program :
Brief notes and exhibition of specimens. Annual reports and elections.
Tuesday, December 13. The Institute of Electrical Engineers, at the Cosmos Club, at 8
p.m. Program: J. W. Hackett: The manufacture of electric cable.
Wednesday, December 14. The Geological vSociety, at the Cosmos Club, at 8 p.m. Pro-
gram: G. W. Stose (Presidential Address): Relation of faults to folds in the Appalach-
ians. Annual reports and elections.
vSaturday, December 17. The Philosophical Society, at the Cosmos Club, at 8:15 p.m.
Program: W. W. CoblEntz: The effective temperature of the stars as estitnated from
the energy distribution in the complete spectrum. P. D. Foots, F. L- MohlER, and
W. F. Meggers: A significant exception to the principle of selection. W. P. White:
Some precision pendulum-driving apparatus.
' Received too late for publication before the date of the meeting.
CONTENTvS
Original Papers
Page
Zoology. — A key to the Philippine operculate land mollusks of the genus Ceratopoma.
Paxjl Bartsch 510
Zoology. — Marionella {Eurystoma IMarion, 1870) ; an emendation, with notes on a new
birefringent substance, marionellin, found in the intestinal cells. (Contributions to
a science of Nematology, XI.) N. A. Cobb 504
Abstracts ^
Geology 510
Hydrology 510
Paleontology 511
Ornithology 511
Proceedings
Philosophical Society 513
Scientific Notes and News 515
Errata ' .- 516
Index to Vot,ume 11 517