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JOURNAL —

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 13, 1923

BOARD OF EDITORS

SIDNEY PAIGE E. D. WILLIAMSON d age) bevel Srnnaoane

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY NATIONAL MUSEUM

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

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AA-FVHAILG Fab .29

ERRATA

Vou. 138, 1923

Page 211, lines 17 and 18: Delete Type species, H. coronatus n. sp.

Page 269, line 16: For already read clearly.

Page 418, line 2 f. b: Insert p before r?.

Page 421, line 5 of footnote 12: For pm ps read pm-p2.

Page 425, line 5f. b: For allow read allows. -

iz: r

Page 427, equation at bottom: For th read ts

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 13 JANuARY 4, 1923 No.1

PETROLOGY.—The genesis of melilite1 N. L. Bowrn, Geophysical

Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

In a recent paper the writer described some alnoitic rocks from

Isle Cadieux, Quebec, that contain the mineral, monticellite. This

was presumed to be the first recognition of monticellite as an igneous-

rock mineral.2. After the paper was published K. H. Scheumann

called my attention to a mineral occurring in rocks of a related char-

acter from Polzen, Bohemia, of which mineral he has said: ‘‘ Perhaps

we are dealing with monticellite, whose occurrence in a rock so rich

in magnesia would not be surprising, or perhaps with an olivine rich

in the monticellite molecule.’”’ Scheumann’s descriptions show that

the mineral is, with little possible doubt, the same as that in the

Canadian rocks and is to be regarded as monticellite even though

his optical determinations were not sufficiently quantitative to

establish its identity.? These observations of Scheumann’s were

not known to me nor were they recalled by any of the petrologists

with whom I discussed the occurrence of monticellite in igneous rocks.

Had the Polzen rocks been described under more familiar names such

as alnoite, melilite basalt, with such qualifying terms as may have

been necessary, they and their characters would not have escaped

my notice in general abstract literature, but appearing under the

disguise of locality names it is perhups not surprising that they did

not attract attention. Of this matter more later.

In the paper on the Cadieux rocks were included the results of some

experimental work designed to throw light on the origin of some of

the mineral phases present. Experiment showed that, in certain

1 Received December 7, 1922.

2.N.L. Bowen, Am. J. Sci. III: 1-34. 1922.

3K. H. Scheumann. Konig]. siischs Gesell. d. Wiss. Abhandl. 32: 7,732. 1913.

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES voL. 13, No. 1

mixtures of diopside and nephelite, diopside may separate early and

then, by reaction with the liquid, be replaced by forsterite (olivine)

and akermanite (melilite). This was in accord with the mineral

paragenesis in the Cadieux rocks, and it was suggested that an alka-

line (nephelite-rich) liquid reacted with augite to produce monticellite

and melilite, acting, as it were, as a desilicating agent. It was sug-

gested also that an analcite-rich liquid was produced by the reaction

and that this gave rise to the analcite dikes.

Scheumann in a more recent paper discusses the application of these

conclusions to the rocks of the Polzen region and decides that, while

these reactions were in part responsible for the production of lime-

rich minerals, especially melilite, yet addition of lime to the magma

must be considered an important factor particularly in the production

of monticellite. He suggests, too, that since melilite separates ‘‘in

excess” it may later react with the liquid to reproduce pyroxene and

of this reaction he finds evidence in the Polzen rocks.‘ In the artificial

mixtures, no doubt, this reversal of the reaction with reformation of

pyroxene and nephelite would occur at lower temperatures, but this

fact cannot be demonstrated on account of the sluggishness of reaction.

The reversal did not occur in the Cadieux rocks for the reason, as

believed, that the reacting liquid was separated (squeezed out) and

formed the analcite dikes. Even if it had not been separated, anal-

cite might have persisted as a ground-mass mineral in the presence

of melilite just as quartz may occur in the ground-mass of an olivine-

bearing rock. The requisite condition is very rapid cooling. Though

Scheumann accepts the formation of some melilite by the reaction

method demonstrated experimentally, he nevertheless appears to be

offering an objection to it when he says “‘ Melilite rocks in which the

more silicic alkaline residue has crystallized as analcite are unknown.”

With this very question in mind I have myself been examining a few

melilite rocks, sections of which were readily obtainable. In two of

these I have found analcite as typical interstitial, residual material.

The one is the melilite-nephelite basalt of Moiliili, Oahu, Hawaiian

Islands which has been described by Cross.’ In places in this rock

the interstitial material. consists entirely of anhedra of nephelite but

in other places it is a mixture of nephelite and analcite in which the

nephelite occurs as euhedra in an analcite base and in which there can,

therefore, be no question of the analcite being formed by alteration

of the nephelite. The attack of the alkaline liquid on the augite is

- shown by the outlines of the augite “interlocking most irregularly

4 Neues Jahrb., Centralbl. 1922: 495-545.

®’W.Cross. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 88: 20-22. 1915.

JAN. 4, 1923 BOWEN: THE GENESIS OF MELILITE 3

with other minerals.’’* It is believed that the melilite was formed as

a result of this attack though, admittedly, it does not occur in typical

reaction-rim form.

The other melilite rock showing analcite is a melilite-nephelite

basalt from pipe No. 3 E 5°S of Wolf Kraal House, Namaqualand.’

It shows nephelite and analcite in the same relation as that described

above, but the whole rock is much finer-grained than the Hawaiian

example and the general relations of the minerals more obscure.

It is apparent, then, that analcite does occur as a residual mineral

in some melilite rocks. In deep-seated rocks the reaction between

nephelite and pyroxene to produce analcite and melilite is reversed.

It is probable that some melilite is produced by the addition of lime

to ordinary basalts, but when so formed one would expect it to be

found in deep-seated rocks as commonly as in effusive and dike rocks.

The fact that melilite is practically absent from deep-seated rocks

suggests the dominance of the other method of production, namely,

interaction of nephelite and pyroxene which requires the rapid

cooling accompanying eruption in order to prevent its reversal at

lower temperatures.

ROCK NAMES

It has been noted on a former page that polzenite and its characters

escaped notice on account of its unfamiliar name, nevertheless it should

be stated that polzenite is as much entitled to a new and distinctive

name as many other rock types. It does seem, however, that the

time has come to call a halt to the wholesale manufacture of rock

names. Frequently these names designate only a slight departure

in texture or in relative proportions of minerals from some common

types with familiar names, and these variants could more profitably be

described under the familiar names with appropriate modifying words or

phrases. Such a procedure would undoubtedly result in many cumber-

some names, but better a cumbersome name that immediately conveys

the character of the rock to thereaderthan aconcise name that conveys

nothing but the locality where the rock happened to be first found.

Lest it be supposed that the objections raised are directed principally

against the polzenite of Scheumann, I wish to cite an instance nearer

home. I have just read in manuscript a paper on Hawaiian lavas

by my colleague Doctor Washington, in which paper the names

kohalaite, mugearite, and hawaiite are used to designate certain

Cross. op. cit.: p.21.

* Locality so described by A. W. Rogers on submitting specimen to H. S. Washington

for analysis.

4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 1

types. Following kohalaite is found, in brackets, oligoclase andesite,

and following mugearite, olivine-oligoclase andesite. Would not

these more familiar terms by themselves have been more desirable?

One finds, too, that hawaiite is just an andesine basalt. Why not

call it that and not perpetuate names that add to our already heavy

burden?®

A comparatively few type names with appropriate qualifying words

should be sufficient to designate all rocks. Occasionally names that

are inconveniently cumbersome will result, but sodium para-dimeth-

amino-azobenzene-para-sulphonate is an unwieldy name yet it

thoroughly justifies itself by telling the chemist the nature and

properties of the substance named.

We do not labor under the same difficulties as do the workers in

biologic science, for it would be an impossible task to formulate a

name for an oak tree that would give a clear picture of how it differs

from a maple tree. But two rock types that have received wholly

unrelated names may differ from each other merely in the presence or

absence of a definite, concrete, crystalline phase, which fact could

readily be expressed in the names applied to them.

The choice of names for rocks has an importance apart from that

connected with convenience for use by petrologists themselves. It

can scarcely be doubted that future advances in our knowledge of

rocks must come in large part through the application of physics and

chemistry to the problems which rocks present. This means the co-

operation of the physicist and chemist with the petrologist, and this

in turn necessitates a certain amount of respect for the petrologist and

his science. But how can the physicist and chemist respect a man

who continues to base the names of new rock types on nothing more

fundamental than the name of the locality in which they are found?

Only the confirmed systematist can hope to keep abreast of the

ever increasing multitude of rock names. In the meantime the one

whose prime interest lies in other aspects of rocks, but who must

keep informed of the newly discovered facts of petrology, has an

unnecessary and almost insupportable burden placed upon him in the

never-ebbing tide of pienaarite, tveitasite, modlibovite, damkjer-

nite, ankaratrite, assyntite, muniongite, orendite, sviatoynossite,

yamaskite, kauaiite, ghizite, and leeuwfonteinite.

De profundis clamavt.

8 Since this was written Dr. Washington has made changes in his paper so that the

above remarks apply only to his original manuscript. He has dropped the locality

names and joined forces with me in criticism of them.

JAN. 4, 1923 STANDLEY: NEW SPECIES OF PLANTS 5

BOTANY.—New species of plants from western Mexico. Pauu C.

Sranp.LEyY, U. S. National Museum.!

Among the numerous collections of Mexican plants in the U. 8.

National Herbarium there are probably none of greater value and

few equal in importance to those obtained by Prof. C. Conzatti during

his many years of residence in the State of Oaxaca. At frequent

intervals he has generously presented to the National Museum sets of

specimens of his collections, mostly secured in Oaxaca, until now these

amount to over four thousand sheets, which possess an added value

because of the care with which they have been prepared. Almost

every sending from Professor Conzatti includes at least a few un-

described plants, and always there are representatives of many rare

and imperfectly known species. The list of distinct new plants dis-

covered in Professor Conzatti’s collections is already a long one, and

there doubtless remain many morein the herbarium under groups which

have not been studied critically.

Five of the species here proposed as new were contained in a small

shipment of plants received last summer. ‘This sending also included

an exceptionally large number of rare species, many of which were

known previously from a single collection. Several others of the

plants probably represent new species, but they belong to groups

in which it does not appear desirable to describe further novelties

until critical revision can be undertaken. There is published here

also a description of a new species of Caesalpinia from Sinaloa, and

a tree previously described as a Pithecollobium is transferred to a more

natural position in the genus Albizzia.

Aljlionia grandiflora Standl., sp. nov.

Stems slender, branched, densely short-pilose throughout, the pubescence

viscid above; petioles slender, 5-12 mm. long, short-pilose, the blades ovate

to broadly ovate, 3-5 cm. long, 2-3 cm. wide, acuminate, rounded or obtuse

at base, thin, densely short-villous on both surfaces; involucres mostly in

terminal one-sided cymes, short-pedunculate, 1-flowered, about 1 cm. long,

densely villous, the lobes lanceolate, acuminate; perianth magenta, 2.5-3 cm.

long, densely pilose below, glabrate above, the tube 1.5-2 em. long and 3 mm.

thick; stamens included; fruit (immature) 7 mm. long, constricted near the

base, minutely puberulent, the 5 ribs broad and nearly smooth.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,110,839, collected on the

Cerro Jucusd, Tututepec, Oaxaca, Mexico, altitude 240 meters, Dec. 13, 1921,

by C. Conzatti (no. 4449).

In general appearance this plant resembles a Mirabilis, but it possesses

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Received

December 1, 1922.

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 1

the technical characters of the genus Allionia. It is not closely related to

any previously known species, its most distinctive character being the

large perianth.

Albizzia tomentosa (Micheli) Standl.

Pithecollobium tomentosum Micheli, Mém. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Genéve

34: 285. pl. 28. 1903.

In a recently published part of a volume upon the woody plants of Mexico,”

some doubt was expressed by the writer as to the proper generic position of

the tree described by Micheli as Pithecollobium tomentosum. When the manu-

script for the treatment of the genus was prepared, fruiting material of this

species was not available. Specimens with both fruit and flowers, collected

recently in the State of Sinaloa, Mexico, by Mr. Jestis G. Ortega (no. 4554),

indicate that the proper place of the tree is in the genus Albizzia. The fruit

is flat, about 11 em. long and 2 em. wide, and has thin, elastically dehiscent

valves. The vernacular name used in Sinaloa is ‘“‘palo joso.”’

Caesalpinia ortegae Standl., sp. nov.

Branchlets densely covered with stipitate black glands; leaves long-

petiolate, the petioles and rachis covered with stipitate glands; pinnae usually

3 pairs, the leaflets 7 or 8 pairs, oblong, 6-11 mm. long, 2.5-4 mm. wide,

rounded at apex, thinly pilose with short slender stiff whitish subappressed

hairs, beneath copiously furnished with sessile black glands; racemes elongate,

densely covered on the rachis, pedicels, and calyx with black stipitate glands

and also pilosulous with short spreading white hairs, the pedicels 5-10 mm.

long, articulate below the middle; sepals entire; petals about 1 cm. long;

fruit elastically dehiscent, flat, densely covered with short-stipitate black

glands, faleate, about 6 em. long and 1.2 cm. wide; seeds strongly compressed,

rounded-obovate, 7-8 mm. long.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,083,885, collected in the

State of Sinaloa, Mexico, by Jestis G. Ortega (no. 890).

Well distinguished from the related Mexican species by the extraordinary

abundance of stipitate glands on all parts of the plant. It is a pleasure to

be able to name so well-marked a species in honor of its collector, who during

the past few years has made many valuable contributions to the knowledge

of the Sinaloan flora.

Amyris conzattii Standl., sp. nov.

Branchlets slender, grayish, glabrate; leaves alternate, the rachis slender,

4-7 cm. long, thinly puberulent, the leaflets about 21, rhombic or ovaterhom-

bic, 6-12 mm. long, 3-8 mm. wide, obtuse or rounded at apex, very oblique

at base, entire or obscurely crenulate, glabrous or sometimes sparsely puberu-

lent above, with very numerous large glands; flowers in lax terminal glabrous

panicles, the fruiting pedicels 5-10 mm. long; drupes globose, 8-10 mm.

in diameter, the pericarp filled with large and conspicuous oil glands.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,110,840, collected at Los

Sabinos, between Juchatengo and Santa Ana, Oaxaca, Mexico, altitude

1,000 meters, Dec. 29, 1921, by C. Conzatti (no. 4556).

2 Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 23: 397. 1922.

JAN. 4, 1923 STANDLEY: NEW SPECIES OF PLANTS g

In the key to the species of Amyris by Percy Wilson in the North Ameri-

can Flora (25: 216. -1911), this plant runs at once to A. texana (Buckl.)

P. Wils., a species occurring in Texas and northeastern Mexico, but with

trifoliolate leaves. Amyris conzattii is not closely related to any of the

species previously known from North America.

Schaefferia oaxacana Standl., sp. nov.

Branches greenish, striate-angulate, glabrous; leaves mostly fasciculate,

oblong-spatulate or oblong-obovate, 1-2 cm. long, 4-8 mm. wide, rounded

or emarginate at apex, cuneately narrowed at base to a very short petiole,

glabrous, pinnately nerved, the costa prominent, the lateral nerves ascending

at a very acute angle, inconspicuous; flowers solitary or fasciculate at the

nodes, on stout pedicels 1.5—2.5 mm. long; fruit oval, 2-celled, about 8 mm.

long.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,110,837, collected near the

Cumbre de las Calaveras, Distrito de Zimatlén, Oaxaca, Mexico, altitude

2,200 meters, Nov. 27, 1921, by Conzatti (no. 4325).

The only related species is S. cunezfolia Gray, a native of Coahuila and

Texas. In that the branchlets are short, stiff, divaricate, and often spinose,

while in S. oaxacana they are long, slender, ascending, and not spinose,

differences which give quite different aspects to the two species. In the

Texan plant, moreover, the fruits are much smaller and sessile.

Bouvardia oaxacana Standl., sp. nov.

Branchlets slender, terete, glabrous or minutely puberulent about the

nodes; stipule sheath 2-3 mm. long, puberulent, the lobes obtuse, cuspidate;

leaves opposite, the petioles puberulent, equaling or shorter than the stipules,

the blades ovate or broadly ovate, 4-6 cm. long, 2-4 em. wide, acuminate,

broadly rounded at base, thin, sparsely puberulent or glabrate, conspicu-

ously 5-nerved, the lateral nerves arcuate and extending nearly or quite to

the apex; inflorescence terminal, cymose-corymbose, dense, many-flowered,

the pedicels 2-4 mm. long, hirtellous; hypanthium hirtellous; calyx lobes

linear-lanceolate, 5-9 mm. long, puberulent; corolla red, glabrous outside,

the tube about 17 mm. long, the lobes oblong, 5 mm. long, obtuse, glabrous;

anthers about equaling the corolla lobes; style not exserted.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,110,842, collected between

Santa Cruz and El] Aguacate, Distrito de Juquila, Oaxaca, Mexico, altitude

500 meters, Dec. 24, 1921, by C. Conzatti (no. 4513).

Related to B. quinquenervata Standl., of Chiapas, which is distinguished

by its small corolla and shorter, narrower calyx lobes. In one of the speci-

mens of B. oaxacana the corolla is sparsely puberulent, but this probably

represents an unimportant variation from the typical form with glabrous

corolla.

Chomelia barbata Standl., sp. nov.

Plants unarmed, the branchlets slender, appressed-pilose;. stipules 3 mm.

long, deltoid, cuspidate, appressed-pilose outside; petioles slender, 5-8 mm.

long, puberulent; leaf blades elliptic or rounded-elliptic, 3.5-5.5 em. long,

2-3.5 em. wide, obtuse or acutish, rounded to acute at base, glabrous above

except along the costa, beneath densely barbate along the costa, elsewhere

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 13, No. 1

puberulent or glabrate, the lateral nerves inconspicuous; cymes lateral, dense

few-flowered, the peduncles very slender, 2.5-3.5 em. long, pilosulous with

whitish subappressed hairs; flowers sessile or subsessile, ebracteolate, ob-

scurely or‘not at all secund; hypanthium and calyx cylindric, 2-2.5 ‘mm.

long, appressed-pilosulous, the lobes minute, obtuse; corolla densely ap-

pressed-pilosulous outside, the slender tube 15 mm. long, the lobes oblong-

ovate, obtuse, 2.5 mm. long; anthers semiexserted; fruit white, 2-celled

oblong, glabrate, 1-1.5 em. long.

_Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,110,841, collected in the

vicinity of Chacahua, Distrito de Juquila, Oaxaca, Mexico, altitude 5 meters

Dec. 17, 1921, by C. Conzatti (no. 4475).

Related to C. microloba Donn. Smith, of Costa Rica, which differs in its

small flowers and scant pubescence.

ZOOLOGY.—A revision of the recent representatives of the crinoid family

Pentacrinide, with the diagnoses of two new genera... Austin H.

Ciark, National Museum.

A detailed study of the recent representatives of the crinoid family

Pentacrinide shows that these are by no means so closely allied to

the fossil species in the same family as has been supposed. None of |

them can be considered as congeneric with [socrinus pendulus with

which most of them have been associated, and their relationships

with other fossil types are still more remote.

The following disposition of the living forms is suggested.

KEY TO THE RECENT GENERA OF PENTACRINIDA

a! Second post-radial ossicle not an axillary

b! fourth post-radial ossicle an axillary

Saracrinus

b? first axillary beyond the fourth post-radial ossicle

Metacrinus

a? Second post-radial ossicle an axillary from which two arm trunks arise

b! elements of the [Br series (the first two post-radial ossicles) united

by syzygy

c' at least the outer division series of more than 6 elements; proxi-

mal pinnules with a strongly serrate profile i

Cenocrinus

c? none of the division series of more than 4 elements; proximal

pinnules with a smooth profile

d' division series beyond the first entirely, or at least mostly,

of more than 2 elements

e! division series beyond the first variable, but never

3(1+2); distal edges of the post-radial ossicles

everted and produced

Teliocrinus

e? all the division series beyond the first 3(1+2); distal

edges of the post-radial ossicles not produced

Endoxocrinus

1 Received December 6, 1922.

i i

JAN. 4, 1923 CLARK: REVISION OF PENTACRINIDAE 9

d? all of the division series 2(1+2)

e! cirri long and stout, composed of more than 20 (usu-

ally more than 30) segments, the whorls of cirri

being separated by 1-10 pentagonal to bluntly

stellate internodals

Diplocrinus

e’ cirri short, consisting of about 18 segments, the

whorls separated by 30-40 or more rounded

internodals

! Annacrinus

b? elements of the [Br series not united by syzygy

c! more than 10 arms

Neocrinus

c? ten arms only

Hypalocrinus

Genus Metacrinus P. H. Carpenter

Metacrinus P. H. Carpenter, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl., vol. 10, No. 4, 1882,

p. 167 (no species included).—P. H. Carpenter, “Challenger” Reports,

Zoology, vol. 11, part 32, 1884, p. 344.

Diagnosis.—A genus of Pentacrinide in which the first axillary is beyond

the fourth, and is usually the seventh, post-radial ossicle.

Genotype.—Metacrinus wyvillii P. H. Carpenter, 1884 (cf. A. H. Clark,

Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., vol. 34, 1908, p. 527).

Geographical range.—From southern Japan to the Kermadec Islands and

southeastern Australia, and westward to the Kei Islands.

Bathymetrical range.—From 119 to 1133 meters.

Included forms.—Metacrinus costatus P. H. Carpenter, M. cyaneus H. L.

Clark, M. interruptus P. H. Carpenter, M. moseleyi P. H. Carpenter, M.

nodosus P. H. Carpenter, M. rotundus P. H. Carpenter, M. stewart: P. H.

Carpenter, M. wyviliii P. H. Carpenter, and M. zonatus A. H. Clark.

Saracrinus, gen. nov.

Diagnosis.—A genus of Pentacrinide in which the fourth post-radial

ossicle is the first axillary.

Genotype.—Metacrinus nobilis P. H. Carpenter, 1884.

Geographical range.—From the Korean Straits and the Bonin Islands to

the Kermadec Islands and southeastern Australia,? and westward to Sumatra.

Bathymetrical range-—From 55 to 1133 meters.

Included forms.—Saracrinus acutus (Déderlein), S. angulatus (P. H. Car-

penter), S. bathert (A. H. Clark), S. batheri var. gracilis (A. H. Clark), S.

cingulatus (P. H. Carpenter), S. nobilis (P. H. Carpenter), S. nobilis var.

borealis (A. H. Clark), S. nobilis var. murrayi (P. H. Carpenter), S. nobilis

var.-nobilis (P. H. Carpenter) (= var. typica [Déderlein]), S. nobilis var.

2 It is evident from Dr. H. L. Clark’s description of Metacrinus cyaneus (Piol. Results

Fishing Expeyiments F. I. 8. ‘‘Endeavour,”’ vol. 4, part 1, 1916, p. 9) that some of his

specimens belonged to a species of this genus; the figure, however, represents a true

Metacrinus,

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 13, No. 1

sumatranus (Déderlein), S. nobilis var. tenuis (Gislén), S. nobilis var. timo-

rensis (Déderlein), S. nobilis var. tuberculatus (A. H. Clark), S. serratus

(Déderlein), S. superbus (P. H. Carpenter), S. sulwensis (Déderlein), S.

tuberosus (P. H. Carpenter), and S. varians (P. H. Carpenter).

Genus Cenocrinus Wyville Thomson

Cenocrinus WyvitLE THoomson, The Intellectual Observer, vol. 6, No. 31,

August 1864, p. 2.

Diagnosis.—A genus of Pentacrinide in which the first two post-radial

ossicles are united by syzygy and the second is axillary, the following division

series consist of numerous segments, more than 6 in the outermost, and the

segments of the proximal pinnules have strongly projecting distal angles so

that these pinnules have a strongly serrate outline.

Genotype.—Pentacrinites caput-meduse Miller, 1821 (= Encrinus caput-

meduse Lamarck, 1816 = Isis asteria Linné, 1766).

Geographical range.-—West Indies; Cuba to Barbados.

Bathymetrical range.—F rom shallow water (it has been found on the beach

at Barbados) to 585 meters.

Included species.—Cenocrinus asteria (Linné).

Remarks.—Although this species, which is so frequently figured in text-

books, was first described by Guettard so long ago as 1761, and by Ellis

in 1762, only sixteen specimens of it have so far come to light; but three

undetermined specimens mentioned by early writers may also belong to it.

Genus Teliocrinus Déderlein

Teliocrinus D6DERLEIN, Wiss. Ergebn. d. deutsch. Tiefsee Exped., vol. 17,

Heft 1, 1912, p. 22.

Comastrocrinus A. H. Cuarx, Crinoids of the Indian Ocean, 1912, p. 252.

Diagnosis.—A genus of Pentacrinide in which the first two post-radial

ossicles are united by syzygy and the second is axillary, the division series

beyond the first are variable, but never of 3(1+2), rarely of two, and never

of more than six elements, and the ossicles of the division series and brachials

have everted and strongly produced distal borders.

Genotype.—Teliocrinus asper Déderlein, 1912 (= Hypalocrinus springeri

A. H. Clark, 1909).

Geographical range.-—From western Sumatra northward to the Gulf of

Martaban and westward to the Laccadive Islands and the western coast

of India.

Bathymetrical range.—F rom 366 to 1280 meters. ‘

Included forms.—Teliocrinus liliaceus (A. H. Clark), 7’. ornatus (A. H.

Clark), and 7’. springert (A. H. Clark) (= T.. asper Déderlein).

Genus Endoxocrinus A. H. Clark

Endoxocrinus A. H. Cuarx, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 21, 1908,

p. 151.—A. H. Cuarx, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus., vol. 35, 1908, p. 131.

Diagnosis. —A genus of Pentacrinids in which the first two post-radial

ossicles are united by syzygy and the second is axillary, all the following

division series are 3(1+2), and the first two brachials are united by syzygy.

Genotype.—Encrinus parre Gervais, 1835 (= Encrinus millert Guilding,

1828 [not Encrinites milleri von Schlotheim, 1822] = Pentacrinus miillert

Oersted, 1856).

gAN. 4, 1923 CLARK: REVISION OF PENTACRINIDAE 11

Geographical range.— West Indies; Cuba to St. Vincent.

Bathymetrical range-—From shallow water (whence it is occasionally

brought up by fishermen) down to 526 meters.

Included species —Endoxocrinus parre (Gervais).

Remarks.—In the ‘Challenger’ report Carpenter confused this species

with Diplocrinus maclearanus and his account of ‘‘Pentacrinus miilleri”’ is

based upon specimens of both species. This explains the discrepancy be-

tween the original diagnosis of Hndoxocrinus and the characters of the type

species, and also Déderlein’s confusion regarding parre at the time he pro-

posed the genus Diplocrinus.

Genus Diplocrinus Doderlein

Diplocrinus D6pDERLEIN, Wiss. Ergebn. d. deutsch. Tiefsee Exped., vol. 17,

Heft 1, 1912, p. 21.

Diagnosis.—A genus of Pentacrinide in which all of the division series are

2(1+2), the first two brachials are united by syzygy, and the cirri are long

and stout with more than 20 (usually more than 30) segments, the whorls

being separated by 1-10 pentagonal to stellate internodals.

Genotype.—Here designated as Pentacrinus maclearanus Wyville Thomson,

1877.

Geographical range-—From Florida to Brazil, and from Timor to the

Philippine and Meangis Islands.

Bathymetrical range.—From 154 to 1097 meters.

Included forms.—Diplocrinus alternicirrus (P. H. Carpenter), D. mac-

learanus (Wyville Thomson), and D. siboge (Déderlein).

Annacrinus, gen. nov.

Diagnosis.—A genus of Pentacrinide in which all of the division series

are 2(1+2), the first two brachials are united by syzygy, and the cirri are

short with about 18 segments the whorls being separated by 30-40 or more

rounded internodals.

Genotype.—Pentacrinus wyville-thomsoni (Jeffreys, nomen nudum) Wyville

Thomson, 1872.

Geographical range.—From the Bay of Biscay to Morocco and the Canary

Islands.

Bathymetrical range-—From 1330 to 2002 meters.

Included species.—Annacrinus wyville-thomsont (Wyville Thomson).

Genus Neocrinus Wyville Thomson

Neocrinus Wrvitte Tuomson, The Intellectual Observer, vol. 6, No. 31,

August 1864, p. 7.

Diagnosis.—A genus of Pentacrinide in which the first two post-radial

ossicles are united by synarthry and the second is axillary; I1Br and often

further division series are present.

Genotype.—Pentacrinus decorus Wyville Thomson, 1864.

Geographical range.—West Indies; from Florida to Grenada.

Bathymetrical rangee—From shallow water (sometimes brought up on

Fishermen’s lines) down to 1219 meters.

Included forms.—Neocrinus blakei (P. H. Carpenter), and N. decorus

(Wyville Thomson).

12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 13, No. 1

Genus Hypalocrinus A. H. Clark

Hypalocrinus A. H. Cuarx, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 21, 1908,

p. 152.—A. H. Cuark, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 35, 1908, p. 130.

Diagnosis.—A genus of Pentacrinid# in which the first two post-radial

ossicles are united by syzygy and the second is axillary; there is no further

arm division.

Genotype. —Pentacrinus naresianus P. H. Carpenter, 1882.

Geographical range.—From the Kermadec Islands and Fiji to the Philip

pines and Celebes.

Bathymetrical range.—F rom 621 to 2468 meters. .

Included species —H ypalocrinus naresianus (P. H. Carpenter).

JAN. 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 13

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

166TH MEETING

The 166th meeting of the AcapEemy was held jointly with the Chemical

Society of Washington (Local Section of the American Chemical Society)

in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, the evening of Thursday, March 16,

1922. Dr. R. B. Moorg, Chief Chemist, Bureau of Mines; delivered an

illustrated lecture, entitled, The rare gases: Their history, properties, and uses.

The lecturer gave first an outline of the history of the discovery of the

rare gases. The first one, argon, was discovered jointly by Ramsay and

Raleigh, due to an investigation by them of the difference in the density of

nitrogen obtained from the air and from other sources. The discovery of

helium was based on the observation of Dr. W. F. Hillebrand in 1888 that

certain uranium minerals on heating or on solution in acid gave off gases, a

considerable proportion of which appeared to be nitrogen. Ramsay showed

that the residual gas, instead of being pure nitrogen, contained helium. Neon,

krypton, and xenon were discovered by Ramsay and Travers through the

fractionation of liquid air.

The physical properties of the elements were described, and their occur-

rence in nature fully gone into. Of special interest is the occurrence of

helium not only in certain minerals and in the gases from springs, but also

in natural gases from certain localities in the United States. The gases from

some of the springs in France are particularly rich in helium, going as high

as 10 per cent by volume. On the other hand, whereas the per cent in

natural gas is not nearly so large (the maximum amount being about 1.8 per

cent helium), the total volume of helium available is immense in proportion

to that obtained from springs.

The origin of the rare gases was discussed, particularly the probable origin

of helium: The latter may either come from radioactive changes or, assum-

ing the Nebular hypothesis, from the atmosphere of the sun or the disinte-

gration of supposedly non-radioactive elements, the alpha particle having a

velocity below what is required for the ionization of gases.

The commercial production of helium, argon, and neon was described,

and the Government project for the production of helium from natural gas

for use in dirigibles and balloons was gone into in some detail. The early

work in connection with the three experimental plants during the war and

the development of the project since that time were fully described.

167TH MEETING

The 167th meeting of the AcapEmy was held jointly with the Philosophical

Society of Washington and the Chemical Society of Washington in the

. Assembly Hall of the National Museum, the evening of Wednesday, March 29,

1922. Dr. F. W. Aston, of Cambridge University, England, delivered an

illustrated address on Isotopes and the structure of the atom.

The experimental study of radioactive elements led to the new and revolu-

tionary conclusion that elements might exist which were chemically identical

but which differed in radioactive properties and even in atomic weight. This

idea has been strongly supported by the results of positive ray analysis,

14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 1

which show that many of the non-radioactive elements may exist in two or

more forms having practically identical chemical and spectroscopic properties

but with different atomic weights. Such substances are called isotopes,

because they occupy the same place in the periodic table of the elements.

The speaker described his mass spectrograph, which he has employed with

great effectiveness in the detection of isotopes. The positively charged ions

of the element under examination are projected first through an electric

field and then through a magnetic field, impinging finally upon a photo-

graphic plate. If the element under examination consists of two isotopes,

two lines or bands appear in the spectrum, the position of the line being

determined by the mass of the isotope. Thus, boron (atomic weight 10.9)

has two isotopes with masses 10 and 11; magnesium (atomic weight 24.32)

has three isotopes with masses 24, 25, and 26. Fifteen or more of the non-

radioactive elements have thus been shown to be isotopic mixtures, while

others give no evidence of such complexity.

An excellent account of Dr. Aston’s brilliant work in this field, for which

he has recently been awarded the Nobel prize, may be found in his book

on Isotopes.

168TH MEETING

The 168th meeting of the Acapremy was held jointly with the American

Institute of Electrical Engineers (Washington Section) in the Assembly

Hall of the Cosmos Club, the evening of Thursday, May 18, 1922. Dr. A.

Van Dyck, of the General Electric Company, delivered an address on The

vacuum tube in present day radio.

Doctor Van Dyck first outlined the fundamental relations between current

and voltage within the electron tube or ‘‘triode,’’ and showed how the presence

of a minute charge of electricity on the grid could control the flow of much

larger currents to the plate. Such tubes are useful as rectifiers, detectors,

amplifiers, and modulators. He then showed a large number of slides illus-

trating the astonishing development of the electron tube during the past

few years, and the huge scale on which it is now being applied in radio-

telegraphy and -telephony, as well as to the extension of the range of wire

telephony. Many of the slides illustrated the elaborate equipment installed

in the high-power radio-telephone broadcasting stations.

169TH MEETING

The 169th meeting of the Acapemy was held jointly with the Medical

Society of the District of Columbia and the Society of American Bacteri- ~

ologists Washington Branch) in the Auditorium of the Medical Society,

the evening of Tuesday, September 19, 1922. Dr. K. F. Meyer, Acting

Director of the Hooper Foundation, delivered a lecture, entitled, A summary

of the studies on B. botulinus conducted at the Hooper Foundation for Medical

Research, University of California.

The address was illustrated with lantern slides, and included a description

of the methods employed and a statement of the results obtained in an

intensive study of this subject lasting more than two years Among the

subjects discussed were: Distribution of B. botulinus in nature; the con-

ditions under which it will grow; the biochemical activities of B. botulinus;

the relation of toxin formation to the growth curve of the micro-organism

and to physical evidence of spoilage of the food; heat resistance of B. botu-

JAN. 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 15

linus; epidemiology of botulism. The detailed results of the investigation

are given in a series of articles that are appearing in the Journal of Infectious

Diseases.

170TH MEETING

The 170th meeting of the AcapEmy was held jointly with the Biological

Society of Washington and the Chemical Society of Washington in the

Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, the evening of Thursday, October 19,

1922. Dr. H. J. Hamsurcer, Professor of Physiology, University of Gron-

ingen, Holland, delivered an address, entitled, The increasing significance of

chemistry in medical thought and practice.

Doctor HamBuRGER reviewed briefly the contributions of the older schools

of thought to the chemical aspects of medicine, dwelling particularly upon

the experiments of Paracelsus. In these early contributions there can be

seen the first faltering steps in the construction of a mechanistic physiology.

With the advent of modern chemical experimentation many of the bodily

processes which had been regarded as under ‘‘vitalistic’”? control were shown

to be under the control of such clearly defined forces as those of osmosis,

electrolytic dissociation, and specific chemical reactions.

The complexity of the problem faced by the chemist is illustrated by the

proteins. The chemist has isolated and identified the amino-acids of which

the proteins are composed and he has shown how these, like bricks, may be

put together to form an infinite variety in protein architecture. He has

actually synthesized proteins of immense molecular weight, and although

he can not fomulate the detailed structures of the infinite variety of proteins

found in nature he can account for the variety demonstrated by the delicate

reactions of immunology. |

Of late it has been shown that the body forms substances which, circulating

in the blood, act as messengers to control various processes. Two of these

have been identified chemically and many more are known by their physio-

logical action. The presence or absence of one or another of these so-called

hormones may determine a specific set of characteristics. For instance, it

has been experimentally demonstrated that the sex of a young animal may

be altered by the removal of the ovaries and the implantation of testes.

As each contribution of chemistry is applied in medicine the case for the

mechanistic physiology becomes stronger.

Wiuuiam R. Maxon, Recording Secretary.

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 1

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The President has withdrawn from settlement three groups of prehistoric

towers in southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah. These are known

as the ruins in Ruin Canyon, Holly Canyon, and Cool Spring House on

Cajon Mesa. It is proposed that these groups be made a National Monument.

On the occasion of the meeting of the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution

of Washington on December 14 a reception and exhibition of apparatus and

methods were held at the Administration Building of the Institution.

The Pick and Hammer Club met at the U. 8. Geological Survey on Satur-

day, December 2. Dr. F. E. Wricur spoke on geology in South Africa.

At the meeting of the Physics Club of the Bureau of Standards on Decem-

ber 11, Dr. J. C. Karcuer reported briefly on the papers on acoustics pre-

sented at the Chicago meeting of the American Physical Society, December 1—

2, 1922.

The following public lectures have been given under the auspices of the

Carnegie Institution of Washington: November 28. Tuomas Hunt Mor-

GAN, professor of experimental zoology, Columbia University: The consti-

tution of the hereditary material and its relation to development. December 5.

Henry Norris Russe 1, director of the Princeton University Observatory:

The properties of matter as illustrated in the stars. December 12. WALTER

S. Apams, acting director of the Mount Wilson Observatory: The motions

of the stars.

Dr. Pentti Esxoua, who has been engaged in research work at the Geo-

physical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, for the past

eighteen months, has returned to Finland to resume his work for the Geo-

logical Survey of that country.

Dr. CHARLES W. Gitmore has returned to his duties in the Department

of Paleontology, U. 8. National Museum, after a two months’ absence at

the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.

Dr. Joun B. Hunter, professor of anatomy at the University of Sidney,

Australia, visited Washington in December.

Dr. A. SomMERFELD of the University of Munich, Germany, will deliver a

course of lectures on general quantum theory at the Bureau of Standards

early in March.

Dr. P. V. Wetts of the Optics Division of the Bureau of Standards resigned

on December 1 to take up research work for the E. I. du Pont de Nemours

Company, Parlin, New Jersey.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 18 JANUARY 19, 1923 No. 2

PHYSICS.—Notes on the electric heating of calorimeters.1 WALTER

P. Wuire. Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of

Washington.

Various systematic errors in calorimetry, especially those in the

difficult heat capacity determination, are diminished or removed if

the calorimeter is used to compare two thermal quantities, one of

which is a standard. It now seems that such comparison methods,

with rare exceptions, should be regarded as the normal thing in ac-

curate calorimetry. .

A fundamental standard should be above suspicion, hence the stand-

ard adopted should possess to the full the precision of the comparative

calorimetric measurements. This is much higher than may generally

be recognized. More than ten years ago calorimeters in two different

laboratories showed a precision, i.e., an agreement, of 20 to 30 per

million. It will hardly do to assign such a value for the probable final

accuracy of a calorimetric experiment at present, but it is possible,

under favorable conditions often attainable, and with no great amount

of adjustment or experimenting, to secure, as far as the calorimeter

itself is concerned, a precision of 100 per million, which would usually

mean a like final accuracy if a comparison method is used. The stand-

ard for comparison should be safely more accurate than this, say to 30

per million.

Except in certain specific heat determinations, this standard of

comparison must be a quantity of heat. Of the two available stand-

ards, mechanical and electric, the electric is unquestionably of prepon-

derant practical value. It is really the standard in most cases at the

1 Received December 20, 1922.

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 2

present time,” while it vies with heat of chemical reaction as a conven-

ient secondary standard.

The present paper deals with some features of electric standardiza-

tion which need attention in working to 30 per million.

It seems proper to take as the standard form of electric heating the

well known method of measuring the time, the current through the

heating coil, and the voltage drop across it; hence, for instance, if the

resistance of the coil is used directly, it is to be measured between

points which would be suitable for the attachment of the potential

leads in the standard method. It is often desirable to make the time

of heating as short as 3 minutes.

The special topics to be treated here are: I, the conduct of the de-

terminations, and, II, the error from heat produced in the leads. In

conducting the determinations it is necessary to deal with: A, the

variety of observations, and B, the variations in the heating currrent.*

I, A. Management of the Observations

A second observer, with complete apparatus, can take care of the

electric energy readings, including the time, so that the calorimeter

can be observed as usual. A single practised observer, with good

apparatus, can also do all the work alone if the calorimeter temperature

is read electrically; most simply if a potentiometer can be used for all

the measurements. A superior method, however, for fluid-filled calori-

meters and heatings not over 5 minutes long, is to calculate the average

calorimeter temperature during the heating, by means of observations

made immediately before and after. It evidently makes the second

observer quite superfluous, and enables a single one to give more com-

plete attention to the energy readings. It therefore seems to deserve

examination.

2 To define the calory electrically, (as, say, 4.183 joules), is really only to recognize”

a situation already existing. Such recognition, as soon as it becomes general, will put

an end to the use of the needless multiplicity of ‘‘calories’’ (15-degree calory ; 20-degree

calory, etc.) which now inconveniences us, since the only excuse for more than one

standard is uncertainty as to the exact ratio between values determined by means of

water at different temperatures. Few, if any existing results obtained in water-de-

rived calories are accurate enough to suffer appreciable loss of accuracy through restate-

ment in electric calories, while electrically derived results might often lose by the

opposite transformation.

All this is aside from the question whether heat is to be stated in terms of calories

of approximately 4.183 joules, or in joules directly.

® More difficult is knowing the values of the auxiliary resistance coils concerned in

the energy measurement. This, however, has been adequately treated elsewhere.

JAN. 19, 1923 WHITE: ELECTRIC HEATING OF CALORIMETERS 19

| Indirect Method for Finding the Thermal Head

The conditions on which the calculation method has to be based are

as follows:

It will be convenient to treat first the case where the thermal headis

practically zero at the beginning of the heating. If OA in fig. 1 repre-

sents the course of the calorimeter temperature before the heat is

turned on at the time of A, for the time 7, = AB’, then ABM may

represent the temperature corresponding to the energy which has been

given to the calorimeter. The temperature read is caused to vary

from this simple scheme by two things, first the lag, and then the ther-

CALORMME LA | LMPVL RATE

TIME

Fig. 1

mal leakage. The lag alone would make the temperature follow the

line AHFG, which, if the lag is not unusually large, may with quite

negligible error be taken as coincident between two points, # and F,

with a line CD, parallel to AB, and at a point G with BM. Then

_ the horizontal distance AC, = BD, represents the time Ly, the lag

of the calorimeter temperature behind the energy supply. The shaded

areas ACE and FDG are equivalent, hence the mean temperature and

consequently the mean thermal head will be just the same if the line

followed is ACDM, and this will be taken as the result of the heating.

This temperature pattern is further modified by the thermal leakage

which it itself causes. The modification is merely a fall of tempera-

ture everywhere proportional to the actual thermal head, and giving

that when superposed on the pattern ACDM.,

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 2

For calculating this, the only measurements needed during the cali-

bration are two, of calorimeter temperature or thermal head, one be-

fore the heat is started, the other long enough after its end to. allow

the difference between the converging lines DG and FG to become

negligible. ‘These data may then be used in accordance with the result

of the following demonstration:

If g is the temperature rise corresponding to the heat supplied per

minute, A the jacket temperature, and K the leakage modulus,‘

the temperature, neglecting lags, is easily shown to be:

eared

t44(,-$—a)™ (1)

It will be convenient to write the exponential as a series, giving:

| | Kt K#

Pee ee ee 6 “ (2)

6, — A is O in the present case. Since this expression for calorimeter

temperature is to be multiplied by K to get the temperature change

due to thermal leakage, then for water-filled calorimeters, where K is

seldom much over 0.003, the terms now containing K? and higher

powers will contain a factor of 0.000,000,027 ¢ or less, and may be

neglected unless ¢ is uncommonly large. Similarly other terms con-

taining K? will be omitted later. The physical meaning of the omis-

sion is this: In defining the temperature pattern, which is to be multi-

plied afterward by the very small factor K7’, we will take account of

the change in temperature due to the leakage produced by the

impressed temperature, but find negligibly small the change in the

leakage caused by the change due to the leakage.

If n denotes the time from the end of the heating to the first direct

thermal head measurement afterward, represented by BG, then the

time from D to G isn — Ly. Thermal head is the same as the tem-

perature rise above 6, since it was taken as zero for 6 = 0,. On account

of thermal leakage, the temperature after 7’ + Ly minutes is not

D'D which equals qT but, by (2) qT — qT “ ; and aftern — Ly

minutes more is still lower, or, say, G’H. ‘This is the temperature

actually observed. Then the true integrated thermal head, ¢7’,

‘ Thermal leakage modulus, temperature fall per minute per degree of thermal head.

Thermal head, mean effective temperature difference between calorimeter surface and

surroundings.

JAN. 19, 1923 WHITE: ELECTRIC HEATING OF CALORIMETERS 21

to the time of G is the head during the temperature rise plus that

during the approach of equilibrium, or:

n—L

KT?

a | {a — Kt) dt

the

é Kt

or = | (a — qt Ya +| ar -

which gives for the true integrated thermal head for the interval

T +n:

of" =aP iF hcg pertanng iS cio -aiehaacila -E@-n (3)

2 6 2 2

with a term containing K? omitted. For calculating an equivalent to

this the temperatures at times A and G’ in the figure are given. It is

then a method which sufficiently combines accuracy and convenience

to assume that the temperature, starting after an interval of Ly

minutes from A, rose at a uniform rate for 7’ minutes to the tempera-

ture G’H, and then remained constant at that temperature for n —L

minutes. That is, the temperature rise is simply multiplied by

17+” -—L. Now the temperature at H actually is, in accordance

with (2):

w(t =a ( Be -») (4)

Hence, using the approximation just suggested, the calculated thermal

head is: 6". 7" = of ( - S I —K(n - 1 (Fan as |

which is, again omitting terms containing K?:

grt a gh ERD (n —L) —KT(n—-—L)—-—K(n - DH

The difference between this and (3) is the error of the approximation

made in calculating. It is:

\~ (n — L) of (n — a

6 (¢T’) = qTK -- (6)

12 2 2

The calculated thermal head is too small by this amount. A glance

at (3) shows that this error is over half of the real change in $7”

due to the leakage.

With T = 4,n — L =1, K = 0.003, this error causes a final error of

0.000,036 g7', which is safely negligible even in work of 0.1 per mille

22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 2

accuracy, but can also be corrected for with ease. m — L should usually

be less than half a minute. With the large values of K characteristic

of some aneroid calorimeters, closer approximations would be needed.

In using this method the value of L, the lag represented by BD in

fig. 2, should be known rather accurately, since this affects directly

the time assigned to the higher temperature, and so is in effect multi-

plied by KA@ in getting the thermal leakage. Hence for 0.03 per

mille precision, that is, for security in 0.1 per mille precision, L, if

K is 0.003, should be known to 0.01 minute, like any other lag affect-

ing the whole calorimeter. <A very satisfactory way to determine it is

this: Make a series of blank heatings, observing only thermal head

or calorimeter temperature, as frequently as, say, every 15 seconds.

Then, as in any regular calorimetric determination, find, from the

calorimeter temperature, the total heat supplied, and also find the

thermal leakage up to the time of each 15-second reading, which is not

nearly so troublesome as it may sound. Then, knowing the total

heat, the fact that it was supplied uniformly, and the thermal leakages,

compute the calorimeter temperature corresponding to the heat actu-

ally in the calorimeter at each reading. Comparing these with the ob-

served temperatures gives a series of values for the lag, whose average

is comparatively unaffected by the fluctuations of the rapidly rising

temperature, and of course has the thermal leakage eliminated. ‘The

same data give a check of correction (6) for the apparatus and condi-

tions employed. The total leakage is usually so small that a prede-

termined value of K is quite good enough, hence no rating periods

(“after periods”) are needed. In a number of tests of this procedure

the check of (6) was seldom out by more than 1/3 of (6) which, in this

case, was about the uncertainty of a single reading, and corresponded

to 0.25 second during the rapid rise of temperature. The main

probable cause for the discrepancies observed was the fluctuation

of the rising temperature as read. This seems to show that where’

the lag is constant, the method of calculation here given, corrected by

means of (6), will probably give more accurate results in actual cali-

brations than observations of ¢. Readings once a minute, however,

though less accurate, will, with reasonably good stirring, be sufficient

for observing the thermal head; this is why it can be observed along

with the electric energy.

Such readings may be preferable or even necessary if the blank

heatings have shown the lag to be variable.

Blank heatings will also enable an empirical expression, a substitute

for (6), to be found in cases where the lag is large, and where, conse-

JAN. 19, 1923 WHITE: ELECTRIC HEATING OF CALORIMETERS 23

quently, the two triangular areas are not independent of each other,

and (6) does not hold. Indeed, blank heatings alone might be used

in most cases. The preceding analysis, however, seems generally

useful in giving an idea of the sources of error, and of the precautions

that must be taken if there is an initial thermal head, or if the jacket

temperature changes, matters whose purely empirical investigation

will generally be very tedious and of inferior accuracy.

Extension for Initial Thermal Head

An initial thermal head, that is, a difference between calorimeter and

jacket at the time, A, will cause a thermal leakage which will be simply

added to the one already considered, due to the heating. This leakage

may properly be taken as modifying the initial thermal head which

causes it, but as having no other effect. The two thermal heads, each

with its resultant leakage, may therefore be considered as separate.

The measurement made at the time of H in fig. 1, however, takes them

together. If the simple approximation of (5) is then used the rise

due to the heating, to which the approximation is applied, is under-

estimated, and no.account is taken of the change in ¢, as such. Greater

accuracy would therefore be obtained by adding again the fall in 4¢,,

multiplied by a +n — L, and subtracting the (integrated) real loss of

thermal head due to the diminution of ¢,._ The fallin ¢, is ¢,K (7+7),

: ae 4 T+n\

the loss of integrated thermal head from it is ¢, K 5 ; the

application of the method of (5) is thus easily found to give a result

which is too low by

wk(3—z)@4n (7)

in addition to (6).

Change in jacket temperature can be similarly treated. If the

jacket is electrically heated, so as to give a nearly adiabatic method,

its lag, as usually in adiabatic work, will be as important as the lag

in the calorimeter.

Initial Change in Heating

When the current is first turned into the heater the resulting change

of temperature of the wire will generally cause an initial change of

resistance and the value for the first few seconds will be different from

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 2

that measured. If the resistance for the first 10 seconds of 3 minutes

differs by 1 per mille from the later, measured value, the discrepancy is

appreciable in work of 0.1 per mille precision. Changes greater than

this are possible, even in constantan wire, if the attempt is made to

run at anything like the highest safe temperature. Although difficult

to follow during a regular run, the change can easily be measured, and

should be, by special experiments where nothing else is attempted,

but subsequent variations in it will of course cause error. Unlike

the lag effect already discussed, it has no tendency to cancel itself,

since the reverse change in resistance comes only after the current has

ceased to flow. To keep the heater coil running at a low temperature

diminishes this error, and also that from loss of heat along the leads.

I, B: DEALING WITH UNSTEADY BATTERIES

Unsteady batteries are scarcely compatible with the very highest

precision; with them the best results are obtained by some departure

from standard procedure. (1) Very frequent, uninterrupted measure-

ments of current or voltage tend to diminish the error from irregularly

varying voltage, but demand either two observers with complete sets

of apparatus, or else reliance upon the constancy of values for coil

resistance, correlated with current and calorimeter temperature, de-

termined by separate special experiments. (2) The voltameter,

giving directly the product of current and time, handles perfectly the

most sudden and irregular fluctuations® of current, and still leaves the

observer’s time free for other things. This time can be employed for

measuring the coil resistance by a Wheatstone bridge, using the heating

current itself as the bridge current.° This involves a loss of simplicity

in the electric circuit, but is of advantage if it is desired to shunt part of

the current by the heater, in order to give the voltameter the relatively

large current which promotes accuracy with it; the Wheatstone bridge

measurements can also be used as measurements of the shunt ratio.

A further disadvantage is the relatively long time, 20 minutes at the

very least, needed for high precision with the voltameter.

5 There is evidently an error from very large fluctuations, owing to the fact that

the heat is as the square of the current, but this error is usually quite negligible, and

if not, can be avoided by a little coarse voltage regulation. The voltameter result is

also sufficient when accompanied only by accurate measurements of voltage. In this

case the voltameter makes the time measurement unnecessary, but does not deal well

with voltage fluctuations.

6 This has been done; the reference is not at hand. The coil resistance will vary

very much less than the current, hence is far more easily measured when the current

is unsteady.

JAN. 19, 1923 WHITE: ELECTRIC HEATING OF CALORIMETERS 25

II. ERRORS CONNECTED WITH THE LEADS

The proper place to put the potential terminals, whose location

determines the amount of heat that comes into the measurement, is not

at the ends of the constantan wire,’ but outside the calorimeter alto-

gether, at a point such that the heat generated in the lead wire between

it and the calorimeter equals that flowing from the wire to the calo-

rimeter. In general, the accurate location of this point is rather diffi-

cult, but it becomes easy if the heat given to the air can be neglected,

since the proper point is then simply the middle of the free portion of

the leads. The heat given to the air is easily found to be:

QX — = tanh p X (8)

where Q is the heat generated in each centimeter of the wire, 2X is

the length of each lead between surfaces, and the parameter » =

a , where F is emissivity, K thermal conductivity, A area, P

perimeter. Langmuir’s stationary surface layer rule has been used

to get H.8 Relatively crude data are here sufficient, since the attempt

is only to determine when certain quantities are negligible, not to

compute appreciable corrections.

One ampere at 110 volts generates 4733 calories in 3 minutes. In

1 em. of No. 24 lead wire (about 0.5 mm. in diameter) it would generate

0.03626 calories, which number can conveniently be doubled, since we

are dealing with a pair of leads, so the heat is 0.073 calories per cm. of

lead length. For this wire, », calculated as in the paper just referred

to, may be taken as 0.28, and 0.51 for No. 30 wire, while 0.16 was given

for No. 18. We then have the values in table 1 for heat given to the

air and not delivered at the ends, in 3 minutes.

It thus appears that, when the voltage across coil terminals is 110,

and the current 1 ampere, with No. 30 leads 4 cm. long, No. 24 leads

10 cm. long, and No. 18 leads 28 cm. long, the heat lost to the air from

the leads may be simply neglected. This is true even if the potential

leads increase the loss to the air, which they will scarcely doif wound

helically on the others and cemented there by shellacking. More-

over, the heat that goes into the air will in part return to the calo-

7Cf. H. C. Dickinson, Combustion calorimetry and the heats of combustion of

. . Bull. Bur. Standards 11: 222, 1914.

5 Cf, Walter P. White, The conditions of calorimetric precision. J. Am. Chem.

Soc. 40, 1882, 1918.

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 2

rimeter, so the final loss is less than given in the table. On the other

hand, the wire will not take the calorimeter temperature just at

the surface, and the point of mean effective contact may be 1 or 2

em. within. This will make the air loss as great as if part of the extra

length were added to the wire in air, so it will be safer, in applying table

1, to take 2X as 2 cm. more than the free length of the wire.

TABLE 1.—Approximate Loss To THE AiR, IN CALORIES, IN 3 MinuTEs FROM HALF

or 2 Leap Wires or LENGTH 2X BACH.

DIAMETER, Inm.

paths Oe

1 0.25

l ampere 1 0.00016 0.023

2 0.0012 0.14

3 0.0039 0.35

+ 0.0086

5 0.016

14 0.14

5 amperes 1 0.57

2.5

6.5

5 amperes 0.5 0.14

1.5

3.5

Of more importance may be the effect of the uncertain contact on

the flow of the heat that does not go into the air. If the contacts are

symmetrical no error results; if one is effectively 1 em. deeper than the

other, that is equivalent to a displacement of 0.5 em. in the potential

lead attachment. This, for 1 ampere, 110 volts, gives a systematic

error of about 8 per million of the total heat with No. 24, and of only -

30 per million even with No. 30 leads.

Thus with a little care even No. 30 wire will usually make satisfac-

tory leads for a heater that can raise a liter calorimeter 5° in an ap-

propriately short time. Coiled leads of larger wire are safer, but less

convenient. Direct leads of larger wire increase various undesirable

leakages unnecessarily.° If 5 amperes is used the heat produced

in the wires is 25 times as great, but at 110 volts the allowable leakage

® For a precaution necessary with No. 18, or even with No. 24 leads see Walter P.

White, op. cit., p. 1884.

JAN. 19, 1923 WHITE: ELECTRIC HEATING OF CALORIMETERS 27

is 5 times as great; not so if the 5 amperes is used to give the same heat,

at lower voltage. The limits of toleration of air loss for each case are

shown in the second and third sections of table 1. For a given size of

wire the proportional error is constant for a given coil resistance,

regardless of current or voltage. The error from lack of symmetry in

the thermal contacts at the two ends of the free portion of the leads

may also become serious. For 1 cm. difference, 5 amperes and 110

volts, this error is nearly 40 per million for No. 24 wire, which there-

fore seems the very smallest that should be used for 100 per million

precision with coils of as low resistance, 22 ohms, as is required for

this current and voltage. Another advantage in using slender leads

is that they can be removed from the calorimeter with but little change

in the total heat capacity. This is assuming that the heater itself

remains, so that any uncertainty there may be as to its heat capacity

does not affect the application of the result of the calibration.

The conductivity of the potential leads may disturb the symmetrical

distribution of the heat generated in the current leads. This can be

avoided by making the potential leads symmetrical with respect to

calorimeter and jacket, as by having one lead run from the neutral

point into the calorimeter, there turning around (still insulated elec-

trically) to run entirely across the gap and out through the jacket.

Thus far the upper part of the heater case and the leads within it

have been taken as at the calorimeter temperature, except for a slight

correction due to the effect of heat coming in from the free part of the

leads. If the upper part of the case or the leads are heated above

the calorimeter temperature by the heating coil itself, the only way of

avoiding an uncertain correction appears to be to run the leads a

sufficient distance in close contact with some conducting body which,

by immersion in the water or attachment to the calorimeter wall, or

in some other way, is kept at the calorimeter temperature. If only the

leads are heated and not the top of the case, it may be sufficient merely

to have the leads run a considerable distance before leaving the case.

The required distances can be calculated by the formulas of the

section on Conduction through the Jacket, in the paper already referred

to. For example, the following results were thus obtained for No. 24

wire, running 5 cm. in the case and 6 cm. through the air to the jacket.

For this wire » in air has been taken as 0.28. For the wire in close

thermal contact with a plate on one side only, as it would be if wound

around a central mica strip in a flat case, » can be taken as 0.040

Then if @ is the temperature of the inner end, next the heater coil, of

the 5 cm. of wire, referred to the calorimeter-air-jacket temperature as

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 2

zero, the temperature where the wire enters the air is 0.18 @, and the

heat carried away by 2 leads in 3 minutes is 0.037 6, calories. For

110 volts and 1 ampere the systematic error of such an arrangement

with the heating coil running at 120° would be about 1 per mille, and

the coil must heat less than 3° to safely avoid systematic error in work

of 0.1 per mille precision. By doubling the length of lead in the in-

closure the permissible heating is increased, somewhere near 8 times.

A doubling of » would have an identical effect, but would be rather

hard to secure with the same size of wire. It therefore seems that it

would generally be very desirable to insert portions of finer lead wire

next the coil, using enough larger wire further out, but well within the

calorimeter, to dissipate to the calorimeter the heat generated in the

fine wire. Advantageous dimensions can be calculated from the data

already given. The insertion of too much copper resistance gives

the heater resistance too great a temperature coefficient. There is

little danger of trouble from this cause, however, as long as its possi-

bility is not overlooked.

The assumption of temperature equality between calorimeter and

jacket, used in this section, is justified as follows: The temperature

distributions and flows existing at any time are the resultant of the

electric heat and of the jacket-calorimeter difference, and may be

resolved into components due to these different sources. Since by

a well known principle the resultants of such components can be ob-

tained by simple addition, and since the results of the calorimeter-

jacket difference are taken care of in the regular procedure, we may

treat the electric effects alone, as if the others were non-existent.

BOTANY.—The genus Microstaphyla.|. Winutram R. Maxon,

National Museum.

Among the many diverse ferns comprising the tribe Acrosticheae

of the family Polypodiaceae one of the most interesting of all is the

diminutive plant of St. Helena first described by the younger Linnaeus

in 1781 as Adiantum furcatum, and later by Jacquin as Osmunda

bifurcata. By the older writers it was placed at one time or another in

no less than seven different genera, before serving as the type and sole

species of Microstaphyla Presl. This, like so many other of Presl’s

genera, was submerged in synonymy by later writers. In 1895 a

closely related Bolivian plant, with simple instead of pinnate sporo-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived November 29, 1922.

JAN. 19, 1923 MAXON: THE GENUS MICROSTAPHYLA 29

phylls, was described by Mrs. Elizabeth G. Britton as Acrostichum

moorei. Since then the systematic status of Microstaphyla and the

nomenclature of the Bolivian plant have received a good deal of at-

tention at the hands of Underwood? and Christ.* Christ comes to the

conclusion that, notwithstanding the close general agreement in dis-

sected foliage leaves shown by the St. Helena and Bolivia species,

the slender scaly rhizome and simple sporophylls of the latter plant

form a definite connecting-link between Microstaphyla (in its original

sense) and Elaphoglossum. The characters of Rhipidopteris and of

certain small Andean species of Hlaphoglossum are discussed in this

connection, and both Microstaphyla and Rhipidopteris are reduced to

the rank of subgenera under Elaphoglossum—the former to include

the two species with pinnate sterile fronds, the latter those with pal-

mately or flabellately divided sterile fronds. Nevertheless, both

Hieronymus and Underwood have regarded Microstaphyla and Rhipt-

dopteris as valid genera, and in this opinion the writer is obliged to

concur. Christ’s arguments lose none of their weight from the evolu-

tionary standpoint; the question is merely upon the rank to be as-

signed to the forms as they exist today. In their peculiarly distinctive

sterile fronds both Rhipidopteris and Microstaphyla depart too widely

from simple-leaved Elaphoglossum to be retained in that genus.

Very recently a third species of Microstaphyla has been discovered

in Colombia. This is described below. There is given also the princi-

pal synonymy of the two species previously known.

1. Microstaphyla furcata (L. f.) Fée, Mém. Foug. 7: 45. pl. 18. 1857.

Adiantum furcatum L. f. Suppl. Pl. 447. 1781.

Osmunda bifurcata Jacq. Coll. Bot. 3: 282. pl. 20, f. 2. 1789.

Acrostichum bifurcatum Swartz, Journ. Bot. Schrad. 18007: 13. 1801.

Not A. bifurcatum Cav. 1799.

Gymnogramma bifurcata Kaulf. Wes. Farrnkr. 81. 1827.

Darea furcans Bory, Dup. Voy. Bot. 1: 269. pl. 35, f. 2. 1828.

Olfersia bifurcata Presl, Tent. Pter. 234. 1836.

Polybotrya bifurcata J. Sm. Journ. Bot. Hook. 4: 150. 1841.

Microstaphyla bifurcata Presl, Epim. Bot. 161. 1851.

Known only from St. Helena, where it has been repeatedly collected. Of

the two specimens at hand, one is no. 420 of Cuming’s historic collection;

the other bears no collector’s name.

The present species is too well known to require detailed discussion.

Besides the illustrations above given, those of Schkuhr and Hooker may be

2 Torreya 5: 87-89. 1905.

3 Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 1: 588-592. text fig. 1901; ibid. II. 3: 148. 1903: Torreya 5:

123-126. 1905.

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 2

cited. Hooker’s comments on Fée’s error in associating with it the plant

now called Elaphoglossum dimorphum (Hook. & Grev.) Moore are of interest.

2. Microstaphyla moorei (E. G. Britton) Underw. Torreya 5: 88. 1905.

Acrostichum moorei E. G. Britton, Mem. Torrey Club 4: 273. 1895.

Rhipidopteris rusbyi Christ, Farnkr. Erde 46. 1897.

Elaphoglossum bangii Christ, Mon. Elaph. 99. 1899.

Elaphoglossum mooret Christ, Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 3: 148. 1903.

Microstaphyla bangii Hieron. Bot. Jahrb. Engler 34: 539. 1904.

Founded on specimens collected near Yungas, Bolivia, in 1890, by Miguel

Bang (no. 558), of which two sheets are at hand. The specific name is in

honor of Thomas Moore, whose fern collection in the Kew Herbarium is

said to contain a specimen collected by Lechler “near Sachapata, on trunks

of trees, and distributed as no. 2609, Plantae Peruvianae.’”’ Hieronymus

also lists Lechler 2609 under this species, probably with correctness. An

additional specimen has recently been received from Bolivia: On tree-trunks,

among moss, Hacienda Simaco, on the trail to Tipuani, altitude 1,400 meters,

January, 1920, Buchtien 5297; this agrees very closely with the Bang material.

It is to be noted that Hieronymus cites also a Colombian specimen, col-

lected in 1882 by Schmidtchen, the exact locality not stated. This, which

has not been seen by the writer, not improbably pertains to the next species.

3. Microstaphyla columbiana Maxon, sp. nov.

Plants terrestrial, entangled in a loose mat. Rhizomes wide-creeping,

30 cm. long or more, about 0.5 mm. in diameter, flexuous, sparingly branched,

bearing a few distant roots, brownish, sulcate, flattish or irregularly trique-

trous in drying, subpersistently paleaceous, the scales loosely appressed-

imbricate, pale yellowish brown, membranous, translucent, 2 to 2.5 mm.

long, narrowly deltoid-ovate, attenuate, attached above the closed sinus of

the very deeply cordate base (the lobes widely overlapping), with a few,

mostly basal teeth. Sterile fronds numerous, borne singly 1 to 5 em. apart,

ascending, 8 to 18 em. long; stipes continuous with the rhizome, 3 to 7 em.

long, about 0.5 mm. thick, brownish and terete at the extreme base, upward

greenish and compressed, slightly alate at summit, deciduously paleaceous

throughout, the scales ovate-oblong, acute, often coarsely dentate; blades

lanceolate, caudate, 5 to 11 em. long, 2 to 3 em. broad just above the base,

essentially pinnate at base, nearly so throughout; pinnae 5 to 10 pairs, -

oblique, subopposite at base, mostly alternate above, distant (5 to 10 mm.

apart on each side), linear-cuneiform, 1 to 3 mm. broad just above the nar-

rowly decurrent base, dichotomously forked at or beyond the middle (the

divisions 2 to 8 mm. long, the distal one usually the longer, one or both deeply

retuse), or those toward the apex linear-subspatulate, merely retuse, the

apical ones gradually reduced, finally evident as coarse distant serrations of

the long-caudate tip; veins mostly arising in pairs at base of pinnae, once or

twice forked, 4 branches usually occurring at middle o: pinna, 2 extending

to each division, clavate; leaf tissue glabrous, dull green, membrano-herba-

ceous, opaque, the venation seen with difficulty. Fertile fronds wanting.

‘ Krypt. Gew. pl. 2; Second Cent. Ferns, pl. 91.

JAN. 19, 1923 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 31

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,140,001, collected in dense

forest above La Cumbre, Department of El Valle, western cordillera of

Colombia, at about 2,200 meters altitude, September 18, 1922, by Ellsworth

P. Killip (no. 11365). The description is drawn partly from a second sheet

of the type collection. Duplicates will be distributed to the Gray Herbarium,

the New York Botanical Garden, and the Academy of Natural Sciences,

Philadelphia, in whose interests also the recent botanical exploration in

western Colombia was conducted under the leadership of Dr. F. W. Pennell.

Related to Microstaphyla moorei, which is distinguished readily, however,

by (1) its oblong, non-caudate blades, the basal pinnae not reduced and the

apical ones few and abruptly discontinuous; (2) its very much narrower

divisions, these acute and invariably with a single veinlet; (3) its delicately

membranous, translucent leaf tissue, the venation being readily evident

without the aid of transmitted light. 4. moore: is a more delicate plant

than M. columbiana in every way; in some fronds all the pinnae are undivided.

Fertile fronds of M. columbiana, unrepresented in the material at hand, are

presumably similar in general form to those of M. moorei.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

A recent circular to employees of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey

calls attention to tests made in the section of field records which indicate

that mounted drawing paper in rolls fails to give flat surfaces when cut into

lengths for immediate use. Due to unequal seasoning, surplus paper exists

near the lengthwise edges of the rolls and this condition brings about a notice-

able distortion in projections constructed on the sheets. In order to minimize

this unequal seasoning it is suggested that entire rolls of mounted drawing

paper, when received in the field, be immediately cut into sheets of suitable

lengths for smooth plotting work and stowed face down in a ventilated drawer.

Final tests of the new field automatic tide gauge of the U. S. Coast and

Geodetic Survey were made recently at the Lighthouse Wharf in Washington.

These tests showed that this tide gauge will give thoroughly satisfactory

records for use of hydrographic parties.

32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 2

The Carnegie Institution of Washington will continue to cooperate in the

seismologie work and investigation of crustal movement in California. Special

attention will be paid to the development of new instruments for the measure-

ment of small earth tremors. An interesting feature of the recent exhibit at

the Institution was a map showing the location of faults in California. The

production of this map was made possible by the cooperation of scientific and

mercantile interests. It will be published in final form by the Seismological

Society of America.

Two destroyers of the U. 8. Navy are engaged in making sounding measure-

ments off the west coast of the United States with the “sonic” sounding appa-

ratus. Parallel runs are being made at distances of five or ten miles and

soundings are taken up to the two thousand fathom mark. The object is

a complete topographic map of that part of the bottom of the sea.

The Petrologists’ Club met on Tuesday, December 19, at 8 p.m. Dr.

N. L. Bowen spoke on The action of magmas on autolithic and xenolithic

material. He reviewed the various possible directions of crystallization and

subsequent reaction between liquid and solid phases, and thus accounted

for the various series of igneous rocks which are found in many localities.

Among those on the program of the thirty-fifth annual meeting of the

Geological Society of America at Ann Arbor, Michigan, December 28-30,

1922, were the following members from Washington: M. AvuRroussEau,

N. L. Bowen, Witt1am Bowtis, ArtTHuR Keiru, Wits T. Ler, and Frep

E. WRIGHT. .

At the twenty-fourth annual meeting of the American Physical Society

at Boston, December 27-29, 1922, papers were given by the following repre-

sentatives of Washington institutions: L. A. Bavrer, P. D. Foorr, F. L.

Monuter, W. J. Peters, and FRANK WENNER.

Mr. M. G. Donk, for the last two years connected with the Edgewood

Arsenal, Chemical Warfare Service, has joined the staff of the chemical

division of the U. S. Tariff Commission. He will specialize in heavy

chemicals.

Mr. Cuartes W. Hoy of the Smithsonian Institution left Washington

December 15 for a two years’ trip in Central China, in the basin and moun-

tains of the Yang-tse, devoting most of his time to collecting mammals, birds,

and fishes.

Representative R. Waniton Moore was appointed a regent of the

Smithsonian Institution December 7.

Dr. Barney WILLIs, emeritus professor of geology, Stanford University,

sailed for Chile January 11 to investigate the evidence of the recent earth-

quake, in response to an invitation sent to the Carnegie Institution

of Washington through the Chilean Embassy.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 13 Frsruary 4, 1923 No. 3

ETHNOLOGY.—WNew light on the early history of the Siouan peoples.

JoHN R. Swanton, Smithsonian Institution.

Relationship between several of the languages of the western Siouan

group was recognized by French missionaries about the beginning of

the eighteenth century. In 1836 Gallatin brought most of the tribes

of this division together under the name afterwards adopted by

Powell in his well-known scientific classification.”

In the year 1870 Dr. Horatio Hale had obtained from a few sur-

viving members of the Tutelo tribe incorporated with the Iroquois

a vocabulary demonstrating beyond question the Siouan connection

of this former Virginian people, and the results of his work were

published in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society for

1883-4, pp. 1-47. Dr A. 8S. Gatschet of the Bureau of American

Ethnology visited the Catawba tribe of South Carolina in 1881 and

on the basis of a considerable body of linguistic material then collected

suggested a Siouan relationship for them, a suggestion which subse-

quent researches by Dr. J. O. Dorsey, the Siouan specialist of the

Bureau, entirely confirmed.? With these two languages as a basis

further investigations by the same students and by Mr. James Mooney

resulted in the identification of a large eastern Siouan area in the

piedmont region of Virginia and the Carolinas, including at the time

of the English colonization about thirty distinct tribes. The results

of this work were incorporated by Mr. Mooney into a bulletin en-

titled ‘‘The Siouan Tribes of the East’? which remains a standard

authority on the subject today.

1 Received January 3, 1923.

27th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 111-112.

3 Ibidem.

4 Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 22.

34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 3

In the fall of 1886 Dr. Gatschet, in the course of linguistic researches

among the tribal remnants of Louisiana, came upon a few individuals

of the Biloxi tribe, formerly occupying the neighborhood of the bay

of that name in southern Mississippi. The vocabulary collected by

him showed undoubted Siouan affinities, and in 1892 and 1893 Dr.

Dorsey made visits to the same people and collected a large amount

of material from them which was edited by the writer after Dr.

Dorsey’s death and published in Bulletin 47.5

In 1908, among the remnant of Tunica Indians living near Marks-

ville, Louisiana, the writer happened to meet with a single individual

of the Ofo, or Ofogoula, tribe, previously supposed to have been

Muskhogean, and the vocabulary collected by him, although relatively

small, proves without doubt that this little tribe was also of the great

Siouan connection. More detailed information regarding both the

Ofo and the Biloxi will be found in the Bulletin just mentioned.®

A superficial comparison between the Biloxi and Ofo languages on

one hand and the remaining Siouan dialects on the other, made when

the material from the first two was being prepared for publication,

brought out the rather surprising fact that, intead of resembling the

Siouan language nearest them, Quapaw, they were connected rather

with the Tutelo of Virginia and the Dakota of the far north. At this

time it was assumed that since Tutelo and Catawba were both dialects

of the eastern Siouan group they must be more closely related to each

other than was either to any language of another group and that what

was true of Tutelo must necessarily be true of Catawba. A few years

later, however, the writer paid a visit to the Catawba remnant in

South Carolina and in connection with his visit the material collected

by Dr. Gatschet about forty years ago was reéxamined. Almost

immediately a striking difference was perceived, not merely as between

Catawba and Tutelo but as between Catawba and all other Siouan

languages. The same conclusion has been reached by another inves-

tigator in the same field, Dr. Frank G. Speck, who also feels certain

that the differences had a cultural aspect. Catawba is evidently a

survival of a peculiar southeastern Siouan group which took in all of

the Siouan tribes of South Carolina and probably most of those of

North Carolina as well.

In order to place the relationship between these languages on a firm

basis the writer has taken Hale’s comparative vocabulary of Tutelo,

Dakota, and Hidatsa as a basis and added to it the Biloxi, Ofo,

5 Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 47.

6 Tbidem, pp. 5-12.

FEB. 4, 1923 SWANTON: HISTORY OF SIOUAN PEOPLES 30

Catawba, Winnebago, and Quapaw equivalents, so far as this could

be done without a too great expenditure of time. He has also in-

cluded the few words of Woccon preserved to us in the vocabulary

of Lawson.’ This comparison leads to the following conclusions:

1. Woccon must be classed with Catawba rather than Tutelo.

Of about fifty-nine opportunities to compare Woccon with the other

languages resemblances to Catawba appeared to exist in about twenty-

six cases, while there were fourteen with Tutelo, Biloxi, and Hidatsa,

fifteen with Dakota, and twelve with Ofo.

2. Leaving Woccon out of consideration, Catawba stands strikingly

apart from the rest. In order to reénforce this fact I have made a

table (p. 36) containing more than forty cases in which all or a large

part of the Siouan dialects compared agree with each other and differ,

sometimes strikingly, from Catawba.

3. As might have been anticipated, Biloxi and Ofo are quite closely

related. Their nearest congeners in the north are, upon the whole,

the Tutelo, but it is singular that their next closest relatives should be

the comparatively distant Dakota. The Omaha-Osage division is

decidedly farther removed. ‘The testimony yielded by the languages

of the Biloxi and Ofo thus points directly away from those Siouan

tribes nearest them in geographical position both east and west and

toward the northern tribes of each of those divisions.

How this puzzling inversion could have been brought about it was

impossible to suggest until recently, and the past history of the Biloxi

is, indeed, still shrouded in mystery. On the map of Baron de Crenay

compiled in 1733 we find the name “‘Bilouchy”’ affixed to a town at the

mouth of a small creek on the western side of Alabama River, in what

is now Wilcox County, Alabama.* This may indicate a stage in the

southward migration of the Biloxi tribe; it is the only clew we have.

Our knowledge of the past movements of the second southern

Siouan tribe, the Ofo, is not much more assured, but recently data

has accumulated tending toward a conclusion interesting in itself to

the ethnologist and of cardinal importance to students of the archae-

ology of southern Ohio and the neighboring sections.

As stated in my account of the Ofo in Bulletin 47 this tribe is called

by the Tunica Uepi (Ushpee),° and we know that this appellation is

an old one because it appears four times in the very earliest Louisiana

documents, in the several forms “‘Ouispe,” ‘‘Oussipés,” ‘‘Ounspik”’

7 Lawson, Hist. of Carol., 367-377.

8 See map accompanying Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 73.

® Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 47: 10-11.

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 3

TABLE TO ILLUSTRATE THE

ENGLISH CATAWBA BILOX- OFO TUTELO

alive, live warl unoxé nonki ini

all nitem(p) ohi teupi hik

ax pase‘ a®sépi a"fhepi nisép

ball wap nitapi (plocka) tapi

bear nume oti u"thi minti

black hawoktei sapi ifthépi as@pi

blue wu, wi tohi ithohi asoti

bone sap aho aho wahdi

dance, to ibari ditci litei wagitci

day yap napi no"pi nahambe

dead, die ware te thé té

dog ta®si tednki atchufki teonki

ear duksa nixuxwi nashusi naxodx

eat, to hara, ra duti tuti lati

father nane adi athi eati

fire i™pic peti apheti pite

fish yi o ho wihdi

foot yipa isi (yukpe, leg) Yfhi ici

four paprere topa topa topa

ghost yi"we anatei na"tci wanuntci

good kuni, kuri pi tcema pi

grandfather tatewa ka®xo étiko"so eku"i

grandmother istei kaka" ikoni hig"

great patki ta" itho® itaé*i

hair hisi hi? ihi naté"we

hand iksa teak iteaki haki

he 0 e, i i e, i

head iska De UY Le 21) ok eee te es pastiye

house suk ti athi ati

I, me sa-, ne- nk- ba ma

iron dorob masa amo"fi ma*s

kill, to gua kte (to hit) kthé kté

mother istci 0°ni o*ni ina

mouth sumu ihi ihi ihi

neck pok dodi itcoti taséi

one népé so"sa nifha nog

pound, to himi¢ péhe phe pahé

rain ukso xohi ashohi xaw6i

sister (man’s) hateu tanki itho"fka tabank

sit, to wa" naiki nonki (maha) nafka

six dipkrare akaxpé akapé akasp

tobacco umpa yani iteani yehni

tooth yap i"su ifha ihi

town we ta® i"tufa mimpi

tree yap aya" itea® oni, wié®

us, we ha nkixtu o" mae, wae

water yehi& ani ani mani

yellow wuyantkare si fhi sii

FEB. 4, 1923 SWANTON: HISTORY OF SIOUAN PEOPLES 37

DISTINCTIVENESS OF THE CATAWBA DIALECT

DAKOTA HIDATSA WINNEBAGO QUAPAW

ni hiwakatsa ni ni

iyuxpa xukaheta ana"te zani; anahité, juhi (many)

o®spe maipsa maza i"spe

tapa wMHGiapI> (yy {hy heer: Poosvein Ss Mere byisees

mato daxpitsi ho"te; mateo (grizzly) wasa (blk.); ma"tu (grizzly)

sapa cipi sép cape; sa, sewe

to; sota tohi tco tu

hu hidu hucerigera, hucarek wahi

watci kidigi waci uja

a™pé mape ha"ba haba, hatba

ta te t’e t’e

cunka macuka cuinga cunké

noghe akux natca na"ti

yuta duti warutc- d¢até

ate ate hia*tei edé¢ate (his f.)

etatmanelatpee ST) CN 32 petca peté

hogha® mua ho hu

_ siha itsi si, si sl

topa topa teop tuwa

wanaghi nokidaxi wanaxi wanaxe

wacte; pi tsiki pi huta", uxta

tunika*cida® adutaka hitcoke etika™

ku®sitku iku hiko eka

tanka ixtia xete, xata tafika

hi? hi nateu hi"; nijiha (ké) (head hair)

cake (claw) caki naba na"pe

iye i e e

pa atu nasu; pa-(ksi) (head bent) | pahi

tipi ati teija® ti

wa, ma ma ne wie (1)

maza uetsa maza-ra mazé

kte Fr ee ene ee ee eee

ina hidu hid"ni (his mother) eht, eha®

i i i-da iha

dote ampa teaceda, teacera taita; tuté (throat)

wa'ji nuetsa -cana mi", mi"xti

apa pat ee. oper See (in composition) pé

maghaju xade niju niji

tanka, itaku wai-tcke etufike (his sister)

iyotafika amaki ninka kni®; nika, nifika (or std.)

cakpe ENGIN 0G) Sg mae toch leet capé

tea*di ope dani tani

hi hi hida, hira hi

oto"we ati tci-naika ta"wa®; ta" (abbr.)

tea® mina na® ja", 306

us mugewy Ow ST, i ufikuwe

mini mini ni ni

Zi tsi zi zi

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 13, No. 3

(evidently misprinted), and “‘Onspée.’”’ It need occasion no surprise

that the term appears alongside of the more common name Ofogoula

in three of these cases. ‘“‘Ofogoula,’’ whether it was or was not de-

rived from the term current within the tribe, was the one which had

been adopted into Mobilian, the trade language of the lower Mississippi.

The fourth is from the Jesuit Father Gravier who got all of his informa-

tion from Father Davion at the Tunica mission or else from Tunica

Indians directly. It is only natural that they should have employed

merely the term current among themselves. Later, when the French

came to know these Indians better, the foreign designation disappears,

naturally enough, and only the name Ofogoula remains.

This latter form certainly contains the Choctaw and Mobilian ending

okla, people, and since ofe means “‘dog’”’ in the same languages it was

natural that Du Pratz should translate the whole “dog people.”’ In

Bulletin 47 I expressed the opinion that this was due to a confusion

of the native name of the tribe, Ofo, with the Mobilian word ofe.!° It

is, however, possible that the Mobilian designation had been com-

pletely taken over by the people to whom it was applied. At any

rate there are other evidences that the Ofo were at times actually

called “Dog People.’’ Thus in an account of the route from the

Illinois by the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico by Tonti,

written between 1685 and 1690, he speaks of ““The Ionica (Tunica),

Yazou, Coroa, and Chonque . . . . ontheriverof the Yazou”

scattered along its lower course." The Ofo is the only known tribe

to which the word Chonque might apply and it closely resembles the

common Siouan term for ‘‘dog.” In Ofo this would be atchunki

(achunke), but Tontihad Quapaw interpreters with him at times and

in Quapaw it would be cufké (shunke). The name appears once

more in the Carolana of Daniel Coxe, who says: “Ten leagues higher

[on the Mississippi above the mouth of a river called ‘“Matchicebe”

upon which dwelt the Mitchigamia], on the east side, is the river and

nation of Chongue, with some others to the east of them.”’? It is also

laid down upon his map. In this latter case there is nothing to

identify the tribe mentioned with the Ofo except the resemblance

between the name applied to them and that used by Tonti, and our

inability to identify them with any other people.

The map and text of Coxe present us, however, with another possi-

bility which seems at one and the same time to throw more light on

10 Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 47: 10.

11 French, Hist. Coll. La.: 82. 1846.

12 Coxe, Carolana, 12, 1741, and map.

FEB. 4, 1923 SWANTON: HISTORY OF SIOUAN PEOPLES 39

the subject and to add to its confusion. This is connected with a

people called by Coxe ‘‘Ouesperies,”’ the similarity of whose name with

the Tunica name for the Ofo was first suggested by Mr. W. E. Myer.

After describing the Quapaw villages at the mouth of the Arkansas

River Coxe says: ‘‘Ten leagues higher is a small river named Cappa,

and upon it a people of the same name, and another called Ouesperies,

who fled to avoid the persecution of the Irocois, from a river which still

bears their name, to be mentioned hereafter.’ The river “Cappa”

was perhaps the St. Francis but an exact identification of it is here

unnecessary. The river whence this tribe had come seems to have

been the Cumberland or a branch of the same, judging from Coxe’s

description: ‘‘South of the Hohio is another river, which about thirty

leagues above the lake is divided into two branches; the northerly

is called Ouespere, and the southerly the Black River; there are very

few people upon either, they having been destroyed or driven away

by the aforementioned Irocois.’’* The Tennessee is described imme-

diately afterward. If Mr. Myer’s suggestion is correct, we must

then assume a northern origin for the Ofo anda relatively recent

southward migration on their part.

Early literature contains no further mention of this tribe under the

form of the name which Coxe uses, but we know of a tribe in the region

which had a strikingly similar history and whose identity is shrouded.

in equal mystery.

This first appears on Franquelin’s map of 1684 in what is now south-

ern Ohio in the form ‘‘Mosapelea”’ under which is added “8 Vil.

detruits.”’ The destruction of these villages must have taken place

at least five years earlier since the tribe is placed on the eastern bank

of the Ohio on Marquette’s map, and, as Hanna has shown, it was

evidently the unnamed tribe visited by Marquette and his party and

described as having had communication with Europeans and being

provided with firearms.* This is what the missionary has to say of

the tribe: .

‘While thus borne on at the will of the current, we perceived on the shore

Indians armed with guns, with which they awaited us. I first presented my

feathered calumet, while my comrades stood to arms, ready to fire on the first

volley of the Indians. I hailed them in Huron, but they answered me by a

word, which seemed to us a declaration of war. They were, however, as

much frightened as ourselves, and what we took for a signal of war, was an

invitation to come near, that they might give us food; we accordingly

#2 Thidem, 11,

14 Tbidem, 13.

18 Hanna, The Wilderness Trail, II: 99=100.

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 3

landed and entered their cabins, where they presented us wild-beef and

bear’s oil, with white plums, which are excellent. They have guns, axes, hoes,

knives, beads, and double glass bottles in which they keep the powder. They

wear their hair long and mark their bodies in the Iroquois fashion; the head-

dress and clothing of their women were like those of the Huron squaws.

“They assured us that it was not more than ten days’ journey to the sea;

that they bought stuffs and other articles of Europeans on the eastern side;

that these Europeans had rosaries and pictures; that they played on instru-

ments; that some were like me, who received them well. I did not, however,

see any one who seemed to have received any instruction in the faith; such as

I could, I gave them with some medals.’’'*

From the Huron resemblances noted by Marquette Shea suggests

an Jroquoian relationship for this people but nothing certain can be

deduced from his words and the old home of the Monsopelea was not

far from the Erie and other Iroquoian peoples from whom the customs

noted might have been derived. Lower down Marquette was in-

formed by the Quapaw ‘‘that the Indians with fire-arms whom we had

met, were their enemies who cut off their passage to the sea, and pre-

vented their making acquaintance of the Europeans, or having any

commerce with them; that, besides, we should expose ourselves greatly

by passing on, in consequence of the continual war-parties that their

enemies sent out on the river; since being armed and used to war,

we could not, without evident danger, advance on that river which

they constantly occupy.’’!7 It is probable that the explorers con-

founded what was said about this particular enemy tribe which they

had met with accounts of other enemy tribes, and either Marquette or

those who read his narrative not unnaturally assumed that the fire-

arms and other European goods were brought from the mouth of the

Mississippi. They therefore supposed that there must be another

settlement of the same enemies below them and so it is represented on

the maps of Thevenot and Joliet. Thevenot also gives “‘Aganahali’”’

as the name of a tribe associated with the Monsopelea. As there was

no European settlement nearer the mouth of the Mississippi than the

Apalachee country of Western Florida and the Spaniards were not

allowed to furnish the Indians with fire-arms, it must be supposed that

they had obtained their weapons either from the English in Virginia

or the Dutch of New Netherlands.

Under this name, or this form of the name, the tribe appears but

once afterward. When La Salle stopped at the Taensa village on

what is now called Lake St. Joseph, Louisiana, Tonti says:

16 Shea, Discovery and exploration of the Mississippi Valley, 43-44.

17 Thidem, 47-48.

FEB. 4, 1923 SWANTON: HISTORY OF SIOUAN PEOPLES 41

“The next day a chief of the Mosopellea, who after the defeat of his village

has asked the chief of the Tahensa for permission to dwell with him, and

dwelt there with five cabins, went to see M. de la Salle, and having said that

he was a Mosopellea, M. de la Salle restored to him a slave of his nation, and

gave him a pistol.’”’18

From this time on the tribe of the Monsopelea, unless disguised

under some other name, disappears from history as absolutely as if

the earth had opened and swallowed it up. My belief is that neither

did the earth open for its accommodation nor did later explorers

manage to pass it by without notice, but that, after having moved

from one place to another, it finally drifted to the lower Yazoo to

reappear in the records of French Louisiana under the name of

Ofogoula.

This view is supported by the following facts:

1. The name Ofogoula does not make its appearance until after

that of Monsopelea disappears, and where Tonti employs the word

Chonque he does not use any synonymous term known to have been

applied to the Ofogoula. With the exception of the use of Ouispe

alongside of Ofogoula by three early authorities, a circumstance

already explained, the names which I have supposed to be intended for

the Ofo are introduced simultaneously only in the work and on the

map of Coxe. Coxe enters on his map the Monsopelea, Ouesperie,

and Chongue and he speaks of the two last in his text. However,

by his own statement his data were collected from many sources and

the same tribe may hence have been entered under different names

especially if, as was the case with the Ofo, it was frequently changing

its location. So far as the name Monsopelea is concerned there is

reason to think that Coxe obtained his information from French

sources, and at all events he places it erroneously above the mouth

of the Ohio instead of below it. It should be added that only one of

the names of the seven tribes which he locates upon Yazoo River

might possibly refer to the tribe under discussion, the rest being other-

wise identified, and this one must almost certainly be excluded also.

2. The history of the Ouesperie of Coxe and the Monsopelea of

the French is very similar. Both once lived on or near the Ohio;

both were driven away, in the one case by the Iroquois, in the other

presumably by the same people; and both fled in the same direction

and disappear from history in the same general region.

3. All of the names given to this tribe may be explained as synonyms

of two which are known to have been employed for the Ofo. The

18 Margy, Dec., I: 610.

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 13, No. 3

relationship of “Ofo,” “Ofogoula,” and “Chongue”’ has already been

explained, and the following table will help us to understand the

possible connection between the remainder:

Authority

IMB ROB DEG oidre coo Maihe ng bere M o n s 8 Di, 26 ] e a

ERS VEOOU. laa: itt se ee M o aie =| ow “Pp e l e a

Allowesss'ciztike: oahu Fetes. M o n s 0) p e ] e a

Pe dO. 8's v5.30 tadhrcak ae Pte sms M o s ty) D...0m e a

AEIOTN GME cs tee aie Oran tame tow M o s 0) Dae ll ete a

PISMNODIN Sees wnat ty ve vie ages = M a jae e ee! Oo p e ] e a

DGHA Yi Cle FO A. M a n s to) p e ] a

Branquelinatisinda.ss date «3,2 « 6 aac3 M o s a poive ] e a

Wharetiene. cg coh. te ahd M o n s ou p e r e a

i eae LA A A at) Sa Oue s DB r ie

Nia teas Se erietsthn che ei Oue s D>. 2 r e

(GEOVIOT os ce as css. ee Out mei tts p __ iklie?]

LILA © CS 0) ee ee ee O fe p ée

PEMNCANIG Hoe cata ae ero oir Ou SSye ol p é

Theryilles,i se hots ns eae a Oui s p oe

Swanton (1908)............... 0 sh 9) I

Virginia documentary history shows that a Siouan tribe called

Moniton (‘‘Big Water People”) were living on or near the Kanawha

River, West Virginia, as late as the latter half of the seventeenth

century.'* If my hypothesis, as above outlined, is correct there

was also, down to the historic period, a Siouan tribe just beyond them

in southern Ohio. At the same time it was well-known among the

Indians along the middle course of the Mississippi that the Arkansas

tribe, known to us in later times as Quapaw, had formerly dwelt on

that part of the Ohio above its junction with the Wabash. Besides —

the published statements to that effect?° may be cited the following

excerpt from an unpublished French document, a copy of which is in

the Manuscripts Division of the Library of Congress. The writer

of this document enumerates five rivers falling into the Wabash, by

which he means our present Wabash and that part of the Ohio between

the junction of the two streams and the Mississippi, and he calls the

third of these, now known as part of the Ohio proper, ‘‘Riviére des

Accansa qui autres fois y demeuroient et ont abandonné leur village.”

The intimate linguistic relationship of the Osage, Kansa, Omaha, and

Ponka with this tribe and their own traditions indicate a migration

from the Ohio rather than the reverse, while the separation of the

Iowa, Oto, and Missouri from the Winnebago seems to have been

fresh in the minds of two of these peoples down into the last century.

1® Alvord and Bidgood, First exploration of the Trans-Allegheny region, 87. 1912.

20 See Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 30, article on Quapaw.

FEB. 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 43

The occupancy of the territory of our Middle West between the great

Lakes and the Ohio by Siouan tribes seems therefore to rest on grounds

almost historical. With the strong indications now at hand there

seems reason to think that a close comparative study of the Siouan

dialects would enable us to reconstruct the general outlines of their

ancient geographical positions with considerable accuracy. If present

indications are not deceptive, when that is done we shall find that they

fell into four major linguistic groups; a northeastern, consisting of

the ancestors of the later Siouan tribes of Virginia, the Hidatsa,

Dakota, Biloxi, and Ofo; a southeastern, including most of the later

Siouan peoples of the two Carolinas; a southwestern composed of the

five tribes of Dorsey’s Dhegiha group; and a northwestern, Dorsey’s

Tciwere.”!

Admittedly there is much of speculation in all this, but I have

considered that the facts are of sufficient importance to both the

ethnologist and the archaeologist of the Ohio region to present them

in a usable form.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

870TH MEETING

The 870th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club auditorium, Saturday,

October 21, 1922. It was called to order at 8:15 p.m. by President

Crittenden. The attendance was 62.

Mr. Witu1amM Bowlin made a report on The meetings of the International

Geodetic and Geophysical Union and of the International Astronomical Union.

It was discussed by Messrs. PawLine and Woopwarb.

Author’s Abstract: The speaker prefaced his remarks by outlining the

status of international scientific cooperative efforts before the outbreak of

the war. Some years ago it was felt by scientists in various countries that it

was necessary to cooperate to avoid duplication of effort and in order that

each should know what methods and instruments were being used by others.

Such desire on the part of scientists led to the formation of a number of asso-

ciations, notably those of Geodesy, Seismology, Astronomy, Meteorology,

and Geology.

The world war greatly interfered with international scientific cooperation

and many of the associations were able to maintain only a nominal existence,

through the efforts of the neutral nations of Europe.

Shortly after the close of the war there was held a meeting, in July, 1919,

at Brussels, which provided for the creation of an International Research

Council, with a number of branches called Unions, which, in turn, were

subdivided into Committees or Sections. Two of the Unions created at

21 T have purposely left the Mandans unplaced, but I do not believe that they will be

found to occupy a position apart from all of the other groups.

44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 3

Brussels were the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union and the

International Astronomical Union. The former was divided into the Sec-

tions of Geodesy, Seismology, Meteorology, Terrestrial Magnetism and

Electricity, Physical Oceanography, and Voleanology. The International

Astronomical Union was divided into a number of Committees, each of which

deals with some phase of astromical science.

It was proposed at Brussels that the two Unions should meet three years

afterward at a time and place to be agreed upon. In the fall of 1921 the

officers of the two Unions announced to the countries adhering to these

Unions that the Italian scientists had invited them to meet in’ Rome, April

20, 1922. This date was later changed to May 2 because a large conference

had already been planned for the latter part of April in Rome and it would

have been difficult for the delegates to the two Unions to secure satisfactory

hotel accomodations.

On the first day of the conference the delegates registered and presented

their credentials, then attended the opening exercises at which the King of

Italy and many other dignitaries were present. On the second day there

were meetings of the two Unions. On the last day of the conference, which

was May 10, there were also meetings of the two Unions, at which reports

of certain committees which had been appointed during the first meetings

were received, discussed and acted upon. During the intermediate days

there were almost continuous meetings of the several Sections of the Inter-

national Geodetic and Geophysical Union and of the Committees of the

International Astronomical Union.

Much work was done at Rome, although there was some feeling that the

time was quite short for such a large gathering and so many interests. It was

practically impossible for a delegate representing one branch of science to

attend more than the meetings of his own Section or Committee. However,

the delegates left Rome with a feeling that much had been gained and that

International cooperation in science had been restored and is now on a very

firm basis.

Local scientists and officials entertained the delegates in the manner usual

at such international scientific assemblages.

Mr. Rosert S. Woopwarp, presented a paper on The compressibility of

the Earth. It was discussed by Messrs. LAMBERT, HAwksworTH, Bowie,

Curtis, and L. H. Apams.

Author’s Abstract: This paper considers the earth as a gravitating mass

of homogeneous, concentric spherical shells in which there is continuity of

increase in density from the external surface to the center of the sphere.

The mathematical problem thus presented is defined by four relations, .

namely: (1) Poisson’s equation, connecting gravitational potential and

density at any point of the mass; (2) the hydrostatic law connecting potential,

stress and density at any point of the mass; (3) the hypothesis of Legendre-

Laplace, postulating that the rate at which stress increases with density is

proportional to the density; and (4) the law of conservation of mass.

The problem is worked out on the assumption that the mean density of

the earth is exactly twice the density of the surface crust. Data dependent

on direct observations of the gravitation constant and on its relation to the

mean density of the earth were cited to show that the mean density of the

earth is very near to 5.514; while reference was made to the more recent

investigations which seem to prove that the crustal density of the earth is very

near to 2.76.

Expressed in a conerete application, the resulting compressibility is such

that if the pressure of the atmosphere were doubled the surface of ‘the earth

FEB. 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 45

would move inwards nearly two meters (more exactly 185 centimeters, or 6.06

feet).

It was pointed out that this degree of compressibility finds important

applications in geology, since it indicates that crustal subsidence and elevation

amounting to hundreds, if not thousands, of meters may be due to variations

in surface loads.

Reference was made to an earlier investigation by the author of ‘The

effects of secular cooling and meteoric dust on the length of the terrestrial

day”’ (Astronomical Journal, No. 502, July, 1901), in order to show that

neglect of the compressibility of the earth in that investigation led to no

sensible error.

871ST MEETING

The 871st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club auditorium, Saturday,

November 4. It was called to order by President CrirrENDEN at 8:35 p.m.,

with 47 persons in attendance.

A paper by F. Wenner, Nina Forman, and A. R. LinpBERG on The

variation of metallic conductivity with electrostatic charge was presented by Mr.

Wenner. It was discussed by Mr. TuckERMAN.

Author’s Abstract: In the spring of 1921, Professor H. A. Perkins presented

a paper to the American Physical Society in which he stated that a simple

conception of metallic conduction based on moving electrons seemed to

justify the assumption that a negative charge should increase the conduc-

tivity of a circuit and a positive charge should decrease it. He tested this

assumption as follows:

A primary coil was wound upon a glass cylinder inside of which fitted

a similarly wound secondary coil. The primary was excited through a 60

cycle circuit while the secondary circuit carefully insulated throughout

included a moving coil galvanometer. At the same time the secondary

circuit was given an alternating charge from one terminal of a high tension

transformer, the other terminal being grounded. In operation the gal-

vanometer was not affected either by the charging potential alone or by the

induced alternating current alone. If, however, the induced current and

the charging potential were both present, alarge deflection of the galvanometer

was observed. This phenomenon behaved in a perfectly regular manner and

reversed if the phase of the charging E. M. F. were reversed by interchanging

the terminals of the transformer.

An effect such as that just described would be of sufficient importance to

require careful investigation, and some modification of our notions of metallic

conduction. However, on repeating the experiment using reasonable pre-

cautions to prevent disturbing influences we observed no change in the

deflection of the galvanometer on changing the phase between the current

in and the potential of the test circuit. The arrangement of the circuit was

such that on the basis of the explanation given the effect should have been

larger than in the original experiment while the sensitivity of the galvanom-

eter was such that a considerably smaller direct component of the current

could have been detected.

. This paper will be published in full in the December issue of the Physical

eview.

By invitation, Mr. R. Grucurist presented a paper on A new determina-

tion of the atomic weight of osmium,! which was discussed by Messrs. HEyu,

Pawtinc, Burcess, and HUMPHREYS.

1 From a dissertation entitled ‘‘The Preparation of Pure Osmium and the Atomic

Weight of Osmium’”’ submitted to The Johns Hopkins University, June, 1922, in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 3

Author’s Abstract: Pure osmium was prepared by making use of the

following reactions. When OsO, and constant boiling HCl, in the presence

of a small amount of C,.H;OH, were heated in a reflux apparatus for about

three hours, the OsO, was converted to chlorosmic acid, H:OsCls. After

evaporation to a syrup and dilution with H,O, the osmium was precipitated

as the brick red (NH4)sOsCl¢, with NH,Cl. The (NH4)2.OsCls was reduced

to metal in H». The H: was completely removed by nitrogen while the

metal was still red hot. On cooling, gray osmium sponge resulted which was

not attacked by the oxygen of the air.

The reagents employed in the above reactions were volatile ones which

allowed of easy purification. The purification cycle could be repeated con-

veniently. Spectroscopically pure osmium was thus obtained.

The reaction between OsO, and 20 per cent HBr took place without the

addition of C.H;OH, and was complete in about one-half hour. Bromosmic

acid, HsOsBre, was obtained in this case from which NH,Br precipitated the

black (NH,4)2OsBrg.

Two sources of osmium were used for the preparation of the salts for

analysis. (NH4)2OsCl, was made from osmium obtained from Baker and

Company. (NH,),OsBrs was made from osmium obtained in the working

up of some osmiridium residues recovered during refining of Russian crude

platinum.

The results of the analyses were as follows:

BAKER AND Company (NH,)2OsCle, Series I

WEIGHT OF

WEIGHT OF ATOMIC

1ST ES eek OSMIUM IN VACUO ee WEIGHT

grams grams per cent

1 1.46116 0.63688 43 .587

2 2.80587 1.22226 43 .560

3 2.32007 1.01021 43 .542

4 1.93756 0.84390 43 .555

5 2.92857 1.27597 43 .569

43 .563 192 .074

(NH,)20sCls:Os = 100:43.563

Russtan (NH,)2:OsBre, Serres II anv III

WEIGHT OF

exrenmumsr | NHQOsBre | gg AORN | onto om

IN VACUO ,

grams grams per cent

1 4.17909 1.13522 27.164

1 1.72778 0.46909 27.150

2 0.98661 0.26783 27.146

27.153 192.172

(NH,4)2OsBr.5:Os = 1002

Average of eight experiments

Os = 192.1

i si

FEB. 4, 1923 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 47

The complete paper will be published in the near future.

Mr. R. B. SosmMan prefaced his paper on Theory of the structure and poly-

morphism of silica, by an informal communication describing an Improvement

on Whitlock’s method of constructing models of crystal structure, in which glass

rods carrying the “atoms” are replaced by threaded brass rods. The paper

was discussed by Mr. Wurtn.

Author’s Abstract: There exists a wide variety of experimental data on

the forms of silica, and particularly on quartz, which have never been assem-

bled and explained on the basis of a single consistent set of hypotheses as to

the ultimate structure of this substance. The author has attempted to

provide such a set of hypotheses, based upon the general knowledge already

gained concerning the structure of matter in general and silica in particular.

It is believed that the silica atom-triplet maintains a certain degree of indi-

viduality in its amorphous and crystalline states as well as in its compounds,

and the freedom of its oxygen atoms to change their positions with respect

to the silicons is restricted. The triplets are assumed to assemble into chains

or threads in the liquid and glassy states, and a thread structure persists

in the crystalline states (cristobalite, tridymite, chalcedony, quartz). The

high-low, or alpha-beta inversions in all the forms are thought to be due to

the same underlying change, namely, a change in the state of motion of some

subsidiary part of the atom-triplet, perhaps a pair of revolving electrons;

this change results in an alteration of the relative positions of the two oxygen

atoms attached to a silicon atom. Analogous phenomena of polymorphism

are indicated in the silicates and in the dioxides of the other elements having

an external electron structure similar to that of silicon (titanium, zirconium,

germanium, tin). The paper will be published in full in the Journal of the

Franklin Institute.

All three of the above papers were illustrated by lantern slides, and Mr.

SosMAN also showed models.

H. H. Kimsatu, Recording Secreiary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. J. 8. Amss, professor of physics, Johns Hopkins University, gave the

first of a series of lectures on the Quantum Theory at the Bureau of Standards

on January §, 1923. It is the aim of this series of lectures to give a broad

survey of the Quantum Theory to those unfamiliar with it, the final lectures

to be given by Dr. A. Sommerfeld.

In his lecture Dr. Ames showed just where the hypothesis was introduced

into physics. This was in the case of radiation from a black body, where

the equations derived by methods based on classical mechanics were at

variance with experiments. Planck made a modification, proposing that the

energy vary by steps or by “quanta” hv, where v is the frequency of the

radiation and h is a universal constant. This gave a law which agreed with

experiment. That is, the theoretical black body was closely approximated

in practice and the energy of the emitted radiation over the entire spectral

range agreed in amount with that calculated from the radiation law.

A relation for the specific heat of a substance was derived as a function of

temperature and hv, thus involving the hypothesis. The calculated and

experimental values of those parts vital to the hypothesis were in agreement.

The mathematics essential to the development of two laws was given in

the lecture. Dr. Ames emphasized that the Quantum Hypothesis rests on

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 3

an empirical basis and that it is accepted because it agrees with experiment

in widely separated branches of physics.

Mr. Joun B. HenperRson, a regent of the Smithsonian Institution, died

January 4, 1923, in his fifty-third year. Mr. Henderson was born at Loui-

siana, Missouri, February 18, 1870. In spite of his many legal, political, and

diplomatic activities he devoted much of his life to the study of marine

biology and especially to the making of valuable collections of specimens

many of which are now to be seen in the U.S. National Museum. Among his

writings may be mentioned ‘‘ The Cruise of the Tomas Barrera.”’ Mr. Hender-

son was a member of the AcaApremy and the following affiliated societies:

Archeological, Biological, Geological, and Historical.

Dr. A. 8. Hircucock of the Bureau of Plant Industry has been elected

president of the Biological Society of Washington for 1923.

The election of Dr. T. WAYLAND VAUGHAN as president of the AcADEMY

for 1923 was announced at the annual meeting on January 9.

Dr. C. D. Waucort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, was elected

president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science at its

annual meeting held in Boston, December 26-30, 1922.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 13 FEBRUARY 19, 1923 No. 4

METEOROLOGY .—-The murmur of the forest and the roar of the

mountain. W. J. Humpureys, U. 8. Weather Bureau.

INTRODUCTION

Certainly for many centuries, perhaps from even the cave and

stone age when men first began to associate one phenomenon with ~

another, the murmur of the forest and the roar of the mountain

have each been recognized as a meteorological symphony with the

drive of the wind and the stress of the storm = its theme. As some

one has pleasantly put it,

“The whispering grove tells of a storm to come.”

And Lucan, the Roman poet, nineteen hundred years ago, solemnly

warned us:

“Nor less I fear from that hoarse, hollow roar

In leafy groves and on the sounding shore.”’

—Rowe’s translation.

Ages before this in turn Elijah told Ahab to hurry and eat and get

down from Mount Carmel “for there is a sound of abundance of

rain.” And this sound, it would seem, could have been none other

than the murmur of the forest, mingled, perhaps, with the roar of the

mountain. ‘And it came to pass m the mean while, that the heaven

was black with clouds and wind, and there was a great rain.”’

Such, then, has been the recognized weather significance through the

ages of these mysterious aeolian effects. In many regions it is now,

as it has long been, and as it indefinitely must continue, a common

thing to refer to the “roaring” of a mountain as an indication of a

general storm within six to twelve hours; and the “sign” is an excep-

1 Presidential address.

50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 4

tionally good one. Among the Alleghenies, to be specific, where the

prevailing trend of the ridges is from northeast to southwest, this

roaring is most persistent and pronounced with strong southeast

winds. But these are the winds of the forward, or rainy, side of a

cyclone whose center happens, as is often the case, to be 300 miles, or

less, west to northwest of the place in question; hence the strong

probability that the roaring of these mountains will soon be followed

by bad weather. In these storms, averaging, roughly, two a month

during summer and twice as many during winter, a number of distinct

meteorological phenomena, including the roaring just mentioned,

are often observed, the more conspicuous and more important of

which it will be interesting, perhaps, to describe and profitable to

explain.

The particular region here referred to, and in which the phenomena

under discussion frequently occur, is the Gap Mills valley of Monroe

' County, West Virginia, between Peters Mountain, one of the finest

of the Alleghenies, to the southeast, and Gap Mountain to the north-

Fig. 1. Cross section of Peters Mountain and adjacent region

west. A cross section of this region, not, however, at the highest

part of Peters Mountain, approximately to scale—23 miles from crest

to crest—is given in fig. 1. Some four miles beyond the crest of the

larger mountain, to the southeast, is that of another mountain nearly

as high, namely, 3800 feet, roughly, above sea-level and 1200 feet

above the adjacent valleys. Beyond this in turn are still a few other

ranges, mostly smaller, however, and more irregular. <A typical

view of the Gap Mills valley in which the roaring of the mountain and

associated phenomena are so pronounced, and of Peters Mountain

that does the roaring and causes most of the other phenomena to be

discussed, is shown in fig 2. The Gap Mountain is off the picture

to the right. The ridge in the middle background, known as Jesse’s

Ridge, and averaging about 200 feet in height, often is the cause of

interesting secondary phenomena.

DESCRIPTIONS AND EXPLANATIONS

Although the murmur of the forest, the roar of the mountain, the

winds that cause these sounds, and the usually accompanying clouds

FEB. 19, 1923 HUMPHREYS: THE MURMUR OF THE FOREST syll

and precipitation all are closely interrelated, some of them even in

the sense of cause and effect, nevertheless, and for convenience, they

are here discussed severally, and more or less independently, the

whole constituting what might, perhaps, be regarded as a chapter on

mountain meteorology.

{L. W. ITumphreys, photo.)

Fig. 2. Peters Mountain and Gap Mills Valley

Opposing winds near top of mountain.—There occasionally are

strong winds simultaneously up both sides of a high mountain ridge,

such as Peters Mountain, near its top, when there are only light winds,

or none at all, on the lower slopes and in the adjacent valleys. The

explanation of this condition, which may or may not be associated

with the coming of wide-spread cloudiness and extensive precipitation,

consists of two parts: (1) How there may be a strong wind only near

the top of a mountain, with but little or no appreciable movement

of the air lower down and in the valleys. (2) How a strong wind can

blow up one side of a mountain near its top at the same time that

another strong wind is blowing up the other side, also near the top.

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 138, No. 4

That a gale may exist across a mountain crest while the air is

relatively calm below, is obvious from the facts (a) that adjacent layers

of the air frequently have very different velocities, especially when the

upper part of the under layer is colder than the under part of the

upper layer, a condition that often occurs, and that permits the two

distinct layers to flow, the one over the other, with but little inter-

mingling, much as air flows over water; and (b) that in mountainous

regions cold air, whatever its origin, tends, through its increased

density, to fill the valleys and to become entrapped in them. Occa-

sionally, therefore, the valley atmosphere, up nearly to the crests of

the flanking mountains, is comparatively quiet while the air next

above is moving rapidly directly across the trend of the ridges, and, of

course, up so much of the windward sides of the mountains as pro-

jects into this over current.

But at the same time this wind of such obvious origin is blowing

up one side of a mountain near its crest, a wind in the opposite diree-

tion, and also shallow, is rushing toward the crest up the other side.

The explanation of this counter current, the second portion of the

problem under discussion, requires a little of that strait-jacket logic

of the physicist.

Let, then, the wind be in a steady state, constant at any place in

direction, velocity, temperature, and density, and consider a tube of

flow, that is, an imaginary tube of whatever size along which the air

is flowing and across whose walls no air passes either in or out, Just

above the top of the mountain; let m, be the mass of air that passes

the crest during a given interval of time along this tube; let v; be the

volume of this mass as it passes, p: its pressure, and wu its velocity.

Similarly, let 7.2, v2, pe, Ws, be the corresponding values during the

same interval of time for any cross section of the tube beyond the

crest. Then, since the wind is in a steady state, m: = m2. Further-

more, the simultaneous flows of energy along the tube by these two

cross sections are also equal, because, as specified, no changes are

occurring at any place. Finally, if the change of temperature of the

surrounding air with change of altitude is strictly in keeping with the

corresponding change in pressure—and in winds that are of the breeze

order or stronger it is nearly so owing to their considerable stirring

up, or turbulence—then the gravity contribution to the potential

energy of a mass of air as it passes from one level to another is negli-

gible, or, in other words, no appreciable work is required to lift a mass

of air to a greater height or to pull it down to a lower level. There-

FEB. 19, 1923 HUMPHREYS: THE MURMUR OF THE FOREST 53

fore, to a close approximation, the sum of the volume energy and the

velocity energy is constant. In symbols,

Pit: + FmuU, = Pads + mu,

Vi(pr + § prey) = V2(p2 + 2 pats,)

in which p is the density. Hence, per unit volume,

p + 3pu? = aconstant.

Now, observation shows that pu? is greatest near the crest of the

mountain, as it is along the edge of any obstruction to a moving fluid.

Clearly, then, this is also the place of least pressure within the tube of

flow. Therefore, air must rush into the general current at this place

(the assumed steady state cannot exist) and thus induce a correspond-

ing wind up the lee side of the mountain near the crest.

Fig. 3. Opposing winds near top of mountain

The above explanation embodies a form of the well known Bernoulli

Theorem, hence it belongs to that finality class that precludes quib-

bling. Nevertheless, it is not quite so final as it seems, for viscosity

was omitted, although, as everyone knows, contiguous portions of

the atmosphere are so knit together by the thermal motions of their

molecules that every blast of air more or less drags along the imme-

diately adjacent air. This drag in turn leads to boundary turbulence

and momentum interchange. Hence the upper portions of an under

layer of air are caught up by any swifter wind above, and increasingly

so with increase of velocity. In this manner also, in the case under

consideration, the pressure in the surface air just beyond the top

of the mountain on the lee side is decreased, and a wind up that slope

is established and maintained.

When the upper wind crosses the valley at mountain height, as

often happens, and as here assumed, the return current rapidly becomes

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 4

weaker, with distance down the slope, owing to surface friction and to

the rapidly increasing cross section of the inflow, as indicated in

fig. 3.

Exact mathematical and quantitative solutions of this and kindred

problems, involving viscosity and turbulence, would, no doubt, be

highly instructive, but such solutions have not been obtained. True,

important progress has been made, but this progress, which is found

chiefly in the turbulence papers of Rayleigh, Reynolds, Taylor, and

Richardson, is not adapted to a brief and inclusive summation.

Return current—When there is an appreciable wind from the

mountain, there often is a lighter surface wind in the opposite direction

up portions of the mountain itself, as indicated in fig. 4, and up the

lee side of any paralleling ridge in the valley. This, too, has no

necessary relation to the gathering of clouds and the onset of precipi-

tation, since it applies equally to winds crossing the mountain in

Fig. 4. Return current, and sound crossing mount

either direction. It differs from the’opposing wind near the top of the

mountain, just explained, in that it extends much farther down from

the crest. °

In this case the valleys contain but little if any stagnant air; the

wind flows across the mountains in undulations more or less parallel

to their sides, and the change of temperature with change of elevation

is everywhere, owing to turbulence, in keeping with the corresponding

change of pressure. That is, the change of temperature is due entirely

to change of pressure, and not at all to loss of heat to, or gain of heat

from, anything extraneous to the rising or falling mass of air.

In general the explanation of the return current is precisely the

same as that given above of the opposing winds at the crest, except

that as its cross section remains small (the parent wind being only

a little above the surface) its velocity is correspondingly retained over

a considerable distance down the mountain side.

During clear days the return current is strengthened by thermal

convection; during clear nights, on the other hand, it is weakened if

FEB. 19, 1923 . HUMPHREYS: THE MURMUR OF THE FOREST 55

not overcome or even reversed, by the tendency of the air along the

slopes, owing to increased density due to loss of heat to the surface

which, in turn, had cooled by radiation, to drain, or flow, away to

lower levels.

Tempest belt—When the wind across the mountain is strong, which

it seldom is except in connection with a general cyclonic storm, it

often beats down heavily on a narrow belt near, or beyond, the foot

of the mountain—the stronger the wind the farther to leeward the

tempest belt—while the winds both in the valley beyond and up the

higher slopes are comparatively light, the latter indeed often being

up the mountain and hence opposite in direction to that of the cross-

ing and stronger wind. This tempest belt does not appear until the

lower air, through the turbulence caused by the upper winds, has

been brought to the same potential temperature throughout; that is,

to such condition that each rising mass of air, if cooled by expansion

only, or falling mass, if warmed by compression only, would, at every

level, have the same temperature as has the adjacent air at the same

level. In other words, this belt of driving winds does not form until

the lower air is, by mixing, brought into a state of neutral equilibrium

when, of course, convection requires but little work.

Clearly, then, when the lower air has been brought to this state of

neutral equilibrium, the decrease of pressure along a mountain side

owing, as explained above, to crossing winds, may be, and frequently

is, sufficient to cause these winds to flow down closely parallel to the

lee slope. The inertia of this descending current carries it on, and

hence it often beats strongly on a belt near the foot of the mountain,

where the slope has become gentle, or even somewhat out in the

valley. Furthermore, just as the wind strikes with a downward

component onto this belt, so too it rebounds from it with an upward

component. Hence, beyond the tempest belt the winds are com-

paratively weak.

But the above may not explain the worst of these tempest winds.

Since, as already stated, there are several mountains southeast of, and

parallel to, Peters Mountain, and since the rains and snows of greatest

duration come from that general direction, it follows that these

mountains, and the valleys between them, get more precipitation

than does the valley and adjacent section northwest of this highest

ridge. Hence, occasionally, the former region may be snow covered

and relatively cold while the latter has but little snow and is appre-

ciably warmer. Under these conditions southeast winds on topping

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 4

Peters Mountain must, because of their comparatively great density

incident to the low temperature, rush cataract-fashion down the lee

side and onto the nearer portion of the valley. At such times the

winds of the tempest belt are abnormally violent, and much like the

famous Helm Wind along the west side of the Pennine range of

mountains in northern England.

It may, perhaps, be worth while to call attention here to the all

but obvious fact that when the lower air has been brought to neutral

equilibrium, which it soon is after the surface winds become strong, an

- aviator can more easily cross a high mountain with the wind than

against it—more easily when the currents boost him up than when

they beat him down.

Smoking of chimneys.—When the wind is from the mountain it

frequently happens that chimneys near its base, and even many in

the valley, ‘‘smoke”’ in a most disagreeable, puffy, manner, a phenom-

enon locally interpreted to imply the approach of bad weather, a

prediction that usually comes true. The cause of the smoking of chim-

neys at the time of winds from the mountain is, of course, perfectly

obvious. As just explained, these winds have marked downward

components, and some of the gusts are strong enough to drive well

into an open topped chimney against the heated air, and send smoke

and ashes whirling through the room. Hence in mountainous regions

many chimneys are hooded as a protection against both the smoke

nuisance and its inevitable fire hazard.

Sounds beyond the mountain.—At the very beginning of a general

storm and before any other evidence of it is apparent, sounds made

in a windward valley, or beyond, often are distinctly heard in the

next valley to the leeward where at other times they are quite inaudi-

ble. This effect clearly is owing to the fact that the vibrating air,

transmitting the sound with the velocity of about 1100 feet per second,

is itself a part of the general wind. Since the velocity of sound has

been closely determined for certain temperatures, and is known

to vary as the square root of the absolute temperature, it follows

that for any given variation of temperature with altitude and given

corresponding direction and speed of the wind the path of any sound

ray—any normal to the sound-wave front—can be traced with all

desired accuracy. Under certain simple conditions, such as uniform

changes of temperature and wind velocity with altitude, the path

of a sound ray can be given in terms of a concise equation. However,

it is not worth while here to indulge in any such mathematical diver-

SS a?

FEB. 19, 1923 HUMPHREYS: THE MURMUR OF THE FOREST 57

sions, because actual winds are not so regular as these exact solutions

would require, and because the general effect can best be shown

graphically. Let, then, the wind blow more or less directly across

a mountain, up one side and down the other parallel to the surface,

and increase with distance from that surface, all of which occurs in

nature. Obviously a sound wave-front travelling with such a wind

tends more and more towards the vertical as it climbs the windward

side of the mountain, crosses the ridge substantially upright, when

the distance to the source and the wind velocity are in proper adjust-

ment, and then focusses onto the leeward valley, all as diagrammati-

cally illustrated in fig. 4, in which S is the source of the sound, and

F its leeward focus, necessarily diffuse, as determined by the wind

currents and indicated by the progressive positions of the wave front.

Roaring of the mountain.—At about the time the above transmon-

tane noises are heard, or shortly thereafter, the mountain over which

they come begins to produce a low sighing or moaning sound which

in a few hours, particularly during winter, when the winds are strong

and have free access to the eddy and vortex-producing twigs, often

grows to a cataract roar.

This roaring of the mountain is a very striking phenomenon, espe-

cially to any one not accustomed to it. To the imaginative who

know its cause, it ranges from the beautiful to the sublime; while to

the superstitious it may run the whole gamut of horrors from the

uncanny to the demoniacal, as illustrated by the following tradition:

It seems that the ridge shown in fig. 2, and which is about a mile

and a half long, was owned first, some 150 years ago, by one Jesse

Bland. But he soon lost it, it is said, by deeding half his place to a

“witch doctor” to cure him of the witches, whose direful threats carried

by the howling wind were ever more clamorous with the swell of the

mountain’s roar, and who night after night transformed him to a.

horse and furiously rode him 200 miles for a bag of salt—so he ex-

plained his night sweats—and shortly afterwards the remaining

half to a lawyer to sue the witch doctor for not curing him. Today

in this enchanting valley there lives neither witch, witch doctor, nor

lawyer. Its people believe neither in folly nor in fuss. But the

mountain still roars and at times one can sympathize with Jesse, or

with the Esthonians of today who, attributing, we are told, the bitter

northerly winds of spring to the spells of Finnish wizards and witches,

are afraid to go out on Ascension Eve, or either of the other two

Days of the Cross:—

58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 4

“Wind of the cross! rushing and mighty!

Heavy the blow of thy wings sweeping past!

Wild wailing wind of misfortune and sorrow,

Wizards of Finland ride by on the blast.”

—Popular Esthonian song.

The explanation of these curious sounds evidently goes back, not

to wizards and witches as might formerly have been supposed, but

to the action on the wind by a single twig or branch, for the differ-

ences between the whispering of the tree, the murmuring of the

forest, and the roaring of the mountain, are essentially differences in

degree and not of kind.

Now, it has long been known from the work of Strouhal? that wind

normal to a eylinder, such as a stretched wire, produces aeolian tones

even when the cylinder itself takes no part in the vibration; that

the pitch of the note thus produced, independent alike of the material,

length, and tension of the wire, varies directly as the speed, u, of the

wind and inversely as the diameter, d, of the obstructing rod; and

that the number, n, of such vibrations per second is given, approxi-

mately, by the equation

R= Wisp t/a

the units being the centimeter and second.

An excellent example of such sounds is the familiar singing or hum-

ming of telegraph and telephone wires.

Whenever the tone produced as above described coincides with

one of the proper tones (fundamental or a harmonic) of the wire,

the wire itself, if suitably supported, then vigorously vibrates, normal

to the direction of the wind, and thereby increases the loudness and

produces other interesting results. These, however, will not be

considered further since the twigs and branches of trees, whose aeolian

effects alone are here under discussion, have no free periods of impor-

tance in this connection. :

The sounds in question, that is, the tree and forest sounds, therefore,

are not due to the elasticity of the twigs and branches, but, as in the

case of the singing telegraph wires, to the instability of the

vortex sheets their obstruction introduces into the air as it rushes by

them. This obvious and, indeed, unavoidable deduction from

Strouhal’s experiments, just referred to, has been abundantly con-

firmed by cinema photographs of water eddies, due to flow past a

cylinder. Vortex whirls develop in the flowing water at regular

2 Ann. d. Phys. 5: 216. 1878; see also Lord Rayleigh, Phil. Mag. 29: 433. 1915.

FEB. 19, 1923 HUMPHREYS: THE MURMUR OF THE FOREST 59

intervals, alternately on the one side.and then on the other, of the

interfering cylinder, while the eddy mass vibrates from side to side

in the same period.

The complete mathematical analysis of these and similar vortices,

giving the deduction of Strouhal’s rule, and many others, would be

both interesting and valuable, but it appears that this important

problem has not yet been fully solved. Clearly, though, if all twigs

and branches had streamline shapes—shapes over and along which

a current of air will flow without vortex agitation—and were properly

oriented to the wind there would never be a whisper from a tree nor

1B:

Fig. 5. Phase circle

murmur from a forest. But they are not so shaped; trees do have

voices, and voices that are even characteristic of the species. The

muffled plaint of the oak at the wintry blast, for instance, has but

little in common with the sibilant sigh of the pine. And the reason

is obvious. The twigs and branches of the one, because relatively

large and of many sizes, produce a multitude of low tones, while the

innumerable fine needles of the other give a smaller range of high-

pitched notes.

It remains now to determine how a multitude of sounds, such as

twig-produced aeolian notes, blend together—how the pitch and

loudness of the resultant are related to the like properties of the

elementary constituents.

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 13, No. 4

Let two sounds have the same amplitude, but slightly different

frequencies, a and b, a>b. Let them start together with maximum

displacement, or at the top, P, of the phase circle, fig. 5. Let the

phase position of the quicker, after a few intervals, and at the instant

when the resultant amplitude is at a maximum, be at A (having

described the angle 2n7+ a, n being a whole number) and that of the

slower at B (having described the angle 2n7 — 8); let s be the velocity

along the circumference of the phase circle of the slower, and s+és

the correspnding velocity of the quicker. Then, since the combined

amplitude is at a maximum,

ssin 6 = (s + és) sina,and 8B >a.

For the next maximum

ssin (8 + 68) = (s + és) sin (a + 6a), da > 48,

and so on for succeeding maxima.

Furthermore, since the rate of increase of an angle is greater than

that of its sine, the successive values of 68 will slowly increase so

long as 6 and @ are greater than 0, and less than 7/2, and then increase

while they are greater than 7/2 and less than z. In short, the com-

bination tone will have a varying pitch intermediate between those of

its constituents. And this is also true of any number of constituent

sounds—whatever their initial and subsequent phases their resultant

always has a quasi-average pitch. Hence, as is well known, the hum

of a swarm of bees is pitched to that of the average bee, and the

concert of a million mosquitoes is only the megaphoned whine of the

type.

This problem may of course be concisely treated analytically, but

the above simple method is sufficient for the present purpose.

The final law of sound essential to the explanation of the roar of

the mountain, namely, the intensity of a blend in terms of that of its

constituents, has been found by Lord Rayleigh* in substantially the

following manner:

Let the number of individual sounds be 7, all of unit amplitude and

the same pitch, but arbitrary phase—conditions that approach the

aeolian blend of a forest, or even a single tree. Clearly, if all the

individual sounds had the same phase, and unit amplitude, at any

given point, their combined intensity at that point would be n*. If,

however, half had one phase, and half the exactly opposite phase,

the intensity would be zero. Consider then the average intensity

? Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed., ““Wave Theory.’”’ Scientific Papers 3: 52.

FEB. 19, 1923 HUMPHREYS: THE MURMUR OF THE FOREST 61

when all the vibrations are confined to two exactly opposite phases,

+ and —. Now, the chance that all the n vibrations will have the

same phase, + say, is (})" and the expectation of intensity correspond-

ing to this condition (4)"n*. Similarly, when one of the vibrations

has the negative phase and the n—1 others the positive phase, the

expectation is ($)"n(n —2)?; and the whole or actual expectation

yn jb +n(n—2)2 + MRD

The sum of the n + 1 terms of this series is n, as may be indicated

by a few numerical substitutions; or proved, as Lord Rayleigh (I. c.)

has shown, by expanding the expression

(n—4)? + .... (A)

(e* + 6%)”

into the two equivalent series

2° (1 + 4027+ ...... a (Maclaurin)

and

tae SOY ate jie ae (Binomial)

developing the exponentials into series of algebraic terms, and,

finally, assembling and equating the coefficients of x? in the two

equivalent series, and solving for n. The value of n thus found is

identical with the expression (A).

That is, on the average, the intensity of the resultant of n sounds

of unit amplitude, but confined, in random numbers, to two opposite

phases, is always n, whatever its numerical value.

If, instead of the numbers of sounds in either of two opposite phases

being random, the phases are random, the result, as Rayleigh has

shown, is the same.

It should be noted that n is only the mean intensity of a possible

range from 0 to n?, and not the continuous intensity. But when the

changes are rapid the fluctuations from the mean are correspondingly

inconspicuous.

From the above two laws, namely, (1) that the pitch of a composite

note is the approximate average of those of its constituents, and (2)

that the mean intensity is the sum of the individual intensities, it

appears (a) that the pitch of the aeolian murmur of a forest is essen-

tially that of its average twig, or needle, if the forest be of pine, and

(b) that though the note of the twig may be inaudible, even at close

range, the forest often may be heard miles away.

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No, 4

The explanation of the roar of the mountain, most pronounced

during winter when the trees are bare and the winds strongest, is now

obvious. It is only the feeble notes of the myriads of forest twigs

at and near the mountain top merged into a mighty volume of sound

of a more or less average pitch, all focussed, as shown by fig. 4, on

the valley beyond, but so crudely and variably focussed as to cause

great fluctuations in the intensity.

Clouding of mountain crest.—At the same time, approximately,

that the mountain begins to roar, its crest usually becomes cloud

capped, even when all other portions of the sky are absolutely clear.

As already explained, this roaring commonly is in response to the

strong and persistent winds on the forward side of a cyclonic storm,

the side where, because the wind is from the southeast, roughly,

the clouds thicken and rain begins. As also previously explained, the

wind is necessarily from the southeast over Peters Mountain when its

roar is heard in the adjacent northwest valley—the particular cir-

cumstance here under discussion. Of course this mountain, and

others similarly oriented, roars to its opposite, or southeast, valley

in response to northwest winds; but these winds generally are relatively

weak or of comparatively short duration and the roaring they produce

correspondingly inconspicuous. They, therefore, will not be further

considered in what follows.

The southeast winds, then, over this mountain, coming, at least

in their greater distances, from relatively warm and humid regions,

progressively approach saturation. Furthermore, it is the under

layers, in general, of the air that contain the largest amount of moisture,

partly because of their higher temperature and consequent greater

moisture capacity, as we elliptically (if not even cryptically) express

it, and partly because the source of this humidity—bodies of water,

and growing vegetation, chiefly—is at the surface of the earth.

After a time, then, the lower layers of the atmosphere become sQ

humid that their cooling by expansion as they rise over the mountain

carries their temperature below the dew point, and thereby produces

a cloud along the mountain crest. At first this cloud, contimuously

formed by condensation on its windward side, is continuously evapo-

rated on its leeward side. That is, it is a stationary cloud though

its every droplet is in rapid motion and of short duration. It is a

local condition in the flowing air just as a waterfall is a local condi-

tion in the passing stream.

Drifting of scud.—The leeward side of the crest cloud, just explained,

is dragged out in irregular fragments by the gusts and swirls of the

FEB. 19, 1923 HUMPHREYS: THE MURMUR OF THE FOREST 63

passing wind and driven, as flying scud, down the mountain to quick

oblivion—rapid disappearance through evaporation, owing to -the

increase of temperature that results from the gain of pressure always

incident to loss of level.

Isolated cloud billow.—As the scud fleeces grow in size and number,

a detached cloud bank of the roll-cumulus type forms over the leeward

valley parallel to the mountain crest. At first this cloud is narrow

and often broken, but it soon grows wider, deeper, and darker. It is

more or less agitated, but as a whole remains fixed in position.

The inertia of the air, as it sweeps up and over the mountain, carries

it to an elevation more or less above its level of equilibrium, from which

elevation it drops back farther on, and again, like the swinging pendu-

lum, passes beyond its point of rest. In this way a few rapidly damped

billows are set up parallel to the mountain crest just crossed. That is,

the air rises first above the mountain, then falls to a lower level, rises

Fig. 6. Stationery clouds on mountain and over valley

again (affording the soaring bird easy toboggan sailing), and so on in

rapidly decreasing amplitude. Hence, as the humidity of the air

increases, first a slight cloud forms a little above and to the leeward

of the mountain ridge along the crest of the topping billow, while

the crest of the next billow beyond, being at a lower level and therefore

warmer, is entirely cloudless; then, with further increase of humidity,

this initial cloud thickens until it rests on the mountain top and gives

off continuously avalanches of seud—secud that evaporates in its first

descent, condenses on rising to the next billow crest, and again evapo-

rates as it passes on and down the farther side of this aerial wave, all

as schematically illustrated in fig. 6.

It is this convectionally-recondensed scud at the crest of the first

air wave beyond the mountain ridge that constitutes the isolated roll

of cumulus cloud along the leeward valley, a cloud that is continuously

formed and as continuously evaporated, a permanent cloud of fleeting

particles, and stationary because the crest of the billow is fixed in

position.

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 4

By, and commonly before, the time this stationary cloud has formed

over the valley, the air has become so thoroughly mixed that most of

the wind phenomena described above are fully developed. In par-

ticular the descending currents reach the earth along the tempest

belt and there rebound, giving the mysterious leeward calm beyond.

Complete clouding.—Commonly the crest cloud along the mountain

grows heavier, the scud thicker and more enduring, and the bank of

stationary cloud over the leeward valley broader and deeper until

all merge together and the whole sky is blotted out by a continuous

cloud canopy; a sequence of phenomena owing entirely to the increas-

ing humidity of the air, and the consequent lowering of the dewpoint,

as the wind continues to blow from warmer and more humid regions.

Rain or snow.—Shortly after the clouds have merged into a con-

tinuous sheet, precipitation usually begins, and commonly lasts

anywhere from several hours to an entire day, or even two days. It

is the final result, in part, of the increased humidity of the winds, and

also in part of the convection and consequent cooling of the air incident

to the cyclonic storm then prevailing.

After the rain, or snow, there follows, of course, the process of

clearing up, but this process has no distinct mountain peculiarities

and hence need not be discussed here.

There are of course still other phenomena that might be considered

in this connection, but the above are, perhaps, the more interesting

and the more important of the many generally associated with the

roaring of the mountain, and enough to assure us that among forested

mountains, especially

“In winter, when the dismal rain

Comes down tn slanting lines,

And Wind, that grand old harper, smites

His thunder-harp of pines,”’—

—Alexander Smith.

when the muffling leaves are gone and the twigs are free to mingle

their myriad aeolian tones, the coming storm is heralded by the

murmuring of the forest and the roaring of the mountain. In proverb

form:

When the forest murmurs and the mountain roars,

Then close your windows and shut your doors.

FEB. 19, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 65

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

872D MEETING

The 872d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club auditorium, Saturday,

November 18, 1922. It was called to order at 8:25 p.m. by President

CRITTENDEN, with 40 persons in attendance.

Mr. C. E. Van OrstraAnp addressed the Society on Deep-Earth tempera-

tures in the United States. The address was illustrated by lantern slides,

and was discussed by Messrs. CRITTENDEN, HryL, Paw1ina, Giscu, WHITE,

Humpureys, Press, and HAWKSWORTH.

Author’s Abstract: The application of electrical methods to the determina-

tion of temperatures at great depths was discussed, but the instrument which

seems best adapted for general use in making a geothermal survey is the maxi-

mum thermometer. Apparatus for use in connection with maximum ther-

mometers was described. Tests in a great number of wells show that an

accuracy of 0.1 or 0.2°C. can be obtained when working under favorable

conditions. The chief source of error is the lack of temperature equilibrium

in the wells.

A brief discussion of the data of observation from mines, and both flowing

and non-flowing wells, was given. This feature of the investigation has not

yet been carried to a point where definite conclusions can be stated.

A paper by K. S$. Gipson and E. P. T. Tynpatu, on The Visibility of Radi-

ant Energy and illustrated by lantern slides was discussed by Messrs.

PawLinG, Press, and CRITTENDEN.

Author’s Abstract: By the visibility of Radiant Energy is meant the

ratio of luminosity to radiant power at the different wave-lengths (or fre-

quencies) in the spectrum. In cooperation with the Nela Research Labora-

tories, a new determination of this function had been made at the Bureau of

Standards. The so-called “step-by-step”? method was used, which is an

equality-of-brightness simultaneous-comparison method, in which there is

little or no color difference in the two parts of the photometric field. Fifty-

two observers were tested, some of them common to previous investigations.

The final results are not greatly different from those obtained in other

investigations, and comprise further evidence on the comparison of equality-

of-brightness and flicker photometry.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATIONS

W. J. Humpureys referred to the various factors that appear to enter

into the determinations of latitude. Among others, it had recently been

found in England that there appears to be a variation of latitude with the

velocity of wind. The question was further discussed by Messrs. Wuite,

LAMBERT, and PAWLING.

Mr. Paw.ine reported that recently he had made a setting with a tele-

scope at the U. 8. Naval Observatory on a star that apparently was not

catalogued. He was uncertain whether it was a variable start, or one that

had been accidently omitted from the Star catalog.

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES — VOL, 13, NO. 4

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Mr. A. E. Ruark gave the second of the series of lectures on the Quantum

Theory at the Bureau of Standards on January 15, 1923. The quantum

theory of spectroscopy and the Balmer series of hydrogen were discussed,

the fundamentals of the theory being taken up in historical order. Mr.

Ruark dealt with the two suppositions made by Bohr to explain the spectrum

lines of hydrogen and the ionized helium atoms:

(1) When the atom is not radiating, its single electron and its nucleus

move in circles around their common center of gravity in conformity with

ordinary dynamics, but the circles on which they can move are restricted to

a finite number by the quantum condition that the angular momentum of the

entire atom must be an integral multiple of h 27 where h is Planck’s con-

stant; however, the nucleus is so heavy compared to the electron that it

moves on a circle very small in comparison to the electronic orbit.

(2) When the electron passes from one of these circles to another, where the

system has less energy, the energy EF which is given up is transformed into

a train of light waves of frequency v, where v is determined by the equation

E = hy. Sommerfeld has extended the theory to the case of elliptic orbits,

and has discussed the effect of change of mass of the electron due to its

velocity thus obtaining an explanation of the fine-structure of the hydrogen

and helium lines. Wilson and Sommerfeld have formulated the general

quantum conditions which determine the discrete orbits possible in any sys-

tem of particles with conditionally periodic motion; these include Bohr’s

postulate concerning the angular momentum as a special case. Rubinowicz

and Bohr have explained by the ‘‘correspondence principle” and the ‘‘prin-

ciple of selection,” respectively, the absence of certain components of spec-

tral lines, predicted by the above theories, so that satisfactory agreement

between theory and experiment has been achieved in all respects.

The Petrologists’ Club met on Tuesday, January 16. Mr. E.S. Larsen

spoke on The probable hydrothermal origin of some corundum deposits. He

divided the deposits into two classes, one in which solutions emanating from

magmas introduced corundum together with other minerals into surrounding

rocks; and another including those formed as veins in peridotites by solutions

believed to be the last liquid of the peridotite itself.

A Joint Resolution has been passed by the Senate and the House of Repre-

sentatives reappointing Mr. Henry WHITE as a Regent of the Smithsonian

Institution, appointing Mr. Freperic A. DeLANo to succeed the late JOHN

B. Henperson, and Mr. Irwin B. LauGuuin to fill the vacancy caused by

the expiration of the term of the late ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL

The National Gallery has now on exhibit in the Evans Room a collection

of antique Etruscan, Greco-Roman and Byzantine jewelry, ancient glassware

and pottery, dating from the Seventh Century, B.C. to the Eleventh Century,

A.D., lent by the Archaeological Society of Washington.

A considerable collection of antiquities from a pit house in Chaco Canyon,

New Mexico, was presented to the U. 8. National Museum in January by

the National Geographic Society and is now being cataloged in the Division

of American Archeology. Objects from the subterranean dwellings are

extremely rare, for the pit houses antedate most of the prehistoric Pueblo

FEB. 19, 1923 ANNOUNCEMENT 67

ruins of the southwestern United States and traces of them have usually

been entirely effaced.

Mr. Grorce W. Hoover, chief of the Chicago Station of the Bureau of

Chemistry, has been appointed chief of the newly created Drug Control

Laboratory. Mr. M. W. Guover, who has been in charge of the Office of

Drug Administration, has been recalled to the U. 8. Public Health Service,

and Dr. L. F. Keser, chemist in charge of the Division of Drugs, has been

promoted to the position of chemist in charge of special collaborating investi-

gations and will direct the work involved in the enforcement of the Postal

Fraud Law.

Dr. A. Hrpuicka lectures every Friday afternoon, from 5 to 6 o’clock, at

the Postgraduate school of the American University, 1901 F Street, on

Human Variation, 1.e. variation in man’s characteristics, both physical

and functional. ‘Those who may be interested are invited to attend.

ANNOUNCEMENT

Professor Sommerfield will give the following course of lectures at the

Bureau of Standards at 4 p.m. as follows:

Subject Date

1. Introduction to Quantum Theory and Its Place in Modern Physics. .March 2

2. Quantum Theory of Spectroscopy, Balmer Spectrum of H, etc...... 3

3. Atomic Structure of the Chemical Elements....................... 5

Tewave wheary and Quantum Theory .: i. \03 64.5.2 «cers =. caees 6

5. The Significance of Quantum Numbers, azimuthal, radial, equa-

PAG 5 HM EE HERG HK, 1 0. Fae h asi dete v te pos Awe cheats «eh aa niee Sanee 7

bw weenan Pirect, Lueory of WMaonet0on., ... os seucuacec ass eee nace res 8

¢. tane Structure in Complicated Spectra... 22.00.0006 5. ccs oe eee 9

All persons interested are invited to attend. The Bureau of Standards is

located at Connecticut Avenue and Van Ness Street, Washington, D. C.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 13 Marcu 4, 1923 No. 5

PHYSICS.—The measurement of light.) E. C. Crirrenpen, U. S.

Bureau of Standards.

INTRODUCTION

I believe that custom allows the annual address of your retiring

president to differ from other papers presented before the Society in

at least one important respect. Others are expected to bring before

you something original in theory, mathematical development, or

experimental data. Your president, however, is permitted to choose

his own subject without having to convince the Committee on Com-

munications that it will involve an addition to our knowledge of

physical science. Taking advantage of this liberty, I have chosen to

talk on the subject of the measurement of light, with the intention

of discussing problems which will be quite familiar to many of you,

and of summarizing established facts rather than attempting to set

forth any new ones. My reasons for so doing are two-fold. First,

there has recently arisen in the scientific and technical press an unu-

sual amount of discussion of this general subject; and second, some

of the published discussions, as well as questions which have come

up otherwise, have indicated that there is a certain degree of haziness

in our general ideas on the subject.

It is perhaps well to recall also that during the year just past the

Society has been favored with two important papers rather closely

related to this subject. Dr. Troland in January gave us a carefully

reasoned discussion of general principles applying to the study of

problems of sensation, which involve physiological and psychological

processes as well as physical stimuli. More recently Dr. Gibson has

presented the results of his thorough-going experimental determina-

1 Address of retiring President, Philosophical Society of Washington, January 13,

1923. The text has been modified as made necessary by omission of slides and other

illustrative material used in its presentation.

70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 5

tion of the relative effectiveness of radiant energy in different parts

of the spectrum in producing the sensation of brightness under certain

conditions. This paper bears directly upon the problems which I

wish to discuss later, but first it is desirable to consider some matters

of nomenclature and units.

DEFINITIONS AND UNITS

Light—The word “‘light”’ itself is used in many different senses,

but for the present purpose I wish to restrict it to a specific one.

For this I must perhaps beg the indulgence of some of our members.

I know there are some who cherish a little of the ancient sun-wor-

shippers’ reverence for light as the mystic agency which stirs into

being the processes on which all life depends, and which surrounds

us with warmth and beauty. I trust, however, that a prosaic limi-

tation of the term for our present purposes will not lessen anyone’s

enjoyment of the beauties of the sunset, weigh down the buoyancy

which an azure sky gives to our spirits, dim our appreciation of the

iridescence which the oil film shows in lowly places, nor blind us to

any other of the thousand and one glories which light provides for

our enjoyment. If we are to consider light in any quantitative sense

we must agree on some precise definition.

The definition which I propose to use may be stated as follows:

“Tight is radiant energy evaluated in proportion to its ability to

stimulate the sense of sight.’”’ With respect to the ancient question

whether there is then any light when no eye is present to perceive it,

this definition is in away a compromise. The physical radiant energy

is light, but how much light it is can only be told by applying coefficients

depending on the properties of the visual apparatus. According to

this definition ultra violet and infra red radiation are therefore not

“light.” In order to emphasize the similarities of radiations of dif-

ferent wave length it is perhaps allowable to follow Tyndall’s example

in speaking of ‘Light, Visible and Invisible,” but for precise discussion

there are good reasons for adhering to the stricter definition which

brings in the coefficient of sensation.

There are in fact many authorities who would go further and say

that the term “light”? can properly be used only for the sensation

aroused by radiant energy, but this can never be a quantitative

definition, because we can not measure sensation except in a roughly

approximate way. The sensation produced depends on the state of

the physiological apparatus involved, so that the amount of sensation

produced by radiation of the same kind and amount is widely different

MAR. 4, 1923 CRITTENDEN: MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 71

at different times. Moreover, at any given time, sensation is not pro-

portional to the amount of the physical stimulus. In other words,

in psychological effects two and two do not make four, and such effects

can not well be used as a measure of other quantities. A condition

somewhat analogous to this is represented by what the economists

call the “law of diminishing returns.”’ For the individual ultimate

consumer at a given time two apples are seldom worth twice as much

as one, and yet no one would deny that they are twice as many. So

in the case of light it would be quite impractical to say that the

quantity is doubled only when the sensation is doubled. In actual

practice we must have some name which designates the quantity,

partly physical, partly physiological and psychological, which repre-

sents an amount of radiant energy with due allowance for the useful-

ness of that particular kind of radiant energy for purposes of vision.

The most practical course is to use the term “‘light”’ as is done in

common speech.

It must be granted, however, that such expressions as “light is

emitted from a lamp” or ‘“‘the light falls on the page’”’ are logically

somewhat peculiar, since in these cases the actual phenomena involved

are purely radiation, and the visual factor comes in only by a sort of

mental juggling. We may perhaps imagine that as the radiation

passes from lamp to book some spirit tags each element of it with a

coefficient suitable to its frequency, which coefficient represents the

magnitude of the effect which will be produced when the radiation

reaches the eye. The thing which actually exists in space in definite

amounts is radiant energy; the visual factor is obviously not really

applied until this energy is absorbed by the visual apparatus and

changed into a distinctly different form. In brief, light in this quanti-

tative sense has no real physical existence. This fact is an argument

against the proposals which have been made to simplify nomenclature

by using the same names for units of light as for energy. It has been

urged that the unit of light flux be that amount produced by one watt

of radiant power at the most effective frequency, and that this unit

also be called a watt. As an illustration of the practical confusion

which would result from such a nomenclature it may be said that the

lamp known as a ‘‘60-watt’’ at present would give about one ‘‘watt”’

of light flux. While this would serve to emphasize how far our

practical illuminants fall below the most efficient monochromatic

radiation, this advantage would hardly compensate for having two

“watts” of entirely different kinds. Since the physiological-psycho-

logica] sensation factor must come in in the translation of energy

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 5

into “‘light’’ there is no real disadvantage in passing over to entirely

different units at the same time.

Derived Quantities —lf we may then start with this half-imaginary

quantity which we cali “‘light’’ and which is simply energy with the

proper kind of tag on it, all the other things with which one has to

deal in photometry and illumination follow logically. In nearly all

illumination problems we are concerned with the rate at which light

is supplied. Letting Q be the amount of light, then S = luminous

flux (F), that is, the rate of flow of light. In order to deal with this

flow mathematically it is frequently necessary to consider three

either from, to, or through a given surface, (2) divergence of flow or

: " : ; dF

derived quantities, (1) density of flow or flux per unit area | —@ },

flux per unit solid angle (=), and (3) a combination of these, flux per

dSdweose

latter quantities are, of course, applicable in all kinds of problems,

such as that of calculating the flow of light through a projector or

other optical system, but more commonly they are used in restricted

senses for which special names have been given. The flux per unit

area on a surface is its illumination (E), the flux per unit solid angle

from a source is its intensity or candlepower (J), the flux per unit solid

angle per unit of projected area of a light source is its candlepower

per unit of projected area, or brightness. The source concerned need

not be a self-luminous one, since the same reasoning will apply to

light diffusely reflected or transmitted. Volume sources, such as

flames or the sky, have to be considered as virtual surfaces, but this

introduces no serious difficulties and is in effect what the eye itself does..

Units—We have so far talked about these quantities without

attempting to tie them up to any definite magnitudes. When we

come to the matter of units and actual measurements difficulties arise

in following out the logical scheme outlined. It is agreed that the

ultimate basis of measurement is to be the effect on the eye, but all

that the eye can do quantitatively is to equate brightness. We must

somewhere make an arbitrary start in order to establish a system of

units. As a matter of history you all know that this has been done

by adopting a certain value for the candlepower of some kind of light

source, so that historically the candle is the basic unit. From this

unit solid angle per unit of projected area ( ) These three

MAR. 4, 1923 CRITTENDEN: MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 10

followed the foot-candle and the meter candle (also called lux) which,

as the names show, were originally defined in terms of candlepower

and distance rather than of flux density. The unit of flux itself, the

lumen, is in practice defined as the flux through a unit solid angle

from a source of unit candlepower, and going farther backward on

our scheme the unit of “‘light’’ is not even dignified by a distinctive

name, but is called the lumen-hour.

TABLE I.—PHOTOMETRIC QUANTITIES

QUANTITY DERIVATION SYMBOL SPECIAL NAMES UNITS

Light Energy x V Q Lumen-hour

Luminous flux dQ F Lumen

Density of flow dF E Illumination | Foot-candle

Flux per unit area ds (on surface) | Meter-candle

Lux

Divergence of flow dF I Intensity Candle

Flux per unit solid dw Candlepower

angle (of source)

Flux per unit solid d2F B Brightness Candle per sq. in.

angle per unit pro-| dw dS cos @ Candle per em?

jected area (Lambert = 1/7 candle

Candlepower per unit per cm?.)

projected area

(of source)

Note.—The nomenclature of this table departs from recognized practice in the use

of the term light and the symbol Q for it. The practice approved by the American

Engineering Standards Committee is set forth in Illuminating Engineering Nomencla-

ture and Photometric Standards, a pamphlet obtainable from the Illuminating Engi-

neering Society, 29 West 39th Street, New York City.

Brightness is of course most simply specified in candles per square

inch or per square centimeter; but another unit, the lambert, has

found considerable use. The lambert is 1/7 candle per square centi-

meter. The reason for using this apparently peculiar unit is most

readily explained by an example. If a perfectly diffusing white wall

is illuminated it becomes a secondary source of light, but the reflected

light is so distributed throughout a hemisphere that the brightness

of the wall in candles per unit area is only 1/7 times the illumination.

The lambert is the brightness of a perfectly diffusing, completely

reflecting surface under a unit illumination, that is one centimeter-

candle, which means receiving one lumen per square centimeter. The

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 5

lambert may therefore be defined as the brightness of a perfectly

diffusing surface emitting or reflecting one lumen per square centi-

meter. This represents a high degree of brightness for a secondary

source. A white surface in the brightest direct sunlight would have

a brightness of only 10 lamberts, and for most cases of illuminated

surfaces, the millilambert, or 0.001 lambert, is more convenient. The

millilambert is the brightness of a perfectly white surface with 10

meter-candles illumination, and since a foot-candle is somewhat over

10 meter-candles (the actual ratio being 10.76), the millilambert

represents almost exactly the brightness of an actual white surface,

such as magnesium oxide or carbonate, under an illumination of

1 foot-candle.

A special case in which a still smaller unit, the microlambert (one-

millionth of a lambert), is used, is the measurement of radio-active

self-luminous materials. The brightness of these materials as actually

used is a few microlamberts. That is, they are as bright as a white

surface receiving a few thousandths of a foot-candle; for comparison,

it may be noted that full moonlight is several hundredths of a foot-

candle, giving to a white surface a brightness ten times as great as these

materials show.

Referring to the table of units we have constructed (Table I), it

may be noted that the light output of a source can be specified in

two ways. We can either state the flux in lumens or give theaverage

intensity or candlepower over a specified solid angle, usually the

complete sphere. From the point of view taken in making up this

table it appears that the former practice is simpler, but on the other

hand the historical development favors the second, and in other

countries than this the flux rating has gained little use in practice.

In this country, however, the lumen has rapidly attained an extensive

use as a practical unit for two reasons. One is that for rough and

ready calculations of illumination the lumen is more convenient,

For example, if one has to provide an area of 2000 square feet with

an average illumination of 5 foot-candles the product 10,000 imme-

diately gives the net amount of flux required. A more potent

reason, however, is the fact that so long as candlepower is considered

to indicate light output, misunderstandings are bound to occur, and

misrepresentation is facilitated. For instance, when a lamp rated

at 21 candles is put in a headlight reflector and gives a candlepower

of many thousands, it is not surprising that the non-technical man

is puzzled. Even a technically trained man is likely to overlook

the fact that watts per candle for one kind of lamp do not mean the

MAR. 4, 1923 CRITTENDEN: MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 75

same as for another, and the continual necessity for specifying what

kind of candlepower one means is a strong argument for using the

unambiguous “lumen.’’ Incidentally the appropriate use of the flux

rating which tells how much light is produced serves to make more

clear the real significance of candlepower as indicating the distri-

bution of the flux about the source.

STANDARDS OF CANDLEPOWER

Primary Standards.—While all countries agree in making their

measurements start from concrete standards of candlepower, and

general agreement, with the exception of the Germanic nations, has

been reached on a common unit of candlepower, there has been wide

divergence in regard to the standards which shall be considered as

fundamental. In all countries the name given to the unit is candle,

or an equivalent word, but no country has actually retained the

candle as a standard. In passing from it, however, each country has

followed an independent course, and consequently the nominal basis

of the unit is different in each of the four great nations, France, Great

Britain, Germany and the United States. The first three of these

adopted different flame lamps as primary standards. If the units

were actually redetermined from these standards it is probable that

differences would appear among the units thus derived.

In France the classic basis for the value of the candle is the Violle

platinum standard (the normal intensity of one square centimeter of

platinum at the melting point), but no one ever succeeded in repro-

ducing Violle’s results, and it is now recognized that this standard is

far from being exactly reproducible, because the radiation from

platinum is so susceptible to the influence of surface conditions and

surroundings. In practice Violle’s determination of the unit was

applied by using the Carcel lamp with the value which he assigned

to it. and until recently this lamp has been retained as a reference

standard. A law passed in 1919, however, while still referring to

the Violle standard, specifically says that the unit, the Bougie

Décimale, is represented practically and in a permanent manner by

means of incandescent electric lamps deposited in the Conservatoire

Nationale des Arts et Métiers. In Great Britain the candle was

superseded by the Harcourt 10-candle pentane lamp, but it is difficult

to reproduce such lamps exactly, and the accepted standard is not

the pentane lamp in general, but a particular lamp of this kind at

the National Physical Laboratory. Moreover, the standards actually

used at the National Physical Laboratory are electric incandescent

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 5

lamps. These lamps were originally calibrated by comparison with

the pentane lamp mentioned, but published records indicate that

only two series of such comparisons have been made, so that in

effect the unit is maintained by the electric standards. In Germany

the Hefner amyl-acetate lamp is presumably still the nominally

recognized standard.

In addition to the uncertainties inherent in all these flame standards

all of them show systematic variations resulting from atmospheric

conditions. Consequently in every case the actual light output of

the flame standards under average conditions has been determined

by means of incandescent electric lamps, which are free from these

effects. The electric lamps have proved so much more reliable and

convenient than the flames that there has been a marked tendency

to use them as the real standards, comparisons with the flames

being rarely made. In fact the international agreement mentioned

has been obtained and is maintained by means of comparisons be-

tween electric standards initiated by the Bureau of Standards after

several attempts made in Europe to reach agreement by direct com-

parison of flame standards had failed.

This procedure is in part analogous to that followed in the case of

the international ohm, which is maintained by means of wire resist-

ance standards whose value is derived from mercury ohms set up at

infrequent intervals, but there is the very important difference that

there exists no reproducible primary standard of light analogous to

the mercury ohm. In the adoption of the unit of candlepower in

the United States this difficulty was faced, and it was decided not to

adopt any of the existing nominal primary standards, but to base

all values on a large group of electric incandescent standards pending

agreement on a more satisfactory primary standard.

Some sixteen years have passed since this decision was made.

During that time extensive experimental! studies of the various flame

standards have been made at the Bureau, and the net result of these

investigations has been a confirmation of the wisdom of the course

taken. Instead of the flame lamps being taken as a fundamental

basis for the calibration of the electric standards, this relation is

reversed, and the flames are used only as working standards for less

precise measurements where facilities are not available for operating

electric standards.

For practical purposes the electric standards are highly satisfactory,

and the probability of any important drift in the value of the unit

maintained by them is almost negligible. Nevertheless it must be

MAR. 4, 1923 CRITTENDEN: MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT is

admitted that such a drift is possible. Differences between the vari-

ous national laboratories may develop and a common primary stand-

ard for reference would be highly desirable. Tradition and national

pride make it difficult for any country to give up its old standards

and especially so as to adopt those of some other nation, but so far

as the United States is concerned the field is entirely open, and inter-

nationally the time appears favorable for the consideration of new

proposals in this field.

In order to receive serious consideration, however, any proposed

primary standard of light must be capable of reproducing values with

an accuracy better than one per cent, and one-tenth per cent should

be within the range of its possibilities. To attain such accuracy will

require the most careful application of all our knowledge of radiating

bodies, but all recent discussion trends toward defining the unit of

light in terms of the established properties of radiators, rather than

of trying to devise other special standards of candlepower. The

properties of the complete radiator, or black body, are well established

both in theory and in experiment, and this line of development appears

to hold out most hope for the attainment of a light source exactly

reproducible from specifications. The very rapid variation of bright-

ness with change in temperature, which makes optical pyrometry

practicable and precise, is, however, a serious and fundamental

difficulty in using the black body as a standard of candlepower. At

the temperatures which would be most suitable, a change of 1 per

cent in temperature makes about 12 per cent change in brightness.

Consequently the temperature must be known to about 2 degrees

or one-tenth per cent in order to determine the light output to one

per cent. The attainment of such accuracy does not, however,

appear impossible. . 3

Two comparatively recent experimental investigations bearing

directly on the possible establishment of the black body as a primary

standard of candlepower have been reported. One of these made by

Hyde, Forsythe, and Cady in the Nela Research Laboratory was a

determination of the brightness of a carbon-tube furnace over a

considerable range of temperatures, including the temperature at

which the light from the furnace matched in color that given by the

carbon incandescent electric lamps which are now our basic candle-

power standards. This temperature was found to be about 2077

degrees K., and at 2077 degrees the brightness was determined as

70.2 candles per square centimeter. This value has therefore been

proposed tentatively as an absolute standard of light.

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 5

The value of such a specification, however, is obviously dependent

on two things which are very difficult to ensure. The first is the

establishment of a temperature scale which is reliable and reproducible

within 2 degrees or better at these high temperatures, and the second

the construction of a furnace which approaches closely enough to

uniform black body conditions to make sure that the part of the

furnace from which light is emitted is really at the temperature

assigned to it.

Now these high temperature scales are based on and checked by

melting points of pure metals. Years ago Waidner and Burgess

suggested that Violle’s idea of using platinum at the melting point

for a light standard might be made practicable if the platinum were

not used as a free radiating surface, but merely served to control the

temperature of a black body. Nearly everybody has recognized the

essential soundness of this proposal, but for various reasons it has

only recently been tried out experimentally. One of the obvious

difficulties was the cost of the platinum which would be necessary if

measurements were to be made on a black body radiator of anything

like the ordinary kind. <A few years ago H. E. Ives conceived the

idea of getting the desired effect with a moderate quantity of platinum

by using for the black body a hollow platinum wedge electrically

heated to the melting point. Observations were made on four wedges

with very consistent results, the average brightness found being

58.35 candles per square centimeter, with an extreme range of one-half

per cent. Other data obtained in the same investigation were, how-

ever, inconsistent, and extensive study would be required to determine

the effect of a number of conditions which may affect the results.

Although the wedge forms a satisfactory radiator for pyrometric

work, there is serious doubt whether it can be satisfactory for the

very exact approach to black body conditions required to give reliable

candlepower values.

Realizing the difficulties of proving that the wedge form conformed

closely enough to complete black body conditions, Ives has more

recently studied the possibilities of a hollow cylinder of platinum in

which the conditions can be more definitely established. The results

of this investigation were reported to the Franklin Institute a few

weeks ago, but have not been published.

The preliminary values reported show a highly satisfactory degree

of consistency among the observations. Comparison of Ives’ results

with those of Hyde, Forsythe, and Cady will be somewhat uncertain

because it must depend on the temperature to be assigned as the

MAR. 4, 1923 CRITTENDEN: MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 79

melting point of platinum on the Nela Research Laboratory scale.

It would appear, however, that agreement of the photometric results

could be obtained by assigning such a temperature well within the

range of the present uncertainty of the true melting point.

While more refinement will be necessary before the practical stand-

ards of candlepower can be based on black body measurements, these

two investigations seem to justify hope that this can eventually be

done so that we shall have a really reproducible primary standard

depending only on the melting point of platinum and the complete

radiator, and otherwise independent of the properties of materials.

Flux Standards.—Before passing from the subject of standards it

may be well to revert to the question of measurement of flux. All

the standards mentioned serve to furnish values only of candlepower

or brightness, whereas now-a-days all lamps are preferably rated in

lumens, so that some sort of transformation of values is necessary.

This is accomplished in two steps. Standards of flux (or of mean

spherical candlepower) are established by measuring successively the

candlepowers of electric lamps at various angles from the axis of the

lamps. The total flux can then be calculated, and these lamps are

then used as standards in an integrating sphere for the measurement

of other lamps.

A full discussion of the theory of the sphere as actually used is

hardly practicable here, but the basic principle is exceedingly simple.

The interior of the sphere is supposed to have a perfectly diffusing

surface; every element of this surface when illuminated reflects light

of an intensity which is at a maximum normal to the surface and falls

off in proportion to the cosine of the angle as one departs from the

normal. If we consider where this light falls on another element of

the surface, we find by a simple calculation that each element of the

surface illuminates every other one equally. The result is that, if we

do not count in the original light which fell on the surface to make it

luminous the illumination of all parts of the interior is the same.

Furthermore if the wall is uniform, the illumination of all parts will

be the same no matter how the original light was distributed. If we

therefore put a lamp in the sphere, add a small screen to shade a spot

from the lamp, and then measure the brightness of that spot, we

have a measure of the total flux from the lamp. ~

In actual practice the theoretical requirements of the sphere can

be approximated so closely that the systematic errors can be kept

below one per cent except in extreme conditions. All lamp factories

and important laboratories now use spheres, and a large proportion

of the standard lamps called for are flux standards.

80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 13, No. 5

THE FUNDAMENTAL QUESTION OF LIGHT EVALUATION

Limited Significance of Measurements.—It may be considered that

we have for practical purposes fairly complete and satisfactory para-

phernalia for light measurements. It should be noted, however, that

so far nothing has been said about the properties of the eye which

was, by the definition of light, made the arbiter as to what is “light”

and what is not. Most of the measurements that have been men-

tioned might be made by a bolometer or other radiometer as well

as by the eye if it were found convenient to do so, since it has been

tacitly assumed that the lights to be compared would be alike in

quality. So far, therefore, we have dealt with definite physical rela-

tions wherein the attainment of accurate values is a straightforward

problem of laboratory technique. Personal and instrumental errors

of course, come in, but in each case there is a definite and correct

answer to the problem, and this correct result can be approximated

more and more closely in proportion to the skill and patience shown

by the observers. Unfortunately, however, this condition does not

apply to many of the so-called “‘measurements” of light which we

have to make.

I began by defining light as radiant energy evaluated in proportion

to its ability to stimulate the sense of sight, but we must ask what

‘sight’? means when we wish to compare lights that differ distinctly

in spectral composition. Does it mean ability to see fine details

distinctly, to distinguish differences of light and shade, or does it

mean the ability to take in a general perception of our surroundings?

Of course, sight means all of these combined, but unfortunately for

our “measurements” of light, when we have to deal with lights of

different quality these different functions of sight assign different

relative values to them, and in order to get any start at all on quanti-

tative data we shall have to say more exactly what we mean by the

sense of sight.

So long as the lights dealt with are of about the same color it is

easy to find the relation between them, and it has been generally

agreed that measurements shall be made by some device which obtains

an equality of brightness on two white surfaces side by side. As a

natural development the same procedure has commonly been used for

lights differing in color, and following this custom we may assume

“sense of sight” for the present purpose to mean “‘sense of brightness.’’

But when we have to deal with lights of considerable color difference

it becomes doubtful what is meant by equal “brightness.” The

MAR. 4, 1923 CRITTENDEN: MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 81

relative subjective brightness of two different colored surfaces may

vary considerably according to the part of the retina the light falls on,

for most parts of it the relative brightness depends more or less on

the absolute brightness, and in general it is different for different

people.

As a convenient illustration of these variations a piece of blue

paper on a red background may look brighter than the red at low

illuminations, become equally bright at somewhat higher illumination

and decidedly darker at a still higher level. The transition point

depends on the size of the samples used, and different persons will

place it at. quite different illuminations. Moreover, when the illumi-

nation is fairly high and the color of the surfaces distinctly different,

most persons find it almost impossible to judge when equal brightness

is attained.

The question is then how shall we determine when colored lights

are equally bright, or how otherwise shall we meet the need of de-

scribing these lights in definite terms. To begin with, it should be

recognized that the thing we want to define and measure has no real

and definite existence, but must be more or less arbitrarily established.

The problem is not merely one of finding a value for a quantity which

varies with other conditions. If one unit of radiant energy gives rise

to a certain sensation, we must remember not merely that ten times

as much energy does not produce ten times the original sensation,

but that the multiplying factor may vary appreciably with conditions.

An analogy may make the troubles more evident. It is sometimes

necessary to compare a length standard of brass with one of platinum.

In order to have a definite ratio they must, of course, both be kept

_ at specified temperatures. Now let us imagine three kinds of diffi-

culties to arise; first, when the meter of brass has been carefully

adjusted to equal the meter of platinum, a measurement by centi-

meters indicates that one bar is longer than the other; second, if -we

change the size of the microscope field used for observations one bar

expands and the other contracts; third, each individual observer

when he looks through the microscopes causes a temporary differential

shrinkage or expansion of the two bars, the amount of this differential

being more or less characteristic of the individual, but varying some-

what from day to day. Now if all these troubles really arose I think

we would be inclined to say that comparing brass meters with plati-

num was a useless undertaking. Yet when we make such a measure-

ment as the direct comparison of a normal tungsten filament lamp

with a carbon lamp there are systematic difficulties closely analogous

82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 5

to all three mentioned, with the added one that for many would-be

observers there is great difficulty in deciding on any values at all.

Moreover the magnitude of the effects concerned is not, in general,

negligible in comparison with the accuracy expected in practical

measurements.

I think I have enlarged on this point sufficiently to make clear

what I wish to emphasize, namely, that the ratio of the subjective

brightness of two lights of different color is not a definite and single-

valued quantity, but depends upon the conditions of observation as

well as upon the characteristics of the individual observer’s eye. In

particular, in order to make values definite it is necessary to specify

more or less precisely the size and brightness of the photometric field,

which determine the parts of the retina used and its level of adapta-

tion. It is also necessary to include observations by a sufficient

number of individuals to approximate the results which would be

obtained by an imaginary average, or normal, observer. It is obvious

also that relative values determined under these limited conditions

must not be applied indiscriminately. For example, a comparison

of two lights under the standard conditions may not show at all

accurately their relative effectiveness at the low illuminations often

used on highways, nor does a measurement of brightness necessarily

show accurately the relative merits for work on fine details.

Nevertheless it is useful and almost necessary to have some means

of describing in a quantitative and comparable way the different

kinds of light we have occasion to use. We actually are measuring

them continually and I shall try to outline briefly the present status

of methods for such measurements.

Direct Equality-of-Brightness Observations.—The earlier illuminants

were nearly alike in color. Consequently the complications just

described did not become practically important until recent years.

By. the time these problems arose, excellent instruments had been

developed and photometric laboratory apparatus was more or less

standardized throughout the world. The natural course, therefore,

was to use these instruments and methods and to do the best one

could with them in measuring the newer illuminants. The rapid

development in succession of metallized carbon, tantalum, vacuum

tungsten and gas-filled tungsten lamps has accentuated the diffi-

culties and has made them affect the most common types of com-

mercial photometric work. Other developments, such as mercury

vapor lamps, nitrogen discharge tubes, and neon lamps, as well as

special filters and glasses to give color effects, have created still more

serious difficulties for the photometric laboratory.

ly ee

MAR. 4, 1923 CRITTENDEN: MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 83

Because of the difficulty of obtaining reliable and reproducible

results, the practice early developed of preserving values on certain

steps by the calibration of color filters, such as blue glasses, which,

interposed on one side of the photometer, would equalize the color

of two different lamps. Another procedure has been to make many

observations to determine values for secondary or derived standards

of the different kinds of lamps to be measured.

The extreme case of the latter procedure is perhaps that ene ed

by the British National Physical Laboratory where six sets of electric

standards were carefully calibrated by equality-of-brightness obser-

vations covering the range from the color of the pentane flame stand-

ard up to a low-efficiency vacuum tungsten lamp. This was very

carefully done by a number of experienced observers and affords a

good example of the essential uncertainty of the procedure. The

divergence between different observers, of course, increased on the

successive steps, and a difference of nearly 3 per cent in the final

values developed between extreme observers. Measurements were

also made in which the same observers jumped directly from the

lowest to the highest efficiency within this range. The average

candlepower of the higher efficiency lamps by the two methods agreed

within 0.3 per cent, but it is significant that in the direct single step

with larger color difference, the observers were grouped more closely

than on the final results obtained step by step. The total range of:

the results and the average deviation from the mean in the direct

measurement are only six-tenths as great as in the step-by-step or

cascade measurements. When it is considered that the range of

efficiencies covered is only from 2 to 6.5 lumens per watt, whereas

present day gas-filled tungsten lamps fall considerable above 20

lumens per watt on the same scale, it is evident that the results are

not satisfactory for precise measurements in which an accuracy bet-

ter than 1 per cent is expected.

At the Bureau of Standards a somewhat different course was fol-

lowed in that instead of establishing different sets of standards for

different efficiencies, values for a group of tungsten lamps were de-

termined over a considerable range of efficiencies and the variation

expressed in curves and equations. Furthermore, this work devel-

oped the fact that for all the ordinary sizes of vacuum tungsten lamps

the same equations would apply. In other words, the variation in

candlepower and efficiency as a vacuum tungsten lamp is changed

in voltage is a definite property, presumably because it represents

in a fairly simple way the properties of radiating tungsten at given

84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 5

temperatures in a vacuum. These equations, known as the Middle-

kauff-Skogland equations, have been very useful and still constitute

the best established procedure for determining relative values for

vacuum tungsten lamps at various efficiencies. Moreover, the experi-

ence gained at the Bureau since these equations were established

indicates that the values were very fortunately chosen. They appar-

ently agree well with the National Physical Laboratory results over

the range where they overlap, and the values have been rather closely

checked by successive groups of observers at the Bureau during the

undesirably rapid change of personnel which we have suffered during

the last few years. It should be emphasized, however, that groups

of observers of at least equal experience in other laboratories have not

agreed so well with these results.

Some years ago very careful comparative measurements on lamps

and glasses representing the step from carbon lamps to tungsten were

made by groups of five or six observers in each of the three laboratories

in the country best fitted for this work. Measurements made a

number of months apart indicated that each laboratory adhered very

closely to its average result, the consistency of performance in this

respect being within one-quarter of one per cent. However, the

difference between two of the laboratories became as large as 1.9 per

cent, although the range covered was only that from carbon lamps

to vacuum tungsten and did not approach the color of gas-filled

lamps. The Bureau of Standards was at one extreme in the results

obtained, but other data have been in general more consistent with

the Bureau’s own measurements in this intercomparison, and conse-

quently these values as represented in the Middlekauff-Skogland

curves have been retained. The rather imperfect agreement obtained

in the intercomparisons has been accepted as a practical corroboration

of these values, but again it is somewhat disturbing to have differences

of the order of 2 per cent in checking values which are supposed to

be maintained to a fraction of 1 per cent.

The result of such comparisons as have been referred to has been

to establish agreement on more or less arbitrary values for standards

of successively higher and higher temperature and efficiency, which,

when once established, can be maintained as practically independent

standards for future use. In fact in the case of the National Physical

Laboratory it is definitely stated that the values of the higher effi-

ciency standards are ‘‘assigned to them once for all.’ Such multi-

plication of standards, or determination of curves, while serving to

meet the more urgent commercial needs, is limited in its application.

MAR. 4, 1923 CRITTENDEN: MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 85

There is always doubt as to the certainty with which the values can

be reestablished by reference to the fundamental standards even

though the color differences involved are the relatively small ones

represented by incandescent lamps of different efficiencies. Further-

more, this method is, of course, not at all applicable to color differences

which can not be reached step by step or for which there is no suitable

secondary reference standard available.

Flicker Photometry.— Various methods for meeting or avoiding these

difficulties have been proposed. The only direct method which has

given any evidence of practicability is the use of the flicker photom-

eter. This type of photometer differs from the ordinary one in

that it presents the two photometric surfaces to view alternately in

the same place instead of simultaneously side by side. One of the

peculiarities of vision is the fact that the two colored surfaces can

be interchanged at such a rate that the disturbing color differences

_ are no longer seen, although differences of brightness still show in

the form of a perceptible flickering of the light in the field. Conse-

quently a speed of alternation can be chosen to get rid of the color

sense, and then a setting for equal brightness can be made by finding

the point at which the flicker disappears or reaches a minimum.

Whether the “brightness” thus found is exactly the same thing as

that found by the ordinary photometer is a disputed question. As

we have already seen, however, brightness must be rather arbitrarily

defined in either case, and it appears that a suitable choice of con-

ditions will give a very close agreement between the two methods.

The results obtained by the flicker photometer are not free from

variation with conditions such as field size, absolute brightness, and

individual characteristics of the observer. The advantages of the

instrument are simply that definite results can be obtained on any

color difference by any observer and that the results at various times

and on related color differences are far more consistent than when

‘measurements are made by the ordinary photometer. This consis-

tency makes it possible to establish the characteristics of an observer

and to predict rather accurately what results he will obtain in com-

parison with an average observer. As an example of the possibilities

in this kind of procedure, the Bureau of Standards has for a consider-

able time made use of a simple test originally due to Ives which

indicates the relative values an observer may be expected to obtain

when comparing lights of certain types. The test measurement

is the determination of the transmission of two solutions, one of

which transmits the blue end of the spectrum while the other transmits

the yellow end.

86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 5

The densities of the two solutions are so chosen that for the average

observer they transmit equal percentages of light from the standard

carbon lamp. In general, different observers find different values for

the transmission of each of these solutions under standard conditions,

and it is convenient to use the ratio of the two transmissions as a

rough indication of the characteristics of the observer. The use of

such tests is not merely a matter of finding “normal” and ‘‘abnormal”’

observers, for we find that the characteristics of observers extend

over a considerable range with a distribution roughly approximating

that represented by the ordinary “curve of errors.” It should be

noted that this distribution does not represent error of measurement

since each observer will repeat his values with a certainty represented

by a very small part of the range of distribution. In other words,

the curve represents the real distribution of individual characteristics,

not the errors in determining those characteristics.

This characteristic ratio for a given observer is closely correlated

with the results which the observer will obtain in comparing the

light emitted by radiators at different temperatures, such as lamps

of different efficiency. It is therefore possible by the use of these

test measurements to reduce the results obtained by any small group

of observers to a normal value with a considerable degree of certainty.

An illustration of such correction is shown in Table Il which repre-

sents an actual case where five observers determined a ratio equivalent

in color to the step from vacuum tungsten to gas-filled standards.

It happens that at the time this work was undertaken the group

of observers available showed a wide variation in test ratios as given

in column 2. Consequently their deviations from the average were

very large, as shown in column 4. Nevertheless when corrected

they gave an agreement which is practically perfect for such work,

the average deviation of the individual observers being less than one-

tenth of one per cent from the mean. In this particular case it

happens that the observers are so distributed that their uncorrected

mean is equally good, but this condition can not be depended upon.

Ordinarily a group of observers will show much less scattering in

their characteristics so that the individual corrections will be less

important than they were here, but one can not depend upon a small

group being symmetrically placed with reference to the mean as

this one was.

It should perhaps be noted that for relatively small color differences

the flicker photometer is not as precise as the ordinary form. For

the moderate color differences represented by the step from carbon

MAR. 4, 1923 CRITTENDEN: MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 87

to tungsten lamps, the advantage of the flicker lies not so much in

greater precision as in the certainty that the results obtained in a

particular case are consistent with those obtained at other times and

that they will agree with results made by similar methods by a differ-

ent group or a different laboratory. In other words, the variations

shown by the flicker method are scattered about a definite point in a

purely accidental fashion, whereas the measurements by equality-of-

brightness by an experienced observer may be just as consistent among

themselves and yet be greatly influenced by a permanent prejudice.

The test-ratio scheme here illustrated is of course of limited use.

Nevertheless it makes possible a decided improvement in the cer-

tainty of the measurements which are now of most practical impor-

tance, and the general principle of test measurements and of

establishing normal values which will be accurately reproducible is

TABLE II.—Correction or INDIVIDUAL OBSERVERS’ RESULTS TO NORMAL

Color difference equivalent to step from 9.3 to 18 lumens per watt

: PHOTOMETER RATIO

DEVIATION

OBSERVER NUMBER TEST RATIO pes ea eS

Observed Corrected

1 0.900 —0.087 0.2625 0.2648

2 0.909 —0.079 25 46

3 0.981 —0.006 47 49

4 1.024 +0 .037 59 49

5 1.110 +0.1238 86 54

Mean 452 5520,-! 0.985 0.2648 0.2649

applicable to all sorts of measurements. It must be admitted, however,

that the principle of the flicker photometer appears to be much

farther removed from the actual conditions under which light is used

than the simpler photometers are. The general adoption of this

method of comparison is therefore doubtful.

Visibility Curves.—In discussing the definition of light it was sug-

gested that we might consider each element of radiant energy to be

tagged with a coefficient representing its relative visual effect. Fur-

ther consideration has shown that the value of this coefficient is

somewhat indefinite. Nevertheless if we agree on definite conditions

and methods of observation, an average value can be given for this

coefficient for each wave-length. A complete solution of the problem

of photometry must include the determination of these relative visual

coefficients, and when they are established all other comparisons

might be based on them. It is, however, no simple matter to establish

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 5

satisfactory values for these coefficients or for the ‘‘visibility’’ curve

which represents them. Fortunately it is only a few weeks since

Dr. Gibson presented to the Society the general results of the most

recent work on visibility curves, and consequently I shall not burden

you with details of the methods of determining them. While Gibson

and Tyndall’s curves were determined by equality-of-brightness

settings, following a step-by-step method used earlier by Hyde,

Forsythe, and Cady, the greater number of such determinations have

been made by use of the flicker principle. The most extensive investi-

gation of this kind was carried out by Dr. Coblentz a few years ago,

and was likewise reported here.

If one plots together the curves obtained for individual observers

in any of these investigations the result is a diffuse band representing

the scattering of the curves of different individuals. While there is a

general similarity in the curves of all observers, individual differences

are such as to represent a very large percentage variation. Here, as

in the case of the simpler test-solution measurements already men-

tioned, any classification of observers as ‘“‘normal’’ or “abnormal”

must be arbitrary, since a complete gradation is found between the

most extreme types of curves. The choice of a general average or

“normal” curve is therefore difficult.

The results of Gibson and Tyndall and of Hyde, Forsythe, and

Cady, both made by equality-of-brightness methods, show an agree-

ment which is really remarkable when the difficulties of the investi-

gation are considered. In fact it is quite possible that the differences

found are to be explained by the fact that observing fields of different

size and form were used in the two laboratories.

Gibson’s comparisons of his own results with those of Coblentz also

show a fairly close agreement, but apparently indicate a real differ-

ence between the results of the two methods. ‘There are two con-

ditions, however, which make this conclusion somewhat uncertain.

These are that the energy values used were determined in entirely ©

different ways, and that several years elapsed between the two investi-

gations so that the observers common to both may have changed

their characteristics in the meantime. The conditions of field size

and brightness used were also slightly different.

My opinion is that most of the earlier determinations of visibility

may now be given little weight, and that the most reasonable method

of establishing experimentally a reliable normal, or average, curve}is

to carry out such measurements as are necessary to answer the un-

settled questions with regard to the differences between the Coblentz

MAR. 4, 1923 CRITTENDEN: MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT 89

flicker data and the results of the other determinations mentioned.

All of these were carried out with such care and thoroughness that

they should serve to establish a standard curve which would approxi-

mate as closely as can be expected to the characteristics of the hypo-

thetical average observer.

When such a standard visibility curve is established, the total light

value of radiant energy of any quality for which spectral distribution

curves can be obtained will become merely a matter of calculation

or of graphic determination. It is evident, however, that these

visibility curves are subject to all the limitations of brightness meas-

urements. Using them, consequently, does not solve all our diffi-

culties. Moreover, the experimental difficulties in obtaining reliable

spectral distribution curves are considerable, and the aggregate errors

of calculated values may often exceed the uncertainty in the direct

comparison by simpler methods. Values calculated from spectral

measurements and visibility curves are in fact hardly capable of an

accuracy such as is most commonly desired in photometric results.

In this connection mention should be made of two interesting possi-

bilities in the way of more reliable comparisons by means of visibility

curves, both of which have been described in recent years before the

Society. One is the combination of Nicol prisms and quartz plates,

devised by Priest, which constitutes a color filter whose spectral

transmission curve is adjustable over considerable limits and can be

calculated with a high degree of certainty. These calculations as

expressed in terms of light must, of course, depend on the visibility

curve, but having a standard visibility curve, the results obtained by

this device should ke reliable. |

The other possibility is that of a physical photometer consisting of

an instrument for measuring radiant energy, combined with a filter

which in effect adjusts the spectral sensibility of the radiometer to

make it correspond to that of the standard curve adopted as repre-

senting the sensibility of the eye. The refinement of laboratory

technique required to make accurate measurements of radiant energy

is such that this method of measurement does not appear likely to

find very extensive application, but its possibilities may be worth

further investigation.

CONCLUSION

While applications of the visibility curve will undoubtedly con-

stitute a valuable supplement to more direct measurements, the situ-

ation will never be entirely satisfactory unless the values thus calcu-

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 5

lated can be checked by more direct measurements. It is, therefore,

highly desirable that when a standard visibility curve is adopted it

be made to fulfill this condition. In order to do so it may possibly

be necessary to adjust the experimentally determined visibility curve

to a slight extent. Whether this will be necessary or not can only

be determined by comparing results calculated from various visibility

curves with those established by direct measurement. As has been

repeatedly indicated above, results obtained by all methods depend

to some extent on conditions which have to be chosen more or less

arbitrarily. It is to be hoped that agreement can be reached on the

specification of conditions such that consistent results can be obtained

whether one uses the equality-of-brightness photometer, the flicker

photometer, or spectral measurements in combination with a visibility

curve. There appears to be no doubt that conditions can be so

specified as to bring about this condition so far as comparison of

incandescent radiators at different temperatures is concerned. For

instance, if the standard visibility curve be adjusted to make it agree

with the usual equality-of-brightness photometer as now used for

these measurements, flicker values can readily be brought into agree-

ment by correcting them to a “normal” slightly different from the

results which that instrument would give when used by the average

observer. There would appear to be some justification for adopting

as one of the basic conditions the use of the small central portion of

the retina which is actually used in observation of details. If this

were done it is probable that all three of the photometric methods

mentioned could be brought into very close agreement.

If such a solution for the fundamental problem of comparison of

brightness can be obtained, and the black body is made to furnish

a standard reference source, our system of assigning values to lights

of every kind will probably be in as satisfactory a condition as the

intrinsic difficulties of the subject will ever permit.

MAR. 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOFHICAL SOCIETY 91

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

874TH MEETING

The 874th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium on Saturday,

December 16, 1922. It was called to order at 8:20 P.M. by President WHITE

with 33 persons present.

The minutes of the 872d meeting were read and approved.

By invitation, Mr. A. H. Bennerr addressed the Society on The aberrations

of anastigmatic photographic lenses. The address was illustrated by lantern

slides, and was discussed by Messrs. Wuirr, Hreyi, WILLIAMSON, LAMBERT,

Pawtinc, L. H. Apams, and PRIEst.

Author’s Abstract: In the design of photographic lenses, two requirements

are dealt with which are not often found combined in other types of optical

design.

In the first place, the photographic lens must have a wide angular field

of view, which commonly ranges from 40° to 60°. In addition, a large relative

aperture is necessary in order that the lens should have sufficient rapidity.

These two requirements prohibit an extremely fine correction for the aber-

rations.

The definitions, general effects on the defining power of the lens, and

suitable method of plotting graphs of the aberrrations, together with methods

of measurement were given. Average values for the magnitudes of the differ-

ent aberrations as found from a series of measurements on twenty-five (25)

lenses made by eight manufacturers, were presented.

Improvement in this type of lens by the employment of aspherical sur-

faces, which are more favorable for the correction of the aberrations, will

probably result in a great increase in relative aperture, without increasing

the aberrations beyond their present values.

Mr. 8. P. Fergusson and Mr. R. N. Covert presented a paper on The

measurement of the wind, which was read by Mr. Frrausson. The address

was illustrated by lantern slides, and various types of anemometers were

exhibited. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Wuirs, Prisst, L. J. Bricas,

Heck, and HARPER.

Author’s Abstract: A review of the progress of anemometry during the

past century shows very clearly that much of the confusion or discordance

in data of the direction and velocity of the wind is due to the absence of

definitions. It is not necessarily difficult to rate an anemometer with a

precision satisfactory for most uses, but, if there is considerable difference

in the frequency of readings the indications of two similar instruments may

disagree as much as 50 per cent and both be correct. The cause of this is

the extreme variability of the wind, of which the direct fluctuations may

extend 50 per cent or more on either side of the average velocity prevailing

during a period of time exceeding one minute; ten or more oscillations may

occur in one second. The extreme range of mean velocity, or the movement

of the wind during periods of five minutes or longer (published in current

reports), extends from a calm to about 60 meters a second, the latter velocity

occurring sometimes at exposed stations. At most inland stations, however,

the extreme velocity of gales seldom exceeds 30 meters a second. Another

characteristic of the wind, of considerable importance in the design of ane-

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE$ VOL. 18, No. 5

mometers or structures that must resist high winds, is the small extent of

gusts or extreme variations in velocity; momentary differences of 30 per cent

have been observed between well-exposed anemometers less than two meters

apart, while long-period variations are usually nearly synchronous over

areas whose width or extent may exceed 100 meters. Obviously, therefore,

two standards are needed, one for average velocities and one for gustiness,

the measurement of which can best be accomplished by the use of separate

instruments of appropriate sensitiveness.

The factors or constants of most anemometers in general use were deter-

mined with fair accuracy by means of whirling machines, at low and moderate

velocities, about thirty years ago; but, only within the past few years has

it been possible to rate an instrument at the high velocities sometimes

attained by the natural wind. The modern wind-tunnel, designed particularly

for experimental studies in aerodynamics, has proved to be a most excellent

device for standardizing anemometers, as shown by the recent work of

BraZIerR in France, PATTERSON in Canada, and that of the Weather Bureau.

The Bureau of Standards, having kindly placed the wind-tunnels of its

aerodynamical laboratory at the service of the Weather Bureau, the authors,

beginning in March, 1922, have tested about thirty anemometers of various

patterns, dimensions, and weights at velocities throughout the range of the

natural wind, and at various angles of inclination. In August, 1922, fifteen

of the same instruments were taken to Mount Washington, New Hampshire,

for comparison in the high natural wind prevailing there in order to ascertain

differences of behavior in steady and variable winds. The purpose of this

work is to determine corrections for the present standard anemometer and

to develop a new standard indicating true velocities, for routine and special

uses. It is expected that this investigation will be completed during the

coming year. The following preliminary results, subject to revision, are

considered important:

Velocities indicated by the small Robinson anemometer in use in the

United States are approximately 22 per cent too high. The factor determined

in wind-tunnels appears to be more nearly constant than that previously

ascertained by means of whirling machines.

The factors of many anemometers in use have been determined at velocities

throughout the range of the natural wind.

The differences between instruments in the wind-tunnels and in the natural

wind appear to be small; not much larger than the normal differences between

anemometers of the same kind.

The differences between average velocities indicated by light and heavy

anemometers compared on Mount Washington are small; none larger than

3 per cent have been found, so far, and the heavy Robinson instruments

tend to under-register. This experiment may require repetition since the

results stated are not strictly in accord with earlier work.

The rate of an anemometer increases as the axis is inclined, reaching a

maximum with an inclination of about 30°. This was discovered by BRAzIER

and confirmed by the experiments at the Bureau of Standards.

The three-cup type of Rosrnson anemometer suggested by PaTTERSON

appears to be more satisfactory than the usual four-cup instrument. Its

factor is more nearly constant and, since but one cup at a time is sheltered,

three cups are practically as effective as four of the same size.

It is hoped that these independent investigations in anemometry will

result in the adoption of the standards of velocity and methods of measure-

ment referred to and the determination of factors whereby the rate of any

anemometer can be ascertained when its dimensions and weight are known.

MAR. 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 93

Dr. L. J. Briaas presented an informal communication on Direct measure-

ment of air speed in wind-tunnels.

Author’s Abstract: At the request of the National Advisory Committee

for Aeronautics, the Aerodynamical Physics Section of the Bureau of Stand-

ards has made some direct determinations of the air speed in a wind-tunnel

for comparison with pitot-tube measurements of air speed.

The method employed was as follows:

A small parallel pencil of light from an are source was so reflected that

it traversed the tunnel three times at right-angles to the longitudinal axis

of the tunnel and was finally focused upon a photographic film carried on the

surface of a rapidly rotating drum. The distance between adjacent beams

measured along the axis of the tunnel was approximately one meter.

Small balloons filled with hydrogen and weighted so as to have the same

average density as the air-stream were carried through the tunnel with the

air-stream. Each balloon eclipsed successively the three light-beams and

the instant of the eclipse was indicated by a break in the trace on the photo-

graphic film. Timing lines, representing time intervals of one-thousandth

of a second, were simultaneously recorded on the film with the aid of a 500

cycle tuning-fork operated by an electron-tube drive. By this means the

time required for the balloon to travel from one light-beam to the next

could be measured, which, in connection with the known distance between

the light-beams, gave the data necessary to determine the air-speed. The

pitot-tube pressure developed by the air-stream was also continuously

recorded on the film with the aid of a diaphragm gauge equipped with a

mirror. Preliminary measurements indicate that the mean of the speed

determinations by the balloon method agrees with the air-speed measure-

ment as determined by the standard pitot-tube to within two-tenths of one

per cent.

Adjournment at 9:55 P.M. was followed by a social hour.

875TH MEETING

The 875th meeting was a joint meeting with the Washington Academy of

Sciences in the Cosmos Club Auditorium on Thursday, December 21, 1922.

The meeting was addressed by Dr. H. A. Cuark of the Taylor Instrument

Company of Rochester, New York, on The manufacture of thermometers.

The address was illustrated by lantern slides, and some specimens of ther-

mometer tubing and of thermometers were exhibited. The paper was dis-

cussed by Messrs. HumpHreys, JONES, Kapret, and Hawxswortu. The

meeting adjourned at 9:40 P.M.

876TH MEETING

The 876th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium January 13,

1923. It was called to order at 8:30 P.M. by President Wuire, and 62 per-

sons were in attendance.

The address of the evening was given by the retiring President, E. C.

CRITTENDEN, on The measurement of light. The address was discussed

by Messrs. Pawuine, L. H. ApAMs, HAWKSWoRTH, WILLIAMSON, and Mouuer.

It will be published in an early number of the Journal of the Washington

Academy of Sciences.

Adjournment at 10 P.M. was followed by a social hour.

J. P. Auut, Recording Secretary.

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 5

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The third paper of the series discussing the Quantum Theory was presented

before the Physics Club, Bureau of Standards, by F. L. Monter, January

22, 1923. The subject was The atomic structure of chemical elements. An

abstract by the author follows:

We assume that a chemical element of atomic number Z contains Z elec-

trons each in an orbit determined by quantum conditions similar to those

demonstrated experimentally for hydrogen and helium. A rigid mathemat-

tical solution is impossible but ina heavy atom the inner X-ray orbits approx-

imate hydrogen orbits around a charge Z. An analysis of X-ray spectra

shows that all positions of equilibrium within the atom are occupied by

electrons. There are one K, three L, five M, seven N, and five O levels

known. The total quantum numbers are Kj, Le, M3, ete. The number

of electrons within each orbit can be estimated and the ellipticity of orbits

is known. There are as many shapes as allowed by the total quantum

number. It is concluded that both in the formation of an atom and in

the course of the periodic table groups K, L, M, ete., appear in the order

of their quantum number and within each group it is the most elliptical

orbit which appears first.

The space configuration must be symmetrical in a complete group and by

non-mathematical reasoning we see that the rare gases mark stages in com-

pletion of groups and that chemical and physical properties of successive

elements can be predicted in some detail from the scheme of atom building

indicated by X-ray spectrum theory.

Dr. L. B. TucKEeRMAN delivered the fourth lecture of the above series on

January 29, 1923. His subject was Continuity vs. discontinuity.

Since the beginning of human thinking there have been two different

ways of looking at the physical universe. From the one viewpoint the

apparent discontinuities of physical phenomena are only singularities in an

underlying continuous substratum. From the other viewpoint the apparent

continuities of physical phenomena are only statistical averages over under-

lying discontinuities. Nearly twenty-five hundred years ago Zeno of Elea in

his paradoxes pointed out the difficulties involved in both these conceptions.

After the introduction of the calculus as the basic mathematical tool of

theoretical physics, the viewpoint of continuity grew to be the customary

viewpoint of the physicist. The critical investigation into the mathematical

idea of continuity by Bolzano, Weierstrass, Cantor, and others, together

with the growth of the modern atomic theory in the hands of Dalton and his

-followers, the introduction of the electron by J. J. Thomson and finally the

quantum by Planck, have rendered this viewpoint less satisfactory.

The development of a theory which shall weld these discontinuities into

a coherent whole with the continuities of the older physics is a leading prob-

lem of physics today. It is too early to be certain in which direction this

development will take place. It may be that the electron, the atom and the

quantum will finally be interpreted in terms of an underlying continuity.

On the other hand it may be (and the development of the Bohr atomic

model seems to make this more probable) that our future picture of the

physical world will be essentially discontinuous in all its elements.

MAR. 4, 1923 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 95

The American Nature Association has published the first number of its

new monthly periodical, ‘““Nature Magazine.’ This publication provides

accurate and readable information on outdoor subjects and presents the

material in an entertaining fashion. All information can be obtained from

the American Nature Association, 1214 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

The editors are P. 8. RipspatE and A. N. Pack.

The Maryland-Virginia-District of Columbia branch of the Mathematical

Association of America held a semiannual meeting at the Bureau of Standards,

December 9, 1922.

Dr. Wiui1am N. Bere has resigned his position as pathological chemist

in the Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. He is now en-

gaged in the manufacture of biological products at the Berg Biological

Laboratory, Brooklyn, New York.

Mr. C. A. Briae@s, associate physicist, Division of Weights and Measures,

Bureau of Standards, has been transferred to the U. 8. Department of

Agriculture to the post of live stock weight supervisor in the Packers and

Stockyards Administration.

Mr. M. R. CampsBeE tu, geologist in charge of the coal section of the U. S.

Geological Survey for the past 16 years, has been relieved of this duty at his

own request that he may devote himself to the physiographic work of the

Survey. Mr. W. Taytor TuHom, Jr., has been assigned to succeed Mr.

Campbell in the coal work.

Dr. J. C. Karcuer of the Sound Laboratory, Bureau of Standards, has

resigned to accept a position as technical adviser to the production manager

of the Western Electric Company, Chicago, Illinois.

Mr. W. P. Wooprinec has been granted leave of absence from the U. S.

Geological Survey to do private work in South America.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vout. 13 Marcu 19, 1923 No. 6

SOIL CHEMISTRY.—Relations between the active acidity and lime-

requirement of soils. Epagar T. Wuerry, U. S. Bureau of

Chemistry.1

The lime-requirement, or amount of lime needed to bring a soil to a

neutral reaction, is decidedly less easy to determine with certainty than

is the active soil acidity, or hydrogen-ion concentration of the aqueous

extract (also sometimes termed soluble, effective, or ‘‘true’’ acidity).

If any numerical factor could be discovered connecting the two, it

would be possible to carry out the simpler acidity determination,

and then to calculate from it the lime-requirement. From an indirect

comparison of the active acidity and the lime-requirement of the same

soils Blair and Prince? have concluded that more or less correlation

between these quantities does exist; but they did not work out the

direct relations, nor do any other writers appear to have done so.

The matter seems of sufficient importance, however, to justify further

study of the available data.

In what follows, lime-requirement will be expressed in parts of

calcium oxide per thousand; this being numerically identical with

tons per acre, if that area is considered as offering for treatment two

million pounds of soil (corresponding to a depth of approximately 6

inches).

Hydrogen-ion concentration will be stated in the form of specific

acidity, which has been defined by the writer? as the acidity of a solu-

1 Presented at the Birmingham meeting of the American Chemical Society, April,

1922. Contribution from the Laboratory of Crop Chemistry.

2 Soil Sci., 9: 253. 1920.

3 Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., 9: 305. 1920.

98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 6

tion, measured by hydrogen-ion, with reference to the hydrogen-ion

content of water asa unit. To transpose Ps values (which are hydro-

gen-ion exponents, not concentrations, though often erroneously so

termed) into specific acidities, subtract from 7, and raise 10 to the

power thus indicated. The great advantage of this method of state-

ment is the ease with which the relative acidities of different solutions

can be appreciated. For example, the Ps values of two of the soil

extracts discussed later are 5.8 and 5.5; which of these is the more

acid, and how much more? Considerable calculation would be neces-

sary in order to answer these questions. When these values are

subtracted from 7 they give 1.2 and 1.5 respectively; and raising 10

to these powers with the aid of a table of logarithms yields the specific

acidities 15.9 and 31.6. It then takes but a glance to see that the

second solution is practically twice as acid as the first. The use of

this method is recommended to writers who desire to enable their

readers to appreciate relative values of acidity with a minimum of

effort.

RELATIONS TO BE EXPECTED

Is any correlation between specific acidity and lime-requirement

to be expected? Let us consider what these two quantities represent.

The writer’s views as to their significance have already been published

in another connection‘ but they would seem to require re-statement

here in a somewhat different form. In the determination of lime-

requirement, lime water is added to the soil until the mixture shows a

neutral or somewhat alkaline reaction. The calcium hydroxide is

used up in decomposing any aluminium or iron salts present; and in

neutralizing soluble acids, (the hydrogen-ion of which is the source

of specific acidity) insoluble acids or acid salts, and any hydrogen-

ion which may exist adsorbed on the soil colloids,® (the place of which

may then be taken by calcium-ion).

As decomposable aluminium or iron salts, (such as the chlorides,

sulfates or citrates) or of insoluble acids (e.g. dihydroxystearic)

have never been demonstrated to be present in normal soils in more

than minute amounts, the lime used up by them must be inconsider-

able. The amount of lime needed to neutralize the soluble acid repre-

sented by a specific acidity of even 1000 (Px 4) has been repeatedly

4 Weology, 1: 160. 1920. Especially pages 167-170.

5 It is now generally believed that the source of the electric charge on colloids lies

in adsorbed ions, especially H*+ and OH-. This matter is fully treated in modern

books on colloid chemistry, and need not be discussed further here.

MAR. 19, 1923 WHERRY: ACIDITY AND LIME-REQUIREMENT OF SOILS 99

found to be, as would be expected, quite negligible (about lime-require-

ment 0.002). The conclusion seems necessary, therefore, that the

bulk of the lime taken up by a soil goes to neutralize hydrogen-ion

adsorbed on the colloids; or, in other words, the lime requirement is

essentially a measure of the amount of adsorbed hydrogen-ion present

in a given soil.

The ratio between adsorbed hydrogen-ion (lime-requirement) and

soluble hydrogen-ion (specific acidity) accordingly depends on the

quantity and character of the colloid matter present. If several

soils contain approximately the same amount of essentially identical

kinds of colloid, then this ratio should be the same for all of them; a

correlation between specific acidity and lime-requirement could be

said to exist, and, provided the ratio has been determined in one

instance, the lime-requirement could be calculated from observed

values of specific acidity for this whole series of soils.

Data on gravelly loam soils.—All four soils discussed by Blair and

Prince in the paper cited were considered to belong to the same soil

type, Sassafras gravelly loam. To ascertain whether the ratio between

specific acidity and lime-requirement is the same for all of them, these

two quantities should be compared with one another directly. To this

end, specific acidity values have been calculated from the Ps by the

procedure above given, and lime-requirement values in tons have

been obtained by dividing the number of pounds of CaO by 2000.

The ratio between these two values may be simply and conveniently

expressed in the form of a correlation coefficient, appropriately desig-

nated by the initial letter of the word colloid, C; this is the factor by

which specific acidity (S.A.) must be multiplied to obtain lime-require-

ment (L.R.), that is, L.R. = C x (8.A. — 1). In this connection it

should be noted that since the value of the specific acidity at the

neutral point is 1, not zero, 1 is subtracted from §8.A. in all calcula-

tions. It may also be remarked that the writer fully realizes that

the uncertainty of measurements of Px and especially of L.R. does

not justify placing much dependence on the values of C beyond the

second decimal place.

The specific acidity of these soils was found to range from 2.0. to

39.8, the lime-requirement from 0.05 to 0.8, and C from 0.010 to 0.200.

The lower values of C represent untreated soils, the higher, those

treated with lime. This is interesting from the theoretical standpoint,

for it means that the ratio between soluble and adsorbed hydrogen-

ion, and accordingly the character of the soil colloids, varies widely,

100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 6

even among soils of similar aspect. But it indicates at the same time

that it is impracticable to calculate lime-requirement from specific

acidity without knowing exactly what soil is under consideration in

each case.

Data on cranberry bog soils—It now seemed desirable to ascertain

whether other types of soils would yield results similar to the foregoing;

and certain of the data presented by Joffe® were used for this purpose.

This author plotted active acidity against lime-requirement in some

cases, but as he used exponential values for the former, his correlations

are not directly comparable with those of the present paper. On

recalculating his data, the specific acidity was found to range from

1 to 1259, the lime-requirement from 0.1 to 7.5 and C from 0.004 to

0.200. There is a decrease in C with depth in the soil at a given spot.

The relations thus correspond to those shown in the gravelly loam

soils.

Data on a silt loam soil.—To obtain still further information upon

the way in which the features in question vary from one soil to another,

some data on an Ohio silt loam, published by Knight,’ were used.

(In this connection the writer wishes to state that he does not agree

at all with the majority of Knight’s conclusions.) The specific acidity

observed ranged from 100 to 1140, the lime-requirement from 0.9 to

2.2, and C from 0.0015 to 0.0091. As in the other soils, the range

in C is wide; but in this series of results it is brought out with special

clearness that liming results in a marked increase in the value of C,

although the effect varies to some extent with the differently fertilized

soils, evidently because of the different ways in which the lime reacts

with the compounds present.

Classification of soils on the basis of C-—The values of the correla-

tion coefficient © for the whole series of soils above considered are

collected in Table 1. They are arranged in a number of “classes,”’

the typical value for each of which is made for convenience about

twice as great as for the preceding one.’ There are, of course, all

gradations between these classes. It is evident that only if the class

into which a given soil falls could be determined by some simple proce-

dure, would it be practicable to obtain its lime-requirement from its

specific acidity.

6 Soil Sci., 9: 261. 1920.

7 Journal Ind. Eng. Chem., 12: 559. 1920.

8 In order to bring the values close to numerals the relationship of which is obvious,

the multiple actually used is ¥/ 10 or 2.154. . . The rounded-off numbers obtained

thereby, in all decimal places, are 1, 2 and 5.

MAR. 19, 1923 WHERRY: ACIDITY AND LIME-REQUIREMENT OF SOILS 101

TABLE 1—Summary or Vauuss or Corrricient C [L. R. = C X (S. A. — 1).]

VALUES OF COEFFICIENT C

SOILS STUDIED NO. DESCRIPTION

Range Average} Class

SSIS ete ese sel Variously fertilized 0.0015-0.0020 | 0.0018/0.002+

1 Manured 0.0022 0.0022

Siltiloam sot 5 Limed, in part 0.0057-0.0063 | 0.0053/0.005—

Mediacid peat..... 4 Cranberry bog 0.0040-0.0070 | 0.0055

Pit Loam we sO Limed, balance 0.0075-0.0091 | 0.0085|0.01

Gravelly loam..... 1 In part 0.010 0.010

Gravelly loam..... 2 In part 0.019 -0.026 | 0.023 |0.02+

7 Limed, in part 0.018 -0.036 | 0.027

Gravelly loam..... 3 Balance; limed, in part 0.038 -0.050 | 0.044 |0.05—

Subacid peat...... 4 Cranberry bog, depths 0.036 -0.064 | 0.047

Subacid peat...... 2 Cranberry bog, others 0.076 -0.077 | 0.077 |0.1

Gravelly loam..... 3 Limed, in part 0.076 -0.136 | 0.100

Subacid peat...... 2 Limed, balance 0.166 -0.200 | 0.183 |0.2+

Gravelly loam..... 1 Limed, balance 0.200 — 0.200

Since this paper was prepared, over a year ago, a new series of

comparisons of lime-requirement and active acidity has been published

by Harlan W. Johnson.® On calculating the coefficient C for his

data, the following classes are found to be represented:

TABLE 2

Finesandy loam...| 1 Knox 0.007— 0.007 | 0.005

Finesandyloam...| 1 Buckner 0.015- 0.015 | 0.01

Various loams..... 7 Lindley, O’Neill, ete. 0.023-0.035 | 0.028 | 0.02

Various loams..... 10 Plainfield, Shelby, etc. 0.037-0.070 | 0.050 | 0.05

Various loams..... 10 Buckner, Tama, etc. 0.077-0.121 0.086 | 0.1

Various loams..... a Judson, Marshall, etc. 0.166-0.301 | 0.234 | 0.2

Various loams..... 2 Wabash, Waukesha. 0.378-0.588 | 0.483 | 0.5

Various loams..... Z Hancock, Bremer 0.9 -2.5 high

Again the values of C show a wide range. This author furnishes

data on organic matter present in these soils, and it is interesting to

find that on plotting the values of C against the organic matter, they

are found to be on the whole proportional; it is also striking that the

lime-requirement itself is a function of the organic content, averaging

one-sixth of the latter. These relations indicate that the organic

§ Soil Sci., 13; 7. 1922.

102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 6

colloids are more important than the inorganic in furnishing hydrogen-

ion to be neutralized by lime. The lack of relation between Ps and

organic matter is not opposed to this, for the amount of organic

acids needed to yield the Px values shown is infinitesimal in comparison

with the total organic content.

Summary.—In this paper lime-requirement is stated in parts per

thousand of CaO; and, because of the ease with which relative values

can be appreciated, active soil acidity is stated in the form of specific

acidity. The ratio between these in a given soil may be expressed by

a correlation coefficient C obtained by the equation: L.R. = C X

(S.A. — 1). The value of C is believed to be a measure of the adsorp-

tive power of the soil colloids for hydrogen-ion.

The coefficient C has been found to vary so widely from one soil to

another, from an untreated to a limed soil, and even from one depth

to another in the same soil, that it is impracticable to calculate lime-

requirement from acidity determinations in general, as has been

proposed. Soils may be roughly classified on the basis of the value of

C, a convenient ratio between classes being 10; but only if some

simple procedure is first devised for classifying a given soil can there be

obtained from its specific acidity a value for its lime-requirement.

BOTANY.—Two new genera related to Narvalina. S. F. Buaxg,

Bureau of Plant Industry.

The type species of Narvalina, N. domingensis (Cass.) Less., is a

shrub known only from the island of Hispaniola (Santo Domingo)

in the West Indies. It is closely allied to the widespread and variable

genus Bidens to which our “sticktights” or “devil’s pitchforks’’ belong,

being distinguished chiefly by its shrubby habit, coriaceous leaves,

and wing-margined achenes. Although still rare in herbaria, at least

in this country, it is represented in the National Herbarium by two

sheets of excellent specimens collected by Mr. Emery C. Leonard,

who accompanied Dr. W. L. Abbott on a collecting trip to Haiti in

1920.

Up to 1900 only the original species had been referred to the genus.

In that year three new species were described from Ecuador by the

German student of Asteraceae, Georg Hieronymus. All three are

now represented in the U. 8. National Herbarium by fragments of

the types recently received from Berlin. Study of these fragments,

consisting of fruiting heads accompanied by portions of the leaves,

shows that they represent two rather remarkable new genera.

MAR. 19, 1923 BLAKE: TWO NEW GENERA RELATED TO NARVALINA 103

One of these, to which belong Narvalina corazonensis and N. homo-

gama of Hieronymus, includes also the Peruvian plant lately described

as Bidens mirabilis Sherff. Dr. Earl E. Sherff, who has been occupied

for some years in a revision of the genus Bidens, ascribed his new

species to that genus with some hesitation, and as the result of re-

newed study of the plant has come independently to the conclusion

that it must be distinguished generically. The new genus, which it is

proposed to name Fricentrodea! in allusion to its numerous pappus

awns, is accordingly published jointly by Dr. Sherff and the writer.

It is distinguished from Narvalina by having the achene distinctly

contracted at apex into a short neck or collar produced, at least in

two of the species, into two very short branches each bearing about

3 to “8” fragile, retrorsely hispid awns. It differs from Bidens in the

same features, as well as in the presence of achene wings, which,

however, are nearly obsolete in N. homogama, or even completely so

in B. mirabilis.

Fig. 1. a, achene of Narvalina domingensis (Cass.) Less. (Leonard 4832) ; b, Ericentrodea

corazonensis (Hieron.) Blake & Sherff (Sodiro 44/2); c, E. homogama (Hieron.) Blake

& Sherff (Sodiro 44/1); d, Cyathomone sodiroi (Hieron.) Blake (Sodiro 44/3). All

x 3.

The other genus, represented only by Narvalina sodiroi Hieron.,

has a very broadly winged achene (similar in aspect to that of Ver-

besina, but obcompressed), bearing a pappus consisting of 2 very

fragile awns and a turbinate spinulose-ciliolate corona about 1 mm.

high, often adnate to the wings.

The distinctive characters of the three genera here considered are

given in the following key.

lépi, much, xevrpwons, prickly.

? ?

104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 6

Achene not contracted at apex; pappus of 2 awns only........ 1. Narvalina.

Achene contracted into a neck or collar at apex.

Pappus of about 6 to 15 awns, more or less distinctly aggregated in two

groups over the angles of the achene................... 2. Ericentrodea.

Pappus of 2 awns and a turbinate corona.................. 3. Cyathomone.

1. Narvalina Cass. Dict. Sci. Nat. 38: 17. 1825.

Needhamia Cass. Dict. Sci. Nat. 34: 335. 1825. Not Needhamia R. Br. 1810.

1. NARVALINA DOMINGENSIS (Cass.) Less. Syn. Comp. 234. 1832. Fig. 1, a.

Needhamia domingensis Cass. Dict. Sci. Nat. 34: 336. 1825.

Narvalina fruticosa Urban, Symb. Antill. 5: 265. 1907, excluding Bidens

fruticosa L., the name-bringing synonym.?

TYPE LocaLiry: Santo Domingo.

SPECIMENS EXAMINED: Hartt: Shrub 5 to7 ft. high, occasional in arid thick-

ets, vicinity of Pétionville, alt. 350 m., June, 1920, Leonard 4832 (U.S. Nat.

Herb.); shrub 4 to 5 ft. high, scarce, vicinity of Fond Parisien, Etang

Saumatre, May, 1920, Leonard 4098 (U.S. Nat. Herb.).

2. Ericentrodea Blake & Sherff, gen. nov.

Seandent shrubs or herbs (?), with opposite, petiolate, ternate or biter-

nately divided, coriaceous leaves and cymose-panicled, discoid or radiate,

yellow heads; involucre double, as in Bidens, the outer phyllaries small,

herbaceous, the inner submembranous, lineate; receptacle flattish; pales

flattish, membranous, lineate; rays when present pistillate, fertile; disk

flowers: hermaphrodite, the corollas tubular, with slender tube, funnelform

throat, and 5 short teeth; anthers with cordate-sagittate bases and ovate

terminal appendages; style exserted, the branches short, with triangular,

acuminate, papillose appendages; achenes strongly obcompressed, the obovate

body distinctly or obsoletely 2-winged, coarsely ciliate on the lobulate margin,

contracted at apex into a short neck or collar; pappus awns about 6 to 15,

fragile, in two groups of 3 to “8” over the angles of the achene, those of each

group usually more or less connate at base, with 2 or 3 shorter intermediate

awns sometimes present on each side of achene between them.

Type species Narvalina corazonensis Hieron.

Heads radiate, in fruit about 1.7 em. thick, 9 mm. high (corollas not included) ;

lower leaves ternate, the upper simple............. 1. E. corazonensis.

Heads discoid, in fruit about 1 em. thick, 6 mm. high (corollas not included) ;

lower leaves biternate, the upper ternate or simple.

Heads with 20 or more flowers; lower leaves biternate, the terminal

divisions unlobed; pedicels up to 3 em. long.......... 2. HE. homogama.

Heads about 12-flowered; lower leaves biternate, the terminal segments

trilobate; pedicels about 1 cm. long................. 3. EL. mirabilis.

1. Ericentrodea corazonensis (Hieron.) Blake & Sherff. Fig. 1, 6.

Narvalina corazonensis Hieron. Bot. Jahrb. Engler 29: 49. 1900.

SPECIMEN EXAMINED: Ecuapor: Subandine woods, Mount Corazon, alti-

tude 2,000 meters, Sodiro 44/2 (fragments of type coll.; U.S. Nat. Herb. no.

1,059,379).

2. Ericentrodea homogama (Hieron.) Blake & Sherff. Fig. 15) 74

Narvalina homogama Hieron. Bot. Jahrb. Engler 29: 48. 1900.

2 See Blake, Journ. Bot. Brit. & For. 53: 13-14. 1915.

3 The floral characters are drawn from material of 2. mirabilis.

—— ss Se

MAR. 19, 1923 BRITTON AND STANDLEY: NEW RUBIACEAE 105

SPECIMEN EXAMINED: Ecuapor: Subandine woods, between Cotocallao

and Nono, Sodiro 44/1 (fragments of type coll.; U.S. Nat. Herb. no.

1,059,381).

3. Ericentrodea mirabilis (Sherff) Blake & Sherff.

Bidens mirabilis Sherff, Bot. Gaz. 61: 496. pl. 31. 1916.

SPECIMEN EXAMINED: Peru: Humabalpa, November, 1857, Spruce 6273

(fragments of type coll. in Gray Herb, and herb. Sherff; photograph in U.S.

Nat. Herb.).

Described by Spruce as a climbing herb, but probably, like the other species

of the genus, either shrubby or suffrutescent. The heads examined have only

young achenes. In these the awns, borne on a definite although short neck,

are usually in two groups of 5 or sometimes 6 over the angles of the achene,

agreeing in this respect with those of the other two species, but they do not

seem to be united at base. In a few achenes, however, there were 2 or 3

shorter awns on each side of the achene between the main groups of awns.

One achene examined bore altogether 15 awns, 5 each in the two groups and

5 smaller ones between them. From the appearance of some of the young

achenes, it seems probable that a narrow wing is developed at maturity, at

least in some cases. |

3. Cyathomone Blake, gen. nov.

Shrub (?); leaves opposite, petioled, biternate or pinnate-ternate, mem-

branaceous; heads 7 to 15, cymose, nodding, long-peduncled; involucre double,

as in Bidens, the outer phyllaries about 5, herbaceous, the inner longer, sub-

membranous; receptacle convex, the pales flattish, membranous, lineate;

flowers unknown; achenes strongly obcompressed, the body narrowly obovate,

contracted at apex, with two broad, ciliolate, somewhat pectinate-lobate

wings, these usually adnate to the pappus cup; pappus of 2 very fragile

retrorsely hispid awns and a turbinate, spinulose-ciliolate, persistent corona

about 1 mm. high.

Type species Narvalina sodiroi Hieron.

1. Cyathomone sodiroi (Hieron.) Blake. Fig. 1, d.

Narvalina sodirot Hieron. Bot. Jahrb. Engler 29: 50. 1900.

SPECIMEN EXAMINED: Ecuapor: Subtropical woods along the Rio Pilatén,

Sodiro 44/3 (fragments of type coll.; U. 8. Nat. Herb. no. 1,059,380).

The generic name, from xvagos, cup, and porn, an abiding, refers to the

persistent corona.

BOTANY.—Three new plants of the family Rubiaceae from Trinidad.

N. L. Brirron, New York Botanical Garden, and Pav. C.

STANDLEY, U. 8. National Museum.

Study of a collection of plants received by the New York Botanical

Garden as a loan from the Trinidad Botanic Garden has revealed

material of many interesting plants, particularly some not previously

recorded from Trinidad. Among them are the three species of

106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 6

Rubiaceae here described as new. The two new species of Urceolaria

are of special interest, since this genus is a very small one, and only

two species have been known hitherto to occur in the West Indies.

Evea tontaneoides Britton & Standl., sp. nov.

Plants herbaceous, the stems slender (1 to 1.5 mm. thick), ascending or

decumbent, densely pilose with slender whitish spreading multicellular hairs;

stipule sheath greenish, 2 to 3 mm. long, densely pilose, the lobes two on

each side, lance-linear, 3 to 4 mm. long, long-ciliate, pilose on the outer sur-

face; petioles slender, 4 to 6 mm. long, densely pilose; leaf blades lanceolate,

lance-oblong, or oblong-ovate, 3 to 6 em. long, 1.5 to 2.5 em. wide, acute or

acuminate, rounded and often unequal at base, thin, above deep green, pilose

with long, slender, apparently appressed hairs, beneath pale and similarly

pilose; peduncles solitary in the forks of the branches, slender, densely pilose,

about 3 em. long, the flowers few, sessile in a dense head; bracts obovate or

spatulate, 4 to 6 mm. long, acute or apiculate, green, sparsely pilose; calyx

lobes linear, green, pilose; corolla (in bud) villosulous.

Type in the Herbarium of the Trinidad Botanic Garden, collected at

Caparo, Trinidad, October 26, 1916, by W. E. Broadway (no. 9774).

A well-marked species, in habit strongly suggesting certain plants of the

genus Tontanea, of the same family.

Urceolaria clusiaefolia Britton & Standl., sp. nov.

Branches stout, brown, angulate, somewhat lustrous, the internodes 2 to 8

em. long; stipules quickly deciduous; petioles stout, 1 to 1.5 em. long,

glabrous; leaf blades oblong-obovate to obovate-elliptic, 8 to 11 em. long,

3.5 to 5.5 em. wide, acute, often somewhat abruptly so, at base acute or

acuminate and decurrent upon the petiole, coriaceous, glabrous, lustrous

above, the costa shallowly channeled, the lateral nerves evident and slightly

elevated, beneath brownish, the costa and lateral nerves prominent, the

latter about 8 pairs, ascending at an acute angle, anastomosing to form a

continuous nerve remote from the margin, the ultimate nerves prominulous

and irregularly reticulate; peduncle over 1.5 em. long, stout, the involucre

entire, about 3 mm. long; calyx spathaceous, in fruit about 1 cm. long, the

immature fruit 5 to 6 mm. in diameter.

Type in the Herbarium of the Trindad Botanic Garden, collected on

Mt. Tocuche, Trinidad, August, 1847, Botanic Garden Herbarium 673.

Although only imperfect specimens are available for study, these differ

so conspicuously in leaf characters from the other West Indian representatives

of the genus that it seems safe to assume that they represent a distinct species.

Urceolaria angustifolia Britton & Standl., sp. nov.

Branches stout, angulate, glabrous, brownish, the internodes 1 to 3 em.

long; stipules caducous; petioles 6 to 10 mm. long; leaf blades oblong-

oblanceolate or narrowly oblong, 4.5 to 8 em. long, 1.2 to 2.5 em. wide, obtuse,

cuneate at base, coriaceous, glabrous, lustrous above, the costa shallowly

channeled, the lateral nerves evident and slightly elevated, beneath brownish,

the costa and lateral nerves prominent, the latter about 11 pairs, ascending

at a very acute angle, curving outward and anastomosing remote from the

MAR. 19, 1923 SNYDER: A NEW RETICULITERMES 107

margin, the ultimate nerves slightly elevated, irregularly reticulate; peduncles

terminal, solitary, 2.5 cm. long, the involucre entire, 3 mm. high; calyx in

bud 1 em. long.

Type in the Herbarium of the Trindad Botanic Garden, collected on Mt.

Tocuche, Trinidad, June 21, 1907, by William Leslie (no. 9363).

While this may be only a form of U. clusiaefolia, the shape of the leaves is

strikingly different, and it is probable that the present plant is specifically

distinct. Flowering specimens of both are a desideratum.

ENTOMOLOGY.—A new Reticulitermes from the Orient. THomas

E. Snyper, U. 8. Bureau of Entomology.

Reticulitermes Holmgren was established in 1913 as a subgenus of

the genus Leucotermes Silvestri. N. Banks, in 1920, raised Reticiul-

termes to generic rank. I am adopting the generic value given this

genus by Banks, although I am doubtful as to whether Reticulitermes

can be considered of generic rank. I place Reticulitermes in the family

Rhinotermitidae, since the species have protozoa (Trichonympha)

in the guts and subcordate pronota which would exclude them from

the family Termitidae where placed by Banks.

Species of both the genera Leucotermes and Reticulitermes are ex-

tremely destructive to timber and other woodwork. Winged adults

of species of Reticulitermes are dark colored, with the wings strongly

reticulated, but with few hairs or marginal cilia; they are species of

relatively northern distribution, the centre of distribution being North

America. Species of Leucotermes are lighter colored, have the margins

of the wings ciliate and are of relatively southern distribution. I

have'recently revised this genus.

Only two species of Reticulitermes are known from the Orient;

these eastern species are R. speratus Kolbe and R. flaviceps Oshima,

both being from Japan. The new species to be described is from

China.

Reticulitermes chinensis, sp. nov.

Winged adult.—Head dark castaneous-brown (dark finished mahogany),

smooth, shining, semi-quadrilateral, but rounded posteriorly, slightly longer

than broad; at anterior of head above the ocelli are two prominent white

spots (muscle attachments); head with dense, long, light yellow hairs.

Fontanelle a small white point on a line connecting the backs of the eyes.

Antennae grey-brown with tips of segments whitish, 17-18 segments,

pubescent; first segment clavate, elongate; second cylindrical, shorter;

third very short, ring shaped; fourth twice as long as third; fifth more wedge

shaped, slightly shorter than fourth; sixth longer than fifth; last segment

elongate, sub-oval.

108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 6

Eyes purplish, not quite round, not very prominent, separated from the

lateral margins of head by a distance less than an eye diameter. Ocelli

separated from eyes by a distance less than their small diameter.

Labrum yellow-brown, semi-tongue shaped.

Post-clypeus yellow-brown, much broader than long.

Pronotum about same color as head, smooth, shining, subcordate, not as

wide as head, emarginate both anteriorly and posteriorly, raised up anteriorly,

with long hairs.

Legs with femora greyish-brown, tibiae and tarsi yellowish.

Wings smaller than in flavipes and in the forewing the median vein is

intermediate between subcosta and cubitus, whereas in lucifugus it is nearer

to the cubitus.

Wing scale longer than pronotum, being 0.80 mm. in length.

Abdomen with tergites slightly lighter colored (more grey) than head, with

long hairs; cerci three segmented; styli present in the male.

a b

Fig. 1. Mandibles a left and b right, greatly enlarged

Measurements:

Length of entire winged adult: 9.15-9.40 mm.

Length of entire deilated adult: 4.8—5.2 mm.

Length of head (to tip of labrum): 1.25 mm.

Length of pronotum: 0.55 mm.

Length of hind tibia: 1.15 mm.

Length of anterior wing: 6.75—7.0 mm.

Width of head (at eyes): 1.15 mm.

Diameter of eye (long): 0.225 mm.

Width of pronotum: 0.95 mm.

Width of anterior wing: 1.90 mm.

From descriptions, R. chinensis is a smaller, lighter colored species than

R. speratus Kolbe; the head is more hairy in chinensis and the teeth of the

mandibles slightly different (Fig. 1); the ocelli are nearer to the eyes; the pro-

notum is not yellow. In the forewing the median vein is more intermediate

between the subcosta and cubitus than in speratus. Winged adults of

chinensis were compared with winged adults of Reticulitermes lucifugus Rossi

from Talheiro, Maderia; of R. flavipes Kollar from the eastern United States;

MAR. 19, 1923 SNYDER: A NEW RETICULITERMES 109

and R. claripennis Banks from Kansas. R. chinensis is smaller than luci-

fugus; the ocelli are larger and the post-clypeus and the tibiae are more

greyish-yellow colored, not so light castaneous; the post-clypeus is shorter

and the fontanelle is smaller. Chinensis has not the yellow tibiae and tarsi

of flavipes, ocelli are nearer to the compound eyes and the pronotum is smaller

as is the entire insect. . claripennis has lighter colored wings.

Soldier.~Head light yellow-brown, not twice as long as wide, ratio of

length to width 1: 0.62—1: 0.63, sides parallel; with dense long hairs, rounded

posteriorly. Eye spots indistinct if present. Gula slender, width at center

being about one-half the width at the front. Mandibles dark castaneous with

a reddish tinge, ‘‘S’’ shaped, incurved at tips; at base of left mandible two

small marginal teeth—one sharp tooth and one small, broader, blunt (double?)

tooth; right mandible with no teeth. The basal knobs of the mandibles are

not regarded as teeth.

Antennae white with a yellowish tinge, with 16 segments, pubescent;

third segment short, ring-like; fourth twice as long as third; fifth equals

fourth; sixth longer; last segment elongate and sub-oval.

Labrum yellow-brown, narrow, pointed at apex, where there are long hairs.

Pronotum white with tinge of yellow, not as wide as head, nor not nearly

twice as broad as long, emarginate both anteriorly and _ posteriorly,turned

up anteriorly.

Legs white, with tinge of yellow, pubescent.

Abdomen white with tinge of yellew, with dense long, light yellow hairs.

Measurements:

Length of entire soldier: 4.9—-5.4 mm.

Length of head with mandibles: 2.6-2.75 mm.

Length of head without mandibles (to anterior): 1.85—1.90 mm.

Length of left mandible: 1.5 mm.

Length of pronotum: 0.55—-0.6 mm.

Length of hind tibia: 0.95-1.0 mm.

Width of head: 1.10—1.20 mm.

Width of pronotum: 0.85 mm.

The soldier of chinensis has a larger pronotum than that of speratus

Kolbe, and the mandibles have slightly different marginal teeth; the soldier

of chinensis has a longer, broader head than that of flaviceps Oshima.

Type locality. —‘‘Suifu, Szechuen, (or Szechwan) China.”

Described from a series of winged adults collected at the type locality

May 1, 1920, and in 1922, by D. C. Graham. Soldiers with workers were

also collected, at the type locality, in 1922 by D. C. Graham.

Type, winged adult.—Cat. No. 26043, U.S. N. M.

110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 6

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES |

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

SPECIAL MEETING

A special meeting of the Biological Society was held in the auditorium of

the Interior Department on September 29, 1922, with President Barney

in the chair and 240 persons present. Program:

Donatp R. Dickey: Exhibition of moving pictures of wild game of New

Brunswick. These pictures were taken on the upper waters of the Tobique

River and across to the Nepisiguit. Views of the lakes and streams were

shown, followed by numerous films of moose and deer, including many taken

from a canoe. Both rapid and slow movement films were shown. Two of

the most notable films showed ruffed grouse drumming. The bird could be

seen to strike its wings together when drumming, both before and behind its

body, which was in an erect position.

SPECIAL MEETING

A special meeting of the Biological Society was held at the Cosmos Club

October 19, 1922, with the Washington Academy of Sciences and the Chemical

Society of Washington, with President J. W. Humpureys of the Washing-

ton Academy of Sciences in the chair and 94 persons present. Dr. H. J.

HamBurcGer, Professor of Physiology in the University of Groningen,

Holland, gave an address on the subject The increasing significance of

chemistry tn medical thought and practice.

642D MEETING

The 642d regular meeting of the Biological Society was held at the Cosmos

Club November 11, 1922, with President Baruey in the chair and 75 persons

present. The program was as follows:

E. D. Bauu: Importance of adequate training for biological work in the

Government service. In the Government service at present, omitting Army

and Navy, Indian Service, judges and attorneys, the number of men employed

in some technical scientific line is 7074, of whom 4332 are actually engaged in

their specialties. Of the latter, 2240 are in the Department of Agriculture

and 2092 in other departments. In the whole Government service, scientific

and other, the number of men who are paid salaries of $5000 and over reaches

the total of 7761. Of these, 2490 are in the Civil Service. Four receive

$25,000 or more; 183 receive $10,000 or more; 607 receive $7500 or more.

The following table of salaries of college professors was presented for

comparison with that of scientific workers in the Government service.

In 7 leading endowed universities the range of salary for full professors

listed in the graduate school was: minimum $4750, maximum $8550, average

In 7 leading state universities salaries range from $3200 to $7125, with an

average of $4725.

In leading agricultural colleges $2850 to $4875, average $3750.

Of these faculties, 90 per cent in the first group had doctors’ degrees, with

a smaller percentage in the state universities, and still smaller in the agri-

cultural colleges.

EEE

MAR. 19, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 111

In the Department of Agriculture figures were obtained from four bureaus

only. It was found that the average salary of men with doctor of philosophy

degrees was $3372, with masters’ degrees $2905, and with bachelors’ degrees

$2535. In connection with these figures, the speaker noted that many of the

older men do not have the higher degrees, but have attained higher salaries

through experience and seniority, so there would be a wider difference between

the holders of different degrees, if only men of equal age and experience

could be compared.

In conclusion, the speaker said the three objects of graduate study are the

following: (1) to broaden the field of view; (2) to come in contact with great

minds; and (8) to learn methods of research in the specialty involved.

G. N. Conus: Maize and its wild relatives (lantern). Maize is the only

cereal whose wild prototype is unknown. The only wild plant known which

is close enough to maize to give a clue to the origin of the latter is teosinte,

a large Mexican grass of the genus Huchlaena There are two species, one

perennial, the other annual. The latter hybridizes freely with maize, and

all intergrades can easily be produced, but none of them maintain themselves

in nature. Teosinte is a more highly specialized grass than maize, hence

evolution must have gone backward if teosinte changed into maize. The

theory that maize may have originated from teosinte by crossing the latter

with some unknown plant similar to sorghum seems to accord best with the

known facts.

N. A. Coss: Nematodes inhabiting trees (lantern). After a general account

of nematodes or nemas, the speaker described in detail an outbreak of nemas

on the coconut palms in the Canal Zone and vicinity. The nema was found

in the roots and in a Certain cylinder of trunk tissue; the latter turning red

has given the name “red ring”’ to the disease. As there was no way to

destroy the nemas within the tree, the speaker had turned his attention to

methods of infection, and had found that the large palm weevils carry the

worms from tree to tree. The gathering and destruction of the weevils on a

large scale is believed to have checked the spread of the attack.

643D MEETING

The 643d regular meeting of the Biological Society was held at the Cosmos

Club November 25, 1922, with Vice-President Hircucock in the chair and

76 persons present.

The following new members were elected: J. C. BRIDWELL, 8. C. Brooks,

E. F. Friptgty, L. G. Hoover, P. B. Jounson, and EpMunpD PuatrT.

L. W. STEPHENSON gave a short account of the discovery of cypress stumps

in an ancient swamp opened in excavating for the new Hotel Walker on

Connecticut Avenue. As examined by the speaker, the top layer showed a.

recent fill of 10 to 12 feet; below this 7 or 8 feet of clay, then 5 to 8 feet of

swamp deposit, then gray micaceous sand 12 to 15 feet deep, the lowest 3 to

5 feet becoming gravelly. The swamp layer, which is of the Pleistocene age,

is a peaty clay, containing cypress stumps and knees with some seeds, balls

and scales. Only a few logs were horizontal, most of them being vertical and

truncated a little above the base. When dry, the wood burns freely. The

only tree occurring is Taxodium distichum, the bald cypress, the present range

of which extends to within twenty miles of the District. The speaker thought

the estimate of 20,000 to 30,000 years as the age of the deposit was far too

little. He illustrated the strata by means of a chart.

112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 6

Dr. C. L. Maruarr then proposed an alternative explanation of the occur-

rence of the stumps. He exhibited an outline map taken from an old city

map, from which it appeared that a stream called Slack Creek once flowed into

Rock Creek from the vicinity of Dupont Circle, draining a large swamp to the

north and east, and traversing the very spot where the excavation is now in

progress. He therefore maintained that recent filling would account for all

above the swamp layer, and this itself would date from the early white

settlement of the District, about 260 years ago. He had been informed by

one of the shovelmen that an old brick wall encountered in the digging was

on the same level as the tree stumps.

There was some discussion of the second theory, leading only to the con-

clusion that much would depend on the existence of the supposed layer of

clay 7 or 8 feet deep above the swamp and below the admitted recent fill.

Dr. Maruatr had not detected this, but Mr. SrepHEenson had.

L. O. Howarpn: Some informalities about pioneer workers in medical ento-

mology (lantern). The speaker showed lantern slides of a large number of

pioneer workers, giving interesting facts or anecdotes about each.

C. W. Strives: Frequency of amoeba in man, and its significance in public

health. In the war zone there was a great meeting place for men of all

nations, and it was anticipated that returning soldiers might be infected with

the amoeba of dysentery to an extent which might endanger the whole

population. A conference was held in Washington to discuss the matter

before the soldiers returned. It was thought from figures obtained by

Kofoid that there would be from 400,000 to 700,000 cases of the disease

among the returned men. An extensive examination of various classes of

the population was carried out to get a basis for comparison. A circular

was sent to all hospitals and medical schools, inquiring if an increase had been

observecLin the disease as the men were returned. Only 4.5 per cent reported

any increase. A total of 8029 persons in the general population were ex-

amined, of whom 333 were infected, or 4 per cent; of 196 immigrants, 25

per cent were infected; of 329 boys and girls in a school in the District of

Columbia, 17 per cent; of 83 boys and girls in another school, between 8 and

9 per cent; of 1547 civilians, 13 to 17 per cent; of 2984 ex-soldiers who had

not gone to Europe, 8 to 9 per cent; of 3536 soldiers who had been in Europe,

7.8 to 9 per cent; of 362 miscellaneous, 7-to 9 per cent. In these infected cases

few showed symptoms of the disease, as they were evidently able to restore

the infected tissue as rapidly as it was damaged. These were carriers rather

than patients. A few years ago this distinction was not made, but now it is

known to be of great importance. It appeared from the statistics collected

that the returning men were no menace to the health of the country, as they

_were less infected than the population at home.

The disease is easily cured in early stages, but later on with much more

difficulty, although a new remedy, a newly discovered drug, is able to reach

the parasite in the lungs and liver, and promises to cure the chronic cases.

J. M. Autpricu, Recording Secretary.

644TH MEETING

The 644th regular and 43d annual meeting of the Biological Society was

held at the Cosmos Club December 9, 1922, with President Barry in the

chair.

The following 53 members were elected: JoserpH Becker, NORWELL BELT,

R. A. Boauey, Jr., D. L. Brown, C. H. Carvin, Binuie Cass, R. G. Cone-

pon, A. D. Daucuton, P. V. Dre Leon, W. S. Dretwiter, E. F. Ducry,

MAR. 19, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 113

J. V. Fuanacan, M. C. Fionr, H. D. Freicsr, J. L. Frerz, Caarues

GescHickTER, H. A. Gitpert, L. 8. Gorpon, AnnEe Hor, N. 8. Husert,

J. R. B. Hurcutinson, M. A. Jonnson, T. J. Ketty, Rost E. Kunpant,

W. H. Lawton, P. Manoney, A. D. Marks, G. A. McLain, J. E. McLain,

KE. C. Myers, M. A. Norieca pr Sasra, J. L. O'Connor, R. C. Orrison,

K. J. OsterHoutT, HERNDON PuILiies, EpmMunp Porr, Mary E. Quick,

Dr. J. W. Rozserts, F. G. Ritey, Jr., H. E. Rooney, Ianatrus RurKoskxt1,

BENJAMIN SEILER, W. W. Spurcreon, JAMES Stewart, T. D. Srewarrt,

F. E. Stuart, EvizABetH V. Wappiey, BE. E. Water, IpA WECKERLY,

F. R. Weepon, Avis M. Wiruers, A. A. ZApousky, and EK. E. ZreGuer.

The reports of the Recording Secretary, the Corresponding Secretary, and

the Committee on Publications were read and accepted.

The following officers were elected for the coming year: President, A. S.

Hircucocx; Vice-Presidents. J. W. Giptey, 8S. A. Ronwer, H. C. OBer-

HOSLER, EK. A. GotpMAN; Recording Secretary, $8. F. Bhakn; Corresponding

Secretary, T. E. Snyper; Treasurer, F. C. Lt1ncotn; members of the Council,

C. E. Cuamsuiss, H. C. Funtuter, H. H. T. Jackson, W. R. Maxon, A.

WerTmoreE. The President announced the membership of the Committee

on Publications as follows: C. W. RicumMonp, Chairman, J. H. Riney,

T. E. SNYDER.

On motion of Dr. C. W. Stiuus it was moved that a committee on zoological

nomenclature be appointed to codperate with the International Commission

on Zoological Nomenclature.

S. A. Rouwemr, Secretary protem.

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

161ST MEETING

The 161st regular meeting of the Botanical Society was held at the Cosmos

Club, Tuesday evening. October 3, 1922, at 8 p.m. President Sarrorp

opened the meeting. The minute of the last preceding meeting were not

read, owing to their absence and that of the Corresponding Secretary, 41

members and guests were present.

The Executive Committee presented the names of Mr. Puitie BrierLey

of the Federal Horticultural Board, and Dr. A. G. Jounson of the Bureau of

Plant Industry as candidates for membership.

Under Brief Notes, Mr. C. R. Batu presented Dr. Joun PrERrctvau’s

lately published volume on The wheat plant. Mr. Prerce announced

the coming dahlia show of the Takoma Horticultural Club to be held October

6 and 7.

The regular program of the evening followed: Mr. N. G. Troporo, Plant

Pathologist of the Philippine Department of Agriculture and Natural

Resources, spoke on Philippine botany with special reference to the genus

Musa, followed by the Present status of phytopathology in the Philippines.

The present knowledge of Philippine botany is due to the efforts of Prof.

E. D. Merrill, Director of the Philippine Bureau of Science. He published

the results of his findings in 1903. Little attention was given by the

Spanish government to the study of the flora of the Islands. In fact the

only work was the establishment of “The Flora and Forestry Com-

mission’’ under the direction of Sebastian Vidal, which continued from 1876

till his death in 1889.

At the beginning of the 18th Century, Padre Hippolito Casiano Gomez,

an Augustinian wrote an article in a native language on household remedies,

114 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 6

mentioning various plants. The greatest of the friar botanists was Padre

Manuel Blanco, also an Augustinian. His work in Spanish, entitled Blanco’s

Flora de Filipinas, was first published in 1837. It is a work of 965 pages; the

second and third editions were written after his death. Copies of all three

editions, which are in the Department of Agriculture, were shown at the

meeting. Most of the older herbaria in Manila were destroyed during or

before the Insurrection; however two now remain, that formed by Regino

Garcia in 1894, another collected by Dr. Leon Ma. Guerrero. The botanical ’

libraries were also destroyed by fire about 1898.

Since the American occupation, real botanical work has progressed rapidly.

With Prof. E. D. Merrill in 1903 were three other botanists, Dr. E. B.

Copeland, Dr. H. N. Whitford, and Mr. A. D. E. Elmer, all of whom were

attached to the Bureau of Government Laboratories. In 1905 this Bureau

became the Bureau of Science. The herbarium of the Bureau of Science

contains upwards of 200,000 specimens. The Philippine Journal of Science

is the medium for publishing botanical articles. Quite a number of Filipino

botanists received their training in the College of Agriculture, which was

established in 1909, with Dr. Copeland as its founder and dean.

Mr. Teodoro began a classification of the genus Musa for the Philippine

Government in 1915. He found the species not well defined, and in order to

make a beginning in classifying them, he worked up the varieties. There are

now about 600 varieties of bananas growing in cultivation at the College of

Agriculture at Los Bafios. The results of the classification of varieties have

been published in A preliminary study of Philippine bananas, which ap-

peared in the Philippine Journal of Science, Botany Section, Vol. 10,

May 1916.

L. H. Dewry, discussed Misleading names of plant fibers.

There is more confusion in the common trade names of commercial fibers

used in twine and cordage than there has been in recent years in the botanical

names of plants. This results in errors in Government statistics, misunder-

standings among dealers and manufacturers, and frequent monetary losses.

The most serious trouble is due to the ambiguous use of the term hemp. This

name was first used to designate the true hemp plant, Cannabis sativa, and

the bast fiber obtained from that plant. It still has this specific meaning,

but unfortunately it is also used in a generic sense as a substitute for the

word fiber to designate nearly all long fibers, as manila hemp for abacaé from

the Philippines; sisal hemp for henequén from Yucatdn, and sisal from East

Africa;. New Zealand hemp for phormium from New Zealand, and sunn

hemp for sunn from India. The name of the country or definitive adjective

is often omitted, leaving only the term hemp, which may mean any one of a

dozen fibers.

Similar trouble is threatened by the use of the name sisal to designate not

only the true sisal from Agave sisalana, but all other fibers from Agaves and

Furcraeas, and the name jute to designate true jute and also all fibers similar

to jute.

It is suggested that an authoritative list of fibers be published to correct

these misleading and costly errors.

Mr. P. L. Ricker spoke of The proposed Mt. Hamilton Botanical Garden,

which was still before Congress for consideration.

The regular meeting than adjourned and the annual meeting was held.

The report of the Executive Committee showed the following facts concerning

the activities of the preceding year: average attendance of the 8 regular

meetings was 66; at a special meeting there were 110 present. Eighteen new

MAR. 19, 1923 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 115

members were elected during the year. One member died. The total mem-

bership at this time is 161. The following officers were elected for the en-

suing year: President, L. C. Corsrerr; Vice President, H. L. Suanrz; Re-

cording Secretary, Roy G. Pirrcn; Corresponding Secretary, R. Kmenr

Beattie; Treasurer, W. W. GILBERT.

Roy G. Pierce, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The AcapEmy’s list of one hundred popular books in science has been

republished with notes by the American Library Association, under the title

Popular books in science, a reading list. Copies will shortly be distributed to

members of the AcapEMy. Additional copies may be purchased from the

American Library Association, Chicago.

The Swedish Legation arranged a special lecture on the iron, steel, and

timber industries of Sweden, which was given before the School of Foreign

Service, Georgetown University on Friday, February 9. The lecturer was

Dr. Harry von EcKerRMANN, the managing director of the Ljusne-Woxna

Company, the largest iron works in Sweden.

The newest scientific organization in Washington is the Mineralogical

Society which held its first meeting on Friday, February 23. Space 1s0-

morphism in minerals was discussed by Dr. E. T. Wuerry, and Pizlolite

and related zeolites by Dr. W. T. Scuauuer. The secretary, Dr. W. F.

Fosuac, U.S. National Museum, will be pleased to hear from anyone inter-

ested in future meetings.

At the meeting of the Petrologists’ Club on Tuesday, February 20, Messrs.

L. H. Apams and E. D. Wiu1aMson discussed the Elastic behavior of minerals

and typical rocks. The evidence as obtained by laboratory experiments

and by seismological observations was briefly reviewed and its bearing on

questions relating to the constitution of the earth considered.

A recent Act of Congress authorizes The Regents of the Smithsonian

Institution to prepare preliminary plans for a suitable fireproof building

with granite fronts, for the National Gallery of Art, including the National

Portrait Gallery and the history collections of the U.S. National Museum.

The National Baird Memorial Committee met in the U.S. National Museum

Saturday, February 3. This Committee was composed of delegates appoint-

ed by fifty-four scientific societies and institutions from the various parts

of the country, and the following officers: Honorary President, Dr. WILLIAM

H. Datu; President, Dr. Cuartes D. Watcott; Vice-Presidents, Mr.

Grorce R. Acassiz, Dr. Frank W. Cuarxkn, Dr. StePpHEN A. FORBES,

Dr. Davin Starr Jorpan, Dr. Epwin Linton, Dr. Epwarp 8. Morss,

Dr. Henry FarirFIELD Osporn, Dr. Appison E. Verritt and Dr. RoBert

S. WoopwakrpD; Secretary, Dr. Paut Bartscn. :

The purpose of the meeting was to decide upon the form of the memorial

or memorials to SPENCER FULLERTON Barrp, former Secretary of the

Smithsonian Institution, the virtual founder of the U. S. National Museum,

the creator and head of the U. 8. Fish Commission, and a prime mover in the

establishment of the U. S. Geological Survey and the Bureau of American

Ethnology.

116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 6

The centenary of the birth of Professor Baird was celebrated in the evening

in the auditorium of the National Museum. The following addresses were

delivered: Baird, the man, Dr. Wrut1am Datu; Baird and the Smithsonian

Institution and its branches, Dr. C. G. ABsot; Baird at Woods Hole, Dr.

Epwin Linton; Baird and the fisheries, Dr. DAvip Starr JorDAN; Baird, the

naturalist, Dr. C. Hart Merriam.

A public announcement was made of the report of the National Committee,

as follows:

1. That Congress be memorialized to establish in the city of Washington

a museum of fisheries and oceanography, with laboratories and a public

aquarium, as a memorial to Spencer Fullerton Baird.

2. That there be established a fund for the encouragement of research

and exploration in the directions in which Spencer Fullerton Baird was a

leader.

3. It was the sense of the meeting that the name of Baird be given to the

laboratory of the Bureau of Fisheries at Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

On Monday, February 19, the four hundred and fiftieth anniversary of

the birth of Copernicus, a commemorative meeting was held in the U.S.

National Museum. Dr. C. G. ABspor gave a brief address on Copernicus,

his life and astronomical theory.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 13 AprIL 4, 1923 No. 7

GEOLOGY.—An outline of the results of a geological reconnaissance

of the Republic of Haiti. WrNDELL P. WoopRIna.!

CONTENTS

PW PC Use Gee, ARE EAR Re oe RS 7S", SR ORES CRO My aos ae 117

Beem eer Air BE arses enc: Pi Re “Pega eres tech cas vo. Gi F' acs HEE sierra o> BRE TR CER oP 118

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PR PENG “WHted EAOUNCES Soc coy ous « ccsyase comin nu © RReeenee eee Lear ots! evaks erat ain eunae taeeatere 127

INTRODUCTION

According to arrangements between the Department of Public

Works of the Republic of Haiti and the United States Geological

Survey, a geological reconnaissance of the Republic of Haiti was made

in the winter of 1920-1921 under the supervision of the United States

Geological Survey. Mr. J. S. Brown, Mr. W. 8S. Burbank, and I

arrived in Port-au-Prince on October 1, 1920. We were in the field

continuously until April 15, 1921, when we sailed from Port-au-Prince.

We made a general reconnaissance of the entire Republic, including

Gonave Island and Tortue Island. A detailed reconnaissance was

made of some regions in order to obtain information on certain

mineral deposits and on underground water resources. The highest

and most inaccessible parts of some of the rugged mountains, such as

the Montagnes Noires, the Montagnes de la Selle, and the Montagnes

1 Published by permission of the Acting Director of the United States Geological

Survey and the Engineer-in-Chief of the Republic of Haiti.

117

118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 7

de la Hotte, were not examined. The field work and most of the

office work was done under the supervision of Dr. T. W. Vaughan of

the United States Geological Survey.

A complete report embodying the results of the reconnaissance,

illustrated with many maps, diagrams, and photographs, has been

prepared for publication, and it is intended to issue a French and an

English edition. As this report will not be ready for distribution

before the autumn of 1923, the following summary of the results of the

reconnaissance is now published.

GEOGRAPHY

All the inhabitants of the Republic know that it is very mountainous.

The only extensive plains are the North Plain, the Central Plain, the

Artibonite Plain, and the Cul-de-Sac Plain. The Central Plain is

the only large interior plain. The most important of the smaller

plains are the Arcahaie Plain, the Léogane Plain, and the Cayes Plain.

All of these plains, except the Central Plain, have played an important

part in the agricultural development of the Republic.

The Cul-de-Sac Plain is one of the most striking geographic features.

It is part of a trough extending from Port-au-Prince Bay southeastward

across the island to Neiba Bay and containing two lakes that have no

outlet, Etang Saumatre in the Republic of Haiti, and Hoya de Enri-

quillo in the Dominican Republic. It has been known for a long time

that recently, geologically speaking, this trough was below sea level,

dividing the island into two parts.

Aside from these plains most of the Republic, except part of the

Northwest Peninsula, is mountainous. The highest mountains are

in the southern part of the Republic. Mt. La Selle, the highest peak

according to available information, has an altitude of 2,680 meters

above sea level, as determined by triangulation under the supervision

of the United States Geological Survey.

Contrary to the prevailing opinion the major geographic features

are arranged in ares convex both northward and southward. Most

of the ares trend northwestward. The geographic provinces, some

of which have not heretofore been named, and their characteristic

surface features are described in the final report.

GEOLOGY

Sedimentary rocks.—The oldest sedimentary rocks are schists

that crop out on the North Plain and on Tortue Island. As these

APR. 4, 1923 WOODRING: GEOLOGY OF HAITI 119

rocks are not close to any known intrusive igneous rocks, and as they

are so altered by metamorphism, it is believed they may be as old as

Paleozoic.

Extensive areas in the northern part of the Republic contain argillites

of supposed lower Cretaceous age. These sediments were deposited

principally along the flood plains of streams. Impure marine lime-

stones, probably of the same age, were found in the southern part of

the Republic. Upper Cretaceous limestones that contain reefs of the

peculiar rudistid mollusks found in Jamaica and other West Indian

islands were discovered in the Arrondissements of Cap-Haitien and

Grande-Riviére du Nord.

Rocks of Tertiary age are very widely distributed in the Republic.

Their succession and their equivalents in the Dominican Republic and

other regions near by are shown in the table on page 20. The Eo-

cene and Oligocene rocks are almost exclusively limestones, but the

Miocene and Pliocene beds consist principally of clastic rocks. The

Eocene and Oligocene limestones crop out on the crest and flanks of

the mountains, and the Miocene and Pliocene clastic rocks in the

plains and lowlands.

The Eocene is the most extensive series of rocks in the Republic.

The Plaisance limestone, of middle Eocene age, is confined to the

northern part of the Republic. It is characterized by undescribed

species of Foraminifera of the genus Dictyoconus.2. Limestone of upper

Eocene age is perhaps the most common surface rock in the mountains

and it has a maximum thickness of more than a thousand meters.

It contains an extensive foraminiferal fauna, principally orbitoidal

Foraminifers of the genera Orthophragmina and Lepidocyclina. Upper

Eocene Foraminifera were collected at about 90 localities.

Rocks of known lower Oligocene age were not seen during the re-

connaissance. Middle Oligocene limestones were found in many

parts of the Republic, particularly in the Montagnes Noires, the

Chaine des Mateux, and near Jacmel. These rocks are characterized

by certain species of Lepidocyclina. Limestones of upper Oligocene

age are extensive around the borders of the Plaine Centrale, in the

mountains north of Etang Saumatre, south of Gros-Morne, and else-

where. They contain the foraminiferal genera Lepidocyclina, Nio-

gypsina, and Sorites, and a fairly large coral fauna.

2 See Woodring, W. P., Middle Eocene Foraminifera of the genus Dictyoconus from the

Republic of Haiti: Journ. Washington Acad. Sci., 12: 244-247, 1922.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 7

120

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GEOLOGY OF HAITI

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122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 7

Miocene rocks, consisting principally of conglomerate, sandstone,

siltstone and marl, floor the Central Plain, the Artibonite Valley and

other lowlands. Crumpled Miocene rocks extend along the southern

edge of the Cul-de-Sac Plain and are exposed in road cuts and ravines

near Port-au-Prince. A preliminary account of the Miocene beds

of the Central Plain has already been published.* Copies of this

report may be obtained by applying to the Engineer-in-Chief of the

Republic of Haiti. The Miocene rocks in the Central Plain were

studied in greater detail than those of any other region, and extensive

series of fossils were collected. ‘The Thomonde formation, one of the

divisions of the Miocene beds, contains a molluscan fauna of more

than 300 species, in addition to Foraminifera, corals, and Bryozoa.

A limestone at the base of the overlying Las Cahobas formation con-

tains a large number of reef corals. Other collections of Miocene

corals and mollusks were obtained at many localities in the Artibonite

Valley and elsewhere. A description of unusual specimens of Orthau-

lax aguadillensis Maury, one of the most striking and common mol-

lusks in the Thomonde formation, is awaiting publication.‘

Marine rocks of Pliocene age were found in the valley of Riviere

Gauche and in nearby regions near Jacmel. An interesting fauna of

corals and mollusks was obtained from these beds. Flood-plain

deposits, called the Hinche formation, cover extensive areas in the

Central Plain. These and similar beds in other lowlands may be of

Pliocene age.

Marine Pleistocene deposits, consisting principally of coral reef

rock and coralliferous limestone, were discovered in many parts of

the Republic. They are most extensive in the western part of the

Northwest Peninsula, where they cover the Bombardopolis Plateau

and the magnificent emerged terraces that lead down from the plateau

to the sea like gigantic stairs. In this part of the Republic these

Pleistocene rocks are at an altitude of 400 meters above sea, level.

Pleistocene coral reefs were found in the Cul-de-Sac Plain, especially

along the southern border of Etang Saumatre. Pleistocene flood

plain deposits are common in the lowlands.

More than 300 collections of fossils were obtained from the Creta-

ceous, Tertiary, and Pleistocene rocks, including Foraminifera, corals,

crinoid stems, Echini, Bryozoa, brachiopods, mollusks, ostracods,

® Woodring, W. P., Stratigraphy, structure, and possible oil resources of the Miocene

rocks of the Central Plain: Rep. Haiti Geol. Survey, 19 pp., map, 1922.

4 Woodring, W. P., Tertiary mollusks of the genus Orthaulax from the Republic of

Haiti, Porto Rico, and Cuba: Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. (in press).

we oe

APR. 4, 1923 WOODRING: GEOLOGY OF HAITI 123

barnacles, decapod Crustacea, fish, birds, mammals, and plants. The

largest number of collections are from Eocene and Miocene rocks,

which are the most widely distributed. Unusually interesting col-

lections of extinct Quaternary mammals and birds were obtained from

caves near St.-Michel de l’Atalaye. In addition to remains of ground

sloths and rodents, parts of a huge barn owl were found. This owl

must have been a very powerful bird and apparently was the marauder

responsible for the numerous remains of rodents found in the caves.

Accounts of these remains have been published.®> Further exploration

of these and other caves should reveal a large Pleistocene fauna.

A paper describing the fossil plants collected, all of which are of

Miocene age, is also in press;® another paper describes Miocene fish

remains.’

Igneous rocks—Most of the igneous rocks are older than the sedi-

mentary rocks and crop out on the crests of anticlinal arches in the

mountains or in deep valleys where streams have cut through the

cover of sedimentary rocks.

The oldest known igneous rocks are principally basalts that cover

large areas in the northern part of the Republic. They are intruded

by pyroxenites, peridotites, and diabases. These early igneous rocks

are generally much altered and metamorphosed. Pyroxene and

hornblende andesites and dacites in the same region are somewhat

younger. Eruptions of basaltic rocks followed the andesites in some

localities. There are minor amounts of tufaceous and agglomeratic

rocks associated with the lava flows. All these volcanic rocks are

the result of intense and long continued vulcanism in probably early

and middle Mesozoic time.

The widely distributed basalts of the southern part of the Republic

are of late Cretaceous age. They are remarkably uniform over the

entire Southern Peninsula.

Toward the end of Cretaceous time or in early Eocene time the old

lavas and younger argillites in the northern part of the Republic were

intruded by batholiths and stocks of quartz diorite. The older igneous

5 Miller, G.S., Jr., Remains of mammals from caves in the Republic of Haiti: Smith-

sonian Misc. Coll., 743: 8, 1922.

Wetmore, A., Remains of birds from caves in the Republic of Haiti: Smithsonian

Misc. Coll., 744: 4, 2 text figs., 1922.

6 Berry, E. W., Tertiary fossil plants from the Republic of Haiti: Proc. U. 8. Nat.

Mus. (in press.).

7 Cockerell, T. D. A., A fossil Cichlid fish from the Republic of Haiti: Proc. U.S.

Nat. Mus. (in press).

124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 7

rocks are greatly altered near the contacts. Dacite porphyry in the

Montagnes Noires may be of the same age.

In the Terre-Neuve district stocks of Quartz diorite were intruded

into the old lavas and the Eocene limestone probably during Miocene

time. ‘This intrusion has a direct bearing on the genesis of the ore

deposits of the Terre-Neuve district.

At the end of middle Oligocene time there were flows of nephelite

basalt, an unusual type of rock in the West Indies, in the mountains

between the Cul-de-Sac Plain and the Artibonite Valley.

Several hundred specimens of igneous rocks were collected. Chemi-

cal analyses have been made of 5 specimens.

Tectonics.—During late Mesozoic and Tertiary time the West

Indian region was part of the great equatorial geosyncline that appar-

ently almost completely encircled the globe. In the Republic of

Haiti, as in other parts of the geosyncline, the Mesozoic and Tertiary

rocks were crumpled during the Alpine period of folding. One of the

surprising results of the reconnaissance is the discovery that the tec-

tonic features of so large a part of the Republic are due to folding and

crumpling of the rocks during and at the end of Miocene time. The

Montagnes Noires, the Chaine des Mateux, and its prolongation east-

ward to the Dominican border, are anticlinal arches formed at the

end of Miocene time. The Central Plain, Artibonite Valley and Cul-

de-Sac Plain are deep synclinal troughs of the same age. Miocene

beds are involved in the folding in the Northwest Peninsula. Many

of these mountain ranges and troughs are bordered by high-angle

thrust faults. A zone of imbricated high-angle thrust faults is well

exposed along the southern border of the Cul-de-Sac Plain. Similar

thrust faults were found along the northern border of the plain, show-

ing that this trough is not a down-faulted block, bounded by normal

faults, as had previously been supposed. Marine Miocene beds

underlying an interior lowland in the Commune of Jérémie are now

separated from the sea by a high range composed of limestone of

upper Eocene age. Lignite-bearing beds of Miocene age at Camp

Perrin are thrust northward and are separated from the Cayes Plain

by a range of upper Eocene limestone probably thrust northward.

The results of the folding at the end of Miocene time are most appar-

ent in the central part of the Republic, which was very mobile during

most of Tertiary time and where a great thickness of Oligocene and

Miocene deposits were laid down. The movements continued into

Pliocene time, as marine Pliocene beds near Jacmel are crumpled.

— eel

, APR. 4, 1923 WOODRING: GEOLOGY OF HAITI 125

It is believed that there were earlier periods of folding at the end

of Cretaceous time and at the end of Eocene time, but the folds can

hardly be disentangled from the more extensive folds at the end of

Miocene time, as they usually have the same trend.

_ No extensive overthrust sheets such as characterize the Alpine

folds in so many parts of the Tertiary equatorial geosyncline were

discovered, although there are many high-angle thrust faults along

which the horizontal movement has not been very great.

In the mobile central part of the Republic and in the Northwest

Peninsula the distribution of the emerged Pleistocene coral reefs is

directly related to the folds produced at the end of Miocene time.

The coral reefs, or coralliferous limestones, are at the greatest altitude

on the crests of the anticlines, clearly showing that the arching of the

rocks continued during Pleistocene time. These movements probably

are going on even at the present time.

The tectonic features, like the geographic features which they

control, are arranged in ares convex northward and southward. Most

of the ares trend northwestward, but an arc in the Northwest Peninsula

bends southwestward and at the western end of the Southern Peninsula

ares branch out in sheaf-like fashion.

Troughs like the Central Plain, Artibonite Valley and Cul-de-Sac

Plain, which clearly are deep synclines bounded in part by high-angle

thrust faults, are similar to the much larger submerged troughs of

the West Indies, like the Bartlett Deep. It has been suggested that

the submerged troughs are similar tectonic features.’ The submerged

troughs have heretofore been interpreted as down faulted blocks

bounded by normal faults. |

Earthquakes.—The Republic, like other parts of the Tertiary equa-

torial geosyncline, hasnumerousearthquakes. Disastrous earthquakes

have at times almost or completely destroyed Port-au-Prince, Cap-

Haitien, and other cities. Father Scherer, Director of the Observa-

toire Météorologique du Séminaire-Collége St.-Martial, years ago

ably showed the relation between the earthquakes and the known

tectonic features. This relation and the bearing of the earthquakes

on methods of building construction are discussed in the final report.

8 See Wooding, W. P., Tectonic features of the Republic of Haiti and their being on

the geologic history of the West Indies: Abstract, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. (in

press).

126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 7

MINERAL RESOURCES

Metals.*—At the present time there are no active mining operations

in the Republic, although prospecting has been carried on in several

regions and some ore has been shipped.

The Terre-Neuve district contains probably the most extensive ore

deposits. Copper is the principal metal in the deposits of this district,

but there are small amounts of silver and gold. The ore deposits are

contact metamorphic deposits in the upper Eocene limestone at the

contact with the intrusive quartz diorite, and vein deposits in the

porphyritic phase of the quartz diorite, and in the older basalts and

pyroxene-andesites. Chalcopyrite is the principal copper mineral

in the contact metamorphic deposits. Pornite and chalcocite are

the principal copper minerals in the enriched vein deposits. Most

of the ore is of low grade, although small amounts of rich ore are

found both in the contact metamorphic deposits and in the enriched

veins. More thorough prospecting is needed to reveal fully the

possibilities of the district. ;

Copper-bearing veins were examined at a number of other places

in areas of pre-Tertiary igneous rocks. Near Grande-Riviére du

Nord there are small veins of solid chaleocite ore, but large amounts

of low-grade ore would have to be mined in order to work them.

Deposits of manganese ore, apparently hot springs deposits, were

discovered in the Commune of Gros-Morne. The deposits examined

are of low grade and contain a prohibitive amount of silica. Another

deposit at the contact between upper Eocene limestone and basalt

north of Jacmel is similar in many features to the deposit in the Com-

mune of Gros-Morne.

Deposits of magnetite and hematite were examined at Morne

Beckley in the North Plain. In many parts of the Republic there

are residual deposits of low grade iron ore consisting of hematite and

clay.

Fifteen samples of ores have been assayed and analyzed.

Non-metals.—The Republic of Haiti contains probably the most

extensive deposits of lignite in the West Indies. Miocene beds in

the Central Plain near Maissade contain beds of high-grade lignite

that have a maximum thickness of 2 meters or more. All of the beds

examined contain partings of carbonaceous clay and bone that would

® The statements on the metals and non-metals here given were translated into

French and published in Rapport annuil de l’Ingénieur en Chef au Secrétaire d’Ptat

des Travaux Publics, Répub. d’Haiti, pp. 50-52, 1922.

APR. 4, 1923 WOODRING: GEOLOGY OF HAITI 127

have to be discarded in mining operations. In a large part of this

potential lignite field the beds dip very gently and the lignite could be

mined by stripping off the overburden. The Miocene beds in this

part of the Central Plain are coastal swamp deposits.

Lignite of entirely different origin and composition was examined

in the interior lowland at Camp Perrin in the Arrondissement of

Cayes. The beds here, which are also of Miocene age, are non-marine,

and the lignite is probably an undeveloped cannel coal. ‘This lignite

could hardly be profitably mined, as the beds of good lignite are thin

and all the beds are crumpled and faulted. Samples of lignite from

both regions have been analyzed.

Miocene beds in the Central Plain contain mother rock and reser-

voirs suitable for the accumulation of oil. Favorable structural

features were examined and have already been described.!° Seeps

of oil from these rocks have been reported by several people, but were

not examined during the reconnaissance. There are no large-scale

seeps, residues, or mud volcanoes, such as are found in many other

regions where rocks of the same age contain oil. The oil possibilities

of the Central Plain can be tested only by the drill.

Samples of limestone, marl, and argillite have been analyzed to

determine the possibility of using them as raw materials in the manu-

facture of cement. Samples of different kinds of rock, gravel, and

other material have been tested as road material. Gravels and sands

have been tested as material for concrete and for other uses. Samples

of clay have been tested as material for making bricks. The Republic

contains a variety of rocks suitable for building stone and an unlimited

supply of limestone that is burned for lime. At several places salt is

obtained by the evaporation of sea water. Samples of cave guano

‘have been analyzed to determine their value as fertilizers.

UNDERGROUND WATER RESOURCES

Perhaps the most intimate contact between geology and the in-

habitants of the Republic lies in the development of the water re-

sources. Most of the inhabitants depend upon agriculture for their

livelihood and in many parts of the Republic it is necessary to supple-

ment rainfall with irrigation. At the time of the reconnaissance

there was little information available concerning the surface water

resources. A program of measuring the flow of streams that are most

10 Woodring, W. P., Stratigraphy, structure, and possible oil resources of the Miocene

rocks of the Central Plain: Rep. Haiti Geol. Survey, 19 pp., map, 1922.

128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 7

important with regard to present and proposed irrigation projects

is now being carried out. During the reconnaissance a considerable

amount of time was spent in studying the underground water resources

of certain regions.

As soon as we arrived in Port-au-Prince, Mr. Brown began an

examination of the geology of the region near Port-au-Prince with

regard to the public supply of water. The present supply is derived

from springs and during years of abnormally low rainfall it is inade-

quate for the rapidly increasing population of the capital. Mr.

Brown made suggestions for the more effective utilization of some of

the springs that are controlled by the geologic features. The water

issuing in the springs falls as rain on the crest and north slope of

Morne Hopital, and as this mountain is composed wholly of limestone

the water contains a large amount of calcium bicarbonate. The possi-

bility of treatment to remove the hardness is discussed in the report.

Ultimately the city should have a stream-fed supply. The Grande

Riviere de Léogane (or Riviére Momance) probably contains an

adequate amount, and as basalt is the surface rock in the greater part

of its watershed its water should be much softer than the water de-

rived from the springs near the city.

Mr. Brown also examined the inadequate spring-fed supply of

Cap-Haitien. Water of good quality to supplement or replace the

present supply could be obtained from wells in the North Plain near by.

In the Cul-de-Sac Plain water derived from flowing and non-flowing

wells is used to supplement the surface waters in irrigation. The

possibility of obtaining a similar supply in some of the other plains is

fully discussed in the report.

In many regions where limestone is the surface rock there are no

surface streams, as the water seeps into channels and caverns in the

limestone. At many places in limestone regions the inhabitants must -

depend for their supply upon salty springs issuing at the coast. At

some of these places it is possible to obtain better water at little cost

by tapping farther from the coast the underground streams feeding

these springs.

The Republic contains many types of unusual springs, such as warm

springs, sulphur springs, and salty springs. The geologic features

of these springs were examined and samples of water from them

were analyzed. There are also several interesting lakes, among them

Etang Saumdtre. Samples of water from the lakes were analyzed.

In all, 20 samples of water from streams, lakes, springs, and wells

APR. 4, 1923 CLARK: ORIGIN OF VERTEBRATES 129

were analyzed. The quality of these waters and the source of their

mineral content are discussed in the report.

It is thus apparent that the reconnaissance has yielded results that

are important contributions to the geologic history of the West Indian

region. It has also yielded results that in many ways have an intimate

bearing on the welfare of the inhabitants of the Republic—results

based on an understanding of the geologic features derived from ob-

servations that at first glance may seem to be of purely scientific in-

terest only.

BIOLOGY.—The origin of the vertebrates. Austin H. Cuarx, Na-

tional Museum.

Heretofore all the writers on the subject of the evolution of the

vertebrates have approached the problem with the complex vertebrate

structure admittedly or unconsciously dominating the perspective

within which all other types of animal structure should fall. Under

the influence of this preconceived though unconfessed idea either a

devious line was traced from the vertebrates through progressively

simpler forms eventually ending in the protozoans, or a line was drawn

from the protozoans to the vertebrates from which more or less numer-

ous side branches were given off terminating blindly in supposedly

anomalous types.

It never seems to have been noticed that animals and plants are

but slightly different manifestations of the same organic phenomena,

and that therefore there is no reason to suppose that the evolutionary

line in one kingdom would be in its broader features greatly different

from that in the other.

In the following pages I shall attempt to show that if we consider

the phanerogam-like radially symmetrical colonial coelenterate type

as representing the culmination of animal evolution properly so called,

and the bilateral animals as having arisen through the disruption of

this type and the gradual geometrical recombination of the characters

of the forms resulting from this disintegration, we shall have an ex-

planation of the origin of all the different animal types by which each

and every one is allocated and shown to be a necessary element in the

general plan.

The embryological processes common to all animals show that the

egg develops into a blastula which subsequently becomes a gastrula;

‘but from this point onward the developmental processes exhibit no

features common to all animal types.

130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 7

The gastrula, present in the ontogeny of all animals, is the last

structural complex which is of universal occurrence throughout the

animal kingdom and the last common bond between the various animal

types, and it therefore must in some way represent the starting point

for all subsequent divergence.

An egg typically divides into two, four and eight cells in three planes

each of which is at right angles to the other two and, equal cell division

continuing, a hollow sphere is formed, the blastula, which collapses,

forming a more or less hemispherical structure with two layers of

cells, an outer and an inner, the gastrula.

The gastrula possesses a single axis which runs through the center

of the opening resulting from the collapse of the blastula; but since

the walls of the gastrula are everywhere the same there is a perfect

radial symmetry about this axis.

Since the gastrula, though usually in a considerably modified form,

is common to all animal types and forms the starting point for the’

divergence of the various major groups, it is important to determine

what its real significance is.

From the egg through the blastula to and including the gastrula

there is a direct geometrical continuity leading to the formation of a

body radially symmetrical about a single axis. The logical termination

of such development would be the formation of an animal type in

which the gastrula axis persists to the adult and the body of the adult

is radially symmetrical about it.

If the facts presented by a study of embryology are significant in

indicating the phylogeny of animals, it is clear that the last common

ancestor of all the bilaterally symmetrical animal types was a radially

symmetrical form, or a sort of adult gastrula.

There are two such animal forms. In one of these, the sponges, the

body consists of a community of cells imperfectly integrated and show-

ing relatively little devision of labour or unified life. The sponges

continue to grow throughout life, and their increase is always radial.

In the other, the coelenterates, the body is a distinct unit of more

or less definite size with a gastrovascular cavity and a well developed

muscular system. Growth in the coelenterates as in the sponges is

continuous throughout life; but since the complexity of the organiza-

tion imposed a definite maximum size on the individuals, the growth

impetus results in the continued formation of new individuals which

bud off from those preceding, typically resulting in an arborescent or

mass colony comparable to that seen in the phanerogams. While in

many coelenterates the budded individuals become free, and in some

APR. 4, 1923 CLARK: ORIGIN OF VERTEBRATES 131

there is no budding at all, there can be no doubt that fundamentally

the coelenterates are phanerogam-like colonial animals.

There is nothing that can be assumed to connect the sponges with

any other animal type except, perhaps, with certain of the Protozoa.

It is evident that the gastrula stage in the development of the bilateral

animals cannot represent any sponge-like progenitor. It is possible,

however, to interpret the bilateral animals in terms of the colonial

coelenterate. Indeed, it is not possible to interpret them in any other

way, for any other explanation of their origin would assume the

presence of a fundamental bilateral tendency, an unknown and un-

determinable variable not common to all animal types.

If a colonial coelenterate with radially symmetrical polyps should

develop a persistent defect in the ontogeny whereby the units became

bilaterally symmetrical, bilateral animals of four main types would

at once appear:

1. Bilateral animals in the form of a linear more or less unified

colony.

2. Bilateral animals in which the colony formation was inverted,

the budding of the new elements taking place within the original unit.

3. Bilateral solitary animals each representing a dissociated coelen-

terate unit; and

4. Bilateral animals with the colonial habit, though independent

of each other.

These four main types, between which there would be numerous

intergrades, all represent definite types occurring among the coelen-

terates themselves, and therefore none of them can be said actually

to represent anything new in animal structure other than the novelty

consequent on the developmental defect which resulted in the loss of

the radial and the assumption of the bilateral body form.

Among the animals of today all four of these main types are

represented:

1. The tape-worms or segmented cestodes form a linear colony of

continuous growth so like a partially unified strobila as to leave little

doubt of the fundamental similarity of type. The scolex of the ces-

todes is radially symmetrical, but the proglottides are strongly flat-

tened and bilaterally symmetrical, though the difference between the

dorsal and the ventral surface is but little marked.

2. The flukes have a peculiar development which is essentially

similar to strobilization, except that the buds are formed within the

original unit instead of in a linear series.

132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 7

In those coelenterates with division of labour the polyps are of three

sorts, (a) nutritive, or sac-like, (b) reproductive, and (c) excretory,

or ‘‘defensive.’’ If in strobilization of the fluke type buds of each

of these sorts were formed internally, this would furnish the elements

necessary for the creation of the so-called coelome, which is divided

into three parts, (a) the perivisceral, or sac-like, (b) the gonadial,

and (c) the excretory or nephridial. |

The flukes and their allies always retain distinct traces of radial

symmetry, especially in their digestive system and in the arrangement

of their nerves.

3. The turbellarians and nematodes are bilateral solitary animals,

the individuals each comparable to a single coelenterate polyp. All

of them show distinct traces of radial symmetry in their nervous sys-

tem, and the turbellarians also in their digestive system.

4. Such turbellarians as Microstomum are single animals each

comparable to a single coelenterate polyp; but they divide in such a way

as to produce chains of similar attached animals each of which is

independent of the others and not a part of a more or less unified entity

as in the case of the proglottides of the tape worms.

The cestodes, the flukes, the turbellarians and Microstomum are

all flat worms and all more or less closely related to each other. They

all retain to a very considerable degree traces of radial symmetry and

of other coelenterate features. Being intermediate between radially

symmetrical and bilaterally symmetrical types it requires very little

imagination to assume that they represent the four original types into

which the coelenterates disintegrated upon the appearance of that

developmental defect which resulted in bilateral symmetry.

If the preceding suppositions are logical it is evident that the so-

called evolution of the bilateral animals cannot be evolution in the

sense of the progressive development of higher types from lower, but

instead must have been a recombination and reassortment of the four

diverse features characteristic of the four types into which the radially

symmetrical colonial coelenterate type disintegrated. In other words

the so-called evolution of animals is in reality a convergence toward a

common centre from four equidistant points, and the progressive

economic efficiency does not indicate any real phylogenetic progress,

but results merely from a more and more intimate intermingling of,

and a progressively better balance between, the main features indi-

cated by the tape worms, flukes, turbellarians and Microstomum

standing at the four corners of the original square.

APR. 4, 1923 CLARK: ORIGIN OF VERTEBRATES 133

The four corners of this square are marked by four animal types

which are closely related to each other, yet at the same time are funda-

mentally distinct. One of them indicates the commencement of

the segmented body; another shows the beginnings of the coelomic

structures; a third is simple, with no indications of segmentation or of

a coelome; while the fourth is a colonial form of the third.

From these four points there would proceed evolution of two kinds.

Each type would give rise to all economically possible variants

through a process of continuous development which could be approx-

imately represented by a branching tree-like figure; but all of the

the different forms arising in this fashion would fall strictly within

limits of its proper type.

As examples of such evolution may be mentioned the insects, crus-

taceans, molluscs, annelids, ete., within which groups all the included

types may be more or less successfully represented as branches of a

tree-like figure at the base of which lies a generalized or primitive

form; but this and all the others however much they may diverge

in details of structure always agree in their fundamental features.

Since they all have arisen from the same colonial coelenterate-like

ancestor which has, so to speak, exploded into four different types,

each of these four points represents an animal complex in a state of

unstable equilibrium; for each one has latent within it the fundamental

features of the other three.

Such an unstable equilibrium, in effect an explosive force, would

presumably result in a sudden readjustment of the somatic balance

whereby intermediate types would appear, one between each two of

the four corners (fig. 1); while these intermediate types, each a dis-

tinct re-creation and not genetically connected with either of its

neighbors, would show a distinct economic advance, this economic

advance would in no way represent real evolutionary progress, for it

would be merely the result of the combination of the advantages

inherent in the structure of the types on either side.

Thus there would suddenly appear, quite without apparent ancestry,

(1) segmented animals, like the tape-worms, with a coelome, like the

flukes; (2) unsegmented animals, like the turbellarians, with a coelome

like the flukes; (3) solitary unsegmented animals without a coelome,

like the turbellarians, but with abundant asexual reproduction, like

Microstomum: and (4) segmented animals without a coelome, like

the tape-worms, but less unified and without the continuous loss of

the units, as in Microstomum. |

134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 7

All four of these intermediate types actually occur. All are entirely

and widely distinct from each other, and show no demonstrable inter-

gradation with any of the remaining animal types, each occupying

a markedly isolated position. Three of the four are extraordinarily

rich in genera and species; the last and least successful is represented

by two closely parallel and non-intergrading forms which are identical

with regard to the features with which we are concerned, but differ

in all others. One of the first three is the only major animal group

which has not persisted to the present time.

The segmented animals with a coelome are the annelids; the un-

segmented animals with a coelome are the priapulids and sipunculids;

let readjustment

eae,

Fig. 1. Showing the first and second readjustments.

the solitary acoelomate animals with abundant asexual reproduction

are the rotifers; and the acoelomate animals forming colonies of sepa-

rate individuals are undoubtedly the graptolites (fig. 3).

Through this readjustment as just described each of the new animal

types would combine the features of two of the original types. But

since in each of these new types two of the four chief features are

absent, there would still exist a condition of unstable equilibrium as

compared with the colonial coelenterate-like ancestor.

A second readjustment of the same nature as the first would be

inevitable by which four animal types would appear in line with the

first, but combining the characters of the intermediates in the second

series (fig. 1).

APR. 4, 1923 CLARK: ORIGIN OF VERTEBRATES 135

Three such intermediates (fig. 3) seem to be clearly indicated in the

polyzoans, colonial and not at all or very imperfectly coelomate,

between the rotifers and the graptolites; the arthropods, with a

segmented body like that of the annelids, but divided into two or three

units showing division of labour (in the insects one controlling and

directing, one locomotor, and one performing the digestive, reproduc-

4th readjustment

a —

3rd readjustment \""s<—99""" ee” ?

lst readjustment

2nd

readjustment

Fig. 2. Showing the first to the fourth readjustments.

tive and other vital functions) after the graptolite or polyzoan fashion,

with a poorly developed coelome, with abundant traces of asexual

reproduction (polyembryony, parthenogenesis, fragmentation of

larvae, etc.), with a marked tendency to form (as in the ants) poly-

zoan-like colonies with division of labour among the (dissociated)

units, and sometimes even forming dendritic colonies (as in Thomp-

sonia) ; and the molluscs, always solitary, like the priapulids and sipun-

136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 7

culids, with a highly developed coelome, and with traces of segmenta-

tion suggesting the annelids. The fourth group should be solitary

with an indication of colonial structure and a coelome, but without

segmentation. It is possible to place the nemerteans here by assum-

ing their imperfect segmentation to be of the Microstomum and not

of the tape-worm type.

Turbellarians

Nomatodes

A a ar

AAG Pterobranchiates ~ | hee

Microstomum Polyzoans Tunicates Vertebrates Balanoglosei ds Mollusce

Cephalochordates

Brachiopods Echinoderms

(Graptolites) Annelids

Cestodes

Fig. 3. Showing the development of the various animal types above the coelenterates.

There is still a condition of unstable equilibrium, for in each of these

four groups one of the original elements is lacking. <A third readjust-

ment (fig. 2) would be necessary to recombine all the main features

characteristic of the original four types.

Four animal groups (fig. 3) appear to be the result of such a read-

justment. The echinoderms combine a reduced body consisting of —

five half segments of the arthropod type with a highly perfected coe-

——

APR. 4, 1923 CLARK: ORIGIN OF VERTEBRATES 137

lome; the chaetognaths suggest a relationship with the molluscs, and

also with the nemerteans; the phoronids suggest a relationship with

the polyzoans, but have a well developed coelome, and the colonial

habit is reduced to the budding off of new individuals; and the brachi-

opods suggest both the polyzoans and the barnacle-like arthropods.

While by this third readjustment all the four original features are

recombined in each animal type, the balance between them is imper-

fect, for the influence of one of these features in each case is greatly

overshadowed by the influence of the other three.

A fourth readjustment (fig. 2) would correct this imperfect balance

and result in the appearance of four animal types all very much alike.

There are four types which appear to belong here (fig. 3), the tuni-

cates, the cephalochordates, the balanoglossids and the pterobran-

chiates. The tunicates seem to be in line with the polyzoans, while

they also suggest both the brachiopods and the phoronids; the cephalo-

chordates clearly stand in the cestode-arthropod line, and at the same

time show indubitable affinities with the echinoderms; the balano-

glossids, with no trace of asexual reproduction, may be considered in

line with the flukes and molluscs and between the chaetognaths and

echinoderms; while the pterobranchiates seem to fall between the

chaetognaths and the phoronids.

These four closely related types resulting from this fourth readjust-

ment are each slightly excentric; but they are so close to each other

that a fifth readjustment would presumably give a final perfected

type in which at last all of the four chief features of the original types

would be reunited in the economically most perfected form.

The vertebrates appear to occupy this central position (fig. 3). In

them we are able to recognize the segmentation of the cestodes, anne-

lids, and cephalochordates, combined with the coelomic structure

first indicated in the flukes, both enclosed in the undivided body of the

turbellarians. Unless the limbs can be compared to budded units

recalling certain highly reduced and specialized units in tunicate or

polyzoan colonies, the influence of the feature represented by Micro-

stomum seems to have disappeared.

In the course of the various readjustments which culminated in the

formation of the vertebrates numerous secondary features, such as

visual and other sense organs, appendages of different kinds, diver-

ticula and other outgrowths from the enteric canal, chitinous and

calcareous skeletons, etc., all of which exist in the coelenterates and

in one or other of the four types derived immediately from them,

became enormously developed and specialized in correlation with the

138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 7

increasing bodily efficiency resulting from the recombinations. But

if the analysis of the origin of the various animal types just given

is an approximately true exposition of the facts, the vertebrates, in

spite of their wonderful complexity of structure and their very high

degree of efficiency, represent nothing more than the final recombina-

tion of characters already occurring in the colonial coelenterates which

were widely dissociated at the inception of bilateral symmetry.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

877TH MEETING

The 877th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium on Saturday,

January 27, 1923. The meeting was called to order at 8:15 P.M. by Presi-

dent Wuite with 29 persons in attendance.

Mr. G. T. Rupe presented a paper on Instruments and methods for the

observation of tides. The paper was illustrated with lantern slides, and was

discussed by Messrs. Lampert, Bowrn, Pautinc, Humpyreys, Hawks-

wortTH, Faris, LIrrLeHALES, and TUCKERMAN.

Author’s abstract: A continuous record of the rise and fall of the tide is

necessary in connection with a number of engineering and scientific problems,

The simplest method of tidal observation consists in observing the chang-

ing height of the water as noted on a fixed vertical staff. From this it was

but a step to devising some mechanical means for recording automatically

the rising and falling of the surface of the sea.

The earliest automatic tide gauge of which we have record was devised

by an English civil engineer, Henry R. Palmer, and is described in the Philo-

sophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London, for the year 1831.

Of the automatic tide gauges, two classes may be recognized: (1) those

in which the changes in elevation are shown in the form of a curve; (2) those

in which the height of the water at definite intervals is shown by means of

figures, or the so-called printing gauges. The various forms of the tide

gauges in use were shown by means of slides and attention called to the

distinguishing features. :

Special attention was directed to a new type of automatic tide gauge

recently developed in the office of the Coast and Geodetic Survey for use of

hydrographic parties in the field. In designing this instrument the objects

sought were ease of installation and minimum size commensurate with the

desired accuracy. The gauge is about 10 inches long and 9 inches high.

The clock is placed inside the cylinder carrying the cross-section paper on

which the curve of the tide is drawn. No counterpoise weight is used, a

coiled spring taking the place of the weight. The float well is ordinary

34 inch stock iron pipe and in addition to serving as a float, it acts as a sup-

port for the gauge. No platform is necessary for the installation of this gauge,

which may be lashed to a pile on a bar or to net stakes in bays or rivers. A

metallic cover furnishes the only shelter necessary.

APR. 4, 1923 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 139

Messrs. G. W. Vinat and G. N. Scuramm presented a paper on The

tarnishing and detarnishing of silver. The paper, which was illustrated by

lantern slides, was presented by Dr. Vinau and discussed by Messrs. PAULING,

HawxswortH, Humpureys, LAMBERT, GisH, Hnyn, and SHowey.

Author’s abstract: The tarnish observed on silver is ordinarily the sul-

phide. It was found that hydrogen sulphide causes tarnishing of silver

when moisture is present, and particularly when sulphur dioxide is also

present.

The electrolytic method for detarnishing silver is based upon the fact

that the silver immersed in a solution of salt and soda and in contact with

and electro-positive metal forms a cellin which the hydrogen passing to the

silver reduces the sulphide, liberating hydrogen sulphide. The reduced

silver is left upon the surface in the moss condition.

The tarnishes formed a definite color scale which may be used to estimate

the extent of the tarnish. The colors are as follows: Yellow, red, purple,

blue, blue-green, gunmetal, black.

Experiments were made to study the tarnishing of silver in solutions and

gas atmospheres, and conditions for establishing a standard tarnish were

determined. The thickness of the tarnish film was found to range from

0.18 to 0.36 microns, which is about 2 per cent of the thickness of the silver

plating. Sterling silver tarnishes more readily than pure silver. Tarnishing

is accelerated by the presence of moisture, sulphur dioxide and certain films

on the surface of the silver, such as alkali and soap films. The tarnishing of

silver may be retarded by the action of several reagents.

Comparisons between various electrolytic devices for detarnishing were

made. ‘There is practically no loss of silver by the electrolytic method of

cleaning, unless the moss silver is present in objectionable amounts. . Silver

losses are appreciable when the cleaning is done by abrasives and cyanide

solutions. The potential differences between the silver and the various

metals used for the cleaner were determined.

Adjournment at 10:01 P.M. was followed by a social hour.

J. P. Aut, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

At the Physics Club, Bureau of Standards, on February 26, Dr. W. F.

Meccers spoke on Line structure wn complicated spectra.

The subject was introduced by a general outline of the earlier known

regularities in the spectra of the chemical elements beginning with the

Balmer series of hydrogen and followed by the types of series found in the

relatively simple spectra characteristic of the elements in the first three col-

umns of the periodic classification. There are four general types of series,

principal, sharp, diffuse, and fundamental, each of which may be represented

by single, double, or triple spectral lines. Doublets, triplets, and more

complex structures are explained as arising in a multiplicity of P, D, and F

energy levels between which electron transitions take place. The S term

is generally single. In addition, certain inter-combinations of these series

may represent observed spectral lines.

The quantum theory assigns azimuthal quantum numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4

respectively to the four general types of series and restricts inter-combina-

tions to those involving a change of only one unit in quantum number.

The sum of azimuthal and radial quantum numbers determines the position

(term number) of a line in a series. An “inner quantum number’’ is asso-

140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 138, NO. 7

ciated with the multiple levels representing each P, D, or F term and com-

posite doublets and triplets containing so-called satellites are explained by

changes of plus one, minus one, or zero in the inner quantum number. The

same theory attempts to account for a new type of regularity shown by

groups of lines called ‘“‘multiplets’” which have recently been found in the

complicated spectra of manganese, chromium, and molybdenum. In the

are spectrum of manganese, for example, groups of 9, 13, or 15 lines are

apparently explained by changes in inner quantum numbers assigned to

3P, 5D, and 7F levels when the 9, 13, and 15 line multiplets represent inter-

combinations of PD, DD’, and DF terms respectively. In its present state,

however, the theory is unable to predict the exact character or location of

regularities in unclassified spectra.

The Pick and Hammer Club met on Saturday evening, February 24, in

the Director’s room of the Geological Survey. The Foreign situation of

petroleum was discussed by E. Dr Gotysr, and the Domestic situation of

petroleum, by G. B. RicHarpson.

A party of observers from the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey is at work

in southern California to determine the distance between Mount Wilson and

San Antonio Peak. The distance between these two peaks is about 20 miles,

and a base approximately parallel to the line joining them and having a

length of approximately 20 miles has been located in the valley or plains

just to the south of the two peaks. The work involved in this project con-

sists of observations for triangulation and trionometric leveling, the measure-

ment of the base line with an accuracy not less than one part in a million,

the determination of the deflection of the vertical in both the meridian and

the prime vertical, and some precise leveling. Each section of the base will

be measured at least four times with different tapes in order to secure this

high degree of accuracy.

The Division of Physical Anthropology, U. S. National Museum, has

received casts of the two recently discovered ancient Obercassel skulls with

parts of the skeletons. The Museum has now very nearly a complete set

of casts of early human remains, and with one or two exceptions they are

all first-hand casts made directly from the originals, which enhances their

value.

Miss Ftorencre Bascom, Professor of Geology at Bryn Mawr College,

is spending the winter months in Washington completing her work for the

U.S. Geological Survey.

Mr. 8. R. Carrs has returned from private geologic work abroad to duty

as geologist in the U. 8. Geological Survey.

Mr. E. T. Hancock, formerly geologist on the U. 58. Geological Survey,

now employed by the Standard Oil Company in Roumania, visited Washing-

ton in the latter part of February.

Mr. F. E. Marrues of the U. 8. Geological Survey gave an illustrated

address on March 5 before the New York Academy of Sciences on the sub-

ject of The evolution of the Yosemite Valley. He also spent a day at the Ameri-

can Museum of Natural History inspecting the new large relief model of

APR. 4, 1923 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 141

the Yosemite Valley that is being prepared under the direction of Dr. E. O.

Hovey.

Dr. Cartes Moon of Cornell University, began work at the Bureau of

Standards on February 6, in the Section of Induction and Capacity, Electrical

Division.

Dr. Epwarp W. Mor.ey, emeritus professor of chemistry at Western

Reserve University, and one of the most famous American scientists, died

on February 26 at Hartford, Connecticut, in his 86th year. He was born

at Newark, New Jersey, January 29, 1838. He was educated at Williams

College and received honorary degrees from that university and also from

Western Reserve, Lafayette, Pittsburgh, Wooster, and Yale, also holding

the professorship at Cleveland Medical College from 1873-88. Among

notable prizes awarded to Professor Morley were the Davy Medal of the

Royal Society in 1907, Cresson Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1912,

and the Gibbs Medal in 1916. His work on the atomic weight of oxygen

and the densities of oxygen and hydrogen is known to all chemists, while

the Michelson-Morley experiment is one of the most fundamental in physics.

Professor Morley was a member of the AcapEmy and of many national and

foreign chemical and physical societies.

Dr. F. C. Weser, for many years chemist in the Bureau of Chemistry,

U.S. Department of Agriculture, has resigned to accept a position with the

Fleischmann Company, New York, N. Y.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 13 Aprit 19, 1923 No. 8

BOTANY.—New composites from Salvador. S. F. Buaxz, Bureau of

Plant Industry.

The extensive botanical collections made in Salvador in 1921-22

by Mr. Paul C. Standley of the U. S. National Museum contain three

new species of Asteraceae, which are described below. The new

genus Rensonva is the first known Central American representative

of a small group of the subtribe Melampodinae which has hitherto

consisted of the medium-sized genus Silphiwm of the United States,

the monotypic Schizoptera of Ecuador, and the small genus Moonia

of Australia, India, and Ceylon. The new species of Zexmenia is

also interesting from a geographical point of view, as its nearest

relative is a Brazilian species. .

Vernonia standleyi Blake, sp. nov.

Shrubby, 1 to 1.6 meters high, branched above, the branches sometimes

supra-axillary; stem stoutish, sometimes zigzag, grayish-barked, striatulate,

sessile-glandular, puberulous above, glabrate below; leaves alternate; petioles

naked, puberulous, 2 to 5 mm. long; leaf blades elliptic-oblong or elliptic,

6 to 9 em. long, 1.3 to 3 cm. wide, acuminate, acutely or acuminately cuneate

at base, subentire or serrulate with about 15 pairs of small acute teeth, firm-

papery, above dotted with sessile yellowish glands, finely puberulous, gla-

brate except along the veins, beneath paler green, gland-dotted and not

densely short-pilose with flexuous hairs, more or less glabrescent except along

the nerves, featherveined, the lateral veins about 6 pairs, prominulous be-

neath, the veinlets few and prominulous beneath; heads discoid, 5-flowered

(rarely 4-flowered), 8 mm. high in fruit, numerous, sessile or subsessile in

dense rounded clusters 1 to 3 cm. thick at tips of branches and stem and on

short axillary branchlets; involucre 5 or 6-seriate, graduate, 4.5 mm. high, the

outermost phyllaries ovate, the middle ones ovate-oblong, the innermost

linear and deciduous, all indurate and whitish, greenish along costa above,

obtuse to acutish, the innermost glandular on back and sparsely arachnoid-

ciliate, thin-margined, the others glandular and more or less villous dorsally

and densely arachnoid-ciliate; corollas whitish (?), hispidulous especially

on tube, 5.5 mm. long (tube 2.5 mm., throat 0.5 mm., teeth 2.5 mm.) ; achenes

143

144 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 8

somewhat obcompressed-turbinate, 2.5 mm. long, 7-ribbed, whitish, densely

ascending-pilose, bearing a short glabrous collar at apex; pappus 2-seriate,

be copious, the outer aristae numerous, 0.8 mm. long, the inner 3.5 mm.

ong.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,135,594, collected on brushy

hillside near Santa Ana, Department of Santa Ana, Salvador, altitude 655

to 800 meters, January 8, 1922, by Paul C. Standley (no. 19703).

ADDITIONAL SPECIMENS EXAMINED: Satvapor: Pine forest, vicinity of

Santa Ana, altitude 655 to 900 meters, January 28 to 30, 1922, Standley 20413.

A member of the section Hremosis, nearest Vernonia triflosculosa H.B.K. ,

but distinguished by its usually 5-flowered heads, its densely arachnoid-

ciliate phyllaries (the outermost ovate, not suborbicular or suborbicular-

ovate as in V. triflosculosa), and the much more conspicuous glabrous collar

at apex of achene. The species is abundant on the slopes along the rail-

road in the Department of Santa Ana, forming large masses, which are con-

spicuous because of the white pappus of the closely crowded heads.

Rensonia Blake, gen. nov.

Shrub; leaves opposite, ovate, slender-petioled, large, serrate, scabrous;

heads small, heterogamous, radiate, in terminal cymose panicles, the rays

pistillate, fertile, the disk sterile; involucre turbinate-campanulate, 2-seriate,

equal or subequal, the phyllaries 8 or 9, oblong-obovate, erect, indurate

below, thick-herbaceous above; receptacle small, flat; outer pales flattish,

the inner narrow, complicate; pistillate flowers about 8, about 1-seriate,

their corollas ligulate, yellow, apparently small; disk flowers hermaphrodite,

sterile, about 20, their corollas tubular, with slender tube, much longer

eylindric-funnelform throat, and 5-toothed limb; anthers with minutely sagit-

tate bases and ovate terminal appendages; style (hermaphrodite flowers)

undivided, above thickened and hispidulous; ray achenes obovate, obcom-

pressed, epappose, not at all coherent with the subtending phyllaries or the

pales of the disk, 2-winged, the wings submembranous, narrow, nerved, en-

tire or lacerate above, prolonged above the achene into two triangular lacerate

teeth; disk achenes inane, elongate-clavate, trigonous, wingless, their pappus

a short, thick, entire, hispidulous crown, with or without a single short,

slender awn.

This genus is named for Dr. Carlos Renson, who has been connected with

the Salvador Department of Agriculture for more than thirty years, and

whose botanical collections, a series of which is in the U. 8. National Her-

barium, are the most extensive made in Salvador prior to Mr. Standley’s

trip. It is a member of the Heliantheae-Melampodinae, to be inserted

between Silphium L. and Schizoptera Turez. The former genus, no species

of which is known south of the United States, consists of tall herbs with

large, broadly campanulate or subglobose heads and 2 or 3-seriate rays.

The monotypic genus Schizoptera Turez.,! known only from Ecuador, is an

herb with a campanulate involucre of membranous-herbaceous outer and

1See Blake, Hook. Icon. Pl. 31: pl. 3058. 1916, and Contr. Gray Herb. n. ser. 52:

34. 1917.

APR. 19, 1923 BLAKE: NEW COMPOSITES FROM SALVADOR 145

membranous-scarious inner phyllaries, biseriate rays, and disk achenes

epappose or with 2 awns but no corona.

Rensonia salvadorica Blake, sp. nov.

Shrub 2 to 5 meters high, oppositely branched; stem slender, scabrid-

strigillose, gray-barked, subterete, striatulate, the younger branches ‘angulate;

petioles naked, strigillose, 2.5 10 8. 5 em. long: leaf blades ovate, 9 to 26 cm.

long, 3.5 to 10 cm. wide, acuminate and usually somewhat falcate, acutely

cuneate (sometimes abruptly so) at base, serrate except toward base and at

apex with about 45 pairs of depressed acutely callous-tipped teeth, thin,

above deep dull green, rather densely and very harshly hispidulous with

mostly deciduous hairs with lepidote-tuberculate persistent bases, beneath

slightly lighter green, evenly short-strigose with slightly harsh hairs and

along the veins sparsely hispid or hispidulous, triplinerved above the base

and loosely prominulous-reticulate beneath; heads (flowers fallen) 6 to 7 mm.

high, about 5 mm. thick, about 20 in a terminal, ternately divided, convex,

cymose panicle 4 to 7 em. wide, its branches densely strigillose, the bracts

very small, the slender pedicels 1 to 2 cm. long; involucre 5 to 7 mm. high,

strigillose, ‘the firm thickish phyllaries oblong-obovate, 1.5 to 2 mm. wide,

acute, callous-tipped, 3 or 5-nerved; ray flowers scarcely seen; disk corollas

(over-mature) 5 mm. long (tube 1 mm., throat 3.2 mm., teeth ovate, 0.8

mm.); pales narrow, firmly scarious, acuminate, strigillose, about 5 mm.

long; ray achenes broadly obovate, 5.2 to 5.8 mm. long and 2.5 to 2.8 mm.

wide (including wings), the body obovate, blackish, 4 mm. long, 2 mm.

wide, nerveless, hispidulous toward apex outside, nearly glabrous inside,

the wings erect-nerved, continued into triangular teeth, the teeth and some-

times the upper part of the wings lacerate and minutely ciliolate; disk achenes

3.2 to 3.5 mm. long, hispidulous toward apex, the corona 0.3 mm. high, the

awn 0.7 to 1.2 mm. high.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,135,663, collected in the

wooded ravine of the Rio Ataco, among mountains back of Ahuachapdan,

Department of Ahuachapdn, Salvador, altitude 800 to 1000 meters, January

10, 1922, by Paul C. Standley (no. 19783).

‘ADDITIONAL SPECIMENS EXAMINED: Satvapor: Along stream, vicinity of

Ahuachapan, January 14, 1922, Standley 19964. In forest, Sierra de Apaneca,

region of Finca Colima, Department of Ahuachapdn, January 17 to 19, 1922,

Standley 20090.

This shrub bears the vernacular names “‘canilla,” ‘“‘tatascamillo,” and

“vara de zope.”’ Unfortunately all three collections are too mature to show

the character of the flowers well. A single imperfect ray adhering to one of

the heads was yellow, nearly linear, and appeared to be scarcely longer than

the style branches. All the flowers are probably yellow. The species is

very similar in general appearance to Perymeniwm strigillosum (Robins. &

Greenm.) Greenm.

Zexmenia iners Blake, sp. nov.

Erect or decumbent annual, 25 to 50 cm. high, freely branched; stem slender,

densely spreading-hirsutulous with somewhat uncinate hairs and sparsely

hispid with straight wide-spreading hairs, glabrate below; leaves opposite

essentially throughout; petioles 2 to 10 mm. long, hirsutulous and _ hispid-

ciliate; leaf blades of the stem leaves ovate or oblong-ovate, 2.5to7 cm. long, 1.2

146 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 8

to 3.3 cm. wide, acute or acuminate, acutely cuneate at base, depressed-serrate

(teeth 4 to 8 pairs), thin, evenly but not densely uncinate-hirsutulous on

both sides, evenly tuberculate-hispid on surface above, hispid chiefly on the

veins beneath, triplinerved well above the base, green on both sides; branch

leaves smaller; heads solitary in the forks of the stem and at tips of branches,

in flower slender, about 6 mm. wide, in fruit hemispheric, about 1 em. wide;

peduncles slender, pubescent like the stem, 1 to 5 em. long; disk in anthesis

7 mm. high, 3 mm. thick; involucre 2-seriate, obgraduate or subequal, 6 to

8 mm. high, the phyllaries few (about 6), the outer lanceolate or narrowly

oblong-lanceolate, 1.5 to 2 mm. wide, obtuse or acutish, herbaceous for the

upper half of their length, pale and usually 1-ribbed below, erect, pubescent

like the stem and hispid-ciliate, the inner similar but usually shorter and

broader, with shorter usually acute herbaceous tips; rays 3 to 5, fertile, orange

yellow, the lamina suborbicular, 3 to 3.5 mm. long, 2.8 to 3 mm. wide, bilo-

bate with sometimes bidentate lobes, densely hirsutulous on back on the two

chief nerves; disk flowers about 5 to 7, orange yellow, puberulous and ciliolate

on the teeth and with a puberulous ring at base of throat, 3.8 to 4.5 mm.

long (tube tubular-funnelform, 1.5 to 2 mm., throat funnelform, 1.5 to 1.8

mm., teeth ovate, 0.7 mm.); pales scarious, obtuse, wing-keeled to below the

apex, 7 mm. long; ray achenes (with wings included) broadly oval-obovate,

5.5 mm. long, 3.5 to 4 mm. wide, the wings about 1 mm. wide, short-ciliate

and erose, prolonged above the achene as rounded ears, not adnate to the

pappus cup, often purplish-spotted, the body of achene obovoid, obeom-

pressed, 4 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, blackish, tuberculate-hispidulous espe-

cially on midline, with a conspicuous callous appendage on each face at

base; pappus a short-stipitate, lacerate, squamellaceous corona about 1.5 mm.

high (including the neck), and 1 to 3 awns 2 mm. high or less, or the latter

sometimes obsolete; disk achenes similar but compressed, the pappus awns 2,

unequal, 1 to 1.5 mm. long.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,139,183, collected in sand

along a stream, near Armenia, Department of Sonsonate, Salvador, April

18, 1922, by Paul G. Standley (no. 23498).

OTHER SPECIMENS EXAMINED: SALVADOR: In hedgerow, vicinity of San

Salvador, altitude 650 to 850 meters, December 20, 1921, to January 4, 1922,

Standley 19414. Wet soil along stream, vicinity of San Salvador, March 30

to April 24, 1922, Standley 23300. Wet thicket, vicinity of Santa Emilia,

Department of Sonsonate, altitude 135 meters, March 22 to 25, 1922, Standley

22259.

Among North American species Zermenia iners is nearest Z. hispida

(H.B.K.) A. Gray and Z. longipes Benth., from both of which it differs in its

annual root, smaller heads on much shorter peduncles, and tiny, roundish

rays. 4. rudis Baker of Brazil, the only annual species of the genus hitherto

known, is more closely related to Z. iners, but has considerably larger leaves

and rays.

ENTOMOLOGY.—New genera and species of sucking lice. H. E.

Ewine, Bureau of Entomology, U. 8. Department of Agricul-

ture. (Communicated by 8. A. Ronwer.)

In this paper are described four new genera and three new species

of Anoplura, or sucking lice. The material upon which these genera

APR. 19, 1923 EWING: NEW GENERA AND SPECIES OF SUCKING LICE 147

and species are based is a part of the collection of sucking lice of the

United States National Museum, and in this museum the types are

catalogued and deposited.

Proenderleinellus, gen. nov.

Second abdominal segment not provided with a pair of ventral tubercle-

bearing plates. Number of pairs of abdominal pleural plates seven. An-

tennae without any tooth-like processes; and head without paired plates

situated on ventral surface between the antennae. First and second pairs

of legs subequal and smaller than the last pair. Tibiae of first and second

legs broadened distally and tarsi of the same legs broadened proximally,

thus forming with the claws, clasping structures; first and second tarsal

claws simple. Parameres of male genitalia long, arm-like.

Type of genus: Proenderleinellus africanus, new species.

This genus is related to Hoplopleura Enderlein on the one hand and to

Microphthirus Ferris and Enderleinellus Fahrenholz on the other. Only

the type species is included.

Proenderleinellus africanus, sp. nov.

Forehead fully twice as broad as long; postantennal region of head about

as broad as long and with two pairs of dorsal setae, an anterior, minute pair just

behind the antennae and a large posterior pair at the posterior angles. Anten-

nae about as long as head; second segment the longest. Thorax with two

pairs of dorsal setae, a small, very short, spine-like pair just inside and slightly

in front of the thoracic spiracles and a very large, long, curved pair just

inside and slightly posterior of the spiracles. Anterior process, or manu-

brium, of sternum with parallel sides; sternum also with a posterior process

extending between the posterior coxae. Abdomen with a lateral area both

above and below without setae and between this lateral area and the pleurae

on each typical abdominal segment are situated two setae. Typical pleural

plates with two small, pectinate, posterior lateral lobes, and between them

are situated the two, large, subequal, straight pleural setae. In typical

pleural plates the stigmata is situated near the posterior margin. Genital

armature of male with broad, parallel-sided, distally emarginate basal plate;

long curved parameres; and stout, heavily chitinized pseudopenis. Posterior

legs considerably enlarged, but not enormous, their expanded claws simple.

Length of male, 1.42 mm.; width of male, 0.57 mm.

Type host and type locality: From Thryonomys gregor pusillus (U.S.N.M.

184180), taken at Majiya-Chumvi, British East Africa.

Type.—Cat. No. 23760, U.S.N.M.

Description based on a single male, but it is a perfect specimen.

Pterophthirus, gen. nov.

Antennae without lateral processes and essentially the same’in the two

sexes. Typically each abdominal segment of female provided dorsally with

three transverse rows of setae. Second sternal plate of abdomen not divided

medially into two large rounded plates. Second pair of pleural plates not

lobed, but enormous and wing-like and each bearing the small, spine-like

pleural setae near its dorsal margin.

Type of genus: Hoplopleura alata Ferris.

148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 8

This genus is established for the reception of the peculiar Octodont in-

festing species, Hoplopleura alata Ferris and H. audax Ferris. The great

modification of the second pair of pleural plates, not so much in size but in

type, is the outstanding feature in this genus. This modification has resulted

in the peculiar shifting of the position of the pleural setae so that they have

become dorso-marginal.

Eulinognathus americanus, sp. nov.

Forehead very short and cone-shaped; postantennal region of head as

broad as long. Antennae equal to the head in length; first segment broader

than long, second segment of about equal breadth and length. Thorax

about as broad as long; sternum without anterior process between first coxae

but with a posterior process which extends between the third coxae for a

part of its length. Abdomen much longer than broad. Typical pleural

plates with spiracular opening slightly in front of the middle, with two cusp-

like posterior lobes and short, stumpy, truncate pleural setae, scarcely half as

long as the pleural plates themselves. Abdominal setae curved near their

bases, flattened and parallel-sided beyond and truncate distally, each being

about as long as the abdominal segment on which it is situated. Gonopods

of female short and stumpy and with a few spinous setae. Second legs

intermediate between first and third. Claw of third leg neither toothed or

appendiculate. Length of female 0.95 mm.; width of female 0.39 mm.

Type host and type locality: From Ctenomys brasiliensis (Cat. No. 3252,

1939 U.S.N.M.) taken at Salade River, Paraguay.

Type.—Cat. No. 23761, U.S.N.M.

The genus to which this species belongs has been represented in the past

by only two species, one of which came from a host of the rodent family

Pedetidae and the other from the rodent family Dipodidae. The host of the

new species here described belongs to the rodent family Octodontidae. Only

a single female specimen taken.

Phthirpediculus, gen. nov.

Antennae long and distinctly five-segmented. Thorax and abdomen dis-

tinctly separated; segments two, three and four of abdomen distinct and

bearing its pair of spiracles in the normal lateral position; abdomen with

well developed pleural plates on segments three to eight and without lateral

lobes. Typical abdominal segments provided with a single transverse row

of setae both above and below. Genital armature of male with a basal

plate composed of two distally united, parallel rods; with large, more or less

blade-like parameres; and with conspicuous, heavily chitinized pseudopenis.

First pair of legs very small, the other two pairs much enlarged; all legs

attached to thorax in a ventro-lateral position.

Type of genus: Phthirpediculus propithect, new species.

This genus, represented only by the new species here described, is inter-

mediate between Pediculus Linnaeus and Phthirus Leach, having the long

abdomen with pleural plates as in Pediculus, but the small anterior legs of

Phthirus. .

APR. 19, 1923 EWING: NEW GENERA AND SPECIES OF SUCKING LICE ~— 149

Phthirpediculus propitheci, sp. nov.

Forehead provided with posteriorly directed, spine-like tubercles both

above and below; postantennal region of head with two small spine-like tuber-

cles behind the insertion of each antenna. Eyes with poorly developed cor-

neas, situated at the anterior angles of temples. Antennae longer than the

head; first segment with four small ventral tubercles; second segment with

one dorsal and two ventral tubercles; third segment with extended anterior

margin, which causes antenna to become geniculate, the bend being between

third and fourth segments; last segment with sensory pit on posterior

margin. Thorax broadest at its posterior margin, where it joins the abdo-

men. Each posterior angle of thorax with a conspicuous spine-like

tubercle. Typical pleural plates of abdomen bilobed and with the contained

stigmata near the front margin. Genital armature of male with a basal

plate composed of two parallel chitinous rods which are united distally;

with almost straight parameres, inwardly thickened, outwardly coming to a

knife-edge and posteriorly each ending in a small, blunt hook; pseudopenis

very large, consisting of a basal rod and a distally articulated chitinous

hook; true penis anterior to pseudopenis, being a bent, chitinous tube. An-

terior legs scarcely half as large as either of the others and each tibia with

three ventral spines; tibial thumbs of second and third pairs of legs, each

with a distal, stout spine. Length of female, 1.35 mm.; width of female,

0.52 mm. Length of male, 1.23 mm.; width of male 0.45 mm.

Type host and type locality: From a lemur, Propithecus edwardst, taken at

Ambodiasy, eastern Madagascar.

Type slide: Cat. No. 23762, U.S.N.M.

Specimens as follows: Two females and one male (on type slide) from

female skin (Cat. No. 63352, U.S.N.M.) of Propithecus edwards: taken at

Ambodiasy, eastern Madagascar and two males from male skin (Cat. No.

63354, U.S.N.M.) of same host, taken at same place.

Proechinophthirus, gen. nov.

Forehead very short, almost obliterated; temporal regions with prominent,

long, curved setae. Thorax longer than broad; sternum wanting. Abdomen

long and clothed with both long setae and short spines. Genital armature

of male with broad, unforked basal plate and slightly curved, freely pro-

jecting, unhooked parameres. First pair of legs greatly reduced, without

tibial thumb, and in no way adapted for clasping.

Type of genus: Echinophthirius fluctus Ferris.

The type and only included species in this genus was described from speci-

mens taken from an undetermined museum skin without data. In the

United States National Museum there are several specimens taken from the

fur seal (Callorhinus alascanus) at St. Paul Island, Alaska, by F. W. True

and D. W. Prentiss, June 3, 1895.

In the nonsimilarity of the legs and the presence of long setae over prac-

tically all the body we have two good characters for differentiating this genus

from Echinophthirius Giebel.

150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 8

MATHEMATICS.—A_ remarkable formula for prime numbers.

Patt R. Hey, Bureau of Standards.

n—1

The expression —is known to be integral for all odd prime

values of n and non-integral for all even values of n. Numerical test

shows that it is also non-integral for all odd composites up to n =1000

with the exception of 341 and 645. In other words, using this ex-

pression as a test for the prime or composite nature of a number, its

indication that the number is composite is sound; but its indication

that a number is prime is uncertain.

In order to handle the very large numbers to which such a use of

this formula gives rise, we make use of the principle that if the product

of several numbers A BC..... be divisible by n with a certain

remainder, the same remainder will be obtained if for any or all of

the quantities A, B, C .... we substitute a, b,c..... their

separate remainders when singly divided by n. For example:

17 x2

gives remainder 1 as does also ax x 2 being the remainder

of 17 divided by 3.

In general if

A=a-+nx

B=b+ny

C=C+nz ete,

then AB Cn aes Le ee i + terms containing n, and the

remainder of the whole expression after division by n will be the re-

mainder resulting from the first term abc.....

In the practical application of this formula one needs a calculating

machine and a table of powers of 2. Such a table has been constructed

by the author up to 21, and blue print copies of it will be furnished

to any one to whom it would be useful.

As an example:

n = 483 =3 X7 X23

482

Remainder of - a should equal 0 if 483 is prime, which is

482

ival ind =

equivalent to remainder 483 1

94st — (224) 20 x 22

1 Received January 14, 1923, Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Philosophical

Society.

APR. 19,1923 HEYL: REMARKABLE FORMULA FOR PRIME NUMBERS 151

Substituting for 2*4 its remainder when divided by 483, namely 211,

we obtain: .

211° x 4 = (2112) x 4

Taking remainder of 211? 85° x 4 = (852)5 x 4

4635 X 4 = 4634 x 463 x 4.

Remainder of 463? = 400 and of 463 «x 4 = 403

Hence we obtain 400? x 403

127 x 403 = 51181

the remainder of which is 466, not unity; hence 483 is composite.

Also, remainder of Bia Tint

483

the original formula, will in about 75 per cent of the cases examined

(1000 in number) contain a factor of the original number, which may

be found by the usual arithmetical process. For example:

= 465. This remainder, resulting from

465)483(1

465

18) 465 (25

105

15)18(1

3=H.C.F.

The time required for such an operation is, for large numbers, very

much less than that required for trying prime divisors up to vn.

For example, a number of the order 108 might require the trial of 1228

primes, which, at the rate of one division per minute, would take 20

hours. By the method of powers of 2 the reduction can be made in

one hour. }

This method lends itself admirably to checking, as the original

numerator can be expressed in several different ways, for example:

9482 — (224)20 4 92 = (216) 30 x 92 = (250) 9 4 932 etc.,

each leading, on reduction, to a different series of numbers, but all

ending in the same way.

152 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 8

BIOMETRICS.—Contribution to quantitative parasitology.: ALFRED

J. Lorxa.

An analytic study of the quantitative relations between a population

of host organisms and a parasite species preying upon such a popu-

lation has been made by W. R. Thompson.? The time unit employed

by this author is virtually a “generation’’; thus, for example, he

enquires how many generations must pass, after introduction of the

parasite, to practically exterminate the host species. There is some-

thing unsatisfactory in this, inasmuch as the delimitations of a genera-

tion are, in the nature of things, ill-defined. So, for example, if we

consider the progeny of a thousand human males born on January 1,

1900, the births of their sons will stretch over a continuous period

from about 1920 to 1950, the births of their grandsons from 1940 to

2000, their great-grandsons from 1960 to 2050, andso on. Ina mixed

population the limits of a generation are still more indefinite.

For this and other reasons it seems desirable to approach from

another angle the problem broached by W. R. Thompson. This

may be done as follows:

Let N, denote the number of “healthy” hosts, i.e., individuals not

attacked by the parasite, and let N, be the number of parasites in

the adult (free-living) state. The number N, of healthy hosts will be

augmented, per unit of time, by b,N, births; it will be diminished,

per unit of time, by two separate terms, namely first d,N, deaths

from other causes, and, second, by a,N,N, attacks by parasites.

We shall here consider the case in which attack is always fatal, so

that no recoveries occur; then we have

ae = b.N, — d,iNi — a.N,N, (1)8

where the coefficients b,, d:, a; are, in general, functions of N, and Nb».

The parasite considered by W. R. Thompson is one that deposits

a single egg in each host attacked. We may at once proceed to the

more general case, that k eggs are deposited in each larva attacked,

out of which h are actually hatched. In that case the number of

1 Papers from the Department of Biometry and Vital Statistics, School of Hygiene

and Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, No.83. (Received Jan. 30, 1923).

2 Comptes Rendus vol. 174,(1922) pp. 1201, 1433; vol. 175, p. 65.

§ (1) might of course be written in the perfectly general form

dN,

= N,, N:

dt e ( 1) 2)

But this would fail to bring out the fact that the first two terms must vanish with N;

and the third with N; and also with Ng.

APR. 19, 1923 LOTKA: CONTRIBUTION TO QUANTITATIVE PARASITOLOGY 153

births per unit of time in the parasite species will be, evidently,

ha,N,N2. If the deaths among parasites are d.N:, we have

dNa fs ha,N; Nz = d, N; (2)

Simplifying our notation we will write (1) and (2) in the form

“ = uX — vXY = X(u — vY) (3)

“ SS py ae oy xy (4)

where the coefficients u, v, U, V, are in general functions of X and Y.

A state of equilibrium (which may or may not be stable) ensues

when

X = west (5)

Vimiiry=d (6)

Introducing new variables

X—-—p X-p

xX = —_- = 7

V pv a ”)

Y-q. Y-4q |

= —__ = — = 8

y Vg B (8)

we find

dx a

Roly +2 xy ) (9)

dy _ ( B )

at ag aa xy (10)

In these equations a and £ are functions of x and y, since they contain

vand V. Wemay write

a et se mm at es Hi (11)

B=fot xt pyt. (12)

Substituting (11), (12), in (9), (10) we obtain

es — eaopy +(% + = 48) ny (248) ye. a (13)

dt B Bo

dy _ { (2 2 A (2: .) |

Se cio +(S +E eet Beet xy t.. , (14)

154 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 8

or; putting

Sf i — a 98 ob (15)

and fusing constants in obvious notation

a= -y+ Bxy+Cy?+ Ex’y+Fxy?+Gy?+...=M (16)

oy yee A’x? + B’xy + D’x? + E’x*y + F’xy?+...=N (17)

Consider now the function

e=x-+ty?+2(A'+B) = —2(B'+C) x +2[(A’+B)B+E+D'] =

+2[(B’+C)B'-G-¥) ¥ (18)

With the function thus defined let us form the expression

dg Oy dx ree dy M22 rey)

Bp sees DEO ye. we

ad). yexdT ss oy dT Ox i oy (19)

It is thus found that

we = 2(BC — AB! + E’ + F) xy? +8 (20)

-(— i =) xy? +S =Rxy?+S8 (21)

ala ©

where S contains only terms of 5th and higher degree. So long as

x, y, do not exceed a certain value, the term of fourth degree is the

one that determines the sign of “= In that case evidently,

<= 0 according as ig =o, 1.€, , ase (22)

Now consider the family of curves defined by

¢ = constant = K (23)

It is clear from (18) that in the immediate neighborhood of the origin

these are concentric circles of radius yK. More generally, near the

origin, they are closed curves enclosing the origin, and such that the

curve ¢ = K, completely encloses (without contact) the curve ¢ = K,,

if K,>K,

APR. 19, 1923 LOTKA: CONTRIBUTION

Consider the case

TO QUANTITATIVE

PARASITOLOGY 155

rm 0 (24)

i >0 (25)

At time T = 0 let

X = Xo (26)

Y ie

~ (XoYo) = Ko

Then at time T + dT ;

2G SO (27)

p are

% (&yY1) = eK Yo) +4, dT (28)

= K, (29)

ae. (30)

But the curve ¢ = K,is wholly enclosed within the curve ¢g = K..

Therefore the point x, y always moves from any given curve ¢

to a neighboring one g = K’ lying wholly outside the former.

having once left the area enclosed by ¢

It follows that when R > 0 the origin is a point of

again enter it.

Hence,

K, the point can never

unstable equilibrium. Similarly it is readily shown that if R < 0

the origin is a point of stable equilibrium, and the point x, y continually

approaches the origin.

(See Fig. 1.)

This approach, however, is asymptotic, the origin is never quite

reached within finite time.

simply, by (16), (17)

dT 3

xdx + ydy

x? + y?

r constant

r cos T

r sin T

For, when, x y are very small, we have

(31)

(32)

(33)

Thus in its final stages the process is nearly periodic, with a period

T, = 27, or tp = 2raBo, the rise and fall of the parasite popula-

156 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 8

tion, as measured by y, lagging by one quarter-period behind that of

the host population as measured by x.

More generally, if we write (16), (17) in the form

=e (34)

then the integral curves of (34), when x and y are plotted in rectangu-

lar codrdinates, are spirals‘ closing in toward the origin and becoming

Fig. 1. Illustration of the argument: The curves ¢g = K forma family, curves of lesser K

being wholly enclosed by those of greater K. When R < O then a < O, and the

integral curves are therefore traversed in inward direction (see arrows). The zones

between the curves ¢ = K thus form a trap, as it were, for the point x, y, permitting

only one-way traffic, toward the origin. This latter is therefore a point of stable

equilibrium.

more and more nearly circular as they do so; the process is no longer

strictly periodic for larger amplitudes, though it remains oscillatory.

It is interesting to compare this conclusion with Dr. L. O. Howard’s

d ‘ :

4For, according to (9), (10), + and 4 are always of opposite sign so long as

p q

1 Eo me

x Fi ov B

APR. 19, 1923 LOTKA: CONTRIBUTION TO QUANTITATIVE PARASITOLOGY 157

observation: “‘With all very injurious Lepidopterous larvae we con-

stantly see a great fluctuation in numbers, the parasite rapidly

increasing immediately after the increase of the host species, over-

taking it numerically, and reducing it to the bottom of another

ascending period of development.®

Fig. 2. Special case. Integral curves are spirals winding about the origin and about a

limiting cycle, after the pattern of the eye of a cyclone.

In the limiting case that R = 0 we must establish, in place of the

function y, a similar function ¢’

OS ey eee ee beaks Gir sat rey (35)

and the stability of the system at the origin of x, y then depends on the

first ¢; of even degree for which the condition

M4 NO = (36)

cannot be satisfied.®

5L.O. Howard. A Study in Insect Parasitism. U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Entomology, Technical Series No. 5, 1897, p. 48.

6 See Poincaré, Jl. de Mathématique 1885 ser. 4, vol. 1, p. 178; Picard, Traité

d’Analyse vol. 3, p. 217.

158 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 8

A special case arises when the condition (36) can be satisfied indefi-

nitely for all the polynomials ¢;, the function g’ being, in this case,

an infinite series. The integral curves of (34) are then no longer

spirals but a family of closed curves enveloping each other and

enclosing the origin. The oscillations of the system are in this case

undamped and continue indefinitely.’

There may also be another type of periodic oscillations, in which

the integral curves of (34) are spirals winding, not into the origin, but

asymptotically about a limiting cycle (Fig. 2). The process, in such

case, is not at first exactly periodic, but becomes more and more nearly

so as time goes on.

This case bears a certain analogy to conditions that sometimes

arise in cyclones and water spouts.’ In point of fact Fig. 2 is repro-

duced from Bjernke’s Dynamic Meteorology® and illustrates the so-

called eye of a cyclone. I presume that the sleeve of a waterspout is

a concrete and material visualisation of the limiting cycle in a vortex

of this type.

7 The purely periodic type of process was considered by the writer on a former occa-

sion (Proc. Nat’l. Acad. Vol. 6, 1920 p. 410; Jl. Am. Chem. Soc. Vol. 42, 1920 p. 1595.)

It may be remarked that the expression then given for the period of oscillation holds

true only near the origin. Thestatement that this period is independent of the amplitude

requires correction.

8’ Monthly Weather Review 1915 Vol. 43, p. 550.

* Carnegie Institution No. 88 Part 2, p. 52.

APR. 19, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 159

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

3518ST MEETING

The 351st meeting of the Society was held October 5, 1922, at the New

National Museum, with President Ganan in the chair and 36 persons

present. Mr. L. J. Borrimer was elected to membership.

E.G. Rernnart: The life history and habits of the solitary wasp, Philanthus

gibbosus. This paper was discussed by Messrs. Bripwett, Howarp,

RouweEr, and ALDRICH.

Dr. Baker opened a discussion on the use of the common names “grass-

hopper” and “locust,” in which Messrs. CaupELL, Watton, Howarp,

Hystop, AutpRicH, Batt, HEInRicH, Ronwer, BarBER, GAHAN, and Brip-

WELL took part. The consensus of opinion was that the name “grasshopper’’

rather than “locust”? should be used.

Wo. Scuaus exhibited 5 moths and 1 larva of Zelotypia stacyi Scott;

Phassus triangularis Hy. Edwards, a female with a specimen of the larva;

Phassus giganteus Hen. Schaeff.,a male and female. The larvae and pupae

of these insects move up and down through long galleries. Larvae of Phassus

triangularis live within the stems of a species of the ash family in Mexico,

and in many cases trees are honey-combed by their galleries. Larvae of

Zelotypia stacyz live in a similar manner in eucalyptus branches.

352D MEETING

The 352d meeting of the Society was held November 2, 1922, at the New

National Museum, with Dr. L. O. Howarp in the chair and 47 persons

present.

In the first address of the evening Prof. C. P. Lounssury, of the Union

of South Africa, gave an account of entomological work in South Africa.

The Imperial Bureau of Entomology with headquarters at London is

maintained by the cooperation of South Africa, Canada, New Zealand and

other British dependencies and is a clearing house for determinations and

entomological information for the British Colonies. Entomologists have

been appointed to various colonies north of South Africa but these have no

connection with the Union of South Africa. One function of the Entomo-

logical office of the Union is to enforce the various quarantine acts and for

this purpose an entomologist is stationed at each of the principal ports.

These men play the part of guardians against the importations of dangerous

insects or plant diseases. Another duty of the division is the general super-

vision of the insecticides and fungicides, a work similar to that done by the

U. 8. Department of Agriculture. The Division looks to Washington for

guidance and assistance and often models its rules, regulations, and policies

after the U. 8. Federal Bureau.

The paper was discussed by Messrs. ALpricH, ScHwarz, and Howarp.

Prof. Utrich DauucRen, professor of biology at Princeton University,

spoke on the luminosity of insects. He said that luciferene works similar

to the blood. He is looking especially for the species of fire flies which have

green lights along their sides and red lights in the head. He is also studying

the reversing of the light process. The light produced is over 994 per cent

pure and without heat.

160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 8

J. E. Grar exhibited specimens of the Mexican Bean Beetle. He stated

that these parasites would mate and produce under all conditions. A

binocular is necessary to detect the eggs as they cannot be detected with a

hand lens.

Joun C. Hamurn, who is employed by the Commonwealth of Australia

to investigate the insects which will destroy the cactus, stated that this plant

is a great pest in Australia. Experiments for utilizing cacti in making paper

pulp showed that it took too many cacti to produce a small quantity of pulp.

Therefore, the experiments failed commercially. The pulp was unsatis-

factory because it had to have wood fibre mixed with it.

Mr. Ham iin stated that he was engaged in rearing insects which are natural

enemies of the cacti to be used as a means of controlling the cacti. He also

stated that one generation was reared in this country and that two genera-

tions are reared in Australia before the insects are released to carry on the

part for which they were taken there. This precaution is undertaken in

order that no injurious parasites will be introduced that might become pests

on useful crops.

Dr. Aupricu reported that he had lately identified Muscina pascuorum

Meigen, a European species from New England. Mr. C. W. Jonnson of

the Boston Society of Natural History writes that the species has been found

in several New England localities within a few days of each other, indicating

that it has spread rapidly.

Dr. Howarp recalled the fact that he had presented at an earlier meeting

of the Society a somewhat lengthy review of the biographical accounts of

Fabre published after his death in 1915 by Bouvier and Ferton. He stated

that recently he had published in the Magazine Natural History (vol. xxii,

No. 4, July-August, 1922), an article entitled A pilgrimage to the home of Fabre,

in which he described his visit to ““Harmas” in the summer of 1920, and,

while summarizing Ferton’s criticisms of Fabre, tried nevertheless to give a

high appreciation of the value of Fabre’s work and quoted the estimate given

by Wheeler in his introduction to the book by Raus entitled Wasp studies

afield, in which Fabre is reckoned as one of the three greatest entomologists,

the others being Reaumur and Latreille. The speaker’s reason for making

this statement at the presént time is that in the current number of the Ameri-

can Review of Reviews a page is devoted to the article in Natural History,

under the title Fabre’s scientific shortcomings, and the review consists almost

entirely in bringing out the Ferton criticisms, ignoring the final estimate of

the enormous value of Fabre’s work. In this way the review conveys an

impression which is unfair to Fabre, unfair to the speaker, and unfair to the

publishers of the many editions of Fabre’s books.

SPECIAL MEETING

A special meeting was held on November 8, 1922, on the occasion of an

illustrated address on The respiration of insects by Dr. Auaust Krocu of

Denmark, with Dr. L. O. Howarp in the chair and 60 persons present.

Dr. Howarp stated that this was the first special meeting of the Society

since the meeting of February 28, 1894, at which Prof. E. B. Poutron, of

Oxford University, addressed the Society.

Dr. Aucusr Kroau said that the suggestion to study the respiration in

insects with a tracheal system came to him after listening to a paper on the

anatomy of a Carabid larva read in Copenhagen by Dr. A. G. Bovine more

than ten years ago. He learned about the forceful muscle complex

APR. 19, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 161

insects and their ability for considerable contraction of the body, and first

thought that Dr. Bovine was right in supposing that the expiration of the

air from the tracheae was brought about by a complete compression of this

entire system, following a simultaneous contraction of all the body muscles,

and that the inhalation followed when the elastic tracheal walls again ex-

panded as a result of relaxation of the muscles. Later he reconsidered

this idea and could hardly believe that the pressure of the muscles was strong

enough to affect the total compression of the whole system with all its fine

tracheal branches. Therefore he began to consider another way in which

the respiration could be performed. The only other possible alternative

would be respiration by a diffusion of the air through the fine branches of the

tracheal tubes. Before he started the research work he thought out as a

working base the following formula for respiration through diffusion: Res-

piration is equal to a constant representing the amount of oxygen which in

a chosen unit of time, for instance one second, multiplied by a fraction, the

numerator of which is the difference in pressure of the oxygen in the atmos-

phere and at the bottom of the air tubes multiplied by the total transverse

area of the tracheal tubes, the denominator of which is expressed by the length

of the air tubes of the whole tracheal system. In insect larvae, for instance

in a Cossus larva, the amount of oxygen absorbed in a certain unit of time

can be measured by respiration experiments, and to determine the average

lengths and the total of width of the tracheal system the author had filled

the tracheal system of a Cossus larva with a solution of stained fat and then

separated the complete tracheal system by dissolving all the tissues with

Pepsin-muriatic acid. The result of this preparation of the tracheal system

was shown on the screen. By measuring length and total width of the tra-

cheal system of different larvae and knowing the amount of oxygen diffused,

he found that a difference of about 2 per cent in the oxygen outside and inside

was all that was necessary for the sufficient supply of oxygen through a proc-

ess of diffusion. This result was substantiated by direct measurements of

the diffusion of the air in the tracheae of Cossus. By experiments he could

also prove that special respiration movements were not ‘present and also

that even a forceful contraction of the entire musculature of the body wall

would only result in a slight and unimportant expiration of air. The results

acquired were generalized to apply to most larvae and probably all pupae,

to almost all very small insects, and to all Arachnids and Myriopods.

The most difficult problem is to supply air in the long slender organs, like

the legs of many Arachnids. It has been shown by Dr. H. F. HANssEn, in

Copenhagen, that there are extra spiracles on the tibiae of long legged

Opiliones. In the larger adult insects the length of the tracheal tubes is

often considerable, and respiration through diffusion alone would not suffice.

In these forms an additional mechanical ventilation takes the place of the

larger main tracheal tubes and the air sacks.

The ventilation-tubes differ from the diffusion tubes in being easily com-

pressed; often their cross section is narrowly elliptical. Similar ventilation-

tracheae and a mechanical respiration are present in the water beetle larvae

with the single pair of spiracles at the end of the abdomen. In connection

with investigations of the large Dytiscus larvae, Dr. Krogu had measured

the normal amount of exhaled air, the maximal amount of exhaled air by

voluntary respiration, the greatest possible amount of exhaled air, or the vital

capacity, and the total area of the tracheal system at the time when the larva

was in its normal inhalation or resting position., In a larva weighing 1.7

grams he found that the total area of the system amounted to 107 mm.°*

162 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 8

Out of these 86mm.’ were present in ventilation tracheae and could be expelled

by a difference of 1 atmosphere, while the diffusion tracheae were very slightly

affected by the same pressure. The normal renewal of the air in the venti-

lation tracheae amounted to 55 mm.'*, and by deep respiration 68. Hence

the ventilation of the tracheae built for that purpose was very complete, and

as the speaker had pointed out, was necessary for an effective respiration.

In conclusion Dr. Kroau pointed out the biological connection between

the small size of insects and the tracheal form of respiration. By an increase

in the size of the animal the difficulties of supplying the air through diffusion

from tracheae increase considerably without an effective system of blood

circulation. Hence the size of insects is limited by their peculiar respiratory

system which is only adapted to animals of small size.

The above lecture was well illustrated by lantern slides and summarizes

the material included in the following four papers by Dr. Kroau:

1. ‘‘On the composition of the air in the tracheal system of some insects.’’ Skand.

Arch. Physiol., vol. 29, 1913.

2. ‘‘Uber gas diffusion in den Tracheen.”’ Pfliiger’s archiv. fiir Physiologie, vol. 179

1920, pp. 95-112.

3. ‘Die Kombination von mechanischer Ventilation mit gasdiffusion nach Versuchen

an Dytiscuslarven.’’ Pfliiger’s archiv. fiir Physiologie, vol. 179, 1920, pp. 113-120.

4. ‘Injection preparation of the tracheal system of insects.’’ Videnskabelige

Meddelelser Dansk naturhistorisk Forening, vol. 68, 1917.

353D MEETING

The 353d meeting of the Society was held December 7, 1922, at the New

National Museum, with President GAHAN in the chair and 36 persons present.

The following officers were elected for 1923: President, Dr. L. O. Howarp;

First Vice-President, Dr. A. G. Bovina; Second Vice-President, R. A. CusH-

MAN; Editor, Dr. A. C. Baxrr; Recording Secretary, Mr. C. T. GREENE;

Corresponding Secretary-Treasurer, Mr. 8. A. Rohwer. Executive Com-

mittee, A. N. Caupruu, Dr. A. L. Quarntance, Dr. J. M. Aupricu. Nomi-

nated to represent the Society as Vice-President of the Washington Academy

of Science, Mr. 8. A. Ronwer.

Program:

Dr. A. G. Bovine: The biology of the Blister-beetles. Much knowledge is

still lacking of the life history and structural details of many of the Blister-

beetles, this being especially true about our American ones. Out of 31

North American genera we have complete biological records of only one,

namely Epicauta described by Riley, and partial records of two, Hornia and

Macrobasis; but the life histories are unknown of the remaining 29 genera,

among which are forms as Megetra and Hupompha whose imagines show the

most extraordinary features.

The different stages of the metamorphosis of the Blister-beetles were given

as the egg-stages, the six larval stages, the pupal and imaginal stages. The

shape and size of the eggs, their number, the way in which they are deposited

was explained in detail.

The diet of the larvae was the next topic and a review was given of the

results obtained by several authors who have studied this question; particular

attention was paid to Dr. A. Cros’ papers. The first instars vary greatly

in shape according to the nature of their food and especially according to the

ways in which they reach their food supply. Thus the first instars of the

Zonabrini, Epicautini and Lyttini feed either on young Mantes, gathered

APR. 19, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 163

together in the nests of the Tachys, or an egg-pods of grasshoppers, or on the

honey, eggs and larvae of solitary bees; they search directly for their food,

and keep to the ground and avoid direct sunlight, and in all of these genera

the first instars look like small Staphylinid larvae. In the tribe Meloini

and the entire subfamily Nemognathinae the first instars are mellivorous and

reach the nest of their host-bee by grasping and clinging to its hair, when

. they come in contact with it; they are active in broad daylight and are very

specialized in shape. The peculiar adaptation shown in the excavation of

nasals and the form and articulation of the mandibles were mentioned, as

well as the remarkable breathing structures on the eighth abdominal segment

of all the Nemognathinae. The second to sixth instars of the different groups

were characterized; a special emphasis was laid on the different-behavior of

the errant and the sedentary fourth instars, and the different ways were

mentioned in which the cast skins of the fourth, fifth and sixth instars were

manipulated and made use of by the insects.

The terms ‘‘caraboid,’’ “scaraboid” and ‘“‘scolytoid’”’ larvae were explained

and their history given; the terms, however, were not considered applicable to

the stages of the Blister-beetles in general.

The theory of Fabre and other authors concerning a hypermetamorphic

development was presented and the objections to this theory and term by

Riley and many modern entomologists were reviewed. In this connection

an account was given of many cases of abnormal individual evolution in

Blister-beetles. Several adaptations occurring in the pupae were mentioned.

As to the exceedingly interesting biology of the adults the speaker referred

to the works of Fabre, Beauregard and Cros, in which this subject was treated

with great clearness and many details were described.

Cuas. T. GREENE, Recording Secretary.

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

337TH MEETING

The 337th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club Thursday evening,

January 11, 1923. The retiring President, Dr. R. C. We.us, spoke on

Chemistry of the sea, illustrating his talk with lantern slides.

Doctor WELLs referred to recent progress in methods of sounding which

yield data for calculating the volume and physical constants of the ocean.

Its chemical composition has been widely studied and some thirty-two ele-

ments have been detected in sea-water. The salinity is maintained at definite

values in certain regions owing to the interplay of such forces as currents,

evaporation, density, temperature, etc. To illustrate some of these relation-

ships data on the water of Chesapeake Bay were presented in some detail.

This investigation is being carried on jointly by the Geological Survey and

the Bureau of Fisheries. The salinity of the Bay varies from about 6 in the

latitude of Baltimore to 27 at the Capes, also generally increasing with

depth.

The speaker discussed among other things the origin of oceanic salts, the

“age of the ocean,” and the salts that are successively deposited on evaporating

sea-water.

The gases in sea-water are of particular interest in connection with living

things in the sea. Some of these gases show diurnal variation in concentra-

tion, following the daily photochemical reactions in plants near the surface

and along shores. A variation in pH value follows one in carbon dioxide

content, etc. The carbon dioxide content is also fundamental in determining

164 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 8

the solubility of calcium carbonate, which is an important constituent of

rocks. Organisms vary specifically in the secretion and removal of certain

elements from sea-water, temperature also playing a part. The speaker

briefly sketched the réle of certain organisms in removing certain elements,

and alluded to the great variety of specific and selective reactions accomplished

by the different organisms.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

JoHN Otiver LA Gorcer, associate editor of the National Geographic

Magazine and trustee of the National Geographic Soriety, has been elected a

vice-president of the Society.

Mr. La Gorce has been associated with the National Geographic Society

since 1905.

N. H. Darron has returned to his office in the U.S. Geological Survey

after an absence of nearly two years completing the field work on the geologic

map of Arizona. The University of Arizona recently conferred on Mr.

Darton the honorary degree of Doctor of Science in ‘recognition of his

investigations on the geology of the Southwest.”’

Two additional societies have been elected to affiliation with the AcADEMy.

They are the Washington Section of the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers, and the Helminthological Society of Washington.

The President recently signed a proclamation making a National Monu-

ment of three groups of towers in southwestern Colorado and southeastern

Utah. This reservation was originally suggested by Dr. J. WaLrer Fewxss,

Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, and the preliminary work has

been done by the Bureau of Ethnology in coéperation with the National

Park Service of the Department of the Interior. The monument is called

The Hovenweep National Monument, the name being derived from the Ute

word meaning “‘the deserted valley” and having been applied to a neighbor-

ing canyon many years ago.

The report of the Treasurer of Yale University includes the statement that

a gift of securities having an appraised value of $25,475 has been received

from Mrs. Estretue Ippines CiLEevEeLANp, being the entire estate of her

brother, the late Professor JosepH Paxson IppriNnas, formerly of Washington,

for the establishment of the ‘‘Iddings Fund” for the promotion of research in

petrology.

The Department of Geology, U. 8. National Museum, has received as a

gift from Dr. FRANK SprinGeR the paleontological collections of the late

Orestes H. Sr. Joun. The collection contains a large and extremely

valuable series of Selachian fishes including many type specimens, the most

notable of these being a specimen from the Coal Measures of Kansas, con

taining the complete dentition of a large shark of paleozoic time.

The Petrologists’ Club met on Tuesday, March 20. The subject for the

evening was Pegmatites, discussed by Messrs. I’. L. Huss, W.'T. ScHALLER,

and E. V. SHaANNoN. Various authors have ascribed different connotations

to the term pegmatite, but in general it refers to texture rather than composi-

APR. 19, 1923 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 165

tion. The mineral associations were dealt with in detail, especially cryo-

lite, monazite, and their connection with pegmatite.

The Grass Herbarium, U. S. National Museum, has recently received

several important collections from South American countries, including

Peru, Argentina, and Brazil.

Mr. Epmunp F. Dicxins, hydrographic and geodetic engineer in the U.S.

Coast and Geodetic Survey since 1869, died at San Francisco, California,

March 2, 1923, in the seventy-seventh year of his age, after a service of 51

years. He had been retired from active duty since 1920. He was director

of coast surveys in the Philippine Islands from 1908 to 1911, and had held

many other important assignments.

At the annual meeting of the Eye-Sight Conservation Council held in

New York City in February, Dr. Morton G. Luoyp of the Bureau of Stand-

ards was elected a director.

Senator Henry Casor Lopce has been reappointed as a Regent of the

Smithsonian Institution for six years, beginning March 4, 1923.

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Vou. 13 May 4, 1923 No. 9

BOTANY.—The identification of Raddi’s Grasses.1 AGNes CHAsnE,

U.S. Department of Agriculture.

One of the earliest works treating of the grasses of America is

the Agrostografia Brasiliensis sive Enumeratio Plantarum ad familias

naturales Graminum et ciperoidarum spectantium, quas in Brasilia

collegit et descripsit [by] Josephus Raddius, published at Lucca, Italy,

in 1823. This little book of 58 pages and one plate is exceedingly

rare. In it are described 26 species of Cyperaceae (sedges) and 65

species of Poaceae (grasses). Of the latter five genera and 35 species

are proposed as new. A few of these had been described earlier by

Bertoloni in a paper in Opusculi scientifici . . di Bologna in 1819.

Raddi’s work and the specimens on which it is based are of great

nomenclatorial importance to agrostology.

Giuseppe Raddi was born in Florence, Italy, February 9, 1770.

In 1817, when the Austrian emperor seized the opportunity to send a

scientific expedition to Brazil with the escort of the Archduchess

Leopoldine on her voyage to Brazil to marry the heir apparent to the

Brazilian throne, the Grand Duke of Tuscany sent Raddi to join the

expedition. Raddispent two years in Brazil in the vicinity of Rio de

Janeiro. Presumably his work was chiefly that of securing seeds and

living plants for the botanic gardens of Tuscany. He published

three books based on his work in Brazil, Synopsis Filicum brasilien-

sium, 1819 (19 pages and 2 plates); Agrostografia brasiliensis, 1823;

and Plantarum brasiliensium nova genera et species novae vel minus

cognitae. Pars. I. Filices, 1825 (101 pages and 84 plates). Part I is

the only one of the projected work ever published.

Raddi was later sent to Egypt and died at Rhodes on his return

in 1829.

1 Received March 9, 1923.

167

168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 9

A set of Raddi’s Brazilian grasses appears to have been given to

the Museum at Florence but his own set is preserved in the University

in Pisa.

In May, 1922, I visited the Museo e Laboratorio di .Botanica,

Florence, and the Instituto ed Orto Botanico della R. Universita in

Pisa, for the purpose of studying these grasses. I took photographs

of all Raddi’s own species which I found in Pisa. Six I was not able

to find. In the Pisa herbarium (and in Florence also) the visitor does

not search the herbarium himself, he asks for the genera wanted and

the packages are brought by an attendant. The Raddi grasses are

distributed in the herbarium and it is possible that the missing speci-

mens were distributed in genera I failed to guess.

The Raddi grasses in Pisa are unusually ample and well-prepared.

They are mounted on the third page of a folder of rather heavy paper.

The name is written on the outside of the folder (which could not be

made to show in the photograph), and in most of the specimens there

is a ticket bearing the name, usually in Raddi’s hand, on the page

with the specimen. There are no data on the tickets or on the folder,

except that on the tickets that are not in Raddi’s hand is written

“Brasile.”’

In the Florence Herbarium I found several specimens of Paspalum

with data on the labels. Among some undetermined grasses that

Dr. Pampanini asked me to name were sixteen specimens without

names or data other than “In Brasilia legit Cl. Raddi.’’ Later I

found a few Raddi specimens in the Delessert Herbarium and in the

herbarium of the British Museum.

The following list is based on the Pisa specimens, those in the other

herbaria are referred to only when they add some information, or

when they differ from the Pisa specimens.

The species (beginning with the sedges) are numbered consecutively

throughout the book. These numbers are used in the following list.

Except in a few cases, only Raddi’s own species are given.

ANNOTATED LIST OF RADDI’S SPECIES

RETTBERGIA, a new genus including one species

27. RETTBERGIA BAMBUSIOIDES. pl. 1.f.1. ‘Circa verticem Mon-

tis Corcovado.”’ The specimen is a single leafy branch with a small

rather dense panicle. This is Chusquea bambustoides (Raddi) Hack.

Hackel? refers C. gaudichaudii Kunth to this species. Kunth’s plate

2 Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Math. Naturw. (Wien) 79: 81. 1908.

MAY 4, 1923 CHASE: IDENTIFICATION OF RADDI’S GRASSES 169

and description agree well with the photograph and notes taken of

Raddi’s specimen.

29. OLYRA PUBESCENS. “In montosis ubique in Provincia Rio

Janeiro.” ‘There are two specimens of this, each consisting of a leafy

branch with a panicle. The sheaths and blades are puberulent; other-

wise the specimens are like O. latifolia L. Doell reduces it to a variety

of that species, O. latifolia var. pubescens (Raddi) Doell. It is scarcely

worthy of varietal rank. A specimen of typical O. latifolia L. is

labeled “Olyra pubescens var.” in Raddi’s script. This is evidently

the form referred to as having glabrous blades and sheaths. Nees?

cites this as ‘‘Olyra pubescens var. glabra Raddi . . . . ” under

Olyra scabra Nees as a doubtful synonym.

In the Delessert Herbarium a specimen labeled “Olyra pubescens

Raddi. Bresil: Raddi,’’ but not in Raddi’s script, is the same as ©

O. ciliatifolia Raddi (no. 31).

30. OLYRA GLABERRIMA. ‘‘In Monte . . . . Corcovado.”

The specimen consists of the summit of a culm with three leaves and an

immature panicle. The blades are very large, the largest being

26.5 em. long and 5.6 em. wide, short-petioled and with the base very

unsymmetrical. The immature fertile lemma is densely bearded at

the base and slightly at the summit with short thick hairs. Olyra

semiovata Trin.,t “Brasil. (Langsdorff),”’ belongs to this species.

Trinius’s description applies well to Raddi’s specimen, and a fragment

from the Trinius Herbarium deposited in the United States National

Herbarium shows an immature pistillate spikelet that agrees perfectly

with that observed in the Raddi specimen. Raddi’s description,

“Corolla laevigata, straminea, coriaceo-indurata”’ is misleading.

The lemma and palea are yellow (being very immature, as is the im-

mature one from Trinius’s specimen), but the dense pubescence at

_ the base is to be seen by lifting up the sterile lemma. This character-

istic fruit is well shown in Trinius’s drawing of O. semiovata.* This

species is well represented by Jardim Botanico do Rio de Janeiro

no. 402 (without data other than Brazil) and Ule 979, “Pr. St. Cath-

arina, Brazil.”

31. OLyRA cILIATIFoLIA. “In saltibus montosis, et sepibus prope

Rio-Janeiro, nec non in Montibus estrell.”” The spec*men consists of

two culms with immature panicles. The fruit shows the loose pubes-

cence characteristic of the species as represented by Hitchcock 10138,

3 Agrost. Bras. 307. 1829.

4Gram. Pan. 249. 1826.

5 Trin. Gram. Icon. 3: 347. 1836.

170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 9

Trinidad; Lindman A 2597, and Glaziou 14397, Brazil; Hassler 12444,

13021, and Rojas 3071, Paraguay; and Ekman 675, Argentina. The

blades of the Raddi specimen are shorter in proportion to their width

than common, as in Hassler 13021. In Grasses of the West Indies®

the key is misleading in that the fruit of Olyra ciliatifolia is said to be

“clothed with thick silky hairs at base and summit.’ The fruit is

loosely pubescent throughout.

32. OLYRA FLORIBUNDA. “Ad radicem Montis Corcovado.” The

specimen consists of a tuft of five flowering culms and two sterile ones.

Raddi cites ““Raddia brasiliensis. Bert. Opuse. Scientif. di Bologna

1819. T. III p. 40.” Bertoloni’s detailed description agrees in every

way with Raddi’s specimen and was undoubtedly drawn up from a

duplicate. (There seems to have been abundant material of this collec-

tion; there were two full sheets of it among the unidentified grasses in

the herbarium at Florence, as well as a specimen in the Delessert

Herbarium.) The distinguishing generic characters given are the

distinct staminate and pistillate inflorescences. Bertoloni states that

the generic name is given as a just tribute to Raddi and that the

specific name commemorates his courageous voyage to Brazil. But

Raddi declines the honor conferred on him and renames the species

Olyra floribunda. He describes the distinct staminate and pistillate

inflorescences but states that the style and stigmas are as in the three

preceding species, and that they agree with the generic characters

assigned by Swartz to Olyra. We recognize Raddia as a distinct

genus, and this species as R. brasiliensis Bertol. The valid name

under Olyra is O. brasiliensis (Bertol.) Spreng. I have seen no other

collection which agrees exactly with the Raddi specimens. Glaziou

4336 and 12265, Brazil, probably belong to this species, but the blades

are more than twice as large and the pistillate spikelets are larger and

have a longer acuminate tip, but the spikelets are clothed, as in the

Raddi specimens, with a dense short retrorse pubescence, with a few

long stiff hairs intermixed.

33. PHARUS BRASILIENSIS. “Prope Rio-Janeiro.’”’ The specimen

is a complete plant with a very immature panicle. The name on the

folio is not “brasiliensis” but one that was not published. The plant

agrees with Raddi’s description, and as but one species of Pharus is

given there can be no doubt that this is the type of P. brasiliensis.

It agrees with rather narrow-leaved specimens of Pharus glaber

H. B. K., such as Blanchet 1018, Mosén 1778, and Dusén 91, from

* Hitchcock & Chase, Contr. U. 8S. Nat. Herb. 18: 357. 1917.

MAY 4, 1923 CHASE: IDENTIFICATION OF RADDI’S GRASSES 171

Brazil. The last, from Rio Janeiro, has a very immature panicle and

is an excellent match for Raddi’s specimen.

34, SPARTINA BRASILIENSIS. “In inundatis prope Rio-Janeiro.”

There are two sheets of this, consisting of the upper part of a thick

culm with inflorescence exceeded by the blades. The specimen is

well represented by Doell’s plate’ except that the Raddi spikelets have

a few hairs, as in Glaziou 22412, Brazil.

36. PASPALUS OBTUSIFOLIUS. “In herbosis et humidiusculis locis

prope Rio-Janeiro.” The specimen consists of four plants of one

flowering culm each, the two racemes not conjugate. No stolons are

present but the base of one suggests a stoloniferous habit. This

species belongs to the genus Axonopus, which differs from Paspalum

in the reversed position of the spikelets,? Axonopus obtusifolius

(Raddi) Chase. Doell® refers this species to Paspalum furcatum

Fliigge (Axonopus furcatus (Fliigge) Hitche.), but it is very different

from that species, especially in the inflorescence. In that the racemes

are conjugate and the spikelets glabrous while in Axonopus obtusifolius

one raceme is from 0.5 to 2 em. below the other, and the spikelets

are silky-villous at the base and with a narrow stripe of silky pubes-

cence on the marginal internerves. Ule 975, from Brazil, agrees

perfectly with Raddi’s specimen and shows, besides, a leafy stolon.

39. PASPALUS ACUMINATUS. No locality is cited. The specimen

consists of two leafy culms lacking the base, each with three racemes.

This belongs to section Ceresia of Paspalum with broadly winged

rachis, together with P. dissectum L., P. serratum Hitche. & Chase,

and P. repens Berg. It is the species given as P. acuminatum Raddi

in Hitchcock’s Mexican Grasses!’ and is well represented by Brother

Arséne 3132, Mexico, and Hassler 10784, 11930 and 12471 from

Paraguay.

40. PASPALUS LONGIFLORUS P. Beauv. Fl. de Ow. II 46. t. 85?—an

Sp. nova. No locality is given. While Raddi does not here name a

new species, “Paspalum longiflorum Raddi” has been given in syn-

onymy by Doell and others. The specimen in the Pisa Herbarium

consists of two culms of Paspalum vaginatum Swartz, both exceptional

in the number of racemes, one having three, the other five. The

specimen in the Florence Herbarium is P. distichum L.

41. Paspauus Fisstrouius. “Cum Paspalo obtusifolio.” (See

above.) There are five plants on the sheet, one of two flowering culms

7 Fl. Mart. Bras. 23: pl. 23. f. 2. 1878.

8 See Chase, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 24: 129, 1911.

9 Fl. Mart. Bras. 22: 103. 1877.

10 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 17: 230. 1913.

172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 9

joined by a long stolon, three single flowering plants of the same, and a

sterile tuft that is probably Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walt.) Kuntze.

The flowering plants agree with the description. The apex of several

of the blades is split. This splitting of the blades is not uncommon in

Axonopus, the genus to which this species belongs. This species,

Axonopus fissifolius (Raddi) Chase, is allied to A. compressus (Swartz)

Beauv. It is much smaller than that, with narrower blades, 3 to 4

racemes, and smaller spikelets with longer less delicate pubescence.

The Pisa specimens and those seen in Florence and Delessert are about

12 em. tall, or less; the one in the British Museum has a culm 18 em.

tall. I have seen no other collection of this species.

42. Paspatus curvistacuyus. “In sylvestribus non procul ab

urbe Rio Janeiro.”” There are two sheets of this, one with a ticket

with the name in Raddi’s seript and two plants, the other with three

plants. Both sheets contain two species, one, the left-hand plant on

the first sheet and the left and middle plants on the second sheet, is

the same as Paspalum nutans Lam., the type of which was examined

in the Paris Herbarium. The description was evidently drawn up

from both species, but two characters given, “glumis calycinis corolla

brevioribus” (glume and sterile lemma shorter than the fruit), and

“nodes rooting” apply to the specimens of P. nutans and not to the

right-hand plant on each sheet. The left-hand plant of the second

sheet, being the best specimen, is selected as the type. This specimen

has four racemes in the terminal inflorescence and one on each of two

branches. It is well matched by Hitchcock 10301, Trinidad, with

three racemes in the terminal inflorescence.

The right-hand specimens on each sheet are over-mature single

plants of Paspalum arenarium Schrad.

In the Delessert Herbarium a specimen of this collection ‘“E Brasilia,

Raddi” bears a name that was not published. It agrees with the type.

The specimen in the Florence Herbarium is P. arenarium. Doell"

refers Paspalum curvistachyum Raddi to Panicum decumbens Roem.

& Schult. (Paspalum decumbens Swartz). That is an allied species

with smaller spikelets in which the first glume is developed.

43. PASPALUS CORCOVADENSIS. ‘‘Monte Corcovado.” The speci-

men consists of one entire plant and a second lacking the base. These

agree perfectly with the description. They are well matched by

Gardner 138, and Mosén 3512, from Brazil. Trinius” figures a

different species with shorter broader blades and more numerous and

11 Mart. Fl. Bras. 2?: 183. 1877.

12 Gram. Icon. 2: 153. 1829.

MAY 4, 1923 CHASE: IDENTIFICATION OF RADDI’S GRASSES 173

denser racemes under the name P. corcovadense Raddi. Doell

reduces P. corcovadense Raddi to a variety of P. larum Lam., changing

the name to P. latum 6 Raddianum Doell. The type specimen of

Paspalum laxum Lam., examined in the Paris Herbarium, however,

proves to be a very different species, closely allied to P. glabrum Poir.

I should take Paspalum corcovadense for the valid name of this

species, through the description of Paspalum lanceolatum Mikan"

is evidently drawn up in part from a specimen of this species. Dr.

A. §. Hitchcock, who examined the Trinius Herbarium in 1907,

found the specimen collected by Mikan in Brazil and bearing the

name ‘‘Paspalum lanceolatum”’ to consist of two species, one of which

is the same as Raddi’s species, but the other a species not closely

related. ‘Trinius’s description of the vegetative part applies much

better to the latter, as does also the number of the racemes (“12-15”),

but the description of the spikelets applies to P. corcovadense and

not to the acute spikelets of the plant otherwise described. Neither

of the specimens belongs to the species figured in the Icones as P.

corcovadense (which Doell® names P. densiflorwm Doell). Trinius

later'® reduces P. lanceolatum Mikan (described by himself in 1821)

to P. corcovadense Raddi (1823), and cites his own plate also. The

description is adjusted to cover the three species. For the type of

P. lanceolatum Mikan; Trin., I select the plant with the acute spike-

lets, leaving P. corcovadense Raddi the valid name for the species

represented by Gardner 138 and Mosén 3512, from Brazil.

44, PASPALUS INAEGUIVALVIS. “In sylvestribus prope Mata-

Cavallos, non procul ab urbe Rio de Janeiro.”” The specimen consists

of two plants, one lacking the base. This belongs to the species

figured under this name by Kunth,!’ and is well represented by

Hassler 12401 and Rojas 96 from Paraguay, and Ekman 569, from

Misiones, Argentina.

The specimen in the Delessert Herbarium bears a name that was

not published.

45. PASPALUS COMPRESSICAULIS. “In graminosis prope Rio-In-

humirim.” The specimen consists of a complete plant of the common

Paspalum paniculatum L. )

48. Piptatherum annulatum. “An var Piptatherii punctati P. B.?

ad Fossas udas prope Rio-Janeiro.”” On the specimen is

18 Mart. Fl. Bras. 27: 85. 1877.

144 Trin. in Spreng. Neu. Entd. 2: 48. 1821.

15 Mart. Fl. Bras. 2?: 51. 1877.

16 Mem. Acad. St. Petersb. VI. Sci. Nat. 1: 155. 1834.

17 Rév. Gram. 2: pl. 207. 1829.

174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 9

written “Pipt. punctatum P de Beauv. Roem. et Schult. II 328?”

The specimen belongs to Eriochloa punctata (L.) Desv.

ACICARPA, a new genus with a single species.

49. ACICARPA SACCHARIFLORA, pl. 1. f. 4. No locality is given.

Milium hirsutum Beauv. pl. 5, f. 5., and Sloane Hist. Jam. 1: 43. pl.

14, f. 2. are cited. The specimen consists of two panicles and four

leafy shoots of Valota insularis (.) Chase. The Beauvois and Sloane

figures cited also represent this species.

AGROSTICULA, a new genus with a single species.

51. AGRosTICcULA MURALIS. pl.1.f.2. “In veteribus muris prope

Rio-Janeiro.”’ The specimen consists of a tuft with mature panicles

half the length of the entire plant. The species belongs in Sporobolus,

S. muralis (Raddi) Hitche. & Chase, as described in the Grasses of the

West Indies.78

59. AIRA BRASILIENSIS. ‘In veteribus muris prope Rio Janeiro.”

No specimen of this could be found. The description agrees in every

way with the plants referred by Hackel!® to Sporobolus brasiliensis

(Raddi) Hackel, based on Aira brasiliensis Raddi. Other specimens

representing this species are Sellow, Brazil, the type collection of Era-

grostis atroides Nees, and Hassler 11560, Paraguay. This species is

peculiar in having a second floret in about half the spikelets of most

of the specimens. Because of these 2-flowered spikelets it has been

placed in Eragrostis, but the lemmas are 1-nerved, not 3-nerved as in

Eragrostis.

ARUNDINELLA, a new genus with a single species.

60. ARUNDINELLA BRASILIENSIS. pl. 1. f. 3. “In collibus apricis

prope Rio Janeiro.”” No specimen of this could be found. Raddi’s

figure of the spikelet indicates unmistakably the genus recognized

under this name. The description points to the common species of

Brazil, A. hispida (Willd.) Kuntze (Andropogon hispidus Willd. 1805),

to which it has been generally referred.

NAVICULARIA, a new genus including three species, the third of which,

N. lanata, being figured, is taken as the type. The three species

belong in Jchnanthus Beauv. (1812).

Raddi says the genus is distinguished by the peculiar and constant

structure of the spikelet, which has three valves of the corolla as well

as three of the calyx. The three valves of the corolla are the fertile

lemma, its well-developed wings (characteristic of the genus Jchnan-

thus) and the palea; the three valves of the calyx, the two glumes and

the sterile lemma.

18 Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 18: 368. 1917.

19 Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 4%: 278. 1904.

MAY 4, 1923 CHASE: IDENTIFICATION OF RADDI’S GRASSES 175

61. NAvICULARIA HIRTA. “In saltibus montosis prope Rio-

Janeiro.”” (The locality of this is given with that of N. glabra.) The

specimen could not be found in Pisa but in the British Museum is a

specimen bearing the name in Raddi’s script. The plant agrees with

Raddi’s description and also with that of Panicum loliaceuwm Bertol.,?°

(not Lamarck, 1791) which Raddi cites, having pilose glumes and well-

developed wings on the lemma, pubescent sheaths, and blades

puberulent beneath. Bertoloni refers to the wings of the lemma as

nectaries. This species was referred by Nees?! to Panicum cand-

icans Nees, but in that the appendages of the fertile lemma are reduced

to scars.

Doell2 reduces Navicularia hirta to “Ichnanthus planotis Trin.”

making it var. 6 pilosus Doell. Doell gives Trinius as the author of

I. planotis, but Trinius® published it as Panicum planotis.

Trinius’s description (including three varieties) seems to include

more than one species. A specimen in the Trinius Herbarium named

‘Panicum planotis m. var 6” by Trinius and labeled “Rio Janeiro 86”

is like the Raddi specimen. ‘Trinius’s brief description of 6 agrees

with this plant. A specimen named “Panicum planotis m. var. a,”

“Rio Janeiro 269” is a species of Panicum. This agrees with

“Append. nullis” given in the diagnosis of var. a. Raddi’s specific

name is the earliest tenable one of this species: Ichnanthus hirtus

(Raddi) Chase.

Schultes** changes Panicum loliacewm Bertoloni, not Lamarck, to

Panicum Bertolonianum Schult.

Except the two specimens mentioned I have seen none which belong

to this species.

62. NAVICULARIA GLABRA. ‘‘In saltibus montosis prope Rio-

Janeiro.”’ No specimen of this could be found. Hitchcock inter-

prets Raddi’s description and publishes the name Ichnanthus glaber

(Raddi) Hitche. The specimen cited by Hitchcock, Rose 20181,

“on Corcovado, Rio de Janeiro,” agrees perfectly with Raddi’s

description.

63. NAVICULARIA LANATA. pl. 1. f. 5. “In herbidis prope Rio-

Inhumirim.”’ The specimen is an immature plant of Ichnanthus

leiocarpus (Spreng.) Kunth (Panicum leiocarpum Spreng. 1820), the

20 Opuse. Sci. Bologna 3: 408. 1819.

21 Agrost. Bras. 1383. 1829.

21 Mart. Fl. Bras. 27: 280. 1877.

23 Mem. Acad. St. Petersb. VI. Sci. Nat. 1: 322. 1834.

24 Mant. 2: 240. 1824.

25 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 22: 10. 1920.

176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 18, No. 9

panicle branches ascending instead of spreading as at maturity.

This species is represented by Botanic Garden Herb. 3318, Trinidad,

and Riedel 183, Bahia, Brazil.

64, OPLISMENUS BRASILIENSIS. “In montanis prope Tejucco,

necnon in Monte Corcovado.” The specimen consists of four simple

plants of Oplismenus hirtellus (L.) Beauv. The sheaths are pubescent

as in Regnell III 1373, from Brazil, and Pittier 5976, from Venezuela,

as well as in numerous tropical North American specimens. The

pubescence is rather soft, not stiff and bristly as in Wright 751, Pringle

76, and Shafer 3011, from Cuba; Harris 11465, 11607, from Jamaica;

and Hitchcock 10222 and 10252, Tobago. }

66. PANICUM UNCINATUM. ‘‘In sylvaticis prope Catumby, non

procul ab Urbe Rio de Janeiro.”’ No specimen of this could be found

in Pisa, but in the herbarium of the British Museum is a specimen so

named in Raddi’s script. The upper spikelets are mature, showing

the hooked, spine-like hairs. The plant is the same as the type of

Echinolaena polystachya H. B. K., which was examined in the Berlin

Herbarium. It is represented by the specimens cited under this name

in Hitchcock’s Mexican Grasses”* and those cited under Pseudechino-

laena polystachya (H. B. K.) Stapf in his Grasses of British Guiana.?7

67. PANICUM PULCHELLUM. “In sylvaticis prope Catumby; non

procul ab Urbe Rio de Janeiro.”” The specimen consists of a creeping

plant with four flowering culms and another flowering culm without

base. It belongs to the species described under this name in Hitchcock

and Chase’s North American Species of Panicum.?8

68. PANICUM OLYRAEFOLIUM. pl.1.f.6. ‘‘In sepibus prope fossas

udas in viciniis Rio-Janeiro”’ (the locality given with that of P. donaci-

foliuwm). The specimen, consisting of two branching plants rooting

at the nodes, and two additional flowering culms, belongs to Panicum

frondescens Meyer, as described by Hitchcock and Chase.?®

69. PANICUM CONDENSATUM. ‘‘In sepibus prope fossas udas in

viciniis Rio-Janeiro.”” The specimen consists of a flowering culm,

lacking the base, with sterile branches. Among the unidentified

grasses in the Florence Herbarium were three sheets of this collection,

the largest with a stout culm and blades reaching to 20 cm. long and

2.6 em. wide. Raddi cites “Bert. Op. Se. di Bol. An 1819. T. III

p. 408.” Bertoloni’s description agrees well with Raddi’s specimens.

26 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 17: 223. 1913.

27 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 22: 469. 1922.

28 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 15: 123. 1910.

29 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 16: 121. 1910.

may 4, 1923 CHASE: IDENTIFICATION OF RADDI’S GRASSES 177

Gaudichaud 288, Rio Janeiro, the type of Panicum auriculatum B

fasciculosum Doell®* and of Panicum Januarium Mez, and Pabst 706,

from Brazil, both in the Berlin Herbarium, belong to Panicum con-

densatum Bertol. Of the eight collections cited by Mez*! under

P. Januarium, Gaudichaud 288, Rio de Janeiro, is taken as the type,

because Mez cites ‘‘Panicum auriculatum var. fasciculatum Doell”

(error for fasciculosum), and this is the only specimen Doell cites for

the variety. The specimen in the Berlin Herbarium bears this name

in Doell’s script. The name in Mez’s writing is not Januarium but

one that was not published. The species belongs in Hymenachne

Beauv. as described by Chase,?2 Hymenachne condensata (Bertol.)

Chase. The species is represented in the U. 8. National Herbarium

by Wilkes Expl. Exped. 6, Rio Janeiro.

70. PANICUM DONACIFOLIUM. “In sepibus prope fossas udas in

viciniis Rio-Janeiro.”” The specimen consists of two flowering culms,

both lacking the base, with auriculate-clasping blades. It belongs to

the species at present known as Hymenachne auriculata (Willd.)

Chase,®* or Panicum auriculatum Willd.,*4 the type specimen of which,

labeled “‘Amer. merid. Humboldt,” was examined in the Willdenow

Herbarium in the Berlin Herbarium. Since Raddi’s name is earlier

it must replace that of Willdenow, Hymenachne donacifolia (Raddi)

Chase. This species is represented in the U. 8. National Herbarium

by Smith 2748, Santa Marta, Colombia; Eggers 14633, Balao, Ecuador;

Goeldi 52, Para, Brazil: and Morong 693, Paraguay.

Panicum cordatum Doell,®* the type of which, Glaziou 4326, Rio de

Janeiro, so named in Doell’s script, was examined in the Berlin

Herbarium, belongs to this species.

71. Panicum paspALompEs. “Ad fossas udas prope Rio-Janeiro.”’

The specimen belongs to Panicum geminatum Forsk. as described by

Hitchcock and Chase,?* North American Species of Panicum.

72. PANICUM DIVARICATUM. “In sepibus proximus Rio Janeiro, ut

etiam alibi, praecipue ad fossas udas.’’ Raddi does not publish this

as his own species, but gives Linnaeus as author. The specimen is

Lasiacis ligulata Hitche. & Chase.*7

30 Mart. Fl. Bras. 22: 238, 1877.

31 Bot. Jahrb. Engler 56: Beibl. 125: 4. 1921.

32 Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 21:1. 1908.

33 Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 21: 5. 1908.

34 Spreng. Syst. Veg. 1: 322. 1825.

3 Mart. Fl. Bras. 23: 239. 1880.

86 Contr. U. 8S. Nat. Herb. 15: 30. 1910.

37 See Hitchcock’s revision of Lasiacis, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 22:18. 1920.

178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 9

73. PANICUM MACROPHYLLUM. “Juxta torrentes in vicinis Man-

dioccae, et in Montibus Estrellensibus.”” The specimen is mounted

on two sheets, one of three leaves, the sheaths overlapping, the blades

30 cm. long and 8.8 em. wide; the other (evidently the summit of the

same culm) with two leaves, the upper blade much reduced and split

to the base, and a panicle 18 cm. long and 7.5mm. wide. The spikelets

are crowded, 2.3 mm. long, the glumes and sterile lemma subequal, the

lemma slightly longer, acute, scabrous on the nerves and pubescent

near the margins, the sterile palea nearly as long as its lemma; the

fruit is elliptic, subacute, smooth and shining, 1.8 mm. long, 0.6 mm.

wide. The species is allied to Panicum latissimum Mikan and P.

secundum Trin. It differs from the first in the strict panicle branches

and the equal glumes, and from the latter in the much broader blades.

I have seen nothing like Raddi’s specimen except Jardim Botanico do

Rio Janeiro no. 575 (no locality but “‘Brasil’’?) in the U. S. National

Herbarium. This differs from the type in having sheaths sparsely

appressed-pilose, and somewhat firmer blades, which are split as is the

upper blade in Raddi’s specimen.

75. PANICUM PURPURASCENS. Raddi states that it grows with the

preceding (Panicum maximum Jacq.) which is cultivated throughout

the province of Rio Janeiro and is also found growing spontaneously.

The specimen consists of a flowering culm, lacking the base, of Pani-

cum barbinode Trin., as described by Hitchcock & Chase.*® The

panicle is somewhat purplish.

77. Panicum RupDGEI (8) BRASILIENSE. “Species rarissima obser-

vata tantum in vicinis fluminis Inhumirim, in locis silvosis et herbosis.”’

The specimen consists of two pieces, one of four panicles, three axillary

and a terminal one close together, each exceeded by its blade; the

other of a single panicle and leaf. The specimen belongs to Panicum

Rudgei Roem. & Schult. as described by Hitchcock and Chase.*®

The nodes are slightly geniculate as noted by Raddi.

83. SETARIA suLCATA. ‘‘In marginibus fossarum udarum prope

Catumby, non procul ab urbe Rio de Janeiro.” The specimen is an

entire rather small plant, the nodes and junction of sheath and blade

yellowish hirsute, the broadest blade 18 mm. wide, deeply pleated, the

panicle scarcely 2 cm. wide. It belongs to Chaetochloa poiretiana

(Schult.) Hitche. as described in Hitchcock’s recent revision of

Chaetochloa.*? On the ticket is written in Raddi’s script “‘Setaria

sulcata nob., Panicum sulcatum Bert.”

38 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 15: 33. 1910.

39 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 15: 139. 1910.

40 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 22: 159. 1920.

MAY 4, 1923 COOK: NEW GENUS OF PALMS 179

Raddi cites “Bert. Excerpta de Re Herb. 14.” This paper is not in

the library of Washington. In another paper the same year‘!

Bertoloni published Panicum sulcatum Bertol., citing Raddi’s collection

from Brazil. This is apparently described independently of P.

sulcatum Aubl. 1775. Glaziou 17396, Rio Janeiro, though a larger

plant, is very like Raddi’s specimen.

86. PoA BRASILIENSIS. “In sepibus prope Rio de Janeiro.” The

specimen could not be found. The description is as follows: “‘pani-

cula elongata stricta, ramis alternis adpressis, spiculis lineari-lance-

olatis subdecemfloris, valvula corollae interiore margine brevissime

ciliata; foliis bi-aut tripollicaribus, acuminatis, rigidis, margine in-

volutis, ligula nulla. nob. Gramini tremulo affine, paniculatum elegans

majus, spicis minoribus et longioribus. Sloan, H. J. p. 113. t. 71.

jig. 1? (mala).”’

The original of the Sloane figure in the British Museum of Natural

History was examined by Dr. A. S. Hitchcock in 1907. It is Hra-

grostis cubensis Hitche., which is not found in Brazil.

Nees” transfers Poa brasiliensis Raddi to Eragrostis “excl. synon.

Sloanei.”’ and refers EL. bahiensis Schrad.* to it as a form with blades

ciliate at base. Short-leaved specimens of this species, such as

Capanema 5379, and 5386, Brazil, agree well with Raddi’s description.

The ligule is not wanting as stated by Raddi, but. is very minute.

89. MeGasTacHyA SwaAINsoNni. “Species rarissima, quam mihi

benevole communicavit D. Swainson red. ex itinere Pernambucano ad

Urbem Rio-janeiro.” The specimen is a small tuft of Hragrostis

maypurensis (H. B. K.) Steud., with small, somewhat capitate pan-

icles, as in Jardim Botanico do Rio de Janeiro no. 5535, collected by

Luetzelburg; 3742, collected by Léfgren, and 5382 collected by

Capanema.

BOTAN Y.—Opsiandra, a new genus of palms growing on Maya ruins

in Petén, Guatemala. O. F. Coox, Bureau of Plant Industry.

A palm that grows in the ruined Maya cities of Petén apparently

has not been described. The ruins are buried in the forest, with palms

and other trees often growing upon the terraces, walls, or roofs of the

buildings. The chief center of the early Maya civilization, in the

district of Tikal, Uaxactun, Nakum, and Naranjo, is supposed to have

been abandoned about fifteen centuries ago, and now is completely

41 Opusce. Sci. Bologna 4: 230. 1820.

“# Agrost. Bras. 497. 1829.

43 Tn Schult. Mant. 2: 318. 1824.

180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 9

overgrown with tropical vegetation. The outlook from the high

pyramids in all directions is an undulating, unbroken forest. The

present conditions are to be considered as a result of reforestation, not

only of the sites of the cities, but probably of the whole surrounding

region. It is a regular consequence of the primitive system of agri-

culture to reduce a forest country to an open, fire-swept grassland.!

Though tropical forests are restored rapidly in small clearings, the

reforestation of an extensive grassland necessarily is very gradual, with

a long succession of different conditions and types of trees to be

established and replaced before there can be a complete return to the

original state of the undisturbed, or “virgin forest.” Some elements

of the forest flora come in very slowly, even after apparently favorable

conditions have been established. Thus there may be new forests

with no palms in the undergrowth, though several kinds of palms may

be found in older forests near by. In more advanced stages of refor-

estation palms may be abundant, but represent only a few species,

which is true of the forests of Petén.

The rapid destruction of the ancient cities by the forest, now to be

witnessed in the Petén region, is evidence against the idea of very

great antiquity, estimated by some archaeologists in thousands of

years. In view of the damage now being done by the growth and

uprooting of large trees, it does not appear that many centuries will be

required to reduce all of the massive structures to shapeless mounds.

The destruction tends, no doubt, to accelerate as the soil deposits

accumulate among the loosened stones and the trees grow to larger

size before uprooting. Several centuries may have passed after the

cities were abandoned before they were covered by the forest. The

dates that have been deciphered from the sculptured monuments are

from a period corresponding to the early centuries of the Christian

Era, though doubtless the city-building age was preceded by a long

period of agricultural development. The Maya system of chronology

used in dating the monuments would go back to about 3500 B.C.

The new palm would not be classified ecologically with the under-

growth species, but as a true forest type, growing to the same height

as many other trees. It has a rather slender trunk, about 6 inches in

1See ‘“Milpa Agriculture, A Primitive Tropical System,’’ Smithsonian Report for

1919, pp. 307-326.

*Of the undergrowth species an Acanthorhiza is by far the most abundant, two

species of Chamaedorea (C. elegans and ernesti-augusti) are common, and three others

of occasional occurrence. ‘Two large forest palms are also very common in some locali-

ties, Alialea cohune and a very tall, slender palmetto, locally known as botén. The

taciste palm, a species of paurotis, grows in open places and survives burning over.

mMaAyY 4, 1923 COOK: NEW GENUS OF PALMS 181

diameter, supported on a solid conical mass of thick roots, and attain-

ing a height of 60 feet or more. The leaves are large and pinnate, but

few in number, usually only 5 or 6, with a total length of 8 or 9 feet,

and about 90 pinnae on each side of the midrib. The inflorescences

are several joints below the leaves, with the branches robust and

mostly simple, and ripening into large clusters of red cherry-like

fruits, like those of Synechanthus.

As the Tikal district is now entirely uninhabited, no uses of the palm

were learned, and the only name to be learned was palma cimarrona,

or “wild palm.” At El Cayo, in British Honduras, one informant

gave cambo, or kambo, as the Maya equivalent of palma cimarrona.

But the palm was not noticed in the vicinity of El Cayo, nor along the

Belize River, though it was seen at several places-on the road between

Flores and Benque Viejo, as well as in the forests to the northward.

Since the fruit and floral characters are those of the Synechanthaceae

the new palm may be assigned to this family, which includes only

three other genera, Synechanthus in Guatemala, Gaussia in Cuba, and

Aeria in Porto Rico. The tall trunk would associate Opstandra with

the West Indian genera, but there is no such swelling of the lower part

of the trunk asin Aeria. Also, Opsiandra has 4 spathes, instead of 7 as

in Aeria, or 2 as in Gaussia. Between Opsiandra and Synechanthus

there is little external resemblance, the latter being a short-trunked

undergrowth palm with clustered pinnae and slender, fastigiate in-

florescence-branches. :

Diagnostic features of Opsiandra are the tall, columnar trunk, the

infrafoliar inflorescences, the 4 short, narrow spathes, the thick simple

branches of the spadix, the flowers only 2 or 3 in each cluster, the petals

thick and valvate in both sexes, the persistent staminate buds, and

the transversely reniform seeds, with uniform albumen and a central

cavity. The most striking peculiarity is that the inflorescence

branches are robust and simple, while in the other genera the branches

have numerous slender divisions and the flowers more definitely in

rows.

The technical characters of the new genus may be summarized as

follows:

Opsiandra Cook, gen. nov.

Trunk solitary, erect, ascending or flexuous, columnar below, slightly and

gradually tapering above, scarcely enlarged at the base, supported by a

conical mass of very thick roots.

Leaves few, usually 5 or 6, ascending, 2 to 3 meters long, with a cylindrical

sheathing base; petiole distinct, deeply channelled below and with strongly

182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 9

incurved margins above; pinnae numerous (88 pairs), lanceolate, not clustered

or grouped, attaining a length of about 60 cm. and a width of nearly 4 cm.

Inflorescences distinctly infrafoliar, slender, with numerous (15 to 30)

rather robust, simple, tapering branches, or a few of the lower branches

forked near the base.

Spathes 4, slender, incomplete; 3 upper joints of the peduncle without

spathes. Lowest spathe short and strongly bicarinate; third and fourth

spathes longest, but not attaining the base of the branches of the matured

inflorescence.

Flowers of one form externally, in longitudinal rows of 2 or 3, the lowest

flower of each group pistillate, somewhat smaller than the staminate flowers,

also a few solitary staminate flowers near the ends of the branches; sepals

rounded, broadly imbricate; petals broadly triangular, valvate, somewhat

longer than broad, thick, fleshy, persistent, becoming leathery in the ripe

fruit; stamens 6, on broad short filaments; pistillodes columnar or variously

compressed, sharply apiculate, nearly as long as the anthers; pistillate flowers

with rudimentary staminodes, the pistil sharply trigonal, on each face a

distinct median groove, the mature stigmas divaricate, persistent at the base

of the ripe fruit; also some of the staminate buds persistent through the

fruiting period.

Fruits globose-reniform, with a distinct groove on the median face above

the stigma, color light green, turning to deep red when ripe, with a smooth

skin and a soft fleshy pericarp, enclosing a somewhat depressed or subreniform

seed. Surface of seed nearly smooth, slightly impressed with 5 to 7 simple or

sparingly branched or anastomosing fibers rising from the inner or median

side of the hilum, passing over and around the seed and converging toward

the embryo; albumen uniform, with a central cavity; embryo about inter-

mediate between basal and lateral, on the outer side of the seed away from

the stigma; embryo cavity about half as broad as long, extending more than

half-way to the central cavity.

Seedling with three bladeless sheaths, followed by two leaves with simple

bifurcate blades.

The generic name refers to the persistence of the staminate flowers and

buds which are to be found in fresh condition on the same inflorescences with

ripe fruits. This may indicate an extreme condition of proterogyny or a

continued production of staminate flowers through a long period. Mo-

noecious palms may be considered as proterogynous if the stigmas are exposed

before pollen is shed from the staminate flowers of the same inflorescence.

Drude alludes to the opposite relation, of female flowers developed after the

male flowers have withered. The difference usually would be only a few

hours, or at most a few days, whereas several weeks must be required, or

possibly months, for the fruits of Opsiandra to grow and ripen, while staminate

buds and flowers are still present.

Opsiandra maya Cook, sp. nov.

Trunk attaining 20 meters and upward, about 15 cm. in diameter near the

base, tapering slightly and gradually; internodes 12 to 15 cm., becoming

shorter above, separated by distinct rings. Superficial roots 3.5 em. thick,

forming a dense conical mass supporting the trunk.

MAY 4, 1923 . COOK: NEW GENUS OF PALMS 183

Leaves 2 to 3 meters long; sheath and petiole not distinct, the strictly

sheathing portion about 30 cm. long, the petiole about 65 cm., very deeply

channelled below, with thin strongly incurved margins to within about 15

cm. of the lowest pinnae, there the groove becoming shallow and the margins

rounded. Sheath 1.5 em. thick at the back, the petiole becoming thicker

above and the groove more shallow; diameter of petiole above 3 cm. Rachis

sharply carinate above.

Pinnae 88 on_ one side of the midrib; lowest pinna 41 cm. by 2.2 cm.; second

pinna 47 cm. long; largest pinna somewhat below the middle, 61 cm. by 3.8

em.; fifth pinna from the end 32 cm. by 2.7 cm.; subterminal pinna 22 cm.

by 1.3 cm.; terminal pinna 16 cm. by 0.5 cm., or the two last pinnae united

with total width of 1.5 cm. One vein on each side of the midrib more

prominent than the others, especially underneath, also 5 or 6 less prominent

veins, separated by 6 or 7 subequal veinlets; in dry specimens the spaces

between the veinlets showing many short translucent longitudinal lines, not

in regular rows; submarginal vein delicate, separated from the margin by 3

or 4 veinlets very close together; margin thickened and veinlike, but the

edge thin.

Inflorescence 75 cm. long; from lowest branch to tip 34 em. Branches

17 or 18, about 0.4 cm. thick, at base nearly 0.5 cm. tapering gradually to the

tip, attaming 30 cm. The lowest 4 branches divided near the base; terminal

portion 21 em. Peduncle with 7 joints measuring respectively 2, 11, 7.5,

12, 11, 5, and 3 em., the last 3 joints without spathes.

Spathes 4, the lowest 9.5 cm. by 5.5*cm., distinctly carinate on each side,

deeply bidentate, the tips triangular-pointed, 3 cm. long; second spathe 13.3

em. by 4.3 em., slightly carinate, but sharply angled at the sides; like the

others; third spathe 19.5 cm. by 2.4 cm.; fourth spathe 19 em. by 2.1 cm.,

attaining within 2 to 3 cm. of lowest branch, the fruiting portion emerging

from the spathes long before flowering.

Sepals about 1 mm. long; petals of female flowers at anthesis about 2 mm.

long, on ripe fruits 3 mm. long, thick; anthers 1 mm. long, and pistillodes

nearly the same length, staminodes rudimentary.

Fruits subglobose or transversely subreniform, somewhat flattened on one

side and with a vertical groove above the stigma, 1 cm. to 1.5 cm. in diameter,

with a soft fleshy red pericarp 2 mm. thick, the flesh of green fruit mucila-

ginous and very sticky; seed 0.9 cm. to 1.1 cm. in diameter, somewhat irregular

in shape, subglobose, oblong, reniform, oval, or unsymmetrical, the surface

smooth or slightly uneven, marked with a few impressed fibers; central

cavity of the seed often strongly depressed, 2 to 4 mm. in diameter, sur-

rounded by a wall of uniform rather hard albumen 2.5 to 3 mm. thick.

Seedlings with the three bladeless sheaths measuring respectively, 7 cm.,

2.5 em. and 5 em. in length, in diameter about 0.5 cm.; first two sheaths

without chlorophyll, white at first but soon brown and decayed; first two

leaves simple, deeply bifid, the divisions measuring 12 to 13 cm. by 1.3 to

1.9 cm.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, nos. 1,084,215-1,084,219, consisting

of leaf parts, inflorescence, and spathes from a single individual growing at

Laguna Colorada, Tikal District, Petén, Guatemala, altitude 100 to 500

meters, March 23, 1922, by O. F. Cook and R. D. Martin (no. 94), of which

photographs and complete leaf measurements were obtained. Ripe fruits

were collected a few days later near Uaxactun, on a larger inflorescence, with

more numerous branches and the fruits more abundant and crowded. The

seeds of this cluster were brought to Washington and planted in a greenhouse,

where the seedlings have grown well.

184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 9

Young palms were noted among the ruins of Nakum with petioles much

longer and more slender than those of the adult palm at Laguna Colorada.

Also, in the young palms the pinnae are relatively broader than in the adult,

1.5 to 2 cm. wide with a length of 18 to 20 em. An injured leaf of a young

palm growing on a ruined temple at Uaxactun showed a special enlargement

of the basal pulvini, so that the pinnae stood nearly at right angles to the

rachis instead of the usual angle of about 50 to 60 degrees in young palms, or

about 40 degrees in adults.

Since northern Petén has a dry season sufficiently long and severe to throw

most of the vegetation into a dormant condition, it seems not unreasonable to

expect that Opsiandra may prove somewhat resistant in more temperate

climates and possibly adapted to household cultivation or to outdoor condi-

tions in Florida or California. As a popular name the expression ‘Maya

palm” might be used, in view of the habitat and frequent association with the

ancient ruins.

ZOOLOGY.—A new frog of the genus Leptodactylus.. Doris M.

Cocaran, National Museum. (Communicated by Dr. L.

STEJNEGER. )

A collection of reptiles and batrachians recently sent to the United

States National Museum by Dr. W. L. Abbott contains an interesting

new frog, of which I have prepared the following description:

Leptodactylus dominicensis, sp. nov.

Diagnosis.—Toes without distinct dermal margins; tongue heart-shaped;

tympanum half the width of the eye; vomerine teeth in two long curved series

behind the choanae; snout pointed, depressed, with a sharp edge.

Type.—U. 8. N. M. No. 65670, Las Cafiitas, Dominican Republic; Feb-

ruary 25, 1923; Dr. W. L. Abbott, collector.

Description of type specimen.—Vomerine teeth in two long curved series

beginning behind the middle of the choanae, separated by the width of the

choanae; tongue moderate in size, heart-shaped; snout pointed, depressed,

sharp-edged, declining rapidly from the eyes to the tip; when viewed in pro-

file, upper lip projects considerably beyond lower lip; canthus rostralis sloping

and very indistinct; nostrils a little nearer to end of snout than to eye; tym-

panum longer than high, its greatest diameter very slightly more than half

the diameter of eye; interorbital space equals width of upper eyelid; first

finger much longer than second, which equals fourth; toes slightly webbed

at base; third much longer than fifth; subarticular tubercles well developed;

numerous smaller tubercles in series on the sole; two metatarsal tubercles,

the inner connected with a very distinct tarsal fold; heels just touching when

hind limbs are folded at right angles to axis of body; tarso-metatarsal joint

reaching anterior border of tympanum when hind limbs are carried forward

along the body; skin smooth above and below; numerous small, pointed glands

on the outer surface of the tibia; a narrow dorso-lateral glandular fold, and a

few elongate glands on the sides; a strong glandular fold from posterior angle

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

MAY 4, 1923 COCHRAN: NEW LIZARD OF GENUS SCELOPORUS 185

pails over tympanum to shoulder; ventral disk plainly marked by dermal

olds.

Dimensions.—Tip of snout to vent, 36 mm.; tip of snout to posterior edge

of tympanum, 13 mm.; greatest width of head, 13 mm.; fore leg from axilla,

19 mm.; hind leg from vent to heel, 26 mm.; hind leg from vent to tip of fourth

toe, 49 mm.

Coloration (in alcohol).—Body dark bluish-gray above, becoming lighter

on the sides; the sharp rim on the snout white; the head dark gray with a

blackish bar between the eyes; a black band from eye across tympanum to

shoulder; arms and legs light with darker bands and markings; a white line

on the posterior femur; underside whitish, the throat finely sprinkled with

pale gray. is

Remarks.—This frog is closely related to Leptodactylus albilabris from

Porto Rico. The snout is shorter and broader, and the projecting edge on

the upper lip is far more pronounced. Then, too, the hind legs are shorter,

and the examination of the mouth reveals a deeply incised tongue, while the

tongue of L. albilabris is only slightly nicked behind.

ZOOLOGY.—A new lizard of the genus Sceloporus.' Doris M.

Cocuran, National Museum. (Communicated by Dr. L.

STEJNEGER. )

While identifying the lizards collected in Mexico. by the Biological

Survey and now in the United States National Museum, I came

upon a species of Sceloporus which seems to be new to science.

Sceloporus nelsoni sp. nov.

Diagnosis.—Lateral scales directed obliquely upwards and backwards,

and passing gradually into the dorsals; series of femoral pores widely separated,

not meeting on the preanal region; tail strongly compressed; head-shields

smooth; two rows of granular scales between supraoculars and supraciliaries;

femoral pores 15 to 20.

Type.—U. 8. N. M. No. 47676; Plomosas, Sinaloa, Mexico; July 18, 1897;

Nelson and Goldman, collectors.

Description.—Head-shields smooth; frontal ridges fairly prominent; frontal

transversely divided, in contact with the interparietal, which is a little broader

than long; a single large parietal shield on each side of the interparietal;

fronto-parietals in contact with last two supraoculars; two canthal scales;

five transverse supraoculars, bordered inwards by an incomplete series of

small scales, and separated from the supraciliaries by two rows of almost

granular scales; five scales, not larger than those before them, form a denticu-

lation on the anterior border of the ear; dorsal scales much larger than

ventrals, strongly keeled, mucronate, forming slightly converging series;

35 scales between the interparietal shield and the base of the tail; 9 scales,

taken in the middle of the back, correspond to the length of the head; ventral

scales small, smooth, bi- or tricuspid; about 36 scales around the middle of

the body; the adpressed hind limb reaches between ear and eye; tibia as

long as distance between end of snout and ear; the distance between base of

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 138, No. 9

fifth toe and extremity of fourth exceeds the distance between end of snout

and posterior border of ear; 15 femoral pores on each side; tail distinctly com-

pressed; caudal scales larger than dorsals, strongly keeled and mucronate

except those on basal third underneath, which are smooth; males with slightly

developed post-anal scales.

Coloration (in aleohol).—Bronze-colored above; a broad, dark stripe along

each side with a light area above; a black vertical bar in front of the shoulder;

head reddish brown spotted with darker; lips with dark vertical bars; a very

noticeable black spot encircled with a ring of light yellow on the posterior

margin of the parietal shield, not involving the ‘‘pineal eye’’; throat with

oblique bluish bands converging posteriorly; breast yellowish; sides of belly

pale green, broadly edged with blackish blue near the median ventral line.

Dimensions. —Snout to vent, 56 mm.; shielded portion of head, 13 mm.;

snout to ear, 14 mm.; length of fourth toe, 15 mm.

Remarks.—Although the new species resembles Sceloporus pyrocephalus

Cope in many of its characters, there are several striking differences which

will enable the two species to be distinguished immediately. The black spot

on the parietal shield, which in S. pyrocephalus encircles the ‘‘pineal eye,”

in S. nelsoni is on the extreme posterior border of the parietal, not involving

the pineal eye, and is itself encircled by a ring of light color which becomes

slightly darker just anterior to the black spot. The snout is quite flat in

S. pyrocephalus; one row of regular scales separates the supraoculars and the

supraciliaries. In the new species the frontal ridges are fairly prominent;

there are two irregular rows of small scales separating supraoculars and

supraciliaries; the dorsal scales are larger and more spiny, and the femoral

pores are more numerous. The ventral coloration of the two species is

entirely different—in the males of S. pyrocephalus there is a startling black

and white herring-bone pattern of convergent stripes, while in the S. nelsoni

the pale blue areas on the sides are simply edged with black, as in the large

majority of the Scelopor.

In addition to the type, there are 10 specimens in the National Museum,

five from near Mazatlan, one from Culiacan, three from Rosario and one from

Barranca Ibarra. The coloration is constant, except that the specimens from

near Mazatlan are somewhat lighter. The femoral pores vary in number

between 15 and 20. ;

The new species is named in honor of Dr. E. W. Nelson, Chief of the Bio-

logical Survey.

MAY 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 187

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

BOTANICAL SOCIETY

158TH MEETING

The 158th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club at 8 P.M.,

Tuesday, March 7, 1922, 66 members and guests being present.

Dr. A. D. Horxins was elected to membership.

Under Brief Notes and Reviews of Literature, Dr. A. 8. Hrrcncocx

showed the Society a sample of paper from bamboo, the paper having been

made in France. He stated that no paper in the United States was made

from a grass.

Dr. Rupvotr Kuraz, Agricultural Attache and Secretary to the Czecho-

slovak Legation gave an address on Agriculture in Czechoslovakia, and the

achievements of the Czechs in American agriculture. At the close of the regular

program, two motion pictures were shown by Dr. Kuraz, one on Prague, the

capital city, and the second on the national Sokol.

Prof. Daviy LumspEN addressed the Society on Raising orchid seedlings

by the use of a mycorrhizal fungus.

The presence of endophytic fungi in the roots of certain plants of the

order Orchidaceae has been described by several authors. It was Link!

who first observed them in the protocorm of Goodyera procera, an orchid

native to India and Malaya. He did not attempt to describe the fungus,

merely stating that the cells were filled with a colorless granular material

which later disappeared.

The term mycorrhiza was used first by Frank? in 1885 to describe the in-

fection of the roots of a plant by a fungus. It was not however until 1903

that serious consideration was given to the reasons for the affinity existing

between an orchid and a fungus. During the year 1909 Hans Burgeff con-

tributed a valuable publication, ““Die Wurzelpilze der Orchideen”’ dealing on

the subject. The same year Noel Bernard published an article showing that

when the seeds were sown under aseptic conditions the embryos swelled and

formed green spherules and finally died; when sown on pure cultures of the

endophytic fungus isolated from the roots of these plants, the embryo devel-

oped normally, forming a spheroid body which soon produced a cotyledon

and papillae with long root hairs.

Further investigation conducted by Bernard and Burgeff at that time

showed that the germination of orchid seed did not occur except in the

presence of the root fungi.

The speaker having studied very closely the methods pursued by Bernard

and Burgeff carried out numerous experiments with several genera and species

of orchidaceous plants to ascertain the value of fungoid infection in the

germination of orchid seeds. Cellulose, starches, agar and other nutrients

were also used as mediums on which to germinate the seed.

Various kinds of wood kept under normal and abnormal moisture conditions

were also used. The most satisfactory results were obtained when the seeds

were sown in 4 to 5 inch flower pots, containing 50 per cent osmunda fiber;

1H. F. Link. Icones selectae anatomico-botanicae II p. 10, t. VII, 1840.

2 A.B. Frank. Ueber die auf Wurzelsymbiose beruhende Ernahrung gewisser Baume

durch unterirdische Pilze Ber. d. deutsch. bot. Gesell. IIL. pp. 128-145 (1885) Lehrbuch

der Botanik Bd. J (1892) p. 264.

188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 9

50 per cent sphagnum moss, the medium being covered over with fine woven

clean burlap and the flower pot when prepared being thoroughly sterilized in

an autoclave. The third day after sterilization, if no infection manifested

itself, the rhizoctonia was introduced to each of the experimental pots.

Check pots were also kept for comparison. Moisture conditions were main-

tained by placing saucers of water in the propagating frame. A temperature of

80° to 85°F. with a relative humidity test of 75 to 82 per cent was maintained.

The speaker had a few seedlings appear promiscuously on a few of the check

pots which had not been infected. This may have been due to contamination

as the check pots were placed side by side with those infected with the fungus.

While several nutrient solutions were used, including Pfeffer’s, Burgeff’s,

and Crones’, the culture giving the most satisfactory results was the one

recommended by Burgeff, which is here given.

Burgeff’s solution

grams

Potassium dihydrogen phosphate.; )).2. 8320 O22 Pak See 1.0

Calenmm Chlorides. of.) 2) Be ee a eee 0.1

MO iam! (CHLOT TMG iso ss ecsic nck eee ee I ee ct ces Re UE Pa 0.1

Rraprcsiimn: BiLRbe? ee kbc. PRR a 05 ae Re ees See 0.3

Tron Chloride: shea. e+ aces « < s 0. ek Re eae a ee ee 0.01

ATHIMONIUIN COLOTICE: J. ok.) . Le ae ne ce ene ee ee een 0.5

DIStULed Waletrerecewas te osc. ig ee CRM MRTIN Data c Lice Lye l: 27 nee: See eae 1000.0

Other nutrient solutions such as sugars, from 1 to 2 per cent solutions, glucose

gelatin and non-liquefiable nutrient (potato) were also used in the experiment.

Roots growing in the air and roots from potted plants were utilized in

making inoculations. The roots before using for inoculation and the seeds

before being sown were subjected to sterilization by immersion for 2 to 3

minutes in a 7 per cent solution of calcium hypochloride.

Small pieces of the orchid root about $ inch long were used and fone

to the Petri dishes and test tubes containing the nutrient agar. In the cases

of the flower pots, the small sections of the roots containing the rhizoctonia

were placed under the burlap.

Out of a series of several hundred cultures only two organisms occurred

with any noticeable regularity. Average contamination was manifest both

in the test tubes and also in the flower pot method.

It is the opinion of the speaker that orchidaceous plants having a long line

of ancestors and being the most specialized of all plants are necessarily de-

pendent on other than ordinary food and environmental conditions which

govern the life cycle of the masses of the lower plants. The orchid seed is

very minute and devoid of endosperm. It has therefore acquired the habit of

depending on the various root fungi for its early existence.

Further investigation with a large number of generic crosses demonstrated

that a separate organism is required for a particular genus and possibly for

particular species. As some results were obtainable under aseptic conditions

‘it can not be said that the fungus is entirely essential but it is incontestable

that the rhizoctonia promotes the germination of the seeds. It is nevertheless

true that its presence is not indispensable and that a satisfactory germi-

nation can be obtained without its introduction.

Symbiosis opens up a wide field for investigational work and progress

along this line is reaching more definite conclusions and perhaps we may

find that a ‘well balanced ration” or the proper proportioning of plant food

in each case for genera and species will reveal the “undiscovered secret of

May 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 189

nature” if so we may term it. For the present, investigation rather shows

the affinity between the orchid seed and the fungi to be one of mutual

parasitism rather than mutual symbiosis.

E. T. Wuerry concluded the program by remarks on the Cultivation of

our native orchids with special reference to their relation to sotl activity.

159TH MEETING

The 159th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, Tuesday,

April 3, 1922, at 8 P.M. with President Sarrorp in the chair and 55 mem-

bers and guests present.

Dr. A. S. HircHcock showed specimens of rattan from China. This

rattan palm was very bad for travelers, on account of the spikelets. He

also showed samples of wild rice from southeastern China, which he stated

were the prototypes of cultivated rice.

Dr. N. A. Copp gave an illustrated address on The coconut industry, its

economic importance, and a serious disease of the coconut caused by a nematode.

—The coconut industry is a very large one, but its size and importance are

frequently not appreciated, even by experts. The coconut enters into the

manufacture of soaps as an oil, into milk as a filler, while it is well known as

a food, and used in cake frostings, cookies and candies. The dried meat of

the coconut is the copra of industry. Thousands of miles of sea coast in

the tropics are adapted to the growing of coconuts. .

Fifteen years ago a disease was reported from Tobago and Trinidad, which

came to be known as the coconut root disease. No one at this time realized

that a nematode was the cause of this disease. Only afew years ago the first

nematode was obtained from a diseased coconut by a Mr. Nobb, of the

Imperial Dept. of Agriculture of the West Industries, though he did not. at

first recognize it as the causal agent of the disease. The identification of the

nema and the proof that it caused the root disease was made by Dr. N. A.

Cobb of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. The nema was determined to be a

hitherto unrecognized species and was given the name Aphelenchus

cocophilus, and the disease later came to be known as Red Ring of the

coconut.

An estimate of the number of nemas in a single foot length of a coconut

root shows about 20,000 present. The address was finely illustrated by

colored slides of various nemas, as well as the sick and dying coconut palms,

infested with A phelenchus cocophilus.

160TH MEETING

The 160th meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was held at

the Cosmos Club, Tuesday, May 2, 1922 President, W. E. Sarrorp presiding.

Dr. TyozaBpuro Tanaka spoke on the Citrus fruits of Japan, with notes on

their history and the creation of new varieties by bud variation. ‘The orange goes

back into Japanese mythology. Foreign citrus were introduced into Japan,

as early as the first century. The general extent of the culture of the most

important species and varieties of citrus grown in Japan were discussed.

Several cases of the origination by bud variation of the variety Wase from the

variety Owari were observed during recent citrus studies in Japan.

Dr. H. L. Suanrz gave an illustrated talk on the Botanic Gardens of South

Africa. The National Botanic Gardens of South Africa at Kirstenbosch,

the best known in that part of the continent, were visited by the Smithsonian

African Expedition in August 1920. The Gardens are supported largely by

190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 9

private subscriptions from individuals, and the Botanical Society of South

Africa; by the Cape Town Government, and by a grant from the South

African government, though considerable income is secured by the sale of

wood and by products from the Gardens.

The Gardens are situated on the side of Table Mountain. A large portion

of it is relatively level, but at the back it slopes up to the top of the mountain,

thus affording a great diversity of slope and elevation. The most interesting

fact about the gardens is that their primary purpose is to bring together the

native flora of South Africa, so far as possible, rather than to show a fine

collection of exotic plants. Chief of note among the gardens is the Cycad

amphitheatre, which contains probably the largest collection of these plants

in the world. There were interesting collections of Stangeria and En-

cephalartos. Additions to the cycads have been made from America and

Australia.

At another place nearby is the Aloe Garden or Kopje, represented by many

genera and containing many of the more beautiful species from all over South

Africa. Then there is the Bulb Garden, the Fern Dell, the Bolus Orchid

Garden, and the Pelargonium and Protea collections.

Mr. R. H. Comton, Director of the Gardens, is also Professor of Botany at

the University of Cape Town.

The Gardens at Lorenco Marques, in Mozambique, were also visited.

This beautiful garden contains many of the finest of the East African plants

as well as many exotics, and was developed largely by Thomas Honey and

Senor Almeida. There is also a very attractive botanic garden at Pretoria,

under the direction of the Botanical Department, of which Mr. I. B. Pole-

Evans is the head. Here there was a specially interesting collection of

xerophytic plants.

162D MEETING

The 162d meeting of the Botanical Society was held at the Cosmos Club

at 8 p.m., November 7, 1922, with Dr. L. C. Corzert, newly elected president,

in the chair and 84 persons present. Puintie Brrertey and Dr. A. G.

JOHNSON were elected members.

Under Brief Notes, Mr. P. L. Rickrr spoke of the proposed Mt. Hamilton

Botanical Garden site, and suggested that a leaflet be prepared by the

Botanical Society and the Wildflower Society and sent to members and others

interested in the project. Dr. A. S. Hrrcucocxk was authorized to present the

matter of the proposed National Botanic Garden to the Botanical Society of

America at their Boston Meeting.

Dr. A. $8. Hrrcucocx spoke of finding in the Island of Hainan and in

Indo-China a rare grass, Chloris tenera, originally described as Cynodon tener

Presl. The grass was said to have been collected by Haenke at Sorzogon on

Luzon in the Philippines. Dr. E. D. Merrill, Director of the Philippine

Bureau of Science, had thought that this species was erroneously credited to

the Philippines, as it was not known to occur in the Islands; and that it was

probably a native of America. The Melaspina Expedition, to which Haenke

was attached, had visited the western coast of America from Chile to

Alaska before going to the Philippines. The specimens now at Prague are

labelled incompletely and in some cases the locality is erroneous or even

lacking. Since Dr. Hitchcock’s visit to the Orient, Dr. Merrill has seen

specimens of this species from near the type locality, thus confirming Haenke’s

original statement.

may 4, 1923 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 191

Program: Dr. W. A. Orton: Physiatric botany (illustrated). The

history of diet is divided into three periods, ancient, medieval, and

modern. The medieval period is the one of the chemical view of foods.

The modern is the Biological Period. It began about 1900 with the recogni-

tion of the importance of vitamines. Vegetables are important in the diet.

Especially is this true in the cases of diabetes, nephritis, and other similar

diseases. Many kinds of vegetables are available to furnish adequate variety

to the diet.

Dr. F. E. Kempton: Barberry eradication in the United States. Barberry

eradication began in Europe in 1795. Satisfactory results were obtained.

The American wheat rust epidemics of 1904 and 1916 awakened interest in

the subject and active work began with the passing of the South Dakota

anti-barberry law in 1917. The present campaign for barberry eradication

was begun in April 1918. A preliminary campaign of education and survey

was organized, and the field work was begun about April of that year. Con-

gress appropriated in 1918, $150,000 for barberry eradication. Since that

time eradication has been conducted in cooperation with each of the following

13 states: Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana,

Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.

A federal quarantine was placed, effective May 1, 1919, prohibiting the move-

ment into the eradication area of any barberries known to harbor the black

stem rust of wheat and other grains. A much larger appropriation of

$350,000 became available July 1, 1922, under which marked progress has

been made during the field season of 1922. During the five years, 1918-1922,

practically all cities and villages of the 12 states have been covered once and

resurveyed in part, and 472 counties have been completely covered. This

includes 39 counties surveyed on funds furnished by states. In the 5 years,

2,069,017 bushes have been found in cities and villages and 3,740,351 on

farms, making a grand total of 5,829,368 bushes found, of which 5,173,547

have been removed.

Roy G. Pierce, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The National Geographic Society announces a series of Contributed

Technical Papers embodying the scientific results of its expeditions. The

first number entitled “‘The origin and mode of emplacement of the great tuff

deposit of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes,” by C. N. FENN=ER of the Geo-

physical Laboratory, which cooperated with the Geographic Society in the

Katmai Expedition, is now ready.

Dr. FENNER’s paper gives details of the hot sandflow not included in the

nontechnical volume, “The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes,’’ by the director

of the expedition, Ropertr F. Griaes, recently published by the National

Geographic Society. Wan

This series of papers from time to time will embody researches in diverse

fields of science resulting from National Geographic Society expeditions.

Notices of their appearance will be sent to all who desire such notification.

The papers themselves will be distributed only to those who specificially

request them.

The Board of Managers of the Washington Academy of Sciences has elected

the following scientists to honorary foreign membership in recognition of

their prominence in their respective fields and their intimate connection with

scientific work in Washington:

192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 9

Professor Leon Manovuvrisr, Ecole d’Anthropologie, Paris, France, was

elected in recognition of his life-long work of the highest class in anthropology.

Dr. Cart FREDERIK ALBERT CHRISTENSEN, Director of Universitetets

Botaniske Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark, was elected in recognition of his

services to systematic botany, particularly his monographic studies of tropical

American ferns of the tribe Dryopterideae.

Dr. Pau Marcuat, Chef de Section, Service des Epiphyties, Ministry of

Agriculture of France, was elected in recognition of his investigations in

biological problems and their relation to agriculture, and especially for his

research work in polyembryony. ;

Mr. Epwarp Ciayron ANDREWS, Government Geologist of New South

Wales, Sydney, Australia, was recommended in recognition of his distin-

guished work in geology, particularly in the fields of origin of coral reefs,

physiography, origin of the Australian flora, mountain formation, and origin

of metalliferous deposits.

Sir Ernest RuTHERFORD, Director of the Cavendish Laboratory, University

of Cambridge, England, was elected in recognition of his distinguished work

in chemistry. )

F. Omori, Professor of Seismology, Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan,

was elected in recognition of his outstanding work in the field of Seismology.

Professor GuIsEPPI STEFANINI, Instituto di Studi Superiori, Pizza San

Marco, Florence, Italy, was elected in recognition of his distinguished inves-

tigations in paleontology and stratigraphy, especially the tertiary formations

of Italy and echinoids in general.

Professor Max Weper, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands,

was elected in recognition of his distinguished work in zoology.

The Biological Survey, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, has arranged with

the Navy Department for transportation for a party of scientists who will

make a general survey during the spring and summer of the plant and animal

life on the chain of islands extending from Niihau in the Hawaiian group to

Midway and Wake. Dr. ALEXANDER Wermore of the Biological Survey

will have general direction of the scientific activities of the expedition, which

will be carried on in part by members of the staff of the Bishop Museum,

Honolulu. Donautp R. Dickry of Pasadena will accompany the party to

secure moving pictures of the remarkable colonies of sea birds on Laysan

Island.

The speaker at the meetings of the Physics Club, Bureau of Standards, on

March 19 and 26 was Dr. C. W. Kanotr, his subject being Relativity.

In the first lecture the older or special theory was considered. This was

developed by Einstein mainly as a result of the failure of the experiments of

Michelson, Morley, and Miller to detect a motion of the earth relative to the

ether. Einstein postulated the independence of phenomena in a system

moving with uniform velocity of the velocity of the system, provided the

phenomena are observed from within the system. He postulated that the

velocity of light is constant under all conditions, which means that it must

be the same in all directions, independent of the velocity of the source and

independent of extraneous influences, including gravitation. He also assumed

tacitly the accuracy of Euclidean geometry. Some of the deductions from

this older theory were described.

In the second lecture it was explained that the older theory did not agree

with Newton’s law of gravitation, and that to harmonize the two and also

to extend the conception of the relativity of space and time Einstein had

MAY 4, 1923 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 193

developed a general theory of relativity, in which he abandoned the assump-

tion that the velocity of light is independent of gravitation, abandoned

Euclidean geometry but employed the more general geometrical ideas of

Riemann, and introduced the hypothesis of the equivalence of a uniform

gravitational field and a uniform acceleration of suitable magnitude. From

this point of view the older theory is applicable only when gravitational forces

are negligible. The consequences of the general theory relative to the

perihelial motion of Mercury, the influence of the sun’s gravitational field

upon the paths of light beams from the stars and upon the wave length of

spectral lines from the sun were discussed.

Dr. WALTER RosENHAIN of the National Physical Laboratory, Teddington,

England, spoke at the Bureau of Standards on Monday, April 2, on The

work of the National Physical Laboratory.

An experimental test of Einstein’s principle of equivalence was discussed by

Dr. P. R. Heyu at the April 9th meeting of the Bureau of Standards Physics

Club.

Miss Auice C. FietcHer died on Friday, April 6, in Washington, D. C.,

in her 79th year. She was born in Boston, Massachusetts, March 15, 1845.

Her life was devoted to work among the American Indians, and she made

numerous contributions to the literature of ethnology, her book, Indzan story

and song from North America, being her best known publication. For many

years Miss Fletcher was assistant ethnologist at the Peabody Museum,and

held the Thaw fellowship since 1891. She was a member of the Acaprmy and

. the following local scientific societies: Anthropological (President, 1893),

Archeological, and Historical, as well as a number of national organizations.

Dr. Aucust Hunp has been appointed electrical engineer, Radio Section,

Bureau of Standards. He is a graduate of the Technische Hochschule,

Karlsruhe, and took the degree of Doctor of Engineering in 1913. He was

with the General Electric Company under Dr. Steinmetz from 1915-1917,

and has been doing graduate work at the University of California since that

time. Dr. Hund has written a book on the technique of high frequency

measurements.

THE APPARATUS CONFERENCE

A Conference of Makers and Users of Scientific Apparatus was held at the

National Research Council on March 23 and 24. Representatives were

present from the American Chemical Society, the American Physical Society,

the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the American Electrochemical

Society, and the Optical Society of America. The Scientific Apparatus

Manufacturers’ Association and the Manufacturing Chemists’ Association,

as well as several manufacturers of apparatus and supplies, sent representa-

tives. The universities were represented by the Association of Educational

Buyers, and the Federal Government, by members of the Bureau of Stand-

ards, Bureau of Chemistry, Geological Survey, and other bureaus. Members

of the Carnegie Institution and of the National Research Council were also

in attendance. G. K. Burcess of the Bureau of Standards presided.

The question of ‘Apparatus Supply” was covered by papers on Importa-

tion by Mr. Ermer of the firm of Eimer and Amend; Domestic apparatus

manufacture by Mr. Lrrps of the Leeds and Northrup Company and Pro-

194 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 13, No. 9

fessor Ricutmyer of Cornell University; The Instrument shop of the research

and college laboratory by Mr. Couurys of the Geological Survey; and The

Manufacture of special apparatus not now made in the United States by Mr.

Ives of the Western Electric Company.

The subject of “Standardization of Apparatus” was coveredby papers on

Limitation of types and sizes by Secretary Roserts of the Apparatus Manu-

facturers’ Association; Standardization of parts by Mr. Dicxrnson of the

Society of Automotive Engineers; and Standardization of methods by Mr.

BuRGEsS.

There were also papers on Sources of information by Mr. Earnsuaw of

the Buyers’ Association; Finding list by Mr. Tispate of the Research

Council; Scientific Bulletins concerning apparatus and its use by Mr. Lreps;

and Inspection service by Mr. WasHBurn of the Research Council.

There was active discussion of all of these papers. A permanent form

of organization was adopted, consisting of a large committee or conference

representing societies, institutions, and manufacturers, with a small executive

committee elected by the conference. The members of the executive com-

mittee are: W. M. Corsr, Chairman, Paut Moors, Secretary, G. K.

Burgess, W. D. Conuins, M. E. Leeps, F. K. Ricurmyrr, and JoHN

ROBERTS.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 13 May 19, 1923 | No. 10

MATHEMATICS.—The reduction of all physical dimensions to those

of space and time. A. P. MaruEws,! University of Cincinnati.

To reduce the number of different kinds of things has been the

general course of development of science. Thus in chemistry the

diverse substances on the earth’s surface have been found to be com-

posed of about 100 simpler substances or elements; and these elements,

in their turn, of different numbers of positive and negative electrons.

Similarly the forms of radiant energy—heat, light, X-rays, electro-

magnetic waves—have all been reduced to one kind differing only in

size. So also in the case of those other entities with which physics

deals—electricity, magnetism, force, energy, matter, heat—increase of

knowledge has enabled a considerable simplification accompanied by

a clarification of ideas.

The end of this movement must be to express the physical entities

of the universe in the terms of the four dimensions, three of space and

that of time. With these four dimensions we should then be able to

write the whole of the physical universe in the equations of a four

. dimensional space.

There is, to be sure, a fifth dimension, which we must at present

conserve, namely, the unknown dimensions of psychism. By psychism

I mean that property of matter, at present neglected by the physicist,

which is exhibited in its clearest form in living things and which shows

itself in thought and consciousness in such large psychic units as

ourselves. The course of evolution of living beings has been such as to

create larger and more perfect psychic units. We might formulate

the general law that the course of evolution was in the direction of

increase of psychism. If we put P for the undetermined dimensions

of psychism,—the unknown, and usually unrecognized, psychic factor

1 Received, April 12, 1923.

195

196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 10

in all matter and energy—the five dimensions in which the universe

as at present known to us could then be described would be (Ii)

x (Ly) X (L3) X (T) x (P). It may be possible in the future to write

(P) in terms of space and time. Indeed it may possibly be nothing

else than time, since, as has been generally recognized, time has a

definite psychical element in it.

Leaving the dimensions of P at one side, the object of the present

paper is to show how all the physical phenomena of the world may be

expressed in dimensions of space and time to the great simplification

and clarification of many conceptions.

Several attempts to do this have been made already with more or less

success. Sir Oliver Lodge,? for example, has pointed out that the

2 Lodge: Modern Views of Electricity, 1889, Macmillan & Co. Appendix, page 402.

“Comparing many electrical equations with corresponding mechanical ones we find

that the product LC (L being length and C current) takes the place of momentum(mv)

and that 1/2 LC? takes the place of kinetic energy (1/2 mv?) and indeed is the energy of

a current. Hence it is natural to think of L as involving inertia and of » and 47 was a

kind of density of the medium concerned. Assuming this 4 7/K at once becomes an

elasticity coefficient (as indeed electrostatics suggests) because »Kv? = 1; and the

dimensions of all electrical units can be specified as follows, without any arbitrary

convention or distinction between electrostatic and electromagnetic units.

strain area LT?

Sp. ind. cap. K = = ~~ = — = shearabilit

= te stress force M .

inertia M ae let

= —— = — = densi

volume L# if

: volume

Electric charge = L? = ————

displacement

} M ;

Magnetic pole = T momentum per unit length

Electric current = acy displacement X velocity

, ML

Magnetic moment = ang momentum

work M : $

E. M. F. = Qn = a pressure X displacement, or work per unit area

: - E 3h :

Intensity of magnetic field, H = Ae = velocity

: ; Fr M :

Intensity of electrostatic field, Q — br = energy per unit volume

Surface density = a pure number

Electric tension = —— = a pressure or tension

LT?

MAY 19, 1923 MATHEWS: PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS 197

dimensions of (e), quantity of electricity, may be (L?). Lewis and

Adams? in the manner of the relativists reduced space and time to one

dimension, an interval, I; but kept mass, M, as a dimension. They

thus equate time with length. On this basis and disregarding specific

inductive capacity which now, with velocity, has no dimensions, they

attempt to explain several exact numerical agreements they have

found between various constants. These agreements will be con-

sidered in a later paper.

In all these attempts to reduce the number of dimensions, mass

has been the principal stumbling block. The discovery of the electrical

constitution of matter enables us, however, to write mass in terms of

electricity and self induction and reduce it to the dimensions of space,

or (L’). Fournier d’Albe* has already shown how the dimensions of

magnetism may be written in those of electricity, but he still keeps

electric quantity, or (e), as a fundamental unit along with mass.

His identification of magnetism with electricity in motion, however,

practically involves the conclusion that magnetic permeability, u,

which is generally considered to be a density, has no dimensions, and

that accordingly mass and space are identical.

Since electricity appears to be the most fundamental quantity of all,

the first step is to reduce it to the dimensions of L?.

I. THE DIMENSIONS OF QUANTITY OF ELECTRICITY, (e)

Matter is composed of electrical charges, the atoms being essentially

electrical doublets; positively charged nuclei or spheres, accompanied

by an equal quantity of negative electricity, negative electrons.

By matter we express three fundamental concepts, namely space,

weight and inertia. Matter is that which occupies space, and possesses

, Oy piri : ;

Capacity, S = E = ary = displacement per unit pressure

Coefficient of resistance = — = -——~ = impulse or momentum per unit volume

Magnetomotive force = 4 nC = To current

Reluctance = 1/yA = L?/M = area/inertia

Magnetic induction, I = M/T = moment of momentum per unit area

Coefficient of induction (self or mutual) 1/C = M/L? = inertia per unit area

8 Lewis and Adams: A Theory of Ultimate Rational Units; numerical relations

between elementary charge, Wirkungs quantum, constant of Stefans Law. Physical

Review, 1914, Ser. 2, III, p. 92.

198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 10

inertia and weight. Matter or mass has three spatial dimensions and

it is from it that we get our conception of 3 dimensional space. The

recognition that matter consists of electric charges carries with it the

consequence that inertia is self induction. For to move electrical

charges, or to change their rate of motion, work, positive or negative,

must be done. Inertia is hence nothing but self induction. Every

time an object is moved a myriad of parallel electric currents are

produced. The self induction, or inertia, is due presumably to the

production of a stress, strain or twist in the ether. This ether stress,

flux or twist per second is what is known as energy.

Mass is then proportional to quantity of electricity and self

induction. .

(1) Mass = Quantity of electricity x self-induction.

(2) M = (e) x I

Substituting the dimensions for these quantities:

(3) (M) = (M¥?L82T7Kv? x L p)

and since uv/2Ki2 = =

(4) (M) = (sever x L x 14) Te (M¥21,3/2,,1/2)

(5) .*. (M) = (Ly)

6) wo = (¥)

In other words », magnetic permeability, has the dimensions of a

density as recognized by Maxwell, Lodge and Williams.

(7) Since (uK) = i?

LI? TONS ‘ :

(8) fe. (i) = ( =) = specific inductive capacity

Substituting this value of K in the dimensions of (e)

(9) (e) a, (M127 32T—-1 2) = (sneer ot = (L2)

Quantity of electricity, or (e), has therefore the dimensions of L?,

as already pointed out as a possibility by Lodge.’

MAY 19, 1923 MATHEWS: PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS 199

II. THE DIMENSIONS OF MAGNETISM OR MAGNETIC FLUX

The electrical theory of magnetism shows that this is nothing else

than the phenomenon of electricity in motion. The quantity of it,

that is (M’), or magnetic flux, is determined by, or is nothing else

than, the quantity of electricity multiplied by its velocity. Hence

the dimensions of magnetic flux (M’)

(10) (M’) = (e) X (v) = (1 x})

ities ob

(11) .'. (M’) = 7

Magnetism is space per second; or it is electric quantity x velocity;

acd I? L

or it is electric current, le! times a length; or it is current, (=) x

inductance (L); or mass X a frequency.

III. THE DIMENSIONS OF MASS

The dimensions of mass may be obtained from those of magnetism:

(12) (M’) = (M12]3/T-1y1/2)

Substituting for » its dimension i in (6)

He WS . M

(13) (M’) = (seven ua) = (*)

That is magnetism is mass per second. Or in another way, mass)

(M), is nothing else than magnetic flux-seconds. But as shown in

(11) magnetic flux is the product of electric quantity by velocity, or

(M’) = (=). Hence:

| L3 M

Ma: (2) - @)

(15) .*. (M) = (1)

Mass, therefore, has three dimensions of space. This follows also

from the dimensions of », magnetic permeability. This, as has been

shown, is a density, or (+). and it is usually identified with the density

of the ether (Maxwell, Lodge, Tunzelman, etc.). Since the ether is

200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 10

incompressible, its density is everywhere the same. Consequently

mass may be identified with volume of ether. It has the dimensions of

space. This is in accordance with the conclusions of Fournier d’ Albe*

who gives » no dimensions and also with the identification of matter

with space by Descartes. Since mass is magnetic flux-seconds, its

relation to the quantum constant, h, which is ergs-seconds, is apparent

at once, and this will be taken up later. Since mass is magnetic flux-

seconds and magnetic flux is quantity of electricity x velocity, mass

is current < inductance X time, or it is, as specified at the outset,

proportional to quantity of electricity <x inductance.

The derivation of the dimensions of mass can also be made from

energy in the following way:

Energy consists of the product of two factors: a quantity factor,

and an intensity factor. The total work it is capable of doing depends

on these two factors. Whether any interchange of energy occurs

between two systems depends always on the intensity factor, not on the

quantity factor. The quantity factor of energy always has the dimen-

sions of mass, (M); the intensity factor has the dimensions of L?/T?,

that is the dimensions of the square of a velocity, or an elasticity. For

example, the total energy in a waterfall is measured by the quantity of

water available multiplied by the height of the fall and the acceleration

due to gravity. The intensity factor is hence height, or (L), times an

acceleration or (L/T?) and this is equal to (L?/T?). These dimensions

must be the same for the intensity factor of every form of energy;

and from them the dimensions of mass may be obtained. For example,

volume energy as it may be called, i.e., the total kinetic energy of the

molecules of a gas, is proportional to the product of the pressure per

square centimeter multiplied into the volume. The intensity factor

here is the pressure per square centimeter, which decides whether

energy will flow from one to another of two containers put into com-

munication. The intensity factor is hence F/L? = M/LT*. But this

is equal to L?/T?. Hence (M) = (L’). Similarly the quantity factor

in the case cited is the volume, (L*), and this is necessarily equal to

(M). Similarly the intensity factor of free energy, the energy of

radiation for instance, is the density of the energy, or the energy per

ec., ML?/L'T? = M/LT? =L?/T?. Hence again M = L*. Tem-

perature is often called the intensity factor of heat energy, but this is

incorrect if temperature be identified with the kinetic energy of the

molecules. The temperature of a molecule is its kinetic energy. The

‘Fournier: The Electron Theory. Longmans, Green & Co. 1906.

MAY 19, 1923 MATHEWS: PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS 201

intensity factor, however, is again the pressure this molecule can exert

per square centimeter, or M/LT?, and this being equal to L?/T?,

M = L’. The intensity of an electrostatic field is M/LT?; from

whence again M = L’,

Hence since everywhere intensity of energy has the same dimensions,

L?/T?, the dimensions of mass are found to be L’, just as they were

found from the electrical constitution of matter.

The great gain made in reducing mass and electric quantity to the

dimensions of (L’) and (L?) respectively will be apparent. If we keep

mass and electricity fundamental dimensions, (M) and (E), as Fournier

does, there is no indication of any relation between them or of their

real meaning. But if we write mass as (L), it is clear at once that it

represents space or volume, that it consists of three components, and

in addition that it contains electric quantity, or (L?) and a length or

self induction, (L). The relation between mass and electricity is seen

at once. Similarly, writing electricity as (e), exhibits nothing of its

qualities, whereas (L?) makes it a surface phenomenon, and relates it

at once to its peculiarity of accumulating on surfaces and to its surface

density. The relations between quantity of magnetism (Z) elec-

tricity (L?), and mass (L’), are clear by simple inspection. For

example, magnetic flux is (L?/T), while electric current is (L?/T).

This shows at once that magnetic flux is the product of current by its

length. And electric quantity or, L?, is magnetic flux x (T/L).

That is, it is magnetic flux times the square root of K, the specific

inductive capacity. The specific inductive capacity has the dimen-

sions of the ratio of electric quantity to quantity of magnetic flux.

The results of considering T equivalent to L, are considered on

page 206.

IV. THE DIMENSIONS OF THE ETHERIAL CONSTANTS

; a M: perks :

Since », magnetic permeability, = Tien ak 1 and so has no dimen-

) K being the specific inductive capacity:

Hee

(16) od @®) i= (7)

These are the dimensions already ascribed to K by Fournier d’Albe.

And as he has pointed out, all the phenomena of refraction and disper-

sions, and (u K) =

202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 10

sion are readily comprehended if K has these dimensions. In other

words, K is inversely as current X a frequency; or inversely as electric

quantity x angular acceleration; or it is inversely as the square of a

velocity, the velocity being the velocity of long etherial waves in the

medium.

All of these have a meaning. For example K being inversely as

electric quantity x angular acceleration would mean that K was directly

proportional to the square of the number of electrons per cc. = a

and 1 + angular acceleration might be the “‘laxity’’ of the electrons.

Also as 7 is elasticity, K is inversely as an elasticity.

While the numerical value of » is very nearly unity, except in

paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, K varies from unity to

80 in dielectrics and to infinity in perfect conductors in which electro-

magnetic waves will be stopped.

The other great etherial constant is that of gravitational permeability,

G. The numerical value of this constant for all known substances is

so near unity that the constant itself is usually omitted from the

formulas of gravitational attraction. And accordingly it is usually

assumed that the gravitational attraction of two masses does not

depend on the medium. ‘This, however, must be an incorrect assump-

tion if electromagnetic mass is also gravitational, as is probable.

Electromagnetic or electrostatic attractions involve the medium, and

as matter is nothing but electrical charges its mutual attraction must

so depend also.

The Newtonian law of attraction shows this necessity also.

The following reasoning equally indicates this.

While electric quantity, or (e), is independent of the medium, the

force between charges, i.e., the attraction or repulsion of two charges,

depends upon the medium. It depends on the specific inductive

capacity, or K. Similarly while quantity of magnetism, or magnetic

flux, that is electricity in motion, does not depend on the medium, the

force between two poles or two currents does so depend. It involves

u, the magnetic permeability. Just so in the case of mass. While the

quantity of mass is independent of the medium, the force between two

masses, which is called gravitation, or weight, must depend on the

medium. ‘This is a necessary consequence of the electrical constitu-

tion of matter. Gravitation must involve a quality of the medium

which we may call the gravitational permeability and designate by G.

MAY 19, 1923 MATHEWS: PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS 203

This may be expected to involve both the specific inductive capacity

and magnetic permeability. To get its dimensions we have to turn

to the Newtonian law of gravitation.

MM’ g

Equation (17), which states that the force of attraction is directly

as the product of the masses and inversely as the square of the distance,

leaves out the gravitational permeability and accordingly does not

balance dimensionally. The equation is ordinarily made to balance

3 5

dimensionally by arbitrarily ascribing to g, the dimensions i

(17)

But this is incorrect, for g is a numerical constant without dimensions,

having the value of 6.66 x 10-8 and is in the equation because the

unit of mass has been arbitrarily chosen as that of 1 cc. of water at a

certain temperature. Had unit mass been defined as that mass

exerting unit force on another similar mass at unit distance, g, would

have had the value of unity and would not have been in. It is clear

that the factor G, gravitational permeability, must be put into the

denominator. Hence the equation would be:

MM’g

ig ~ Gd

| and G will have the dimensions

M T? a2

(19) (G) = (47) 2 (uT?) = eKy = L? X T?

That is, gravitational permeability is equal to magnetic permeability

X specific inductive capacity x electric quantity or area. Its final di-

mension is (T?), which is either the square of a period, or the reciprocal

of angular acceleration. The value of G will probably be unity for all

_ substances except possibly hydrogen, for hydrogen alone is exceptional

in its atomic weight. All other elements have atomic weights which are

whole numbers, the weight of oxygen being taken as 16. Hydrogen

alone has an atomic weight which is not a whole number. Its atom

instead of a weight of 1, is 1.008. It is not probable that this is due

to the presence of isotopes. It may be attributed to the fact that the

gravitational permeability of hydrogen is less than unity and probably

1 ‘

in the proportion (cms Harkins has ascribed the difference

’ See for example Planck. Heat Radiation p. 174-175. (Translation by Masius.)

204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 10

between the weight of hydrogen when free and hydrogen as a constit-

uent of other elements to a ‘‘packing effect,’’ but it ts possibly more

natural to ascribe it to a variation in gravitational permeability.

V. THE NATURE OF ENERGY

The foregoing reduction of physical quantities to space and time

makes clear the nature of energy, which has been so difficult a con-

ception to grasp.

(20) (E) = energy = (a1 x )

but since M = L3

(21) 1 = en ee L? wh tic fl lectri

am G9 ee Or 4 4 vhs magnetic flux X electric quan-

tity per second.

In other words all energy, of whatever kind, potential or kinetic, is the

product of magnetic flux and electric current, or magnetic flux times

electric quantity per second or of magnetic flux times electric quantity

x a frequency. This magnetic flux may be identified, as is usual,

with ether flow (that is electric quantity x velocity), and electric

quantity with ether twist. Hence all energy is in the ether and is

nothing else than a certain quantity of twisted etherial flow or strain.

That potential energy is nothing else than some kind of strain in

the ether, the latter being perfectly elastic, is generally supposed. So

all the energy of position whether this be gravitational energy, as in the

separation of masses; electrostatic, as in the separation of charges;

chemical, as in the separation of atoms; cohesional, as in the separation

of molecules; or magnetic, as in the separation of magnetic poles or

currents, is nothing else than a strain, twist or what not in the ether.

It is an etherial phenomenon. It is always and everywhere magnetic

flux x electric quantity x frequency. Similarly with kinetic energy;

for kinetic energy is the expression of inertia and elasticity. Inertia

is self induction. To move an electric charge from rest, or to increase

its velocity when in motion, strain in the ether is set up or increased

just as in separating unlike charges to make potential energy. The

greater the velocity, and the greater the mass, i.e., the greater the

number of electric charges moved, the greater is this strain. When a

moving body or current stops, or is retarded, this strain or energy or

deformation is suddenly released. Consequently all energy whether

MAY 19, 1923 MATHEWS: PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS 205

kinetic or potential is etherial strain. And quantity of energy is

quantity of etherial distortion per second.

Now both magnetic flux and electric quantity are often particulate.

Magnetic flux x length is so many magnetons; electric quantity, so

many electrons. An electron is the smallest possible amount of

electricity which can exist independently; and a magneton is possibly

the smallest amount of magnetic moment. Hence energy which is

nothing more than the quantity of magnetic flux and electric quantity

formed in the ether per second by moving particulate electric charges

may also be supposed to be particulate. It must be in multiples of

“kinetons.” And we may identify one “kineton” with one quantum

or several quanta of energy.

The quantum constant h has the dimensions of ergs-seconds.

It is, therefore, nothing else than a definite amount of magnetic flux x

electric quantity.

Ls L’ L3

(22) (h) = ergs-seconds = T * Sues (*) = = x u)

Hence h is related to mass. Mass is magnetic flux seconds and h is

ergs-seconds—that is, it is magnetic flux x electric current seconds.

Temperature, 6, has the dimensions of energy. It too is (L*/T?), or

magnetic flux < electricchargepersecond. Temperatureisnothing else

than the product of magnetism by current. This is obvious whether we

are dealing with temperature of a material body which is the kinetic

energy of its molecules and atoms, or the temperature of the ether,

radiant heat, which isnothing else than an electro-magnetic disturbance

in the ether; i.e., a certain quantity of free magnetism xX electric cur-

rent; or latent heat which is potential energy.

This conception that all energy, of all kinds, whether potential or

kinetic, is nothing else than a certain quantity of magnetic flux

multiplied by a certain quantity of electric current in the luminiferous

ether, the writer has found to be extremely useful in simplifying his

conceptions. It is of course an old conception and one which should

be revivified. But if magnetic flux is nothing but a phenomenon of

L LL &

* s . . = See ee Ee

electricity in motion, energy may be represented as TT Xx T x

That is, energy is the product of the square of electric current in the

ether, multiplied by self induction, or by a length; or it is the square

/ L

of electric quantity multiplied by acceleration L? x L? X Te

206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 10

Of these conceptions the most useful appears to the writer to identify

magnetic flux with etherial flow, and electric charge with a twist, as is

usual.

Having identified the quantum constant, h, with the product of a

certain quantity of magnetic flux by electric quantity which when

multipled by a frequency gives energy, one is tempted to go farther and

identify h, with the total minimum quantity of magnetic flux x electric

quantity in a wave front. This quantity is the same in every wave,

whatever its period, which is set up by one electron. If this quantity

is multiplied by the number of such waves per second, we have energy,

that is the amount of magnetic flux times electric quantity per second

radiated by that electron.

Energy is radiated in quanta since no energy is radiated until an

amount of magnetic flux and electric quantity equal to that contained

in a wave front due to one electron is reached. This quantity of

strain must be accumulated before radiation can occur. A wave or

pulse is then set travelling through the ether. It is as if a slip occurred

when this quantity accumulated. Since the wave front contains mass,

(L’), or magnetic flux multiplied by time, the waves will exert pres-

sure, and will be attracted gravitationally.

The relations of the numerical value of h, to other constants of nature

will be considered in a following paper.

Since energy radiated is hn, depending only on frequency, it would

seem to follow that the amplitude of every wave from a single electron

must be the same at its origin. An electron accelerated by the ab-

sorption of energy cannot change its amplitude of radiation. All that

happens by the acceleration is an increase in frequency, a shifting in

other words toward the shorter waves. It is an interesting question

what this fundamental amplitude is. An increase in amplitude could

then only be brought about by the fusion of waves; by an increase in

the number of oscillators, in other words.

For convenience table 1 gives the dimensions of all entities in those

of space and time.

VI. THE DIMENSIONS OF ALL NATURAL PHYSICAL PHENOMENA IF TIME IS

A FOURTH SPATIAL COORDINATE, Ly

In the simple way just stated we have reduced the dimensions of all

physical phenomena to those of space, (Ii, Le, Ls) and time, (T).

If now, time be considered a 4th spatial coordinate and equated with

L, being written Ls, and if we consider this four dimensional space to

be isotropic, so that all four directions are equivalent, as is done in

MAY 19, 1923 MATHEWS: PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS 207

TABLE 1

Time r ae Es I?

Panga T Elasticity ML—T-2 TR

1 a L?

Frequency 7p Surface density i 1

Angular velocity 7 Current 7

. 1 : ; L4

Angular acceleration rT Electric repulsion 7

Gravitational permeability G.= T! (force between charges) pt

Length L Gravitation attraction, M7L—G-1 = 7

Area L? (force between masses)

Electric quantity (e) L? L

L Magnetic attraction M’”L~ = iP

locit =

Nelemey T (force between poles)

i (force between circuits)

Acceleration T2 2

- Electric field 7

sa valk ud Potential

Magnetic flux, M’, = Coefficient of self induction L

LA Magnetic Pole =

Force, MLT~ TP

4 Magnetic Moment 7

Moment MLT~? TT

Ls E. M. F. = 7

Work ML?T~ T2

. L

Ls Intensity of magnetic field p

Energy ML?T~ I?

: L?

L Intensity of electrostatic field 7

Heat, 0 Te

Surface density = a pure number

Ls T

Power Ts Capacity Tr

EVE Fad : 1

Density 3 1 Coefficient of resistance T

L? L2

Pressure per sq. cm. ML'T~? Te Magnetomotive force 7

T? 1

K, sp. ind. cap. Tp Reluctance 1,

u = magnetic permeability 1 he ; L

Moment of inertia, ML? L* Magnetic induction fi

208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 10

relativity, then various interesting results follow, and these may now

be briefly considered. This enables us to write all dimensions as L

or its powers.

terms of L.

In table 2 the dimensions of all entities are given in

TABLE 2

Moment of inertia LS ; 1

Ergs-seconds L‘ Angular velocity r

Mass L? Frequency i

Energy L? '

vere ‘ a: Coefficient of resistance L

emperature

Magnetic moment L3 Rel 1

Volume L: eluctance E

Electric quantity L? , , f : Cee Oe F

Magnetic pole i Without dimensions | = 7, of ye Ja}:

en. en i Magnetic permeability .

spite L? Dielectric constant

ideo 1? Velocity

M A L? Elasticity

aa L? Intensity of electrostatic field

Intensity of tic field

Gravitational permeability L? a et ae. a “i ares:

i ek Se ae ae = ee Constants of nature:

: 1

Angular acceleration TL a (black radiation density) a

maha ges SSD Se Nai ei Ud ah C2 (em. degrees) L4

Time L h (ergs-seconds) L4

Period L ec (ems. per second) 1

Length L e 1

Current ib a (charge to mass) L

Coefficient of self induction L e d

Electromotive force L ke (ergs/degrees) “

Capacit L =

Rint, SR ee force L aia Aad L

wee eee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee m, (mass of electron) L3

Recnetorataine a. m,, (mass of H atom) L3

L e (electron charge) L?

+) yak

It will be observed that magnetic quantity q;; now becomes L?,

and has the dimensions of electrical quantity, (e).

Both are L?.

And this is the same as the dimensions of force and also of gravitational

permeability. Now the only way we recognize magnetism or elec-

tricity is by the force it exerts on charged bodies. It is, therefore,

extremely interesting that all three are nothing but force, L?. Mag-

netic induction and magnetic pole are also L’.

MAY 19, 1923 MATHEWS: PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS 209

Furthermore electric charge being (L*), shows that it cannot be

simple, but must be constituted by the product of two coordinates

(Li) and (L:). It is an interesting question what these two coordinates

areand whether electric quantity, ore, isinreality (L?), or (L?), or (Li) (Le).

It should be possible in the latter case to make an electron charge

either by an increase in L; with less Le, or vice versa. Just as mass can

be formed by much L? and little L,, or by a smaller amount of elec-

tricity and a greater inductance. That is, we may have the same

quantity of mass by moving a large number of electrons slowly; or a

smaller number with greater velocity. Similarly, e may be formed

by moving a long distance along L; and a small distance along I», or

a small interval along L; and a large interval along Lz, or by equal

intervals of both. The square root of e ine. s. u. is 2.185 x 10-5 un-

its of interval or L.

Mass, energy, and moment of magnetism now all have the same

dimensions. They may be identified as equivalent, provided the

various spatial coordinates are equivalent, but not if they are not.

Each has the dimensions of L*. Again it is obvious that each of these

three has in it electric quantity, L*, and self inductance, L. Further-

more if these various coordinates are not the same, we can obtain the

same quantity of mass or energy or magnetic moment by changes in

velocity or in any of the three intervals.

Velocity, elasticity, specific inductive capacity, magnetic per-

meability, intensity of magnetic field, intensity of electrostatic field,

are now without dimensions. They are but the ratio of two intervals

L,/Ly.

Acceleration, sie lr velocity, frequency, coefficient of reer and

reluctance all have the dimensions of the reciprocal of an interval, = é

Time, period, length, current, coefficient of self induction, electro-

motive force, capacity, magnetomotive force, all have the dimension L.

Moment of inertia is L’*.

The interpretation of these results may be left for each one to make

for himself. That they offer an enormous apparent simplification of

things is obvious. In relativity the attempt has been made already to

identify mass with energy. Eddington‘ for example says ‘Hence it

appears that mass (inertia) and energy are essentially the same thing

or at the most two aspects of the same thing.”

The foregoing resolution of the dimensions of each to L’*, or space,

6 Eddington: Space, Time and Gravitation. Cambridge, 1920.

210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 10

clearly indicates this, provided that space is isotropic or that if, when

any one coordinate is selected and named one thing, such as time, or

self induction, the others are at once determined by their relation to this.

Mass and energy have the dimensions of volume. In the terms of the

ether this means that the energy of the ether, like its mass, is every-

where the same. :

But if time is kept as a separate entity not to be equated with a

length, then energy is more than mass. For energy is magnetic flux X

electric quantity per second, and mass is magnetic flux <X time. And

mass is certainly more than inertia since mass is the product of three

variables, Li, L2, L;, whereas inductance has but one, L.

The bearing of these results on the numerical relations of the con-

stants of nature will be considered in a following paper.

MAY 19, 1923 COBB: AMENDATION OF HOPLOLAIMUS 211

ZOOLOGY.—An amendation of Hoplolaimus Daday, 1905, nec

auctores. N. A. Cons, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

In 1905, Daday proposed the new genus Hoplolaimus on the basis

of a single female nema from soil in Paraguay; the characterization was

necessarily imperfect. Daday could give only the location of the vulva

and state his belief that the unseen female organs were double.* The

mouth parts were such that so experienced an observer as Daday

readily concluded he had found a new tylenchoid genus. Hence,

Hoplolaimus.

Hoplolaimus was so imperfectly characterized that numerous subse-

quent authors have referred to it a variety of species that seem certain

not to belong to it, in the light of recent discoveries now to be described.

Hoplolaimus Daday 1905 amend.

Coarsely annuled typical tylenchidae with a prominently set off, lobed

lip-region composed of several annules, and an onchium with more

or less lobed basal bulbs. -f-and-m. Males with

lobed bursa encompassing the tail. Type species

H. coronatus n. sp.

H. coronatusn. sp. 2-4 22% /3 3.3 2.4

The transparent colorless layers of the naked cuticle =

are traversed by plain, transverse striae, all alike,

about three microns apart and easy of resolution, which

are not further resolvable, and which are altered | :

materially on the lateral fields by the presence of *13007 1

three longitudinal wings, occupying a space, measured fre. 1. In the left lateral

midway on the nema, one-third as great as the width chord, (usually) of the male

Hoplolaimus at lat. 86, and in

of the body. The optical expression of these wings theright lateral chord of the

: . : female at lat. 32, there is an

consists of four parallel lines, of which the two outer interesting unpaired spheroi-

ae . . dal amphid-li , one-

are rather distinctly crenate, while the two inner, $3 pee ote bode,

occupying a little less than a third of the wing space, haying counsetions fore /ane

connect with refractive cuticular alterations of the the wingregion in the formof

striae, which thus give rise to a rather distinct more 2, depressed _near-circle, | 8

or less quadrangular network on the lateral fields.

On the neck the wings become reduced to two. The cuticle, about two and

one-half microns thick, is striated internally as well as externally. As usual,

the annules close to the lip region are somewhat narrower than those farther

back. From somewhat behind the anus the final striae on the tail of the

female make a gradually smaller angle with the lateral line and finally encircle

the terminus in the lateral plane. Very slightly oblique longitudinal striae,

due to the attachment of the musculature, are visible in most regions of the

body. There are no dermal appendages and no series of pores has been

seen in the cuticle, but there is an unpaired lateral organ on both the female

and male. (See Fig. 1.) The cylindroid neck becomes convex-conoid at the

rounded head, which is continuous and presents a central mouth opening only

very slightly depressed. The lip region however is a flat, bluntish cone, about

twenty microns broad by eight microns high; it is set apart by a very distinct

212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 10

constriction so that it constitutes a sort of cap on the

front of the head. This somewhat quadrate cap is longitudi-

nally faintly six-lobed and each lobe is again longitudinally

as well as transversely subdivided. See Fig. 2. The lip

region of the male is like that of the female except that

it is more nearly hemispheroid, that is, relatively higher

and slightly larger. There is a rather robust six-ribbed,

yellowish, dome-like structure as the framework of the lip-

region, through it is obscured by the nature of the cuticular

covering. This framework extends a little back of the

labial constriction and its yellow color becomes more evi-

dent here. See Fig. 3. Needless to say, therefore, the

amalgamated lips are fixed, and shut closely around the

anterior extremity of the onchium. Whether the lip region

ae Hs Setaibels | Nepere rece yy but no raat es have

— <4 een seen. e tylenchoid pharynx is of a very robust na-

Miia \thsiaon x500 tre and reminiscent of that of Nemonchus. The base of

Fie, 2. An obligue the onchium, or spear, thirteen microns wide by ten high, is

arr ome tne e very distinctly three bulbed and is about one-fifth as wide as

ae Ae EN a the corresponding portion of the head. Each of the three —

nature of the cap is bulbs 7s anteriorly somewhat ‘lobed,’ presenting sometimes

shown in the front view, two and sometimes three rather distinct forward pointing

pei eben knobs. Owing to its index of refraction this lobed base of

the onchium, as well as the “hilt,” are almost totally invisible in balsam mounts;

while the acute tapering anterior part remains distinctly visible,—another

evidence of the two-fold character (and origin) of the tylenchoid onchium.

The posterior attachment of the musculature comprising the ellipsoidal

pharyngeal bulb, which is one-half as wide as the head, is not only to the front

portion of the bulbs of the onchium but also to their posterior surfaces. The

hilt is about half as wide as the bulbous base; the anterior end of the spear is

blunt, and the lumen relatively unusually narrow ;—all which makes the spear

an unusually substantial structure, capable of puncturing tissues offering con-

siderable resistance. In harmony with this, the ellipsoidal to obpyriform

spear guide is of strong construction, consisting in part of six outwardly bowed

elastic elements surrounding the anterior third of the spear and springing back-

ward from the base of the cutinized lip region. (Figs.2and3.) This six-fold

spear guide has a variable length and width, its form changing with the atti-

tude of the spear ;—when at rest, with a length of fourteen microns, its width

is about eight microns,—that is, it is about one-third as wide as the correspond-

ing portion of the head. In addition to this spear guide the cutinized lip-

region fits closely around the anterior portion of the spear for a considerable

distance. Both the spear and the spear guide appear to present traces

of transverse striation corresponding in fineness with the minute subdivisions

of the annules sometimes visible in the subcuticle. The two parts of the

spear are rather distinctly set off from each other by a very fine transverse

junction mark, as in many T'ylenchi. No amphids, deirids or phasmids have

been seen. There are no eyespots. The oesophagus is tylenchoid, presenting

however, as already indicated, a rather distinct pharyngeal bulb, something

rather uncommon in the T'ylenchidae. The spherical or oblate median oeso-

phageal bulb is half as wide as the corresponding portion of the neck, and is set

off both fore and aft from the remaining narrow portions of the oesophagus,—

very abruptly behind and rather abruptly in front. Behind the median bulb

the narrow oesophagus gradually enlarges to form a rather obscure posterior

MAY. 19, 1923 COBB: AMENDATION OF HOPLOLAIMUS 213

long-clavate swelling which at its widest part is one-fourth as wide as the base of

the neck. It is however natural to imagine the swollen salivary glands to be

joined with this inconspicuous posterior portion of the oesophague and thus at

first to get an idea that the posterior part of the oesophagus comprises a wide

clavate swelling, three-fourths as wide as the base of the neck. We may say

therefore that the oesophagus behind the pharynx is about one-seventh, at the

nerve-ring also about one-seventh, and finally about one-fourth as wide as the

corresponding portion of the neck. ‘The lining of the oesophagus is a distinct

feature arteriorly and consists of a narrow highly refractive tube; posteriorly

the lining is inconspicuous. The musculature is fine and colorless. There are

three salivary glands clustered opposite the posterior two-fifths of the oesopha-

gus. One of these cells comprises the anterior portion of the cluster, while the

other two may lie more or less opposite each other as the posterior part.

The salivary glands are very well developed, and two of them,

submedian, empty through ducts into the base of the valve of

the median bulb, while the third, the dorsal, passes forward and

empties into the dorsal side of the oesophageal lumen not far

behind the base of the onchium. At the mouth of each duct

a faint ampulla is usually visible. The median oesophageal

bulb presents a spheroidal, simple, strongly refractive

valve one-sixth as wide as the bulb itself. There’ is no

distinct cardia. The thick-walled intestine, which presents

a distinct refractive lumen, is not set off from the oesoph-

agus by a cardiac collum, the change from oesophagus to

intestine being gradual. The intestine has its cells closely

packed with granules of variable size, the largest being

one-twelfth to one-sixteenth as wide as the body. These

colorless, non-birefringent, spherical granules gradually de-

crease in number in the cardiac region and cease altogether

opposite the posterior portion of the salivary glands; they are

sometimes so arranged as to give rise to a tessellated effect. ace Nea

The intestine somewhat gradually becomes four-fifths as wide ase aus au

as the body, and is composed of cells of such a size that two to a semi-contour of the

three are presented in each cross section. The cells of the body in the same

intestine are so closely packed with granules as to make it 7 wake ae

difficult to examine successfully in living specimens details “°°”

of the anatomy of adjacent organs. The exceedingly small

anus and the rectum are very inconspicuous. Thereisnopre-rectum. The tazl

is of an elongate hemispheroid form, very broad and rounded at the extremity,

and symmetrical. There is no spinneret and there are no caudal glands.

Measured at the latitude of the nerve-ring, the lateral chords are as wide as the

cuticle is thick, or wider; somewhat farther back, they are about one-third as

wideasthe body. They contain scattered colorless refractive spherical gran-

ules of variable size, considerably smaller than those of the intestine. Behind

the base of the neck, at a distance about equal to the diameter of the body,

there is a cell which presses the intestine well to one side. This cell is about

as long as wide but not spheroidal. It is finely granular, one-half as wide as

the body, and seems very probably to be connected with the renette. The

excretory pore, which is opposite the base of the neck, is rather distinctly to be

seen, though of small size. It lies between two annules, and the nearer stria-

tion swerves a little to one side for it. The renette duct leads inward and to the

right along theright lateral chord. Fromthe somewhat depressed, rather large

and rather conspicuous vulva, which is a transverse slit two-fifths as long as

214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 10

the body is wide, the strongly cutinized medium sized vagina extends inward

at right angles to the ventral surface half the way across the body. From to-

ward the ends of the valvular open-

ing four muscles pass obliquely to

the ventrally submedian regions

of the body, two forward and

two backward,—two to the right

and two to the left. Furthermore

there are two transverse valvular

muscles attached near the ends

of the opening and fanning out

to the lateral parts of the body

wall, one right and the other

left, each partially encircling the

intestine. Each of the two out-

stretched uteri, about two body-

widths long and about one-fourth

as wide as the body, at its distal

extremity presents a spermatheca

three-fourths as wide as the body,

sometimes containing what appear

to be toward one hundred sausage

it shaped sperm cells each some-

Fia. 4. Lateral and ventral views of the tail end of the times having a bunch of chromo-

male of Hoplolaimus coronatus n.sp. Treated with potas-

sium hydrate to obliterate non-cutinized structures. somes at oneend. These sperma-

theca are located at a distance

from the vulva two or three times

as great as the diameter of the body. In the late autumn they are a very uni-

form feature of the adult females which have deposited no, or very few, eggs.

As thus far seen, the slender outstretched ovaries are about one-fourth as wide

as the body; both lie on the left side. They are narrow and somewhat cylin-

droid and contain one hundred or more ova arranged somewhat irregularly.

oy te tee 97.5 The male is like the female inform. The

24 28 3.2 3.6 a2. U4 Spicula are colorless. A portion of the

ii pent irae ; Ba gubernaculum lies ventrad,—(telamon of

Hall). See Fig. 4. There are no preanal ventral supplementary male

organs, and no ribs occur in the bursa. The striae of the bursa on the

ventral side are less distinct near the ventral line. The terminal lobe of

the bursa appears destitute of striation; if any striae are present they

must be exceedingly fine. The vas deferens appears to be about one-half as

wide asthe body. The narrow cylindroid testis tapers a little, and at the blind

end is only one-fourth as wide as the body. The granular sperm cells seen in

the vas deferens are about one-tenth as wide as the body; the spermatocytes,

farther forward, one-eighth. ‘

Habitat: Found in soil immediately about a Mermis “nest,” (Agamermis

decaudata), Four Mile Run, Falls Church, Va., U.S.A. Nov., 1922.

The movements of this nema are very slow. The limber body readily takes

on sharp sigmoid curves and is sometimes seen coiled; in fact the males can

coil rather closely. From this amended characterization it seems evident

the Hoplolaimus Daday (not of other authors) is a rather clearly marked

genus. ‘The closest relative of Hoplolaimus is Dolichodorus Cobb 1914.

TTT

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MAY 19, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 215

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

878TH MEETING

The 878th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium on Saturday,

February 10, 1923, with President White in the chair and 43 persons in

attendance.

Mr. G. W. Lirrtenaues addressed the Society on New resources to

lighten the labor of navigators in finding geographical position from observations

of celestial bodies. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides and was

discussed by Messrs. Rup, Lirrrock, and Peters.

Author’s abstract: Included in the equipment of navigators are instru-

ments for measuring the altitude of celestial bodies above the horizon and

also chronometers or watches intended to show, from instant to instant,

the time of day at the meridian of Greenwich.

An observer who has determined the altitude of a celestial body at a

given instant of time has in reality located himself at the end of a radius

whose length is the zenith distance, or 90° minus the altitude of the celestial

body, and whose origin or center is the geographical position of the observed

celestial body, or that place on the surface of the earth which is vertically

under the observed body at the instant of observation. In the absence of

knowledge of the precise direction of the radius, the only definite informa-

tion to be obtained from the observation of the altitude of a celestial body

at a given instant is that the observer is located on the circumference of a

circle described by the radius.

Each separate altitude and corresponding Greenwich time of observation,

whether it be of a different celestial body or of the same celestial body in a

different quarter of the heavens, will result in one of these circles of position;

and it is by the intersection of the circumferences of two or more of these

circles that the actual geographical position of the observer is fixed.

Of course, if the observer has migrated in the interval between two ob-

servations, it will be necessary, in order to find his geographical position at

the instant of the second sight, to consider the center of the first circle of

position to be moved in a direction represented by his true course between

the stations and by an amount equal to the distance between them.

These circles are called Sumner circles or circles of equal altitude since

the circumference of each traces out a line on the earth’s surface from every

point in which the altitude of the observed celestial body is the same at the

time of observation. In practice it is unnecessary to draw the whole of the

circumference corresponding to each observation.

Every part of the Sumner circle is perpendicular to the true bearing of

the celestial body observed, and therefore the azimuth of the body observed

is equal to the angle which the Sumner line makes with the parallels of

latitude on the Mercator chart. Hence, if the latitude and longitude of

one point in the Sumner line be known, and also the true azimuth of the

observed position, the line may be drawn on the chart.

The process by which the longitude corresponding to a given latitude, or

rather the relative longitude or hour angle, and also the azimuth are calcu-

lated is simply the solution of the spherical triangle whose sides are the

estimated co-latitude, the zenith distance or co-altitude, and the polar

distance or co-declination. These three sides are the data: the results to

be calculated are the hour angle of the celestial body from the ship’s meridian, .

and the azimuth.

216 JOURNAL OF THE, WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 10

It is evident that if the solutions of these two angles are tabulated cor-

responding to all the usual values of each of the three sides of the triangle,

there will be no need for any calculation, and, hence, that a simplification

is afforded in obtaining the data for drawing the Sumner line by the new

tables of simultaneous hour angles and azimuths in which are given the

values of the hour angle and azimuth that a celestial body would have at

stated true altitudes above the horizon of an observer situated in successive

degrees of latitude ranging from 60° north to 60° south of the equator.

Mr. C. V. Hopason presented a paper on Precise measurement of dis-

tances on the earth. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides and was

discussed by Messrs. Wm. Bow1z, Rupr, Pawnine, Tuckerman, Hum-

PHREYS, HAWKESWORTH, FERNER, and GISsH.

Author’s abstract: The first part of the paper was a brief résumé of the

earlier methods of precise distance measurements with reference to the

approximate accuracy obtained with each. Lantern slides were shown of

the contact bar, duplex bar, wire bar and tapes, with references to the prin-

cipal mechanical and theoretical features of each, and their advantages and

disadvantages.

A recent extension of the principles of precise base measurement to pre-

cise traverse was then discussed. About 3000 miles of precise traverse has

been executed in the United States by the Coast and Geodetic Survey in

regions where triangulation would be very expensive. The accuracy of

this traverse, as measured by closure in position, is usually from 1—70,000

to 1-100,000. The cost will range from $38.00 to $60.00 per mile, and the

speed with the single party from 60 to 120 miles per month.

As an indication of the accuracy which may be obtained with invar tapes,

reference was made to a precise base being measured in California where

the accuracy desired is represented by an actual error of 1 part in 1,000,000

with a probable error of about 1 part in 4,000,000. Such accuracy necessi-

tates unusual refinement in methods, some of which consist of special stand-

ardizations of tapes and bars, corrections for the temperature of the springs

and the balances, investigations as to the amount of error resulting from

slight errors in tension, temperature and inclination of tapes, and special

field methods to limit such errors.

Mr. R. W. G. Wyckorr presented two papers, (1) on Atomic radii,

and (2) on Crystal structure of the alums. The papers were illustrated by

lantern slides and were discussed by Messrs. TucKERMAN, WILLIAMSON,

SosMANn, and GIsH.

Author’s abstract: A comparative study has been made of the best available

crystal structure data to see whether they are in agreement with the hypoth-

esis of constant atomic radii advanced two years ago by W. L. Bragg. Ac-

cording to this hypothesis if a definite size is assigned to the atoms of the

various elements, crystals can be built up by packing together these atomic

spheres. The existing data show clearly that this idea is not satisfied by

the better information now at hand. They do, however, conform quite

exactly to the rule that in isomorphous crystals composed of only two kinds

of atoms the interatomic distances have additive properties which can be

illustrated through a summing up of “atomic radii.”” The rule often holds

approximately between the most electropositive and electronegative atoms

of a crystal but deviates widely in its application to the other atomic separa-

tions. In crystals of different sorts the effective volume of an atom depends

both upon the nature of the other atoms with which it is associated and the

manner of their distribution about it. These data seem to show furthermore

MAY 19, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 217

that the more nearly alike is this atomic environment in the two cases, the

closer together are the ‘‘atomic radii” of an atom occurring in both.

Author’s abstract: Laue photographic studies upon potassium and am-

monium aluminum alums show that the previous X-ray spectrometer data

(Vegard and Schjelderup) are incorrect and assign an incorrect atomic

arrangement. A comparison of the spectrometer measurements with some

spectrographic observations proves that the spectrometer inaccuracies arise

from the entrance of reflections from other than the principal reflecting face

into the ionization chamber. This difficulty is pointed out to be one in-

herent in the spectrometer technique itself so. that the alums thus furnish

an excellent and clear-cut illustration of the insufficiency of the original

spectrometer procedure for the determination of the structures of crystals

using X-rays.

The unit cube of the correct structure contains four molecules of the

composition RAI(SO,4)2-12HO:, where R is either K or NH;. The 12 water

molecules fall into two groups of six each. The hydrogen atoms in the

ammonium group present an interesting difficulty in the impossibility of

arranging them into a chemically plausible radical which will possess a

symmetry in keeping with that of the crystal as a whole. For these crystals

the corresponding space group is T)°.

879TH MEETING

The 879th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium on Saturday,

February 24, 1923. It was called to order by President White with 24

persons present.

Owing to some delay at the projecting lantern, opportunity was afforded

for informal communications. Mr. I. G. Priest presented an informal

communication on a new variation in the use of the Nicol prism. Dr. W. J.

Humpueeys presented an informal communication on a correct explanation

of the diffraction phenomenon commonly known as the “glory” or “‘Brocken-

bow.”

Dr. C. G. Petmrs presented a paper on Changes in the index of refraction

of glass at high temperature. The paper was illustrated with lantern slides

and was discussed by Messrs. WILLIAMSON, GiIsH, HUMPHREYS, WASHBURN,

HAWKESWORTH, WHITE, and SosMAN.

- Author’s abstract: Using an interference method the changes in the re-

fraction of nine different kinds of optical glass were measured over the

temperature interval 20° to 650°C.

The samples made in the form of a plate having two faces parallel were

placed between two fused quartz mirrors and heated in an electrical furnace.

The index at any temperature can be represented by the relation

_ Ny + ANg

Py No a

_ Where N> is the number of light waves between the fused quarz plates at

20°C., Nz the number of waves in glass between the two parallel surfaces of

the plate at the same temperature, AN, the number of fringes that pass the

reference mark on the quartz plates, and AN, the number that pass reference

mark on the glass plate while the temperature is increased to t.

The index of each glass increased with the temperature until the annealing

range was reached which was near 500°C. for these glasses. As the tempera-

ture was still further increased, the index decreased rapidly. The rapid

218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 10

decrease in the index between 500 and 650°C. is due to the decrease in density

caused by the rapid increase in the expansivity of glass in this region.

It is usually assumed that the index changes according to the relation

w—l

between 20 and 500°C., while the density decreased. This increase in index

must be due to the same influence that causes the ultra-violet absorption

band to move toward the longer wave-length region when glass is heated.

The effect of this cause must be the difference between the measured value

for the index and the value computed from the density relation. This was

found to increase at a constant rate even through the critical region between

500 and 600°C.

By invitation, Mr. C. C. Kiss presented a paper on Regularities in the

sprectra of chromium and molybdenum. The paper was illustrated with

lantern slides and was discussed by Messrs. Monier, HAwKESWORTH,

Merceers, SosMAN, and HUMPHREYS.

Author’s abstract: The elements in whose spectra series have been found

fall, with a few exceptions, in the first three columns of the Periodic Table.

The unravelling of series relationships in the spectra of the other elements

has been delayed partly because of the complexity of their spectra but chiefly

by the lack of reliable wave-length data in the spectral regions to the red of

wave-length 6000 A. Recent studies of the are spectra of chromium and

molybdenum at the Bureau of Standards have led to the discovery of series

and other regularities in them. The same types of series exist in both spectra.

In each spectrum, there are two systems of series whose members are widely

separated triplets. ach system consists of a principal, sharp, and diffuse

series, the members of which are separated from the homologous members

of the second or parallel system by constant frequency differences. For

chromium the characteristic triplet separations are Au. = 112.4, Au = 81.4

and Av,’ = 115.1, Ave’ = 91.4; while for molybdenum the corresponding

data are Ay, = 448.5, Ave = 257.5 and Any’ = 379.9, Ave’ = 233.4. In

addition to the wide triplets, each spectrum contains narrow triplets of which

the separations are Av; = 8.8, Av2 = 5.6 for chromium, and Ay; = 121.5,

Av, = 87.0 formolybdenum. Besides the series regularities there exist in each

spectrum other regularities known as multiplets. These consist of groups of

nine or twelve lines linked together by constant frequency differences. Since

more lines of the spectra of these elements have been assigned to multiplets

than to series, it would seem to indicate that the multiplet rather than the

series type of regularity is the predominant one in complex spectra.

= Cor a similar relation. With glass, however, the index increased

880TH MEETING

The 880th meeting was a joint meeting with the Washington Academy

of Sciences held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium on Saturday, March 10, 1923.

President VAUGHAN of the Washington Academy of Sciences took the chair

with 90 persons in attendance.

Dr. Brices introduced Professor A. SOMMERFELD of Munich, who ad-

dressed the joint meeting on the subject Evidence for the theory of relativity

afforded by atomic physics. The address was illustrated with lantern slides

and was discussed by Messrs. BAurR, Monter, HAWKESWoORTH, and Foore.

On motion of Dr. Briaas, the joint meeting accorded Professor Sommerfeld

a rising vote of thanks for his address.

MAY 19, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 219

881ST MEETING

The 881st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium on Saturday;

March 24, 1923. It was called to order by Vice-President Hazard with 50

persons in attendance.

Mr. J. Pawuine presented a paper on The 9” Transit of the U. S. Naval

Observatory and its work. The paper was illustrated with lantern slides

and was discussed by Dr. Humpureys.

Mr. H. A. Marmer presented a paper on The tidal phenomena in New York

harbor. ‘The paper was illustrated with lantern slides and was discussed

by Messrs. HumpHrReys and Gisu.

Author’s abstract: In New York Harbor the tidal and current phenomena

exhibit more than usual variety because of two geographic features that

distinguish the harbor: (a) Unlike other harbors which generally consist

of a tidal bay or river New York Harbor comprises a system of five tidal

highways that connect with the open sea by means of two inlets many miles

apart; (b) the waterways forming the harbor—Upper Bay, Kill van Kull,

East River, Harlem River and lower Hudson River—are either intercom-

muricating or lead into other bodies of water.

In Upper Bay and in the lower Hudson the tidal and current phenomena

are typical of those found in bays and rivers in which the tidal movement

is of the progressive-wave type. The time of tide becomes later in going

up stream at a rate dependent on the depth, the formula being approximately

r = gd, where r is the rate of advance, g the acceleration of gravity and d

the depth of the waterway. The mean range of the tide decreases in going

upstream, and the strength of current comes about the times of high and

low water.

In the East River, the tide changes by 31 feet through the stretch of 14

geographic miles but not at a uniform rate. The range of tide is 4.4 feet at

the eastern end and 7.2 feet at the western, but in the river near the western

end is a region with a range of 4.0 feet. The strength of the current is very

nearly simultaneous throughout the river.

It has been customary to ascribe the tidal and current phenomena in the

East River to the interference of two tide waves, the one coming from Long

Island Sound and the other from Upper Bay. But these phenomena can

easily be derived by considering the matter from the hydraulic point of view

and a slope-line diagram brings out the principal tidal and current pheno-

mena immediately.

The tidal and current phenomena in the Harlem River and in Kill van

Kull, as in the East River, are conditioned by the fact that the tidal move-

ment in these waterways is largely of the hydraulic type.

A brief description was given of a bifilar suspension direction indicator

used in determining the direction of subsurface currents.

Dr. F. E. Wricut presented a paper on Methods for distinguishing

between natural and cultivated pearls. Specimens of both natural and

cultivated pearls were exhibited, and the paper was discussed by Messrs.

TucKERMAN, Ives, Rupr, and Humpureys.

Author’s abstract: The cultivated pearl from Japan consists of a center

or nucleus of mother-of-pearl] or of an inferior pearl, on which thin concentric

shells of pearly substance have been deposited by the shell secreting epider-

mis of the pearl oyster; it differs from the normal fine pearl of commerce

only in the fact of its foreign nucleus; the fine pearl consists of the thin

concentric shells of the pearly substance throughout. Amy method for

220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 10

distinguishing between cultivated and fine pearls must be based on some

property that brings out the inhomogeneity between the foreign nucleus

and the pearl periphery in the cultivated pearl. If the nucleus is a bead

of mother-of-pearl the fact that the mother-of-pearl reflects the light strongly

along a direction normal to the pearly layers and weakly along other direc-

tions can be used as a criterion. Under proper conditions of illumination

the characteristic mother-of-pearl sheen can be seen shining out as a sub-

dued glow from the nacre bead of a cultivated pearl when held in certain

positions. In transmitted light the corresponding differences in degree of

transparency for directions normal and parallel with the pearly layers of

the nacre bead can be used to reveal its presence. Under intense illumina-

tion the banding of the mother-of-pearl nucleus gives rise to a series of

bright lines on a dark field when the pear] is held in a certain position. In-

tense illumination is obtained by use of a strong artificial light or the sun

focussed by means of a condenser lens on the pearl. The pearl may be

examined in air or immersed in a refractive liquid. Polarized light was

found to be of no assistance except for cutting out glare due to extraneous

light.

A third method is a modification of the method of Galibourg and Ryziger

for examining the walls of the hole drilled through the pearl. In place of

the mercury column which they employed a bead made by fusing the end of

a pure gold wire 0.2 mm. diameter is used as a reflecting mirror. By its

use any irregularities or changes in the substance lining the hole in the pearl

can be seen reflected by the gold bead when examined under proper condi-

tions of illumination through a low power microscope or binocular.

882ND MEETING

The 882nd meeting was held jointly with the Washington Academy of

Sciences, the Washington Society of Engineers, and the American Society

for Steel Treating in the auditorium of the Interior Building on Saturday,

March 31, 1923.

The chair was taken by President Wuitrr of the Philosophical Society

with 150 persons in attendance.

Dr. WattreR Rosenuatn, F. R. 8., of the National Physical Laboratory,

addressed the meeting on The structure and constitution of alloys. The

address was illustrated with lantern slides and was followed by discussion.

J. P. Auut, Recording Secretary.

MAY 19, 1923 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 221

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The National Academy of Sciences met at the National Museum April 23-

25. On the evening of April 23 an address was given by Dr. W. W. Camp-

BELL: Résumé of results obtained by the Crocker Eclipse Expeditions from Lick

Observatory. A reception followed in the galleries of the Museum.

The annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union was held at the

Carnegie Institution on April 17-19. The following sections held meetings:

Geodesy, Seismology, Meteorology, Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity,

Oceanography, Volcanology, and Geophysical Chemistry.

At the Bureau of Standards Physics Club on Wednesday, April 18, Pro-

fessor R. A. MILuikan spoke on The penetrating radiations of the upper air.

Dr. L. Srzperstern lectured on The helium atom at the Bureau of

Standards, Monday, April 23. :

The following two meetings were held in the Assembly Room of the

Carnegie Institution. Thursday, April 19. Program: R. A. MILLIKaNn:

Present problems in the field of atomic structure and their bearing upon the

nature of ethereal radiations. Wednesday, April 25. Program: A. A.

Micuetson: Application of interference methods to astronomy.

In connection with the annual meeting of the Association of Scientific

Apparatus Makers, held in Washington on April 20, there was an exhibit

of apparatus in the Industrial Building, Bureau of Standards. A number of

manufacturers displayed some of their newer developments.

Dr. Sven Henin, the Swedish explorer, gave a talk in the National Museum

on Wednesday, April 18, on Discoveries in Eastern Turkistan and Southern

Tibet.

Dr. GrorcE KimBatu Burcesss has been appointed director of the Bureau

of Standards, to succeed Dr. S. W. Srrarron. Dr. Burgess entered the

Bureau as assistant physicist in 1903, was associate physicist from 1905

until 1913, when he became chief of the Division of Metallurgy, which

position he has held up to the present time.

At the meeting of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia on

April 11 the John Scott medal and prize were awarded by the City of Phila-

delphia to Dr. ArtHuR L. Day, director of the Geophysical Laboratory,

Carnegie Institution of Washington, for his work in the interpretation of

geological phenomena and for producing optical glass.

Mr. New M. Jupp, curator of American Archeology, U. 8. National

Museum, will leave Washington May 1 to resume direction of the National

Geographic Society’s expedition for the exploration of Pueblo Bonito, one

of the largest and best preserved prehistoric ruins in the southwestern United

States.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 13 JUNE 4, 1923 | No. 11

BOTANY.—Dissanthelium, an American genus of grasses. A. S.

Hitcucock, Bureau of Plant Industry.

The genus Dissanthelium is interesting because of the peculiar

distribution of its three species and because of the confused nomen-

clature of the original Peruvian species.

Of the three species now referred to this genus, two are found in

the Andes of Peru and Bolivia, one occurring also in Mexico, and a

third is confined to islands off the southern coast of California.

The genus was originally described by Trinius in 1836, based upon

a single species, D. supinum, from Peru, “‘in frigidissimis ad Cerro de

Pasco (America calidiore, Poeppig),’’ and is characterized by the two

awnless florets, exceeded by the equal glumes. Cerro de Pasco is

north of Lima.

The California species is an annual (30 to 40 em. tall), with flat

blades, growing at low altitudes. The other two species are dwarf

alpine plants with narrow often folded or involute blades, D. calycinum

being a cespitose perennial and D. minimum an annual.

The type species of the genus was first described by Presl under

Brizopyrum and was soon after transferred to Poa by Kunth, apparently

without having seen the plant. The writer examined the type speci-

men of Presl’s species at the herbarium of the German University in

Prague and found that it was the same as the type of Trinius’s species,

which he examined in the herbarium of the Academy of Sciences at

St. Petersburg. On grounds of priority the older name must be

adopted. The second Peruvian species was first given a name by

Steudel without description and the plant was distributed by

Hohenacker in his exsiccatae (Lechler, Plantae Peruvianae, no. 1836)

as Vilfa macusaniensis Steud. Later Pilger described the same

species as Dissanthelium minimum, basing it on Weberbauer’s no.

5451 from Peru.

223

224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 11

The synonymy of the species is given below:

1. DIsSANTHELIUM CALIFORNICUM (Nutt.) Benth. in Hook. Icon. Pl. III.

4: 56. pl. 1375. 1881. Based on the next.

Stenochloa californica Nutt. Journ. Acad. Phila. Il. 1: 189. 1848. Type

from Santa Catalina Island, Gambel.

Dr. B. L. Robinson has kindly sent to the U. S. National Herbarium a

tracing of the type specimen in the Gray Herbarium and a fragment of the

inflorescence. The specimen is about 25 em. tall but without the roots,

bearing three flat, lax blades and a narrow panicle 10 cm. long. One of the

spikelets in the fragment sent contains three florets. The label reads,

“*Stenochloa poaeoides. Catalina, Calif.”’ The asterisk indicates a new

species, according to Nuttall’s usual method, but the specific name was

changed in publication to californica. This species does not appear to be

closely related to the other two, but it does not seem to be sufficiently dif-

ferent to constitute a distinct genus.

The only specimen in the U. 8. National Herbarium is from San Cle-

mente Island, California (Trask 324). The specimen from Tassajara Hot

Springs (Elmer 3317), cited in Jepson’s Flora of California (1:141. 1912),

proves to be Poa howellit Vasey & Scribn.

2. Dissanthelium calycilum (Presl) Hitche.

Brizopyrum calycinum Presl, Rel. Haenk. 1: 281. 1830. Locality not known

but probably Peru.

Poa calycina Kunth, Rév. Gram. 1: Suppl. XXVIII. 1834. Based on

the preceding.

Dissanthelium supinum Trin. Linnaea 10: 305. 1836. The type from

Cerro de Pasco, Peru.

Deschampsia mathewsii Ball, Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 22: 60. 1885. Type

from the Peruvian Andes, collected by Mathews.

Dissanthelium sclerochloides Fourn. Mex. Pl. 2: 112. 1886. Fournier

mentions two specimens, Nevada de Toluca, Hahn, and San Luis de

Potosi, Virlet 1434, neither of which I have seen.

In the U. S. National Herbarium are the following specimens of this

species: Mrxico: Nevada de Toluca, Pringle 4222; Ixtaccihuatl, Purpus

1633. Peru: Pifiasniocj, Cook & Gilbert 1297, 1305; Casapalta, Ball in

1882 (a fragment from a duplicate type in the Gray Herbarium). Bo.ivia:

Without locality, Bang 1873.

3. DisSANTHELIUM MINIMUM Pilger, Bot. Jahrb. Engler 56: Beibl. 123: 28.

1920. The type from the mountains of Peru, between Pisco and Aya-

cucho (Weberbauer 5451).

Vilfa macusaniensis Steud.; Lechl. Berb. Amer. Austr. 56. 1857 (nomen

nudum). This work is primarily an account of the genus Berberts in

South America. Appended to this is a list of the plants collected in

South America by Lechler, classified according to countries, each name

followed by the number of the species in Lechler’s exsiccatae as issued

by Hohenacker. In this case the name is under the Peruvian collection

and the number is 1836.

JUNE 4, 1923 COCHRAN: NEW ANOLIS FROM HAITI 225

Graminastrum macusaniense Krause, Beihefte Bot. Centralbl. 32: 348. 1914.

This name is based on Vilfa macusaniensis Steudel. The generic name

used had not previously been published. There is no generic description.

In the U. 8. National Herbarium there are two specimens, one a part of

the type of D. minimum (Weberbauer 5451) kindly sent by Dr. Pilger, the

other a specimen of Lechler’s 1836, contributed from the Vienna Herbarium

by Dr. Zahlbruckner.

ZOOLOGY.—A new Anolis from Haiti. Doris M. Cocuran, U. 8.

National Museum. (Communicated by Dr. L. STEINEGER.)

In a collection of reptiles made in Haiti by the late J. B. Henderson

and Dr. Paul Bartsch during their expedition of 1917, there is a

specimen of a very handsome Anolis, which seems to represent a species

as yet undescribed.

Anolis hendersoni, new species

Diagnosis.—Dorsal scales granular, the 4 or 5 median rows slightly en-

larged; length of tibia much less than distance between tip of snout and ear;

ventrals smooth; tail slightly compressed, nearly three times the length

of head and body.

Type.—Adult male, U. S. N. M. No. 59210; Petionville, Haiti; J. B.

Henderson and Dr. Paul Bartsch, collectors; April 1, 1917.

Description.—Head elongate, its greatest width contained twice in dis-

tance from ear to tip of snout; nostrils lateral, their distance from tip of

snout equalling one-sixteenth of head-length; top of head with two very

low, diverging frontal ridges, reaching nearly to nostrils and enclosing an

elongate depression; head-scales without keels, except the 7 or 8 enlarged

supraoculars, which have blunt keels; rostral rather large, its superior

border curved; 6 or 7 narrow scales in a row between nostrils; supraorbital

semicircles composed of 5 large scales diminishing in size posteriorly, separated

from each other in the median line by a single row of small scales, and from

supraoculars by one row of very small scales; occipital considerably smaller

than ear-opening, separated from supraorbital semicircles by about 4 rows

of scales; 6 elongate scales on canthus rostralis; superciliary ridge consisting

of one extremely long shield and some granules; loreal rows 6 or 7; scales of

suborbital semicircles bluntly keeled, broadly in contact with supralabials;

6 supralabials to a point below center of eye; 7 lower labials; one pair of

mental shields, wider than the rostral; temporal granules about the size of

laterals; a well-marked series of small scales forming the supratemporal line;

a distinct dermal fold from occiput to tail, covered by 4 or 5 rows of enlarged

granular scales, with the median row keeled; the remaining dorsal scales

granular; the laterals extremely minute; granules on nuchal region between

occiput and shoulders coarse, nearly as large as the largest dorsals; ventral

scales moderately large, flat, transversely oblong or pentagonal; scales on

throat and breast smaller and slightly keeled; fore legs with small keeled

scales above; anterior scales of femur enlarged, keeled, gradually diminishing

posteriorly and below; scales covering hands and feet above multicarinate;

digital expansion wide, 35 lamellae under fourth toe and 17 under fourth

finger; tail long, very slightly compressed, without verticils or serrated edge;

226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 11

postanal scales well developed; gular pouch rather small, probably not very

extensible; a transverse fold across throat, and two others in front of shoulder;

hind limb reaches to front of eye; fore limb reaches three-fourths the dis- _

tance to groin.

Dimensions.—Total length, 174 mm.; tip of snout to vent, 46 mm.; vent

to tip of tail, 128 mm.; tip of snout to ear, 16 mm.; tip of snout to center

of eye, 10 mm.; width of head, 8 mm.; fore leg, 17 mm.; hind leg, 36 mm.;

tibia, 12 mm.; anterior border of nostril to tip of snout, 1 mm.

Coloration (in aleohol).—Top of head and neck drab; a dark lateral streak

from rostral, turning to purple behind eye and suddenly narrowing above the

shoulder to a black line continuing to groin; the nuchal region between these

dark streaks marbled with dark bluish-gray to the shoulders, where the

marblings suddenly cease, leaving the back and tail a uniform unspotted

gray; below the dark lateral streak a sharply-defined white stripe beginning

on upper lip below eye and continuing backwards to hind leg, bordered

beneath from axilla to groin by a narrow dark line, the lower edge of which

is produced into dark grayish-blue marblings, in which are anastomosing

white spots; ventral surface pale blue; the lower labials white, flecked with

light gray marblings; limbs pale and unspotted, with dusky bands across the

digits above.

The new species apparently belongs to the same group as the Cuban

Anolis alutaceus Cope, but it can be immediately distinguished from A.

alutaceus by its much longer snout and its distinctive coloration. A long-

snouted species from Navassa, A. longiceps Schmidt, may be related to

A. hendersont. The distance of the nostril from the tip of the snout is one-

fifth the headlength in A. longiceps, and one-sixteenth the headlength in

A. hendersont, and so there is no possibility of confusing the two. The new

species is named after the late J. B. Henderson, in recognition of the in-

valuable services he rendered to science during an all-too-short career. It

is fitting that this exceptionally handsome Anolis, conspicuous even in a

genus of unusual daintiness and beauty, should perpetuate his name in the

region which he loved to explore.

ORNITHOLOGY.—Descriptions of New East Indian Nectarintidae.

Harry C. OBERHOLSER, Biological Survey.

Study of the collection of East Indian sunbirds in the United States

National Museum has brought to light a number of new forms. These

are described in the following pages.

Measurements are all given in millimeters, and have been taken as

in the author’s previous papers. The names of colors are based on

Ridgway’s Color standards and color nomenclature.

Arachnothera affinis heliophilus, subsp. nov.

Subspecific characters.—Similar to Arachnothera affinis affinis from Java,

but smaller; upper surface more greenish (less yellowish); and the anterior

lower parts less distinctly streaked.

JUNE 4, 1923 OBERHOLSER: NEW EAST INDIAN NECTARINIIDAE 227

Description.—Type, adult male, No. 179384, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Loh Sidoh

Bay, northwestern Sumatra, November 6, 1901; Dr. W. L. Abbott. Upper

parts yellowish citrine; tail fuscous black, the basal three-fourths of middle

rectrices and the basal two-thirds of remaining feathers, yellowish dark

citrine, and subterminal spots on four outer rectrices creamy white; wings

fuscous, edged with yellowish citrine; lores, sides of head and of neck, like

the back, but the auriculars somewhat grayish; lower parts between light

olive gray and light grayish olive, streaked with fuscous, and on the medial

posterior portion with olive buff, but the middle of the abdomen plain olive

buff; crissum critine drab, the feathers tipped with olive buff to deep olive

buff; lining of wing pale brownish, outwardly mixed with fuscous and colonial

buff; axillars olive buff.

Measurements of type.—Wing 81 mm.; tail, 48; exposed culmen, 33; tarsus,

18; middle toe without claw, 12.

While this new race is intermediate between Arachnothera affinis affinis

of Java and Arachnothera affinis modesta of the Malay Peninsula, it is dif-

ferent enough from both to be separately recognized. It may be distin-

guished from the latter by its smaller size, darker upper surface, and rather

darker lower parts. It is the form inhabiting most if not all of Sumatra.

Arachnothera chrysogenys astilpna, subsp. nov.

Subspecific characters.—Similar to Arachnothera chrysogenys chrysogenys,

from eastern Sumatra, but upper parts darker, duller, and less yellowish

(more grayish); lower surface rather darker.

Description.—Type, adult male, No. 173289, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Bok Pyin,

Tenasserim, February 14, 1900; Dr. W. L. Abbott. Upper parts olive

citrine; tail dark citrine, the shafts of the feathers fuscous; wings fuscous,

with edgings of citrine and dark citrine; the inner lesser coverts olive citrine;

supra-ocular streak and auricular patch, lemon chrome; remaining portions

of sides of head and of neck like the back in color; anterior lower parts

warbler green, but streaked with the grayish of the base of the feathers,

which in places shows through; sides and flanks olive yellow; the middle of

abdomen and middle of lower breast, wax yellow; crissum similar, but

inclining a little to citrine; lining of wing light fuscous, washed with straw

yellow; ‘feet fleshy brown; bill dark horn brown, yellow along commissure.”

Measurements of type.-—Wing, 81 mm.; tail, 39.5; exposed culmen, 36.5;

tarsus, 19; middle toe without claw, 13.

This race occupies apparently all of the Malay Peninsula.

Arachnothera longirostris antelia, subsp. nov.

Subspecific characters.—Similar to Arachnothera longirostris longirostris,

from Burma, but upper surface duller, less golden (more greenish), and

rather darker; yellow of posterior lower parts lighter, brighter, and more

greenish.

Description.—Type, adult male, No. 169920, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Trang,

Lower Siam, January 1, 1899; Dr. W. L. Abbott. Upper parts rather

dark citrine, the centers of the feathers on the pileum fuscous, their edgings

dark citrine; tail dark fuscous, edged with dark citrine, and tipped (except

on the middle pair of rectrices) with brownish white, most broadly on the

outer feathers; wings fuscous, the quills edged with citrine; coverts margined

with the color of the back; lores and subocular streak, brownish white;

228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 11

auriculars mouse gray; sides of neck like the back; chin and throat rather

light smoke gray; breast and abdomen, dull strontian yellow, washed with

yellowish citrine except on the middle of the abdomen; crissum dull barium

yellow; lining of wing white, the axillars washed with barium yellow.

Measurements of type.—Wing, 66 mm.; tail 44.5; exposed culmen, 36.5;

height of bill at base, 5; tarsus, 15; middle toe without claw, 10.

- This race extends geographically from southern Tenasserim to the southern

end of the Malay Peninsula. It differs from Arachnothera longirostris

melanchima of eastern Sumatra in its lighter, more yellowish (less greenish)

upper parts, and in the more golden hue of the yellow of the under surface.

Arachnothera longirostris heliocrita, subsp. nov.

Subspecific characters.—Resembling Arachnothera longirostris antelia, from

the Malay Peninsula, but with bill smaller; upper parts darker, duller, more

grayish or brownish, the olive green areas more greenish (less yellowish) in

tone; and yellow of posterior lower parts slightly lighter and somewhat less

extensive.

Type.—Adult male, No. 170469, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Selitar, 9 miles from

the town of Singapore, Singapore Island, Federated Malay States, May

17, 1899; Dr. W. L. Abbott.

Measurements of type.—Wing, 67 mm.; tail, 44.5; exposed culmen, 32.5;

height of bill at base, 5; tarsus, 16; middle toe without claw, 10.

This race has been noted only on the island of Singapore. It may be

distinguished from Arachnothera longirostris melanchima, of eastern Sumatra,

by its shorter bill; duller, less greenish (more grayish or brownish) upper

parts; and the somewhat paler, more golden (less greenish) tint of the yellow

of the posterior lower surface.

Anthreptes malacensis heliolusius, subsp. nov.

Subspecific characters.—Similar to Anthreptes malacensis wigleswortht,

from Sulu Island, but much larger.

Description.—Type, adult male, No. 201279, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Basilan

Island, Philippine Islands, January 31, 1906; Dr. E. A. Mearns. Pileum,

cervix, back, and sides of neck, iridescent metallic bottle green with some

purplish reflections; rump and upper tail-coverts, metallic royal purple;

tail fuscous black, the middle feathers more blackish, and with metallic

purple sheen, all the rectrices edged with metallic purple and metallic bottle

green; wings fuscous black, with the quills edged with orange citrine; middle

coverts, edges of greater coverts, and the scapulars, chestnut; lesser coverts

metallic royal purple; sides of head citrine, the upper part of these narrowly

burnt sienna; chin, throat, and jugulum, tawny, bordered laterally with

burnt sienna; breast deep wax yellow; abdomen light dull strontian yellow;

crissum olive yellow; sides and flanks, light yellowish olive; lining of wing

pale grayish brown, washed with citrine.

Measurements of type.—Wing, 68 mm.; tail, 44; exposed culmen, 16;

tarsus, 17; middle toe without claw, 10.5.

This form is intermediate between Anthreptes malacensis wiglesworthi

and Anthreptes malacensis chlorigaster. The female is similar to the female of

Anthreptes malacensis bornensis Riley, but is of a darker, more bronzy green

above, and is much duller, more olivaceous below.

JUNE 4,.1923 OBERHOLSER: NEW EAST INDIAN NECTARINIIDAE 229

Anthreptes malacensis heliocalus, subsp. nov.

Subspecific characters.—Similar' to Anthreptes malacensis heliolusius,

from Basilan Island, but tail and exposed culmen longer; male somewhat

brighter and of a more golden yellowish below; female less bronzy above,

pale ag on rump, and with the golden yellow of the middle of abdomen

righter.

Type.—Adult male, No. 113786, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Great Sanghir Island,

Sanghir Islands, June 30, 1886; Dr. Platen.

Measurements of type-——Wing, 71 mm.; tail, 48; exposed culmen, 18;

tarsus, 17.5; middle toe without claw, 11.

Anthreptes simplex simplicior, subsp. nov.

Subspecific characters.—Similar to Anthrepetes simplex simplex, from Sumatra’

but with lower parts, particularly the breast, sides, and flanks, much paler,

more grayish (less greenish); and upper surface less golden (more greenish).

Description.—Type, adult male, No. 178268, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Central

Borneo, 1899; Dr. A. W. Nieuwenhuis; original number 596. Forehead

metallic dark green; upper parts dark citrine, slightly washed on the occiput

with dark gray; tail citrine, duller terminally, the shafts of the feathers

fuscous; wings fuscous, the edgings of the quills citrine, their superior coverts

edged with dark citrine; aurictiars mouse gray; sides of neck like the back;

chin and throat buffy grayish white; rest of the lower parts light grayish

olive, washed with dull yellowish, except the middle of the abdomen and the

crissum, which are dull grayish reed yellow; lining of wing brownish white,

the edge of wing more brownish and mixed with the color of the crissum.

Measurements of type-—Wing, 63 mm.; tail, 52; exposed culmen, 14;

tarsus, 14.5; middle toe without claw, 9.

This well-differentiated race is apparently confined to Borneo.

Chalcostetha calcostetha heliomarpta, subsp. nov.

Subspecific characters.—Similar to Chalcostetha . calcostetha calcostetha,'

from Java, but with bill averaging longer; in the female, with upper parts,

throat, jugulum, and abdomen paler, and whitish tips on the rectrices larger.

Description.—Type, adult female, No.. 179390, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Simalur

Island, western Sumatra, December 1, 1901; Dr. W. L. Abbott. Pileum

between neutral gray and mouse gray; remainder of upper parts rather

greenish deep olive, the middle portion of the upper tail-coverts dark brown;

tail brownish black, the middle feathers and the outer webs of the others

with a metallic bluish green sheen, and all but the middle pair broadly

tipped with white; wings fuscous, their quills and coverts, excepting the

lesser series, edged externally with citrine, the lesser coverts with the green

of the back; sides of head brownish gray; sides of neck like the back; chin

and throat brownish white; jugulum olive buff, washed with yellowish; middle

of breast, together with the upper abdomen, between wax yellow and citrine

yellow; lower abdomen primrose yellow; sides and flanks, dull olive buff,

washed with pale yellow; crissum grayish white, washed slightly with pale

yellow; lining of wing white, washed with pale yellow; edge of wing pale

colonial buff.

1 N{ectarinia]. calcostetha Jardine, Nat. Hist. Nectariniadae, 1843, p. 263 (‘‘E. Ind.

Islands.”) Since’ this, the earliest name for this species, the Chalcostetha insignis of

most authors, has not, in “‘E. Ind. Islands,” a type locality definite enough for modern

nomenclatural purposes, we designate Java as the type locality.

230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 11

Measurements of type.—Wing, 57.5 mm.; tail, 45.5; exposed culmen, 19;

tarsus, 14.5; middle toe without claw, 10.

So far as known, this race is confined to the island of Simalur. It is dis-

tinguishable from Chalcostetha calcostetha pagicola by its somewhat larger

size, and, in the female, by lighter throat and darker abdomen.

Cinnyris ornata heliobleta, subsp, nov.

Subspecific characters.—Similar to Cinnyris ornata? microleuca from Pulo

Taya, off southeastern Sumatra, but somewhat smaller; the male with upper

surface darker, more greenish (less golden); yellow of posterior lower surface

paler, more greenish (less golden), and flanks more greenish; the female

above less golden in hue, and below paler, less golden, posteriorly.

Description.—Type, adult male, No. 175122, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Tanjong

Dungun, Trengganu, Federated Malay States, September 21, 1900; Dr. W.

L. Abbott. Upper parts dark citrine; tail brownish black, the three outer

rectrices tipped with dull white, most broadly on the outermost; wings

fuscous, the quills and all the coverts, except the primary series, narrowly

margined externally with dark citrine; lores of the same color as the crown;

center of chin, of throat, and of jugulum, raisin black; sides of chin, of throat,

and of jugulum, together with the anterior part of the checks, metallic

indigo blue; remainder of the sides of head, and the sides of neck, dark

citrine; a narrow, somewhat broken, line across the breast at the posterior

edge of the raisin black jugulum, prouts brown; pectoral tufts cadmium

yellow; breast and abdomen, strontian yellow, the crissum paler; sides and

flanks, wax yellow, washed with olivaceous; lining of wing white, washed

with barium yellow; bill and feet black.

Measurements of type-—Wing, 51 mm.; tail, 35; exposed culmen, 17;

tarsus, 13.5; middle toe without claw, 8.5.

Cinnyris ornata proselia, subsp. nov.

Subspecific characters.—Resembling Cinnyris ornata heliobleta, from the

Federated Malay States, but somewhat smaller; male with upper parts

darker, more golden olive, and. yellow of posterior lower parts darker, more

golden; female darker, more golden (less grayish) above, and darker, more

golden posteriorly below.

Type.—Adult male, No. 178889, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Car Nicobar Island,

Nicobar Islands, January 21, 1901; Dr. W. L. Abbott.

Measurements of type.—Wing, 49 mm.; tail, 34.5; exposed culmen, 16.5;

tarsus, 14.5; middle toe without claw, 8.5.

This form is apparently confined to the island of Car Nicobar. It differs

from Cinnyris ornata klossi (Richmond), from the other Nicobar Islands,

in its smaller size; also, in the male, in much less golden (more grayish)

upper surface, and rather lighter posterior lower parts; and, in the female,

in the less golden hue of the upper parts, and lighter, less golden tint of the

yellow of the posterior lower surface. It is, of course, readily distinguish-

able from Cinnyris ornata blanfordi (Baker)* by its much smaller bill.

2 For the change of the name of this species from Cinnyris pectoralis to Cinnyris

ornata, cf. Oberholser, Smithson. Misc. Coll., LX, No. 7, October 26, 1912, p. 18, foot-

note.

3 Cyrtostomus pectoralis blanfordi Baker, Bull. Brit. Ornith. Club, XLI, No. CCLVI,

January 27, 1921, p. 71 (‘‘Kondol Is., Nicobars’’).

JUNE 4, 1923 OBERHOLSER: NEW EAST INDIAN NECTARINIIDAE 231

Mention, in passing, might be made of the fact that Cinnyris ornata

klossi Richmond! is apparently a recognizable race, differing in both sexes

from Cinnyris ornata heliobleta, of the Malay Peninsula in more golden (less

grayish) upper parts, and darker more golden lower surface.

Cinnyris ornata heliomanis, subsp. nov.

Subspecific characters.—Similar to Cinnyris ornata ornata,*? from Java,

but in the male averaging more grayish (less golden) above, and slightly

paler on posterior lower parts; in the female, with a more golden tinge to the

olive of the upper surface, and with more deeply colored and more golden-

hued posterior under surface.

Type.—Adult male, No. 182683, U. S. Nat. Mus.; Salintukan, eastern

Borneo, March 138, 1913; H. C. Raven.

Measurements of type.—Wing, 48.5 mm.; tail, 32.5; exposed culmen, 16;

tarsus, 138; middle toe without claw, 8.

Cinnyris ornata heliozeteta, subsp. nov.

Subspecific characters.—Similar to Cinnyris ornata heliomanis, from Borneo,

but much larger; in the male, with upper surface more golden (less greenish),

and posterior lower parts of a deeper, more golden yellow.

Type.—Adult male, No. 180616, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Tanjong Rengsam,

Banka Island, southeastern Sumatra, May 21, 1904; Dr. W. L. Abbott.

Measurements of type.—Wing, 55 mm.; tail, 37; exposed culmen, 17;

tarsus, 18; middle toe without claw, 10.

Aethopyga siparaja heliotis, subsp. nov.

Subspecific characters.—Similar to Aethopyga siparaja cara, from Tenas-

serim, but larger, and tail more greenish.

Description.—Type, adult male, No. 173263, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Domel

Island, Mergui Archipelago, February 23, 1900; Dr. W. L. Abbott. Fore-

head and fore part of crown, metallic invisible green; lores black; sides of

head and of neck, together with occiput, cervix, scapulars, upper back,

and lesser wing-coverts, between carmine and nopal red; lower back brownish

slate; rump between lemon chrome and light cadmium; upper tail-coverts

metallic diamine green, the middle rectrices dull metallic purple, margined

with metallic diamine green; rest of tail brownish black, margined externally

with metallic purple; wings dark hair brown, the primaries, secondaries,

greater and middle coverts, narrowly margined with dark citrine; chin,

throat, and jugulum, between scarlet red and nopal red; a long submalar

streak metallic prussian blue; posterior lower parts rather light neutral

gray; middle of breast dark brownish, the flanks slightly washed with oliva-

ceous; lining of wing dull white; edge of wing hair brown, slightly washed

with dull red.

Measurements of type-—Wing, 55.5 mm.; tail, 48.5; exposed culmen, 16;

tarsus, 14; middle toe without claw, 13.5.

Aethopyga siparaja heliophiletica, subsp. nov.

Subspecific characters—Similar to Aethopyga siparaja siparaja, from

Sumatra, but larger; and with less extensively blackish posterior lower

parts.

4 Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., XXV, September 17, 1902, p. 297 (‘‘Great Nicobar”’ [Island,

Nicobar Islands]).

5 Type locality, Java.

232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY. OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 11

Type.—Adult male, No. 179405, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Pulo Bangkaru, Banjak

Islands, Barussan Islands, western Sumatra, January 18, 1902; Dr. W.

L. Abbott.

Measurements of type.—Wing, 51.5 mm.; tail, 45; exposed culmen; 15.5;

tarsus, 13.3; middle toe without claw, 13. 3.

This race is sufficiently different from the four other subspecies found on

the various islands of the Barussan chain to be worthy of recognition by

name. From Aethopyga siparaja niasensis, of Nias Island, it may be dis-

tinguished as from Aethopyga siparaja siparaja; from Aethopyga siparaja

tinoptila, of Simalur Island, by somewhat larger size, less extensively blackish,

and less purely grayish (more olivaceous) posterior lower parts; and palit

anterior upper and lower parts.

Aethopyga siparaja heliogona, subsp. nov.

Subspecific characters.—Similar to Aethopyga siparaja eupogon Cabanis,

from Borneo, but smaller, and male with more extensively blackish, and less

olivaceous (more purely grayish) posterior lower parts.

Type.—Adult male, No. 219086, U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Depok, Java, March

29, 1909; William Palmer.

‘Measurements of type.—Wing, 49.5 mm.; tail, 41; exposed culmen, 14.5;

tarsus, 13.5; middle toe without claw, 13. 5.

With the addition of the above Heatiibed races, the forms of Aethopyga

siparaja now apparently recognizable are as follows:

1.—-Aethopyga siparaja siparaja (Raffles). Sumatra to southern Malay

Peninsula.

2.—Aethopyga stparaja tinoptila Oberholser. Pulo Siumat and Simalur

Island, Barussan Islands, western Sumatra.

3.—Aethopyga siparaja melanetra Oberholser. Pulo Lasia and Pulo

Babi, Barussan Islands.

4.—Aethopyga siparaja heliophiletica Oberholser. Banjak Islands, Barus-

san Islands.

5.—Aethopyga siparaja niasensis Hartert. Nias Island, Barussan Islands.

6.—Aethopyga siparaja photina Oberholser. Pagi Islands, Barussan

Islands.

7.—Aethopyga siparaja heliogona Oberholser. Java.

8.—Aethopyga siparaja eupogon Cabanis. Borneo.

9.—Aethopyga siparaja ochropyrrha Oberholser. Anamba Islands.

10.—Aethopyga siparaja lathami (Jardine).6 Central Malay Peninsula,

from about 10° north latitude to about 5° north latitude.

11.—Aethopyga siparaja heliotis Oberholser. Mergui Archipelago.

12.—Aethopyga siparaja nicobarica Hume. Nicobar Islands.

13.—Aethopyga siparaja cara Hume. ‘Tenasserim and Siam.

14.—Aethopyga siparaja viridicauda Rothschild. Shan States.

15.—Aethopyga siparaja andersoni Oates. Burma.

16.—Aethopyga stparaja seheriae (Tickell). Bengal to Assam.

17.—Aethopyga siparaja miles (Hodgson). Nepal.

18.—Aethopyga siparaja goalpariensis (Royle). Northwestern Himalaya.

6 Nectarinia Lathami Jardine, Nat. Hist. Nectariniadae, 1843, p. 233 (‘‘some part of

Continental India’’). This was described from a specimen the exact locality of which is

unknown, but the characters fit the bird from the Central Malay Peninsula, We there-

fore designate the Malay Penisula at 7° north latitude as the type locality.

JUNE 4, 1923 SCHALLER: A NEW SILVER-MINERAL 933

MINERALOGY.!—Argentojarosite, a new silver mineral. (Pre-

liminary note.) Watprmar T. ScHALLER, Geological Survey.

The name argentojarosite is given to a new silver mineral from the

Titanic Standard mine at Dividend, Utah. It forms small hexagonal

scales of a yellow to brown color, and optically is uniaxial, negative.

The mineral closely resembles jarosite, and in fact has been mistaken

for it. In composition the new mineral conforms to the general for-

mula of the minerals of the jarosite group and the mean of several anal-

yses shows that its composition is about as follows: Ag.O, 18 per cent;

Fe.O3, 43 per cent; SO;, 28 per cent; H,O, 10 per cent. A little K,0

is present, also some PbO. This composition yields the formula:

Ag,O: 3Fe,0;-450; 6:0.

The mineral apparently is sufficiently abundant to be ae as an

ore. It is the first silver mineral recorded containing oxygen. A full

description of argentojarosite is in preparation.

1 Received May 16, 1923.

234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 11

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

645TH MEETING

The 645th regular meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos

Club Jan. 6, 1923, at 8.05 p.m., with President Hircucocx in the chair

and 75 persons present.

The report of the treasurer, F. C. Lincon, was read and accepted. It

showed a balance of $5.02 in the general fund and $840 in the publication

fund.

Dr. A. Wetmore, for the auditing committee, reported that the books

of the treasurer had been audited and found correct. His report was ac-

cepted.

The President announced the membership of the Committee on Com-

munications as follows: E. A. GotpmMan, Chairman, C. E. CHAMBLIss,

H. E. Ewine, W. R. Maxon, H. C. Oprrnouser, 8S. A. Ronwer. He also

announced the membership of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature

as follows: G. 8S. Miuer, Jr., Chairman, P. Bartscu, 8. A. RonweEr.

Short notes—Major E. A. GoLpMAN mentioned the symposium on geo-

graphical distribution at the recent A. A. A.S. meeting in Cambridge, referring

especially to a paper by C. T. Bruxs on Peripatus and its allies in the southern

hemisphere.

The regular program was as follows:

EK. J. Rernuarp: Notes on the life history and habits of the solitary wasp,

Philanthus gibbosus (illustrated by lantern slides). The nesting and other

habits of this wasp were described and illustrated by colored slides. The

paper will appear in full in the Smithsonian Report.

VERNON BatLey: Beaver habits and beaver farming (illustrated by lantern

slides). The habits of beavers were discussed on the basis of the speaker’s

experience in various parts of the country, and illustrated by colored slides.

The duration of beaver dams after abandonment, sometimes reaching a

century or more, was emphasized. The importance of beaver farming to

supply the demand for furs was also considered.

S. F. Buaxn, Recording Secretary.

646TH MEETING

The 646th regular meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos

Club, Jan. 20, 1923, at 8:05 p.m., with President Hrrcucock in the chair and

83 persons present.

Dr. ArRANIO DO AMARAL, of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cam-

bridge, Mass., was elected to membership.

The President announced an invitation extended to the Society by the

Regents and Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to a meeting in Com-

memoration of the centenary of the birth of Spencer Fullerton Baird, to be

held in the auditorium of the National Museum, Saturday evening, February

3, the acceptance of which was voted.

Dr. L. O. Howarp described an interesting new case of phoresie in the

Belgian Congo, between a proctotrypid parasite and a Coreid bug. The

female parent is carried about on the head of the female bug and when the

latter deposits her eggs, the parasite instantly places her egg in the egg of

JUNE 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 235

the bug. If the parasite finds herself on the head of a male bug, she jumps

to the female bug when the sexes couple. This interesting observation

was recently made by an Entomologist in the Belgian Congo, Lieut. J.

GHESQUIERE.

Miss P. L. Boone directed attention to the early flowering of trailing

arbutus, pansy violets, golden club, saxifrage, and skunk cabbage near Hyatts-

ville, Md.

Horace M. Awsricut, Superintendent, Yellowstone National Park:

Protecting native wild life in Yellowstone National Park (illustrated by lantern

slides and moving pictures). Park scenery and conditions and the larger

animals were described and illustrated by still and moving pictures. The

desirability of adding to Yellowstone National Park the region about the

sources of the Yellowstone River and Teton Range was advocated. The

larger game animals were said to be wintering in excellent condition. The

number of buffaloes in the introduced herd was reported to be about 578,

in the wild herd about 150. The antelope numbered about 350. Of several

hundred mountain sheep occurring in the Park one hundred and forty-two

had recently been seen. The sheep were reported to have entirely recovered

from scab with which Park animals became infested a few years ago.

Frank R. Liuuie, National Research Council: The problem of the sex

hormones. The réle of the hormones in the differentiation of sex was dis-

cussed. The precision with which hormones operate was stressed, sex being

regarded as inherited like other characters, and the action of sex hormones

regarded as intensifying the zygotic factors of the same sign and vice versa.

Sex is determined at the time of fertilization in accordance with the chro-

mosome complex, and not in accordance with environmental factors. Lip-

schutz’s view that an embryo is essentially asexual until its sex is impressed

upon it by hormones of the male or female type was shown to be untenable.

The speaker also expressed the view that the effects of sex hormones are

strictly limited in the case of the free-martin in cattle, though it is possible

that they may vary in different species. The paper was discussed by A.

A. Dootittie. The principal data are included in a paper to be published

in the Biological Bulletin for February, 1923.

E. A. GotpMan, Recording Secretary, protem.

647TH MEETING

The 647th meeting was held jointly with the Washington Academy of

Sciences and affiliated societies in the auditorium of the National Museum

February 3, 1923, in commemoration of the centenary of the birth of SPENCER

F, Barrp.

648TH MEETING

The 648th regular meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos

Club, February 17, 1923, at 8.10 p.m., with President Hrrcucocx in the chair

and 91 persons present. Mr. R. C. SHANNON was elected to membership.

The President announced the appointment of E. A. Cuapin and H. C.

OBERHOLSER as additional members of the Committee on Zoological Nomen-

clature.

Mr. M. B. Warre directed attention to an article in the Geographical

Journal for January, 1923, describing an ascent of Mount Kilimanjaro.

Interesting features were mentioned including the perfect volcanic cone with

an ice cap inside of crater, and the distribution of plants in belts at different

altitudes.

236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 11.

Dr. L. O. Howarp stated that on Tuesday, last, he addressed a meeting

of a new biological society at Riverton, N. J., the Japanese Beetle Club.

The aim of this society is to consider many questions in biology, the only

restriction being that nothing shall be said about the Japanese beetle.

Dr. T. 8. Patmer referred to the death, just announced in the press, of

B. E. Frernow, former Forester of the United States at, 72 years of age, and.

recalled his active interest in the affairs of the Biological Society.

H. L. Suantz: Plant and animal life in Africa. The vegetation of Africa

varies from the absolute desert to luxuriant tropical rain forest. In a very

general way the vegetation may be arranged in almost concentric bands

around the tropical rain forest of the Congo and Guinea Coast. We pass

outward from this tropical forest through series of grasslands and savannas

and dry forest to the desert proper. In East Africa the occurrence of high-

land modifies the vegetation and gives rise to a temperate grassland and

temperate forest. Lying beyond the desert in both the north and the south

is a brushland of the Mediterranean or Californian type. In a general way

the fauna of Africa may be correlated with vegetation. The greatest herds

of wild game, especially the great wealth of herbivora, and even carnivora,

which feed upon the heribivora, are found in the same desert grasslands and

the rather luxuriant savanna adjacent. In the dense tropical forests many

of the herbivora are entirely lacking. The elephant ranges from the semi-

desert to the dense tropical forest, and from sea level to timber line. Dis-

tribution of many of the other animal types is restricted and can be correlated

very closely with vegetation types. Probably the sharpest faunal line is

that between tropical rain forest and high grass savanna which surrounds it.

H. 8. Bernton, M.D.: Biological aspects of hay fever. A brief outline

of the historical features of the disease was presented. The fact that the

pollens of wind pollinated plants were responsible for symptoms was em-

phasized and the phenomena of “group reaction” was discussed. Mention

was made of the hereditary tendency of the disease which follows the Men-

delian law. ‘The clinical features were enumerated and the theories under-

lying the mechanism of. the disease were also presented. The modern

treatment is that of active immunization, wherein a solution of pollen pro-

tein is administered subcutaneously in gradually increasing doses. ‘Twenty

per cent are entirely relieved of symptoms and ten per cent are not benefited.

The opinion was expressed that the imperfect method of extraction and

especially the method of preserving the antigenic content of the pollen solu-

tions might account for some failures in the treatment. A preliminary

report of the results of feeding experiments with powdered ragweed plant

was also given.

E. A. GotpMAN, Recording Secretary, pro tem.

649TH MEETING

The 649th regular meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos

Club March 3, 1923, at 8 p.m., with President Hrrcucock in the chair

and 54 members present. Miss Anna E. Jenkins, Bureau of Plant Industry,

was elected to membership.

Under Short Notes, Dr. R. W. SHurept read a letter and showed literature

relating to the work of the British Royal Society for the Protection of Birds.

He also exhibited a new work ‘Australian Nature Studies,” by J. A. Leacn

of Melbourne.

Dr. T. 8. Patmer mentioned that Prince MaxmiLniAN von NEUWIED

began his exploring trip up the Missouri River on March 1, 1833, ninety

years ago, and gave a short account of his life and work.

JUNE 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 237

Dr. Huan M. Smirx gave some notes on the flowering of Cercis.

F. V. CovinuE: The effect of aluminum sulphate on rhododendron seedlings.

Rhododendrons do not thrive in ordinary fertile garden or greenhouse soil,

but they grow with great luxuriance in sand mixed with peat, with rotting

wood, or with half-rotted leaves. Although both these types of soil con-

tain an abundance of plant food, the rhododendrons thrive in the peat and

sand mixture because its chemical reaction is acid, and they die in the or-

dinary fertile garden soil because its reaction is neutral or alkaline. Experi-

ments begun in March, 1921, show that the application of aluminum sul-

phate to ordinary fertile garden or greenhouse soil changes its reaction from

neutral or alkaline to acid, and that after this treatment rhododendrons

will thrive in it almost as well as in a natural acid soil of peat and sand.

The paper will be published in full as Bulletin 1 of the newly formed Ameri-

can Horticultural Society, Washington, D. C.

PERLEY SPAULDING: The biology of Pinus strobus. The speaker gave

notes on Pinus strobus as seen in Europe only. It is essentially an orna-

mental except for small areas of forest in Switzerland, eastern France and

Germany. ‘The blister rust caused by Cronartium ribicola is its worst enemy

and is exterminating the species in Europe, as reforestation with it is dis-

continued. Where the blister rust has not attacked it, its timber produc-

tion is of high value. Rabbits prevent its reproduction naturally in Great

Britain, by eating the young seedlings. Jays and squirrels feed on the

seeds, limiting reproduction. Calcareous soils produce yellow-foliaged,

sickly trees. The species is very hardy and quite free from snow breakage.

Fomes annosus attacks it rarely. Peziza calycina occasionally attacks it.

Armillaria mellea is a serious enemy especially on land previously occupied

by hard wood species.

J. M. Aupricu: The Canadian life zone as indicated by insect distribution.

Of the three northern life zones recognized by Merriam and Bailey, the

Canadian is the richest. It contains thousands of species of insects, no

order being better represented than the Diptera. From the beginning it has

proved difficult to fix the limits of the Canadian by any satisfactory list of

typical plants or animals, the species generally shading off into the Transition

or continuing up into the Hudsonian. The speaker found this difficulty also

in the insects, citing numerous cases of species spreading beyond the true

Canadian limits. A number of species of Diptera were cited which confirm

in their appearance at points remote from each other the existence of a real

life zone, though with vague boundaries. The scavenger flies were used to

illustrate the subject further.

H. C. Oseruotser: Notes on birds of the District of Columbia. The

speaker mentioned a number of the rarer birds of the District of Columbia,

illustrating his talk by colored lantern slides of the species discussed.

650TH MEETING

The 650th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Interior building

March 14, 1923, at 8 p.m., jointly with Washington Academy of Sciences,

the Geological Society, and the Botanical Society. The meeting was de-

voted to a discussion of the fossil swamp deposit at the Walker Hotel site.

The speakers were C. K. Wentworts, E. Brown, E. W. Berry, ALBERT

Mann, and Laurence La Force.

651ST MEETING

The 651st meeting of the Biological Society was held in the lecture room

of the Cosmos Club, March 17, 1923, at 8 p.m., with President Hircucock

238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 11

in the chair and 88 persons present. W. H. CHresMAN and CHaRLEs P.

HarTLeEy were elected to the Society.

Under Short Notes, Dr. R. W. SHuretpt mentioned that “Nature Maga-

zine,” a Washington publication which was started in January, 1923,

already has 11,000 subscribers.

Mr. Vernon Baiuey spoke of the travels of Prince MaxrmiuiAn in North

America and his work among the Mandan Indians.

J. C. Merriam: The cats of Rancho La Brea (lantern). In the fauna of

the Pleistocene asphalt beds of Rancho La Brea carnivorous mammals and

birds make up a very large percentage of the great accumulation of remains.

This is due in considerable measure to the attraction of flesh-eating and

carrion-eating animals to the asphalt beds by the struggles of animals

recently entrapped or by the carcasses of those partly buried in the brea. The

body of one animal may have served as a lure to many carnivores, each of

which in turn possibly attracted many others. In some parts of the

deposits the carnivores have greatly overbalanced in number the total accu-

mulation of remains from all other groups. Although the fossil wolves of

Rancho La Brea are individually the most numerous of the carnivorous

animals, the relative abundance of cats is almost unbelievable. Of the

great sabre-tooth tiger many more than one thousand specimens are known

in the several available collections. The sabre-tooth is not only the most

numerous of the forms found but gives a representation of this group greater

than all the other collections of the world combined. The great lion-like

form, Felis atroz, is less abundant than the sabre-tooth but is known by some-

thing more than fifty specimens. This is the largest of all the cats. It is

fortunately known by material which makes possible the study of the entire

skeleton in perfectly preserved condition. Other felines include one or more

pumas and at least one species of wild cat. This paper was discussed by

Messrs. Bartey, Howarp and SHUFELDT.

F. A. McCuure, Canton Christian College: Observations of a plant col-

lector on the island of Hainan (lantern). In the fall of 1921 and the spring

of 1922 the speaker made two expeditions to the island. On these trips

he increased the known flora of Hainan from 350 to about 1350 species

(of which over 75 were new to science). He was also successful in making

the first ascent to the summit of the highest peak of the Five Finger Moun-

tains, altitude 7,300 feet. The topography and native tribes of the island

were described and illustrated by numerous colored lantern slides. The

following new plants worthy of special notice for economic reasons were

mentioned: Taractogenos hainanensis, Ficus palmatiloba, and Schizostachyum

hainanense.

S. F. Buaxsn, Recording Secretary.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY

163D MEETING

The 163d meeting of the Botanical Society was held at the Cosmos Club

at 8 p.m. Tuesday, December 5, 1922, with Dr. L. C. Corserr in the chair.

The following members were elected: WiLBuR BroruErToN, Lewis T.

Lronarp, Cuuross Peatris£, Dr. Roprert. D. Ranps, and Dr. J. R. ScHRAMM,

Brief Notes and Reviews of Literature: Dr. Hitchcock presented the book,

The mind in the making, by JAMEs Harvey Rosinson. Mr. Waire showed

acorns of the bur oak, Quercus macrocarpa. This oak is a native of the

JUNE 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 239

Mississippi Valley. He called attention to the large size and enormous spread

of the branches of this oak. One of the finest trees on the Department of

Agriculture grounds in Washington is a planted bur oak. Dr. Bartrscu

called attention to the fact that there is a large bur oak on the Hygienic

Laboratory grounds. Prof. Corserrrt called attention to the fact that this

oak had pushed its way up into the dry northwest. He became acquainted

with it in South Dakota.

Program: Dr. Roprerr D. Ranps: Botanic gardens and plant industries of

Java and Sumatra (illustrated). Dr. Ranps traced briefly the early history

of the famous government botanical garden at Buitenzorg, Java, and its

importance in the establishment and development of the great European

plantation industries of these islands. In the approximate order of their

importance, the principal industries are sugar, rubber, tobacco, coconut

products, coffee, tea, cacao, cinchona, kapoc, palm oil, and sisal.

In more recent years the planters’ associations have established their own

experiment stations, which at present number ten; three are devoted primarily

to the study of tobacco, four to rubber, and one each to sugar, tea and cin-

chona. Despite the great importance of these ‘‘EKuropean cultures,” the

area they occupy is much smaller than that tilled by the natives. The

latter, who in Java exceed thirty millions in number, are engaged largely in

the cultivation of rice, maize, cassava, sweet potatoes, and other food crops.

Since 1905 the botanical gardens have formed a subdivision of the Depart-

ment of Agriculture, which was established at that time. The main one,

located at an elevation of 900 feet at Buitenzorg, was founded in 1814; in

number of species and development it is probably the finest in the tropics.

Within its grounds is the splendidly equipped Treub laboratory for visiting

botanists, maintained by the government free of charge. There are in

addition a large Cultuurtuin, or experiment station, and a selection station

for annual crops. The acclimatization garden at Tjibodas, at an elevation

of 4500 feet, and the vegetational zones of the magnificent virgin jungle on

Mt. Gedeh, extending from the upper margin of the garden to the summit

crater of the mountain at 10,000 feet, were described and illustrated. At

Tjibodas, the government maintains a laboratory and lodging quarters for

visiting biologists. In closing Dr. Ranps referred briefly to his studies of the

disease of rubber and cinnamon in which he was engaged for three years as

botanist in the Dutch Colonial Service at Buitenzorg.

J.H. Beattie: Sweet potato nomenclature (illustrated). From a utilitarian

standpoint, the sweet potato is perhaps the most important member of the

well known Morning Glory family. In the Torrid Zone and in the warmer

parts of the Temperate Zones the plant is a perennial, but in the United

States, where it has attained its greatest economic importance, it is treated as

an annual.

Evidence exists that the sweet potato originated in the Western Hemisphere.

De Candolle supports this view, but admits that there are important argu-

ments in favor of its origin being Asiatic. Ovildo, writing in 1526, mentions

the sweet potato as being freely cultivated and eaten by natives of Santo

Domingo. Columbus, in presenting Queen Isabella with the choice products

of the new world, did not fail to include the sweet potato. Chinese works

written during the second or third century of our era mention other species

of Convolvulaceae, hence we are compelled to believe that the plant has been

cultivated for many centuries, and that its exact origin is in doubt. Its

distribution is so general that it enters into the diet of a large portion of the

people inhabiting the Torrid and Temperate Zones.

240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 11

The sweet potato is second in importance of our vegetable crops, but pre-

vious to a few years ago it was looked upon as one of the most hazardous

crops, as it was very difficult to keep, as storage methods for other vegetables

were found to be unsuited to this crop. Satisfactory storage methods and

storage houses have been devised, and it is now an easy matter to make the

vegetable available for practically the entire year. Over 3000 so-called

Government type storage houses with a capacity of about 12,000,000 bushels

are now in use. Experimental work extending over a period of several

years and summarized in Departmental Bulletin 1063, Sweet potato storage

studies, shows that standard varieties of sweet potatoes can be kept in this

type of house for periods of from 5 to 6 months with losses of less than 1 per

cent from decay.

Sweet potato varieties and sweet potato nomenclature have been, and are,

badly confused. About 1905, F. J. Tyler, worked out the basis of a key for

the identification of sweet potato varieties based on:

I. Leaves deeply lobed or parted.

1. Leaves with purple stain at base of leaf blade.

2. Leaves without purple stain at base of leaf blade.

II. Leaves not deeply lobed or parted.

1. Leaves with purple stain at base of leaf blade.

2. Leaves without purple stain at base of leaf blade.

Other characters taken into account in connection with these main dis-

tinguishing characteristics were, stems purple or green, length of petioles, length

of vines, size, shape and color of potatoes and color of flesh. The key is based

mainly on botanical characters. For a full discussion reference is made to

Departmental Bulletin 1921, entitled Group classification and varietal de-

scription of American varieties of sweet potatoes. Through the use of this key

some 40 varieties have been recognized as such.

Adjournment was followed by a social hour.

Roy G. Pierce, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

At the Annual Meeting of the National Academy of Sciences held in

Washington on April 23, 24, and 25, the following officers were elected for

the ensuing year: President, A. A. Micuenson; Vice-President, J. C. Mur-

RAM; Foreign Secretary, R. A. Miturkan; Home Secretary, Davin WuIts;

Treasurer, F. L. RANSOME.

The National Academy of Sciences elected to membership the following

scientists: 8. I. Barney, Harvard Observatory; J. H. Breastep, University

of Chicago; E. W. Brown, Yale University; C. H. ErgzenmMaAnn, University

of Indiana; YANDELL Henperson, Yale University; M. A. Hown, New York

Botanical Garden; Max Mason, University of Wisconsin; E. D. MERRILL,

Bureau of Science, Manila; E. L. Orrz, Washington University, St. Louis;

LEoNHARD SresneceR, U. 8. National Museum; G. F. Swary, Harvard

University; R. C. Totman, California Institute of Technology; D. L. Wxs-

sTER, Stanford University; F. E. Wricut, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie

Institution of Washington; R. M. Yerkes, National Research Council.

G. P. Merritt, R. B. Moorn, and T. W. VauGHaN were elected to mem-

bership in the American Philosophical Society at the meeting on April 21.

JUNE 4, 1923 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 241

At the meeting of the Bureau of Standards Physics Club, on Monday,

May 7, Dr. P. D. Foor lectured on The nucleus of the atom.

Mr. M. AurovussEAu, petrologist at the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie

Institution of Washington, resigned on May 15 to join the scientific staff of

the American Geographical Society, New York City.

Mr. K. C. HEatp, geologist, of the U. S. Geological Survey, is on leave

of absence for several months to give a course of lectures on petroleum

geology at the University of Chicago.

Dr. Epwarp P. Hyp, who organized the Nela Research Laboratories

in 1908, and who for the past few years has occupied the position of director

of research of the National Lamp Works of the General Electric Company,

has tendered his resignation to take effect June 30. Dr. Hyde, who has been

active in scientific and technical affairs for a number of years, has decided

to take a prolonged rest abroad.

Dr. Hucu M. Smiru, formerly commissioner of fisheries, has been

appointed fisheries adviser of the Siamese government.

Dr. A. C. Spencer has been granted leave of absence for a month from

the U. S. Geological Survey to do professional work in Cuba.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 13 JUNE 19, 1923 No. 12

SPECTROSCOPY .—Regularities in the arc spectrum of tron.! F. M.

Watters, Jr., Bureau of Standards.

According to the Bohr theory a particular line of the so-called are

spectrum of an element is emitted when the energy of a normal atom

changes in a manner governed by quantum conditions. Thus a

spectral line of frequency » corresponds to an energy change of

hy =E; —E; where E; and E; are the initial and final states of the

atom. <A multitude of possible states or energy levels exists for each

atom and different spectral lines result from different combinations

of these. Further, the different sets of levels are usually polyfold,

that is, each so-called state may really consist of two or more slightly

different conditions of energy. Intercombinations of these multiple

levels give rise to groups of spectral lines which increase in complexity

as the multiplicity of the levels involved in their production increases.

The frequency differences of the lines are proportional to the energy

differences of the associated levels, and when one multiple set of levels

enters into combination with two or more different sets, the corre-

sponding groups of lines will repeat the wave number differences char-

acterizing this set of levels. These repeated differences have been

shown by interferometer measurements? to be strictly constant, and

they are, therefore, a positive criterion for the analysis of spectra.

In addition to the well-known spectral series and intercombinations

consisting of singlets, doublets and triplets, more complex groups

of lines were discovered by Popow* and very recently still more

complicated groups have been found by Catalan‘ in the spectra of

manganese and chromium and by Kiess® in the are spectrum of

molybdenum. For these complex groups Catalan coined the work

“multiplets.”

1 Received May 23, 1923. Published by permission of the Director, Bureau of

Standards. Communicated by Dr. W. F. Meggers.

2 Bureau of Standards Scientific Papers, 329, 414 and 441.

3 Annalen der Physik 45: 147. 1914.

4 Phil. Trans. A, 223: 127. 1922, Fisica y Quimica 21 p. 84, 1923.

5 Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper, in press.

243

244 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 12

The spectra of the chemical elements in the periodic table become

more complex, in general, as the right-hand side of the table is

approached and the difficulty of classification is correspondingly

increased. Thus the spectra of the elements in the first two columns

are almost, completely classified, and typical series or groups of lines

have been indentified for one or more elements in the remaining

columns, except the 5th and 8th, for which no significant regularities

have heretofore been detected. Of the metals in the eighth column,

iron, although its spectrum contains more than 5000 lines, is never-

theless, the best adapted for study because of the following reasons.

Since the iron are was adopted as the source of secondary and tertiary

standards of wave-lengths, more of its lines have been measured with

high precision and the relative values of the wave-lengths are of first

importance in testing the constancy of wave-number differences.

Furthermore, the data on temperature classification and Zeeman effect

which sometimes assist in detecting spectral regularities, are more

extensive for the lines of iron than for any other element in the 8th

column. In this preliminary report is presented a classification of

about 200 of the stronger lines of the iron are spectrum in twenty

multiplets.

The wave-lengths and intensity and character designations given

in Table 1 are taken from the observations of Burns.’ Wave-lengths

were converted to wave numbers (number of waves per centimeter)

by the use of a table of reciprocals and corrected to vacuum by the

table given by Meggers and Peters.?. The temperature classification

is that of King. The notation for the Zeeman effect, measured

by King’, expresses the observed separations as fractions of the

normal effect, the figures in parentheses refer to the parallel com-

ponents, the others to the normal components.

In Table 1, the lines of each multiplet are given in the order of

increasing wave-length. Each of these groups may be readily re-

arranged to bring in evidence the line structure and separations of

the polyfold sets of levels involved in the multiplet. The first three

multiplets are rewritten in this manner following Table 1, and will

serve as examples.

6 Lick Obs. Bull. No. 247, vol. 8, 1913.

7 Bull. Bureau of Standards, 14: 697, 1918.

8 Astrophysical Jour. 37: p. 239. 1913.

Astrophysical Jour. 56: 351. 1922.

9 Papers Mt. Wilson Solar Obs. Vol. 2, 1912.

juNE 19, 1923 WALTERS: REGULARITIES IN ARC SPECTRUM OF IRON 245

TABLE L—Muttretets IN THE Arc Spectrum OF [RON

NO. NAS INT PVAC. ome ZEEMAN PATTERN mated Sop (ht al as

(?)3

113824. 444 6R | 26140.19 TA om 94-3-4-34-3-41

0)3

9956.373 | GR | 25923.77 | IA a

i (0)3

3859 .913 7R |} 25900.00 I See 415.96

hs (0)3

3878 .578 6R | 25775.35 1 rg, 288.10

R (0)3

3886 . 287 TR | 25724.24 IB = 2 184.17

(0)3

3895 .659 5r | 25662.35 IB ex 89.92

(0)3

3899 .711 6r | 25635.67 IB vars

(0)3

3906 . 484 5r | 25591.238 IB oe 240.20

(0)3

3920.261 6r | 25501.31 IB 7 199.53

(0)3

3922 .917 6R | 25484.03 IB Te 139.73

(0)3

3927 .925 6Gr | 25451.45 IB ip 71,12

(0)3

3930. 304 7R | 25436.14 IB Ma

2/2981 .448 4r | 33531.00 il 2+34+3+4+3-+3

2983 .571 4r | 33507.138 I

2994 .434 6R | 33385 .54 I 415.96

3000.951 5r | 33313.08 it 288.04

3007 . 284 Ar | 33242.94 J 184.13

3017 .630 5r | 33128.96 IA 89.95

3020.495 5r | 33097.53 Te

3020.643 6r | 33095.93 i

3021 .076 6R | 33091 .17 I

3024.035 5r | 33058.78 IA 411.20

3025 .846 5r | 33039.01 I 294.40

3037 .392 5r | 32913.43 I 145.40

3047 .608 6r | 32803.10 if 70.16

3059 .090 5r | 32679.98 I

?)3

3/5208 .610 4 19193 .65 LV ig 943434341

(?)3

5215.195 4 19169 .41 IV ae

(?)3

5217 .405 4 19161 .28 V Pare 240.17

246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 12

TABLE 1—Continucd

no.| AIA. INT. yVAC. are ZEEMAN PATTERN ges wa fey ia» 8 ool

% (0)3

3/5229 .84 2 19115.72 V hg 199.52

5253 .479 Z 19029.71 (0)3 139.70

5263 .321 5 18994.15 V “2. (1.07

5273.178 3 18958 .64

0)3

5283 .634 76 18921.12 IV 284.33

(0)3

5302 .315 a) 18854.45 V hee 272.56

0)3

0924.196 6 18776.96 IV oe 175.26

0)3

5339 .949 3 18721 .57 V os 86.01

0)3

5393 .185 4 18536.78 IV =

413057 .451 d5r_ | 32697.50 II 3+34+3+2+1

3067 . 250 5r 32593 .04 II

3075 .725 5r_ | 32503.25 II 418.45

3083.745 4r | 32418.71 II 351.26

3091 .581 4r | 32336.56 II 257.74

3099 .898 4r | 32249.79 II 168 .92

3099 .968 4r | 32249.05 II

3100.305 4r | 32245.56 II 344.00

3100.668 Ar 32241 .78 II 261.52

3116 .632 5 32076 .65 III L7s 14

3125 .663 6 31983 .99 Ii 86.77

3134.109 5 31897 .78 Ill

5/3355 .517 1 29793 .13 3+3+3

3356 .332 lb | 29785.88 IVA 448 48

3359 .496 x 29757 .84 IIIA 351.24

29535 .23 PAY ay if

3396. 386 1 29434 64

3404 .301 2 29366.20 | IIIA 476.52

3410.905 1 29309 .36 ' 358.49

3426 .393 4 29176.87 IIIA

3452 .279 4 28958 .11 III

6 3396 .982 3 29429 .48 IIIA 3+3+2

'3397.642 | 2 | 29493.76 | TILA

13401 .523 4 29390.18 IIL 351.31

3417 . 265 1 29254 .81 257 .68

3426 .994 2 29171.76 | IIIA 168.99

JUNE 19, 1923 WALTERS: REGULARITIES IN ARC SPECTRUM OF IRON 247

TABLE 1—Continued

no.| AIA. INT. pvac. opah ZEEMAN PATTERN a gs pach iw a

6/3442 .676 2 29038.87 | IIIA

3446 . 966 1 29002 .73 390.58

3473 .497 it 28781 .22 252 .04

7|3466.501 2 28839.29 | IIIA 2+3+3

3483 .012 4 28702.58 | IITA

3513 .822 5 28450.93 II 448 .50

3521. 264 5r | 28390.79 I 351.28

3526. 167 5 38351 .32 II 25 iis

3558 .522 5r | 28093.55 II

3565 .383 6R | 28039.50 I 388 .36

3570.102 7R | 28002.438 I 311.80

8|3540.715 2 28234.85 | IIIA 1424343

3554.121 4 98128 .34 | IIIA

3585 .322 6r | 27883.56 1gt 351.28

3585.708 5 27880 .57 II 257.72

3586 .989 6r | 27870.61 uel 168.91

3608 . 860 6R | 27701.70 I

3618 .769 6R | 27625.84 i 474.92

3631 .464 6R | 27529.29 i 354.28

3647 .845 6R | 27405.65 I 244.78

(0)3

9/3687 .458 6R | 27111.27 I oa 2+4434+3-+2

(0)3

3709 . 250 6r | 26952.00 II re 448.49

(?)3

3727 .622 6R | 26819.15 iff Hew, 351.29

(0)3

3734. 869 OR | 26767 .12 if i 257.73

(2, 0)4, 2, 0

3743 .356*| 3r | 26706.35 TA Saget 168.90

0)4

3749 .487 8R | 26662.76 Il on

(0)5

3758 . 234 7R | 26600.71 II a 344.14

(0)2

3763 .792 6R | 26561.42 Il a 289 .24

3767 .194 6R | 26537.43 ih Unaffected 218.44

: (2, 0)4, 2, 0

3887 .880 6R | 26392.53 II late t= 144.92

3795 .004 6r | 26342 .98 AEE complex

* Given by Burns as a pair but measured three times as a reversed line.

948 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 12

TABLE 1—Continued

WO; |. wales: INT. VVAC. 5 5d ZEEMAN PATTERN m4 esr a

0)3

9/3798 .512 6r | 26318.65 iG oO

(0)3

3799 .548 6r | 26311.47 10 Tat

3837.136 | 1 26053. 74 IV

10/3812 .966 6r | 26218.89 II 3-34-94 649

3820.430 8R | 26167 .66 II complex 448 .50

3825.886 | 8R | 26130.35 II complex 351.31

3834.227 | 7R | 26973.50 II complex 257.73

(1 O23 aa

3840. 443 6R | 26031.30 II fi in 1 168.93

3850.820 5 25961.16 II complex

(6)3, 0

3865 .526 6r | 25863 38 II “ae

3872.506 | 6r | 25815.77| II (2 1)B 5 By Bee 411.20

3876 .044 1 25792.20 | III : 294.46

2)4

3878 .024 6r | 25779.05 II © 145.38

(1)3?

3887 .053 6r | 25719.16 IB oe 70.16

3898 .013 4 25646 .86 IB? (3)6?

3917 .185 5 25p21) 31 IB

3940.885 4 25367 .84 IA? (0)2

(0)8

11/4939 .689 3 20238 .55 IB | Se 2+34+3+3+2

4994 .133 3 20017 .93 IB oe 448.51

5012.073 4 19946 .28 IB on 351.30

5041 .079 3 19831.51 IB Os 207.12

- (?)4

5051.643 4 19790. 04 IB es; 168.92

5079 .742 3 19680 .55 IB

?)6

5083. 344 4 19666 .61 IB ( 2 292.27

: (?)2

5107 . 454 3 19573 .77 IB aie 227.88

5123 .727 4 19511.63 IB Unaffected 164.88

rag

5127 .364 3 19497 .77 IB an 106.78

nee EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEe

JUNE 19, 1923 WALTERS: REGULARITIES IN ARC SPECTRUM OF IRON 249

TABLE 1—Continued

NOW|" 7X AE INT. pVAC. eres ZEEMAN PATTERN reece

11/5142 .934 3 19438 .75 IB C % o

(2)8

5150.845 4 19408 .90 IB cs

5151.916 3 19404. 86 IB 2

(0)6

12/5269 .538 | 10 18971.72 IB 5? 3+3+3+2+4+1

5328 . 044 7 18763 .41 IB complex 448.51

5371.496 | 7 | 18611.62 IB complex 351.30

5397 .135 6 18523 .21 IB 257.72

(1, 0)4, 2

5405 .780 6 18493 .59 IB rier 168.92

5429 .701 6 18412.11 IB complex

5434.527 6 18395 .76 IB unaffected 240.20

(2, 14ass3 eo

5446 .922 6 18353 .90 IB j 2 199.50

6)3

5455 .617 6 18324. 66 IB on 139.68

3;0)6; 3.0

5497 .521 4 18184.98 IB SOUR 71.10

5501.471 4 18171.92 IB ?

5506 .785 4 18154.40 IB 6

13/2501. 14 3b | 39969.72 II 2434+34+3+1

2510.843 6b | 39815.25 II

2518.11 | 6b | 39700.36 Il 415.80

2522.86 5r | 39625.63 106 288.08

2527 .44 4r | 39553.82 II 183.95

2529 .143 6b | 39527.20 90.12

2529 .83 4 39516.46 | III

2535.613 6 39426.34 | III 344.00

2540.97 6 39343.20 | III 261.46

2545 .987 3 39265.71 | III 173.21

2549 .616 6 39209.92 | III 86.56

14/2719 .037 7r | 36766.84 II 3+3+3

2720.910 i esOrel .55 QE

2723 .582 6r_ | 36705.50 II 415.84

Ziotcole 6r | 36521.39 II 288.04

2742 .408 6r | 36453.53 II 184.13

2750.145 6r | 36351.00 uh 89.95

2744 .072 8 36431. 44 II

2756 .332 5 36269 .38 it 390.57

Qiterble 6 36062.94 | III 251.99

250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 12

TABLE 1—Continued

no.| AIA. INT. VVAC. at ZEEMAN PATTERN emai tip ys Na

15)2912.161 8 34328 .72 I : 14+24+3+3+3

2929.006 | 7 34131.31 I 415.90

2936.903 | 7r | 34039.53 I 288.12

2941.343 | 8 33988 .12 I 184.16

2947.876 | 5r | 33912.84 I 89.91

2953.943 | 5r | 33843.18 II 344.16

2957.370 | 5r | 33803.97 II 289.22

2965.258 | 5r | 33714.06 II 218.46

2970.107 | 4r | 33659.02 I 144.94

2973.1387 | 4r | 33624.72 iE

2973.236 | 4r | 33623.60 I

16|3649.308 | 3 27394 .67 TA 14+243+4+3+43

3679.915 | 5r | 27166.82 JA

3683.056 | 4 27143 .66 JA 415.92

3705.567 | 6R | 26978.76 I 288 .08

3707.828 | 3u | 26962.43 I 184.11

3719.938 | SR | 26874.53 uN 89.91

3722.565 | 6R | 26855.57 TA

3733 .319 6R | 26778.22 TA 292.29

3737.135 | 7R | 26750.88 I 227 .86

3745.563°| 7R | 26690.69 I 164.89

3745.900 | 6R | 26688.31 IA 106.76

3748.264 | 6R | 26671.45 I

17/5569 .631 5 17949.53 | IV complex 3+3+3+2+1

5572.857 5 17939.15 | IV complex 292.22

5576.106 | 4 17928.69 | IV unaffected 227.90

5586.772 | 6 17894.46 | IV complex 164.90

6) 3, 0

5602.965 | 3 17842.76 | IV Os 106.75

(0)5

5615.663 | 6 17802.37 | IV a

5624.563 | 5 17774.23 | IV ? 384.33

5658 .542 1 17667 .50 272.54

5658.836 | 4 17666.58 | IV ? 175.28

5709.395 | 3 17510.15 | IV ? 85.93

5712.150 | 2 17501.71

5784.69 1 17282 .23

18|4147.675 | 4 24103.11 IB ? 142+3

4202 .032 7r | 23791.33 II complex 584.72

4250.791 8 23518 .41 II complex 407 .65

JUNE 19, 1923 WALTERS: REGULARITIES IN ARC SPECTRUM OF IRON 251

TABLE 1—Continued

ESS 0 eS

no.| AIL. A. INT. vvac. bey ee ZEEMAN PATTERN RIVES eRe aD

CLASS. SEPARATIONS

ve 0)5

18/4271.764 | Sr | 23402.96| II oe

0)7

4307.910 | Sr | 23206.58| II on 388 . 37

0)7

4325.770 | 9r | 23110.76 | II oT 311.80

19/3969 .263 | 7r | 25186.48 II complex 2+3+2

4005.250 | 7b | 24960.20 JO complex

. 0)6

4045.822 | SR | 24709.91| IL wx 584.70

0)12

4063.604 | SR | 24601.78 | II ae 407 .61

0)2

4071.748 | 7r | 24552.57 | IL = 476.57

4132.064| 7 | 24194.19| IL complex 358.40

4143.874| 7 | 24125.21| II 2

20|4229.752 | 1 | 23635.39

4291.472 | 1 | 23295.48 IA | 14+2+38+2

4294.132 | 6 | 23281.05 IB ? 584.70

1)?

4337.052 | 5 | 23050.64 IB a 407 .62

4367.910 | 1. | 22887.83 TA (0)8 474. 87

4383.548 | 10R | 22806.18 | IL a 354.29

0)8

4404.752 | Sr | 22696.40| II o 244.80

4415.127| Sr | 22643.06] II 2

fia of ie see 2O oli si Oe: SH. 2a OE OE Set

Structure of Multiplet 1

25900 .00—240.19—26140.19

415.97 415.95

25484 .03—240. 21—25724 .24—199 .53—25923.77

288.10 288.10

25436 .14—199 .53—25635.67—139 .68—25775.35

184.22 184.12

25451 .45—139.78—25591 .23—71 . 12—25662.35

89.92

25501 .35

Structure of Multiplet 2

33905 .93—411 .20—33507 .13

415.95 415.96

32679 .98—411 . 1933091 . 17—294. 3733385 .54—145 . 4433530. 98

288 .07 - 988.01 288 .04

32803 .10—294.43—33097 .53—145.41—33242.94—70. 1433313 .08

184.10 * 184.16 184.12

32913 .43—145 .35—33058 .78—70. 1833128 .96

89.95

33039 .01

252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 12

Structure of Multiplet 3

18776 .96—384 .32—19161.28

240.18 240.16

18536 .78—384 .34—18921 .12—272.53—19193 .65

199.55 199.50

18721 .57—272.58—18994.15—175 .26—19169 .41

139.70 139.70

18854 .45—175 .26—19029 .71—86 .01—19115.72

71.07

18958 .64

King’ gives a table of twenty-one lines which appear in the fur-

nace spectrum of iron at a temperature of 1400°C. Twelve of the

stronger of these lines give multiplet No. 1.

Multiplet No. 2 is novel in that it has the same difference repeated

three times in two instances. It will be noted that the lines involved

_ are all reversed lines and of nearly the same temperature class. This

anomaly occurs also in the multiplets given as Nos. 9 and 10.

Multiplet No. 3 is interesting in that the differences 240.17, 199.52,

139.70, and 71.07 are here related to the frequency so that in a given

triplet, the larger difference occurs between the greater frequencies,

while in multiplet No. 1, with the same differences, the greater differ-

ence occurs between the smaller frequencies involved in a given

triplet.

The above-mentioned multiplets may be regarded as typical and

the others are presented in Table 1 without individual comment at

this time. It will be noted that there are altogether thirteen sets

of separations involved in the twenty multiplets, one set recurring

in nine multiplets. The total number of lines in Table 1 is 212.

These include 102 of the 134 lines described by Burns as reversed in

the arc and most of the lines of temperature classes I and II in King’s

furnace spectra are here represented. The correlation of these multi-

plets with temperature classification is seen to be fairly satisfactory,

but inspection of the Zeeman patterns show that these data are

homogeneous for some groups and quite discordant for others.

Some interesting relations have been found to exist between the

different multiplets but a discussion involving a physical interpretation

of these regularities is deferred until the spectrum has been more

fully analyzed. A systematic analysis of all the available data on

both are and spark spectra of iron is in progress and the complete

results of this investigation will appear later as a scientific paper of

the Bureau of Standards.

10 Astrophysical Jour. 45: 370. 1922.

JUNE 19, 1923 KRAUSE! NOTE SCHIZOCASIA REGNIERI 253

BOTANY.—WNote on Schizocasia Regnieri. K. Krauss, Berlin-

Dahlem. (Communicated by Paut C. STanpiEy).!

Among the plants collected in the Republic of Salvador by Dr.

Salvador Calder6én I have found a cultivated aroid which is to be

identified as Schizocasia Regniert L. Linden et Rod. This species,

which is said to be a native of Siam, is cultivated as an ornamental

plant in the tropics and in several hothouses of European and North

American botanic gardens, but, as in the case of some other much

cultivated aroids, until the present time it has not been known in

flower. Because the Salvadorean specimen was collected in flowering

state, I can now give, in addition to my diagnosis in the Pflanzenreich

and to the earlier descriptions in the Illustration Horticole and the

Gardeners’ Chronicle, the following description of the inflorescence.

ScuizocasiA Reenieri L. Linden et Rod. in Illustr. Hortiec. 17: pl. 2. 1887;

Gard. Chron. 2: 328. 1888; Krause in Engl. Pflanzenreich IV. 23E:117.

1920.—Tota planta usque 2.5 m. alta. Pedunculus teres superne circ. 1 cm.

crassus. Spathae tubus convolutus anguste ovoideus, 4 em. longus, 2 cm.

diametiens, lamina oblonga, apicem versus longe sensimque angustata, quam

tubus 4—5-plo longior, expansa ad 5 cm. lata. Spadix in toto fere 2.5 dm.

longus, in vivo ut videtur flavido-albus; inflorescentia feminea cylindrica

3 cm. longa, 1.6 cm. crassa, interstitium sterile valde constrictum, 1.5 cm.

longum, 6-7 mm. crassum; inflorescentia mascula cylindroidea, 4-5 cm.

longa, 1.5 cm. crassa; appendix sterilis anguste elongato-claviformis, apice

acutata, leviter curvata, 1.5 dm. longa, medio 1—1.2 cm. crassa, sursum atten-

uata. Flores feminei 4-gyni, pistillis late ovoideis. depressis, 1 mm. longis,

stigmate subcapitato leviter 4-lobo coronatis; flores masculi steriles synan-

drodiis cylindricis depressis directione spadicis compressis atque elongatis;

flores masculi fertiles synandriis cylindricis vertice truncatis medio leviter

excavatis, fere 2 mm. longis, 1 mm. latis, thecis anguste oblongis fere totam

longitudinem synandrii occupantibus.

San Salvador, cultivated (S. Calderén 599).

1A specimen of a plant of the family Araceae was forwarded recently by the U. 8.

National Museum to the Berlin Botanic Garden for identification by Dr. K. Krause,

the foremost authority upon this extremely difficult group. The specimen was col-

lected by Dr. Salvador Calderén, an enthusiastic student of the Central American

flora, who has made an extensive and valuable collection of Salvadorean plants and

to whom the writer is under deep obligations for many courtesies extended during

a recent collecting expedition in Salvador. From this material Dr. Krause has pre-

pared the accompanying account, which completes the description of a striking orna-

mental plant whose characters have been hitherto but imperfectly known.—P. C.S.

254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 12

ZOOLOGY.—WNotes on Paratylenchus, a genus of nemas. N. A.

Coss. U.S. Department of Agriculture.

The following paragraphs contain new information with regard

to the lip region, vestibule, spear guide, structure of the spear, median

bulb, salivary glands, deirids (cervical papillae), renette, eggs and

their deposition, and gonism of Paratylenchus Micoletzky 1922.

82 18.24, 2-82. 95.8

Paratylenchus nanus n. sp. 3-7 4:3 7 45 4,2 2. The trans-

parent, colorless, naked cuticle, about 1.5 microns thick, is traversed by plain,

transverse striae, 2.0 microns apart except near the extremities, all alike and

fairly easy of resolution, which are materially altered on the lateral fields by

the presence of wing regions, about one-seventh as wide as the body, beginning

on the neck and ending on the tail. The optical expression of the wings on

living specimens usually consists in four parallel longitudinal lines on each

lateral field, the two outer of which are fainter than the two inner. Very

slightly oblique longitudinal striae of the subcuticle, all alike, due to the

attachment of the musculature, are rather easily to be seen in nearly all regions

of the body. The contour of the body is crenate or very faintly serrate-

crenate. There are no dermal appendages and there are no series of pores to

be seen in the cuticle. On the neck opposite the excretory pore, lat. 22.2,*

there is a papilla on each lateral line, and, leading inward, ventrad and slightly

backward from the middle of each papilla is an obscurely sinuous element

connecting with the nervous system. These two organs are therefore believed

to be deirids (‘cervical papillae’’).

The neck, which is cylindroid posteriorly, and to a considerable extent also

anteriorly, becomes decidedly convex-conoid farther forward, and ends in a

rounded or subtruncate, continuous head compassing about thirty annules

of the cuticle, which presents a somewhat depressed, very minute, central

mouth opening, closely surrounded by szx equal, exceedingly minute lips. The

truncation of the head occurs at the lip region, which has at this point, that is

at the anterior extremity of the nema, a width of about two microns. The lip

region is supported by a faintly visible six-ribbed, refractive, somewhat dome-

shaped, cuticular framework, six to seven microns across at the base, and

about two-thirds as ‘“‘high” as it is wide. The more or less immobile lips are

usually closed.

*The Word “‘Latitude” in Descriptive Nematology. I have lately come to use the

word “‘latitude” in a conventional sense in dealing with nema anatomy, and find it so

useful as to lead to this attempt more accurately to define the word as thus used.

The meaning of latitude in this connection arises from geographical usage, but in

nematology the term applies to a transverse plane or section of the organism, and not to

a circle on the surface only, as in geography, and it has not seemed desirable to have two

sorts of latitude, such as north and south.

One hundred degrees of latitude is assumed, with zero at the anterior extremity of

the organism. Thus an element of the organism in latitude 50 would be at the middle;

and in latitude 100 at the end of the tail. The terms can be abbreviated as in geography

so as to be short and specific. Thus: lat. 60.

In the case of nemas, which are so nearly round in cross section, a similar use of the

word “longitude” sometimes becomes useful, the ventral line being taken as the zero

line, the dorsal line thus becoming 180.

The conventional use of the words latitude and longitude in this way is more or less

“logical”, and very easily acquired, and, according to my experience, is a decided saving

in time and space, and has the merit of definiteness, as well as brevity.

JUNE 19, 1923 COBB: NOTES ON PARATYLENCHUS 255

There is a small combined vestibule and spear guide, about as wide as the lip

region and some ten microns long, more or less visible on account of the refrac-

tive nature of its elements. This portion of the labial structure has for one of

its main functions the guidance of the spear when in action. The vestibular

part is about four microns deep and varies somewhat in diameter according to

the attitude of the lips and spear. Leading backward from the base of the

vestibule there is a symmetrical set of outwardly bowed, somewhat flexible,

rather slender, longitudinal elements constituting the main portion of the spear

guide. The relatively very robust spear is about twice as long as the base of

the head is wide. It ends posteriorly in a distinctly three-lobed expansion

toward one-third as wide as the base of the head, the dorsal lobe being slightly

farthest back, and sometimes at least presenting a dorso-posterior condyle.

It is somewhat behind, and in a line with, the axil of the dorsal lobe that the

dorsal salivary gland empties into the oesophageal lumen. The spear often tapers

more or less regularly throughout its length; nevertheless there is a distinct

basal part, comprising about two-fifths of the whole, set off by a minute but

distinct junction mark, and averaging about one-sixth as wide as the corre-

sponding portion of the head. At its distal end the spear is exceedingly finely

pointed. Well developed muscles for the protrusion of the spear are readily

seen and often lie rather close to the spear,—not forming any very marked

swelling when at rest. Anteriorly there are s7x of these muscles,—one passing

to each sector of the labial framework.

No amphids have been seen. There are no eyespots.

The oesophagus is tylenchoid and presents a very definite, somewhat pine-

apple-shaped, non-muscular valveless cardiac swelling, half as wide as the base

of the neck. The very long, large, rather ob-clavate, median swelling, which is

two-thirds as wide as the middle of the neck, is set off abruptly behind, but is

decurrent in front and reaches to, and somewhat includes, the base of the

onchium; in its posterior part it presents a well-developed, elongated-fusiform,

triplex valve, occupying one-third of the diameter, to which are attached the

usual radial muscles for the opening of the valve in the act of swallowing. An

interesting peculiarity of the median swelling is that the contained robust

tubular oesophageal lining, which is disposed in a single loop or coil when at rest,

takes on this attitude without much disturbance to the evenness of the contour of the

swelling itself, thus showing the “‘clavate swelling” to be a distinctly two-fold

affair,—partly (posteriorly) muscular, and partly (dorsally throughout) gland-

ular, and with the two tissues so little connected that the glandular part is

comparatively separate and responds but little to the movements of the tubu-

lar lining. Ordinarily one would expect the anterior narrower part of such a

long median swelling to curve or coil along with the lining. Though the

limits of the true median bulb (not the clavate swelling but the included

median bulb more properly speaking), are often somewhat indefinite anteriorly,

it may properly be described as ellipsoidal, two-thirds as wide as the neck and

two and one-half times as long as wide; in other words the entity of the median

muscular bulb is not entirely lost. Behind the pharynx the oesophagus is one-

sixth, at the nerve ring only about one-tenth, in front of the cardiac swelling

about one-eighth, and finally one-half, as wide as the corresponding portion of

the neck. The lining of the oesophagus is tubular and narrow, and distinct

except in the posterior glandular bulb,—most distinct in the clavate swelling.

There are well developed salivary glands. ‘The nucleus of one of these organs

may be seen in the dorsal sector of the cardiac swelling, as already described,—

dorsad and occupying the major part of it,—and emptying into the oesoph-

ageal lumen near the onchium. It is doubtful if salivary secretion passes

also into the base of the fusiform median valve, though there seem to be two

subordinate nuclei in the cardiac swelling.

256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 12

There are two or three somewhat ellipsoidal organs, half as wide as the body,

about two-thirds as wide as long, located just behind the base of the neck, and

closely associated with the beginning of the intestine. These regularly darken

in Flemming’s solution and are as yet of unknown significance. There is no

cardia. The thick walled intestine, which is set off from the oesophagus by a

rather faint cardiac collum one-half as wide as the base of the neck, presents a

faint, though fairly capacious lumen. It is composed of cells of such a size

that probably only about two are presented in each cross section. It becomes

at once two-thirds as wide as the body. From the very inconspicuous, con-

tinuous anus, the rectum, which is also very inconspicuous, extends inward

and forward. There is no distinct pre-rectum. The numerous, colorless

granules found in the cells of the intestine, the largest of which are about one-

tenth as wide as the body, namely about two microns in diameter, are not so

arranged as to give rise to a tessellated effect. Sometimes the cells throughout

the intestine are uniformly filled with granules; more often the granules are

absent here and there, so as to create a ‘“‘segmented”’ effect.

The tail, which compasses about twenty annules of the cuticle, is conoid,

subarcuate, and tapers from in front of the anus to the rather blunt, or some-

times subacute, unarmed, symmetrical terminus. There is no spinneret.

There are no caudal glands and there are no caudal setae.

Apparently the lateral chords are about one-

third as wide as the body. The rather prominent

excretory pore is located just behind the nerve ring

Ai Mi6) | __mscon

and the excretory duct can be followed inward and .... . bas ost

backward along the right lateral chord at least as diron (6)

far as the middle of the body. Any

The nerve ring is oblique, of medium size and ae

accompanied, fore and aft, by numerous nerve cells, _ . - sub-eut

some of which lie as far forward as opposite the jc on

middle of the median oesophageal swelling. res”

The single female sexual organ is outstretched _Albdsl on

forward. From the unusually large, depressed and suai «ee

very conspicuous vulva, the vagina, which is large, as gl sal ds]

extends inward obliquely forward, three-fourths the tt

distance across the body. Its walls are rather .... np gl sal ddl

strongly cutinized. The larger anterior lip of the \ ab Lb med

vulva may be slightly elevated. The body of the a mst bib med

nema decreases a little in diameter rather suddenly

at the vulva and tapers more rapidly thence back-

ward. The thin-shelled, smooth, elongated egg is

nearly thrice as long as the body is wide and meas-

ures about 60x20 microns. Only one egg occurs in

the uterus at atime. A prolate compact mass of

sperm cells, often comprising some two to five hun-

dred minute, spherical, refractive elements, occurs

regularly in the uterus of newly adult females; this

sperm mass is often two-thirds to three-fourths as

wide as the body. From the formation and size of

the sperm cells it is concluded that the species is

syngonic. No males have been seen among about

fifty females, many gravid, from two North Ameri-

can regions. The medium sized ovary is usually

cylindroid posteriorly, and tapers anteriorly ; it aver-

ages to be about one-third as wide as the body.

Toward fifty ova, arranged for the most part sin- jit bane pt ele

gle file, are to be seen in the ovary. There is prac-

tically no post-vulvar rudiment of a sexual’organ.

JUNE 19, 1923 COBB: NOTES ON PARATYLENCHUS 257

Habitat: Found in soil about the roots of grasses, Devil’s Lake, North

Dakota, April, 1915; and Four Mile Run, Falls Church, Va., August, 1922.

Flemming’s solution to glycerine jelly. In many respects this species closely

resembles T'ylenchus macrophallus de Man, but differs in the following particu-

lars;—the spear is somewhat longer and possibly somewhat more robust; the

striation is coarser; the body is wider; the tail of nanus compasses twenty

annules while that of macrophallus appears to compass about fifty ; opposite the

spear in nanus there are about twenty-five to thirty annules, while in macro-

phallus there appear to be about forty. Should opportunity occur it would

perhaps be advisable to re-examine the median oesophageal region of macro-

phallus. For the present at least it seems best, unless the undiscovered male

of nanus should prove to be extraordinarily like the male of macrophallus, to

regard the two species as distinct. Paratylenchus is related to the very well-

defined genus Jota, a genus whose numerous representatives typically are

minute, very short, very broad, coarsely annuled, rather inflexible nemas

found in acid soils, and having the single outstretched female sexual organ

emptying through a vulva located very close to the minute, inconspicuous anus

and often possessing external coarse retrorse cuticular elements,—ridges, scales,

spines, fringes, etc., according to the species. There is a number of as yet

unpublished species of which it is not easy to make a satisfactory assign-

ment as between Jota and Paratylenchus. The unknown males of nanus, if

such exist, may be expected to throw more light on the generic relationships.

P. nanus may be synonymous with P. bukowinensis Micoletzky, 1922.

0. 2%. 31 83 93.

4.8 5.1) 5.6 3.1 ~ 31 ”*"" arethe measurements of a living specimen

of P. nanus under slight pressure and therefore a little flattened, and further-

more showing a neck-length unaltered by fixation and preservation.

2) 2. Ba eS 98.60)

r, e F rea es 0, 28 mm

Paratylenchus anceps n. sp. 5:3 5:3 5.3 4.6 3.6 P. anceps so

closely resembles P. nanus that only the differences need be here noted. The

striae are one micron apart. The optical expression of the wings is a pair of

refractive parallel lines whose distance apart is about equal to the width of

two annules of the cuticle. The conoid neck becomes convex-conoid at the

head, at the front of which the lip region is about four microns wide. ‘The spear

guide is six microns long, and the spear about half as long as the neck, the

long slender anterior part comprising three-fourths or four-fifths of the whole.

The three-lobed, flattish basal bulb of the spear is about one-fourth as wide as

the corresponding portion of the neck, that is about four microns wide. The

somewhat elongated-pyriform or pineapple-shaped posterior bulb is three-

fifths as wide as the base of the neck. The deirids are near the base of the

neck. The tail is slightly conoid to the broad, rounded terminus, which is

half as wide as the base of the tail. The vulva was about to appear at the

same relative position as in P. nanus. In all other respects almost precisely

as in P. nanus.

Habitat: Roots of Umbellularia californica, Riverside, California, 1912.

258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 12

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND. AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

354TH MEETING

The 354th meeting was held January 4th, 1923, in Room 43 of the New

National Museum, with Vice-President A. G. Boévinc in the chair and 36

persons present.

Mr. Rouwer gave a résumé of the last meeting of the Executive Committee,

stating that the Committee had approved certain changes in editorial practices

and that beginning with Vol. 25 the inside of the back cover would be used for

editorials and the outside for current notes. It is the plan that while these

editorials and notes will be of timely interest, they will not contain scientific

information which needs to be preserved.

The report of the recording secretary, C. T. GREENE, was read and accepted.

The report of the corresponding secretary-treasurer was read by Mr. 8. A.

RouWER and accepted.

The auditing committee, Messrs. A. N. Caupretn and A. G. Bovine,

examined the Treasurer’s books and reported them correct.

Dr. E. F. Puriuies, of the Bee Culture Laboratory, extended an invitation

to the Society to visit the laboratory at Somerset in the near future.

Program:

Presidential Address by the retiring president, A. B. GAHAN on The réle of the

taxonomist in present day entomology. Man’s first interest in insects probably

came about through their ravages upon his person rather than upon his food

supplies. Briefly tracing the history of the science from its possible prehis-

toric beginning down through recorded history to the present time, he sought

to show that the whole immense entomological structure of to-day is based

upon the work of the taxonomist; that without the trained systematist to

identify and describe the species of insects, the economic worker was largely

helpless. The world-wide interest in economic entomology has resulted in

creating a veritable army of economic workers, while the number of systema-

tists are called upon to do the determinating work in a large group of insects

for all of the economic workers of the world. As a consequence, the work of

the economist often times suffers exasperating delay because he can not get

proper identifications promptly, and at the same time the taxonomist is

discouraged because he sees himself hopelessly swamped with routine deter-

mination work and cut off from doing any of the constructive classification

work which he had planned.

The remedy would seem to be in an immediate increase of the number of

working systematists, but unfortunately this remedy cannot be applied, be-

cause trained systematists are not available, and if they were available it is

very doubtful whether funds would be forthcoming from federal, state, or

private institutions for theiremployment. The work of the taxonomist, even

though it is the foundation of all entomological investigation, does not have

the popular appeal which the economic phase of the work does and hence lacks

the popular appreciation and support which it deserves.

In discussing the address Dr. BAkrr expressed the regret that so few people

really made use of revisionary papers after they were published, and stated

that while it seemed that such papers should relieve the taxonomist from con-

siderable work of identification actually they did not, and that such revisions

apparently failed to accomplish one of the purposes for which they were written.

JUNE 19, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 259

Dr. Aupricu stated that entomological courses in the larger universities

had been changed considerably of late, and that only comparatively recently

had any institution offered a course in taxonomy. This change in the curric-

ulum of the larger universities should in time produce more taxonomists.

The paper was also discussed by Messrs. HysLop, BRIDWELL, SNODGRASS,

HeEInRIcH, and SASSCER.

Second paper: Dr. J. M. Aupricu. A manuscript autobiography of

S. W. Williston. Dr. AupricuH read the greater part of this manuscript

which Dr. Williston wrote in 1916, about two years before his death. This

dealt with the period of his childhood and early manhood and continued

through a period of about eighteen years after graduating from college,

during which he had a continuous struggle to obtain a foothold in science.

355TH MEETING

The 355th meeting was held February 1, 1923, in Room 43 of the New

National Museum, with President Dr. L. O. Howarp, in the chair and 30

persons present.

Program:

E. Graywoop Smytu: A trip to Mexico for parasites of the Mexican Bean

Beetle. The speaker arrived in Mexico City on May 14th, 1922, and

left there for the return trip on November 14th. Practically all studies and

collecting were performed in the states of Morelos, Puebla and Vera Cruz, and

the Federal District. In the lower altitudes, the beetle was not found in

injurious numbers at the towns visited except at Cuernavaca. In the Federal

District, on the high central plateau, there seems to be but one, and rarely two,

generations of the beetle in a year, as in New Mexico, the first appearance of

the adults being governed by the rainy season. Adults first appeared in early

June, the first eggs during latter June, and the first larvae during the first

week of July. Larvae were not large enough nor abundant enough to be

injurious until the latter part of July. From that date on they thrived in

abundance until October 9th, when a heavy frost killed all the bean plants in

the Federal District.

No parasite was found of either the egg or adult of Epilachna. The only

parasite encountered was a Tachinid fly, of about the size of the house fly,

which attacks the larvae. It is apparently of a new genus and new species,

and is being named by Dr. Aldrich. What was apparently this same fly was

found attacking a related beetle, Epilachna mexicana, that feeds on a wild

plant of no economic importance. This Tachinid was found only at or near

Mexico City and at Cuernavaca. The first puparium was reared from an

Epilachna larva on August 31st, and from that date the flies increased in

numbers until early October, by which time they were parasitizing from 30 to

50 per cent of Epilachna corrupta larvae. It was not known why the flies were

so late in making their appearance.

A total of 1866 living puparia of this fly, or Epilachna larvae parastized by

the fly, were shipped and brought to the States, and approximately 50 per cent

of these are now being held in hibernation at the Birmingham Laboratory for

the coming spring. About 90 per cent of these came from the Federal District,

from a town called Coapa. The author believes that this fly, if successfully

colonized at Birmingham, would spread rapidly and do much toward control

of the bean beetle.

Few predacious enemies were found, the only common one being a species of

Stiretrus (Hemiptera, Pentatomidae), which was not sufficiently abundant

to be of control value. A large number of egg masses of another predacious

260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 12

bug, Zelus sp., collected on Agave plants near bean fields, were shipped to

Birmingham, but the young nymphs, when reared at the latter place, refused

to feed on Epilachna larvae.

As to wild food plants: the large numbers of leguminous plants and

trees were examined for Epilachna in Mexico, only two were found to

harbor the beetle. One is a wild climbing bean, Phaseolus sp., abundant

along streams, the other a wild weed known as beggar-weed, or tick trefoil

(Meibomia sp.) The latter harbored large numbers of bean beetles of all

stages, and was believed to be the bettle’s native wild food plant.

This paper was discussed by Messrs. ALpricH, BRIDWELL, Howarp and

ScHWARZ.

Second paper: Dr. A. C. Baker, A history of the study of plant lice.

Notes: J. C. BripwEtu discussed the occurrence of the clover seed chaleid

in the seeds of Astragalus.

Some months ago the speaker had reported the discovery of Bruchophagus

funebris in pods of a species of Oxytropis (O. lamberti), a genus closely related

to Astragalus. It is now possible to record an additional instance of attack

upon an Astragalus by a Bruchophagus. This was discovered in a specimen of

Astragalus douglasti in the National Herbarium collected on June 25, 1891 by

Coville and Funston near Tehachipi, Kern County, California, at an elevation

of 1000 metres. The Bruchophagus was accompanied in its attacks by

Acanthoscelides pullus (Fall) and had at first been mistaken for a Eurytoma

parasitic upon the Bruchid. The material from its age and its condition

after having been extracted from the seed is not in the best of condition for

determination and in it Mr. Gahan sees certain apparent differences of

sculpture and color which do not permit him to positively determine it as

funebris and suggest its belonging to another species, the question of its

identity requiring biological evidence for its answer.

The finding of Bruchophagus in pods so different from the fruit of the pre-

viously known host plants in Trifolium and Medicago as the compact ovoid

pods of Oxytropis lamberti and the large bladdery membranous pods of A.

douglasii does not seem so strange when it is recalled that the oviposition is

done early in the development of the young pod. How far the finding of

additional host plants of Bruchophagus will effect practical control remains for

investigation.

356TH MEETING

The 356th meeting was held March 1, 1923, in Room 43 of the New National

Museum, with Vice-President Dr. A. G. B6vine in the chair and 38 persons

present.

Mr. Rouwer, for the Executive Committee, stated that since the last

meeting the Society had received a communication from the Secretary of the

International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature requesting that a com-

mittee be appointed to prepare preliminary reports on questions of Entomo-

logical Nomenclature referred to the Commission. President Howard had

appointed as the Society’s Committee, Messrs. Ronwrr, Herrnricu and

BAKER; and since the announcement of the Committee the Commission had

referred three distinct questions to its Chairman.

I’. W. Poos was elected to membership in the Society.

Program:

R. E. Snoperass: The anatomy and metamorphosis of the apple maggot

(Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh).

The following generalizations probably apply to most of the Cyclorrhapha:

JUNE 19, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 261

1. The true larval head has been invaginated to form a prepharyngeal part

of the larval alimentary canal. The functional part of the larval head is a

mere remnant of the original head.

2. The buds of the imaginal head are carried into the thoracic cavity by the

involution of the larval head.

3. The cephalopharyngeal skeleton of the larva is a chitinization in the true

larval pharynx, in the walls of the invaginated head, and in the pouches of

the latter.

4. The mouth hooks of the larva are located in a part of the invaginated

larval head which was either the back part of the original head, or the neck.

They appear to be special cuticular larval organs moved by special muscles.

No evidence of their mandibular nature has yet been produced.

5. The dorsal spiracles of the larva and pupa are special breathing organs

secondarily developed in connection with the dorsal longitudinal trunks of the

tracheal system. The spiracles of the adult first appear on the puparium,

and are developed in connection with the lower tracheal trunks. The two

sets of spiracles are entirely independent of each other.

The larva molts inside the puparium, casting a fourth skin which remains

as an envelope about the pupa, unbroken until the fly emerges. The fly

leaves both the pupal skin and the prepupal or fourth larval skin inside the

puparium.

7. The pupa obtains air through the larval tracheal trunks attached to the

anterior larval spiracles of the puparium, these trunks being ruptured inside

the fourth larval skin a short distance back of the spiracles.

8. The imaginal buds of appendages belong in all cases to the pupal stage.

They may secondarily begin their development in early larval stages or in

the embryo, but only in cases where the external larval appendage is entirely

gone.

Second paper: Cart Hernricu, A reviszon of the North American moths of

the subfamily Eucosminae of the family Olethreutidae. Pierce’s paper opens a

new system of classification. In this genitalia take the place of the old wing

venation type of classification. In time all species will be described from the

male genitalia.

_ Notes: A. N. CauprE.u spoke of the collection of Grylloblatta campodeiformis

Walker in California by H. 5. Barber.

Dr. Scuwarz exhibited two specimens of Mylabris cichori L. and said this

is a beneficial species, being used for medicinal purposes. ‘This species is often

eaten when the Chinese want to commit suicide.

Dr. Aupricu exhibited a photograph of a group of Dipterists taken in

Boston at the recent meeting in December 1922.

J. C. BripwELu presented the following three notes:

1. The habits of Bruchus bixae.

In 1820 Drapiez described a species of Bruchus from Brazil which he be-

lieved bred in the seeds of annatto and called it Bruchus bixae from the generic

name of the host plant, Bixa orellana. Since many old specific names of

Brucidae based on plant names were in error and this record of a Bruchus in

this plant so far removed from the legumes in its natural relationships and in

the nature of the seeds and pods has never been confirmed, it has been a matter

of interest to find what seems to be this species bred from this host plant

collected by Dr. Schwarz in Panama. In this material was a considerable

lot of the capsules and seeds of Bixa infested by Bruchus bixae. The adult

Bruchids slip in between the partly opened valves of the pod to oviposit

upon the seeds in a sheltered position much as its allies B. pruininus and

262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 12

B. limbatus oviposit in the partly opened pods of Leucaena, Pithecollobium

and various species of Acacia. No eggs were seen deposited upon the pods.

The seeds are irregularly pyramidal broadest and flattened at the summit.

about 4 mm. broad and 5 mm. long with a peculiar scar-like structure at the

summit. The rest of the surface of the seed is covered with small masses of

a soft, reddish-orange waxy substance from which the annatto of commerce is

derived, the source of most commercial cheese and buttercolor and of some

inferior varnish stains and dyes for silk. The eggs are deposited singly upon

the seed and a single Bruchus is nourished by a seed. The cotyledonsare

broad and foliaceous disposed between thick masses of soft brittle albumen

which is largely consumed by the larva during its development as in the case

of the Bruchidae attacking the seeds of Hibiscus, Ipomoea and Convolvulus.

The eggs are nearly hemispherical, but little flattened by the copious cement

substance and show but little reticulation on the surface. The larvae as

usual bore directly into the seed when emerging from the egg.

The present species may be expected to continue breeding indefinitely in

' the annatto seeds as long as they are kept at a temperature high enough, but

little injury is done to the seeds so far as the coloring matter is concerned.

Their presence, however, is undesirable and they would be likely to destroy

seed designed for planting. The maceration of the seed in boiling water in

extracting the color would doubtless destroy the insects contained in the seed.

2. Retarded development in Eurytoma rhois.

What was believed to be this species was found very commonly by Miss

Marion Van Horn in the seeds of Rhus glabra and R. typhina during the winter

of 1921-22 in the vicinity of Washington. The material collected in Jan-

uary had the larvae full-fed and in a very thin membraneous coccoon lining the

seed cavity. The material was brought into the laboratory of the Division

of Stored Product Insects and held for breeding out. Few adults emerged, but

on the examination of the seeds in February 1923 a considerable part of

them had transformed and died without emerging probably owing to the

excessive heat and dryness of the laboratory. There were also in the seeds a

considerable number of living full-fed larvae. There is then in this species of

phytophagous chalcid a phenomenon of retarded development such as has

been recorded for the clover seed chalcid and some of the Opiine Braconidae.

It is likely that most of the seed chalcids will be found to have the same ability

to remain dormant in the full-fed larva for extended periods under adverse

conditions of drought or subnormal temperatures and this will need to be

guarded against in the control and quarantine of such insects. This phenom-

enon is doubtless far more common than has been recorded for it is question-

able if insects in regions with a variable winter climate or those arid regions

where effective rainfall may be absent for a year or more could survive if com-

pelled to depend upon steady straightforward development in conformity with

the calendar.

The seeds of Ceanothus americanus are infested in this vicinity by a seed

chaleid not yet bred. As in other cases the seeds often show no external sign

of infestation. The larva completely destroys the seed leaving only the

coverings.

3. Pupae of the walnut hull maggot living two years (Rhagoletis suavis Loew).

During the fall of 1920 the writer secured many walnut hull maggots in

and near Glen Echo, Maryland. The puparia from these were brought into

the laboratory of the Division of Stored Product Insect investigations.

Emergence of 23 adults was noted on March 8, 1921. From that time

until June 21 scattering emergence continued, usually not more than one

JUNE 19, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 263

each day. The material, having become badly infested by mites, was then

fumigated. Another small lot was overlooked and remained uncared for until

the latter part of the winter 1921-22 when several puparia were found to con-

tain pupae ina living condition. An effort was made to secure emergence from

this lot by keeping them moist but without success. Several pupae remained

alive until the latter part of the summer of 1922 but all were dead by the

middle of November 1922, thus remaining alive as pupae for nearly two

years. This material had been left in glass without soil. No inhabited room

would seem to be much more unfavorable for dipterous pupae than this labora-

tory since in the winter it is overheated and the air is exceedingly dry, the tem-

perature reaching 80° to 85°F. daily. Under certain conditions, then, walnut

maggots may not complete their transformations in a single year but can re-

main in the puparium for two years if not more. While this observation was

fragmentary, undoubtedly this is normal to the insect’s life history, sincea

species dependent on an uncertain crop such as the nuts of the walnut and

butternut could hardly survive if a single year’s failure of its food would

starve it out. This result would be avoided if some pupae held over to

another summer or longer.

F. P. Kmene of the Pacific Coast Station of the Division of Forest Insects

made a few remarks on the control of the pine bark beetles in Southern Oregon.

During the past year the insect damage dropped 72%. Mr. Keene exhibited

a chart showing the damage to the trees in Southern Oregon and Northern

California caused by insects and fire.

Cuas. T. GREENE, Recording Secretary.

AN APPEAL FOR AID TO AUSTRIAN SCIENTISTS

There has recently been referred to the WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

a report on the condition of Intellectual Life in Austria, from the committee

on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations. This was referred by

the Board of Managers to a committee consisting of A. 8S. Hrrcncock,

VeRNON Kettoaa, and H. L. SHantz, who have been authorized by the Board

to issue the following statement.

The report on intellectual life in Austria outlines the deplorable con-

ditions at the universities, the very meager salaries (in depreciated crowns)

received by the professors, and the high cost of living. Attention is called

to the work of the Academy of Sciences at Vienna, which institution has been

obliged to discontinue subscriptions to publications and to cease printing

reports of its proceedings.

Relief along certain lines is now being afforded. The American Relief

Administration is still continuing a so-called ‘‘ professors’ mess’’ which is

providing a daily meal of excellent quality to more than three hundred

professors and instructors at a merely nominal price. Although the American

Relief Administration has given up all of its other work (such as child

feeding) in Austria it still carries on this special relief for intellectuals in

Vienna, Graz, and Innsbruck, that is, in each university city. The Rocke-

feller Foundation is just making arrangements to set up a considerable

number of ‘‘fellowships”’ to assist the younger men of the Austrian university

faculties. In addition, the Foundation is making some financial provision

for the purchase of laboratory equipment and supplies in the laboratories of

medical schools. It has also been arranged to pay subscriptions to American

medical journals for these medical schools.

264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 12

It is evident that there is a very real need for necessities other than food.

The table of salaries given in the report shows that an ordinary professor

in the University receives per month the equivalent of about 150 Swiss

franes ($30.00). The cost of living is very high when compared with the

salary received but is low when compared with prices in this country.

It is clear that 10 dollars contributed for relief becomes greatly magnified

when translated into crowns (exchange being now about 14 dollars per

million crowns). In this connection may be quoted from Dr. Kellogg’s re-

port in Science (April 6, 1923) concerning contributions to Russian Exiled

Intellectuals in Berlin when $1200 were collected and distributed, 10 or

12 dollars to each person, ‘I hope that each donor will realize how much

his money is doing. Ten dollars make the difference between suicide and

keeping alive some of these people.” Intellectual workers as a class are

worse off than most other classes since the adjustment of their salaries to

cost of living takes place much more slowly. So large a proportion of a

professor’s salary must go for food that little is left for clothing and other

necessities. Owing to the present boundaries of Austria many necessities

must be imported at prices far beyond the reach of a scientist’s salary. How

to get a pair of spectacles or a pair of shoes is a harassing problem that a few

American dollars can solve. Since coal also must be imported the buildings

are not heated. The vast herbarium of the Naturhistorisches Museum has

not been heated since 1914. Working under such circumstances warm

clothing is sorely needed but, except for those with friends in Ameriéa, the

people are still wearing the threadbare garments of several years ago.

Nothing is left of a professor’s salary for the needs of the intellectual life.

Concerning the last the report says, ‘“‘Owing to the rate of exchange, a barrier,

which is becoming more difficult to surmount, has been set up between

Austria and the rest of the world, and this prevents all intellectual inter-

course, all contact between Austrian science and the science of other countries.

In short intellectual life is threatened with extinction through being aban-

doned, isolated, and starved.”

It is suggested that the most effective method by which Washington

scientists can aid the intellectual workers of Austria is by direct contribu-

tions from individual members of the Academy to individual scientists in

that country with whom they have established contact personally or by

correspondence.

There are probably many, however, who do not have personal friends in

Austria but who wish to contribute for the sake of preventing the collapse of

scientific investigation in that country.

Contributions may be sent to Mrs. Agnes Chase, Smithsonian Institution,

who will represent the Chairman of the committee during his absence in

South America. The Committee hope there may be a wide response to this

appeal as there is a very pressing need.

It is suggested that donors indicate whether the gift should be sent (a) to

an individual, or (b) to a class of scientists, or (c) to the Vienna Academy of

Sciences or other institution, or (d) unrestricted, and (e) whether for a par-

ticular purpose.

It should be impressed upon donors that a gift of five or ten dollars will be

a very real benefit and will be greatly appreciated, and that aid from members

of the Academy will demonstrate the solidarity of international science.

There will be no overhead expenses in connection with transmitting gifts.

Mrs. Chase will pay postage and fee for registering.

JUNE 19, 1923 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 265

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

At the Bureau of Standards Physics Club, Monday, May 14, Dr. L. B.

TUCKERMAN made an informal report on the lectures delivered at the Franklin

Institute by Sir J. J. THomson on The electron in chemistry.

Dr. Pau Bartscu, U.S. National Museum, left April 29 for Porto Rico

on a collecting trip.

Dr. C. N. Fenner of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of

Washington, left on May 14 to spend the summer in the Katmai region,

Alaska, to continue his studies of the phenomena of the 1912 eruption of

Katmai Volcano.

Dr. A. 5. Hrrcucock, Smithsonian Institution, left in May for South Amer-

ica where he will make botanical collections. Three months will be spent in

Keuador, the work being a continuation of the codperation between the U.S.

Department of Agriculture, the U.S. National Museum, the Gray Herbarium,

and the New York Botanical Garden in studying the botany of northern

South America. About three months will be spent in Peru and Bolivia

studying grasses for the Department of Agriculture.

Mr. Nei M. Jupp, curator of American Archeology, U. 8. National Mu-

seum, left Washington on May 4 to resume his explorations at Pueblo Bonito,

New Mexico.

Mr. Exxiot Woops, architect of the Capitol, died at Spring Lake, New

Jersey, on May 22, 1923 in his sixtieth year. He was born near Manchester,

England, February 2, 1864, of American parents. Mr. Woods had been em-

ployed in the office of architecture in Washington since 1884. He was largely

responsible for the plans of many public buildings, including the Senate and

House office buildings and the Arlington amphitheater. His interest in

science was mainly in astronomy and electricity. He was a member of the

Washington Society of Engineers and of the Philosophical Society.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Vou. 13 Juty 19, 1923 No. 13

GEOPHYSICS.—Some recent progress in tsostatic investigations.!

Wiuu1Am Bowin, Chief, Division of Geodesy, U. S. Coast and

Geodetic Survey.

The theory of isostasy seems to be gaining in favor with geophysicists

and geologists. This is shown by the progress made during the past

year or two.

The holding of a symposium on isostasy by the Geological Society

ERRATUM

Vol. 13, No. 10, May 19, 1923, page 211, third paragraph from top of page, lines 4

and 5: The expression ‘‘Type species H. coronatus n. sp.” should be deleted.

mission Hos Dybwad,”’ in December, 1922. In this book of more than

300 pages, the author shows that the isostatic balance was maintained

almost, if not perfectly, in Norway during the loading of the area by

ice-caps and after their disappearances. He makes out a strong case

for isostasy which should be considered by those studying the processes

operating in the earth’s crust.

In addition to the papers referred to above, several others have

appeared in Italy and the United States.

At the meeting of the Section of Geodesy, of the International

Geodetic and Geophysical Union, held at Rome, Italy, in May, 1922,

isostasy was given some consideration. Efforts are now being made

1 Presented at meeting of the Section of Geodesy of the American Geophysical Union,

at Washington, D.C., April 19, 1923. Received June 8, 1923.

267

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Vou. 13 JuLY 19, 1923 No. 13

GEOPHYSICS.—Some recent progress in isostatic investigations.

Witu1amM Bowr, Chief, Division of Geodesy, U. S. Coast and

Geodetic Survey.

The theory of isostasy seems to be gaining in favor with geophysicists

and geologists. This is shown by the progress made during the past

year or two.

The holding of a symposium on isostasy by the Geological Society

at its annual meeting at Amherst, Massachusetts, in December, 1921,

indicated the interest which geologists are taking in the subject.

At the symposium, the papers presented coveredawide field. Nearly

all of them attempted to show some relation of isostasy to geological

problems and phenomena. The papers appeared in the June, 1922,

- number of the Proceedings of the Geological Society of America.

At the meeting of the Society in December, 1922, held at Ann Arbor,

Michigan, there were a number of papers in which isostasy was given

some consideration.

One of the most valuable additions to isostatic literature is “The

Strandflat and Isostasy,” by Fridjhof Nansen, published in ‘I Kom-

mission Hos Dybwad,”’ in December, 1922. In this book of more than

300 pages, the author shows that the isostatic balance was maintained

almost, if not perfectly, in Norway during the loading of the area by

ice-caps and after their disappearances. He makes out a strong case

for isostasy which should be considered by those studying the processes

operating in the earth’s crust.

In addition to the papers referred to above, several others have

appeared in Italy and the United States.

At the meeting of the Section of Geodesy, of the International

Geodetic and Geophysical Union, held at Rome, Italy, in May, 1922,

isostasy was given some consideration. Efforts are now being made

1 Presented at meeting of the Section of Geodesy of the American Geophysical Union,

at Washington, D.C., April 19, 1923. Received June 8, 1923.

267

268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 13

to bring the subject before the geodesists of the countries adhering to

the Union with a view to having it considered in detail at the meeting

of the Geodetic Section which will be held at Madrid, Spain, in 1924.

At that meeting it is hoped some definite plan may be adopted for

applying the theory of isostasy to the treatment of gravity and

deflection of the vertical stations. It is very desirable that uniformity

in the treatment be agreed to by the several countries.

The field work done in the United States by the Coast and Geodetic

Survey during the year, which can be used in isostatic investigations,

consists of astronomic observations for latitude, longitude, and

azimuth at triangulation stations, and the establishment of gravity

stations.

The locations of eighteen of the gravity stations were selected by

Dr. David White of the U. 8. Geological Survey with a view to testing

the effect on the value of gravity of variations from normal density

in the material near the stations. The computation and adjustment

of the observations made have been completed, and the results fur-

nished to Dr. White. He expects to make an analysis of the data in

the immediate future.

There are a number of localities in the United States where there are

gravity stations close together which show great differences in the

anomalies in very short distances. In the vicinity of Puget Sound

the gravity anomaly at the Seattle station is —0.093 dyne, ‘while.

at a point 15 miles to the westward the anomaly is only —0.025 dyne,

and at a distance of 20 miles to the northwest of Seattle the anomaly

is +0.002 dyne. At Tacoma, 27 miles south of Seattle, the anomaly is

—0.012 dyne, and at Olympia, 50 miles to the southwest, the anomaly

is +0.033 dyne.

There is an anomaly of +0.059 dyne at Minneapolis, whileat Baldwin

about 40 miles east of that place the anomaly is —0.050 dyne. At

Damon Mound, in Texas, the difference in anomaly at two stations

only seven miles apart, is 0.035 dyne. At Compton, California, the

anomaly is —0.050 dyne while at two stations within 11 miles of Comp-

ton the anomalies are much less.

When it is considered that an anomaly of 0.001 dyne will be caused

by the attraction of a dise of material of indefinite horizontal extent

and 30 feet in thickness, we can realize that the differences in anomalies

at some of the groups of stations in the United States represent the

positive or negative attraction of large masses of material. It is

certain that the cause of these differences in the anomalies must be in

the upper part of the crust very close to the stations. If the causes

JuLY 19, 1923 BOWIE: ISOSTATIC INVESTIGATIONS 269

were deep-seated or were the lack of isostatic balance of the earth’s

crust near the groups of stations, there would not be such decided

differences in the anomalies.

The accumulated geodetic data seem to indicate very clearly that

the causes of large gravity anomalies are very local and probably

are masses of extra light or extra heavy material close to the gravity

stations. This being the case, we must conclude that the earth’s

crust is inamore nearly perfect state of equilibrium than has previously

been supposed.

Late in 1921, eight gravity stations were established on or near the

Mississippi River Delta in order to test the isostatic equilibrium of the

earth’s crust under the delta. A station already existed at New

Orleans.

The average anomaly with regard to sign at eight stations on the

delta is —0.007 dyne. Four of the anomalies are negative and four

positive. The results seem to indicate already that the crust under

the delta is in isostatic equilibrium and that the delta material is not

an extra load on the crust. The average negative anomaly is due to the

presence of abnormally light materials near the gravity stations. This

conclusion is opposed to that of Barrell. He believed a study of the

deltas of the rivers Niger and Nile showed them to be extra loads.’

It is hoped that gravity stations may be established on other well

defined deltas for there is no better geological formation on which to

test the theory of isostasy.

The really important problem in isostasy today is the use of the

theory in geological research. The theory is widely accepted, but there

still remains much confusion even in the minds of many of its advo-

cates. Some claim too much for it while others do not give it sufficient

credit.

The geodetic data in the form of values of gravity and the deflec-

tions of the vertical are facts. So also are the computed effects of

topography. From these data we arrive at conclusions as to the isos-

tatic condition of the earth’s crust. These conclusions cannot be

classed as mere speculations for they are based on logical processes

of reasoning. Of course, assumption must be made as to the distribu-

tion of the isostatic compensation horizontally and vertically from

topographic features. But even here there is evidence that the dis-

tribution probably takes place within certain limiting distances. One

of the results of the acceptance of the theory of isostasy will be the

2 The strength of the earth’s crust, by Joseph Barrell, Journal of Geology, January-

February, 1914.

270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 13

modification of certain theories relating to crustal movements which

were advanced before the theory of isostasy had been quantitatively

studied.

SPECTROSCOPY.—Regularities in the are spectrum of titanium.

C. C. Kass and Harrimt K. Kruss, Bureau of Standards. (Com-

municated by Dr. W. F. Mreacers.)

Until recently our knowledge of the series regularities occurring in

spectra extended only to the elements hydrogen and helium, those of

the first three columns of the periodic classification, and also the ele-

ments oxygen, sulphur and selenium of the sixth column. The more

complex spectra of the elements occupying columns IV to VIII have

for the most part remained unresolved.. The extension of our knowl-

edge of spectra into hitherto unexplored regions, the successful

“explanation of known spectrum regularities on the basis of modern

atomic theories, and the recent discovery of new types of regularities

in complex spectra have all inspired new attacks on the more complex

spectra with successful results for chromium? and molybdenum: of col-

umn VI, for manganese’, of column VII, and for iron’ of column VIII.

The element titanium, of atomic number 22, is a member of column

IV of the periodic classification. Its are spectrum is of importance in

astrophysics, the titanium lines occurring in all classes of stellar spectra

from Type A to Type M of the Harvard Classification. In the spec-

trum of the sun practically all the more intense arc lines of titanium

were identified by Rowland from wave length 3000 A up to approxi-

mately 6900 A, and by Meggers’ from wave length 6900 A to 9000

A. According to Adams$, 91 per cent of all the titanium lines lying

between 4000 A and 7000 A are strengthened in sun-spot spectra.

The are spectrum of titanium has been measured from wave-length

2400 A in the ultra-violet to 9700 A in the infra-red. In Kayser’s

Handbuch, vol. 6, is given a summary of all the wave-length data pub-

1 Published by permission of the Director, Bureau of Standards. Received June 17,

1923.

2 Ann. der Physik, IV, 69: 147. 1922; Science, 56: 666. 1922; Anales Espai. de Fis. y.

Quim., 21: 84. 1923.

3B. 8. Sci. Papers, In press.

4 Proc. Roy. Soc. London A 223: 146. 1922.

5 Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 13: 243, 1923.

® Prelim. Table Solar Spectrum, Chicago, 1896.

7 Publ. Allegheny Observ., 6: 13. 1919.

8 Astroph. Journ. 30: 86. 1909.

JULY 19, 1923 KIESS AND KIESS: SPECTRUM OF TITANIUM 271

lished up to the year 1912. Since that time have appeared measure-

ments by Kiess and Meggers® describing the spectrum from 5500 A

to 9700 A in international units, and interferometer measurements by

Brown” of 118 lines between the limits 4263 A and 6261 A. The char-

acter of the spectrum as a function of the temperature of the source

has been studied by King" who has given the temperature classifica-

tion of all the arc lines from 3888 A to 7364 A. King” also studied

the Zeeman effect for the titanium spark in approximately the same

spectral regions.

It is the purpose of this note to describe regularities of complex type

that have been found to occur among the arc lines of titanium. In

describing similar complex groups which he found in the spectrum of

manganese, Catalin’ coined the name multiplet for them. The

multiplets of titanium are characterized by two different sets of

recurring constant frequency differences. The differences 170.1 and >

216.7 link together groups of six and seven lines similar to those found

by Popow, Gitze, Lorenser and others" in the spectra of the alkaline

earths and of some of the elements of column III. The differences

42.0, 62.3, 81.7 and 100.2 occur in more complex groups of 11 and of

13 lines similar to the multiplets of manganese, or those of chromium"*

and molybdenum.!”

The majority of the lines so far classified belong to King’s tempera-

ture classes I and II, although some of classes III and IV have been

assigned to multiplets. It is worth while to remark here that the

temperature classification of spectrum lines is an invaluable aid in

unravelling complex spectra, furnishing clues which lead readily to the

sought-for regularities. In each of the following groups the wave-

lengths of the lines are followed by parentheses in which the arabic

numeral gives the arc intensity of the line as taken from published data,

and the Roman numeral gives the temperature class of the line.

Beneath the wave-length is printed the wave-number of the line cor-

rected to vacuum. The italicized numbers give the frequency differ

* ences occurring between the connected pairs of lines.

9 B.S. Sci. Papers, 16: 51. 1920.

10 Astroph. Journ. 56: 53. 1922.

1 Astroph. Journ. 39: 139. 1914.

12 Astroph. Journ. 29: 76. 1909; also 30: 1. 1909.

13 Proc. Roy. Soc. London, A 223: 146. 1922.

144 Paschen-Gotze, Seriengestze, Berlin, 1922.

16 Loc. cit.

16 Ann. der Physik, IV 69: 147. 1922, Anales Espafi. de Fis. y Quim. 21: 84. 1923.

17 B.S. Sci. Papers, In press.

272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 13

Multiplets in the are spectrum of titanium:

Group 3.

3921.42 (SII)

52.66

3741.14 (5)

26722 .25

3914.33 (7IT)

25539 .98

216.21

3947.75 (SII)

Group 1.

5152.18 (41) 5210.39 (61)

19403.87 216.79 19187 .08

152.41 152.40

5147.49 (41) 5192.97 (61) §252.11 (21)

19421.55 170.09 19251.46 216.78 19034 .68

98 .55 98.66

5173.74 (61) 5219.72 (21)

19323.00 170.20 19152.80

Group 2.

3964.27 (7II) 3998.64 (1OIT)

25218.20 216.76 25001 .44

161.14 161.04

3962.86 (7II) 3989.77 (10IT) 4024.57 (8II)

Dove. 1d TOT 25057.06 216.66 24840 .40

124.63 124.44

3982.54 (511) 4009.68 (4IT)

25102.54 169.92 24932 .62

3981.77 (SII)

25493.76 169.99 25323.77 216.38 25107 .39

54.74 54.65

3929.86 (611) 3956.28 (10II)

25439.02 169.90 25269. 12

Group 4.

3717.39 (5) 3741.06 (6) 3771.€4 (4)

26893.00 170.18 26722.82 216.67 26506 .15

118.09 118.16

3733.78 (2) 3757.68 (3)

26774.91 170.25 26604 .66

JuLy 19, 1923

Group 5.

3637.96 (3)

27480.16 170.14

62.10

3646.19 (3)

27418.06 170.03

Group 6.

2933.53 (8)

34078.64 170.10

97 .98

2941.99 (10)

33980.66 170.14

Group 7.

*5007.21 (8IT)

19965.66 62.23

70.03

*5014.28 (SII) 5024.83 (4IT)

19937 .52 41.89 19895.63 62.35

45.97

5036.47 (411)

19849 .66

* Raies ullimes.

KIESS AND KIESS: SPECTRUM OF TITANIUM

3642.68 (10)

27444.56 216.64

184.54

3660.62 (5)

27310.02 216.65

61.99

3668.95 (5)

27248 .03

2937.30 (8)

34034.90 216.73

126.86

2948.25 (8)

33908 .54 216.72

98.02

2956.80 (10)

33810 .52

*4999.50 (911)

19996 .44 81.76

93.01

5022.86 (411)

19903.43 81.78

70.15

5040.63 (21ITA)

19833 .28

273

3671.66 (5)

27227 .92

134.55

3689.89 (5)

27093 .37

2956.13 (8)

33818 .17

12.635

2967.22 (10)

33691.82

*4681.73 (10I1I)

20067 .75

137.71

*4991.07 (9IT) 5016.16 (411)

20030.21 100.17 19930.04

115.53 115.62

5020.02 (5I1) 5045.43 (2111A)

19914.68 100.26 19814.42

93.03

5043.59 (21IIA)

19821.65

274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 13, No. 13

Group 8.

8307.41 (1)

12034 .14 81.68

101.15

8334.42 (2) 8377.83 (2)

11995.14 62.15 119382.99 81.78

68.95 68 .86

8353.12 (2) 8382.61 (3) 8426.46 (4)

11968 .30 42.11 11926.19 62.06 11864.13

42.15

8412.34 (3)

11884 .04

Group 9.

4518.02 (SIT)

22127 .42 81.80

85.70

4535.58 (411)

22041.72 81.66

4522.80 (8II)

22104 .04 62.32

63.97 63.89

4527.31 (611) 4535.92 (6IT) 4548.77 (SIT)

22081.98 41.91 22040.07 62.24 21977.83

42.30 42.52

4536.00 (5II) 4544.69 (SIT)

22039.68 42.13 21997.55

Group 10,

8267.62 (1)

12092.06

139 .60

8364.18 (2) 8434.89 (4)

11952.46 100.19 11852.27

101.25

8435.64 (5)

11851.21

4512.73 (SII) 4533.25 (9II)

22153.35 100.80 22053.05

107.73 107.63 }

4534.78 (QII) 4555.49 (711) |

22045.62 100.20 21945.42

85.56

4552 .45

21960 .06

(SII)

4295.75 (511) 43.14.34 (8ITI)

23272.32 100.80 23172.02

23.81 23.02

4284.99 (4III) 4300.05 (4V) 4318.63 (SII)

23330.74 81.73 23249.01 100.01 23149.00

19.52

4299.64 (5III)

23251.22 81.67

79.46

4314.80 (3II)

23169 .55

4288.18 (3III)

23313.39 62.17

JULY 19, 1923 FERGUSON: OXIDES OF IRON 275

251.03 251.19

4326.98 (2III) 4334.86 (3I1II) 4346.60 (3IV)

23104 .34 41.98 23062.36 62.53 23000.03

405.49 405.48

4404.28 (S5III) 4412.44 (III)

22698 .85 41.97 22656.88

The lines which have thus far been classified are about 100 in num-

ber, or very nearly 10 per cent of the total recorded for the arc spectrum.

Work is still in progress and it is hoped to present more complete details

of the investigation in the Scientific Papers of the Bureau of Standards.

The element zirconium, of atomic number 40, follows titanium in

column IV of the periodic classification. We have found in its spec-

trum multiplets similar to some of those recorded below. We expect

also to present the details of this investigation in the near future.

CHEMISTRY.—The oxides of tron... JoHN B. FeRGuson, University

of Toronto.

In spite of the large amount of work that has been done upon the

problem of the oxides of iron, our knowledge of this subject is far from

complete. In particular, diverse views are held as to the nature of the

iron phase, the nature of the ferrous iron phase, and the proper values of

the equilibrium constants in the system—(H:2,H,0, Fe, FeO).2 The

present paper deals with these points.

I. THE IRON PHASE

Mixtures of hydrogen gas and water vapour at atmospheric pressure

were passed over iron at high temperatures and the resultant degree of

oxidation noted.

The charge was placed in a porcelain boat in an electrically heated

tube furnace and the furnace swept out with oxygen-free nitrogen.

The furnace was then brought up to temperature and the gas mixture

admittted. At the end of the experiment, the gas mixture was swept

out with the nitrogen and the charge allowed to cool. When it was

cold it was removed and analyzed.

1 Received May 23, 1923. The experimental work on which this paper is based was

in part carried out by Messrs. Findlay, Robertson, Noble, Hoover and Mulligan. See

Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, 15: 55. 1921; 16: 273. 1922; and the volume for

the current year.

2 Fe and FeO are here used to designate the phases and are not meant to indicate the

exact compositions of these phases.

276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 13

Commerical hydrogen and nitrogen were used. Both were passed

over hot copper to remove oxygen, and the nitrogen was in addition

carefully dried. The purified hydrogen contained not over 0.2 per

cent of nitrogen and allowance was made for this in the calculations.

The gas mixtures were prepared by passing the hydrogen through

wash bottles, containing distilled water, immersed in an electrically

controlled thermostat.

Electrically heated connecting tubes prevented the water from con-

densing out of the gas mixture prior to its reaching the hot zone of the

furnace.

TABLE I.—EXPERIMENTS ON THE NATURE OF THE [RON PHASE

pment agen ete: | TIME, HOURS |RATIO H:O/H2 Papumiataans <6 REMARKS

~ Initial Final

1 750 6 0.476 100 99.98 Pure iron

2 750 6 0.540 100 99.90 Pure iron

3 750 6 0.33 99.78 99 .67 Piano wire

4 980 6 0.44 100 99.86 Pure iron

5 960 6.5 0.44 100 100.1 Pure iron

6 960-80 6 0.44 98 .88 99 .84 Oxidized iron

A earefully calibrated thermoelement and a potentiometer served

for the temperature measurements.

The initial and final products were analyzed for total iron. Both

the usual permanganate method and the dichromate electrometric

method were employed.

The pure iron was an electrolytic product which had been reduced for

many hours at 900°-1000°C. with dry hydrogen. Permanganate

titrations indicated 99.90 and 100.0 per cent iron while dichromate

gave 100.1 and 99.95 per cent. It contained no manganese and less

than 0.05 per cent carbon.

The results of the best controlled experiments are given in table I.

The first five experiments do not indicate that pure iron will take

up oxygen to form solid solutions. One might say, however, that such

solutions are stable but that their rate of formation is such that they

did not have time toform. This hypothesis seems improbable but was

worth checking. Experiments at 750°C. afforded no information on

this point. Even with dry hydrogen, a slightly oxidized iron sample

3 Mr. Mulligan was unable to detect any difference between the oxidizing strengths of

these solutions such as was recently reported to exist. Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. 44:

2148. 1922.

JuLyY 19, 1923 FERGUSON: OXIDES OF IRON 277

could not be completely reduced though heated for many hours.

An experiment at a higher temperature was more successful. Experi-

ment 6 shows that the hypothesis is untenable.

The results appear to be evidence in favour of the view® that in the

(H,;H.O, Fe, FeO) system, the iron phase contains no appreciable °

amount of oxygen but is practically pure iron.

II. THE FERROUS IRON PHASE

That ferrous oxide may take up ferro-ferric oxide in solution seems

to be fairly well established.6 The available equilibrium measure-

ments’ indicate that this ferrous oxide phasé is unstable at low tem-

peratures and Chaudron’ has qualitatively checked this theoretical

possibility. At 1100°C. Hilpert was able to prepare an iron-free

ferrous oxide containing 1.5 per cent of ferric oxide but at 700°C. the

ferrous oxide he obtained, free from metallic iron, contained some 15

TABLE II.—ANALYSES OF SAMPLES USED

SAMPLE FREE IRON FERROUS IRON FERRIC IRON TOTAL IRON METHOD OF PREPARATION

I Trace 78.16 21.84 76.03 750°C. He,H20

II 0.72 87.48 11.80 800°C. H2,H20

Ill Trace 84.65 15.35 920°C. CO,COz

per cent of the higher oxide. The synthetic experiments of Hilpert

furnish the only information we have upon the relative stability of

the ferrous oxide solid solutions. This question of relative stability

seemed to us to merit further investigation.

We have prepared from pure iron, using suitable gas mixtures of

hydrogen and water vapour, many samples intermediate in composition

between FeO and Fe;0,. Twosuch samples and a third sample, made

with a gas mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, were

selected as materials suitable for a study of the invariant point, at

which the ferrous oxide and iron phases are in equilibrium with the

4 Similar results are reported by Richards and Baxter. Z. anorg. allgem. Chem. 23:

245. 1900.

5 R. B. Sosman, This JouRNAL7: 56. 1917.

6 Hilpert and Beyer, Ber. deutsch. Chem. Ges. 44: 1908. 1911. Matsubara, Trans.

Am. Inst. Mining Met. Eng., reprint 1051, issued with Mining and Metallurgy, February,

1921.

7 For a summary of these, see the paper by Eastman. Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. 44:

975. 1922.

8 Chaudron, Annales de Chimie, 16: 221. 1921.

278 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 13

Jo 20 ad 620 90 Bo je so 50 «(40 30 zo 70 s00 9

Temperature

free /ro7

4°

jo ae so @eo 9° Bo 7? eo Jeo 4o Jv zv 470° Soo ae

JuLY 19, 1923 FERGUSON: OXIDES OF IRON 279

ferro-ferric oxide phase and vapor in the system, (Fe-O). Analyses of

these samples are given in table II.

The free iron was determined by the copper sulfate method.® The

ferrous iron reported was the value obtained by titration corrected for

the metallic iron present. The ferric oxide was obtained by difference.

Each of these samples was divided into two parts. One part was

kept and the other part was heated at a low temperature in vacuum

until it contained an appreciable amount of free iron. We shall refer

to this latter part as the converted part. Portions of each kind of

material were then heated in vacuum in sealed pyrex glass tubes for

five hours at carefully regulated temperatures. The free iron in each

portion was then determined. The results are shown graphically in

figure I. The graphs represent in order samples I, II, and III. The

right hand curves were obtained with the original materials.

If all the ferrous oxide in samples I and II were converted to free

iron and magnetic oxide, the resultant free iron content would be,

respectively, 13.3 and 16.7 per cent. This calculation assumes the

equation 4 FeO=Fe+Fe;0:. We were able to obtain conversions of

13.5 and 16.9 per cent iron and this is as good a check as one could

expect from such materials.

With sample I, but one reaction appears to take place. Iron does

not begin to form in the iron-free material until a temperature of 526°C.

isreached. The iron in the converted part begins to combine at 577°C.

and the reaction proceeds until all the free iron has combined.

With samples II and III, there appears to be an additional reaction

by means of which a small quantity of iron is liberated. ‘This may be

noted even above 600°C. and the quantity of iron so formed does not

appear to vary much in the temperature interval between this tem-

~ perature and the temperature at which the major reaction takes place.

The iron liberated in this reaction does not recombine when the con-

verted materials are heated at the higher temperatures and the major

reaction takes place.

Hilpert could not tell whether the compositions richer in ferrous

oxide were unstable at the lower temperatures, or-whether they were

stable but could not be prepared owing to the slow reaction velocity.

Our experiments indicate that they are not stable. It seems probable

that ferrous oxide in the pure state is unstable at a fairly high tempera-

ture but that by the solution of ferro-ferric oxide the temperature of

transition is lowered. The rates at which iron would form on cooling

_.° Williams and Anderson, Journ. Ind. Eng. Chem. 14: 1057. 1922.

280 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 13, No. 13

ferrous oxide charges are such that its formation may have been a

disturbing factor in Hilpert’s work. The compositions of his iron-free

ferrous oxide phases are probably richer in ferric iron than the phases

which would be stable and in equilibrium with metallic iron at the

various temperatures.

According to the hypothesis just advanced, the ferrous oxide solu-

tion saturated with ferro-ferric oxide would be the only one which would

not partially decompose at temperatures above the invariant point.

Matsubara’s experiments indicate that in the range 863°-1175°C. the

solubility is practically independent of the temperature. His saturated

solution contains a little less than 76 per cent total iron. Sample I,

which behaves as one would expect the saturated solution to do, con-

tains 76.03 per cent iron.

The temperature of the invariant point must lie below 577°C. and

above 526°C. Probably it lies much closer to the upper temperature

rather than to the lower. More will be said regarding these tempera-

tures later.

TABLE ITI.—ExperimMents To DETERMINE THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT AT 750°C.

IRON CONTENT

poe qin nours | RaT10 H20/Hz REMARKS

MATERIAL PRODUCT

Pure iron 6 0.476 99.98 No oxidation

Pure iron 6 0.540 99.90 Oxidation slight if any

Pure iron 6 0.568 98 .0 Oxidation started

98.8 Analyses from different parts of

the boat

Pure iron 6 0.595 93.6 More oxidation

Ill. THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS

A series of experiments was carried out at 750°C. and atmospheric’

pressure with the view of checking by the stream method the diverse

values which have been obtained for the equilibrium constant by

static methods. A similar apparatus to that used for the iron phase

investigation was employed. Blank experiments were carried out in

order to test the apparatus and method. The results are given in

Table U1.

These results indicate that oxidation starts with a mixture having

a ratio probably slightly less than 0.54 and certainly less than 0.57.

Chaudron’s latest work leads to a value of 0.53 for this temperature.

Eastman’s calculated value would be 0.441. That of Schriener and

Grimnes would be approximately 0.66.

guns £9; 1.928 FERGUSON: OXIDES OF IRON 281

Eastman has collected all the results to date on this equilibrium con-

stant for various temperatures. A study of his graph of these shows

that the results of Schriener and Grimnes give for the invariant point

a temperature of 636°C. Our work places this temperature below

577°C. and furnishes additional evidence that the constants of these

workers are too large. It does not indicate, unfortunately, whether

the values of Chaudron or of Eastman are to be preferred since one

places the invariant point at 570° while the other gives it a value of

565°C.

Our stream method experiments give an upper limit for the constant.

Since Chaudron was able to obtain good agreement between oxidation

and reduction experiments at 785°C., we think that our value, which

agrees with his, must be not far from the true value for the particular

temperature.

The discrepancy between this value and that calculated by Eastman

from the constants of the (CO,CO,,Fe,FeO) system arises from the

fact that he gave great weight to the work of Matsubara. Chaudron’s

results on the two systems are in excellent agreement at 785°C. as

evidenced by the fact that from them he obtained a value for the con-

stant of the water-gas reaction of 0.87, Haber’s value for this being

0.86. In view of this, one is somewhat at a loss as to how to interpret

these results of Matsubara. Perhaps his iron phase was not the same

as that found by us in the other system. His conclusion, that the iron

phase contains much ferrous oxide in solution, though the most obvious

one, is not the only possible explanation of his results and would seem

to be in marked conflict with our own observations.

SUMMARY

1. The iron phase in the system (H2,H.O,Fe,FeO) does not con-

tain appreciable quantities of oxygen.

2. The transition temperature of the ferrous oxide phase appears

to be lowered by solution of ferro-ferric oxide in the ferrous oxide,

The quadruple point lies below 577°C.

3. A value for the equilibrium constant at 750°C. was obtained

by the stream method. It agrees with the value obtained by the

interpolation from the results of Chaudron and furnishes a check

on the latter.

10 The temperature of the quadruple point in the system (Fe, O,H) may be considered

for our purpose as identical with that of the invariant point in the system (Fe, O).

282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 13

MINERALOGY.—Methods for distinguishing natural from cultivated

pearls! F. E. Wricut, Geophysical Laboratory.

Efforts have been made for several centuries to induce pearl-growing

oysters and mussels to produce pearls comparable in quality and size

to the “‘natural” or ‘‘ normal’ pearls found by pear! divers in different

parts of the world and known tothe trade as fine pearls. It is a simple

matter to provoke formation of “‘blisters’’ and baroque pearls, but only

recently has a Japanese, Dr. K. Mikimoto, succeeded in developing a

suitable method for inducing pearl oysters to grow pearls which are

spherical in shape and similar in external appearance to fine pearls.

His process, which has been patented, is essentially the following:

A pearl oyster is first removed from its shell; from its outer, shell-

secreting mantle, a patch is dissected off, large enough to enclose, as a

sac tied at the neck, a foreign nucleus, such as a bead of mother-of-pearl

or even an inferior pearl. Each bead thus enveloped by the shell-

secreting epidermis is embedded in the sub-epidermal tissues of another

live oyster, which, after proper treatment of the wound, is returned

to its native habitat where in the course of a few years a coating of

pearl around the inserted bead may be deposited. The success of this

process is due, as was first emphasized by Dr. H. Lyster Jameson,? to

the “presence, in the sub-epidermal tissues of the oyster, of a closed

sac of the shell-secreting epidermis and not to the presence of an irri-

tating foreign body” as has been often supposed.

The pearls thus induced by the Mikimoto process are now on the

market and pearl merchants have had difficulty in distinguishing

natural Japanese pearls from the cultivated pearls of Mikimoto.

A short time ago the writer’s interest in this problem was aroused by

Dr. G. F. Kunz of New York who kindly loaned him, for examination

and comparison, examples of the Japanese cultivated pearls and of

fine pearls. In the Japanese pearls the centers were without exception

mother-of-pearl beads, and the methods described below are based

in large part on the ability of the observer to recognize the mother-

of-pearl nucleus.

Mother-of-pearl or nacre substance is composed of alternate laminae

or layers of calcium carbonate and of a horny organic substance called

conchiolin. In most of the mother-of-pearl shells examined by the

writer the carbonate is the mineral aragonite in the form of needles

elongated parallel with the acute bisectrix and oriented perpendicular

! Received June 19, 1923.

2 Proc. Zool. Soc., I, 140-166. 1902; Nature, Jan. 22, 1903, p. 280; Nature, May 26,

1921, p. 397. .

JULY 19, 1923 WRIGHT: DISTINGUISHING CULTIVATED PEARLS 283

to the pearly layers. The iridescence (luster, orient) of the pearl is

due to interference of waves of light at the different pearly layers’

which are remarkably uniform in thickness; the combined thickness of

the carbonate layer and the conchiolin layer is 0.0004 to 0.0006 mm. or

about equal to a wave length of ight. At the surface of each layer

some light is reflected and this interferes with a certain part of the

meident light. The final result is the reflection of a relatively large

amount of light and a correspondingly low transmission of the mother-

of-pearl for rays of light incident normal to the pearly surface. The

reflecting power on sections normal to the layers is appreciably less

and the transmission is relatively much higher. This difference in

reflecting power and in transparency with direction is easily seen on a

bead of mother-of-pearl. Held in one position the characteristic pearly

luster appears; turned through 90° the luster is less and the bead is

noticeably more transparent. In strong sunlight this difference is still

more striking. If now the bead of mother-of-pearl is enclosed in con-

centric layers of pearly substance, the lack of transparency of these

layers, especially when viewed along a diametral direction, tends to

mask the mother-of-pearl phenorhnena; but if the cultivated pearl be

viewed under proper conditions of illumination the phenomena charac-

teristic of mother-of-pearl are readily seen.

1. Test in reflected light. To test a pearl by this method examine the

pearl first in reflected light. Stand with the back to the window, to

the sun, or to some strong source of light. Hold the pearl so that it is

illuminated by rays from the rear and observe the change in intensity

of reflected light as the pearl is rotated. This rotation is accomplished

most readily if the pearl is mounted on a string or a piece of thin wire.

At the position for which the characteristic mother-of-pearl sheen is

reflected by the nacre-bead, this sheen is clearly visible shining out from

inside the pearl (Fig. 1c). It appears again on rotation of the pearl

through 180°. After a little practice the eye catches quickly this

phenomenon. Its appearance, which adds to the interest of the pearl,

brands the pearl definitely as a cultivated pearl with a mother-of-

pearl center. .

2. Test in transmitted light. The pearl is examined either in air

or while immersed in a liquid, such as water; the purpose of the

liquid is to reduce to a minimum the amount of light reflected at

the surface and thus to render more easily visible any lack of

’ Optics. Sir David Brewster, pp. 137-149. 1853: A H. Pfund, The colors of mother-

of-pearl. J. Franklin Inst., 453-464. 1917.

284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 13

homogeneity within the pearl. As a rule the liquid is unneces-

sary and is rarely used because it may possibly stain the pearl. The

method consists in sending a narrow beam of intense light into one

side of the pearl and noting any differences in illumination, along differ-

ent directions in the opposite half, which are due to a foreign nucleus

such as as a mother-of-pearl bead. Adequate illumination is attained

by imaging on the pearl an intense light source, such as a pointo-

lite bulb or a small are or the sun, with the aid of a condensing lens

lig. 1. A. Diametral section of cultivated pearl showing mother-of-pearl bead illumi-

nated from the side. Magnification 5x. B. Section of the same pearl viewed in re-

flected light. C. Cultivated pearl viewed in reflected light showing on the left the illum-

inated spot due to the mother-of-pearl sheen. D. Natural pearl illuminated from the

side. EH. Cultivated pearl illuminated by strong light from the rear. /’. Natural pearl

photographed under the same conditions of illumination.

(Fig. 2). If possible a vertical beam of light travelling upward is used.

To avoid extraneous light, the pearl is placed on a thin sheet of metal

directly over a small hole (c Fig. 2) drilled through the metal. The hole

serves as an aperture, somewhat smaller in diameter than the pearl.‘

The intense beam of light passes through the aperture, impinges on the

pearl, and illuminates its interior. The only light that reaches the

‘A special piece of apparatus for the testing of pearls by this method is now being

made available by the Bausch and Lomb Optical Company of Rochester, New York.

JULY 19, 1923 WRIGHT: DISTINGUISHING CULTIVATED PEARLS 285

observer is that which passes throught the pearl. Any differences in

degree of transmission between center and periphery of the pearl are

then clearly visible and enable the observer to see the shadow of any

foreign nucleus. If the nucleus consists of mother-of-pearl the trans-

parency differences for different directions of transmission through the

bead can be observed on rotating the pearl. In natural pearls the

central part appears opaque because of the high reflecting power normal

to the concentric lamellae; but this central disk is not so large as the

bead of a cultivated pearl and does not change its appearance as the

pearl is rotated.

Under these conditions of illumination the pearl can be examined

by the observer looking at it from any direction, either facing the

source of light or at right angles to the incident beam or from any

Nal

Fig. 2. Simple device for distinguishing cultivated pearls from natural pearls. S.

strong point source of light; L. aspheric condenser lens; R. reflecting mirror; B. metal

plate in which a small hole 3mm. diameter has been drilled. Above this aperture, which

can be made of different size by means of a sliding stop diaphragm, the pearl, P, rests.

intermediate position (Fig. 1,e.f). Itis advantageous thus to examine

the pearl end on and from the side because, as it is turned about,

certain differences in homogeneity are more readily seen along one

direction than another. Under these conditions any flaws or imper-

fections in the pearl} whether natural or cultivated, are clearly shown.

Cultivated pearls exhibit many imperfections and patches of different

reflecting power and degree of transparency. Many natural pearls

show minute spots and irregularities, but the best pearls are free from

flaws of any kind.

3. Examination of the walls of the hols drilled through the pearl.

Illuminated by a strong beam of light from the side, the walls of the

hole drilled through the pear! exhibit the boundary between the outer

pearl substance and the mother-of-pearl nucleus. This is rendered

visible not only by a difference in intensity of illuraination but also

in color; the pearl shells are noticeably blue in color while the nucleus

286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 13

is tinted yellow. In this examination the pearl is supported on a wire

extending into the hole to the center of the pearl. The wire is held be-

tween the thumb and first finger in an upright position and the hole is

examined with the aid either of a magnifying glass, a microscope, or a

binocular microscope. The work of Galibourg and Ryziger® has

demonstrated that with the aid of a microscope and a suitable mirror

it is possible to detect differences in homogeneity of the material ex-

posed along the hole drilled through the pearl. The mirror, which they

employ, is the top of a mercury column, like that in a thermometer

tube. The mercury is forced up through the hole in the pearl by a

delicately adjusted apparatus and the reflections from the top of the

mercury column are observed through a strong magnifying system

(microscope or binocular). \ This‘method-is said to be very successful.

The pear] is illuminated by a strong light from the side. The difference

between the darker center and the enclosing pearl shell, especially at

the boundary between the two, is clearly shown in the curved mirror.

In applying this method, the writer has had difficulty in obtaining a

uniform movement of the mercury column because of the capillary

dimension of the hole and the tendency for slight obstructons to bar

temporarily the passage of the mercury; in passing an obstruction, the

mercury tends to flow rapidly and to advance by jumps rather than

smoothly. The apparatus moreover is complicated and for purposes

of this sort the handling of mercury is rarely satisfactory. ;

The following simpler and equally efficient method may serve the

same purpose. In place of the mercury column a small bead fused on

the end of a pure gold wire is used. A short piece of fine gold wire

(0.2 mm. diameter and about 1 em. long) is satisfactory; the bead is

produced by holding the end of the wire in a Bunsen flame for a time

sufficient to melt down the tip and formasmallbead. The gold bead

thus produced is much smoother and presents a more perfect reflecting

surface than does a silver or platinum wire bead, or the surface which

can be formed by grinding and burnishing the end of a fine steel needle

in a lathe. The gold bead can be silver plated if desired. In the

writer’s experience, however, this is unnecessary. ‘The wire is held

stationary in a vertical position with the bead uppermost between the

thumb and forefinger, the pearl to be examined is held by the other

hand and slid over the stationary wire so that the wire passes through

the drilled hole. If desired, the wire and also the pearl can be held by

mechanical device and the pearl moved up or down by a screw. ‘The

pearl is illuminated by a strong light from the side. During this

> The Watchmaker, Jeweler, Silversmith and Optician, pp. 1821-1823. 1922.

JuLy 19, 1923 RYDBERG: NEW GENUS OF SENECIOID COMPOSITES 287

operation the reflections from the stationary bead are observed through

a low power microscope or binocular magnifying 25 to 50 diameters.

The various phenomena described by Galibourg-Ryziger are shown

equally well by this method. The preparation of beads of different

sizes to fit different holes is a matter of only a few minutes.

This method has the advantage over the first two methods in that

it may be used to distinguish between normal pearls and cultivated

pearls with a pear! center.

In any case, test by all three methods should be applied, the one

to serve as a check on the other. These tests are not time-consuming

and in most instances lead to definite results.

4. Test in ultraviolet light. Recently C. 8. Fox (Journ. Indian

Industries and Labor, 1%: 235; Chemical News, 125, 67-68. 1922)

has found that in ultraviolet light both natural and cultivated

pearls fluoresce, with the difference, however, that the Persian Gulf

pearls are opaque to ultraviolet light whereas Japanese pearls, both

natural and cultivated, have a translucent opalescence. He considers

that because the cultivated pearl has a nucleus which comprises from

0.5 to 0.9 of the total volume of the pearl and which is of inferior

material (mother-of-pearl) whereas a natural pearl is made up of con-

centric layers of pearly substance from center to periphery, the culti-

vated pearl is an inferior article and is not to be considered in the class

with natural pearls. In view of the difficulty in distinguishing culti-

vated pearls from natural pearls, he proposes that all Japanese pearls,

both natural and cultivated, which show a translucent opalescence in

ultraviolet light, shall be considered of inferior quality. The writer

has repeated the test of Fox with the new fluorescent microscope of the

Bausch and Lomb Optical Company and has noted that the translucent

opalescence described by Fox is not so clearly and distinctly shown that

uncertainty may not arise regarding the kind of pearl under test,

whether Indian or Japanese. It would seem unwise to adopt this

suggestion because pearls may at some future time be cultivated in the

waters of the Persian Gulf and then the rule would fail to accomplish

the desired result, and produce confusion worse than ever.

BOTANY.—A new genus of senecioid composites. P. A. RYDBERG,

New York Botanical Garden. (Communicated by Paut C.

STANDLEY. )

The genus Clappia, named after Dr. A. Clapp of New Albany,

Indiana, was described by Dr. Gray in the Botany of the Mexican

Boundary Survey. Dr. Gray placed the genus in the tribe Helenieae,

288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 13

but thought that it might be referred to the subtribe Tagetineae.

In the Synoptical Flora he transferred it to the subtribe Jaumieae, and

was followed by Hoffman in Engler and Prantl’s Natiirlichen Pflanzen-

familien. When I prepared the manuscript of that subtribe for the

North American Flora I was not so well acquainted with the variations

displayed in the subtribe Tagetineae, and let it remain in the position

givenby Gray and Hoffman, though I felt thatitwas outof place. The

bracts of the involucre are striate by black ducts which evidently are

to be regarded as elongated resin glands. Such black markings, though

very short, are found also on the leaves, especially the reduced upper

ones. It is now evident to me that the genus should be transferred

to the tribe Tageteae. The other genera of Jaumeanae lack this

resmous striation as well as the fimbrillae on the recptacle.

The type of the genus, collected by Berlandier at Laredo, Texas, is

rather unsatisfactory, being mostly out of flower, but Hooker illus-

trated it in his Icones (pl. 1105) from better material. The plant

was reported by Gray as collected by Havard along the Pecos River

and it was found by Rose at Brownsville in 1913 (no. 18096). ‘The

latter specimens show the characters of the genus very well.

Clappia suaedaefolia was also reported by Wooton and Standley in

their Flora of New Mexico,! but the specimens on which this record

was based do not belong to it and I suspect that it may be the case with

Havard’s specimens mentioned above. If Wooton and Standley’s

material is compared with type of Clappia or with Rose’s specimens of

the same, it is evident that the resemblance is only superficial and

consists only in the same general habit, and that the former does not

even belong to the genus Clappia. I was inclined to refer the speci-

mens to the genus Senecio, but Dr. Greenman, who knows that genus

much better than myself, was not willing to include them and I there-

fore propose the following new genus.

Pseudoclappia Rydberg, gen. nov.

Shrubs with glabrous, straw-colored or white branches. Leaves linear,

subterete, fleshy, alternate or subopposite. Heads radiate, solitary, pedun-

cled, terminating the branches. Involucre turbinate, without caliculum;

bracts about 9, linear, somewhat fleshy, in 2 subequal series. Receptacle

naked, alveolate. Ray-flowers 4 or 5, the ligules linear-oblong, 5-7-nerved.

Disk flowers about 15, the tube narrow, shorter than and grading into the

narrowly somewhat funnelform throat, the 5 lobes short, deltoid. Anthers

with deltoid tips. Style-branches subulate-filiform, minutely hairy. Achenes

prismatic, 5-ribbed, hispidulous. Pappus of numerous stiff bristles.

1 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 19: 719. 1915.

JuLy 19, 1923 STANDLEY: TWO NEW GENERA OF RUBIACEAE 289

Pseudoclappia arenaria Rydberg, sp. nov.

Clappia suaedaefolia Woot. & Standl. Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 19:719. 1915.

Not C. suaedaefolia A. Gray. 1859.

A low shrub; leaves linear, 1-3.5 cm. long, 1-2 mm. thick; peduncles

2-4 em. long, with a few scalelike subulate small leaves; involucral bracts

glabrous, linear, acute, 8-10 mm. long; ligules yellow, 6-8 mm. long, 2-2.5

mm. wide; disk-corollas about 1 cm. long; achenes blackish, prismatic,

3 mm. long, 1 mm. thick.

New Mexico: White Sands, Otero County, July 20, 1901, Wooton (type;

U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 739956); Aug. 31, 1904, Wooton 2618; June 21, 1895,

Wooton. White Sands, Dona Ana County, July 19, 1897, Wooton 483.

South Spring, May 2-4, 1908, Griffiths 4243 (U. 8. Nat. Herb. no. 496288,

in part).

The plant can not be included in Clappiza since it lacks the resinous stria-

tion of the bracts and the fimbrillae on the receptacle, and the bristles of

the pappus are neither flattened nor paleaceous at the base. It can not be

included in Senecio since the involucre is without caliculum and its bracts

of a different texture, the pappus-bristles are stiffer than is usual in that

genus, and the style-branches are distinctly Vernonioid, neither truncate

nor with a hair-pencil at the end. The genus should, however, be referred

to the tribe Senecioneae, subtribe Senecionanae, notwithstanding the Ver-

nonioid style. A more or less vernonioid style is found also in the genera

Gynura, Emilia, and Psacalium.

BOTANY.—Calderonia and Exandra, two new genera of the family

Rubiaceae. By Pau C. Stanpiey, U. 8. Nationat Musevum.!

During a botanical collecting trip to the Republic of Salvador in

1921-22 the writer obtained imperfect material of two trees of the fami-

ly Rubiaceae, both of which prove to represent undescribed genera.

Both of them had been obtained by earlier collectors, and specimens

existed in the National Herbarium, but the early material was too in-

complete for satisfactory identification and has remained undetermined

until now.

Of the two genera here described the more interesting and better

defined is Calderonia, of which a complete series of specimens, showing

both flowers and fruit from the same tree, has been collected by Dr.

Salvador Calder6n, of the Chemical Laboratories of the Salvadorean

Department of Agriculture. Dr. Calder6nisan enthusiastic student of

botany and entomology, and has presented to the National Museum

an unusually interesting collection of Salvadorean plants, beautifully

prepared and consisting of over 1500 specimens, which are of excep-

tional value because of the vernacular names and full notes: upon

economic applications which accompany them.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

’

290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 13

It is with a peculiar sense of pleasure and satisfaction that I am able

to associate with one of the important trees of Salvador the name of a

valued personal friend who is a true scientist in every sense of the word

and who has done so much to make known the flora of one of the Cen-

tral American countries of which practically no information was

available previously. My pleasure in naming this genus is enhanced

by the fact that itis thus possible to express, although very inade-

quately, an appreciation of the generous attentions and courtesies

received from Dr. Calderon during a visit of five months to Salvador,

attentions which contributed in a large measure toward making those

months a delightful experience.

Calderonia Standl., gen. nov.

Trees, nearly glabrous throughout. Leaves opposite, petiolate, large,

thin, deciduous. Stipules large, interpetiolar, caducous. Inflorescence

terminal, the flowers small, cymose-paniculate, bracteate and bracteolate,

sessile or short-pedicellate; hypanthium clavate, terete; calyx very shallowly

5-lobate but ruptured by the expanding corolla, persistent; corolla fleshy-

coriaceous, funnelform-campanulate, the tube short, campanulate, the 5

lobes oblong-ovate, obtuse, nearly equaling the tube, glabrous outside,

pubescent within, recurved, valvate in bud. Stamens 5, alternate with

the corolla lobes, inserted at the base of the tube; filaments stout, pubescent

below, exserted; anthers oblong, obtuse, dorsifixed near the base, dehiscent

by antrorse slits. Disk annular, fleshy. Ovary 2-celled; style stout, glab-

rous, exserted, the 2 branches clavate and angulate; ovules numerous,

crowded, attached to the septum. Capsule globose, ligneous, 2-celled,

loculicidally bivalvate from apex nearly to base, the septum also vertically

dehiscent. Seeds numerous, large, horizontal, semiorbicular, compressed,

terminating in a thin transparent wing as large as the body, the testa

minutely reticulate; embryo large, the radicle minute, the cotyledons oval,

thin; endosperm none.

Type species, Calderonia salvadorensis Standl.

Calderonia salvadorensis Standl., sp. nov.

A tree, 5-15 meters, high, the trunk slender, with smooth whitish bark;

young branchlets minutely puberulent; stipules linear-lanceolate, long-

attenuate, about 2 cm. long, glabrous; petioles slender, 2-3 cm. long, minutely

puberulent; leaf blades elliptic to oval-elliptic or oblong-obovate, 12-24 cm.

long, 5.5-12 em. wide, acute or short-acuminate, somewhat narrowed to

the rounded or emarginate base, thin, puberulent beneath along the nerves,

in the axils of the main nerves barbate and domidiate (furnished with small

shelters—for parasites?), elsewhere glabrous, the lateral nerves 10-12 pairs;

panicles 8-15 em. long, often leafy below, dense, many-flowered, the rachis

minutely puberulent, the flowers mostly sessile; hypanthium glabrous,

3 mm. long; calyx 1.5 mm. long, the lobes rounded, minutely ciliolate; corolla

5 mm. long; filaments about equaling the corolla lobes, the anthers 2.56 mm.

long; capsule slightly depressed, about 2 ecm. in diameter, with numerous

large pale lenticels; seeds (including the wing) about 15 mm. long and 6 mm.

wide.

JuLY 19, 1923 STANDLEY: TWO NEW GENERA OF RUBIACEAE 291

Type (a flowering specimen) in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,151,718,

taken from a tree planted in the street in front of the Santa Tecla Railway

station, in San Salvador, Republic of Salvador, July, 1922, by Dr. Salvador

Calderén (no. 761).

Additional specimens examined:

SALVADOR: San Salvador, December, 1922, Calderén 761 (fruiting speci-

mens from the type tree). Tonacatepeque, Departamento de San Salvador,

December, 1921, Standley 19499. Nahulingo, Departamento de Sonsonate,

alt. 220 meters, March, 1922, Standley 22052. Sonsonate, alt. 220 meters,

March 1922, Standley 22312.

GuATEMALA: Patalul, Departamento de Sololé, February, 1906, Kellerman

5986.

The genus Calderonia belongs to the tribe Condamineeae of the family

Rubiaceae. In the key to the genera of this group published a few years

ago by the writer,? it would run at once to Picardaea, a West Indian genus

to which it is not closely related. Calderonia differs from Condaminae

in its winged seeds; from Chimarrhis in its terminal inflorescence; and from

Rustia in the dehiscence of the anthers. The absence of endosperm in the

seed is probably an important character. The Salvadorean tree appears

to represent an unusually well marked genus of the Rubiaceae.

Calderonia salvadorensis is known in Salvador by the vernacular names of

campeche, brasil, and palo colorado, and at Sonsonate I was informed that

the names drago and sangre de chucho (‘‘dog’s-blood”’) were applied toit. The

names palo colorado, drago, and sangre de chucho doubtless allude to the

fact that all parts of the plant quickly assume a reddish tint when cut. This

is particularly noticeable in the wood, but the leaves also are often affected

the same way in drying.

The wood is said to be of good quality and is employed for building pur-

poses and for firewood. By its peculiar color it is easily recognized. This

red coloration is a property of other woods produced by trees of the same

family, as, for instance, Genipa maxonii Standl., of Panama. Dr. Calderén

in a recent letter says: ‘‘Lately I saw the wood used for rafters in a country

house being built near Sonsonate, and in a building under construction in

that city. Some time ago on the shore of Lake Ilopango, at a locality known

as Apulo, I saw a large quantity of sawed timbers at least 45 cm. wide and

7 meters long or more, of pink wood, to which the name of quina was given.

I do not know whether the tree from which they were obtained was the same

as my No. 761, but the appearance of the wood was identical. The trees

which I have seen are smaller, but in the wild state it would not be strange

to find them large enough to give lumber of the dimensions I have described.”

The name quina (‘quinine’), it may be remarked, is one often given in

Salvador and elsewhere in Central America to Rubiaceous trees because

their bitter bark is employed locally in place of the imported quinine.

The tree, Dr. Calderén states, is common in the fincas about San Salvador,

2.N. Amer. Fl. 32:4. 1918.

292 10URNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 13

being grown from seeds brought from the forests of the Department of

La Libertad, where it is native. I saw many of the trees planted along the .

roads in the neighborhood of Sonsonate, and a fine large one in a finca at

Tonacatepeque.

Exandra Standl., gen. nov.

Shrubs or trees. Leaves opposite, petiolate, the blades large, thin. Stip-

ules interpetiolar, caducous. Inflorescence terminal, the flowers small,

numerous, in paniculate cymes, sessile or short-pedicellate, bracteate and

bracteolate; hypanthium clavate, somewhat obcompressed; calyx short,

persistent, irregularly 5 or 6-lobate, the lobes triangular, obtuse or acute,

thin, about equaling the tube; corolla shortly and broadly funnelform, glab-

rous within and without, open in bud, the tube broadly obconic, the 5 or 6

lobes nearly obsolete, broadly rounded, recurved in anthesis. Stamens

5 or 6, inserted at the middle of the corolla tube, alternate with the lobes,

the filaments stout, long-exserted, pubescent below; anthers oblong, obtuse,

dorsifixed near the base, dehiscent by lateral slits. Disk annular, shallowly

lobate. Ovary 2-celled; style stout, nearly equaling the stamens, glabrous,

‘deeply bilobate, the lobes oblong, obtuse; ovules numerous.

Type species, Hxandra rhodoclada Standl.

Exandra rhodoclada Standl., sp. nov.

A shrub or tree, the young branchlets minutely puberulent; stipules about

2 cm. long, attenuate, puberulent; petioles slender, 2.5-4 cm. long, subterete,

minutely puberulent; leaf blades rounded-ovate or rounded-oval, broadest

near the middle, 20-80 cm. long, 16-25 em. wide, short-acute or acuminate

at apex, often somewhat abruptly so, slightly narrowed below and at base

shallowly or deeply cordate, thin, glabrous except beneath upon the nerves,

there minutely puberulent, the costa slender and salient beneath, the lateral

nerves about 11 pairs; panicles short-pedunculate, dense, about 9 cm. long,

pyramidal, the rachises fulvous-puberulent; bracts and bractlets lanceolate

to triangular, small and deciduous; flowers mostly sessile; hypanthium

puberulent, 3 mm. long; corolla 4-5 mm. long, 3.5-4 mm. broad; filaments

5-6 mm. long, the anthers 2 mm. long.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 229232, collected between

La Venta and Niltepec, Oaxaca, Mexico, altitude 60 meters, July 14, 1895,

by E. W. Nelson (no. 2796).

Additional specimens examined:

SALVADOR: Comasagua, December, 1922, Calderén 1370. Finca Colima,

in the Sierra de Apaneca, Departamento de Ahuachapdn, January, 1922,

Standley 20139.

The Mexican specimen is said to have been taken from a shrub or tree

of 2.5 to 4.5 meters, with brownish and green flowers. Both the Salvadorean

specimens are sterile but there is little doubt that they represent the same

species. They were taken from trees, for which the vernacular names were

given as brasil and limpia-dientes. Dr. Calderén reports that the tree

yields lumber of good quality.

The systematic position of the proposed genus is doubtful because of the

lack of fruit, but the writer has little hesitation in making the tree the type

JuLy 19, 1923 STANDLEY: TWO NEW GENERA OF RUBIACEAE 293

of a new genus, since comparison with all the American genera of restricted

groups of Rubiaceae, to one of which it must belong, shows that it can not

be referred satisfactorily to any of them. The most noteworthy character

is to be found in the estivation of the corolla, which is open in all the buds

upon the single fertile specimen seen. It is probable, however, that the

corolla lobes, theoretically at least, are imbricate in bud, which would make

impossible the reference of the genus to the tribe Condamineeae, whose

genera it resembles in general appearance. In its aspect it strongly suggsts

Calderonia, to which the writer at first believed that it must belong, but the

floral details of the two trees are quite distinct.

One of the striking features of Hxandra rhodoclada is the red coloration

assumed by the wood upon exposure to the air, a character which it shares

with Calderonia. ‘This coloration is perceptible also in the petioles and in the

veins of the leaves after drying.

In connection with the descriptions of these two new genera there may be

recorded the rediscovery of a plant described in this Journal* by myself a

few years ago as a new genus of Rubiaceae, under the name Blepharidium

guatemalense. The description was based upon a specimen collected in

forest along the Saklak River below Secanquim, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala,

in 1905 by Mr. H. Pittier. During May, 1922, I spent several weeks col-

lecting about Quirigu4é, Guatemala, and on the very first morning that I

went out collecting this plant was found and recognized. It was seen several

times in the vicinity, but the season was a little too early for obtaining good

material, since at this time, the end of the dry season, the flowers were not

fully developed. Blepharidium guatemalense is a shrub of two to three meters,

with few branches and large (sometimes 45 cm. long), handsome, glossy

leaves. It occurs sparingly upon the hills back of the hospital at Quirigud

at the edge of the pine forest with which their summits are clothed, growing

in the dense thickets which are characteristic of the cohune (Attalea cohune)

and pine ridges. The vegetation here bears a striking resemblance, both

in general appearance and in composition, to that of the pinelands of south-

western Florida.

48:59) 01018.

294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 13

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

171ST MEETING

The 171st meeting of the Acaprmy was held jointly with the Philosophical

Society of Washington in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club the evening

of Thursday, December 21, 1922. Dr. H. A. Cuark, Physicist of the Taylor

Instrument Companies, Rochester, New York, delivered an address entitled,

The manufacture of thermometers.

In the drawing of capillary tubing for thermometers, the workman fashions

a mass of hot glass of approximately taffy-pulling consistency, on the end of

a blowpipe. In this mass (12 to 16 inches long and 4 to 6 inches in diameter),

the relative dimensions of the various parts in a cross section (such as the two

diameters of an oval bore, if it is oval, and the various outside diameters if

the tube is not cylindrical) are the same as in the completed tubing. It is

_then drawn mechanically to a length of about 180 feet, the final diameter

depending upon various factors including rate of drawing.

To make a ‘“‘chemical” thermometer, the workman starts with a piece of

capillary cut to length, the area of bore of which has been carefully determined

at both ends with a high power microscope. If it is to be a precision ther-

mometer, the bore has, in addition, been calibrated with a mercury thread.

A short piece of large-bore thin-walled tubing is sealed on for a bulb and its

end drawn to a capillary through which mercury flows into the bulb, partly

filling it, as it cools. The end of the bulb is sealed off, the mercury inside

boiled to expel air, and the entire system now fills as it cools with the upper

end of the stem under mercury.

The upper end is now sealed off with a large ‘false chamber” into which

the bulb filling flows when bulb and stem are put into an electric oven for

annealing, temperature being carefully controlled.

After annealing, excess mercury is driven into the false chamber and the

stem is melted off just below, in such a way that the capillary space above

the mercury column is evacuated or is filled with nitrogen, according to the

range desired.

The “tube,” so called, is now ready for a scale. For this purpose it is

“pointed” by locating the mercury surface in the capillary at each of several

known temperatures, by means of a fine scratch on the stem. To do this,

the ‘‘tube”’ is immersed in well-stirred “baths’’ of various liquids, the tem-

perature of each being determined with a standard thermometer. The

temperature points chosen for pointing depend on the accuracy desired, as

well as the range.

The tube is coated with wax and an automatic engraving-machine cuts

the graduations, the spacing being automatically varied as required by the

slight unavoidable non-uniformity of bore. Dipping into hydrofluoric acid,

cleaning off acid and wax, and filling graduations with pigment make the

thermometer finally complete.

The many other types of mercury-in-glass thermometers, clinical, indus-

trial and others, pass through the above processes as well as others, depending

upon the type. Still other types, consisting of liquid-in-metal bulbs and

flexible metallic capillaries, much used in industry, cannot be here described

for lack of space. (Author’s abstract.)

JULY 19, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 295

172D MEETING

The 172d meeting of the Acaprmy, the 25th annual meeting, was held

at the Administration Building of the Carnegie Institution of Washington

the evening of Tuesday, January 9, 1923. The meeting was called to order

by Vice-President CrirtmENDEN, who called upon the retiring President,

W. J. Humpnureys, to give his address entitled, The murmur of the forest and

the roar of the mountain. This has since been published in the Journal of

the Academy (13:49-64. February 19, 1923).

Following a brief intermission after the address, the annual business

meeting of the Academy was held. The minutes of the 24th annual meeting

were read and approved. The Corresponding Secretary, Francis B. SILSBEE,

reported briefly on the activities of the Academy during the year. On

January 1, 1923, the membership consisted of 6 honorary members, 3 pat-

rons, and 563 members, one of whom was a life member. The total member- —

ship was 572,’ of whom 355 reside in or near the District of Columbia, 201

in other parts of the United States, and 7 in foreign countries. Thirteen

resignations were accepted during the year, of which two were of resident

members, and the Academy lost by death the following members: CHARLES

BASKERVILLE, ALEXANDER GRAHAM Berti, Epwarp K. DunyaAm, WILLIAM

Frear, Henry Marion Howr, Cuartes W. Watpner. During the year

the Board of Managers held nine meetings. The decision of the Academy

to discontinue the practice of attempting to print in the JourNaL abstracts of

scientific papers emanating from Washington was explained, the principal

objections to the former custom being that the collection of abstracts was

by no means complete, and that such abstracting service was better covered

by special journals devoted to obtaining complete abstracts of all articles in

their respective fields.

The report of the Recording Secretary, Wmn~1am R. Maxon, was read.

There were held during the year-9 public meetings, several of them jointly

with one or more affiliated societies, at which illustrated addresses were

delivered. The titles and dates and the places of publication of the addresses

were stated.

The report of the Treasurer, R. L. Faris, showed total receipts of $5,609.12,

and total disbursements of $4,916.17; the cash balance in hand December

31, 1922, was $2,671.47. Investments of the Academy have a total par

value of $15,036.37. The cost of maintaining and printing the Journal in

1922 was $3,579.26, a slight increase over 1921.

The report of the Auditing Committee, consisting of Oscar 5. ADAMs,

E. F. Mvewier, and 8. J. Maucuty was read, and the reports of the Treasurer

and the Auditing Committee were accepted.

The report of the Editors of the Journal was read by Sipnry Patas, the

senior Editor. In general, the editorial policy of the Board had remained

as in 1921, the changes made in composition and in size of page having been

continued. Also, the cost of producing illustrations had been borne by the

authors, as previously. Volume 12 consists of 486 pages, as against 537

published in Volume 11. Of original papers there were 52, one less than in

1921. The departments of Proceedings and Scientific Notes and News were

maintained, but the publication of abstracts had been discontinued early

in the year, as explained above.

The Committee of Tellers reported that the following officers had been

elected for for 1923: President, T. WavLaAND VauGuan; Non resident Vice-

Presidents, D. T. McDoveat, W. F. G. Swann; Corresponding Secretary,

296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 13

F. B. Smusper; Recording Secretary, Witt1AM R. Maxon; Treasurer, R. L.

Faris; Managers, Class of 1926, H. L. Saantz, WitutaM Bowtr.

The following Vice-Presidents, nominated by the affiliated societies, were

then elected: Archaeological Society, A. H. Cuarx; Biological Society, A. S.

Hircucocx; Botanical Society, W. E. Sarrorp; Chemical Society, W. M.

Cuark; Institute of Electrical Engineers, A. R. CHEnry; Society of Engineers,

R. H. Dauevetsu; Entomological Society, 8. A. Ronwer; Society of Foresters,

G. B. Supwortu; National Geographic Society, FRepERIcK V. CoviLLE;

Geological Society, W. C. Aupen; Medical Society, L. H. RetcHELDERFER;

Philosophical Society, W. P. Wutrte.

At 10:20 the meeting adjourned.

173D MEETING

The 173d mecting of the AcaApremy was held jointly with the Geological

Society of Wasuington in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club the evening

of Wednesday, January 24, 1923. Dr. M. E. pz Marcenrin, Director of the

Geological Survey of Alsace-Lorraine, delivered an illustrated address en-

titled, The structure of the Alps.

17ATH MEETING

The 174th meeting of the AcAprmy was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club the evening of Thursday, February 15, 1923. Mr. W. D.

Couns, of the U. 8. Geological Survey, delivered an address entitled,

The industrial aspects of modern methods of water purification.

Successful manufacturing is dependent on the chemical character of the

water available for use in the various processes. The methods of water

purification that are necessary for some supplies have a profound influence

on the industrial value of the treated water. This has been the experience

of many manufacturers who have been compelled to use water from a treated

supply and attempt to duplicate the production of a plant using a water so

free from mineral matter and organic pollution that it required no treatment.

The development of industry in the United States in the last fifty years

has resulted in the movement of the center of industrial activity from New

England, where pure water has been abundant, towards the middle west,

where practically all the water available for public supplies requires purifi-

cation. The demand for larger and larger supplies which must be taken from

surface sources and the increasing pollution of these surface sources make

necessary more and more complicated methods of treatment. While tue

purification makes some waters better for industrial use than t ey were

before treatment, there are many instances where the treatment necessary

to make a water safe to drink renders it quite unsatisfactory for some indus-

trial uses. Serious losses have resulted from seemingly insignificant causes,

such as the well known “‘iodoform’’ odor in some chlorinated waters, or from

the excess or deficiency of carbon dioxide resulting from treatment with

alum or lime. The person responsible for the successful operation of a

manufacturing plant where the chemical character of the water used has an

effect on the product must watch carefully the operation of the water purifi-

cation plant, if he is using the water from a public supply that is purified by

one of the more complicated methods of treatment. (Author's abstract.)

JULY 19, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 297

175TH MEETING

The 175th meeting of the Acaprmy was held jointly with the Philosophical

Society of Washington in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club the evening

of Saturday, March 10, 1923. Prof. A. Sommerrenp of Munich, delivered

an address on Hvidence for the theory of relativity afforded by atomic physics.

Two branches of modern physics stand in the center of scientific interest,

the theory of relativity and the theory of atomic structure. They came

together, as the speaker showed in 1916, in the theory of the fine structure

of certain spectral lines.

The theory of relativity (Einstein, 1905 and 1915) is a new foundation of

our general notions of space, time, matter, and gravitation, based on obser-

vational facts. The mass of an electron, for example, as well as length,

time, and energy, is dependent on the relative velocity of the electron with

respect to the observer. The theory of atomic structure (Bohr, 1913) is

based on the notion of the nuclear atom (Rutherford, 1911) and on the

theory of quanta (Planck, 1900). The electrons revolve around the nucleus,

like the planets in the solar system around the sun. In the simplest atoms

of hydrogen and of ionized helium we have a Keplerian motion: one electron

revolving around the nucleus. Bohr succeeded in computing the wave

lengths of the spectrai lines of these elements and in revealing the laws of

spectra, widely different from the laws of the oscillations of the usual mechani-

cal systems. The wave-lengths are given by the energy differences of the

atom in its initial and final states.

According to the theory of quanta, a certain state of the atom corresponds -

to a certain number of electronic orbits, either circular or elliptical. In the

helium liné \ = 4686, e.g. the initial state of the atom corresponds to four

different orbits, the final state to three. These four different initial orbits,

as well as the three different final ones, have the same energy, according to

the classical mechanics of Newton. Therefore, all the 4 XK 3 = 12 transi-

tions give the same energy difference and produce the same spectral line.

But Newton’s mechanics are only a first approximation; the real mechanics

_ are Einstein’s. According to the relativistic increase of the electronic mass

with increasing velocity, the energy of the four initial orbits is slightly dif-

ferent as well as the energy of the three final orbits. So we get 12 components

very close together, of a so-called fine structure. The photographs taken

by Paschen in 1916 are projected; they prove themselves to be in best agree-

ment with the prediction of the theory.

Fine structure components of the same character occur in the X-ray

spectra of all elements; they show that the same circular and elliptical orbits

and the same relativistic increase in the mass of the electron occur in the

inner parts of all elements. (Auwthor’s abstract.)

Wiuiiam R. Maxon, Recording Secretary.

’

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

883D MEETING

The 883rd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium on Saturday,

April 7, 1923. It was called to order at 8:15 p.m. by President Wu1tTe with

42 persons in attendance.

Owing to some experiments with liquid hydrogen which were in prepara-

tion by Dr. Kanour, the reading of minutes of previous meetings was de-

ferred until later in the evening.

298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 13

The first paper on Liquid and solid hydrogen was presented by Dr. C. W.

Kanout. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Heryn, Pawnine, Lirrue-

HALES, HAWKESWORTH, CHANEY, amd HuMpHReEys.

Author’s abstract: Liquid hydrogen was first obtained by Dewar in Eng-

land about 25 years ago, and since then it has been produced in several

laboratories. Although the method employed is fairly simple in theory,

there have been some practical difficulties involved. The purpose of the

work at the Bureau of Standards has been, first to make it possible to obtain

readily at the bureau fairly large quantities of liquid hyrogen for experimental

purposes, and, second, to study the difficulties of the process in order to make

it easier for other laboratories to produce the liquid.

The principal difficulty has resulted from the influence of small quantities

of air in the hydrogen. The air is frozen in the hydrogen expansion valve

and soon clogs it. A proportion of air too small to be found by ordinary

methods of gas analysis may still be sufficient to produce clogging. However

a new method of determining very small quantities of nitrogen, the most

troublesome impurity, in hydrogen has been found, and this has greatly

facilitated the investigation and elimination of sources of contamination.

~The hydrogen employed is generated electrolytically in the laboratory.

The liquefier in use produces two liters of liquid per hour and little difficulty

is now experienced in its operation.

Solid hydrogen can be obtained by evaporating the liquid in a partial

vacuum produced by a pump of sufficiently large capacity, and as the vapor

pressure at the freezing point is relatively high, this operation is not difficult.

Liquid hydrogen was exhibited at the meeting and with it air from the

room was liquefied and frozen. !

President Wuirr made announcement of the meetings of the American

Geophysical Union to be held at the Administration Building of the Carnegie

Institution of Washington on April 17 to 19.

Captain N. H. Heck presented a paper on The relation of seismology to

geodesy and tides. The paper was illustrated with lantern slides, and was

discussed by Messrs. Humpnreys, L. H. Apams, and Bowtr.

Author’s abstract: A brief introductory statement shows what is being

done in the United States in the study of Seismology, and the relation of

the Coast and Geodetic Survey, which is doing the principal work in geodesy

and tides, to this subject.

The need for better instruments, operation, and time control is pointed

out. The important cooperative earthquake investigation in California

by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the California Universities, the

Geological Survey, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey has brought out the

necessity for precise triangulation and levels in seismological work, to deter-

mine whether or not surface shifts have occurred. Observations in Japan

and elsewhere show clearly that such work should be carried on in earth-

quake regions. "

The possibility of such shifts along the coasts, due to submarine earth-

quakes, makes the observation of such earthquakes of special importance.

The magnetic observatories of the United States, though placed entirely

with regard to magnetic work, are exceptionally well located for the obser-

vation of submarine earthquakes, four of them being in regions where major

earthquakes have occurred.

Submarine earthquakes are the cause of the so-called tidal waves, de-

structive nearby, and often causing long continued fluctuations at a dis-

tance. Tidal records of the Chilean earthquake tide and of the recent

JULY 19, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 299

tidal wave at Hilo, Hawaii, are of special interest. The automatic tide-

guage records at twenty stations are now regularly examined for abnormalities

due to earthquakes.

Possible relations between the theory of isostasy and earthquakes are

pointed out. Isostasy indicates that earthquakes occur above the depth

of compensation.

Dr. J. E. Ives presented a paper on The nature of the illumination used by

engravers of steel plates. ‘The paper was discussed by Mr. HawkKEesworrtu.

Author’s abstract: The engraver on steel works on highly polished steel

plates which are used in the printing of pictures, postage and revenue stamps,

paper money, certificates of stock and bonds. Since the lines cut into the

steel are visible only by the shadows cast by the edges of their grooves or

depressions, or because their surfaces are inclined at such angles that they

are in shadow or do not reflect light falling upon them, the best results are

obtained by using an illumination which is diffuse with a predominating

direction downwards and towards the worker, and which produces a uniform,

or nearly uniform, brightness of the whole surface of the plate. This is, in

practice, obtained by using a screen of translucent material such as tracing

cloth, tracing paper, or tissue paper, placed between the source of the illumi-

nation, natural or artificial, and the plate, so that the image of the tracing

cloth is reflected in the plate. The screen is usually about 30 inches square

and inclined at an angle of about 45° to the plate. The reflected image of the

illuminated tracing cloth makes the polished surface of the steel look like a

sheet of white paper. On such a surface the lines cut into the steel can be

clearly seen. If such a screen is not used there will, in general, be bright and

dark areas on it, and where the surface is dark the lines cut into the surface

cannot be seen. Also the contrast between the bright and dark areas on the

plate produces more or less glare.

Measurements were made of the illumination on the plates, of the bright-

ness of the screens, and of the brightness of the surface of the plates. Study

of the results obtained leads to the conclusion that the brightness of the

surface of the screen should be as uniform as possible. For natural illumina-

tion an uninterrupted north sky light is the best, and is much better than

light from south windows, since the latter is very variable, varying from

bright sunshine to cloudiness. If the screen is illuminated artificially by

one or more electric lamps, the light from the lamps should be so arranged

that it is spread uniformly over the screen. It was found that a non-uniform

illumination of the screen produced discomfort in the eyes of the workers.

Artificial illumination, besides being uniformly distributed over the screen,

should also be of sufficient intensity.

The results recorded in this paper were obtained in connection with

investigations on this subject made recently by the office of Industrial

Hygiene and Sanitation of the U. 8. Public Health Service.

884TH MEETING

The 884th meeting was held jointly with the Washington Academy of

Sciences and the Chemical Society of Washington in the Auditorium of the

Interior Building at 8:30 p.m. on Tuesday, April 17, 1923.

Papers were presented by Dr. F. G. Donnan, Professor of Chemistry,

University College, London, and by Dr. Jamus C. Irving, Principal and

Vice-Chancellor, University of St. Andrews, on their own recent researches

in chemistry.

300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 13

885TH MEETING

The 885th meeting was held jointly with the Washington Academy of

Sciences and the Geological Society of Washington in the Auditorium of

the Interior Building at 8:15 p.m. on Wednesday, April 18, 1923.

The following papers on the Taylor-Wegener Hypothesis were presented:

(1) Franx B. Taytor—The lateral migration of land masses.

(2) R. A. Daty—A critical review of the hypothesis.

(3) W. D. Lampert—The mechanics of the hypothesis.

After the completion of the third paper, the hour was so late that the fourth

paper by F. E. Wricur on Report of the symposium at the meeting of the

British Association was not called for.

J. P. Auut, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. P. 8S. Ersretrn, of the California Institute of Technology, lectured at

the Bureau of Standards Physics Club, Saturday, June 2, on The principle

.of correspondence or the relation of the quantum theory to classical mechanics.

Messrs. A. H. Brooks and T. WayLANp VauGuan of the U. 8S. Geological

Survey, and N. M. FeNNeMAN of the National Research Council and H. E.

Grecory of Yale University, both associated with the Geological Survey,

will attend the Pan-Pacific Congress in Australia in August as official dele-

gates of the Government.

Dr. N. L. Bowsn, petrologist, of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie

Institution of Washington, is spending the summer studying the igneous

rocks of England, Scotland, Norway, and Sweden.

Dr. F. C. Cook, of the Bureau of Chemistry, U. 8S. Department of Agricul-

ture, died at Dallas, Texas, on June 19, 1923, in his forty-sixth year. He was

born at Litchfield, Connecticut, July 14, 1877. Dr. Cook had been connected

with the Bureau of Chemistry since 1903. His scientific studies and publica-

tions were concerned with metabolism, enzymes, insecticides, fungicides,

etc. He was a member of the Acapemy, American Chemical Society, and

several local and foreign societies.

Mr. A. B. Fan has resigned from the U. S. Geological Survey and has

joined the staff of the Vacuum Oil Company. He will be in Europe for the

next few months.

Dr. Atus Hrpuicka, of the Department of Anthropology, U. 8. National

Musi 1, has sailed for Europe to take charge of a party of American scien-

tists who will study during the summer the prehistoric remains in England,

the Island of Jersey, France, Belgium, Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Croatia.

Dr. Grorcr M. Koper, dean of the medical school of Georgetown Uni-

versity for the last thirty-two years, received the degree of doctor of letters

at the 124th commencement exercises of the University on June 11.

Mr. E. 8. Larsen, Jr., has been appointed professor of petrography at

Harvard University and will relinquish his work as chief of the section of

petrography of the U. 8. Geological Survey on September 1.

Mr. W. R. Maxon sailed from New York May 15 for the purpose of

making botanical collections in Central America, in cooperation with the

U. S$. Department of Agriculture, which is sending an expedition for the

investigation of the rubber resources of that region.

JuLy 19, 1923 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 301

Dr. F. L. Ransome, of the U. 8. Geological Survey, has accepted an ap-

pointment as professor of geology and head of the department at the Uni-

versity of Arizona, Tucson, for the coming academic year. He has not

severed his connection with the Geological Survey, and his stay in Arizona

is indefinite.

Dr. B. Coteman ReEnick, graduate of Chicago University and recently

connected with the teaching staff of the University of Iowa, has been ap-

pointed assistant geologist in the ground water division of the U. S. Geolo-

gical Survey and will begin work in Montana July 1.

Messrs. E. 8. SHEPHERD and PauL STouTENBURGH, of the Geophysical

Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, are making a chemical

field study of differentiated igneous rocks in Montana and Utah during the

summer months.

Dr. Epwarp Wo.LmsENSKY has been appointed associate chemist on the

investigation of synthetic tanning materials, at the U.S. Bureau of Standards,

from June 11, 1923. He has recently been engaged in research and develop-

ment work on dyes and intermediates and during the war did research work

at the American University.

ri, ‘cid

9 ey

be rr bier |

AMBSin a an ut

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 13 Aueust 19, 1923 No 14

GEOLOGY.—Siratigraphy of the Virgin Islands of the United States

and of Culebra and Vieques Islands, and notes on eastern Porto Rico.

T. WayLAnp VaAuGHAN, U.S. Geological Survey.

CONTENTS

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TOGA talk Sue PENETAA TERUUTES. «5 uc 5 3:< %, «60.0 5,207, «-syua eee nee ae es oe ee ee eae 304

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YAMA aD TINS via cg atols'c, « aaa «+ pi yc o-ayaue SA ee ER IS Rak Cs a ee 306

RR ORME Mecca ayes a < 3 +.» Bie kai oye. 3, 0, 0c eet tn ann Ds eee ae ee re 306

PESTLE PRINP ORES IIR Es og vas sas Woe os 2 hee es Pe ee erent eee ae ee 307

ACEO UTES escyictes bk ce ae RPI rie ot A A heme el ed ee 307

ISALET HAE ORLORERICO,, 0.0... 50.4 «dnd doves ainteye POR Rg en eee eld te eee el 307

pumunary scatement on Cretaceous rocks.2 32 04. sats coe cbel. ss cokes an 308

eM TENS ONCTIUSs © oo 6 cs oc c'e sec v's « oe 0e cc a etee Eee oe ater ta > o/c, eee 308

CLUE HP RTIE ER. Cok ok a) dU eee oes oe ee ers sot eee 308

ARH Me Saas ae! Yo lngee faosns: Chere 2 a = aT oe ee aT. Cake Lita ote 309

PTE SUB OCENG: 5 « 5 ic «hors. ¥ «hos bate oy chee ee en aioe eae ee 309

Pronsey HpDEr CLPOCENC.... .. .4%.i.cc mabe Melee ou ae mide als atin os 309

MUIIEBAGO LL TEOSD Al SE RS SAR a Ce oie a che oe ye CRI et 311

Pee Deals iv els fe c,2 nieces Siac k «JA See Sey SR ta Saale a A Meee te 311

PSS OPe ONO ARGO), ooo.» 5 ais 5,3 ae Sager Near ain eid eeaeae ee eldeed Ae ee 313

Summary statement on deposits of Tertiary age................... a ca 313

EEE Se es SP SEs o's! o/s ne emo Da Ea ers woe Sea Fai cial. tiatate 314

Peimnry ei eeolomionnispory 105 ois 22229). 1 a a eee 314

INTRODUCTION

The present paper briefly summarizes some of the results obtained

from a geologic reconnaissance I made of the islands of St. Croix,

Saint John, Saint Thomas, Culebra, and Vieques and of the eastern

1 Published by permission of the Acting Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.

Received May 11, 1923.

303

304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 14

end of Porto Rico in compliance with a request made by the Navy

Department for special geologic information on the territory examined.

The field work was done between May 21 and June 24, 1919. The col-

lections made were examined by the following of my official colleagues:

Mr. C. P. Ross examined the igneous rocks; Dr. T. W. Stanton

identified the Cretaceous mollusks; Dr. J. A. Cushman identified the

Tertiary Foraminifera; Dr. R. 8. Bassler, the Bryozoa; and Dr. C. W.

Cooke, the Tertiary Mollusca. The corals were identified by me.

LOCATION AND GENERAL FEATURES

The Virgin Islands, except Saint Croix and its outlying islets, rise

above a shallow bank that extends northeastward from Porto Rico to

Anegada Passage. The number of the islands is about 100. They are

separated from one another and from eastern Porto Rico by water

having a maximum depth of 16 to 18 fathoms. Except Anegada

which rises only about 30 feet above sea level, the larger islands attain

altitudes ranging from about 650 feet (Culebra) to 1800 feet (Tortola)

in altitude. The highest point in Saint John is 1,277 feet; in Saint

Thomas, 1,550 feet; in Culebra, 650 feet; in Vieques, 981 feet. The

islands are well dissected and as a rule have gradual slopes, except

along the shores where there may be high sea-cliffs. The absence of

inland bluffs is one of the striking features of the topography of these

islands. The shore line is indented by bays, which indicate geologi-

cally Recent submergence.

The Virgin Bank is about 90 sea miles long and from 24 to 30 sea

miles wide. The depth of water on it is as much as about 40 fathoms

around its edges where there are steep descents to deep water, to over

3,000 fathoms between Saint Thomas and Saint Croix, to about 1,200

fathoms in Anegada Passage, and to 400 fathoms on the north side,

where there is an apparently gradual slope to depths of about 3,600

fathoms at a distance of about 55 sea miles north of the bank. Along

a line about 25 sea miles long through the Virgin Passage the depth

ranges from 12 fathoms in the shallowest part to about 40 fathoms on

the northern edge—the range in relief on the flat being only about

132 feet in about 25 miles. The surface of the bank exhibits sub-

marine terraces both off the shores of Saint John and Saint Thomas

and in the Virgin Passage. The living coral reefs have grown up on

the terraced surface of the bank after an episode of submergence, a

relation which I have described in several papers.

Between the Virgin Bank and Saint Croix there is a deep of 3,400

fathoms which is continuous eastward into Anegada Passage, whose

AUG. 19, 1923 VAUGHAN: STRATIGRAPHY OF THE VIRGIN ISLANDS 305

depth is over 1,000 fathoms. ‘The maximum altitude in Saint Croix

is 1,164 feet, the top of Mount Eagle. The higher land is dissected and

has gradual slopes similar to those mentioned for the islands on the

Virgin Bank, but Saint Croix is peculiar in that in its southwestern

part there is an extensive, gently sloping limestone plain. The shore

line features are indicative of submergence as in the case of the other

islands.

STRATIGRAPHY

In the Virgin Islands three major sets of rocks may be recognized’

as follows: (1) Upper Cretaceous sediments and interbedded volcanic

tuffs, breccias, and lava flows; (2) Post-Cretaceous, probably early

Tertiary, intrusive gabbro, dolerite, diorite, and quartz-diorite, and

perhaps also volcanic extrusions; ; (3) Oligocene and Miocene marls

and limestones.

Upper Cretaceous Rocks

Saint Croix

The older rocks of Saint Croix are exposed in the northwestern part

of the island and they occupy the entire area east of Christiansted.

They comprise sandstone, shale, and limestone, with interbedded

voleanic tuffs. A very instructive exposure may be studied at

Waiter’s Point. On the east side of this point there are thinly bedded

sandstone and shale, west of which is limestone interbedded with

voleanic tuff. Quin published notes on the exposure at this place

and collected Cretaceous fossils there, but he did not know the biologic

affinities of the fossils or their geologic significance. The Misses

Quin presented to me, for transfer to the United States National

Museum, all of their father’s collection and I collected an additional

species. Dr. T. W. Stanton supplies the following list of species

from Saint Croix:

Inoceramus sp., related to I. proximus Tuomey.

Barrettia monilifera Woodward.

Barrettia sparcilirata Whitfield?

Radiolites nicholasi Whitfield.

Caprinula gigantea Whitfield?

Caprinella occidentalis Whitfield.

There is no room for doubt as to the geologic age of the deposits

from which these fossils come—it is Upper Cretaceous.

The interbedding of voleanic tuff with the limestone has been

mentioned.

306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 14

Saint Thomas

The presence of sediments of Upper Cretaceous age in Saint Thomas

was first recognized by Cleve in 1869, when he collected a moderate

number of fossils and recognized the affinities of the fauna with that

of Gosau, Austria. Some years ago Professor A. G. Hégbom of the

University of Upsala lent me the Cleve collection and Doctor Stanton

listed for me the genera of the fossils. They are as follows:

Glycymeris Corbula

' Limopsis Cerithium, two or more species

Astarte, several species Nerinea, several species

Opis Actaeonella

Cyprina? Phylioceras?, immature, septa not well

shown.

_ It seems that I did not rediscover the precise spot at which Cleve

obtained his specimens; however, I collected at Coki Point, one of the

localities mentioned by Cleve, poorly preserved fossils that seem to

represent the genera Astarte, Glauconia, Cerithiwm, and Actaeonella.

The fauna is clearly the one discovered by Cleve. The fossils occur

in very hard, blue, metamorphosed limestone. At a locality near

Coki Point, limestone belonging to the same formation contains some

volcanic material and is associated with, probably interbedded with,

shaly rocks that have been metamorphosed into schists.

The principal country rock of Saint Thomas comprises andesitic

breccia and latite, which in places shows rude bedding. I did not

actually observe the relations of these rocks to the Cretaceous lime-

stone, but the older volcanic rocks have been considerably meta-

morphosed. It is to rocks of this kind that the local name ‘‘blue-

beach”’ is applied. Cleve says that he found north of Bucks Bay

‘‘blue-beache, black and sometimes metamorphosed clay slate, and

flagstone, alternating;’”’ and he says that near Coki Point the blue

beach contains “‘caleareous nodules and marble of a white or gray

color.”’ The older volcanic rocks, therefore, seem to be of Upper

Cretaceous age.

Saint John

Except large rounded, apparently water-worn boulders about half

a mile east of Government House, Little Cruz Bay, the only rocks I

saw on Saint John are clearly of igneous origin. The rocks at Coral

Bay are chlorite and sericite schists and are inferred to be of Creta-

ceous or more ancient age, because of the metamorphism they have

undergone. Cleve mentions greatly metamorphosed limestone at

AuG. 19, 1923 VAUGHAN: STRATIGRAPHY OF THE VIRGIN ISLANDS 307

Anna Bay (probably meaning Anna Berg). Although paleontologic

evidence is not available for Saint John, the lithologic characters are

such as to leave no reasonable doubt of the presence on it of both

Cretaceous sedimentary and volcanic rocks as on Saint Thomas, which

is only about one and a half miles from the west end of Saint John, and

there may be rocks of pre-Cretaceous age.

Culebra

Metamorphosed sedimentary rocks composed of reworked voleanic

constituents were seen in the valley north of San Ildefonso; southwest

of Swell Bay at altitudes below 200 ft.; on the point of land on both

the east and west sides of Surf Bay; west and north of Great Harbor;

and at Playa Sardinos. On the basis of their lithologic characters it

seems safe to refer these rocks to the Upper Cretaceous.

Vieques

The oldest rocks observed on Vieques comprise a trachytic lava

flow, overlain by limestone conglomerate, over which is an altered

basalt, which in turn is overlain by hard blue limestone. This expo-

sure is at Punta Diablo. The dip of the limestone is as high as 60°.

Bedded rock of shaly or sandy appearance, which is probably water-

laid tuffy was seen at many places. Because of its lithologic charac-

ters, its deformation, and its metamorphism, this group of rocks is

considered of Upper Cretaceous age.

Eastern Porto Rico

Examination was made of bedded sandstones and shales, which are

composed of water-laid volcanic material, in the vicinity of Fajardo -

and of a folded basalt flow at Cape San Juan. These sedimeiuts and

their associated igneous rocks, which are cut by great dikes of dolorite,

would be referred to the Upper Cretaceous according to the criteria

I have applied in Culebra and Vieques. They evidently represent

what Hill described as “‘black or other dark-colored basic igneous

rocks, occurring as tuffs, conglomerates, and sills of hornblende-

andesite, cut by dikes of diorite.”? Hill found associated with these

rocks limestone in which he collected fossils that Dr. T. W. Stanton

identifies as belonging to the Capriniidae and considers representative

of the Upper Cretaceous. Berkey’s* descriptions of the rocks exposed

? Hill, R. T., Notes on the forest conditions of Porto Rico: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture,

Division of Forestry Bull. 25: 14-15. 1899.

3 Berkey, C. P., Geological reconnaissance of Porto Rico: New York Acad. Sci. Ann.

26:1-70. 1915.

308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 14

around Fajardo are correct, but he gives no data of assistance in

determining their geologic age.

Summary statement on Cretaceous rocks.—Fossiliferous Upper

Cretaceous sediments interbedded with voleanic rocks occur in

Saint Croix and Saint Thomas. Sediments with interbedded or

associated voleanic rocks similar to those of Saint Croix and Saint

Thomas are present in Saint John, Culebra, Vieqeus, and eastern

Porto Rico, and because of similar lithology and similar deformational

history are considered of Upper Cretaceous age.

Early Tertiary Events

Subsequent to the deposition of the Upper Cretaceous sediments and

the extrusions of the associated voleanic rocks, there was intense

deformation, which resulted in tight folding in Saint Croix, where dips

of 80° or more are common; the dips in Saint John are about the same;

in Saint Thomas they are 50° or more; in Culebra I noted some low

dips, only 19°; in Vieques the dips are as much as 60°; in eastern

Porto Rico the range is from about 13° to almost vertical. Some of

the older igneous rocks, which in many instances have been so crushed

that they are now chlorite or sericite schists, may be of pre-Cretaceous

age. ‘The structure lines cannot be described at this place—only the

general statement may be made that in places there are intersecting

trends, one approximately east and west and another from northwest

to southeast. The two sets of trends are very clearly recognizable in

Saint Thomas. There were extensive intrusions of diorite, dolerite,

and quartz-diorite, and probably also extrusions of lavas and tufts.

Quartz-diorite is the dominant rock in Vieques. The older series of

- rocks was subjected to subaerial erosion for so long a time that over

considerable areas they were practically base-leveled and the next

younger sediments were laid down on a nearly plain surface developed

on rocks that dip as steeply as 80°, as in the southwestern part of

Saint Croix.

Tertiary Sediments

Sediments of Tertiary age are present in Saint Croix, Vieques, and

eastern Porto Rico but appear to be entirely absent on Saint John,

Saint Thomas, and Culebra. In fact, except Anegada, there are no

known Tertiary sediments on the axial islands of the Virgin group,

and in Porto Rico such younger deposits are confined to the northern

and southern flanks of the island. Therefore the axial islands of the

Virgin Bank and the sierras of Porto Rico appear to have been above

water since the close of Cretaceous or since very early Tertiary time.

AuG. 19, 1923 VAUGHAN: STRATIGRAPHY OF THE VIRGIN ISLANDS 309

Saint Croix

In Saint Croix Tertiary limestones and marls cover an area reaching

the southern shore south and southeast of the hills in the northwestern

part of the island, they extend northward to the north shore just east

of the mouth of Salt River, whence the eastern boundary runs south-

ward to the west side of Waiters Point. In general the limestones are

soft, rather crumbly, and there are interbedded layers of conglomerate.

The dips are in general southward, at angles ranging from 8° to 15°—

strongly contrasting with the steep dips, in places 80° or more, of the

Cretaceous rocks.

Three horizons seem to be represented in these limestones, viz.,-

(1) middle Oligocene, (2) probably upper Oligocene, (3) lower Miocene.

Middle Oligocene

Station 8649. Two-tenths of a mile southwest of Wheel of Fortune

estate house; collection made on northern slope of a low hill.

Foraminifera:

Rotalia sp. Abundant

Amphistegina sp. Compare with station 8648.

Lepidocyclina morgani Lemoine and R. Douvillé. Also Cuba.

Carpenteria americana Cushman. Also Cuba.

Madreporaria:

Astrocoenia decaturensis Vaughan. Also Antigua; Bainbridge, Ga.

Gomiastrea reussi (Dunean). Also Antigua.

Cyathomorpha tenuis (Duncan). Also Antigua; Pepino formation of

Porto Rico; and other places.

Goniopora microscopica (Duncan). Also Antigua.

Geologic correlatton.—The organisms from this locality show clearly

that the geologic horizon is the same as that of the Antigua formation

of Antigua, for every coral well enough preserved for specific identifi-

cation also occurs in Antigua, and that it is, therefore, middle Oligocene.

Probably upper Oligocene

Station 8647. One and four-tenths sea miles in a straight line

from Christiansted lighthouse, on the south side of North Shore road

at Evening Hill.

This is the locality at which Quin‘ says he found large Foraminifera.

The rock as exposed in the road is an argillaceous limestone, mostly

rather soft but there are indurated lumps and beds. The fossils com-

prise some well preserved nummulitoid Foraminifera and indetermin-

4 Quin, John T., The building of an island, p. 17, 1907.

310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 14

able fragments of corals. The names of the Foraminifera are as

follows:

Amphistegina sp.

Heterostegina antillea Cushman. Also Antigua and northeastern Mexico.

Heterosteginoides sp. ef. H. antillea Cushman. Also Anguilla.

Station 8648. North Shore road, Montpellier (east).

The rock here exposed is a rather soft, spongy, impure limestone.

The contained organic remains include determinable Foraminifera

and indeterminable corals and mollusks. The geologic formation

seems the same as that exposed at station 8647. The Foraminifera

‘are as follows:

Amphistegina sp. Compare above, station 8€47.

Peneroplis sp.

~_ Gypsina globulus (Reuss). Also Anguilla; Recent.

Geologic correlation.—There seems to be no reasonable doubt that

the same formation is exposed at both Evening Hill and on the North

Shore road at Montpellier (east). The geologic horizon is either

middle or upper Oligocene, more probably upper Oligocene.

Station 6850. Montpellier (east), collected by John T. Quin.

The specimen referred to by Quin as a volute’ is a species of Orthaulax

which seems to be the same as a species of Orthaulax I collected at

Crocus Bay, Anguilla, now identified as O. aguadillensis Maury. The

specimen from Saint Croix was presented to me for transfer to the

United States National Museum by the Misses Quin, the daughters

of the author of ‘‘The building of an island,” and I had a number of

sections cut of the matrix. Foraminifera are abundant and Doctor

Cushman furnishes the following list:

Alveolina sp. Also Saint Martin.

Orbitolites duplex Carpenter? Also Saint Martin.

Spiroloculina sp. Also Saint Martin.

Also indeterminable species of Quinqueloculina, Triloculina, Globigerina, and

Amphistegina.

Geologic correlation.—The presence of the species of Orthaulax above

noted suggests upper Oligocene, about the horizon of the Anguilla

formation, as the age of the bed from which the specimen came.

Doctor Cushman says that the Foraminifera are precisely the same

as those I collected in the yellowish limestone of Saint Martin. The

horizon may be very low Miocene instead of topmost Oligocene.

6 Quin, John T., The building of an island, plate opposite page 16, 1907.

AuG. 19, 1923 VAUGHAN: STRATIGRAPHY OF THE VIRGIN ISLANDS oll

Miocene

Station 6851. Anna’s Hope estate, along the road.

Foraminifera:

Clavulina sp. ef. C. parisiensis d’Orbigny. Also Culebra formation.

Clavulina sp. ef. C. communis d’Orbigny. - ° 3

Nodosaria sp. ef. N. insecta Schwager. Culebra formation.

Uvigerina sp. (?)

Orbulina sp.

Globigerina sp.

Truncatulina wuellerstorfi Schwager. Culebra formation also Recent.

Siphonina sp. ef. species from Oligocene of the United States.

Pulvinulina sp. ef. species from Oligocene of the United States.

Asterigerina sp. ef. species from Oligocene of the United States.

Amphistegina sp.

Ellipsoidina sp.

Madreporaria:

Obicella sp. cf. a species from the lower Miocene of Trinidad and Vieques

Island.

Psammocora sp. ef. a species from the Miocene of Trinidad. Other species

of this genus are known from the lower Miocene of Trinidad, Vieques

Island, and the Dominican Republic.

Geologic correlation.—The basis for correlating this deposit is not

definite, but the horizon seems to be very low Miocene.

Vieques Island

At Punta Salinas, east of Port Salinas and Salina del Sur, at the

east end of the island, and along the south shore from opposite Esper-

anza to Ensefiada de la Chiba, there is soft, light-colored, usually

yellowish, bedded, fossiliferous limestone, which although slightly

tilted and in places flexed, has been, in comparison with the older

hard blue limestone, only slightly disturbed. Between Ensefiada

Sombe and Port Mosquito, between Port Mosquito and Port Ferro,

and on the east side of Port Ferro, steep, northward-facing slopes

mark the northern edges of the areas of its outcrop. The following

are the paleontologic determinations for Vieques:

Station 8652. Vieques Island, north side, east end, the western-

most of the yellow marl and limestone bluffs at the east end of the

island.

Foraminifera:

Gaudryina triangularis Cushman. Also Yumuri River, Cuba, U. 8. G. 5.

3461, and 6010, Culebra formation, Panama Canal Zone; Recent.

Verneuilina spinulosa Reuss. Also Yumuri River, Cuba, U.S. G. 8. 3461;

Recent.

312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 14

Chrysalidina pulchella Cushman? Also U.S. G. 8. Station, 6036 Gatun

Formation, Panama Canal Zone.

Discorbis bertheloti (d’Orbigny). Also Choctawhatchee marl, one mile

south of Red Bay, Fla.; Recent.

Truncatulina americana Cushman. Also Miocene of Coastal Plain, U. S.;

upper part of Culebra formation, Panama Canal Zone; and Oligocene

of Coastal Plain, U.S.

Truncatulina wuellerstorfi (Schwager) ? Miocene of Coastal Plain, U. S.;

Oligocene of Panama Canal Zone; Recent.

Truncatulina lobatula (Walker and Jacob.) Also 3461, Yumuri River,

Cuba; Cereado de Mao, Dominican Republic; Recent.

Pulvinulina menardii (d’Orbigny)? Also 6033-35-36, Gatun Formation,

Panama Canal Zone; Recent.

Gypsina globulus (Reuss) var. pilaris H. B. Brady. Also Bowden, Jamaica;

Anguilla?; Recent.

Nonionina scapha (Fichtel and Moll.) Also 6033, Gatun Formation,

Panama Canal Zone; Recent.

Quinqueloculina seminulum (Linné). Also Gatun F onmation and Culebra

. Formation, Panama Canal Zone; Recent.

Orbitolites duplex Carpenter? Also Anguilla, St Martin; Recent.

Only 2, 83 per cent, of the species above listed are not reported

from the living foraminiferal faunas.

Madreporaria:

Stylophora sp.

Orbicella altissima (Dunean). Also Miocene of Trinidad.

Orbicella sp. Also Miocene of Trinidad.

Orbicella or Solenastrea sp.

Siderastrea siderea (Ellis and Solander). Range from lower Miocene to

Recent.

Psammocora sp. Also Miocene of Trinidad.

Porites sp.

Mollusea:

Ostrea hailicnsis Sowerby.

Teredo sp., like Kuphus incrassatus Gabb.

Geologic correlation.—The two species of Orbicella, and the species

of Psammocora and Ostrea haitiensis, all indicate an old Miocene age,

probably older than that of the Bowden marl of Jamaica. Szderas-

trea siderea is not known from deposits older than Miocene and

persists today in Caribbean and Floridian waters.

Station 8654. Vieques Island, sea bluff at Cucuracha Light, south

side of the island.

Foraminifera:

Gypsina globulus (Reuss). Also Recent.

Asterigina sp.

Orbiculina sp.

Madreporaria:

Solenastrea bournoni Milne Edwards and Haime. Also Recent.

AuG. 19, 1923 VAUGHAN: STRATIGRAPHY OF THE VIRGIN ISLANDS 313

Mollusea:

Turritella sp.

Ostrea sp., probably O. haitiensis Sowerby.

Pecten sp., close to P. ventonensis Cooke and P. soror Gabb but apparently

different from both. *

Spondylus sp.

“Lucina”’ sp.

Teredo sp., like Kuphus incrassatus Gabb.

Geologic correlatton.—That the rocks from which the fossils obtained

at Station 8654 are not older than Miocene is shown by the presence

of Solenastrea bournoni; while the oysters and the Pecten indicate that

they are as old as Miocene. |

Eastern Porto Rico

On the north side of the road from Fajardo to San Juan, about 5

kilometers east of Rio Piedras, there is a low hill composed of argil-

laceous, yellowish limestone. The following fossils were collected here:

Station 8653. Porto Rico, 5 kilometers east of Rio Piedras, north

side of road from San Juan to Fajardo. Collected by T. W. Vaughan.

Foraminifera:

2 Asterigina sp.

1 Orbitolites sp.

1 Orbiculina sp.

1 Quinqueloculina sp.

Madreporaria:

Pocillopora sp., apparently new species related to P. crassoramosa Duncan.

Siderastrea sp., apparently new species.

1 Porites sp. or Goniopea sp., of the growth form of Goniopora clevei,

Vaughan.

2 Porites sp. aff. P. astreoides Lamarck

Porites sp.

Bryozoa:

1 Holoporella albirostris Smitt.

Mollusca:

1 Teredo sp., like Kuphus incrassatus Gabb.

Geologic correlation.—Hither uppermost Oligocene or very low

Miocene. The forms whose names are preceded by ‘‘1”’ are known in

deposits of both upper Oligocene and lower Miocene age; those pre-

ceded by “‘2” are not known at a horizon below Miocene.

Summary statement on deposits of Tertiary age.—In the foregoing

remarks it has been stated that deposits of middle Oligocene (Rupelian)

and probably upper Oligocene (Aquitanian) age occur in Saint Croix

and that deposits of lower Miocene (Burdigalian) age occur probably

in Saint Croix, certainly in Vieques, and probably on the north side of

314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 14

Porto Rico east of San Juan. As I have given in the final part of

Bulletin 103 of the United States National Museum a rather full

account of the distribution of marine deposits of these ages, except

for the Virgin Islands, Porto Rico, and*the island of Haiti, I will not

repeat what I published, except in so far as it bears on the problems

under discussion.

From corals collected by R. T. Hill in western Porto Rico in 1898

IT pointed out in notes published by Hill in 1899 that his Pepino

formation is of the same age as the Antigua formation which is now

classified as of middle Oligocene (Rupelian) age. In addition to this

horizon Miss Maury has recently recognized upper Oligocene and

lower Miocene in western Porto Rico. The geologic exploration

made for the Military Government during April, May, and June, 1919,

in. the Dominican Republic has led to the recognition there of upper

Eocene, middle Oligocene, upper Oligocene, and six Miocene hori-

zons of which the lowest and the upper three are new—that is, at

least seven definable new Tertiary horizons were recognized in the

Dominican Republic. South of Santiago, near Baitoa, Condit and

Cooke found the basal Miocene resting on the deformed, folded, and

eroded surface of middle Oligocene deposits which carry the Antiguan

foraminiferal and coral fauna. The specimens of Lepidocyclina are

equaled in size only by those in Antigua where some are four inches

in diameter. The Eocene formations of the Republic of Haiti have

been briefly discussed by Woodring in two recent papers.’ Later the

significance of these determinations will be indicated.

Pleistocene deposits

Although I did not land on the Cordilleras reefs, I could see from

the subchaser on which I travelled that they are composed of lime-

stone. A specimen of soft limestone from Icacos Key, given me by

Mr. Jorge Byrd-Arias, is a very fine-grained oolite. I suppose that

this rock is of Pleistocene age from analogy with Florida and the

Bahamas.

SUMMARY OF GEOLOGIC HISTORY

(1) The presence of shoal water deposits of Upper Cretaceous age,

in Saint Croix and in the islands on the Virgin Bank from Saint

John to Porto Rico and in Porto Rico shows that the major tectonic

axis of this part of the West Indies antedates Upper Cretaceous time,

6 Woodring, W. P., Middle Eocene foraminifera of the genus Dictyoconus from the

Republie of Haiti: this Journal 12: 244-247. 1922; and An outline of the results of

a geological reconnaissance of the Republic of Haiti: Ibid. 13: 117-129. 1923.

AuG. 19, 1923 VAUGHAN: STRATIGRAPHY OF THE VIRGIN ISLANDS 315

because there was an antecedent basement on which these deposits

were laid down. I have suggested that these major trends may be

even as old as late Paleozoic.

(2) During Upper Cretaceous time it is probable that most of,

perhaps all of, the areas now occupied by land were under water; and

that there was considerable volcanic activity is proved by the water-

laid tuffs and lava flows which are interbedded with the shoal-water

caleareous sediments.

(3) In early Tertiary, probably Eocene, time there was mountain

making by folding which in places was so intense that the stratified

rocks were left in an almost vertical position and both the sediments

and the older igneous rocks were metamorphosed. There were also

intrusions of diorite, dolerite, and quartz diorite, and probably the

extrusion of some volcanic rocks. West of the Virgin Islands, there

was during later Eocene time extensive submergence in the Dominican

Republic, Haiti, and Cuba, as is attested by the Eocene formations

now above sea-level in those areas.

(4) The episode of mountain making was followed in the Virgin

Islands by one of prolonged subaerial erosion, and the production

of the Virgin Bank apparently may in large part be assigned to this

period of the history of the region. It seems that the axial islands

on the Virgin Bank and the Central Sierras of Porto Rico, from its

east to its west end, have continuously stood above the water since the

close of Cretaceous deposition. In Saint Croix by middle Oligocene

time erosion had proceeded far enough to reduce almost to base level

the tightly, steeply folded strata of the mountains.

(5) In middle Oligocene time a large part of Saint Croix wes sub-

merged and, with slight fluctuations, remained under water until

sometime during the Miocene. Although both the northern and

southern, but not the axial, parts of western Porto Rico were sub-

merged in middle Oligocene, and probably in lower Oligocene time,

the eastern end of Porto Rico and the axial islands of the Virgin Bank

west of Anegada Island were not submerged. The age of the lime-

stone on Anegada Island is not known. These facts mean that there

was differential movement, the movement being greater toward the

west than in the central part of the bank. In lower Miocene time the

northern shore of Porto Rico east of San Juan was submerged as were

also the southern shore and eastern end of Vieques Island—both the

northern and the southern edges of the bank were submerged probably

by marginal down flexing. Although there are corals in the exposed

sediments of Oligocene and Miocene age, and corals were therefore

constructional agents during those epochs, their work as compared with

316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 14

that of other agents was of minor importance. If the work of these

organisms in forming deposits concealed under water can be evaluated

by their work in deposits exposed to view, the conclusion would be

drawn that they played only a minor réle in the formation of the

Virgin Bank. There is as yet no evidence showing intense deformation

during later Oligocene time in the Virgin Islands and Porto Rico such

as is known to have taken place in the Dominican Republic.

(6) Subsequent to early Miocene time there has been uplift, greater

along the axis of Porto Rico and the Virgin Bank than on the flanks,

bringing Miocene and older Tertiary sediments, in places where they

are present, above sea level. The Tertiary sediments are tilted and

gently flexed but they have not been so much deformed as the Upper

Cretaceous deposits. It is about this time that the land connections

permitting migration of land animals from Anguilla to Porto Rico,

Haiti, and Cuba seem to have existed. Saint Croix seems to have been

connected with Anguilla, Saint Martin, and Saint Bartholomew.

(7) The period of high stand of land was followed by faulting, such

as I have several times described recently; but, as pointed out by

Woodring, the faulting was concomitant with folding. By these

processess Anegada Passage between the Virgin Bank and Anguilla

was produced and the islands assumed very nearly the outlines and

arrangements of today.

(8) Subsequent to the episode of faulting there was emergence of

the land, and terracing of the margins of the Virgin Bank, followed by

submergence. In places in Porto Rico and along the Cordilleras reet,

which extends eastward from the northeast corner of Porto Rico, there

has been local emergence due to differential crustal movement.

(9) The living coral reefs on the Virgin Banks are growing on an

extensive flat in a period of geologically Recent submergence. ‘This

flat is geologically an old feature. Its origin in large part at least

may reasonably be attributed to the long period of erosion following

early Tertiary mountain-making.

List or PUBLICATIONS ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE VIRGIN ISLANDS

Curve, P. T., On the geology of the northeastern West India Islands: Vetensk. Akad.

Handl. 9: No. 12,48. 1871,2 maps.

Cooker, C. Wytxe, Orthaulaz, a Tertiary guide fossil: U. 8. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper

129: 23-37, pls. 2-5. 1921.

Lozeck, A. K., The physiography of Porto Rico: New York Acad. Sci. Scientific Survey

of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands, 1‘: 301-379. 1922. 1 map. This

work contains information on Vieques and Culebra.

Qury, Joun T., The building of an island, being a sketch of the geological structure of

the Danish West Indian Island of Saint Croix, or Santa Cruz, pp. 106, 1 map,

32 text figs. Published by the author, Christiansted, Saint Croix, 1917.

AuG. 19, 1923 MEGGERS: ARC SPECTRUM OF VANADIUM 317

Rep, H. F., and SterHen Taser, The Virgina Islands earthquake of 1867-1868: Seis-

mol. Soc. Amer. 10: 20-25. 1920.

TABER, STEPHEN, The great fault troughs of the Antilles: Jour. Geol. 30:89-114. 1922.

VaucuHan, T. W., Platforms of barrier coral reefs: Amer. Geograph. Soc. Bull. 46: 426-

429. 1914.

——.,, Some littoral and sublittoral physiographic features of the Virgin and northern

Leeward Islands and their bearing on the coral reef problem: Journ. Wash.

Acad. Sci. 6: 53-66. 1916.

—, Fossil corals from Central America, Cuba, and Porto Rico, with an account of

the American Tertiary, Pleistocene, and Recent coral reefs: U. S. Nat. Mus.

Bull. 103: 180-524, pls. 68-152, text figs.4-25. 1919.

———., The biologic character and geologic correlation of the sedimentary formations

of Panama in their relation to the geologic history of Central America

and the West Indies: [bid. 547-612. 1919.

———., Corals and the formation of coral reefs: Smithsonian Inst. Ann. Rept. for 1917:

189-276, 37 pls., 1919.

——., Some features of the Virgin Islands of the United States: Assoc. Amer. Geo-

‘graph. Ann. 9: 78-82. 1919.

—, Stratigraphy of the Virgin Islands of the United States and of Culebra and

Vieques Islands (abstract): Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 31: 216-217. 1920.

——., Correlation of the Tertiary formations of Central America and the West Indies:

Bernice P. Bishop Mus. (Honolulu) Spee. Pub. No. 7: 819-844. 1921.

, and others: A geological reconnaissance of the Dominican Republic: Dominican

Repub. Geol. Survey mem. 1: 95. 1921. (Spanish edition, p.106. 1922).

SPECTROSCOPY—Regularittes in the are spectrum of vanadium.

W. F. Mraanrs, Bureau of Standards.

Kossel and Sommerfeld, in 1919, proposed the spectroscopic dis-

placement law? (Verschiebungssatz) which states that the spark

spectrum of any chemical element resembles in structure the are

spectrum of the element preceding it in the periodic system. This

led to the alternation law? (Wechselsatz); that is, the even and odd

structures of both are and spark spectra alternate between adjacent

columns of the periodic classification. Until recently, the validity

of these laws could be tested only in the first three columns since

scarcely any spectral regularities were known except for the rela-

tively simple spectra of elements in these groups. The incomplete

and inaccurate description of the more complex spectra has been

responsible, in part, for the delay in finding significant regularities

among them. In recent years many of these spectra have been more

accurately measured in international Angstrom units, and the majority

of them have had their wave-length tables extended into the red and

infra-red regions, chiefly as the result of investigations by the Spec-

1 Received July 16, 1923. Published by permission of the Director, Bureau of

Standards.

2 Sommerfeld, Atombau und Spektrallinien 3rd Ed; 455. 1922.

318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 14

troscopy section of the Bureau of Standards.* With these more

accurate and extensive data at hand this laboratory undertook to

analyze the spectra of one or more elements in each of the higher

columns of the periodic system, hoping thus to be able to test the

proposed spectroscopic laws and to shed further light on the structure

of the atom and on the nature of radiation. The same problem was

independently attached by Catalin‘ and because of this coincidence

the goal has been reached somewhat earlier than could otherwise have

been expected. |

Attention was first given: to the elements with atomic numbers

19 to 26 which occupy the fourth row of the periodic system,

Columns I to VIII. These elements are potassium, calcium, scan-

dium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese and iron. The are

spectra of the first two had been fairly completely arranged into

séries’ for many years, but of the remainder only fragments of series

were known for manganese. These latter were recently extended by

Catalin® who also found regularities in the spark spectrum and

indicated many complex groups of lines for which he coined the word

“multiplet.” According to Back’ the Zeeman effect in these spectra

indicates that they are in agreement with the law of alternations as

outlined by Landé* in a paper on Termstructure and Zeeman effect

of Multiplets. Regularities in the arc spectrum of chromium were

discovered quite independently by Kiess’ Gieseler,!? and Catalan."

Similar investigations on the are spectrum of molybdenum were made

independently by Kiess” and by Catalin." The results for these two

elements indicate that the alternation law is valid for column VI. The

first spectral regularities for any element in column VIII were found

by Walters“ in the are spectrum of iron. Titanium, of column IV

has been successfully analysed by Kiess.* I undertook a study of

scandium and vanadium as representatives of the remaining columns

III and V respectively. Wave-length data for the scandium" are-

3 Bur. Standards Scientific Papers, 312, 324, 329, 345, 372, 411, 421, 442, 466.

4 Anales Soc. Espan. Fis. y Quim. 21: 84, 1923. °

5 Fowler, Series in Line Spectra, 1922.

6 Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London A 223: 127. 1922.

7 Zeit. f. Physik 15: 206. 1923.

8 Zeit. f. Physik 15:189. 1923.

9 Science 56: 666. 1922.

10 Ann. der Physik (IV) 69: 147. 1922.

11 Anales Soc. Espan. Fis. y Quim. 21:84. 1923,

12 Bur. Standards Sci. Pap. No. 474.

13 Anales Soc. Espan. Fis. y Quim. 21:215. 1923.

144 Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 13: 243. 1923. .

15 Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 13:270. 1923.

16 To be published in Bur. Standards Sci. Pap.

AuG. 19, 1923 MEGGERS: ARC SPECTRUM OF VANADIUM 319

spectrum were first extended to the red and infra-red, and the analysis

was practically complete when Cataldin’s'’ paper giving a partial

explanation of both are and spark spectra of this element appeared.

My efforts were then concentrated on vanadium, and in this paper

some examples of the regularities in the arc spectrum of this element

are presented.

Wave-lengths of the spectral lines are taken from the measurements

made by Ludwig,!® (2400 A to 4646 A), Kiess and Meggers!® (5500

A to 9400 A), and Exner and Haschek,” the latter being corrected

to the international scale. Arabic and Roman numerals following

each wave-length refer respectively to the intensity and temperature

class of the line. King! made a valuable study of the variation

with temperature of the electric furnace spectrum of vanadium in the

region 3165 A to 6842 A. In this interval the are intensities as

estimated by King (loc. cit.) are used because he employed a larger

scale (1 to 150) than the usual one (1 to 10) and made finer distinc-

tions which are important in studying intensity rules governing lines

of a multiplet. Under each wave-length is given the “frequency”’

or number of waves per cm. corrected to vacuum by the tables of

Meggers and Peters.” The wave number differences or poly-fold

level separations occurring in each group are given in italics between

the connected pairs of lines.

Tables of the are spectrum of vanadium contain about 2000 lines

and about 15 per cent of these have now been assigned to multiplets.

A few of the examples given below will require special study to settle

doubtful points. For instance the lines 3184.00, 4384.73 and 4408.52

may be double. The first of these appears in multiplet 14 and from

King’s estimate of 60 for its intensity I have assumed it to consist of

two lines of practically the same wave length and intensity. By so

doing, the structure of the multiplet is completed and the distri-

bution of intensity among its lines becomes normal. The same

applies to multiplet 16 containing the line 4408.52 A to which King

assigned the intensity 90. This work is still in progress, and a more

detailed presentation and discussion of the results will appear later

in the Scientific Papers of the Bureau of Standards. The evidence

here given shows that vanadium falls into the general scheme, as

17 Anales Soc. Espan. Fis. y Quim. 20: 606. 1922.

18 Zeit. f. Wiss. Phot. 16: 157. 1917.

19B. 8. Sci. Papers 16: 51. 1920.

20 Kayser, Handbuch der Spektroscopie VI.

* 21 Astroph. Journ. 41: 86. 1915.

22 Bull. Bur. Standards 14: 697. 1918.

320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 13, No. 14

predicted and now for the first time it can be stated positively that the

alternation law of Kossel and Sommerfeld is verified for are spectra

across the entire table of chemical elements.

In order to test the displacement law, further study of spark spectra

is required. Of the chemical elements mentioned above, regularities

in spark spectra have been published only for potassium,” calcium,*

scandium’ and manganese. A program of investigations of spark

spectra has been initiated at the Bureau of Standards in order that

the structures of these spectra may become known, especially for

those elements the plan of whose are spectra has now been revealed.

TABLE I—MOULtrTIPLETsS IN THE ARC SPECTRUM OF VANADIUM

Multiplet 1.

4594.10 (60,1) 4577.18 (40, I)

21760.96 80.47 21841.43

137.40

4606.15 (15,1) 4580.40 (40, I)

21704.03 122.01 21826.04

186.07 186.08

4645.98 (1, IIIA) 4619.79 (25,1) 4586.37 ~— (50, 1)

21517.96 122.00 21639.96 157.59 21797.65

229 .54

4635.18 (15, I)

21568 .11

Multiplet 2.

4851.51 (40, I) 4832 .43 (30, I 4799 .70 (5, ITA)

20606 .41 81.84 20687.75 104.68 20828.43

187 .83 137 .31

4864 .73 (40, I) 4831.64 (35, I) 4784.50 (5, ITA)

20550 .42 140.70 20691.12 203.90 20895 .02

186.00 185.90

4875.47 (40, I) 4827.45 (30, 1)

20505.12 204.00 20709 .12

229.53

4881.55 (50, 1)

20479 .59

23 Nissen, Astroph. Journ. 57: 185. 1923.

AuG. 19, 1923

Multiplet 3.

8198.85

12193 .49

63.25

$241.60

12130 .24

(4)

81.22

Multiplet 4.

4330.03

23088 .04

137.40

4355.96

22950 . 64

Multiplet 5.

6812.42 (2, IIIA)

14675 .02

63.21

6841.90 (1, IITA)

14611.81

(30, I)

122.46

(10, I)

122.49

122.48

MEGGERS: ARC SPECTRUM OF VANADIUM

63.26

8186.71

12211.56

102.33

8255.90

12109 .23

4307.19

23210 .50

137 .37

4332 .83

23073 .13

186.01

4368 .05

22887 . 12

6785 .02

14734 .29

102.32

6832 .47

14631 .97

(3)

140.70

(12, I)

(30, I)

142.57

(10, I)

142.51

(3, IITA)

(1, IITA)

142.59

8093 .47

12352 .26

102.31

8161.05

12249 .95

137.18

$253.48

12112.77

4306 .22

23215.70

186.07

4341 .02

23029 .63

229 69

*4384 .73

22800 .04

6766.53

14774.56

137.13

6829 .92

14637 .43

(2)

(4)

204.07

(4)

204.01

(15, I)

(40, I)

166.79

(125, IZ)

166.77

(4, IITA)

(1, IIIA)

166.66

8027 . 34

12454 .02

137.24

8116.78

12316.78

4309.80

23196 .42

229.61

4352 .89

22966 .81

6753.03

14804 .09

321

(2)

(5)

(20, 1)

(50, I)

(5, IITA)

322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 14

Multiplet 6.

3855.37 (30,1) 3844.44 20, I)

25930.53 78.70 26004.23

187.48 137.38

3875.91 (20,1) 3864.86 (35,1) 3847.38 (20, 1)

25793.12 73.73 25866.85 117.84 25984.69

186 .08 186.06

3892.86 (25,1) 3875.08 (35,1) 3841.89 (5, IA)

25680.77 117.86 25798.63 222.87 26021.50

229 .68 229.55 J

3909.89 (20, I) 3876.08 (20, I)

25568 .95 223 .00 25791 .95

Multiplet ip

5706.98 (80, I)

17517 .55

63 .26

5727.67 (20,11) 5703.59 (40, I)

17454 .29 73.67 17527.96

102.34 102.17

5761.45 (2, IITA) 5737.03 (25,1I) 5698.49 (60, I)

17351.95 78.84 17425.79 117.85 17543.64

187.28 187.29 A

5782.59 (2, IIIA) 5743.44 (18, II) * 5670.83 (30, 1)

17288.51 117.84 17406.35 222.87 | 17629.22

Multiplet 8.

S7ai.40° (4; 1). + Bracke? - ay TA)

26437.76 68.25 26506.01

137 .50

3791.33 (2, IA) 3777.17 (2, IA)

26368 .51 98 .88 26467 .37

186.00

3803.90 (6,1A) 3784.68 (2, IA)

26281.37 133.50 26414.87

229.49

3817.85 (8, IA)

26185.38

AuG. 19, 1923

Multiplet 9.

4109.78 (50, I)

24325 .36

40.88

4116.70 (4, TA)

24284 .48 68.22

66.93

4128.08 (60, I)

24217 .55 68.22

Multiplet 10.

3835.56 (4, IT)

2€064 .43 59.88

63.21

3844.89 (4, II)

26001.22 59.86

Multiplet 11.

2899.60 (8)

34477 .40 59.79

MEGGERS: ARC SPECTRUM OF VANADIUM

4105.17

24352 .70

66.98

4116.48

24285 .77

91.32

4132.02

24194 .45

3826.77

26124 .31

63.23

3836 .06

26061 .08

102.30

3851.17

25958 .78

2894 .58

34537 .19

137 .27

2906 .98

34399 . 92

(60, I)

(50, I)

98 .83

(€0, T)

99.00

(6, ID)

(5, I)

82.32

(5, I)

82.31

(5)

82.24

(8)

82.19

4099 .80

24384 .60

91.15

4115.18

24293 .45

113.52

4134.50

24179 .93

3823 .98

26143 .40

102.31

3839.00

26041 .09

137 .22

3899 . 34

25903 .87

2887.71

34619 .43

137 .52

2899 .21

34482 .11

185.90

2914 .92

34296 .21

(60, I)

133.46

(60, I)

133.54

(5, IT)

(10, I)

(6, I1)

(1)

(8)

127.53

(10)

127.50

4092 .69

24426 .91

113.44

4111.79

24313 .47

2888 .52

34609. 64

185.93

2904.13

34423 .71

229.60

2923.63

34194.11

323

(50, I)

(100, I)

(1)

(8)

(10)

324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 14

Multiplet 12.

4090.59 (25, I)

24439 .50

166.52

4118.65 (8, III) 4095.48 (25, II)

24272.98 137.29 24410.27

142.12 142.09

4142.91 (2, III) 4119.46 (8, IIT) 4102.16 (20, IT)

24130.86 137.32 24268.18 102.35 24370 .53

78.88 78.88

4132.90 (?) 4115.48 (2, III) 4104.78 (15, III)

24189 .30 102.35 24291.65 63.385 24355.00

~Multiplet 13.

3050.88 (3,R) 3043.55 (3, R)

32767.90 78.90 32846.80

137.33 137.88

3063.72 (3) 3056.34 (3,R) 3048.12 (3, R)

32630.57 78.85 32709.42 142.02 32851.44

186.07 186.04

3073.82 (3, R) 3060.46 (3, R) 3044.94 (4, R)

82523 .35 142.05 32665.40 166.47 32831.87

228 .48 229.49

23082 .02 (4) 3066 .37 (3, R)

32436 .92 165.46 32602.38

Multiplet 14.

+3184.00 (25r, II)

31398 .06

137.63

3198.01 (20,11) 3183.42 (30r, IT)

31260.43 143.86 31403.78

185.61 186 .02

3217.11 (10, II) 3202.38 (25,11) {8184.00 (35R, IT)

31074.82 142.94 31217.76 180.30 31398 .06

229.56 229.27

3226.11 (4,1I) 3207.42 (20,II) $3185.40 (40R, II)

30988.20 180.59 31168.79 215.88 31384.17

325

ARC SPECTRUM OF VANADIUM

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PHYSICS—A comparison of the heating-curve and quenching methods

of melting-point determinations... GrorGE W. Morny. Geophys-

ical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

The temperature of equilibrium between liquid and solid phases

of a pure substance, or of the beginning or end of melting in a mix-

ture, is a datum point frequently determined, and any information

bearing on its determination is of interest to the investigator. The

following experiments were carried out to compare the heating-curve

method, which is the method followed almost exclusively in the study

of metals and of salts which crystallize readily, with the quenching

method, used chiefly in the study of substances which are difficult to

crystallize, such as the silicate minerals. In the latter method, a

tiny charge, of a few milligrams, is wrapped in thin platinum foil, and

held at a definite temperature until equilibrium is reached. The

charge is then suddenly cooled, sometimes by dropping into mercury,

sometimes by merely lifting out of the furnace, and examined under

the microscope. If the heating has been above the melting-point, the

examination will show only glass; if below the melting-point, only

crystals; and repetition at the same temperature for varying times

will show how long it is necessary to wait for equilibrium. This

method is the choice of all familiar with it, whenever it can be applied,

because of the unequivocal nature of the evidence it supplies; it is,

however, only applicable to substances which are sluggish erystallizers,

such as the silicates, borates, and phosphates, and is not applicable

to most salts.

In the case of the silicate minerals, cooling-curves are rare y of

value, because of the great tendency toward undercooling, and the use

of heating-curves is made difficult by the same sluggishness. In

metals and in easily crystallizable salts such as sodium sulfate the

heating-curve shows a sharp break both at the beginning and end of

melting, and usually an actually flat portion between. In the case

of the silicate minerals the heating-curve is rarely sharply broken, and

often is oblique. ‘The causes of the obliquity have been fully dis-

cussed by White;? but the exact location of the melting-point remains

a matter of some difficulty. It therefore seemed desirable to compare

the two methods on a substance which gives a fair heating-curve, and

also enables the melting-point to be located exactly by means of

quenches. Sodium metasilicate is such a substance, and accordingly

! Received July 11, 1923.

2 W. P. White, Am. Journ. Sci. 28: 453-73. 1909.

AuG. 19, 1923 MOREY: MELTING-POINT DETERMINATIONS 327

a series of quenches and of heating-curves were run on a sample of

sodium metasilicate containing a slight excess of SiOo, analysis giving

a ratio of SiO. to Na,O of 1.007. Heating curves were made with a

/ 0900

800 23498 ps) ESSA 23508

BY |

*00 |

(06444 a

600

500

oe tee

900

300 2347 AUTEN Me Oe eee

“wy

POETS ae ee RE BO EE EG OPO rem: Mok Wig 40

Dare AEE

/02 00;-

Fig. 1. Curves obtained on heating a charge of sodium metasilicate at various rates

bare platinum-platinrhodium thermocouple. The charge was contained

in a thimble crucible of platinum, 1 cm. in diameter and 2 cm. deep,

328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 14

and the furnace used had a zone of 4 cm. in which the temperature was

uniform to one degree.

In the quenching experiments the charge was placed within 1 mm

of the bare thermocouple junction, and the whole carefully centered

in the furnace. The furnace was kept at a constant temperature

by a Roberts type thermoregulator,’ and readings were made every

minute. The two curves 2349 E and 2349 G in Fig. 1 give minute

by minute readings for two of these experiments for 30 minutes; the

maximum e.m.f. on 2349 G is 10642, the minimum 10640, with the

exception of drops to 10639.0 and 10639.5 at the end of the first and

fifth minutes, respectively.

The results of the quenching experiments are given in Table 1.

TABLE 1—ReEsvtts oF QUENCHING EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENT NO. TEMP. IN MICROVOLTS CONDITION

2449C 10632 Crystalline

2449G 10641 “

2449F 10650 Glass

2449E 10645 ae

2449D 10643 Both crystals and glass

The melting point of this sodium metasilicate can with certainty be

placed at 10644 microvolts with this particular element; the actual

temperatures do not concern us here. 1 microvolt is equivalent at

this temperature to about 0.09°C.

Two heating curves were run before the quenches, 2349 A and

2349 B, and two after, 2350 A and 2350 B. Readings were in some

cases taken every 30 seconds, in others, every minute. The experi-

mental results are shown by the curves of Fig. 1, on which the deter-

mined points are represented by crosses; the ordinate for the melting-

point as determined by quenches, 10644, has also been drawn. ‘The

curves drawn thru the observed points are of course wholly empirical

hence the exact location of the point of inflection is impossible.

Examination of the data shows that in each case the ordinate for

10644 cuts the curve in the region of steeply ascending slope. In

2349 A, the increase of e.m.f. for the time interval which includes the

ordinate 10644 is 44 microvolts, while in the preceding interval the

e.m.f. increased 23 microvolts; similarly, in 2349B, the increments are

38 and 11; in 2350A, 17 and 9; in 2350B, 10 and 8. Theprecise location

3H. S. Roberts. This Journal 11: 401. 1921.

AuG. 19, 1923 MOREY: MELTING-POINT DETERMINATIONS 329

of the melting-point from these curves is, however, arbitrary, and

comparison with the quenching experiments shows that in most cases

the tendency is to put the melting-point too low. This is the effect

to be expected from the discussion given by White of the factors

affecting the melting-point determination. For example, in the

discussion of the effect of variable rate of heat supply,* he says:

“The result is to hurry up the latter end of the melting, apparently

increasing its obliquity.’’ Again, in the discussion of the heat dis-

tribution within the charge,’ “. . . the resulting distortion .

is a rapidly accelerated increase, changing the form of the curve in

that region. In large crucibles it often masks the break at the end

of the melting, substituting for it a premature break a degree or two

lower down, due to the rapid increase in heat supply before the melted

layer has touched the thermoelement at all.”’

This latter consideration appears to me to be of the greatest impor-

tance in silicate melts; together with a consideration of the data

given above, it justifies the conclusion that whenever possible the

results of melting-point data should be checked by the more accurate,

as well as more convenient, quenching method; where the quenching

method is not applicable, confirmation by some other static method,

such as the change in volume, is desirable.

SUMMARY

The heating-curve method, which is the method followed almost

exclusively in the study of metals and of salts which crystallize readily, .

is compared with the quenching method, used chiefly in the study of

substances which are difficult to crystallize, such as most silicates.

It is well recognized both in theory and practise that the melting-

point of a substance of the latter class is more accurately determinable

by the quenching method. Taking the melting-point determination

by this method as the standard, it is shown that the true melting-point

lies on the more rapidly rising end portion of the heating curve. As

usually interpreted, therefore, the heating-curve method tends to

give a melting-point which is too low. The difference in the present

case (sodium metasilicate) is of the order of magnitude of 2° or less

at about 1100°.

4 Op. cit., p. 461.

5 Op. cit., p. 464.

330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 14

CHEMISTRY—The residue from silica in rock-analysis... M. AuRouss-

EAU. (Communicated by H.S. WAsHINeTON.)

The usual procedure in rock-analysis, when dealing with the ‘‘main

portion” is to decompose about one gram of the rock powder by

fusion with five times its weight of sodium carbonate. The cake is

brought into chloride solution, the solution evaporated to dryness

and the silica separated and washed by cold filtration. The silica

is then ignited in a weighed platinum crucible, weighed, driven off

by hydrofluoric acid, and the crucible and residue which it invariably

contains are again weighed after ignition. Hillebrand and Washington

have both commented on the amount and nature of this residue, and

Bloor has investigated it in connection with the analysis of clays—a

somewhat different process from the analysis of rocks.?

. Both Hillebrand and Washington agree that the residue is of con-

stant occurrence, that it differs in nature and in quantity with differ-

ent kinds of rocks, and that it contains chiefly oxides of titanium, iron,

and phosphorus. The former states that it is quantitatively pre-

cipitable with ammonia, and that it should contain little if any lime

or magnesia if the rock has been properly decomposed. This is not in

agreement with Bloor’s results. His residues were complex in com-

position, and many of them contained lime and magnesia in notable

quantity. No statement of the quantitative composition of the

residues obtained in rock analysis has ever been published. Hille-

brand states that he has tested residues, after the appearance of

Bloor’s paper, and is not able to substantiate Bloor’s results. In my

experience, the behavior of similar rocks is very irregular, even under

conditions of work subject to little variation. For example, in -

analyzing a series of basalts from Etna, the residues obtained were

unlike in quantity and appearance. Taking all precautions to ensure

complete decomposition, the residue sometimes indicates that this was

not attained.

While analyzing the new material (a silicic andesite) which rose

in the crater of Lassen Peak, Cal., during its period of activity since

1914, opportunity was afforded to collect and analyze the residue

from the silica of an andesite. One incomplete and two complete

1 Received July 12, 1923.

* Hillebrand, W. F. The analysis of silicate and carbonate rocks. U. 8S. G. &.,

Bull. 700, 1919, pp. 104-105, and 119 (first footnote).

Washington, H. S. The chemical analysis of rocks, 3rd. Ed., New York, 1919,

». 146.

. Bloor, W.R. Journ Am. Chem. Soc., 29, 1907, p. 1603.

Aua. 19, 1923 AUROUSSEAU: RESIDUE FROM SILICA 331

analyses of different modifications of the rock were executed. They

indicated only the slightest variation in composition, any one of them

being quite representative of the rock. These results will doubtless

be published elsewhere, and therefore the average of the three will be

used here. In addition, a number of determinations of ferrous and

total iron were made on the same material, the latter providing the

residues examined. -

Three portions, amounting to 3.0008 grams, of rock powder pro-

vided 0.0165 gram of residue. This was obtained by three separate

fusions, carried out under identical conditions. Nevertheless, the

third fusion, judging from the appearance of the residue, was not as

effective as the others. After expelling the hydrofluoric and sul-

phurie acids, the residues were ignited for an hour in the electric

furnace at a temperature of 850°C., in an oxidizing atmosphere. They

were collected, after weighing, by ordinary sodium carbonate fusion,

and were analyzed in the usual way, except for the deviations required

for MnO and P.O;. The composition of the residue by weight was

found to be as follows:

grams

SNE SiR A Band ees Sil Sinan Ne eR Sen tS 2). nl Ses BRN Nae oyenS at 0.0021

FeO; SST Eee b fetex SIE isi atie's eicuchiby cle les on6 a1n.@ & @. ao) eta © ale teehee ais el Ses. a wim ipo uaie 0.0041

COUT Oar ACM GM sien: Sache leit ie a ee a ne BA re Pear eoe etio oe 0.0003

[8,10 apa Bie ae aa os 0 Se a a 2 = FS Oe aa eae 0.0026

TiO, SiS Shee Ree BE, SE rE eR ROL ae MERCER TD ch or 8 tic Shc ho eters CMON a CMEC RC Cae: 0 .0049

Ora. eer atts cs coc iechc ce os 38 AE Eee Tae ers crcer era 0.0003

1A rat Yi eee es se tk ane eS a in FN a none

PS) GAR EES Be ae Renee ee RE MORT Ceeee I Ee lao Sosy ee Neen 0.0013

| Dao lS retin cou a ve yc yee ee ame yc ae a TENS G6 UL nee ere 0.0009

Aigypsile reg a: RAL RY, Are a eS er ie cee sar. 6 ein oS emegr 0.0165

The residue thus consists principally of the oxides of titanium, iron,

magnesium, and aluminium. The quantity of MgO and the presence

of SO; are somewhat surprising.

The interest and significance of the composition of the residue, for

the analyst, lies in its relation to the composition of the rock. Ona

percentage basis, the constituents determined amount to 0.52 per cent

of the rock (column 2, table 1). If the amount of each oxide in the

residue be compared with the amount of the corresponding oxide in

the rock, it is evident from column 3 of table 1 that Ti0., MgO,

and Fe.O; (the relation is to total iron) have here shown the greatest

tendency to remain behind in the residue. It is to be noted that only

a negligible proportion of the P.O; remained behind, and relatively

little alumina. The subjoined table expresses the results clearly.

332 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 14

The complexity of the composition of the residue raises the question

of its recovery. Fortunately this offers no difficulty and takes place

during the subsequent course of analysis. The precipitate thrown

down by ammonia in the filtrate from silica is ignited and weighed

in the same crucible as the residue, when fusion with potassium

pyrosulphate renders all the iron, alumina, titanic oxide, and phos-

phorus available for determination. Lime and magnesia, and possibly

a little baria are not recovered, unless great accuracy is required. The

amount of lime or baria the residue is likely to contain is negligible,

TABLE 1

1 2 3

SiO, Lae teoe inte ie) CAVING bu alittle 63.54

(AdnWs”:...> svete eisnrs cute 16.93 0.07 0.4

5 CH 0 ane ete gear nea ane 1.69

ee oe ¢ 2.67 ae di

MODUIN TALL aarau 2.77 0.09 3.3

CaO. Aker oe: au! 5.07 0.01 0.02

IR O oe eect A eats nee 4.08

EON Ore oy ok) ae 2.18

150), ee eee a ee 0.22

15 0 era Ree eee 0.04

INTO Myths Raentod ei Baer babe 0.51 0.16 31.4

iOpen. case eee 0.14 0.01 On

Ont h tis. mre, Rate. eee 0.04

Ste ee REDD Er Cee EN ID 0.02

IVET Oar. cis. seks cee 0.07

BaO.. 0.07

SU ee pe ede eee ie. 100.00 0.52

1. Andesite. The Crater, Lassen Peak, California. The new lava of 1915. Average

of one incomplete and two complete analyses. M. Aurousseau, analyst.

. Oxides of the residue from silica, expressed as percentages of the rock.

3. Oxides of the residue expressed as percentages of the corresponding oxides of the

rock.

and in a rock of the kind studied here the small amount of magnesia

has but a slight effect on the final result, and its recovery is unim-

portant for any but the most exacting work.

The examination of the residue from silica in rock analysis is trou-

blesome and inconvenient. The amount is small, and must be

collected specially, if required for study. It is none the less highly

desirable that residues from a wide range of rock composition (say

from granite, diorite, basalt, nephelite syenite, and peridotite) be

examined systematically, in order that some general conclusion

might be drawn concerning the nature and behavior of the residue.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

886TH MEETING

The 886th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium on Saturday,

May 5, 1923. It was called to order at 8:15 p.m. by President Wuits with

35 persons in attendance.

The first paper, Free-air pressure maps and their accuracy, was presented

by Mr. C. LeRoy Metstnerer. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides

and was discussed by Messrs. WHITE, LIrTLEHALES, TUCKERMAN, HawkEs-

worTH, HuMpPHREYS, PAWLING, and GREGG.

Author’s abstract: The variations of barometric pressure from day to day

are of fundamental importance to the weather forecaster; but before the

barometric readings can be compared, they must be reduced to some common

level. At present, sea-level is the only reduction level in use, and for stations

of no great elevation above this level the barometric indications correspond

closely with surface weather conditions. But in high elevations the sea-

level reductions are less satisfactory. The physical advantage of reduction

upward to a free-air level is that horizontal barometric gradients correspond

closely to the air movement at the same level. Moreover, the mean tem-

perature of the air column (an important term in the hypsometric equation)

is a real quantity in contrast with its fictitious nature when the reduction is

downward.

The difficulties of securing current observations of the average tempera-

ture of the air column at a sufficiently large number of stations and of re-

ducing them in time to be of current usefulness to the forecaster, necessitate

the use of some regularly-observed surface weather element as an index to

this quantity.

It was found upon analyzing a large body of aerological data that the

difference between the mean temperature of the air column and the surface

temperature varied markedly with surface wind direction and the season.

A classification of these data in this manner enabled one to ascertain the

geographical distribution and further to interpolate for non-aerological

stations in the construction of tables for barometric reductions.

During the three months, December 1922 to February 1923, inclusive,

daily post-card reports of 8 a.m. (75th meridian time) pressure at 1 and 2

kilometers (3281 and 6562 feet) above sea-level were made by 29 stations

within the area embraced by the six aerological stations of the Weather

Bureau. A statistical investigation of the accuracy of the reductions was

made from two classes of data:

(1) Computed free-air pressures compared with pressures measured by

kites at the aerological stations showed that 73% of the computations agreed

within 0.05 inch.. (Isobars on the daily weather map are drawn for inter-

vals of 0.10 inch.) ‘

303

334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 14

(2) Wind directions in the free-air estimated upon the basis of the gradient

wind relations, were compared with wind directions actually observed by

means of pilot balloons, and it was found that the estimated wind was correct

in 63% of the cases and the direction-error did not exceed 90° in 89% of

the cases. It was discovered further that the average wind velocity for the

various classes of error decreased markedly with increase of error, thus in-

dicating that large errors of estimation were associated with very light winds

and were, therefore, of little practical significance.

One of the outstanding uses of these charts is in connection with the

supplying of free-air information to aviators at times when, through inter-

ference by large areas of clouds, pilot balloon observations are not possible.

The practical utility of the charts for forecasting general weather must be

determined after subjecting them to continuous comparison and study by

experienced forecasters. The experience of the Japanese, however, with

similar maps constructed somewhat differently has indicated that there are

advantages for general forecasting. The fact that the degree of reliability

of these maps is high, as indicated by the study of their accuracy, shows that,

in any event, they afford a basis for studies relating to the physical processes

within the lowest 2 kilometers of the atmosphere.

The second paper, Air Navigation, was presented by Mr. J. P. Aur.

The paper was illustrated with lantern slides, and was discussed by Messrs.

Hey, Lirrunenaues, and HumMPpHREYs.

Author’s abstract: The method which has been used for the most part up

to the present time in air navigation has been by dead reckoning. For

cross-country flying and short flights over the water, a good compass and a

good map are the two most important instruments required.

For long-distance flying, however, the aviator should be able to locate

his position by some other means as, for example, by astronomical observa-

tions or by directional radio bearings, when he is unable to see objects on the

ground during night flights or while flying above clouds or fog, or ocean.

The present paper described work which was done during the latter months

of 1918 at Langley Field in the attempt to develop methods and instruments

for navigating airplanes by astronomical observations. The problem is

essentially the same as at sea to determine the position of a ship. Various

experiments were made using the natural horizon, either land, sea, cloud,

or haze, but these horizons will not always be available for the aviator.

Some form of artificial horizon must be provided. Observations with a

preliminary pendulum-type horizon gave results where the probable error

of a single observation of the altitude of some celestial body amounted to

+12’ on the average.

Various methods of computing the results were tried, and special instru-

ments for plotting the resulting position-line were developed.

A sextant with some form of artificial-level attachment, either pendulum

or bubble, was found to be superior to the preliminary pendulum-type

artificial horizon.

It became apparent that, when only one celestial body is available for

observation, it would be necessary also to measure the azimuth of this body

in addition to the altitude. Experiments along this line gave surprisingly

good results. Azimuths of the sun could be determined with a probable

error of +0.3 for means of 10 observations. Thus with some of the methods

of reduction which are available, it will not be necessary for the aviator to

know his dead-reckoned position very accurately jf he is able to measure

both the azimuth and the altitude of the celestial body.

AuG. 19, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 330

Owing to the difficulties of navigation by astronomical methods and to

the fact that frequently no celestial body can be seen on account of clouds or

other conditions, the third method of navigation by some directional radio

device seems to be the most promising as a solution of the problem. ‘This

method is as yet in the experimental stage.

887TH MEETING

The 887th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club Auditorium on Saturday,

May 19,1923. It was called to order at 8:15 p.m. by President WuireE with

60 persons in attendance.

President White commended the outgoing Program Committee for their

splendid work during the year and announced the appointment of the new

Program Committee for 1923-1924 as follows: Messrs. Heyn (Chairman),

GisH, and MBIsINGER.

A paper entitled The Alchemist was presented by Dr. Paut D. Foore.

It was illustrated with lantern slides and was discussed by Messrs. Hawkers-

wortH, Briccs, Ruark, TuckeRMAN, WuitE, Humpureys, and

WILLIAMSON.

Author’s abstract: A historical summary of the early alchemical literature

was briefly presented. The elaborate experiments of these pseudo-investi-

gators contributed somewhat to the progress of chemistry, but no trans-

mutations of the elements were effected. Alchemy as a sound physical

hypothesis had its origin within the past twenty years, and its possibility

became evident with the modern development of our knowledge of atomic

structure.

An atom consists of a planetary system of electrons revolving about a

positively charged nucleus or sun. The nucleus or sun itself is a complicated

structure, probably of a planetary nature, consisting of a group of closely

bound hydrogen nuclei, helium nuclei, and electrons. The sun in a gold

atom, for example, contains 49 helium suns, one extra hydrogen sun, and 20

electrons, all packed in the space of 30 billionth billionth billionth billionths

of a cubic centimeter. Alchemy is concerned with the disintegration of these

minute nuclear suns.

We have about 40 different radioactive species which are produced spon-

taneously and which represent transmutations of the elements in the strictly

alchemical sense. Many radioactive elements give off helium. Some of the

light elements may be transmuted into still lighter elements and hydrogen—

the recent experiments of Rutherford in which the disintegration is produced

by bombardment with alpha particles. Rutherford has stated that very

likely every element may be transmuted as soon as the scientist is able to

utilize an electric field of 10 million volts.

It seems probable that transmutation of baser metals into gold, platinum,

and other rare metals may be effected on a small scale by several methods

which were outlined and which were analogous to spontaneous radioactive

disintegration or to the artificial disintegration by the Rutherford method.

Such alchemical transformations on a large scale of production is, however,

a problem for the distant future. It was pointed out that when that time

comes, the problem of transmutation for the object of producing rare metals

will shrink to insignificance compared to the greater interests which will

develop simultaneously. For by whatever means quantity production is

effected, the same methods can be employed in the creation of energy by the

annihilation of mass. Thus if the hydrogen in two teaspoonsful of water

were converted into helium, an amount of energy isliberated equivalent to

$20,000 worth of electrical power at the current rates.

J. P. Auut, Recording Secretary.

336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 14

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The twenty-fourth biennial edition of the Directory of the Washington

Academy of Sciences has just been issued. This contains the names and

and addresses of members of the Acapemy and of each of the 16 affiliated

societies. A list of the scientific and technical societies of Washington which

are not affiliated with the AcapEemy, and of national societies having head-

quarters or offices in Washington, is also included.

The following persons have become members of the Acaprmy since the

last report in the Journal (August 19, 1922, p. 341). Except when other-

wise noted the address is Washington, D. C.

C. W. Larson, M. G. Luoyp, A. P. Hircuens, W. L. Cueney, E. W.

Branpes, F. H. Smytu, F. W. Surtuer, G. E. F. LunDELL, F. La FLESCHE,

V. Brrcxner, L. L. Streets, E. R. Wempuern, University of Pittsburgh,

Pittsburgh, Pa., W. S. Franxury, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

Cambridge, Mass., A. T. Pienxowsxy, H. 8. Roperts, R. W. Batcom,

H. B. Brooks, E. C. Ecxnarpt, A. C. Hunter, Witson Porsenog, A. O.

Toot, E. A. Gonpman, E. R. Weaver, Epwarp Wicuers, P. H. Bartss,

R. K. Breartis, R. F. Jackson, J. B. 8. Norton, College Park, Md., W. F.

Srurz, J. M. Suerman, F. B. LaForer, W. A. Suater, Urbana, Il., A. C.

Bovine, R. H. Daucuetsn (reinstated), W. M. Corsz, E. P. Kinuip, C.

G. Perers, L. H. ReicHeLperrerR, H. Suaptey, Harvard Observatory,

Cambridge, Mass., G. Srerner, O. P. Hoop, A. R. Curyrnery, and W. P.

WHITE.

Dr. Raut Gautier, Director of the Observatory and Professor in the

University of Geneva, Switzerland, was recently elected to honorary mem-

bership in the Washington Academy of Sciences in recognition of his

prominence in geodesy and his intimate connection with scientific work in

Washington.

The experimental research laboratory of the Navy Department, author-

ized by act of Congress in August, 1916, was formally placed in commission

on July 2, 1923. The subjects studied at the laboratory will include: Gun

erosion, torpedo motive power, the gyroscope, submarine guns, protection

against submarine, torpedo and mine attack, improvement in submarine

attachments, improvement and development in submarine engines, storage

batteries and propulsion, aeroplanes and aircraft, improvement in radio

installations, and other necessary work of the Government service. The

laboratory is situated at Bellevue, D. C.

Dr. George N. Acker died in Washington on July 22, 1923, in his seventy-

first year. He was born in Washington, D. C., October 5, 1852. Dr. Acker

was educated at Pennsylvania College, Columbian University (now George

Washington University) and the University of Berlin. He held various,

positions on the medical staff of George Washington University from 1880

until his death. He was a member of the Acapemy, Anthropological Society

of Washington, and the Medical Society of the District of Columbia as well

as many other medical societies.

The office of chief of the Bureau of Chemistry, which has been vacant

since the resignation of Dr. C. L. Atspera in July, 1921, has been filled by

aug. 19, 19238 SCIENTIFIC NEWS AND NOTES 337

the appointment of Dr. C. A. Browne. Dr. Browne has for the past six-

teen years been head of the New York Sugar Trade Laboratory and pre-

viously was chief of the sugar laboratory at the Bureau of Chemistry.

Non-political interests view with dismay the action of Dr. Hubert Work,

Secretary of the Interior, in dismissing Mr. A. P. Davis and appointing in

his place as director of the Reclamation Service former Gov. Davis of

Idaho. Protests have been filed at the Interior Department by engineering

and water-power organizations.

Dr. D. R. Harper, physicist, U. 8. Bureau of Standards, Washington,

D. C., has been detailed to New York for service as liaison officer between

the Bureau of Standards and the American Engineering Standards Com-

mittee in the Engineering Societies Building, New York City, succeeding

Dr. A. S. McAuuister of the Bureau of Standards, recalled from New York

to Washington. Dr. McAllister takes charge of part of Secretary Hoover’s

special work in relation to commodity standards and specifications, inaugu-

rated recently under the Bureau of Standards.

Mr. W. E. Myer of the Smithsonian Institution has returned from Ten-

nessee where for the past two and a half months he has been excavating the

Great Mound Group in Cheatham county. He found traces of an impor-

tant ancient town covering about 500 acres in two adjoining bends of Har-

peth river. Many earth-lodge sites were excavated which yielded a con-

siderable amount of information as to the life of the former inhabitants.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 13 SEPTEMBER 19, 1923 No. 15

GEOPHYSICS.—Comagmatic regions and the Wegener hypothesis.*

Henry 8S. WasHinaton, Geophysical Laboratory.

In the many discussions of Wegener’s hypothesis of sliding conti-

nents one factor in the problem and a possible test of the correctness

of his ideas seems to have been somewhat neglected. This is the

matching of materials at the edges of the pieces in the jig-saw puzzle—

whether they would fit well together, not in outline but in the character

of the crustal material, if the parts were slid back into their original

positions.

Wegener lays some stress on what he considers to be tectonic

accordances, such as, along the Atlantic break, those of the Algonkian

gneiss ranges of Scotland and of Labrador, the supposed continuation

of the Caledonian fold in Newfoundland, and others. Lake? has

recently pointed out that these supposed accordances are forced and

that they can be made to agree only by great and unwarranted dis-

tortions. Wegener attempts also some stratigraphic and biological

accordances and alludes to the extension of the plateau basalts of East

Greenland over Jan Mayen, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands, and to a

supposed correspondence between the Deccan Traps of India and

basalts of northern Madagascar.

The object of the present note is to examine the question of petro-

graphic accordances, chiefly along both sides of the Atlantic basin,

in the light of what is known of the bordering comagmatic regions.

Such a region is, by definition, one of cognate igneous rocks, that

resemble each other in their general mineral and chemical characters

and in their petrographic features. In any area these igneous rocks

form the foundation of the surficial and tectonic features; they form

1 Received July 23, 1923.

2P. 8. Lake, Geogr. Journ. 56. 1923.

339

340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 15

the main portion of the continental raft, so to speak, which, according

to Wegener, drifted across the space now occupied by the Atlantic,

bearing a load of sedimentary deposits the surface of which is corru-

gated or otherwise roughened by mountain building, warping, erosion,

and other such dynamical and structural processes. The effects of

these processes do not extend to the whole depth of the crystalline

igneous sheet. If, therefore, the crack or line of disjunction ran

through such a region of chemically and petrographically similar,

igneous rocks, we should find on either side of the gap areas of corre-

sponding igneous rocks derived from the basement, even though the

sedimentary rocks and the fossils and other stratigraphic features might

not be accordant because of surficial changes that may have taken

place later than the separation. The following brief discussion is

based on the second edition of Wegener’s book.? Because of the pre-

liminary character of this paper the various statements and descrip-

tions must be put very briefly and only the chief petrographic features

can be given. Nearly all references must be omitted. The reader

will find most of the data in Iddings’ Igneous Rocks, Vol. II, and in

Professional Paper No. 99 of the U. S. Geological Survey.

The beginning of the Atlantic split and sliding is supposed to have

been in late Cretaceous or early Tertiary time, but it seems reasonable

to believe that the time element has little bearing on the phase of the

matter that is now under discussion. We are dealing here with the

deep-lying igneous basement, as has been said, beneath the relatively

very thin skin of sedimentary rocks which record the passage of time

by their content in fossils and their very shallow movements. Beneath

these the basal masses of igneous material, whether solidified or as

liquid ‘‘magma reservoirs,”’ must persist in their general characters

during and in spite of the epidermal movements above them, the sense

of which is up and down or radial for the most part. It may be sup-

posed that the crystalline part of the ‘‘crust’’ which we shall here con-

sider may, at a rough estimate, extend to about 20 miles beneath the

surface, possibly rather more according to some estimates.‘

In considering the Atlantic split let us begin at the northern end,

where it is narrowest. Here, according to Wegener’s maps, the north- _

west coast of Norway was jammed against the southeast coast of

Greenland, with Iceland squeezed in between the two. We may leave

out of consideration the pre-Cambrian gneisses and schists, which be-

long to the Scandinavian shield. Along the Norwegian coast is much

3 Alfred Wegener, Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane, Braunschweig, 1920.

4Cf. R. A. Daly, The earth’s crust and its stability, Am. Journ. Sci. 6: 360-363. 1923.

SEPT. 19, 1923 WASHINGTON: COMAGMATIC REGIONS 341

granite, with some distinctly sodic syenite and some gabbro, and there

are several important areas of anorthosite and related rocks as at

Bergen. On the east coast of Greenland, as far north as Scoresby

Sound, besides the pre-Cambrian gneisses and granites, the rocks are

mostly plateau flows of basalt of Tertiary age, which overlie the gneiss,

but the extensive Paleozoic granites and syenites, and especially the

characteristic anorthosites such as are found in Norway, are very rare

or are lacking entirely. Some small areas of rather alkalic rock

occur also along the east coast of Greenland, for which there seems

to be no corresponding areas in Western Norway, unless possibly the

Christiania region around the corner may be so reckoned. Of the

plutonic basement of Iceland little or nothing seems to be known.

It thus appears that Western Norway and Hastern Greenland do

not show signs of correspondence.

On the west coast of Greenland the igneous rocks seem to be mostly

dioritic, with here also extensive flows of basalt and several note-

worthy areas of highly sodic and very peculiar rocks. Somewhat

similar dioritic rocks occur on Ellesmere Land, which is virtually a

northwesterly continuation of the west coast of Greenland. But in

Baffin Land, which is separated from Greenland by the wide and

rather deep Baffin Bay and Davis Strait, similar rocks do not appear

to occur, although little is known of the petrography of this region.

A large series of rocks mostly from the western and southern parts of

Baffin Land, brought back by the McMillan Expedition and entrusted

to me for study, are mostly granitic and gneissoid, and evidently

belong to the Canadian Shield. No areas of alkalic rocks, correspond-

ing to those of Julianehaab, Ivigtut, etc., and no extensive basalt flows

are known from eastern Baffin Land. The evidence therefore, although

it is imperfect, is adverse to the idea that Baffin Land was once contig-

uous with the west coast of Greenland, as has been suggested by

Taylor and by Wegener.

In discussing this northern end of the Atlantic split it should be

said that the very extensive area of the Tertiary plateau basalts,

which are remnants of a land that then covered all the region from

eastern (and possibly western) Greenland to the Faroes and Franz

Josef Land, which has been called the Thulean region, is evidence that

underlying this is a supply of magma of very uniform basaltic compo-

sition. The outpouring of these basalt flows is later than the Weg-

enerian fracture and it might be plausibly argued by a follower of

Wegener that they originated in and thus represent the viscous

basaltic substratum on which the raft of crystalline crust floated west-

342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 15

ward, and that the magma was able to come to the surface because

of the freedom from pressure brought about by the laying bare

of the surface of the lower basaltic layer. This is plausible and in-

genious, but it was shown by Geikie, in his work on the ancient vol-

canoes of Great Britian, that similar lavas were being poured out in

the Thulean region as far back as Paleozoic and even pre-Cambrian

time. We know also that similar enormous floods of plateau basalts

were being poured out elsewhere, as in India, Siberia, and in the

northwestern United States, at approximately the same time as those

of the Thulean region, and that these other outflows can not be

connected with relief of pressure due to sliding of the upper parts of

the crust. The Thulean basalts must then be regarded as indecisive.

Farther south we find, according to Wegener’s maps, Ireland and

Great Britain abutting against Labrador and Newfoundland, and

(presumably) France, with the Armorican peninsula, alongside of

the Maritime Provinces and New England. An outstanding petro-

graphic feature of Labrador and Newfoundland and eastern Canada

is the presence of many large areas of pre-Cambrian anorthosite.

Nothing corresponding to them occurs in western Europe, at least in

the parts that would correspond with the American occurrences on the

Wegener hypothesis, although areas of anorthosite occur in western

Norway, as we have seen, these having no corresponding represen-

tatives in Greenland. The extensive Triassic ‘‘trap sheets” of New

England, Nova Scotia, and Labrador also do not have their equiva-

lents in western Europe, except that many such basaltic rocks of

various ages occur in Great Britain and Ireland. It is to be noted,

moreover, that these more northerly occurrences of Triassic traps

in America are but the end members of a long series of plateau

extrusions which extends far down through New Jersey and Pennsyl-

vania into the Southern States. This important petrographic feature

has no counterpart across the Atlantic. Another marked petro-

graphic feature of New England and eastern Canada is the occurrence

of many small areas of decidedly sodic rocks of very early geologic

age, most of them east of the Appalachians. Somewhat similar highly

sodi¢ areas are present in northern Scotland and elsewhere in the

British Isles, but they do not seem to be represented in Labrador and

Newfoundland opposite them. Those of the Novanglian Region may

be represented by the somewhat alkalic rocks of central France, but

these are of much later date and are, furthermore, much less sodie.

The dominant feature of the Appalachian region, along the Atlantic

coast of the United States, is the abundance of granite which is quite

SEPT. 19, 1923 WASHINGTON: COMAGMATIC REGIONS 343

uniformly characterized by being rather high in both soda and lime

and rather low (for granite) in potash. Although much granite exists

in the corresponding parts of western Europe it does not show the

uniformity in composition that is the striking feature of the Appa-

lachian region.

In the first edition of his book Wegener assumed that France, the

# Iberian Peninsula, and northwest Africa were conterminous with the

southern Atlantic States and the West Indies, but in later editions

they are separated by a rather narrow inlandsea. The interior of the

Iberian Peninsula is largely granitic, but we know practically nothing

of these rocks, especially as to their chemical characters. They may

or may not correspond to the granites of the Appalachian region, but

the different configurations of the two masses is against such a corre-

spondence. Several areas of highly sodic rocks occur in Spain and

Portugal, but these do not have any corresponding areas in the most

southerly states, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, which should

have adjoined Portugal, although similar highly sodic areas exist

many miles inland and to the west in Arkansas and Texas.

The Lesser Antilles form a region with somewhat peculiar and

unusual petrologic features, the voleanic rocks showing as their chief

and most notable character simultaneously high silica and lime, al-

though the underlying plutonic igneous foundation appears to be of a

more usual character. The Mexican region, to the west, is somewhat

similar to the Antillean, especially in its high silica, but is rather more

normal. Of the petrology of the west coast of the great African bulge

or protuberance we know little, but that little, such as the abundance

of basaltic and charnockitic rocks in Liberia, Senegal, and French

Guinea, indicates that the eastern shore of the Atlantic in these

latitudes is very different from the western.

We come now to the crucial portion of the line of fission—the north-

eastern corner of South America and the north and east shores of the

Gulf of Guinea. The apparent exactness with which the one of these

could be fitted into the other first suggested the idea of former juxta-

position and. subsequent separation. Unfortunately we know com-

paratively little in detail of the igneous rocks of much of these two parts

of the globe, but we have sufficient knowledge of their broader features

to permit us to consider the correspondence or non-correspondence of

the rocks as very weighty evidence.

The eastern part of the north littoral of South America, comprising

the Guianas and the States of Pard, Maranhao, Ceard, and Rio

344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 15

Grande do Norte,’ forms the northern edge of the great Archean

‘‘Brazilian Complex,’’ which consists mainly of granite and gneiss,

with syenite, quartz porphyry, diabase, and gabbro, as well as various

schists. There is no record of any areas of alkalic rocks along this

stretch of coast, but the island of Fernando Noronha, near Cape San

Roque, is composed of phonolite. The land to the north of the Gulf of

Guinea, which according to Wegener formerly adjoined the north

coast of South America, seems to be of rather simple petro-

logical character, in this resembling the American counterpart.®

The basal Archean rocks are mostly granite, but we know little of its

chemical characters. There occur also various other plutonic rocks,

such as diorite, gabbro, and diabase. Detailed petrographical infor-

mation regarding this region is rather scanty, but a number of definite

and significant facts stand out. The granites of French Guinea and

Dahomey are decidedly alkalic and different from the granites of

the Guianas. The distinctly sodic tendency of the Nigerian granites

is shown by the presence of riebeckite and cassiterite, and tourmaline-

bearing granite occurs in Southern Nigeria. In Nigeria also are

Tertiary volcanic rocks, among which are phonolite, trachyte, and

limburgite, and very peculiar, highly sodic lavas, including nephelinite,

leucitite, and hauynophyre, are found at the Etinde Volcano near

the coast of British Kamerun. This littoral region has a decidedly

sodic tendency, quite distinct from that of northeastern South America,

and appears to be connected with a similarly sodic region to the

north about Lake Chad and Sokoto. Another feature of this region

which is not found in the American one is the comparative abundance

of rocks of the ‘“‘charnockite series” in the Ivory coast, French Guinea,

and Liberia. These rocks are characterized by abundant hypersthene,

running from hypersthene granite to norite, and greatly resemble the

charnockite series of India. It thus seems to be evident that grave

petrographical and chemical discrepancies exist between the rocks of

the Guiana-Ceard coast and that of Guinea.

The igneous rocks of the eastern coastal states of Brazil, from

Parahyba to Parand, belong mostly to the somewhat monotonous

Brazilian complex, and are largely granitic, with some syenite and

pyroxenite (as in Bahia) and dikes of diabase. At various points near

the coast, in southern Bahia, Minas Gerdes, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo,

5 Cf. J. B. Harrison, The geology of the gold fields of British Guiana, 1908; J.C. Branner,

Outlines of the geology of Brazil, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 30: 190-337. 1919, with a geologic

map.

6 For some account of the British portions of this region see F. R. C. Reed, The geology

of the British Empire, London, 1921, pp. 140-155.

SEPT. 19, 1923 WASHINGTON: COMAGMATIC REGIONS 345

and probably in Espirito Santo, highly sodic rocks occur, including

trachyte, phonolite, tinguaite, limburgite, jacupirangite, and nephe-

lite syenite. The rather extensive occurrence of monazite sands

along the coasts of Bahia? and Espirito Santo indicates the presence

of sodic syenitic rocks in the hinterland. The islet of Trindade, about

1300 kilometers east of the coast, is composed of phonolite, according

to Branner;’ this occurrence is probably comagmatically connected

with that of phonolite at the Island of Fernando Noronha off Cape

San Roque. South of Brazil phonolitic rocks occur in Paraguay and

possibly in Uruguay and eastern Argentina. ‘The occurrence of vast

sheets of plateau basalt in Parand and other southern states of Brazil

and in Argentina will be discussed later.

Along the west coast of Africa, south of Guinea, and opposite Brazil,

. Uruguay, and northern Argentina, the dominant igneous rocks appear

to be mostly granitic and gneissose, belonging to the African ‘‘funda-

mental’ complex.’’ Although comparatively little is known of this

stretch of coast yet here and there some occurrences of possibly sig-

nificant rocks are known. Thus, trachyte, phonolite, and trachydol-

erite are found on the island of Sao Thomé and they are also probably

represented on Fernando Poo, where the lavas are mostly basaltic.

These islands lie in the Bight of Biafra at the northeast angle of the

Gulf of Guinea where Cape San Roque would fit in. Sodic lavas,

aegirite trachyte, phonolite, and nephelinite, occur in Angola, as well

as a series of sodic plutonic rocks, including nephelite syenite and

shonkinite. Representatives of a fairly well-defined charnockite

series; ranging from hypersthene granite to norite, are met with in

Benguela. Neither sodic nor charnockitic rocks seem to have been

found farther south in the Southwest Africa Protectorate. In the

Transvaal there are large areas of nephelite syenite and other sodic

rocks described by Brouwer, Shand, and others; but these would appear

to belong to the Indian Ocean region rather than to that of the Atlantic.

There are thus found on, both sides of the Atlantic, southward from

Cape San Roque on the west and from the Bight of Biafra on the

east, lines of isolated occurrences of sodic rocks, both plutonic and

voleanic, which have been intruded into or poured out over continental

basement complexes of apparently quite similar granitic and gneissose

rocks. Alkalic, chiefly sodic, rocks occur also in the intervening

Atlantic, as at Fernando Noronha and Trindade near Brazil and at

Ascension and St. Helena in the southeastern Atlantic. This corre-

71 found monazite sand at a bathing beach near the city of Bahia, but observed no

syenite in the prevailingly diabasic rocks of the neighborhood.

§ J. C. Branner, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 30: 300. 1919.

346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 15

spondence in occurrence of coastal sodie rocks on both sides might be

considered favorable to the Wegener hypothesis, but on the other hand

the generally markedly sodic character of the South Atlantic islands

may be interpreted with equal plausibility as indicating a generally

sodie character for the magmas that underlie the South Atlantic basin

and that the coastal occurrences are but marginal effusions from this.

The lack of correspondence between the Guiana-Ceara coast and that

of Guinea, sodic rocks being absent from the one and quite abundant

in the other,.seems to constitute more positive and more decisive evi-

dence against the hypothesis. In addition to this is the rather fre-

quent occurrence of charnockitic rocks along the African side of the

Atlantie and their absence from the American side. The balance

of the petrographical evidence, may, then, be regarded as adverse to

Wegener’s hypothesis.

Before leaving the southern part of the Atlantic split another

feature should be considered. In the Transvaal and Cape Colony, and

extending north into Rhodesia, enormous areas are covered with the

plateau basalts of the late or post-Karroo (Triassic) Stormberg or

Drakensberg series, and what are probably analogous plateau flows of

about the same age are found in the Kaokoveld, near the coast, in

northwestern ex-German Southwest Africa. Across the South At-

lantic, in the states of Parand, SAo Paulo, Santa Catarina, and Rio

Grande do Sul in Brazil, in Uruguay, and in southern Argentina

(Patagonia), enormous areas are covered with similar plateau basalts

of generally Triassic age. These vast flows have not been sufficiently

studied, as yet, to permit any detailed chemical or petrographical

correlation. But their occurrence as a petrographical feature of

the first magnitude common to both sides of the South Atlantic is of

great interest and is apparently favorable to the Wegener hypothesis,

To judge from their geologic age they would seem to have been ex-

truded on both sides, in general, shortly before the beginning of the

split, if I understand Wegener correctly. If his hypothesis be true,

however, we would expect, on the analogy of the Thulean basaltic area

of the North Atlantic, to find many basaltic islands in the ocean

between the two sides of the fracture, because of the relief of pressure

and exposure of the underlying basaltie substratum brought about

by the westward sliding of the American continental mass. This,

however, is not the case. There are very few islands in the South

Atlantic and these show dominantly sodic and not sodi-caleic (basaltic)

characters. These vast plateau extrusions of probably similar basalts

in South Africa and in southern South America seem to me more

justifiably interpreted as belonging to a general and widespread

event or cyclical incident in the earth’s history, strictly analogous

SEPT. 19, 1923 JORDAN AND SNYDER: GONORHYNCHUS MOSELEYI 347

to the similar plateau basalt areas of the Deccan, Thulean, Ore-

gonian, Palisadan, and Siberian regions.

In this preliminary sketch of the relation of various comagmatic

regions to the main features of the Atlantic area, expecially as regards

the Wegener hypothesis, it seems to be scarcely necessary to discuss

the relations in other parts of the earth (Lemuria, for example) men-

tioned by Wegerer in the course of his discussions. Mention may

be made, however, of a minor point in Wegener’s argument.’ This is

that he believes that the Pacific voleanic islands are ‘‘fragments of the

lithosphere and that they are in so many cases so completely covered

with lava that the lithospheric core is not visible.’’ Were this true

the upper side of the basal fragment of the lithosphere should be not

far below or at the surface of the ocean and we would expect to find, as

we do at many other volcanoes, fragments of granite, gneiss, or other

basement rocks as inclusions in the lavas.

In the course of a recent study of the lavas of the Hawaiian islands

a very large number of specimens have been examined but not a single

inclusion of such igneous or metamorphic rocks, or of limestones or

sandstones, has been found. The only xenoliths that the Hawaiian

lavas contain are of dunite, lherzolite, pyroxenite, or gabbro—all

evidently cognate inclusions (enclaves homoeogénes of Lacroix)

produced by magmatic segregation in the basalts. Lacroix" has

recently shown that the supposed granite of Bora-Bora in the Society

Islands is a medium-grained olivine gabbro, either intrusive into the

abundant basalts of the island or (as seems to me to be more probable)

a cognate inclusion like those of the Hawaiian Islands. A somewhat

extensive search through the literature on the petrography of the

voleanic islands of the Pacific has not revealed any example of inclu-

sions of granitic or other continental rocks. Wegener’s suggestion may

therefore be regarded as unsupported by evidence.

ZOOLOGY.—Gonorhyrchus moseleyi, a new species of herring-like

fish from Honolulu. Davip STARR JORDAN AND JOHN OTTERBEIN

SNYDER.

Gonorhynchus moseleyi Jordan and Snyder, new species

Description of the type, No. 23239, Stanford University collection, a

specimen 140 millimeters long from Honolulu, T. H., collected by Edwin

Lincoln Moseley, professor of Biology in the State Normal School at Bowling

Green, Ohio.

9H. 8S. Washington, Deccan traps and other plateau basalts, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.

33: 765. 1922.

10 A, Wegener, Die. Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane, 2 ed., 1920, p. 42, note 1.

1. Lacroix, Le soi-disant granite (gabbro a olivine) de Vile Bora-Bora, C. R. Soc. Géol.

France, 1916, p. 178.

348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 15

Head 4.1 in length to base of caudal; depth 9.2; depth caudal peduncle 4.5

in head; depth head 2.6; length snout 2.5; diameter eye 4; width interorbital

space 3.7; length pectoral fin 1.3; ventral fin 2.2; height dorsal 2.1; anal 2.4;

length caudal 1.8; scales lateral series to base of caudal 166; vertical series

between lateral line and middle of back 22; pectoral rays 11; dorsal 9; ventral

9; anal 7.

Length of barbel equal to diameter of pupil, extending when depressed

over half way between its base and border of lower lip. Upper lip with many

rows of tubercles, the edge fringed with papillae. Lower lip covered with

small tubercles and with pendent lobes which extend posteriorly.

Gillrakers long and slender 17 plus 19 on the first arch.

Head and body almost completely scaled, the scales extending over throat

to edge of lip, under part of snout, and along the rays of all the fins. Tip of

snout, lips, and opercular membrane naked. The scales are long and slender

with 9 spines on the exposed ends.

Pectoral and ventral fins with pointed axillary flaps over half as long as

the fins; the outer surfaces of which are covered with scales. Pectoral fins

pointed, appearing acute when depressed, ventrals rounded, edge of dorsal

convex on the anterior, concave on the posterior half, caudal notched.

Color in spirits gray above, lighter below, the dark color resulting from

numerous closely opposed black specks. Pectoral fins largely black, bordered

by white; dorsal and caudal broadly edged with black, ventrals black, edged

with white, the dark area appearing as a well defined black oval spot when the

fin is not spread; anal immaculate. Lining of gill chamber black, the color

showing through the translucent opercle. The bases of pectorals and ventrals

were bright yellow when the specimen was fresh.

This dainty little fish was found by Moseley in the market of Honolulu,

where he made a valuable and interesting collection of fishes.

It is closely related to the two known species of the genus, Gonorhynchus

gonorhynchus (Gmelin) from the Indian-Australian region and Gonorhynchus

abbreviatus Schlegel from Japan.

The Hawaiian species differs from both these in having a much larger eye

and a longer head. The color of the ventral fins differs also, those of G.

moseleyi having a large sharply defined central oval black blotch, not covering

the posterior part of the fin as in the others.

Comparisons follow with Gonorhynchus gonorhynchus from Port Jackson

and Lord Howe Islands and G. abbreviatus from Yokohama.

se fet LORD HOWE ISLAND SAtenan TORORA =

(G. mose- G. gon rhynchus G. cono- G.r bbre x

ey?) rhync'us viatus

Length to base of caudal in milli- |

SHOUT tos n ook Sin oer OG he ck bts Aiease ol ee 122 89 217 250

Depth body in hundredths of length. . 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.115 0.125

Depth caudal peduncle............. 0.058 0:05. | 0:05 0.058 0.056

Length head. oes sre soreac ates 0.26 0.245) 0.24 0.21 0.22

Length snouts Vaciercs se eeizion a] |) ee 0.095 | 0.098 0.08 0.095

Diameter eye ya clues. sircante aieoans ts 0.065 0.05 0.05 0.045 0.05

Width interorbital area (skull)...... 0.035 0.025 0.023 0.03 0.035

OTSEL TAY Et verte creotuten sot ale Beater I ae | 10 | 10 11 8

ANAL PAYS Atte beatae Sees ees HS eal fi J ag ii 6

PGCLOLAL LEVSs s 25 arta acsiy atria ts pegs | 10 i) 10 11

GNUGT SL Pei esa Geaeete mena e acetic 9 1. 9 9 9 8

349

Fig. 1. Gonorhynechus moseleyi Jordan and Snyder

350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 15

There appear to be no differences in the number of the scales. With age,

the scales seem to grow laterally, the spinules increasing in number to 19 or

more.

BOTANY.—Ten new species of trees from Salvador. Pau C.

STANDLEY, U. S. National Museum.

The ten species of trees here described all occur in the Republic of

Salvador, but some of them extend also to other parts of Central

America. Part are based upon specimens obtained by the writer

during the winter of 1921-22, and others upon material collected by

Dr. Salvador Calder6n of the Salvadorean Department of Agriculture.

One of the three described is of some importance locally as a source of

lumber, while another represents a genus not reported previously from -

North America.

Pseudolmedia mollis Standl., sp. nov.

Large tree, the young branchlets densely fulvous-pilose; petioles very

thick, 4 to 6 mm. long; leaf blades oblong or narrowly ovate-oblong, 11 to 16

em. long, 4 to 6.5 em. wide, somewhat abruptly acuminate, obliquely rounded

at base, subcoriaceous, glabrate above except along the nerves, the venation

depressed, beneath paler, copiously soft-pilose, especially along the costa and

lateral nerves, the venation elevated, the lateral nerves about 15 pairs, arcu-

ately ascending, anastomosing near the margin; fruit globose-oval, 2 em.

long, densely soft-pilose, subtended at base by few broadly ovate, acutish

bracts.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,152,341, collected at Comasa-

gua, Salvador, December, 1922, by Dr. Salvador Calderén (no. 1382).

The leaves resemble in shape and texture those of P. oryphyllaria Donn.

Smith, the only other species of the genus known to occur in Central America,

but the pubescence is altogether different in the two species. The vernacular

name of the Salvadorean tree is ‘‘tepeujushte.”’

Ledenbergia macrantha Standl., sp. nov.

Tree, about 6 m. high, with long, somewhat pendent branches; young

branchlets sparsely tomentulose, soon glabrate; petioles slender, 2 to 4.5 em.

long, sparsely villosulous; leaf blades elliptic or broadly ovate, 4.5 to 8 em.

long, 2.5 to 4.5 em. wide, acuminate, acute or obtuse at base, thin, glabrous

above, beneath villosulous along the costa near the base, elsewhere glabrous

racemes very numerous and forming a dense panicle, their rachises 12 to 20

cm. long, tomentulose; pedicels filiform, 5 to 10 mm. long; sepals oblong-

oblanceolate, in fruit 8 to 13 mm. long, 3 to 4.5 mm. wide, glabrate, con-

spicuously veined; fruit glabrate, rugulose, 3 mm. long.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,111,202, collected along

roadside at Puerta de la Laguna, near San Salvador, Salvador, February 24,

1923, by Dr. Salvador Calder6n (no. 680). The following additional speci-

mens have been seen:

! Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

SEPT. 19, 1923 STANDLEY: NEW TREES FROM SALVADOR Bon

SaLvapor: Puerta de la Laguna, Standley 23656; April 27, 1922, Calderén

680 (both these collections are from the type tree). Department of Ahua-

chapan, Padilla 195.

Dr. Padilla gives the vernacular name as ‘‘nevado.”’

Until very recently, only a single species of Ledenbergia was known, L.

seguieriodes Klotzsch of Venezuela. During the present year there has been

Salvadorean tree differs from the South American ones in having flowers twice

as large as theirs.

Hyperbaena phanerophlebia Standl., sp. nov.

Tree, 4.5 to 7.5 m. high, with dense crown, glabrous throughout; petioles

rather slender, 1 to 2.5 em. long; leaf blades narrowly oblong or oblong-

lanceolate, 9 to 21 cm. long, 3 to 7 em. wide, narrowed to an obtuse apex,

obtuse or acute at base, thick and coriaceous, lustrous, triplinerved from

near the base, the costa salient on both surfaces, the lateral nerves scarcely

elevated above but conspicuous beneath, about 5 pairs, arcuately and irregu-

larly ascending, the lower surface slightly paler than the upper and finely

reticulate; fruit subglobose, orange-yellow, about 2.5 em. in diameter.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,138,730, collected in a coffee

plantation in the hills south of Santa Tecla, Salvador, altitude about 900

meters, April 10, 1922, by Paul C. Standley (no. 23025). Also collected in

moist forest near Santa Tecla upon the same date, Standley 23014.

This is not closely related to any of the species of Hyperbaena previously

reported from Central America.

Rollinia rensoniana Standl., sp. nov.

Tree, about 6 m. high, the young branchlets thinly villous-tomentose;

petioles 6 to 12 mm. long; leaf blades elliptic-oblong, 12 to 23 cm. long, 5 to 8

cm. wide, acute to long-acuminate, rounded or obtuse at base, thin, above

tomentulose when young but in age glabrate, beneath densely tomentose at

first with brownish and whitish hairs, in age soft-pilose with short spreading

hairs, the lateral nerves 15 to 21 pairs, prominent beneath; flowers solitary or

geminate, densely covered with a brownish feltlike tomentum, the pedicels

1 to 2 cm. long, becoming much longer after anthesis; sepals broadly rounded-

ovate, abruptly short-acuminate; corolla lobes laterally compressed, obovate-

oval, 10 to 13 mm. long, 7 to 9 mm. wide, broadened toward the apex and

rounded, divaricate or slightly ascending; very immature fruit tomentose,

subglobose, composed of numerous carpels with rounded tips.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,138,729, collected along road-

side at Santa Tecla, Salvador, altitude about 900 meters, April 10, 1922, by

Paul C. Standley (no. 23033). The following additional specimens have been

examined:

Satvapor: Ateos, Standley 23045. Izalco, Standley 21866; Pittier 1964.

Rollinia rensoniana seems to be rather common in the uplands of central

and western Salvador, but I was not able to learn anything of its fruit or of

the vernacular names applied to it. Only two other species have been

reported from Central America, P. jimenezii and R. pittiert, both described by

Dr. W. E. Safford. Neither of those species has the abundant spread-

ing pubescence that characterizes the Salvadorean tree.

352. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 15

The species is named for Dr. Carlos Renson, of the Chemical Laboratories

of the Department of Agriculture of Salvador, who, during many years resi-

dence in that country, has made important contributions to our knowledge

of its botanical features.

Inga calderoni Standl., sp. nov.

Young branchlets densely pilose with short fulvous hairs; leaf rachis 5.5 to

9 em. long, narrowly winged, densely short-pilose; leaflets 5 or 6 pairs, nar-

rowly oblong-lanceolate, 7 to 10.5 em. long, 1.5 to 2.2 em. wide, long-atten-

uate, obliquely obtuse or rounded at base, copiously fulvous-pilose above

with subappressed hairs, beneath more densely pilose with mostly spreading

hairs; legume oval-quadrate, 5 cm. long, 3.5 em. wide, strongly compressed,

nearly 1 em. thick, covered with a dense feltlike tomentum of stiff fulvous hairs.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,152,344, collected at Comas-

agua, Salvador, December, 1922, by Dr. Salvador Calderén (no. 1392).

The form of the fruit is quite unlike that of any other species of Inga

known from Central America. The vernacular name is ‘‘pepeto de mico.”’

Cupania mollis Standl., sp. nov.

Branchlets subterete, finely tomentose, somewhat striate, glabrate in age;

leaves abruptly pinnate, the rachis and petiole together about 23 em. long,

finely tomentose; leaflets about 14, oblong or elliptic-oblong, 8 to 13 cm. long,

3.5 to 5 em. wide, obtuse, rounded or obtuse at base, on petiolules 3 to 8 mm.

long, serrate with low appressed teeth, entire toward the base, glabrate above,

beneath paler, densely velvety-pilosulous with short spreading hairs; panicles

axillary, long-pedunculate, many-flowered, the branches finely tomentose;

flowers sessile or nearly so; capsule glabrous without and within, subclavate-

trigonous, narrowed below into a stout stipe 5 to 6 mm. long, the body

obtusely angulate, 12 to 15 mm. in diameter, rounded and apiculate at apex,

the partition walls thin.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,152,345, collected at Comas-

agua, Salvador, December, 1922, by Dr. Salvador Calder6én (no. 1400).

The fruit is similar to that of C. glabra Swartz, but the pubescence of the

leaves is altogether different. The vernacular name is ‘‘cola de pavo,’’ a

name applied to various other trees of the family Sapindaceae.

Karwinskia calderoni Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub or tree, 2 to 12 m. high, glabrous throughout; petioles 7 to 12 mm.

long; leaf blades lance-oblong or sometimes oblong-ovate, 3.5 to 10 em. long,

1.5 to 3.5 em. wide, rounded at base, acute to long-acuminate at apex, green

above, pale beneath, the lateral nerves 7 to 14 pairs, elevated beneath;

peduncles sometimes 6 mm. long but usually much shorter, often bifurecate

above the middle, each branch bearing a few-flowered umbel, the pedicels

1.5 to 4 mm. long; flowers 3 to 4 mm. broad; fruit subglobose, black and

lustrous, 6 to 7 mm. long.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,151,851, collected at Acul-

huaca, one of the suburbs of San Salvador, Salvador, July 14, 1922, by Dr.

Salvador Calder6n (no. 900). The following additional specimens have been

examined:

GUATEMALA: Estanzuela, Dept. Santa Rosa, Heyde & Lux 3954. Ber-

berena, Dept. Santa Rosa, Heyde & Lux 6088. Without locality, Heyde 192.

Gualin, Kellerman 5610.

SEPT. 19, 1923 STANDLEY: NEW TREES FROM SALVADOR 398

Satvapor: Tonacatepeque, Calderén 214; Standley 19467. San Salvador,

Standley 19118, 23544; Calder6n 420. Armenia, Standley 23451. Ahuachapan,

Standley 19901. La Libertad, Standley 23225. Between San Martin and

Laguna de Ilopango, Standley 22528. La Union, Standley 20650. Dept. de

Ahuachapdin, Padilla 186. Without locality, Renson 265. San Vicente,

Standley 21665. Santa Ana, Standley 20427.

Honpuras: Amapala, Standley 20697.

NicaraGcua: Aserradores Island, Baker 625.

Karwinskia calderoni is the only species of which I have seen Central

American specimens. It is related to K. humboldtiana of Mexico, but is

evidently distinct in the acuminate leaves and the frequently if not usually

bifureate peduncles. In Salvador it is known as “‘giiiligitiste”’ or “huilihuiste,”’

and at Ampala the name “‘pimientillo” was given for it. The tree is extremely

abundant in the drier portions of the Pacific slope of Central America, occur-

ring usually on dry hillsides at low or middle elevations. It is found also on

the Atlantic slope of Guatemala. The wood is employed for various purposes,

particularly for cart axles, railroad ties, mallets, shuttles, and fuel. Pigs

are said to be paralized by eating the fruit, and similar properties are generally

ascribed to the Mexican species.

Clethra vicentina Standl., sp. nov.

Tree, about 9m. high, with dense rounded crown; young branchlets fulvous-

tomentose or glabrate; petioles 7 to 15 mm. long; leaf blades oblanceolate-

oblong, 8 to 12 em. long, 2.5 to 3.5 em. wide, obtuse, attenuate to the base,

subcoriaceous, entire, green and glabrous above, covered beneath, except upon

the nerves, with a very fine, close whitish tomentum; racemes numerous, 12 to

15 em. long, the rachis slender, closely fulvous-tomentose, the pedicels slender,

3 to 5 mm. long; calyx lobes ovate-oval, 3.5 to 4 mm. long, obtuse, tomen-

tulose; petals white, 5 to 6 mm. long, erose and ciliate; style 1.5 mm. long.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,137,375, collected in moist

forest on the Voledn de San Vicente, Salvador, altitude 1,500 meters, March

8, 1922, by Paul C. Standley (no. 21603).

Related, apparently, to C. hondurensis Britton, in which the leaves are

broader and dentate, and the calyx lobes acute.

Clethra vulcanicola Standl., sp. nov.

Tree, 4.5 to 6 m. high, the young branchlets bearing a few appressed hairs

but soon glabrate; petioles 7 to 12 mm. long; leaf blades oblanceolate-oblong

or obovate-oblong, 9 to 12 em. long, 2.5 to 4.5 em. wide, acute or acuminate,

acute or obtuse at base, coarsely serrate, glabrous above, green beneath and

glabrous except for a few stiff, usually appressed hairs along the costa and

lateral nerves; racemes 10 to 13 cm. long, the rachis fulvous-tomentose, the

pedicels slender, 5 to 6 mm. long; calyx lobes 3 mm. long, ovate, obtuse,

fulvous-tomentulose; capsule 6 to 7 mm. in diameter, tomentose.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,138,667, collected on the rim

of the crater of the Voledin de San Salvador, altitude about 1,800 meters,

April 7, 1922, by Paul C. Standley (no. 22954).

Similar in general appearance to (. alcoceri Greenm., of Hidalgo, but in

that species the pedicels are very short and the leaves are white-tomentulose

beneath. Clethra suaveolens Turcz. is more closely related, but in that the

leaves are entire. The vernacular name of C. vulcanicola is “zapotillo.”

354. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 13, No. 15

Avicennia bicolor Standl., sp. nov.

Tree or shrub, the young branchlets glabrous; petioles very stout, 4 to 15

mm. long; leaf blades broadly elliptic to elliptic-ovate or oval-ovate 7 to 13

em. long, 3.5 to 7 em. wide, rounded or obtuse at apex, obtuse at base and

usually abruptly short-decurrent, glabrous and lustrous above, with promi-

nent venation, beneath densely covered with a minute whitish tomentum;

flowers spicate, opposite, the rachis elongate and the pairs of flowers distant

5 to 8mm. from each other, the spikes numerous, forming lax panicles 5 to 17

em. long; branches of the panicles minutely tomentose; bracts and bractlets

rounded, obtuse, tomentulose; corolla 4 mm. long, the tube glabrous, the lobes

obovate, subtruncate at apex, sericeous outside, glabrous within; style nearly

obsolete.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 715142, collected in mangrove

swamp at Aguadulee, Province of Coclé, Panama, December 5, 1911, by H.

Pittier (no. 4968). The following additional specimens have been examined:

Satvapor: Coast of Departamento de Ahuachapan, Padilla 333.

PanaMa: Punta Paitilla, Herzberto 206.

It seems remarkable that a form so distinct as this should not have been

named long ago, but it may well be that it is of somewhat rare occurrence,

although the specimens cited indicate that it has a rather wide range.

Avicennia bicolor is related to the South American A. tomentosa Jacq. (which

has been reported from various parts of Mexico and Central America, and

even from Florida, although probably erroneously), but differs in its large,

broad leaves and, more conspicuously, in the distinct form of the inflorescence.

In A. tomentosa the flowers are few and the inflorescence is short and congested.

Dr. Padilla reports that in Salvador this species is known by the vernacular

name of ‘‘mangle negro.”

BOTANY.—WNew species of Urticaceae from Colombia.’ EKLLSworTH

P. Kinurp, U. 8. National Museum.

While on a recent expedition to Colombia for the U. S. National

Museum, the Gray Herbarium, the New York Botanical Garden, and

the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, Dr. Francis W. Pennell and

myself gave particular attention to the family Urticaceae, collecting

about 70 numbers of this group. Most of the species here proposed

as new are based upon material collected on this expedition, which

clearly are not referable to any of the species contained in the com-

prehensive monograph of Urticaceae by Weddell,? or to the com-

paratively small number described since the publication of that work.

Several other specimens collected on this expedition probably consti-

tute new species, but in the absence of authenticated material they

have not been included in the present paper.

! Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

2In DC. Prodr. 16!: 32-235. 1869.

SEPT. 19,1923 KILLIP: NEW URTICACEAE FROM COLOMBIA 355

The genus Pilea, to which most of the following plants belong,

contains over 200 species, the greater part of them occurring in the

tropics of the New World. Weddell devides the genus into three

main groups, Integrifoliae, Heterophyllae, and Dentatae. The last

consists of two sections, containing those species that are glabrous,

with either long or short peduncles, and those that are pubescent, with

either long or short peduncles. This method of classification is fol-

lowed here.

Pilea filicina Killip., sp. nov.

Plants frutescent, scandent (?), apparently dioecious, pinnately branched

(branches divaricate, 10 to 20 cm. long), glabrous throughout. Stems and

branches slightly angulate, faintly winged on the angles. Stipules minute,

early deciduous. Leaves of a pair dissimilar and unequal, the larger ovate-

orbicular, 10 to 13 mm. long, 6 to 7 mm. wide, abruptly tapering at base, sessile

or subsessile, crenate at apex (2 teeth to a side, the apical tooth blunt, 2 mm.

wide), otherwise entire, penninerved (4 to 6 nerves to a side, one of the pairs

often conspicuous, extending to the lower of the teeth), the smaller leaves

broadly orbicular, 4 to 5 mm. long, 5 to 6 mm. wide, sessile, entire or slightly

undulate at apex, triplinerved; both kinds of leaves dark green (nearly black

when dry) and faintly marked with linear cystoliths (especially near margin)

on upper surface, paler and copiously covered with minute punctiform cysto-

liths beneath. Pistillate heads subglobose, minute, 1 to 1.5 mm. wide, 3 or

4-flowered, sessile or very short-petioled; perianth divisions unequal, the

middle 0.8 mm. long, the lateral 0.3 mm. long; achenes broadly ovate, 1 mm.

long, 0.8 mm. wide.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,124,280, collected at Paime,

Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia, in 1921, by Brother Ariste-Joseph

(no. A927).

The venation, markings, and coloration of the leaves of this species indicate

a relationship with P. dendrophila Miq., but the much smaller leaves, the

larger kind being much rounder, and its habit of growth and branching

clearly show that it is distinct. From P. trichosanthes Wedd., to which also

it is allied, it is distinguishable by its more orbicular, nearly sessile, longer

leaves which are only faintly marked with cystoliths, and by its more abun-

dant, divaricate branches.

Pilea hazeni Killip, sp. nov.

Climbing herb, monoecious (?), glabrous throughout. Stripules ovate-

orbicular, 4 mm. long, cordate at base, chartaceous, ight brown. Leaves

dark green above, bearing fusiform and linear cystoliths, light green beneath

with more conspicuous fusiform cystoliths, 3-nerved to upper third of blade;

leaves of a pair unequal and dissimilar, the larger ovate-lanceolate, 3 to 4.5

em. long, 1.5 to 2 em. wide, short-acuminate at apex, rounded, subcordate, or

subecuneate at base, crenate-serrate (teeth averaging 9 to a side), their

petioles 1 to 2 cm. long, the smaller leaves nearly orbicular in general

outline, 1 to 1.8 em. long, 1.5 to 2 cm. wide, abruptly acute at apex, rounded

or subtruncate at base, crenate-serrate (teeth averaging 6 to a side), their

petioles5to7mm.long. Staminateheadsnotseen. Pistillate heads cymose,

borne in two’s or three’s in the axils of the upper leaves, the cymes 3 to4mm.

wide, the peduncles 4 to 5 mm. long; achenes ovate.

356 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 13, No. 15

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,140,920, collected in the forest

along the Rfo Santa Rita, near Salento, Department of Caldas, Colombia,

altitude 1,600 to 1,800 meters, August 26, 1922, by E. P. Killip and T. E.

Hazen (no. 10121).

Killip & Hazen no. 9007, collected at essentially the same locality, is also of

this species.

Pilea hazeni clearly should be placed in the section Heterophyllae, though it

differs greatly from any of the described species of that group.

Pilea puracensis Killip, sp. nov.

Erect herbs, 30 to 40 em. high, glabrous throughout. Stipules triangular-

ovate, 3mm. long. Petioles angulate, those of a pair unequal, the longer 3.5

to 5 em. long, the shorter 2.5 to 4.5 em. long. Leaf blades elliptic or elliptic-

lanceolate, 10 to 15 cm. long, 3.5 to 6.5 cm. wide, acuminate at apex, rounded

or subauriculate at base, closely crenate-serrulate to base (serrulations about

1 mm. long), 3-nerved to apex, penniveined along nerves, faintly covered on

both surfaces with punctiform and linear cystoliths. Staminate inflorescence

subdichotomously branched, 3 to 6 em. long, the flowers borne in few-

flowered clusters at the ends of the branches. Pistillate inflorescence of

sessile, paniculately branched cymes, much shorter than the petioles; perianth-

segments unequal, the middle oblong, 0.7 mm. long, the lateral orbicular, 0.2

mm. long; achenes ovate, 1 mm. long.

Type in the U. S National Herbarium, no. 1,140,081, collected in the forest

at “Canaan,” on the slopes of Mt. Puracé, Department of El Cauca, Colombia,

altitude 3,100 to 3,300 meters, June 13, 1922, by F. W. Pennell and E. P.

Killip (no. 6673).

Closely related to P. pteropodon Wedd., this species is distinguished by

smaller leaves and smaller pistillate heads, and by the fact that its leaves do

not taper into winged petioles. The foliage and general aspect of the plant

suggest P. quichensis Donn. Smith, of Guatemala, but the staminate in-

florescence is much longer and the leaves are more finely toothed.

Pilea ornatifolia Killip, sp. nov.

Plants dioecious, glabrous throughout, erect or decumbent, the branches

lax. Stem succulent, geniculate at the middle of the internodes, reddish

brown, without cystoliths. Stipules ovate, 2 mm. long. Leaf blades ovate,

acute at apex, obliquely cordate at base, sharply serrate from base to apex,

3-nerved, (lateral nerves reaching the apex), dark green with punctiform cysto-

liths above, paler with conspicuous linear cystoliths beneath, penni-veined

along each nerve, the veins black; leaves of a pair similar but unequal, the

larger 4.5 to 5.5 em. long, 1.5 to 2.5 em. broad, their petioles 1 to 1.5 cm. long,

the smaller 2.5 to 3.5 em. long, 1 to 1.5 em. broad, their petioles 2 to 3 mm. long.

Staminate heads globose, about 6 mm. in diameter, densely flowered, borne on

slender peduncles 2 to 2.5 em. long; perianth violet-tinged, its lobes 0.6 mm.

long. Pistillate heads 4 to 8-flowered, in short axillary cymes, borne on

peduncles 4 mm. long; perianth segments subequal, about 1.2 mm. long;

achenes broadly ovate, 1.5 mm. long.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,140,933, collected in an open

gulch in the forest on Cerro Tatamdé, Department of Caldas, Colombia, alti-

tude 3,200 to 3,400 meters, September 8 to 10, 1922, by F. W. Pennell (no.

10476).

SEPT. 19, 1923 | KILLIP: NEW URTICACEAE FROM COLOMBIA 307

Pilea ornatzfolia is allied to P. flexuosa Wedd., the principal points of differ-

ence being smaller and proportionately narrower leaves of P. ornatifolia,

with distinctly cordate bases and inconspicuous cystoliths on the upper

surfaces, shorter petioles, the much shorter lobes of the staminate flowers,

and the shorter segments of the perianth of the pistillate flowers.

Pilea pennellii Killip, sp. nov.

Plants monoecious, slender, branching near the base, 25 to 30 em. high,

glabrous throughout. Stipules triangular, barely 1 mm. long, acute. Petioles

5 to 8 mm. long, those of a pair slightly unequal. Leaf blades narrowly

ovate-oblong, 2 to 3 cm. long, 0.8 to 1.5 cm. wide, acuminate at apex, tapering

at base, minutely serrulate (teeth acute, imbricate, often cartilaginous at

margin), 3-nerved (lateral nerves reaching to the upper quarter of the blade),

light green on both surfaces, above copiously covered with punctiform and

very minute linear cystoliths, beneath punctate with dark ocellae but almost

destitute of cystoliths. Staminate heads globose, 5 to 6 mm. in diameter,

purplish white, borne on slender peduncles 3 cm. long, the perianth lobes

barely 0.1 mm. long. Pistillate flowers in closely flowered cymes, subsessile

or with peduncles up to 3 mm. long, the segments unequal, the middle 0.7

mm. long, the lateral 0.4 mm.; achenes ovate, 0.5 mm. long.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,140,923, collected in a forest

along the Rio San Rafael, below Cerro Tatamd Department of Caldas,

Colombia, altitude 2,200 to 2,500 meters, September 7 to 11, 1922, by F. W.

Pennell (no. 10326). ’

This species apparently is nearest P. flexuosa Wedd., differing in its smaller,

closely serrulate leaves, and in its cystoliths. The light green aspect of the

plant suggests P. cuprea Krause, but in that species the pistillate heads as

well as the staminate are long-peduncled.

Pilea rhombifolia Killip, sp. nov.

Plants 20 to 30 cm. high, glabrous throughout. Stipules ovate, 2 to 3 mm.

long.: Petioles 0.5 to 1.5 em. long. Leaves of a node similar in shape,

subequal in size, rhombic or broadly ovate, 2 to 4.5 em. long, 1.5 to 3 cm. wide,

short-acuminate at apex, cuneate or subrotund at base, crenate-serrate above

the base (6 to 7 teeth on a side), 3-nerved (nerves reaching to upper third of

blade), subcoriaceous, dark green, slightly lustrous above, silvery-white

beneath, copiously covered on upper surface with linear and fusiform cysto-

liths on lower surface confined mainly to the nerves. Pistillate head in cymes

1 cm. wide or less, the peduncles 0.5 to 1 em. long; schenes ovate, 1 mm. long.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 533,540, collected near Santa

Marta, Colombia, altitude 1,750 meters, by H. H. Smith (no. 1446). A

specimen of this collection is also in the herbarium of the Academy of Natural

Sciences, Philadelphia.

This species is allied to P. sesszliflora Wedd. and P. radicans Wedd., differing

from the former in its relatively broader leaves with larger teeth and more

abundant cystoliths, and from the latter in its larger, thicker leaves and erect

habit.

Pilea purpurea Killip, sp. nov.

Stems erect, 40 to 60 em. high, angulate, glabrous below, slightly pubescent

above. Petioles 1.5 to 3 cm. long, ferruginous-tomentose, becoming glabrate.

358 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 15

Leaf blades ovate or oblong, 8 to 12 em. long, 4 to 5 em. wide, acuminate

(acumen 1 em. long), rounded at base, finely sarrate (teeth obtuse), 3-nerved

to apex (nerves depressed on upper surface, with numerous pairs of parallel

secondary nerves along each primary nerve), the upper surface dark green,

glabrous, bearing faint linear cystoliths, the lower surface paler, densely

tomentulous on the nerves and veins, destitute of cystoliths but conspicuously

punctate between the veins. Staminate cymes up to 15 cm. long, borne in

pairs in the axils of the upper leaves, profusely dichotomous, the peduncles and

branches densely tomentulous; bracts unusually large for the genus, white;

calyx globose, 1 mm. in diameter, white proximally, dark purple distally, its

lobes minute. Pistillate cymes subsessile in the axils of the lower leaves,

shorter than the petioles; middle segment of perianth obovate, 1.5 mm. long,

the lateral segments broadly ovate, 1 mm. long; achenes broadly ovate, 2 mm.

long, the margin thickened.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,140,930, collected in a moist

forest along the Rio San Rafael, below Cerro Tatama, Department of Caldas,

Colombia, altitude 2,600 to 2,800 meters, September 7 to 11, 1922, by F. W.

Pennell (no. 10380).

This is allied to P. hirsuta Wedd., differing chiefly in its larger staminate and

smaller pistillate inflorescences, in the prominent bracts subtending the

staminate flowers, and in the closer serrations of the leaves.

Pilea tatamensis Killip, sp. nov.

Plants dioecious. Stem. repent, at length erect, simple or branching to-

ward the summit, hirsute throughout. Stipules ovate-lanceolate, 7 to 9mm.

long. Leaf blades flat or often slightly rugose, sharply serrate (teeth 2 mm.

long), triplinerved (lateral nerves originating 3 to 4 mm. above base and

extending to upper third of blade), the upper surface dark green, glabrous,

bearing (except along nerves and veins) minute linear cystoliths, beneath

paler, densely appressed-hirsute on the nerves and veins, sparsely airsute

elsewhere, the cystoliths fewer and less conspicuous than on upper surface;

leaves of a pair unequal and slightly dissimilar, the larger ovate or elliptic-

ovate, 3 to 6 em. long, 2 to 2.5 em. wide, acute at apex, obliquely cuneate at

base, the smaller ovate, 2 to 3 cm. long, 1 to 1.5 em. wide, rounded or subacute

at apex, rounded or subcuneate and oblique at base. Staminate heads globose,

1 cm. in diameter, pilosulous, densely flowered, the peduncles 1 to 1.5 em.

long, hirsute; calyx lobes filiform, 2 to 2.5mm. long. Pistillate heads cymose,

1 to 1.5 em. broad, glabrescent, the peduncles longer than the petioles;

achenes ovate, 1 mm. long.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,140,928, collected in moist

forest along the Rio San Rafael, below Cerro Tatama, Department of Caldas,

Colombia, altitude 2,600 to 2,800 meters, September 7 to 11, 1922, by F. W.

Pennell (no. 10378; staminate plants). The pistillate plants are represented

by Pennell 10375 (U. 8. Nat. Herb. 1,140,925).

In habit and general aspect this plant resembles P. fallax Wedd. It is

differentiated by larger leaves with two well-marked lateral nerves, by the

arrangement of the cystoliths, by longer peduncles, and by the more elongate

lobes of the staminate flowers. Since the leaves at a node are not conspicu-

ously unequal, the species should probably be referred to the section containing

the long-peduncled pubescent species. The globose staminate heads suggest

SEPT. 19,1923 KILLIP: NEW URTICACEAE FROM COLOMBIA 309

P. mollis Wedd., though it is readily distinguishec from that species by its

shorter, more deeply cut leaves, its shorter peduncles, and the elongate lobes

of the staminate flowers.

Pilea obetiaefolia Killip, sp. nov.

Plants monoecious (?), erect, herbaceous, about 30 cm. high; stems glabrous

or the younger branches sparingly hirsutulous. Stipules ovate-lanceolate,

8 mm. long, 3 mm. broad, hyaline at margin, copiously covered with fusiform

eystoliths on the outer surface. Petioles hirsutulous. Leaf blades oblong-

lanceolate, short-acuminate at apex, subcuneate or rounded at base, crenate-

serrate (teeth obtuse, 20 to 25 on a side), penninerved, dark green above,

yellowish green beneath, bearing fusiform cystoliths on both surfaces; leaves

of a pair similar in shape but slightly unequal in size, the larger 7 to 10 em.

long, 2 to 4 cm. wide, with petioles 3 to 4 em. long, the smaller 5 to 8 cm. long,

2 to 2.5 cm. wide, with petioles 1.5 to2 cm. long. Pistillate flowers borne in

compact cymes 6 to 7 mm. wide on peduncles 5 to 6 mm. long; achenes broadly

ovate, 2 mm. long, obtuse.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,140,924, collected in a moist

forest along the Rio San Rafael, below Cerro Tatama, Department of Caldas,

Colombia, altitude 2,600 to 2,800 meters, September 7 to 11, 1922, by F. W.

Pennell (no. 10374).

The species is characterized by large penninerved leaves similar to those of

the genus Obetia. Its exact relationship to other species of Pilea is difficult to

determine. The difference in size of the leaves at a node is not sufficiently

great to refer it to the section Heterophyllae, while the pubescence of the stem

and petioles, though slight, excludes it from the section containing glabrous

species. Probably it is best placed in the section Pubescentes Brevipedun-

culatae, where apparently it is the only species with penninerved leaves.

Boehmeria coriacea Killip, sp. nov.

Suffrutescent, 40 to 50 cm. high, dioecious; stems woody toward base,

strigose and hispidulous, becoming glabrate. Stipules ovate-lanceolate, 4 to

5mm. long, acute. Petioles0.5to1.5cem.long. Leaf blades ovate or elliptic-

ovate (the alternate leaves very unequal, the larger 5 to 9 cm. long, 3 to 4 cm.

wide, the smaller 1.5 to 2.5 em. long, 1 to 2 em. wide), acuminate at apex,

cuneate or subrotund at base, 3-nerved (lateral nerves extending to upper

third of blade, a secondary pair of nerves reaching to apex), serrate (teeth

acutish), thick, coriaceous, strongly rugose-bullate, above silvery gray and

glabrous, beneath green, densely appressed-strigose on the nerves and veins

and hispidulous. Staminate plants not seen. Pistillate flowers in axillary

glomerules 5 to 9 mm. wide; perianth broadly ovoid, 1 mm. long, 0.8 mm. in

diameter, sparingly strigillous; style 1.2 mm. long, densely hirsute; achenes

orbicular, slightly wing-margined toward apex, acute at both ends.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,140,931, collected in moist

forest along the Rio San Rafael, below Cerro Tatama, Department of Caldas,

Colombia, altitude 2,600 to 2,800 meters, September 7 to 11, 1922, by F. W.

Pennell (no. 10381).

Boehmeria coriacea is distinguished from its nearest ally, B. celtidifolia

H. B. K., by its broader leaves with glabrous upper surface and shorter, more

nearly globose pistillate flowers. Boehmeria celtidifolia is a shrub, while B.

coriacea is herbaceous.

360 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 13, No. 15

Boehmeria arbuscula Killip, sp. nov.

Small tree, 3 to 4 meters high, monoecious; young branches angulate,

slighty corky, closely appressed-pubescent. Stipules narrowly linear-lanceo-

late, 3 mm. long. Petioles 2 to 7 mm. long, appressed-pubescent. Leaf

blades elliptic-ovate or slightly oblong (the alternate leaves unequal, the

larger 1.5 to 3 cm. long, 0.8 to 1.5 em. wide, the smaller 0.4 to 0.8 em. long,

0.2 to 0.4 em. wide), acuminate at apex, cuneate at base, 3-nerved (the lateral

nerves extending to the upper third of blade), sharply serrulate, the upper sur-

face dark green, plane or often rugulose, strigillous, with short stiff pellucid

hairs, the under surface paler, appressed hirtellous, especially on nerves and

veins. Flowers in compact axillary androgynous or unisexual clusters 3 to

4 mm. in diameter. Staminate flowers depressed-globose, 7 mm. wide,

strigillous without. Pistillate flowers narrowly lanceolate, about 1.4 mm.

long, densely hirsute without; style 0.8 mm. long, hirsute at apex.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,140,085, collected in thicket

near Coconuco, Department of El Cauca Colombia, altitude 2,300 meters,

June 17, 1922, by E. P. Killip (no. 6831).

This is probably allied to B. excelsa Wedd., a tree known only from Juan

Ferndndez. That species, however, has much larger leaves, hoary white

beneath, larger flower clusters, and much longer styles.

Phenax grossecrenatus Killip, sp. nov.

Shrub, 2 to 2.5 meters high; branches sparsely hirsute, at length glabrate.

Stipules ovate-lanceolate, 4 to 5mm. long. Petioles slender, 2 to 5 cm. long,

glabrous or sparingly pubescent. Leaves ovate or ovate-lanceolate, 6 to

12 cm. long, 3 to 6 em. wide, acute at apex, rounded or subcuneate at base,

coarsely crenate (teeth 5 to 7 mm. broad, rounded, 10 to 14 on each side),

3-nerved to the upper third of blade, above glabrous except on the tomentu-

lous nerves, beneath minutely pubescent. Flowers in compact axillary

androgynous clusters. Staminate flowers few, the lobes 0.5mm. long. Style

3 to 4 mm. long, minutely pubescent with hooked hairs. Achene ovate, 1

mm. long, sparsely pubescent.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,140,083, collected at edge of

forest, near ‘“Canaan,”’ on the slopes of Mt. Puracé, Department of El Cauca,

Colombia, altitude 3,200 meters, June 13, 1922, by F. W. Pennell and E. P.

Killip (no. 6680).

Allied to P. laziflorus Wedd., of Peru, this species differs in having larger,

longer-petioled leaves, longer stipules, and larger androgynous flower

clusters.

SEPT. 19, 1923 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 361

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. T. WayLaNnp VAUGHAN, geologist of the U. 8. Geological Survey, has

been appointed Director of the Scripps Institute for Biologic Research of the

University of California, and will assume actual charge of the work at La

Jolla, California, early in 1924.

J. S. Brown, assistant geologist in the Geological Survey, has accepted a

position for one year in the Department of Geology, Missouri School of

Mines, Rolla, Missouri.

Dr. L. W. SrepHenson, Geologist in Charge of the Section of Coastal

Plain Investigation of the Geological Survey, is conducting private strati-

graphic work for an oil company in Venezuela. He will be absent from the

Survey for six or seven months.

Professor THompson Brooke Maury died on July 15, 1923, in New York

City. He was born in 1838 in Fredericksburg, Virginia. He was well known

locally because of his long connection with the Weather Bureau and his

association with the late Dr. Cleveland Abbe.

Dr. RapHAEL PuMPELLY, well known geologist, died at Newport, Rhode

Island, on August 10, 1923, in his eighty-sixth year. He was born at Owego,

New York, in 1837. After being professor of mining geology at Harvard

from 1866 to 1875, he was a divisional chief in the U. 8. Geological Survey.

More recently under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington

Dr. Pumper ty directed a physical, geographical, and archeological exploration

of central Asia. He was a member of many scientific societies, including the

National Academy of Sciences.

Witu1aM R. Maxon, of the National Museum, recently returned from Central

America and the West Indies, where they have been investigating the sources

of crude rubber with the purpose of increasing its production in tropical

America. Several weeks were spent in Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and

Haiti.

Dr. Kart F. KeLtuerMan, associate chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry,

received the degree of Doctor of Science at the commencement of the Kansas

State Agricultural College.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 13 OcTOBER 4, 1923 No. 16

BOTAN Y.—WNew species of plants from Salvador.|. Pau C. STANDLEY,

U. 8. National Museum.

The present paper consists of descriptions of new species of plants

of various families, collected in the Republic of El Salvador by Dr.

Salvador Calderén, and by the writer in the course of his visit to the

country during the winter of 1921-22. The description of a new

species of grass has been contributed by Mrs. Agnes Chase, and those

of several new Piperaceae and an Agave by Dr. William Trelease.

Pennisetum vulcanicum Chase, sp. nov.

Base not seen, plant presumably perennial, probably about 1 meter tall;

culms erect or ascending, terete and scabrous below the panicle, otherwise

compressed and glabrous, bearing leafy branches from the lower nodes; nodes

glabrous; leaves numerous, the sheaths much overlapping, keeled, villous

along the margin and on the sides of the collar, otherwise glabrous or very

sparsely pilose; ligule a dense ring of hairs about 1 mm. long; blades rather

firm, ascending, flat or drying folded, 20 to 45 cm. long, 5 to 8 mm. wide,

slightly narrower at base than the summit of the sheath, tapering into an

elongate setaceous scabrous tip, scabrous and papillose-pubescent or papillose

only on the upper surface, glabrous beneath, the midnerve prominent beneath;

panicle slightly flexuous, 10 to 17 em. long, 18 to 20 mm. wide excluding the

longest bristles, tawny or obscurely purple-tinged, rather dense except at

the base, the axis strongly angled, pilose on the angles; fascicles on hairy

peduncles 1 to 1.5 mm. long, finally spreading or reflexed; bristles numerous,

scabrous, united at the very base, very unequal, the outermost short, slender,

scabrous only, the inner 1 to 1.5 cm. long, flattened, flexuous, plumose about

half their length, the innermost one stouter, 2 to 5 cm. long, plumose at base,

unequal in fascicles of the same panicle, the longer in the middle fascicles;

spikelets 3 to 5 in each fascicle (only 1 or 2 well developed), sessile, 6 to 9mm.

long, about 1.4 mm. wide, attenuate, scaberulous; glumes attenuate, 3 to 5-

nerved, the first 1 to 4, the second 2 to 3, as long as the spikelet; sterile lemma

nearly as long as the fertile, finely many-nerved, inclosing a palea of nearly

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

363

364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 138, No. 16

equal length and a staminate flower; fertile lemma subindurate, 5-nerved, the

apex attenuate and spreading.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,152,018, collected in the crater

of the voleano Cerro de la Olla near Chalchuapa, Salvador, in 1922, by Dr.

Salvador Calder6én (no. 1049).

This species is related to Pennisetum karwinskyi Schrad., from the high-

lands of Mexico, from which it differs chiefly in its larger panicles, in its more

numerous bristles, the inner plumose, and in the much longer innermost

bristles. A second collection of this species, Jiménez 522, from Nuestro Amo,

on the Pacific slope of Costa Rica, was referred to P. karwinskyi as an excep-

tional specimen, in a recent revision of the genus.2. In this specimen the inner-

most bristles are as much as 5 em. long, but the inner bristles are much less

plumose than in the Salvador specimen. Like that, the plant is without the

base.

. Lindmania flaccida Standl., sp. nov.

Plants terrestrial; leaves basal, few, very thin and soft, 25-30 em. long or

larger, 3.5-4.5 em. wide, entire, slightly narrowed near the base, rather

abruptly narrowed to a short subulate tip, glabrous above and slightly brown-

spotted, beneath very sparsely stellate-lepidote; inflorescence about 50 cm.

high, once-branched, the branches long and slender, about 10 cm. long,

solitary or fasciculate, sparsely arachnoid-villous or glabrate, the bracts of

the scape entire, thin, about equaling the nodes; flowers scarcely secund,

nodding, the pedicels slender, about 3 mm. long, glabrous, the bractlets lance-

ovate, scarious, much exceeding the pedicels and often equaling the sepals;

sepals ovate, acute, about 3 mm. long, scarious, persistent; petals linear-

lanceolate, eligulate, 7-8 mm. long, green, acute, conspicuously nerved;

stamens shorter than the petals, the anthers linear-oblong, yellow, undulate,

not contorted; ovary almost wholly superior, glabrous, the style long and

slender, equaling or surpassing the stamens, the branches slender-clavate;

seeds numerous, minute, dark brown, with a pale appendage at each end.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,135,666, collected on a moist

shaded bank along a stream in the mountains near Ahuachapin, Salvador,

January, 1922, by Paul C. Standley (no. 19786).

The genus Lindmania has not been reported previously from Central

America, the known species being natives of South America. The present

plant may perhaps represent an undescribed genus, but it seems to agree

moderately well in most of its characters with the plants heretofore referred

to Lindmania.

Tillandsia vicentina Standl., sp. nov.

Plants solitary, epiphytic; leaves numerous, about 25-30 cm. long, equaling

the inflorescence, thin, 3-5 mm. wide at the middle, the bases 1.5-2 em.

wide, brownish, the blades green on the upper surface and covered with closely

appressed scales, beneath silvery, covered with coarse loose whitish scales;

scapes 15-25 cm. high, stout, covered with numerous overlapping bracts,

these coarsely lepidote, their tips filiform-attenuate, their bases slightly

inflated; spikes 5-11, simple, digitate or shortly pinnate, sessile, 4—7 cm. long,

2Chase, Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 22: 220. 1921.

oct. 4, 1923 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM SALVADOR 365

their bracts compressed, 2—2.5 cm. long, pink, thin, loosely appressed and

overlapping for half their length, coarsely and loosely lepidote; sepals distinct,

2 cm. long, glabrous; corolla violet, exceeding the bracts 2—2.5 em.; stamens

conspicuously exceeding the corolla, the style long-exserted.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,137,360, collected on the

Voledn de San Vicente, Salvador, altitude about 1500 meters, March 8, 1922,

by Paul C. Standley (no. 21588). Standley 21588 from the same locality

represents the same species.

Related to T. digitata Mez and T. flabellata Baker, but readily distinguished

by the coarse, loose pubescence of the leaves and bracts. The pubescence

is similar to that of 7’. streptophylla Scheidw., but less coarse, and the leaves

are not dilated at the base as in that species.

Dioscorea salvadorensis Standl., sp. nov.

Stems scandent, slender, very minutely and sparsely hirtellous or glabrate,

with elongate internodes; petioles mostly 2.5-3.5 em. long, pubescent like the

stems; leaf blades about 9 cm. wide and 7-9 em. long, cordate at base, with

a broad rounded sinus, 3-lobed to the middle or nearly to the base, the lateral

lobes somewhat falcate, obtuse to acuminate, the terminal lobe obtuse to

acuminate and cuspidate-mucronate, glabrous on the upper surface, beneath

minutely muricate-hirtellous along the nerves; staminate spikes solitary,

long-pedunculate, simple, 15-22 cm. long or longer, the rachis glabrous,

slender, the flowers sessile ; bractlets lance-attenuate, shorter than the flowers;

perianth segments narrowly oblong, obtuse, 2mm. long, glabrous; stamens 3,

two-thirds as long as the perianth segments, the anthers oblong, the filaments

broad, slightly dilated toward the base, nearly equaling the anthers.

Typein the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,151,507, collected on the Cerro

de la Olla, on the Guatemalan frontier, near Chalchuapa, Salvador, in 1922,

by Dr. Salvador Calderén (no. 1020). Also collected at La Cebadilla,

Departamento de San Salvador in 1922, Calderén 1238.

Among the Central American species of Dioscorea this is easily recognized

by its trilobate leaves.

Agave calderoni Trelease, sp. nov.

Of the group Guatemalenses. Acaulescent, not cespitose (?). Leaves green

or very lightly and evanescently glaucescent, oblanceolate-oblong, acute,

smooth, about 15 cm. wide and 80 cm. long; spine brown or somewhat tinged

with purple at base, slightly glossy, elongate-conical or subacicular, straight,

slightly flattened above and involutely grooved with acute edges below the

middle, narrowly decurrent for about twice its own length, intruded into the

green tissue dorsally, about 40 mm. long and 5 mm. thick; teeth chestnut-

colored, 5-10 mm. apart, frm, but small (scarcely 1 mm. long), triangular,

lenticularly widened into the nearly straight margin. Inflorescence panicu-

late, apparently with rather short branches and closely bunched flowers, the

rather thick and short (5 mm.) pedicels densely invested by short broad

papery bracts. Flowers bright orange, about 40 mm. long; ovary 15-20 mm.

long, about equaling the perianth, oblong; tube broadly conical, scarcely 5

_mm. deep; segments 10-15 mm. long, shorter than the ovary; filaments

inserted nearly in the throat, about 40 mm. long. Capsules unknown; not

known to be bulbiferous.

366 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 16

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,152,451, taken from a plant

cultivated in San Salvador, Salvador, January, 1923, by Dr. Salvador

Calderén (no. 1463).

The vernacular name is magueyén.

Peperomia izalcoana Trelease, sp. nov.

A glabrous subrhizomatous herb; stem slender (2 mm.), scarcely 30 em.

high; leaves alternate, round- or subdeltoid-ovate, blunt or subacute, round-

based, moderate or rather small (2-4.5 em. long), 5 or 7-nerved; petiole

rather short (scarcely 3 em.); spikes terminal and opposite the leaves, 40-100

mm. long, loosely flowered; peduncle, depending on the spike length, 1-3 cm.

long; bracts round-peltate; berries ellipsoid, essentially sessile; style short but

evident; stigma apical.

Type in the herbarium of the University of Lllinois, collected at Izalco,

Salvador, on wet bank, March 19, 1922, by Paul C. Standley (no. 21874).

Peperomia matapalo Trelease, sp. nov.

A villous assurgent herb; leaves alternate or the uppermost congested into a

whorl of 2 or 3, elliptic-oblanceolate or the lower reduced and obovate, rather

small (1.5-2 cm. wide, 3—4.5 em. long), obtuse or bluntly acuminate, cuneate,

5-nerved, appressed-villous on both faces; petiole short (5 mm.); spikes ter-

minal, 2 mm. thick, 50-70 mm. long, rather closely flowered; peduncle 10-15

mm. long; bracts round-peltate; ovary subglobose ; stigma obliquely anterior.

Type in the herbarium of the University of Illinois, collected at San Sal-

vador, Salvador by Dr. Salvador Calderén (no, 1121).

The common name js matapalo.

Peperomia standleyi Trelease, sp. nov.

A delicate fleshy glabrous herb, creeping over tree branches; stem filiform;

leaves commonly 4-6 at a node, elliptic-obovate, acute-based, minute (5-7

mm. wide, 8-10 mm. long), 1 or obscurely 3-nerved, impressed-punctulate ;

petiole 2-3 mm. long; spikes terminal, scarcely 2 mm. thick and 15 mm. long,

rather loosely flowered; peduncle about 10 mm. long; bracts round-peltate;

ovary ovoid, submucronulate; stigma apical.

Type in the herbarium of the University of Illinois, collected at Tonacate-

peque, Departamento de San Salvador, Salvador, December 30, 1921 by

Paul C. Standley (no. 19426).

Piper patulum cordifolium Trelease, var. nov.

A shrub 2-3 m. tall, glabrous except that the leaves are more or less

puberulent on the nerves beneath; leaves broadly ovate, acuminate, deeply

cordate with rather narrow sinus, moderately large (10-16 em. wide, 15-23

em. long); spikes in fruit 4 mm. thick and 130 mm. long; berries oblong-

truncate, glabrous.

Type in the herbarium of the University of Illinois, collected at Nahulingo,

Departamento de Sonsonate, Salvador, March 21, 1922, by Paul C. Standley

(no. 22046).

Piper standleyi Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 1—1.5 m. tall; twigs slender, for a time conspicuously subhirsute;

leaves membranous, lance-oblong, long-acuminate, inequilaterally cordulate,

rather small (1.5-2.5 em. wide, 5-9 em. long), subpalmately 5-nerved, hirsute

oct. 4, 1923 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM SALVADOR 367

beneath on the nerves; petioles short (2-4 mm.), not winged, hirsute; in-

florescence unknown.

Type in the herbarium of the University of Illinois, collected on the

Voledn de San Salvador, Salvador, in moist forest, altitude about 1800 meters,

April 7, 1922, by Paul C. Standley (no. 22894).

Piper uncatum Trelease, sp. nov.

A practically glabrous shrub with the general characters of P. marginatum

but the subciliate leaves concavely truncate at base and with the margins

subconfluent across the petiole, and with rather slender spikes 2-3 mm. thick

and 150 mm. long, abruptly hooked below the middle.

Type in the herbarium of the University of Illinois, collected at Tonacate-

peque, Departamento de San Salvador, Salvador, December 30, 1921, by

Paul C. Standley (no. 19435).

Piper uncatum levyanum Trelease, var. nov.

Differing from the type in having the upper surface of the leaves and the

veins beneath more or less persistently hairy.

Type in the Copenhagen Herbarium, collected at Granada, Nicaragua by

Lévy (no. 1294). Baker 850 from the same locality also represents the same

variety.

Ficus rensoniana Calderén & Standl., sp. nov.

Young branchlets brownish, densely fulvous-pilose; stipules ovate-oblong,

1.5-2 em. long, acute or acuminate, rather tardily deciduous, thin, brown,

densely pilose outside below the middle; petioles stout, 1-2.5 em. long, densely

pilose; leaf blades oval or oblong-oval, broadest at or near the middle, 7—10.5

em. long, 4-6 em. wide, cordate at base, rounded or very obtuse at apex,

coriaceous, short-pilose above, especially along the nerves, copiously short-

pilose beneath with white hairs, the lateral nerves prominent, 6 or 7 pairs,

arcuate-ascending, distant, anastomosing near the margin; peduncles gemi-

nate, stout, 4-6 mm. long; involucre bilobate, 10-12 mm. long, the lobes

rounded, thin, brown, strigose near the base, glabrous within; receptacles

globose, 8-11 mm. in diameter, glabrous, the ostiole prominent, closed by 3

rounded scales.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,152,090, collected at San

Salvador, Salvador, August, 1920, by Dr. Salvador Calderén (no. 1120).

Most closely related, apparently, to Ff’. pringlei 8S. Wats., which is distin-

quished from the Salvadorean tree by its dense pubescence, larger receptacles,

and sericeous involucres.

Aristolochia salvadorensis Standl., sp. nov.

A large woody vine, the branches densely brownish-puberulent, with

very short internodes; petioles stout, densely puberulent, 5-7 mm. long; leaf

blades oblong, often slightly wider above the middle, 11-20 em. long, 4-9 cm.

wide, acute or abruptly short-acuminate, rounded at base, thick, glabrous

above, with prominulous venation, beneath lustrous, puberulent along the

nerves, 5-nerved from the base and with several pairs of lateral nerves, the

veins very prominent and reticulate; racemes large, branched, borne at the

base of the stem, the rachis densely brown-pilose with short hairs, often

geniculate, the bracts ovate or lanceolate, 12 mm. long or less, sometimes

green and foliaceous, the pedicels mostly 5—7 em. long, slender; bractlets none

368 FsIOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 16

at base of calyx; ovary about 1.5 cm. long, abruptly curved near the base,

6-costate, densely brown-pilose; calyx dark brown-purple, about 4.5 em. long,

sparsely puberulent outside, the tube very short and inflated, the pouch

inflated, rounded, produced within the limb into a large blunt recurved beak,

the limb shallowly 3-lobed, the 2 lateral lobes broad, acute, the central lobe

much smaller and narrower, acute or short-acuminate; style short, the stigma

obscurely lobate; capsule oblong, about 7 em. long and 2—2.5 cm. in diameter,

sharply 6-angulate, brown-tomentulose.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,111,203, collected at San

Salvador, February 9, 1923, by Dr. Salvador Calderén (no. 1484). The

following additional specimens have been examined:

SaLvapor: San Salvador, November, 1921, Calderén 287. Santa Tecla,

August, 1922, Calderén 1096. Sierra de Apaneca, region of the Finca Colima

Departamento de Ahuachapan, January, 1922, Standley 20036.

The vernacular names are guaco, guaquito, and guaquito de la tierra. Like

other species of the genus, it is employed locally as a remedy for snake bites.

Aristolochia salvadorensis is related to A. arborea Linden, but has very

different flowers and much smaller, reticulately veined leaves. The leaves

somewhat resemble those of A. maxima L., which also is abundant in Salvador,

but the flowers of the two species are quite dissimilar, and even sterile speci-

mens of the two are easily distinguishable.

Coccoloba montana Standl., sp. nov.

Young branchlets terete, pale, glabrous; ocreae brown, glabrous, 6-7

mm. long; petioles stout, glabrous, 12-20 mm. long; leaf blades ovate or

oblong-ovate, 10-20 em. long, 5.5-10 cm. wide, acuminate or long-acuminate,

unequal at base, rounded on one side, on the other semicordate, glabrous

above, glabrous beneath except along the costa, there brownish-tomentose,

especially in the axils of the lateral nerves, papyraceous, the costa salient on

both surfaces, the venation conspicuous above and beneath and closely

reticulate.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,135,924, collected in the

Sierra de Apaneca, region of the Finca Colima, Departamento de Ahuachapan,

Salvador, January, 1922, by Paul C. Standley ( no. 20061).

The vernacular name is papaturro. Although known only from sterile

specimens, the leaves of this Coccoloba are so distinct from those of the other

Central American species that it seems desirable to give it a name for purposes

of reference.

Pleuropetalum calospermum Standl., sp. nov.

Slender shrub, 1-2 m. high, the young branches granular-papillose; petioles

slender, 1-3 em. long; leaf blades oblong-ovate to lance-oblong, 9-13 cm. long,

3-5 em. wide, long-acuminate, rounded or obtuse at base and abruptly decur-

rent upon the petiole, thin, bright green above, paler beneath, when young

obscurely puberulent but quickly glabrate; inflorescences terminal and in

the upper axils, cymose-paniculate, few-flowered, long-pedunculate, shorter

than the leaves; pedicels very stout, sometimes 7 mm. long but usually

much shorter; bractlets rounded-ovate, 1 mm. long; sepals rounded-oval,

3-3.5 mm. long, rounded at apex, sharply ribbed, glabrous; fruit baccate,

black, 6-7 mm. broad, globose, glabrous; seeds numerous, on thickened

oct. 4, 1923 ROHWER: NEW PEMPHREDONINE WASPS 369

funicles, nearly 2 mm. in diameter, black, lustrous, with a metallic and

iridescent sheen.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,135,662, collected in a moisti

wooded ravine in the mountains near Ahuachapan, Salvador, altitude about

1000 meters, January, 1922, by Paul C. Standley (no. 19782). Also collected

in the region of Finca Colima, Sierra de Apaneca, Departamento de

Ahuachapain, Standley 20074.

Two other species of Plewropetalum are known from Central America,

P. sprucei (Hook. f.) Standl., which ranges from Veracruz to Ecuador, and

P. pleiogynum (Kuntze) Standl. (Celosia plerogyna Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI.

541. 1891). In the North American Flora’ the latter was referred to the

genus Celosia, but further study of the material indicates that it is really a

species of Pleuropetalum.

Pleuropetalum calospermum has sepals of about the same size as those of

P. pleiogynum, but in the latter the seeds are half as large, much more numer-

ous, and on slender funicles. From P. spruce the Salvadorean plant is

distinguished by its much larger sepals and capsules. |

ENTOMOLOGY.—Three new Pemphredonine wasps (Hymenoptera).

S. A. Rouwer, Bureau of Entomology.

Two of the species described below have been recently received

from correspondents who are anxious to use the specific name in

connection with some observations on habits of the species.

Microstigmus guianensis, new species.

This species seems to be very close to M. theridii Ducke, which has been

recorded from French Guiana by Buysson,! but it does not agree with the

description in all ways, especially in the sculpture of the mesoscutum.

Female.—Length 2.5 mm. Clypeus gently convex, the anterior margin

broadly and gradually rounded; interocular quadrangle somewhat higher

than broad; head shining, polished; the ocelli in an acute triangle; flagellum

slightly thickening apically, the first joint distinctly longer than the second,

which is slightly longer than the third; dorsal surface of the pronotum polished,

the anterior margin with a sharp carina; mesoscutum coarsely reticulate, the

posterior margin with a transverse carina; the scutellum with four strong

carinae which meet medianly and form a transverse pyramid, the posterior

face of which has a triangular shaped area bounded by striae; posterior

margin of the scutellum with a strong, high carina; dorsal area of the propo-

deum irregularly reticulate on a granular surface, the margin bounded by a

U-shaped carina; mesepisternum granular and with a few irregular raised

lines; sides of the propodeum with a few oblique striae; posterior face of the

propodeum with coarse reticulations; petiole short, carinate laterally ; abdomen

polished; stigma oval, its greatest width slightly longer than the first abscissa

of the radius. Head rufo-ferrugineous; clypeus, mandibles and lower part of

face stramineous; thorax, legs and petiole stramineous; the top of the scutellar

$21:98. 1917.

1Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 76:29. 1907.

370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 16

tubercle and the posterior scutellar ridge piceous; (the scutum has two oval

brownish spots, but inasmuch as these are asymmetrical it is probable that

they are due to discoloration); apical part of the abomen ferrugineous;

wings hyaline, iridescent, with a slight yellowish tinge; venation fulvous,

except black stigma.

Type-locality—Kartabo, Bartica District, British Columbia.

Described from a single female collected by P. G. Howes, 1922, and given

his number 16622. -This specimen is collected with its nest. The nest in

general outline agrees very well with Ducke’s figure of the nest of MW. theridii2

Type.—Cat No. 26480 U.S.N.M.

Microstigmus brunniventris, new species.

The dark abdomen readily distinguishes this species from the other known

forms.

Female.—Length 2.25 mm. Clypeus convex, the anterior margin with a

broad, gentle emargination; interocular quadrangle broader than high; the

lower part of frons finely granular, the rest of the head polished; flagellum

only slightly thickening apically, short, first joint slightly shorter than the

second; ocelli in an equilateral triangle; dorsal surface of pronotum polished,

the anterior margin with a sharp carina; scutum rather coarsely granular and

in some lights with a tendency to become feebly rugose; scutellum pyramidal

but, when seen from the top, with lozenge-shaped area; posterior margin with

a low ridge; dorsal surface of the propodeum U-shaped with two median

longitudinal ridges on a feebly reticulate surface; posterior face of the propo-

deum coarsely reticulate, the reticulations in three series so that at some

angles there appear to be three transverse ridges; mesepisternum reticulate ;

sides of the propodeum granular and with large, poorly defined reticulations;

petiole longer than the hind coxa, with two carinae which become approximate

medianly; abdomen highly polished; stigma triangular, its greatest width

distinctly greater than the first abscissa of the radius. Ferrugineous; apices

of the antennae, dorsal aspect of the propodeum piceous; abdomen, including

petiole, very dark brown; legs testaceous; wings hyaline, iridescent; venation

testaceous, except a dark brown stigma.

Type-locality.—San Bernardino, Paraguay.

Described from a single female collected May 19th by K. Fiebrig.

Type.—Cat No. 26481 U.S. N. M.

Stigmus fulvicornis, new species.

This species seems to be closest to S. conestogorum Rohwer, but it is smaller,

the intermediate legs are pale, and the sides of the pronotum are without a

dentation.

Female.—Length 3mm. Head, when seen from above, subquadrate, though

slightly narrowing posteriorly; anterior margin of the clypeus bilobed; front

very finely granular, rest of the head smooth and polished; antenna simple,

the third joint subequal with the fourth; dorsal surface of the pronotum rather

coarsely rugoso-granular, the transverse carina rather feeble and subdentate

laterally; sides of the pronotum not dentate; mesoscutum polished, under

high magnification feebly reticulate anteriorly and with the usual impressed

2Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 76:29. 1907.

ocr. 4, 1923 ROHWER: NEW PEMPHREDONINE WASPS 371

longitudinal lines, under high magnification the posterior portion is lineolate;

suture between the scutum and the scutellum foveolate; scutellum flat, the

surface finely reticulato-granular; the metanotum sculptured like the scu-

tellum; dorsal aspect of the propodeum with a median longitudinal ridge

and with three U-shaped ridges, the surface between these with large irregular

reticulations; mesepisternum granular above, shining below; sides of the

propodeum obliquely striate with a tendency to become reticulate dorsally ;

petiole with two longitudinal carinae which approximate each other posterior-

ly; the area between the carinae anteriorly with transverse rugae; the area

laterad of the carinae with oblique ridges; abdomen highly polished; pygidium

sharply defined, two times as long as the basal width; second and third

abscissae of the cubitus subequal. Black; antennae, four anterior legs, pos-

terior trochanters, bases of the posterior tibiae and the posterior tarsi ferru-

gineous; tubercles white; tegulae testaceous; wings hyaline, iridescent; vena-

tion, including the stigma, pale brown.

T ype-locality.— Starkville, Mississippi.

Described from four females (one type) received from M. R. Smith, who

states that the species was nesting in holes in a floor of a piazza, and that the

nests were provisioned with aphids.

Type and paratype.—Cat No. 26479, U. S. N. M. Paratypes returned

to the collection of the Agricultural College of Mississippi.

372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 16

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

652D MEETING

The 652d meeting of the Biological Society was held in the lecture room of

the Cosmos Club March 31, 1923, at 8.05 p.m., with President HrrcucocKx

in the chair and 112 persons present. Homrr C. SKEELS was elected to

membership.

Under Short Notes, Dr. R. W. Saure.pt exhibited a large bullfrog captured

in Alexandria a few days before, which when properly excited, squalled very

much like a toy balloon or a cat in distress.

Miss P. L. Boone reported a newly discovered fossil deposit near Weems,

Virginia, containing isopods and a skeleton which may be that of a crocodile.

S. F. Buaxs reported the observation of a belled turkey buzzard in Wash-

ington in October 1922. Similar cases were mentioned by P. Barrscu and

F. A. McCuure.

The regular program was as follows: C. A. Resp: Biological observations in

China (lantern). The speaker described his itinerary on a recent trip in

China, and gave an account of the methods of agriculture of the Chinese,

illustrating his talk with numerous lantern slides. The paper was discussed

by Messrs. McCuurs, Howarp, Stites, SHurELDT, Hircucock, and Prrer.

(No abstract received.)

C. W. Stites: Brother Bryan’s revolution against evolution. According to

Mr. Bryan’s premises, all germs which cause disease must have been created

in the beginning as they exist today. If it is to be conceded that these germs

were originally created in some form other than as disease germs, the theory

of evolution stands admitted. Obviously, since Adam was the last animal

created and since the animals were not created until after the plants, it is

unthinkable that any of the numerous germs which cause disease were created

after Adam. Since disease germs are dependent for their existence upon

animals and plants in which they cause disease, it is clear that these germs

could not have been created or have existed prior to the creation of their victims.

A challenge of this deduction would be an admission that the germs were not

created as they are to-day, but that they later evolved into disease germs;

but this would be an admission of evolution. Therefore, if Mr. Bryan’s

challenge is to be accepted, we must conclude that Adam harbored every

germ disease which is characteristic of man or dependent on man for its life

eyele, and that, further, the Garden of Eden may have been in China, because

that is the only place where man is known to survive some of the afflictions.

(Author’s abstract.)

653D MEETING

The 653d meeting of the Biological Society was held in the lecture room

of the Cosmos Club April 14, 1923, at 8.05 p.m., with President Hrrcucock

in the chair and 69 persons present. Owing to the length of the program,

the usual Short Notes were passed over. The regular program was as follows:

Mrs. Cuarues D. Waucorr: Wild flowers of the Canadian Rockies (lantern).

The speaker exhibited a large number of beautifully colored slides of the wild

flowers and scenery of the Canadian Rockies and the Selkirks, particularly

from the vicinity of Lake Louise and the Yoho Valley. The paper was dis-

cussed by T. ULkn, P. Barrscu, and C. D. Watcorr.

ocT. 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 373

A. B. Mann: The usefulness of diatoms (lantern). The value of diatoms

as a source of polishing powders, in the manufacture of dynamite (formerly)

and filters, as a source of petroleum, and as the basic food of practically all

sea animals, was described. The geographical distribution of diatoms is

very definite, and their occurrence in the ocean and in the air promises to be

of great importance in the future in the study of aerial and oceanic currents.

They will also come to be of great significance in the discovery of new petro-

leum areas, supplementing the Foraminifera, the group now used for this

purpose. The shapes and pattern of ornamentation of the different forms

offer a valuable field for those interested in the development of new patterns

to be used in decorating and in the mechanical arts. In conclusion, the

speaker showed a number of slides illustrating a few of the 8000 known species.

654TH MEETING

The 654th meeting of the Biological Society was held in the lecture room of

the Cosmos Club April 28, 1923, at 8 p.m., with President Hrrcucock in

the chair and 38 persons present. CARLYLE Carr, K. Mcl. Smoot, and

Percy Viosca, JR., were elected members of the Society.

Under Short Notes, Dr. A. D. Hopxtns stated, with reference to the belled

turkey buzzards reported at a previous meeting, that he is informed that Ext1

Hamrick, a mountaineer of Webster Springs, West Virginia, has for some

years been in the habit of attaching bells to turkey buzzards. This probably

explains the occurrence of such birds in this region,

AcNnres CHAsE: Hunting types of planis in European herbaria (lantern).

The speaker visited European herbaria last year in quest of types of grasses.

The important Hackel herbarium is deposited in the Naturhistorisches

Museum of Vienna, making this probably the finest grass collection in Europe.

Permission was given to take spikelets for the U.S. National Herbarium and

many duplicates of classic collections were obtained. <A brief visit was made

to Professor Hacker at Attersee. Munich, Florence, and Pisa were visited.

An important collection of grasses made by Raddi in Brazil in 1817-1819,

and preserved at Pisa, is the basis of a small and rare work on the grasses

of Brazil. The Delessert herbarium at Geneva, the Berlin herbarium, the

Rijks Herbarium at Leiden, the Botanical Garden at Brussels, the Paris

Herbarium, and the Kew Herbaiium and British Museum in London, were

visited. The paper was discussed by Messrs. OBERHOLSER and PALMER.

S. Prentiss Baupwin; Bird banding—a new method of bird study (lan-

tern). Most of the speaker’s work in bird banding has been done at

Thomasville, Ga., and Gates Mills, near Cleveland, Ohio. The methods

of attaching bands to birds legs and the different types of traps used

were illustrated by numerous colored lantern slides. The breeding rec-

ords of a number of House Wrens were shown on the screen, and attention

was called to the fact that after raising the first brood of the year, the

pair almost invariably separate and take different mates for the second

brood. The use of the bird banding method is of great value in indicating

the extent to which individual birds return to the same locality to nest, and

also in its application to the study of wintering birds and of migrants. Very

frequent visits are made to the traps, and as the birds appear to appreciate

thesupply of food found in these, it frequently happens that the same individ-

ual enters a trap several times a day. It has been found that individual

Chipping Sparrows not only remain in a closely restricted locality during a

whole winter, but also return to the same winter quarters in succeeding years.

A large proportion of the specimens of this species are found to be afflicted

374 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 16

with diseases of the feet, causing malformations and the loss of claws. This

paper was discussed by Dr. H. C. OBERHOLSER.

655TH MEETING

The 655th meeting was held May 12, 1923, at 8 p.m., in the lecture room

of the Cosmos Club, with President Hircucock in the chair and 52 persons

present.

Under Short Notes, Dr. R. W. SHure pt exhibited lantern slides of the fine

gorilla recently mounted at the National Museum.

EK. T. Wuerry: Studies of plant distribution in relation to soil acidity.

The speaker reviewed his method of testing soil acidity, as published in

Smithsonian Report for 1920, Gen. App. pp. 247-268, showing colored lantern

slides of numerous species of native plants; he discussed the results of acidity

tests of their soils, and the probable bearing of these on peculiarities of their

distribution.

E. A. GotpMAN: The deer of the Grand Canyon National Game Preserve.

Peculiar conditions were described under which mule deer have become

excessively abundant, and are still rapidly increasing in numbers. They

are estimated to number at least 20,000. The deer are in excellent condition,

but forage available in summer is taken to near the limit of production.

Closer utilization of forage in summer will result in the serious impairment

of carrying capacity of range. It is therefore foreseen that unless the increase

in number of deer is controlled the starvation of some of the animals must

result in he near future.

S. F. Buaxn, Recording Secretary.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

357TH MEETING

The 357th meeting of the Society was held April 5, 1923, at the New

National Museum, with President Howarp in the chair and 35 persons present.

J. M. C. Garpner and C. P. LounssBury were elected members of the

Society.

The regular program was as follows: PmrEz Stumons: A house-fly plague

in the American Expeditionary Forces. The house-fly became a serious danger

to health during the summer of 1918 at one of the camps of the 20th Engineers

(Forestry) at Lamanchs, Department of the Landes, southwestern France.

A location that should have been unusually healthful was transformed into a

place of pestilence through neglect of sanitation. A severe epidemic of

dysentery was followed by influenza and pneumonia, and there is strong

evidence to support the belief that the fly-borne dysentery was largely

responsible for the severity of the influenza among the main body of troops

at Lamanchs. Although commissioned entomologists would have encoun-

tered substantial difficulties, it is felt that a great deal of good would have

been accomplished by qualified men applying preventive and remedial

measures at the proper time. (Author’s Abstract.)

Doctor Howarp said this paper gave a striking picture of conditions in

camp. Orders were given, but they were not always carried out; but there

was a cause for not enforcing them. Doctor Howard made suggestions to the

Army officials and it was obvious that they were needed. The Army officials

said they did not want men trained to count the spots on flies and mosquitoes,

but they did want trained, sanitary engineers.

oct. 4, 1923 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 375

C. C. Hamiuton: Biology of tiger beetles. (Illustrated by charts.) This

paper will be ready for publication shortly as an extended article treating

of the morphology, classification, and biology of the known tiger-beetle

larvae of America and Europe. The biological information has been

derived principally from Shelford’s and Griddle’s published works and Shel-

ford’s unpublished notes. Very little is known regarding the habits of this

interesting group other than those of the genus Cicindela. The part on

classification deals with the genera Cicindela, Tetracha, Omus, and Ambly-

chila, all occurring in the United States, and the genera Cicindela and

Tetracha from Europe, the genus Collyris from the West Indies, and the genus

Ctenostema from Central America. In all, the larvae of about fifty different

species were studied. The larvae have good morphological characters for

separating the genera, and most of the specific characters are definite.

(Author’s abstract.)

Dr. CLEVELAND, of The Johns Hopkins University: Intestinal protozoa of

termites from a physiological standpoint. He spoke of the wood-feeding term-

ites and their intestinal protozoa with regard to the relation of the protozoa

to the host. By incubation the protozoa were separated from the termite

hosts. Some of the termites were much more difficult to keep alive than

others. It was thought that the cause for some dying so easily was due to

removing the protozoa. By replacing the protozoa the termites did not die

as rapidly but lived over three or four months, while those from which the

protozoa had been removed died in ten to twenty days.

Mr. Hysuop: The Coleopterous family, Plastoceridae. (Illustrated.) This

family, erected by Otto Schwarz (1906) to include the genera referred to by

Candeze (1863) in his Elaterid tribe, Campylides, was found to contain a

heterogeneous group of genera, so that it is inadvisable to consider further

this family as valid. The type genus Octonodes Candeze (Plastocerus Lec.

not Schaum) is based upon insects which recent larval studies have shown to

be typical Cebrionids, while the genus Lepturoides Hbst. (Campylus Fitch.)

is a typical Elaterid, closely related to the genus Athous. The genus Vestodes

Lec., also included in this family, is of very doubtful position. The many

exotic genera in the family present characters in the adults that make it

difficult to consider them associated as a well defined family, and further

larval studies will, undoubtedly, place many of them in other well recognized

families. The specimens which led to this discussion were collected by W. B.

Turner of the Office of Cereal and Forage Insect Investigations’ Field Labora-

tory at Sacramento, California.

Cuas. T. GREENE, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

A cablegram received from Kuling, Kiangsi Province, China, states that

CHarRLEs M. Hoy died from appendicitis on September 8. Mr. Hoy had been

in China since the first of the year, collecting mammals for the National

Museum. From the time of his arrival he had experienced innumerable

hardships, due to heavy rains, intense heat, stinging caterpillars, and

accidentally shooting himself in the leg last July.

Letters recently received from Dr. A. S. Hircuock, of the Department of

Agriculture, report that good progress is being made in collecting botanical

specimens in Ecuador. In the first part of August ten days were spent in

the vicinity of Tuledn, much collecting being done on the high paramos.

376 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES: VOL. 13, No. 16

Later, Mt. Pinchincha was ascended. Dr. Hitchock was planning to spend

the greater part of September in the region about Loja, Cuenca, and Huigra.

G. F. Louauirn has been made Acting Chief of the Section of Metallif-

erous Deposits, Division of Geology in the U. 8. Geological Survey.

On the afternoon of September 20, a violent explosion followed by fire

occurred in the Dynamometer Laboratory of the Bureau of Standards. One

man was killed instantly, three others injured so seriously that they died

during the night, and four others seriously burned or cut. The heroism of

the survivors of the staff in rescuing the injured from the furiously burning

wreckage and in shutting off the electric circuits and the ammonia valves,

minimized the loss of life and property.

The explosion occurred in the altitude chamber which is used in testing the

performance of aircraft engines under the conditions of low pressure and

temperature obtaining at high altitudes. At the time of the accident the room

was being used in investigating the performance of an automobile engine,

at temperatures corresponding to winter operation, using various grades of

gasoline. The work was intended to determine the possible increase in gaso-

line production per barrel of crude oil, with the accompanying conservation of

our national resources, by the use of gasoline of lower volatility.

The explosion was due to the ignition of an explosive mixture in the

chamber.

The dead are: Logan L. Laver, Ursan J. Coox, StepHen N. Lee,

JosepH Kernpic. The injured are: Henry K. Cummines, Frank E.

RicHARDSON, Roger BrrpsELL, GrorGce W. Exurorr, C. N. Smita, R. F.

KonR.

Most of these men were college graduates with experience and skill in

research work, and a grave blow to science and engineering must be added to

the human loss to their families and colleagues.

Thus grows the long list of those who have given their lives for the increase

of human knowledge and welfare.

Bae widely’ somnrs

be sr nix Hi pagan,

ol Ale .

a Ss aa pee wegen |

isi ‘o- in y ae) tae

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 13 OcToBER 19, 1923 No. 17

ANTHROPOLOGY.—Sione adzes of Egypt and Hawaii. Henry S.

WasHINGTON, Geophysical Laboratory.

Similarity or identity in form, design, or other characters of various

objects, such as tools or weapons, made by primitive peoples who

inhabit widely separated parts of the earth, is a matter of considerable

interest in anthropology. These correspondences may be wholly

independent of each other, because the human mind works much the

same, especially as regards primitive needs, whatever may be the

ethnic stock, so that similar circumstances or needs may give rise

to similar solutions of the problem. Thus, closely similar tools or

weapons may be developed among the most diverse and widely sepa-

rated peoples, between whom no communication may be reasonably

postulated. On the other hand, it has frequently happened that,

in the course of trade or other inter-communication, one people has

borrowed ideas from another, so that cases of resemblance in arti-

facts may be indicative of such contacts in the past. The bearing

of these considerations on problems of ethnic origins or migrations is

obvious.

In the present note attention is called to a somewhat striking case

of similarity in rather primitive tools—adzes—used by two very

different peoples, widely separated both in space and time. ‘The

correspondence would seem to have been overlooked, but if it has

already been noted its republication will do no harm, and the illus-

trations of the objects, at least, may be of service to anthropologists.

For the photographs I am indebted to Mr. J. Harper Snapp of the

Geophysical Laboratory.

The Egyptian adze, shown in Figs. 1-3, is one of several that I

picked up in December, 1889, on the talus slope below the tombs

at Beni Hassan, on the east bank of the Nile, about 167 miles south

377

378 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 17

of Cairo. These tomb chambers, which date from the XIIth dy-

nasty, about 2500 B. C., were hewn in a stratum of Middle Eocene

(Mogattam) limestone which here forms the cliffs that border the

Nile valley on the east.! The adzes, of which many could be found |

thirty-five years ago on the talus slope, were used for the excavation

of the chambers according to Seton Karr,? although Petrie’ states

that they were used ‘for dressing down the walls of the rock cham-

bers.” Similar, but rougher, adzes were used at the XIIth and .

XVIIIth dynasty tombs at Qurneh, near the Tombs of the Kings at

Thebes, and are figured by Petrie.4 One of the adzes that I collected

was given to the U. 8. National Museum and another to the Metro-

politan Museum of Art in New York City.

The adze figured here is 21 cm. long, 8 em. in greatest width, and

6 cm. in greatest thickness. The proximal end is broken and the

original length was probably 4 or 5 centimeters more than the pres-

ent. The adze weighs 1338 grams.

The material is a dense, very fine-grained, cream-colored, siliceous

limestone, which is barely scratched by quartz and is therefore much

harder than the limestone in which the tomb chambers were hewn.

It is possible that the material came from the vicinity of the tombs,

but the secondary silica present indicates that it may come from the

Gebel Ahmar sandstone between Cairo and Suez.

Study of a thin section under the microscope shows that the rock

contains much silica, which is apparently of secondary origin, inter-

stitial between the minute indefinite particles of calcite, with some

grains of quartz sand. Foraminifera are rather abundant, which

were determined by Dr. T. W. Vaughan as nummulites and other

unidentified genera. These fossils are not silicified, but it was

not ascertained whether they are composed of calcite or aragonite.

The rock effervesces vigorously with hydrochloric acid, leaving a

large residue of white silica which retains the form of the rock parti-

cles. An incomplete chemical analysis gave me the following results:

SiO, 50.75, AlLO; + Fe.O; 2.63, CaO 25.28, MgO 0.06, CO: (cal-

culated) 19.92, Sum 98.64. The rock is therefore composed of silica

and calcium carbonate in about equal parts. Petrie calls the material

of these Beni Hassan adzes “sandstone,” and Karr speaks of those

1 For a description of this formation see Renn, F. R. C., The geology of the British

Empire, 37, London, 1921.

* Cf. Bupan, E. A. W., The Nile, 645, London, 1907.

* Perrip, W. M. Furnpers, Tools and weapons, 46, pl. 53, nos. 82-85, London, 1917.

* Perrin, Qurneh, pl. 9, London, 1909.

oct. 19, 1923 WASHINGTON: ADZES OF EGYPT AND HAWAII 379

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

Egyptian adze: fig. 1, side view, fig. 2, top view; fig. 3, bottom view

380 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 17

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Vig. 6

Hawaiian adze: fig. 4, side view; fig. 5, top view; fig. 6, bottom view

ocr. 19,1923 WASHINGTON: ADZES OF EGYPT AND HAWAII 381

used in the Tombs of the Kings and elsewhere as made of chert.

““Siliceous limestone” would seem to be more appropriate than “‘sand-

stone” because the Moqattam series is typically one of limestone

and because of the presence of the foraminifera and the secondary

character of the silica.

Some particular features of the form of the Egyptian adzes are to

be noted for comparison with those of Hawaii. There is a slight

curvature of the whole tool, approximately that of the line of motion

when in use. The proximal end has somewhat rounded edges and

is of a size convenient to be grasped by the hand, as these implements

were probably not attached to a wooden handle. The distal end is

formed by a somewhat rounded cutting edge, with an angle of about

70°, the under surface of this being convexly curved. The upper

side of my specimen is smooth and curved, advantage having been

taken of a natural rift in the rock, and the under side is very similar.

The two lateral sides are rough, the stone having been pecked away

with no attempt at a smooth finish except on the manual portion.

The cutting edge of the specimen in the National Museum has an

angle of about 60°, but this appears to have been broken before it

was much used, whereas the cutting edges of my specimen and that |

in New York show signs of considerable wear.

Hawaiian stone adzes are well known and are to be found in many

museums of anthropology. An excellent description of these tools,

with many illustrations from the large collection in the Bernice

Pauahi Bishop Museum at Honolulu, is given by Brigham. A

specimen which was found near Kaneohe on the Island of Oahu, and

which was given me in 1920, is shown in Figs. 4-6. It is fairly repre-

sentative of these adzes, although they vary much in size and rather

less in form. The Hawaiian adze was used for cutting wood, as in

felling trees or making canoes and idols, and Brigham says that he

has seen them in use as late as 1864.

The material is a very dense and fine-grained, almost black basalt,

not a phonolite as stated by Brigham (op. cit., p. 10), a rock which

is not certainly known to occur on the islands and which is usually

much lighter in color than any of the adzes that I have seen either

in the Bishop Museum or the National Museum. There are very

few quarries of appropriate material, Brigham stating that the num-

ber “hardly exceeded half-a-dozen.” ‘Two well-known ones are on

> BricHam, W. T., Ancient Hawaiian stone implements, Mem. Bishop Mus. 1, no.

4:73-83, figs. 74-79, pls. 53-57. 1902.

382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 17

Hawaii, one high up on Mauna Kea and the other at the bottom of

the crater of Keanakakoi at Kilauea. Another is said to exist ‘‘far

up the slopes of Haleakala” on Maui, and there are several on Kauai.

Brigham knew of no quarries on Oahu, and it is possible that the

specimen figured is from one of those on Hawaii, as all the stone of

these two quarries is said to be dark-colored and very compact. A

thin section of my adze shows that it is a fine-grained olivine-free

basalt, composed almost wholly of numerous very small, short, and

uniformly shaped tablets of labradorite (about Ab,An.) with

very small irregular grains of slightly brownish augite. There are

a few grains of quartz but no olivine, magnetite, or glass. This

basalt, in its great denseness, freedom from phenocrysts and vesicles,

and its microtexture and simplicity of mineral composition, differs

from any of the basalts of Hawaii® or Oahu that I have studied.

No chemical analysis of it has yet been made.

The adze figured here is of Brigham’s type “‘with divergent sides

and angular tang,” and it closely resembles No. 3155 (Fig. 78 and

Plate 55) of the Bishop Museum, which was also found on eastern

Oahu. It is 21 cm. long, 8 cm. wide at the cutting edge, and about

5 em. thick, except at the tang which is only 3 to 3.5 cm. thick. The

angle of the cutting edge in my specimen is sharp and is about 60°.

This angle seems to be about the average, although the angles shown

by Brigham in his Fig. 74 vary considerably, as he states from 34°

to 78°. The slightly curved upper surface and the much more con-

vexly curved under surface of the distal cutting portion are well

smoothed by grinding but are not polished; whereas the sides are

chipped flat and only slightly smooth. The tang, both above and

below, is roughly finished by chipping and has sharp edges. These

Hawaiian adzes seem generally to have been attached to a wooden

handle, as shown by Brigham in his Plate 60, but he is not very clear

on this point.

The general resemblance in form between the Egyptian and the

Hawaiian adze is seen in the collocated views of the two given in

the accompanying illustrations, Figs. 1 and 4, the side views, showing

the resemblance especially well. The unfinished Hawaiian adzes,

such as Nos. 8, 18, and 19 on Brigham’s Plate 58, on which the faces

are not smoothed, are even more strikingly like the Egyptian. The

slightly curved upper surfaces, the cutting edge of about the same

6 Wasninaton, H. §., Petrology of the Hawaiian Islands, several papers in Amer.

Journ. Sei., vols. 5 and 6, 1923. It resembles most several from Mauna Kea, on Hawaii.

oct. 19, 1923 SANDHOUSE: KEY TO SOME SOUTH AMERICAN BEES 383

angle, the convexly curved under side of the distal end, and the

smaller diameter and rough finish of the tang or manual portion, are

all points of resemblance that cannot fail to impress themselves on

one who studies the figures and even more so the objects themselves.

There has thus been evolved what is in essential features an almost

identical tool, made of the most suitable local material, one used

nearly five thousand years ago to excavate rather soft limestone,

and the other used to cut wood up to within recent years. This

may bear out Prof. Elliot Smith’s thesis that some of the Polynesian

and Pre-Columbian American culture originated in ancient Egypt

after about 800 B.C. and was spread eastward by mariners. I am

inclined to think, however, that the tools are of quite independent

origin, and that the close resemblances between them are the result-

ants of the human mind having worked out the problem of rough

cutting with hard stone in much the same way.

ENTOMOLOGY.—A key to some South American bees belonging to

the genus Halictus subgenus Chloralictus. Grack ADELBERT

SanpHousE, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado. (Com-

municated by 8S. A. RoHWER.)

Although the metallic-colored bees of the Genus Halictus, subgenus

Chloralictus, occur over a large part of the North American con-

tinent they are found in South America only along the Andes

Mountains; some have been reported from Ecuador, Peru, and Chile,

and a few species have evidently crossed the mountains into Argen-

tina. These in general resemble the North American species very

closely, there being no more difference between the species from

North and South America than exists between many North American

species.

The following key includes the females of the South American

species in the collection of Professor T. D. A. Cockerell of the Univer-

sity of Colorado.

Abdomen green, color of head and thorax; (disk of propodeum with irregularly

SURE GAGA. CME AE cc. ca.'<., sy. Strategy sees danicorum Cockerell.

ADOHIeRVOTay Or indGle, MANO, IFN SRLS OR SIRO GI 1

1. Mesothorax opaque, microscopically tessellate between very close punc-

(AI a ont ngs! Coll ACERS Age SR ay Bi, RNAS a Spr spinolae Reed.

Mesothorax shining or more sparsely punctured.................++-- 2

OP Terie” ales eee ee ete i eRe SEO SOB, OTE 3

Terulad Carino te eee oe Se RRO. CRI at Storied eS 5

3. Head and thorax golden green; knees, tips of tibiae and tarsi red-testaceous

chrysonotus Ellis.

Head and thorax not golden green; legs dark............... eee eeeee +

384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 17

4. Stigma and nervures pale; disk of propodeum dull, the entire area covered

with irregularly anastomosing rugae............... paramorio Friese.

Stigma and nervures dark testaceous; disk of propodeum shining, plicate

on base only; mesothorax more closely punctured. . . .hypochlorus Ellis.

5. Mesothorax coarsely punctured; flagellum dark; disk of propodeum

; subcrescentic, with anastomosing rugae.......... herbstiellus Friese.

Mesothorax weakly punctured; flagellum testaceous beneath; disk of

propodeum shorter, shining, plicate on the base only. exiguiformis Ellis.

Hauictus (CHLORALICTUS) SPINOLAE (Reed)

Since no recent or full description of Halictus spinolae (Reed) is readily

available in this country, the writer gives the following:

Female—About 4.5-5 mm. long; head and thorax olive green; abdomen

black; pubescence white, rather sparse. Facial quadrangle longer than

broad; orbits converging below; antennae dark, flagellum testaceous beneath;

front very closely punctured, giving an almost granular appearance; sides of

face with more scattered punctures; supraclypeal area and upper part of

clypeus microscopically tessellate, sparsely punctured, with a brassy reflec-

tion; lower half of clypeus black; mandibles black. Mesothorax dull, finely

tessellate and very closely punctured; punctation of scutellum similar to that

of the mesuthorax, two polished spots on the disk; disk of propodeum with

fine, irregularly anastomosing rugae, making a reticulate surface; tegulae

dark brown, impunctate; truncation well defined laterally. Abdomen

obovate, shining, impunctate; pubescence sparse, especially on the first

segment; apical margins of segments narrowly testaceous. Wings clear,

anterior wing 3.5 mm. long; stigma and nervures testaceous; second sub-

marginal cell higher than broad, receiving the first recurrent nervure near the

apex; third submarginal gently contracted above, about one and one-half

times as long as second on the marginal. Legs black with dull white hairs;

hind spur pectinate with four moderately long teeth.

The following locality is new: 1 female (Foothills) Lima, Peru, December 5

(C. H. T. Townsend).

The description given above is based on this Peruvian specimen, which was

found to be identical with a specimen of spinolae from Chile, determined by

C. Schrottky.

BOTANY.—New or little known Melastomataceae from Venezuela

and Panama. H. Prirrimr.

In the course of my investigations on the flora of Venezuela, in

which I have been so efficiently helped through the codperation of my

friend Dr. Alfred Jahn, I am constantly coming across plants which

have never been catalogued. These are of course more interesting

to me when they belong to groups with which I have become familiar

during former studies.'

1See Prrrier, H. New or noteworthy plants from Colombia and Central America,

parts 1-8, in Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 12-20. 1909-1922.

oct. 19, 1923 PITTIER: NEW OR LITTLE KNOWN MELASTOMATACEAE 385

I have described a few of these new species, for which there is no

proper place in my present official publications. Besides, I have now

and then had the opportunity to examine some of my former collec-

tions in Central America, Panama and Colombia, and have found

among them several undescribed forms. Last, but not least, rare

species established by older botanists are sometimes brought to light

again, or others are found upon further examination to have been

misplaced or misunderstood, good opportunities thus being offered

for completing or correcting the original descriptions. The present

paper deals with ten new or imperfectly known species of Melastoma-

taceae from Venezuela and Panama.

Chaetolepis sessilis Pittier, n. sp.

Subprostrata, ramosissima, ramis diffusis, gracilibus, acute tetragonis, ad

nodos sparse setulosis caeterum glabris; foliis sessilibus, oblongis, obsolete

trinerviis, glabris, basi attenuatis, margine tenuiter remoteque glanduloso-

denticulatis, apice subacutis, subtus tenuissime albo-punctatis; floribus

breviter pedicellatis, ad apices ramulorum corymbosis; calyce tubuloso-

campanulato, tubo leviter costato, sparsissime setuloso, dense albo-punctato,

lobulis triangularibus, margine purpureo-setulosis, cum setis 2-3 rigidis pur-

pureis basi tuberculatis alternantibus; petalis luteis, glabris, suborbicularibus,

basi brevissime unguiculatis apice longe unisetosis; staminibus subaequalibus,

filamentis glabris, vix attenuatis, antheris sublinearibus uniporosis, basi in

connectivum articulatum leviter contractis; stylo glabro, staminibus multo

breviore; capsula ovoidea, leviter costata, sparsissime setulosa, pedicellata.

Caules 10-20 em. longi, adscendentes. Folia 0.6—4 cm. longa, 0.40.6 cm.

lata, rigidiuscula, margine subrevoluta. Pedicelli0.4—0.6 mm. longi. Calycis

tubus 4-5 mm. longus, lobi 2.5 mm. longi, basi 1.5 mm. lati. Petala 4—-5.5

mm. longa lataque, seto terminale 1.5-2 mm. longo. Filamenta circiter 5.5

mm. longa; antherae 4.5mm. longae. Capsula 6mm. longa, 4mm. diametroa.

VENEZUELA: Péramo de Aricagua, 3200 m., Mérida, fl. March 31, 1522,

A. Jahn 1037 (type).

This species of the Section Euchaetolepis differs from C. alpina Naud., with

which it has its greatest affinities, in its sessile leaves which are always oblong

and without marginal bristles, its pedicellate flowers with elongate calyx

sparsely covered with short appressed hairs, its orbiculate petals with a very

long apical bristle, and its more elongated anthers. The leaves and calyx,

moreover, are covered with white glandular dots.

The following key gives the differential characters of the species of Chae-

tolepis which are at present known to occur in Venezuela.

Calyx lobes without intermediary appendages; petals obtuse at the apex.

Anthers oblong; leaves 5-8 mm. long, papillose beneath.

1. C. Lindeniana Cogn.

Anthers ovoid; leaves 3-5 mm. long, densely hispid-hairy beneath

2. C. alpestris Cogn.

386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 17

Calyx lobes alternating with aculeate bristles or teeth.

Branchlets covered with a hairy purplish indument; leaves ovate, broad at

the base and with acute apex; calyx tube slightly villous.

3. C. anisandra Cogn.

Branchlets glabrous or slightly hairy.

Leaves sessile, not ciliate, covered as is the calyx with white glandular

COLE. «... » ining: buco bx sh ee oon s'e 4. C. sessilis Pittier.

Leaves distinctly petiolate.

Flowers almost sessile, the petals ovate and acuminate; leaves with

crenulate and ciliate margin................ 5. C. alpina Cogn.

Flowers pedicellate, the petals obovate and obtuse; leaves entire.

6. C. microphylla Cogn.

Tibouchina brachyanthera Pittier, n. sp.

Fruticosa, caule tereti, ramis ramulisque longe denseque squamoso-villosis,

cortice deciduo; ramulis erectis; foliis petiolatis, coriaceis, rigidis, supra

obscure viridibus subtus flavicantibus; petiolo longe denseque squamoso-

villoso; laminis ovato-lanceolatis, 5-nerviis, basi rotundatis, apice apiculatis,

supra inter nervos adpresse villosa, subtus nervis exceptis squamoso-villosis

sparse villosis, margine dense villoso-ciliatis; nervis marginalibus supra

obsoletis, subtus tenuibus, 3 interioribus supra valde impressis, subtus

prominentibus; floribus majusculis, subsessilibus, ad apices ramulorum aggre-

gatis; bracteis obovatis, acutis, densissime adpresse canescenterque squamosis,

supra medium connatis, interioribus quam exteriorum pars libera longioribus;

calycis tubo basi glabro, apice squamis magnis lanceolato-apiculatis mar-

ginibus setuloso-serrulatis coronato; segmentis rigidis, lanceolato-triangulari-

bus, apice longe apiculatis, extus creberrime adpresse hispidis, tubum aequan-

tibus; petalis obliquis, late obovatis, apice rotundatis, sparse ciliatis; stamini-

bus paulo inaequalibus, filamentis glabris, antheris brevibus, subattenuatis

vix arcuatis, connectivo glabro basi producto, bilobato; ovario elongato-

oblongo, basi glabro, 5-sulcato, apice longiuscule canescenti-setuloso; stylo

filiformi, longiusculo, glabro, superne arcuato; capsula matura deest.

Petiolus 2-5 mm. longus; laminae 3-5 ecm. longae, 1.3-2 cm. latae.

Bracteae exteriores circa 4 mm., interiores 6—-6.5 mm. longae. Calycis tubus

6-7 mm. longus, segmentis 6.5 mm. longis, 2.2 mm. latis. Petala circa 12 mm.

longa, 9 mm. lata. Staminum filamenta 6-7 mm. longa; antherae 4.5 mm.

longae, connectivo infra loculos 1-1.5 mm. longo. Ovarium 5 mm. longum,

1.5-2 mm. crassum; stylus 13.5 mm. longus.

VENEZUELA: Torococo, Trujillo, 1100 m., in sunny spots, fl. January 11,

1922, Jahn 755 (type).

This species, which, is apparently the third known of the group of the true

Tibouchinae, differs from T'. aspera Aubl. and its varieties in the form and

indument of its apiculate leaves, the very short bracts, the calyx segments

equal to the tube, the smaller petals, and the shorter stamens, as well as by

the general appearance. It is at once distinguished from 7’. spruceana Cogn.

by its 5-nerved leaves, and likewise by its smaller petals, which are ciliate at

the apex, its shorter ative, etc. The three species of the section are found

in Venezuela and are distinguished one from the other by the following

characters:

oct. 19, 1923 PITTIER: NEW OR LITTLE KNOWN MELASTOMATACEAE 387

Eutibouchina.

Anthers straight, short-attenuate, 4-5 mm. long; leaves 5-nerved, ovate-

lanceolate, apiculate; Andes.............. ....Z". brachyanthera Pittier.

Anthers arcuate, long-attenuate.

Leaves 5-nerved; petals 14-16 mm. long, ciliate at apex; anthers 7-10

mm. long; Guayana, Miranda: Aulia..§. 6% «26 cer T. aspera Aubl.

Leaves 3-nerved; petals 20-25 mm. long, not ciliate; anthers 6-7 mm.

long; Upper Ormoco..:4),¢an ulate! T. spruceana Cogn,

Desmoscelis mollis Pittier, n. sp.

Planta robusta, caule erecto, modice ramoso, tetragono, ramis ramulisque

longe molliter villoso; foliis petiolatis, pro genere majusculis, petiolo breve

lateque hirsuto, laminis 7-nerviis, oblongo-lanceolatis, basi rotundatis, apice

subacutis, supra dense villosis pilis e basi crassissima conspicua immersa

productis, subtus pallidioris, villosis, indistincte nigro-punctatis; floribus

pedicellatis, alaribus vel axillaribus; pedicellis gracilibus calycibusque longis-

sime densissime molliterque villosis; calyce ovoideo, basi rotundato, lobulis

anguste triangularibus apice longissime apiculatis; petalis roseis, obovatis,

obliquis, apiee rotundatis, margine sparse ciliolatis; staminibus glabris,

alternatim majoribus minoribusque, filamentis gracilibus, flexuosis, purpureis;

antheris majoribus leviter arcuatis, apice obtuso vix attenuatis vel truncatis,

purpurascentibus, connectivo infra loculos elongatissimo, antice appendicibus

duobus longissimis producto; minoribus brevibus, truncatis, connectivo

breviusculo, antice in calcar breve latumque integrum producto; ovario

calyci semiadherente, apice setis rigidis dense coronato; stylo flexuoso,

purpurascente, apice in stigma flavum punctiforme producto; capsula ignota.

Caulis 0.50-0.75 m. alta. Folia patula, petiolo 0.2-0.7 cm. longo, laminis

membranaceis 2.5-7 cm. longis, 1.5-3 cm. latis. Flores numerosi. Pedicelli

3-5 mm. longi. Calycis tubus 4.5 mm. longus, 2.5 mm. diam.; lobuli 3.5-3.8

mm. longi, basin 1.4-1.6 mm. lati. Petala 7—-7.5 mm. longa, 4 mm. lata.

Staminum filamenta 4-6 mm. longa; antherae majores 2—2.8 mm. longae,

connectivo infra loculos 2-2.3 mm. longo, appendicibus 2.3-2.5 mm. longis;

antherae minores 1—-1.8 mm. longae, appendiculo circa 0.7 mm. longo. Ova-

rium 4.2 mm. longum; stylus circa 6 mm. longus.

VENEZUELA: Savannas of Mene Grande, Zulia, in low, damp places, fl.

October 28, 1922, Pitter 10578 (type).

This is the first Desmocelis reported from Venezuela, but it is probable that

we also have D. villosa Naud., one form of which (D. villosa purpureo-violacea

Cogn.) has been indicated by Karsten as growing in the plains of Villavicencio

inColombia. The above-described species differs from the latter in its dis-

tinctly petiolate and larger leaves, smaller flowers, longer filaments and

anterior appendices of the connective, much shorter anthers and connectives,

etc. The large and small anthers alternate regularly. The hairs on the upper

face of the leaves issue from an elongated tubercle, brown in colour, immersed

in, or adhering to, the parenchyma.

Monochaetum Jahnii Pittier, n. sp.

Ramis teretibus gracilibusque longiuscule hispidis; foliis parvis longiuscule

petiolatis, plerumque late ovatis, basi truncatis subemarginatisve, apice

acutis, 7-plinerviis, utrinque densiuscule hirsutis, pilis sparsissime glandulosis;

388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No 17

floribus cymosis, breviter -pedicellatis, pedicellis calycibusque tubi apice

pilis glandulosis coronato excepto glaberrimis; calycis lobis brevibus ovato-

obtusis, longe ciliatis; petalis roseis, orbiculatis, glanduloso-ciliatis, densiuscule

punctatis; staminibus 8, antheris subrostratis; ovario glabro, calyci adherente;

stylo apice truncato.

Frutex ramosissimus, ca. 1 m. altus; rami gracili, angulosi, fusco-virides.

Petioli 4~-9 mm. longi, dense hirti; laminae supra solute virides, subtus pal-

lidiores, 1.5-2.5 em. longae, 1-1.5 em. latae. Pedicelli ca. 2 mm. longi;

calycis tubus 5 mm. longus, 3.5 mm. latus, purpurascens, lobi 1-1.5 mm. longi;

petala 5.5 mm. longa lataque; filamenta staminorum majorum 4.5 mm.

longa; antherae majores ca. 4 mm. longae, cauda cultriformi arcuata basi

crassiore 5 mm. longa; antherae minores erectae, 3-3.5 mm. longae, cauda

breviore, refracta, lineari; stylus ca. 5 mm. longus.

VENEZUELA: Between Palmira and Pdramo de la Sal, 2700 m., Andes of

Mérida, fl. September 1, 1921, Jahn 607 (type).

This elegant species should be placed near M: onochaetum glanduliferum

Triana, from which it differs in the longer, sparsely glandular indument, the

leaves: with longer petioles and also scarcely glandular, and the perfectly

glabrous calyx tube ending in a dense crown of glandular hairs, and with

glabrous, ciliate lobes. The stamens are also very distinct in shape and size

and the drawing of the anthers differs from that accompanying the original

description of M. glanduliferum.

MoNOcHAETUM DiscoLor Karsten ex Triana, Trans. Linn. Soc. 28: 63. 1871.

A striking and not very well-known species, the description of which can be

completed as follows:

Petioli 2.5-4 mm. longi (sed nunquam 6 mm. ); laminae 15-18 mm. longae,

7-10 mm. latae, subtus canescentes et strigillosae. Flores numerosi, pedun-

culis adpresse setulosis 5-10 mm. longis. Calycis tubus subglobosus, indis-

tincte 8-costatus, circa 4 mm. longus, lobulis acuminato-triangularibus tubum

subaequantibus vel longioribus, basi 3-3.5 mm. latis. Petala obovata, basi

sensim cuneata, apicem versus minute strigosa, margine ciliolata, 13 mm.

longa, 8 mm. lata. Stamina inaequalia, filamentis 6-7 mm. longis, planis,

plusminusve distortis, antherarum caudis loculam subaequantibus velinterdum

multo longioribus foliaceisque. Stylus 7-8 mm. longus, glaber; stigma

punctiforme. .

VENEZUELA: Agua de Obispo, Trujillo, 2500 m., fl. September 24, 1922,

Jahn 1165.

Up to the present, eight species of the genus Monochaetum have been

reported from Venezuela, all from the andine or subandine belts with the

exception of M. multiflorum Naud., which was collected near Esmeralda on

the open plains of the Orinoco by Bonpland, but is also indicated as growing

in the Quindio, an elevated region of Colombia. These Venezuelan species

can be distinguished by the following key.

Monochaetum.

Calyx lobes deciduous (Grischowia).

Branchlets densely villous; leaves 7-9-pilinerved; calyx 12-15 mm., the

lobes 15~18 mm: long: 2.45.2 ee eee 1. M. hirtum Triana.

ocT. 19, 1923 PITTIER: NEW OR LITTLE KNOWN MELASTOMATACEAE 389

Branchlets appressed-setulose and slightly hirsute.

Leaves 7-plinerved; calyx tube 1 cm., lobes up to 1.8 em. long.

2. M. Humboldtianum Hook.

Leaves 5-plinerved.

Petals entirely glabrous, 2-3 em. long.....3. M. latifolium Naud.

Petals ciliate, 1 cm. long or less.......... . 4. M. meridense Naud.

Calyx lobes persistent (Humonochaetum).

Pubescence glandular, long; calyx glabrous, its tube with a crown of

glandular bristles at the apex; leaves 7-plinerved.

5. M. Jahnii Pittier.

Pubescence eglandular.

Branchlets covered at the base with bristles, these scaly; leaves tri-

Plunerved; 15-18% mms Tongves. Ce: 2 6. M. discolor Karst.

Branchlets more or less hairy.

Hairs simple; calyx lobes much shorter than the tube.

7. M. Bonplandii Naud.

Hairs more or less feathery; calyx lobes much longer than the tube.

8. M. multiflorum Naud.

MARCETIA ANDICOLA Naudin, Ann. Sci. Nat. III. 15: 44. 1851.

Fruticulosa, caulibus adscendentibiis, teretiusculis, ramosissimis, cortice

laeve, cupreoso, leviter excoriato; ramis Juvenioribus subangulosis, dense

glanduloso-hirtellis; foliis brevissime petiolatis, integris, 5-nerviis, valde

revolutis, apice acutis, utrinque glanduloso-puberulis supra impunctatis;

floribus axillaribus, solitariis, brevissime pedicellatis; calyce breviter glandu-

loso-hirtello, tubo ovoideo segmentis lineari-subulatis remotiusculis paulo

longiore; petalis roseis, ovato-lanceolatis, basi uniauriculatis, apice acutissimis;

staminibus leviter inaequalibus, antheris basi biauriculatis omnino exsertis;

ovario 4-loculare; stylo apice lateraliter acutato; capsula globosa, leviter 8-

costulata, sparse glanduloso-hirtella.

Fruticulus 40-80 em. altus. Petioli 0.5-1 mm. longi; laminae 6-9 mm.

longae, 5 mm. latae. Pedicelli1—1.5 mm. Calycis tubus 3-3.5 mm. longus,

apice 3 mm. latus; lobi 1.5-3 mm. longi, basi 1 mm. lati. Petala 9-9.5 mm.

longa, 4.5-5 mm. lata. Filamenta 6.5-7 mm. longa, antherae 3-4.5 mm.

longae, basi 1 mm. crassae. Stylus 12 mm. longus. Capsula 3.5-4 mm.

diam.

VENEZUELA: State of Mérida, 2300 m., Funck & Schlim 1200 (type).

Pdéramo Quirord, 3000m., Mérida, fl. and fr., October 8, 1921, Jahn 7C8.

Pdéramo La Trampa, 2100 m., Mérida, fl. March 12, 1922, Jahn 990.

This species, known locally under the name of ‘‘romero,”’ which other species

belonging to the Andes also bear, has probably been confused with Marcetia

guniperina and M. cordigera DC. It differs from the latter by its leaves,

which are petiolate and broader, and by its decidedly larger flowers, from the

former also by the distinctly heart-shaped leaves, the five nerves of which

are clearly visible in the fully developed blade. Moreover, it lacks the super-

foliary punctations indicated as being characteristic of MW. junzperina and the

calyx tube is longer than the segments thereof; the petals are very sharp-

pointed but not long-acuminate, and the stamens stand out the whole length

of the anthers. These differences are accentuated when the dimensions of the

various parts are taken into account.

390 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 13, NO. 17

Naudin distinguished the Marcetia collected in Merida by Funck and

Schlim (no. 1200) under the name of MW. andicola, but this was later reduced

by Cogniaux to the rank of a variety of M. cordigera. We take Naudin’s

plant to be the same as the one described here, and believe that it cannot be

assimilated with M. cordigera on account of having petiolate leaves, nor with

M. juniperina, primarily because of these being 5-nerved. Certainly it

shows a close relationship with the latter, but still it differs from it sufficiently

to justify its being considered as a distinct species.

After writing the above, I had the opportunity, thanks to the kindness of

Professor Lecomte, of the Museum of Natural History in Paris, of comparing

the materials collected by Dr. Jahn with the type of Marcetia andicola

Naudin. Thus I was able to convince myself that this and Jahn’s collections

are identical, and moreover, that the species of Naudin should not be mistaken

for Marcetia cordigera DC. nor even be considered as a variety of it. This

opinion is further confirmed by a careful comparison with the original

descriptions and analytical sketches of Naudin, of which latter Prof. Lecomte

also had the kindness to send me tracings.

Miconia rufostellulata Pittier, n. sp.

Frutescens, ramis gracilibus petiolis inflorescentiisque dense stellulato-

furfurascentibus; foliis membranaceis, parvis, 3—5-nerviis; petiolo breviusculo,

laminis ovato-oblongis, basi rotundatis, apice breve acuminatis, margine

obscure crenulatis, sparse ciliatis, supra laete viridibus sparsissime pilosis

stellulatisque, subtus purpurascentibus, secus nervos creberrime demum

sparse stellulatis; inflorescentiis ramulis lateralibus oppositis bifoliatisque

suffultis, paniculatis; floribus pedicellatis, tetrameris, minutis, brevissime

pedicellatis; calyce tubuloso-campanulato, eleganter rufo-stellulato, limbo

44obulato, lobulis acutis apice subulatis; petalis albis, obovatis, apice oblique

rotundatis et emarginatis; staminibus ut petalis reflexis, antheris basi dilatatis

subbiauriculatis; stylo glabro.

Frutex ad 1.5 m. altus. Petiolus 0.3-0.8 em. longus; laminae 3-8 cm.

longae, 1.5-3 em. latae. Panicula 1.5-3.5 em. longa. Pedicelli 0.5-1 mm.

longi. Calycis tubus 1.5-2 mm. longus, lobuli 0.8 mm. longi. Petala 2.4

mm. longa, 1.4 mm. lata. Antherae circa 2mm. longae. Stylus 3.5-4 mm.

longus.

Panama: Forests around Pinogana, southern Darién, fl. April 16-21,

1914, Pittier 6535 (type).

Miconia rufostellulata belongs in the Section Ewmiconia, in the series

Paniculares, and should be placed near M. brevipes Benth., from which it

differs in the indument, the coloring of the leaves, the larger petals, and other

characters.

Clidemia gracilis Pittier, n. sp.

Ramis lignosis, compressis subalatisque, glaberrimis; foliis sessilibus,

valde disparibus, majoribus quam opposita 8—16-plo longioribus, ovatis

ovato-oblongisve, basi rotundatis subemarginatisve, apice breve sensimque

acuto-acuminatis, margine integerrimis, 5-nerviis, supra glaberrimis laevibus-

que obscure viridibus, subtus cinereo-viridibus, ad nervos nervulosque

oct. 19, 1923 PITTIER: NEW OR LITTLE KNOWN MELASTOMATACEAE 391

pubescentibus; nervis nervulisque supra prominulis subtus venulisque valde

prominentibus; foliis minoribus ovatis, acuminatis, 3-nerviis; paniculis

axillaribus, longissime gracillime pedunculatis, subnuatantibus; ramulis

oppositis, divaricatis, 1-2-floribus, sparse puberulis; floribus ignotis; bacca

globosa, puberula, in sicco leviter 10-costulata.

Arbuscula ad 1.5 m. alta. Internodia 2-4.5 em. longa. Folia majora11—19

em. longa, 4-8 em. lata, minora 1-2 cm. longa, 4-8 mm. lata. Panicula ad

16 cm. longa, depauperata, ramulis 4-5 cm. longis; baccae 4 mm. diam.

bracteolis 2 minutis suffultae.

Panama: Head of lake in Gatun Valley, Canal Zone, in shady forest,

fl. and fr. August 16, 1914, Pittier 6748 (type).

This species, of which I have at hand only fruiting specimens, is very closely

related to Clidemia dispar (O. Berg) Cogn. of the Section Calophysoides,

collected in eastern Peru by Spruce. It differs in the compressed, glabrous

branchlets, the much larger leaves with entire margin and with appressed-

pubescent, not stellate, nerves, and finally in the long, slender and few-

flowered inflorescences. According to the notes taken on the spot when

collecting the plant, the flowers are small and white. It is likely that some

will be found on the specimens elsewhere distributed.

CLIDEMIA GRANDIFOLIA Cogn. in DC. Monogr. Phan. 7: 1018. 1891.

My no. 8917 coincides with the description of this species as to the charac-

ters of the branchlets, leaves and inflorescence, but it differs slightly as to

those of the flowers. It seems likely, however, that the plant is specifically

identical with the one described by Cogniaux.

I have noted the following complementary data:

Frutex 2-3 m. altus, erectus, paucirameus, ramis robustis. Petioli crassi,

5-10 em. longi; laminae 15-25 cm. longae, 14-21 em. latae, supra sparsissime

breviterque setulosae, subtus ad nervos sparse furfuraceae, demum glandulis

minimis translucidis adspersae. Paniculae in axillis fasciculatae, laxae,

subnutantes. Pedicelli 5-6 mm. longi. Calyx tubuloso-urceolatus, 3.54

mm. longus, basi 4-bracteolatus, dentibus interioribus nullis, exterioribus 0.5

mm. longis, obtusis; bracteolae ovatae, obtusae vel acuminatae, circa 1.5 mm.

longae. Petala alba, oblonga, obtusa, 2—2.2 mm. longa, 1.2-1.3 mm. lata.

Filamenta 1.7 mm. longa; antherae 2.5 mm. longae, oblongae, basi apiceque

acuminatae. Stylus 6 mm. longus, basi setosus.

Type collected between Maracay and Choroni, Venezuela, 1300 m., (Fendler

2263). Our samples were collected on the hills of Guaremales, 450 m., near

Urama, Carabobo, fl. July 2, 1920, Pzttier 8917.

Ossaea trichocalyx Pittier, n. sp.

Fruticosa, ramis obtuse tetragonis, glabris vel minutissime furfurascentibus;

foliis membranaceis, integerrimis, modice petiolatis, imo magnis, petiolis

angulosis, glabris, laminis ovatis, septuplinerviis (junioribus 5-plinerviis ?),

basi rotundatis in petiolum decurrentibus, apice sensim acuminatis, supra

gelaberrimis subtus ad nervos venasque minute ferrugineo-furfurascentibus ;

floribus 4-meris, ut in Henriettea supra nodos defoliatos 6-12-fasciculatis

racemulosisve brevissime pedicellatis; calyce urceolato-tubuloso, extus

furfurescente, limbo brevissimo, dentibus exterioribus longe productis,

spinuloso-setaceis; petalis albis, glabris, ovato-oblongis, apice rotundatis

392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 13, No. 17

setis 1-4 munitis; stylo staminibus duplo longiore, stigmate minutissime

papilloso; bacca subglobosa, 5-locularis.

Frutex ad 2 m. altus. Petiolus 0.7-4.5 em. longus; lamina 10—25 em. longa,

4-11 em. lata. Pedunculus communis 0.8-1 em. longus; pedicelli 0.5-1 mm.

longi. Calycis tubus 2.5 mm. longus, dentes exteriores 2—2.5 mm. longi;

setae terminales 1-1.5 mm. Petala 2.2-2.56 mm. longa, 1.2 mm. lata.

Antherae apice uniporosae 2 mm. longae.

PANAMA: Cafio Quebrado, Canal Zone, in shady forest, fl. June 14, 1914,

Pittier 6667 (type).

On account of the cauline flowers and general appearance, this species was

placed first in the genus Henriettea. But further investigations showed the

presence of fibro-vascular bundles both in the cortical layers and in the pith,

so that if this character, given by Krasser,? is to be considered as constant and

conclusive, there is no choice but to place the plant under Ossaea, Section

Euossaea. It differs, however, from all the other species of this group, first

in its leaves, glabrous and smooth above and more or less fuzzy beneath, and

then in the prominent calyx teeth, provided with tiny spinelike articulate

hairs up to the apex, which ends in a long bristle, and in the petals, also bearing

from one to four long setae on their rounded upper end.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. GrorGE OtIs SMITH was reappointed Director of the U. 8. Geological

Survey, effective September 24, when the Coal Commission, of which he

was member, was dissolved. P.S. Smrtu, acting director, has returned to his

former position of administrative geologist of the Survey.

The Priestley Medal, given every third year by the American Chemical

Society to an American chemist for marked service to science, was

awarded to Dr. Ira Remsen, President-emeritus of The Johns Hopkins

University, at the sixty-sixth convention of the society, recently held at

Marquette University.

ALEXANDER WetTMORE, Bureau of Biological Survey, has returned from

Hawaii where he has had charge of an expedition organized by the Biological

Survey and the Bishop Museum of Honolulu, in cooperation with the U. 5.

Navy, to prosecute a general scientific survey of the Leeward chain of the

Hawaiian group, and Johnston and Wake Islands.

Dr. TRUMAN MICHELSON, of the National Museum, returned last month

from his season’s field work in Labrador. In studying the origin of the

Indians of that region and their dialects, Dr. Michelson made important

discoveries regarding the Nascapi language, and the ethnological diffusion in

the Labrador peninsula.

* In Engl. & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. 37:182. 1893.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 13 NOovEMBER 4, 1923 No. 18

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY .—A note on the crystal structures of lithium

todide and rubidium fluoride. Ratepo W. G. WycKkorr and

Kucen W. Posnsgax, Geophysical Laboratory.

A study of the crystal structures of all of the alkali halides, except

rubidium fluoride, has been published;! further powder data upon all

of them have also been given recently.2. The results of the study

of lithium iodide in these two investigations, however, are conflict-

ing, and the published data upon rubidium fluoride are not in accord

with the writers’ preliminary observations. The present paper is

devoted to a discussion of these discrepancies.

The structure of lithium todide. As ordinarily prepared, lithium

iodide crystallizes as a hydrate. The trihydrate, stable up to + 75°C.,

yields on heating a di- and finally a mono-hydrate. Theanhydrous

salt, which is excessively hygroscopic, is obtained only by holding

the monohydrate? at temperatures above 300°C. The specimen

used in the first determination! was prepared by melting anhydrous

lithium iodide, grinding the solidified salt while still hot in an oven,

and immediately introducing it into a glass specimen tube which

was then sealed. Even under these conditions the resulting powder

photographs showed that probably not less than 20 per cent of the

sample had hydrated. The crystalline powder used in the other

study? of lithium iodide was obtained by evaporating a solution of

lithium iodide over sulfuric acid. It is known that the trihydrate

is produced! at 0°C. by this procedure, and both the known properties

1R. W. G. Wycxorr, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 11:429. 1921. E. W. Posnyax

and R. W. G. Wycxorr, ibid. 12: 248. 1922.

2W. P. Davey, Phys. Rev. 21: 143. 1923.

5, AUERBACH and J. F. Bristex in Abegg’s Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie 2,

Abt. 1:°130.

4 GMELIN-KRAUT-FRIEDHEIM, Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie 2, Abt. 1: 258.

393

394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 18

of these hydrates and experiments by the writers indicate that an

anhydrous product is not obtained at room temperature. It must

consequently be concluded that the specimen employed in this

second determination was not the anhydrous compound.

This conclusion is fortified in three directions. In the first place

it has been shown! that the interatomic distances in all of the other

alkali halides (rubidium fluoride was not investigated) are purely

additive and can, if desired, be calculated through the medium of

“atomic radii’’*for these particular cystals. An acceptance of this

second structure? for lithium iodide would show it (see, however,

the discussion of rubidium fluoride given below) to be the only devi-

ation from a closely exact agreement with the requirements of this

additive rule: The nearest approach of lithium and iodine atoms

according to this structure is 3.537A, that required by the rule of

additive interatomic distances, which is probably accurate for the

rest of the alkali halides at least to within 1 per cent, is 3.01A.

_In the second place the structure of lithium iodide as found! upon

fused material gives a ‘‘sodium chloride arrangement” of atoms in

which the distance from lithium to iodine atoms is in substantial

agreement with the additive rule (Li to I = 3.015A). The density

calculated from this structure (9 = 4.03) likewise agrees with that

determined’ by the usual methods (p = 4.061). In. the originally

published results of this study it was indicated that the calculated

intensities of reflection are not in so good accord with the intensities

of the observed powder lines as is generally the case. A careful

reéxamination of these films shows that the strongest line of the

hydrated product has practically the same position as the 100 (2)

reflection from the anhydrous lithium iodide; when a correction is

made for the intensity contributed by this extraneous line there is

complete agreement of calculated intensities with those observed

upon the films. The data upon which this assignment of structure

was based are shown in Table I. Other lines appeared upon the

photographs but their accurate measurement was prevented by the

nearness of hydrate reflections. _No corrections’? were applied for the

absorption of lithium iodide and great accuracy is not claimed for

the spacing measurements.

The observed intensities of reflections in the photogtaphes of the

second determination? disagree with those to be expected from the

5W. L. Braaa, Phil. Mag. 40: 169. 1920.

°P. G. Baxter, Am. Chem. Journ. 31: 558. 1904.

7Q. Pauut, Zeitsch. f. Krystal 66: 591. 1921-22.

nov. 4, 1923 WYCKOFF AND POSNJAK: CRYSTAL STRUCTURES 395

assigned structure (Table II). The calculated intensities were ob-

tained with the expression ®

d 2.35 ,

r= (2) xs x 4(R + X)

This formula, involving as it does the rule of ‘‘normal decline” and a

proportionality between the number of electrons in atoms and their

TABLE I.—PowpErR Puotrocrapuic Data upon LirHium IopDIDE

INTENSITY

INDICES SPACING ay ere ee ge ee REMARKS

Observed Calculated

(hkl) A A

eee 4.50 So 5 ae Hydrate line

Gwen) 3.50 6.06 10— 95, 000 units

100(2) 3.06 [6.12] 10 59, 000 Hydrate line also

tone 2.47 Lok. 1 how dié Hydrate line

110(2) 2.14 6.06 6 52, 000

113(1) 1.80 5.99 6 61, 700

100 (4) 1.52 [6.08] 1 11, 600

133 (1) 1.37 6.00 3 31, 800

112(2) | 12238 6.04 2 28, 800

6.03A average

TABLE II.—Intensiry Data vreon Lituium IoDIDE

6 ee ee ee ee ee EEE ee

INTENSITY

INDICES

Observed Calculated

111(1) 3 24

100 (2) 15 15

110(2) 10 13.3

311(1) 2 15.8

111(2) 3 5.3

100(4) 1.5 2.9

133(1) 1 8.1

eee ee ee. ee SS ee

scattering powers,’ cannot possibly give quantitatively accurate

results, but experience with different crystal structures, the rest of

the alkali halides for instance, indicates that they are qualitatively

correct.

From these different lines of evidence it seems necessary to con-

clude that the substance used in the second determination? of the

8R. W. G. Wycxorr and E. W. Posngax, Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. 44: 30. 1922.

R. W. G. Wycxkorr, op. cit.

9 W.H. and W. L. Braae, X-rays and crystal structure, London, 1918.

396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 18

structure of lithium iodide was not the anhydrous compound and

that the resulting experimental data lead to an erroneous determina-

tion of its crystal structure. From this standpoint, then, the fact

that one or more compounds, none of which probably forms cubic

erystals, could give as many as 20 lines which agree in position with

a simple cubic arrangement is another and striking illustration of

the dangers that arise from using unaided powder photographic data

in determining the atomic arrangement in crystals.

The structure of rubidium fluoride. At the time of their study of

the structures of the other alkali halides, several unsuccessful at-

tempts were made by the writers to obtain the structure of rubidium

fluoride. The material produced by fusing preparations of rubidium

fluoride was found to be essentially isotropic!® but so hygroscopic

that it altered immediately upon exposure to air. For this reason

it was impossible with the prevailing experimental facilities to ob-

tain powder photographs showing lines belonging to the _ isotro-

pic fluoride. The product used in the published determination?

was a well-crystallized preparation made by a simple desiccation of

a solution of rubidium fluoride. The writers’ experience with rubid-

jum fluoride leads them to question the identity of this crystalline

material with anhydrous rubidium fluoride. Two other factors also

suggest that this structure may not be that of the anhydrous salt.

Although the interatomic distances are additive for the caesium

halides having the structure here ascribed to rubidium fluoride, there

is no such agreement in this latter case (calculated distance = 2.80A;

observed = 3.172A). Accepting the first assignment of structure!

to lithium iodide, this disagreement would then be the only one

among all of the alkali halides.

The observed intensities of the reflections upon which this deter-

mination of structure is based do not agree with those calculated

for the stated atomic arrangement. This is shown by the data of

Table III. The intensities of column 3 have been calculated with an

expression analogous to the one used for lithium iodide.*®

Summary. It is pointed out that the material used in a recent

determination? of the structure of lithium iodide was not, in all prob-

ability, the anhydrous salt, that the observed intensities of the dif-

fraction lines obtained from this preparation conflict with those

calculated for the assigned structure, and that its interatomic dis-

tances do not agree with those to be expected from crystals of lithium

10 The optical properties of these substances were obtained by H. E. Merwin.

Nov. 4, 1923 COOK: PSEUDOPHOENIX INSIGNIS 397

iodide. This study of lithium iodide thus seems to be another

example of the difficulties that arise from the use of the unaided

powder diffraction technique in the determination of the structures

of even simple crystals. Additional experimental data obtained by the

present writers in a previous determination of lithium iodide are

included. It is also pointed out that the intensities of the powder

lines from rubidium fluoride and the distances between fluorine and

rubidium atoms are not in agreement with those to be expected from

the structure which has been given to this crystal.

TABLE III.—Intensity Data uron RuBiIDIuM FLUORIDE

INTENSITY

INDICES

Observed Calculated

100(1) - 10 10

110(1) 8 97.5

111(1) 2 a

100 (2) 1 6.2

110(2) 0.75 5.4

111(2) Absent 2.2

120(1) 3 6.1

112(1) 1.5 15.5

Note: Only intensity calculations upon the more important reflections are repro-

duced in Tables II and III.

BOTAN Y.—Pseudophoenix insignis, a new palm from Haiti, and two

other new species from the West Indies. O. F. Coox, Bureau

of Plant Industry.

The generic type is Pseudophoenix sargentit Drude, a native of the

Florida Keys. The genus has been considered as monotypic and is

without any close relatives, so that it has been placed in a separate

family, Pseudophoenicaceae. Even in the wider sense of family

relationships, the Pseudophoenicaceae apparently are not allied to

any North American palms, but may have remote affinities with the

ivory palms and wax palms of South America. Hence the finding

in Haiti of a new species of Pseudophoenix, of much greater size than

the Florida species and with other distinctive characters, seemed

worthy of note.

The Haitian Pseudophoeniz is a large palm that grows abundantly

in dry open forests of limestone mountains in the district of Gonaives,

in the northwestern part of Haiti. It is much larger and more

attractive in appearance than the Florida species, having a massive,

vase-formed trunk attaining a height of 10 meters or more, leaves and

398 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 18

inflorescences more than 3 meters long, and fruits more than 2 centi-

meters in diameter. The definite enlargement or bulging of the trunk

is analogous to that of several other West Indian palms belong to

different genera, Colpothrinax, Roystonea, Acrocomia, and Aeria,

thus adding another member to this series of parallel evolutions.

Considering that these genera are not related, but belong to dis-

tinct families, and that other representatives of these families in the

continental areas do not have bulging trunks, the question of a special

cause or factor of selection that would favor the development of

thickened trunks in the West Indies is naturally suggested. Preva-

lence of hurricanes in the West Indian region is the most obvious

answer, and the greater water-storage capacity of the thickened

trunks might be an important advantage in prolonged dry seasons,

like that of the present year in Haiti. Two other characters of the

new Pseudophoenix may be considered as adaptations against drought.

The trunk has a very hard outer shell, almost vitreous in texture,

and the leaves, inflorescences, and fruits have a heavy coating of wax.

CONFUSION OF THE WINE PALM WITH PSEUDOPHOENIX

The trunk of Pseudophoenix insignis, though contracted above

the bulge, is not drawn out into a long, slender neck, “‘in collum longis-

simum elegantissimum protenditur,’’ as Martius says of Huterpe

vinifera, the wine-palm of the buccaneers, which Beccari would place

under Pseudophoenix. The wine-palm seems instead to have been a

close relative of the Porto Rican llume palm, Aerta attenuata, but

apparently with the trunk thicker and more bulging, and the fruits

larger, as in the related Central American genera Synechanthus and

Opsiandra.

Though the Haitian Pseudophoenix is like Aerta in having a thick-

ened trunk, the habits of the two palms are quite distinct. In Aeria

there is a swelling of the basal portion of a tall, slender trunk, while in

Pseudophoenizx the greatest diameter is above the middle of a robust

vase-shaped trunk. In Aeria the greatest diameter of the trunk is

at 3 or 4 meters above the base, in Pseudophoenix at 6 or 7 meters.

The long, tapering “neck” of Aeria may attain a length of 20 meters

or more, while the short, cylindrical “neck” of the Pseudophoenix

is only 1 or 2 meters long, the internodes being very compact. The

Pseudophoenix is a large palm rather than a tall palm. Aerta grows

two or three times as high, and justifies the emphatic “alta palma”

of Plumier’s description.

Nov. 4, 1923 COOK: PSEUDOPHOENIX INSIGNIS 399

The alliance of the wine-palm with Aeria is indicated not only by

the slender prolongation of the trunk, but by the very large, finger-

thick roots, the four-foot inflorescence with shining red fruits, the

soft, succulent pith from which the juice could be squeezed with the

hand, and the spathes that were used as vessels for drawing the

palm-wine, according to Plumier’s account, as transcribed by Martius.

All of the Synechanthaceae have shining red fruits, while the fruits

of Pseudophoenix do not shine, because they are coated with wax.

Also the Synechanthaceae are notable for having the trunk sup-

ported by a solid mass of very coarse superficial roots, those of Aeria

attenuata being about 3 cm. in diameter, or about four times as

thick as the roots of Pseudophoenix insignis.

It is quite possible, of course, that two or more of the bulging palms

were confused in Plumier’s notes, but the data that Martius gives in

relation to Euterpe vinifera are clearly inapplicable to Pseudophoenix

imsignis. Beccari states that there are drawings of Pseudophoenix

among Plumier’s unpublished materials, but the statement of charac-

ters shown by the drawings would apply as well or better to Aeria,

except that the fruits of Aeria are not pedicellate, though they have

a narrow base that might be represented as a stalk. In any event,

the data that Martius extracted from the Plumier collection would

determine the application of the name vinifera, and these data seem

quite definitely to exclude Pseudophoeniz. |

Wendland referred the wine-palm to Gaussia, a Cuban genus rather

closely related to Aerta but having a stout columnar trunk, apparently

neither bulged below nor attenuate above. Only one spathe is

described for Gaussia princeps, and this long and narrow, while Aeria

attenuata has 7 short, cuplike spathes. As a name for the historical

wine-palm the new combination Aeria vinifera (Martius) may be

used, pending a rediscovery of the palm. This name would replace

Aeria attenuata if the species should prove to be the same as in Porto

Rico, though a somewhat thicker trunk and larger spherical fruits

are indicated in the account of Euterpe vinifera that Martius gives.!

With Gaussia in Cuba and Aeria in Porto Rico it seems reasonable

to suppose that the family Synechanthaceae was once represented

in Haiti, though the species may be extinct, as Beccari suggests.?

‘A palm that yielded a popular beverage might easily be exterminated.

Indeed, the abundance of Pseudophoenix is evidence that it was not

the wine palm. It would not seem reasonable to suppose that such a

1 Historia Naturalis Palmarum 1: LXXXV.

* The Pomona College Journal of Economic Botany, 1912.

400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 18

use of the palm would have been forgotten among the Haitians,

but no knowledge or tradition of wine-making was detected after

numerous inquiries.

HABITS OF PSEUDOPHOENIX INSIGNIS

Instead of being confused with Aerza or Gaussia, the habit and

appearance of the Haitian Psewdophoenix would cause it to be mis-

taken for a corozo palm (Acrocomia) or a royal palm (Roystonea),

and this may account for its being so long overlooked. Roystonea is

the most common palm in adjacent cultivated districts. Acrocomia

is found in small numbers in the valley between Ennery and St.

Michel, but neither of these palms was seen on the dry wind-swept

slopes where the Pseudophoenix thrives. Hardiness is suggested by

the adaptations against drought, already mentioned, and by a notable

persistence of the flowers and spathes, which not only remain in

place, but are still alive when the fruit ripens. Thus the Haitian

palm may prove adapted to cultivation in Florida beyond the range

of the royal palm, and possibly also in California, where the royal

palm is not known. Seeds have been planted so that a test of the

behavior of the new species in the United States is in prospect. It

is remarkable that so large a palm growing abundantly in sight of

the most commonly traveled roads should have been overlooked by

botanical visitors to Haiti, and also that there should be no planted

specimens of the palm in Port-au-Prince or in other towns, though

several imported palms are grown ornamentally.

Pseudophoenix insignis Cook, sp. nov.

Trunk attaining a height of 10 meters or more, solitary, erect, distinctly

bulging or bottle-shaped, narrowed above the base and then gradually

thicker, but narrowed again and much more abruptly at a height of 7 or 8

meters; diameter at the roots about 50 cm., at 1 meter above 22 em., at 7

meters 45 cm., at 8 meters 28 cm., at 8.5 to 10 meters 17 to18 cm. Internodes

of trunk attaining 14 em. in length near the base, in the bulging portion 5 to 8

cm. and near the top reduced to 1 cm. or less, the lower leaf-scars 1.5 to 2 em.

long, the upper reduced to 0.5 em., distinctly pitted; the internodes with

smooth surfaces at first, then becoming longitudinally rimose, with a very

hard brittle outer shell 3 mm. thick, gray on the surface, black inside.

Roots 0.7 cm. in diameter, forming a solid black mass at the surface of the

ground, breaking away the outer shell of the trunk as in the coconut and

other large palms.

Leaf-sheaths 45 em. long by 15 to 20 em., the greater diameter of the trunk

attained by secondary thickening; surface whitish or grayish green, with a

thick coating of wax; petiole 25 em. long, about 12 em. wide at base, 6 em.

wide at apex, flat above, distinctly convex below i in the middle, slightly con-

cave toward the margins.

Nov. 4, 1923 COOK: PSEUDOPHOENIX INSIGNIS 401

Leaf blade 291 to 311 em. long, rachis 260 to 277 em., at base 6 em. wide,

at 50 em. above the base 3 em. wide, with a shallow median channel 1 cm.

wide; the lateral margins of rachis expanded as thin horizontal wings 0.7 to

0.8 em. wide, forming a deep lateral recess for the insertion of the pinnae;

inferior angles of rachis also somewhat prominent, the inferior diameter 2.6

em., and the lower side convex in the middle; rachis at 1 meter from base 1.5

em. wide on the upper side and 1 em. wide below, the upper surface concave

with narrow salient margins; rachis at 2 meters narrowed on the upper side

to a thin sharp flange 0.8 cm. high and less than 1 mm. thick, the rachis proper

0.7 em. high and 0.9 cm. wide underneath; rachis beyond 2 meters with the

median flange gradually lower and finally disappearing, so that the terminal

portion of the rachis is triangular, with the under side becoming distinctly

grooved; end of rachis percurrent as a stiff bristle 31 em. long and about 1

mm. in diameter, slightly exceeding the terminal pinnae.

Pinnae 168 on one side of the rachis; lower pinnae in groups of 3 to 6, the

groups 2 to 4 em. apart with the pinnae 1 em. or less apart in the groups;

groups becoming more widely separated toward the middle of the leaf, and

gradually reduced to 2 or 3 pinnae; last 8 or 10 pinnae not grouped, nearly

opposite, and lying in the same plane, while the grouped pinnae are inserted

at somewhat different angles, though not widely divergent, the upright posi-

tion being precluded by the horizontal flanges of the rachis; bases of pinnae

strongly complicate, the upper and lower margins nearly in contact, with a

distinct pulvinus at the upper side, to control divergence from the rachis;

lower pinnae reduced to an unusual extent and only gradually attaining full

size above the middle of the leaf; lowest pinna 14 cm. by 0.3 em., second pinna

11 em. by 0.3 em., fifth pinna 21 em. by 0.5 em., tenth pinna 29 em. by 0.8

em., 20th 36 em. by 1.1 cm., 40th 59 em. by 1.7 em., 60th 66 em. by 2.5 cm.,

80th 75 cm. by 2.8 em., 100th 83 em. by 2.5 cm., 120th 70 em. by 2.9 em.,

140th 70 cm. by 2.3 em., 160th 48 cm. by 1.1 em., fifth pinna from the end

42 cm. by 0.8 cm., subterminal pinna 34 em. by 0.5 em., last pinna 31.5 em.

0.4 cm.

Inflorescence 315 to 337 em., the fruiting axis 2 meters from lowest branch

to tip, with 65 primary branches; peduncle tough and flexible, strongly

fibrous in texture, with 8 joints, the basal joint 30 cm. long, 6.5 cm. wide at

base, widened above to 10.5 cm., second joint 16 to 26 cm. long; third joint

35 cm.; fourth joint 12 em.; fifth to eighth joints 3 to 5 em. long, together 18

em.; only the first and second joints with spathes, the others with broad

bracts like those subtending the lower branches, the lowest bracts 4 em.

wide, the upper 2 cm.; outer spathe tough, leathery and persistent, remaining

alive to the ripening of the fruit or longer, 139 cm. long, 10 cm. wide, strongly

compressed, with sharp, thin-margined carinae on each side, the surface with

a thick coating of wax, not splitting in the middle but at one side, near the

lateral carina, the apex thin and flexible, strongly compressed, gradually

narrowed to a blunt tip; second spathe 41 to 47 cm. long, completely included

and exceeded by the outer spathe, to the extent of 77 cm., the texture also

much thinner and more membranous, the margins narrowly carinate and the

surface beset along the margins with large tufted brown scales.

Fruiting axis distinctly flattened at base, 3.5 em. wide, 2.5 em. thick; base

of branches flattened, 2 em. wide; lower primary branches 80 to 90 em. long,

with 21 to 27 secondary branches, many of these attaining alength of 20 to 24

em. and branched again, the 2 to 6 tertiary divisions 12 to 15 em. long, the lowest

primary branch distinctly reduced, 54 cm. long, with 20 secondaries, all simple;

second branch 72 em. long, with 24 secondaries, 5 of these branched; some of the

402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 18

primary branches with 12 to 15 branched secondaries, but usually the lowest

secondary is simple and none of the secondaries are branched above the 12th

primary branch; the upper primaries gradually reduced to the simple form,

13 em. long, the subterminal primaries 7 to 8 cm. long; ultimate divisions of

branches subtended by broad, needle-tipped bracts, the first fruit or flower-scar

about 1 em. from the base, the lower scars 3 to 5 mm. apart, the upper closer

together, each scar subtended by a minute bract and surrounded by a ring

of prominent corneous tissue.

Fruits at maturity rounded above, tapering at the base, 2 to 2.5 em. in

diameter when fresh; double fruits common, 4.3 em. wide; triple fruits

occasional. Pedicels of fruits about 5 mm. long, 3 mm. wide at base, 2 mm.

wide in the middle, and 6 mm. wide above, including the broadly angled lobes

of the calyx; petals probably increasing in size with the development of the

fruits, becoming very tough and horny in texture, remaining alive till the

fruit ripens, then changing from a light green to deep browniish color, at

maturity nearly 1 em. long, 0.7 em. wide; filaments also persistent, about 4

mm. long, 3 opposite the petals and adnate with the petals at base, the 3

alternate filaments free from the petals. Stigmas of single fruit subbasal,

persistent, short, divergent, 0.8 to 1 cm. from the insertion of the subtending

petal; abortive carpels distinctly prominent, especially on double fruits where

the abortive carpel usually has more development than on single fruits, and

the stigma may be 1.3 em. above the petal; triplet fruits with the stigmas

central, often persistent in a dry and blackened condition.

Pericarp fleshy, the surface pruinose with a layer of wax, not shining, finely

wrinkled when dry, the color changing from green through pale greenish

yellow to pink and then to pinkish red, the skin and pulpy layer 2 to 3 mm.

thick, with 3 zones easily distinguished before the stage of complete softening

is reached, an outer firm layer that becomes red, under this a softer layer at

first a transparent greenish color, becoming reddish yellow, and a somewhat

firmer inner layer, at first lemon yellow and then orange, closely adherent to

the bony endocarp, but easily removed, all the material becoming pulpy, with

none of the firm fibers that are a feature in so many palms.

Endocarp nearly spherical, slightly depressed, 1.4 to 1.8 em. in diameter,

smooth, very hard and resilient, of a rather light coffee-brown color, with a

firm shell less than half a millimeter in thickness, of very fine-grained, light-

colored, horny, columnar tissue, and a membranous lining of nearly the same

color as the outer surface, sometimes partly adherent to the seed; hilum nearly

4 mm. wide, appearing as a circular aperture of the bony endocarp, closed

with a hard woody material that forms a broadly conic or rounded external

prominence pitted at the apex, similar to the hilum of the ivory palms; up-

per margin of hilum scarcely elevated, forming no distinct tubercle or ad-

hilum.

Seed subspherical, slightly depressed, 1.3 to 1.6 em. in diameter, with a

transversely elliptical central cavity 3 to 5 mm. across; surface of seed coated

with a furfuraceous but closely adherent thin layer of light brown or tan-

colored material overlaying a very smooth thin testa; raphe with two simple

flexuous branches on each side, forming shallow grooves of pinkish fibrous

material in the tan-colored layer, passing over and around the seed and

approaching the embryo, which is indicated on the surface by a slight mammil-

late prominence to which the light-brown surface coating does not adhere;

embryo subbasal, about 5 mm. from the hilum, 4 mm. long, reaching nearly

to the central cavity; endosperm hard, with a very fine, uniform, radial

structure.

Nov. 4, 1923 COOK: PSEUDOPHOENIX INSIGNIS 403

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, nos. 1,145,487-1,145,492, collected

about 3 miles from the locality known as Passe Reine, about 21 kilometers

east of Gonaives and 10 kilometers west of Ennery, Haiti, July 28, 1923, by

O. F. Cook (no. 28). These specimens are from a single large individual which

grew on a slope well covered with the palms. A few of the seeds were planted

at Port-au-Prince, August 2, 1923,in the garden of H. P. Davis, and the

remainder brought to Washington. The palms appeared most abundantinthe

district of Gonaives, several miles back from the coast, between Gonaives and

Ennery. Others were seen on higher mountains a few miles out of Gonaives

toward Dessalines at Savnane Lacroix, and a small number about 20 kilo-

meters north of Port-au-Prince, near the sulphur springs. These are all dry

districts, with a rainfall that probably does not average more than 20 inches.

The leaves are used for thatching the roofs of houses. The trunks are split

and the sections of the hard outer shell are trimmed down to serve as boards

for siding. The fruits are eaten by pigs, and are sometimes gathered for that

purpose. The interior of the trunk is of a rather loose pithy texture and some-

times is chewed by the wood cutters to allay thirst, but no other uses of

the palm could be learned from the natives. The pith was found to be moist,

but coarsely fibrous and tasteless, not sweet and succulent like that of the

wine palm described by Plumier. The name palmiste a vin, noted by Plumier

for the wine palm, was not heard, nor were there any indications that wine

was made from the juice of the Pseudophoenix. Many of the natives have

no name for the palm, or call it palmiste mal, to distinguish it from Roystonea.

The name caychd, was learned at Passe Reine, while another informant, from

Ennery, said chacha.

The name cacheo is given by Martius on the authority of Heneken as

relating to a palm that grew on dry hills in Santo Domingo, at a place called

Guayacanes, a half-day’s journey from San Jacobo. This palm is said to have

an abrupt spherical enlargement of the trunk at a height of 18 or 20 feet from

the ground, the swelling about three times as thick as the trunk. The pith

is described as fleshy, soft and sweet, like a melon.

The use of the Pseudophoenix for building purposes no doubt would explain

why the palms have not survived along the roads or in readily accessible

places, but thousands can be seen on rough and craggy slopes, or in sparsely

populated districts. The locality near Port-au-Prince is in a district that is

distinctly drier than the region behind Gonaives, as indicated by the more

stunted vegetation consisting largely of cacti and other spiny plants growing

in the crevices of a very rough and jagged limestone formation. As might be

expected under such conditions, the trunks of the Pseudophoenix appeared to

be somewhat shorter, and with shorter internodes and inflorescences, but

measurements of leaves showed only slight differences. The foliage is a

somewhat darker shade of green than in the royal palm or the corozo, and

sometimes with a slightly bluish tone, which may come from the lower sur-

faces of the pinnae, which are grayish or silvery.

The leaf sheaths are not fibrous, and the upper margins slope backward

gradually upward to form the petiole. On old leaves that have shrunken in

404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 18

drying the petiole and lower part of the rachis are deeply channeled instead

of nearly flat as in the living condition. The fallen sheaths are pinkish or

salmon-brown inside, while the outside becomes nearly white, on account of

the heavy coat of wax. The margins of the sheaths are thin and even, or

somewhat torn, but scarcely fibrous, and the texture so firm that the outer

leaves remain in place after the sheath has split nearly to the base. In other

words, the sheaths are normally more open than in the royal palm, where the

leaves would fall if the sheaths were split so far down.

The outer shell of the trunk is extremely hard, almost vitreous in texture,

and though longitudinally chinked or rimose on the surface appears very

solid as though it were renewed from underneath, like the bark of a dicotyle-

don. <A process of secondary thickening must go on especially in the bulging

portion of the trunk, whose diameter is much greater than is ever attained by

the terminal bud. To keep the outer shell continuous, while the trunk is

enlarging, a continued growth of the shell would be required, and this may

be the function of a thin layer of rather soft tissue immediately under the shell.

The waxy coating of the leaf-sheaths, spathes, and other parts may be noted

with other indications of relationship of Pseudophoenix with the Ceroxylaceae,

or wax palms of South America. The structure of the fruit, with a bony

endocarp of columnar tissue, and a specialized hilum plugged with woody

material, presents analogies with the vegetable ivory palms, which also are

natives of South America.

NOTES ON PSEUDOPHOENIX SARGENTII

Measurements given by Sargent? show that the Florida Pseudophoenix

is a much smaller palm. The trunk is 12 to 15 feet tall and 10 to 12 in-

ches in diameter, the leaves 5 to 6 feet long, the largest pinnae 18 inches long

and Linch wide, the terminal pinnae 6 to 8 inches long and } to } inches wide, the

petiole 6 to 8 inches long, the rachis 1 inch wide, the spadix 3 feet long, the

fruits + to 2inch in diameter and the seed } inch in diameter. The number of

pinnae is not stated but the drawing would indicate about 53 each side of the

midrib. The drawing of a “branch of a fruiting panicle’ shows a greater

degree of subdivision than in the Haitian species, since the lower tertiary

branches are again divided, with 2 to 6 arms, and the ultimate divisions

gradually reduced from 3 cm. to 1 em. or less, while in P. insignis the ultimate

divisions are seldom less than 10 em. and usually are 12 to 15 em. long.

A series of specimens from Miami, Florida, in the U.S. National Herbarium

includes an apparently complete leaf with the blade 150 cm. long, the rachis

130 em. and the rachis-bristle 18 em. The upper portion of the rachis has a

median flange that remains distinct to the end. The pinnae are about 85

on a side, the lower mostly in groups of two with an occasional single pinna,

the lower groups with the pinnae narrow and very close together, the largest

3 Silva 10:33.

Nov. 4, 1923 COOK: PSEUDOPHOENIX INSIGNIS 405

Fra. 1. End of a primary branch of Pseudophoenix insigms with mature fruits.

Natural size.

406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 18

pinnae 51 em. by 2.3 em. Inflorescence with 33 to 41 primary branches, the

peduncle apparently of only 4 joints, the second joint bearing the short inner

spathe, which is 10 em. long by 3 em. wide, of delicate thin texture, the third

joint ending sometimes with a broad bract or in a rudimentary collar-like

spathe encircling the peduncle, the fourth joint bearing the first fruiting

branch. Outer spathe 3.5 to 4 em. wide at 20 em. below the tip, the marginal

carinae much narrower than in P. insignis, and with brown scales like those of

the inner spathe of P. insignis.

Thus in addition to the greater size of all the parts in P. insignis, there

are several other differences, notably the more numerous joints of the pedun-

cle, the greater development of the spathes, the lack of quaternary divisions

of the branches of the inflorescence, and three of the filaments adnate below

with the inner surfaces of the petals. The reduction of the second spathe to

a mere rudiment in P. sargentii may be considered as a more specialized

character. The basal joints of the peduncle of P. sargentii have not been

described, and apparently no complete inflorescences have been collected.

The unusual development of the first joint, as shown in P. insignis, is likely

to be a group character, rather than a specifie difference.‘

OTHER SPECIES OF PSEUDOPHOENIX

Study of other specimens of Pseudophoenix in the National Herbarium has

led to the recognition of two additional West Indian species, one from Cuba,

and the other from the island of Saona, at the southeastern extremity of the

Dominican Republic. The occurrence of Pseudophoeniz in these localities has

been mentioned by Small, but the plants were not distinguished from P.

sargentii. Though complete descriptions are not possible, very definite dif-

ferences are shown by the available material. More attention may be given

to the study of this group of palms if characters for distinguishing the species

are pointed out.

Pseudophoenix saonae, Cook, sp. nov.

Terminal portion of rachis with no distinct median ridge, the bases of the

pinnae decurrent; upper pinnae rather close, irregularly spaced; fifth pinna

from the end of the leaf 28 cm. long by 9 mm. wide; subterminal pinna 23 em.

by 7 mm.; terminal pinna 22 em. by 6 to 9mm.; terminal bristle 21.5 em.,

slightly exceeding 1 mm. in thickness; surfaces of pinnae in the dry specimen

uneven, marked with distinct longitudinal ridges and grooves, the veinlets

irregular in size, with 2 to 4 veinlets on each side of the midvein much coarser

than the others.

Fruits 1.2 em. in diameter when dry, probably about 1.5 em. when fresh;

filaments robust, broadened gradually to the base, forming a rather thick,

distinctly projecting ring; endocarp obovate-globose, 1 em. in diameter;

‘A very complete account of the history and distribution of Pseudophoenix has

been published by Dr. John K. Small under the title The buccaneer-palm (Journ. N. Y.

Bot. Gard. 23: 33-43. 1922.)

Nov. 4, 1923 COOK: PSEUDOPHOENIX INSIGNIS 407

hilum rounded and prominent, broadly oboval, wider above than below, 4

mm. long, 3 mm. broad, with an abruptly prominent conic-spiniform adhilum

about 1 mm. high, distinctly truncate at apex, directed obliquely upward to

meet a hardened, sharply triangular columella that projects into the fruit

cavity, under the stigma; shell of endocarp somewhat thinner than in P.

insignis but distinctly thicker than in P. linearis or in P. sargentii; seed sub-

globose, nearly 9 mm. in diameter, with a very thin coating of flocculent

material, or partially naked, exposing the light chestnut brown testa; impres-

sions of the raphe and its two evenly curved branches very shallow, lined with

delicate whitish strands.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 758,263, from the banks of

a salt lake on Saona Island, Province of Seibo, Santo Domingo, collected

December 9, 1909, by N. Taylor (no. 513).

From the proportions and texture of the terminal and subterminal pinnae,

as well as from the fruit and seed characters, it is evident that this species is

very different from Pseudophoenix insignis.

Pseudophoenix linearis Cook, sp. nov.

Petiole at apex probably 1.5 to 2 em. wide, the rachis narrowed at the lowest

group of pinnae; lateral wings of rachis very narrow, only 1 or 2 mm. wide;

terminal portion of rachis very slender, less than 2 mm. thick, with a very

fine, low median ridge, the upper pinnae rather remote, from 2 to 5 em. apart.

Lowest pinnae very slender, in a close group of 4 to 6, the bases only 2 to

4 mm. apart, very strongly complicate, with margins thickened and in con-

tact, the margins and the midribs underneath with scattered dark-purplish

fibrous scales; first pinna 33 cm. long by 2 mm. wide; second pinna 44 em. by

5 mm., the apex very slender, remaining adherent 12 cm. from the apex of

the third pinna; fifth pinna 72 em. by 7 mm.; third pinna from end 42 en. dy

6 mm.; subterminal pinna 35 em. by 4 mm., the terminal subequal or slightly

shorter, the rachis-bristle also subequal in length, 1 mm. or less in diameter;

pinnae probably glaucous, the margins strongly thickened and the veinlets

very close, usually with 2 veinlets on each side distinctly coarser than the

others.

Inflorescence with axis attaining about 2 cm. in width near the base,

probably distinctly flattened, in the pressed specimen about 7 mm. thick, the

branches subtended by persistent and triangular-acuminate bracts, carinate

in the middle and distinctly veined; primary branch 35 cm. long, with 18

secondary branches, the base naked for 8 em.; nine secondary branches with

tertiaries, the lowest secondaries largest, attaining 12 cm. with 3 to 4 tertiaries

3 to 5 em. long; no quaternary branches; the larger simple branches and simple

ends of compound branches usually attaining 5 to 6 cm.

Fruits about 1 cm. in diameter; double fruits 1.8 em.; pedicel slender, 4

mm. long, with an expanded hollow base not attained by the everted petals;

calyx rounded triangular, the angles rounded or minutely apiculate; filaments

slender, scarcely broadened at the base, inserted on a thin, narrow ring;

endocarp obovate, subglobose, 9 mm. in diameter, the wall about half as thick

as in P. insignis, the hilum oval, the narrow end upward, less than 2 mm.

long; margin of the shell above the hilum abruptly prominent, forming a low

rounded tubercle (adhilum); seed subglobose, slightly pyriform, 8 mm. in

diameter, with the floculent material of the other species mostly replaced by

a delicate membrane covering a somewhat thicker and rougher testa, the

raphe impressions rather narrow and blackish, the lower branches of the raphe

very short.

408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 13, No. 18

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 655,222, collected at Lomo

de Loro, Cayo Romano, Camaguey, Cuba, October 21, 1909, by J. A.

Shafer (no. 2644). Another Cuban specimen, Shafer 2815, collected at

Cayo Guajaba, probably represents the same species, and shows a close

group of three pinnae that may have come from near the middle of the leaf,

these pinnae 64 cm. long by nearly 2 em. wide. ‘The same sheet has the end

of a leaf with subterminal pinnae 34 em. by 5mm., and terminal pinnae 28

em. by 2 mm., with margins closely infolded, and the midvein thickened

and prominent beneath; rachis-bristle 28 em. long, less than 1 mm. wide.

The very narrow pinnae, simple tertiary branches, small fruits, thin

endocarp, and small oval hilum may be considered as the diagnostic features

of this species. The slender pedicel of the fruits, projecting below the everted

petals, is also peculiar. The petals exceed the pedicel in P. sargentii and in

P. insignis, and are about equal in P. saonae.

ENTOMOLOGY .—On the identity of a European chalcidoid parasite

of the alfalfa leaf-weevil. A. B. GAHAN, Bureau of Entomology,

U. 8S. Department of Agriculture. (Communicated by S. A.

ROHWER.)

The following note is published at this time for the reason that

the European Chalcidoid dealt with is one of those parasites which

the United States Department of Agriculture Bureau of Entomology

is about to attempt to establish in the state of Utah for the purpose

of aiding in the natural control of the destructive alfalfa leaf-weevil

Phytonomus posticus Gyllenhall.

FAMILY, PTEROMALIDAE,

GENUS PERIDESMIA FOERSTER

Type of the genus—Isocyrtus (Trichomalus) aquisgranenis Mayr, by present

designation.

The genus Peridesmia was described! by Foerster, in a table of genera,

without included species. The description was apparently based upon the

male sex only. Foerster’s original specimens afterward came into the pos-

session of G. Mayr and were described? by him under the name of Jsocyrtus

(Trichomalus) aquisgranensis. Mayr considered Trichomalus Thomson a sub-

genus of Isocyrtus Walker and Peridesmia a synonym of Trichomalus. His

description of 7’. aquisgranensis included both sexes.

Although, strictly speaking, Mayr did not include aquisgranensis in

Peridesmia it is apparent that this species should be considered the genotype

of that genus and it is herewith so designated. In order that the type of

Peridesmia may be definitely fixed the male of Mayr’s description is desig-

1Hym. Stud. 2:65. 1856.

2 Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wein. 1903 :394.

NOV. 4, 1923 GAHAN: CHALCIDOID PARASITE 409

nated the holotype of the species, this seeming necessary because there appears

to the writer to be a possibility that Mayr has wrongly associated the sexes.

The genera of Pteromalidae are at present in a chaotic condition making it

practically impossible, in many instances, to place a species satisfactorily.

Peridesmia may be truly a synonym of Trichomalus as Mayr considered it.

Nevertheless the presence in the male of a perfectly smooth area extending

from the base of the mandible upward along the posterior eye-margin nearly

or quite to the top of the eye, makes the genus readily recognizable in the one

sex, at least, and for that reason the name Peridesmia is resurrected from the

synonymy to cover the species aqguisgranensis Mayr and the new species

described herewith, which are the only two species in which the character is

known to occur.

No specimens of the genotype species have been seen by the writer. Ihe

generic diagnosis here given is, therefore, drawn from the new species. The

characters given by Mayr for both sexes of aquisgranensis agree with this

diagnosis, in so far as they go, except that the propodeum is said to have a

large neck. ‘The new species is practically without a neck on the propodeum

in either sex.

The description of the male of aquisgranensis agrees so closely with the

male of the new species that there can be no doubt that the two are closely

related, and the smooth area on the cheek and posterior orbit is such an

unusual character in Pteromalidae that I find it difficult to believe that it

would occur in two species which differed otherwise by having a large neck

on the propodeum in the one case and practically no neck at all in the other.

Mayr apparently associated the females with the males on the basis of col-

lected specimens which he found in the Foerster collection pinned with the

males but which Foerster seems to have refrained from sending to his corre-

spondents under the name, perhaps because of a doubt as to the correctness of

the association. I am of the opinion that. Mayr may have drawn his descrip-

tion of the propodeum from a female which was wrongly associated with the

male and that the male may be found to lack the neck on the propodeum.

Only an examination of Mayr’s types can settle this point.

Generic description—Head strongly transverse, wider than the thorax and

thin antero-posteriorly; eyes not hairy; occiput concave and immargined;

antennae 13-jointed, inserted near middle of head; scape slender, pedicel

longer than the first funicle joint, two ring-joints transverse, funicle 6-jointed,

club 3-jointed; mandibles both 4-toothed; maxillary palpi 4-jointed; labial

palpi 2-jointed; head of the male somewhat thicker antero-posteriorly than in

the female, the cheeks slightly swollen with a perfectly smooth area extending

from the base of the mandible upward along the posterior eye-margin nearly

or quite to the top of the eye; female without such a smooth area; pronotum

strongly transverse, perpendicularly truncate in front, the truncature not

distinctly margined above, mesoscutum distinctly broader than long, the pa-

rapsidal grooves very delicate but traceable for the whole length of meso-

scutum; axillae broadly separated; scutellum about as long as mesoscutum and

slightly flattened dorsally; propodeum without a neck, punctate, with well

410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 13, No. 18

developed lateral folds and a distinct median carina; propodeum laterally,

hind coxae above, and sides of the abdomen beneath, distinctly hairy; legs

normal, the hind tibiae with one spur; wings fully developed, submarginal

vein more than twice as long as marginal, stigmal subequal to marginal, post-

marginal slightly longer than marginal; abdomen subpetiolate, as broad as

the thorax and about as long as the thorax, elliptical in outline, depressed

above and slightly convex beneath, the apices of ovipositor sheaths barely

exserted.

Peridesmia phytonomi new species.

If the above conjectures regarding aquisgranensis are correct this species

may very possibly be asynonym. Aside from the absence of a neck on the

propodeum the male apparently differs from Mayr’s description only in that

the smooth area on the posterior orbit does not extend to the vertex but

terminates a little below and behind the top of the eye or a considerable dis-

tance from the lateral ocellus.

Female—Length 1.75to2mm. Head with strong close reticulate-punctate

sculpture, the punctures on frons somewhat larger than those on vertex and

face; clypeus with converging striae; malar space as long as the eye; ocellar

triangle very low; postocellar line barely longer than the ocellocular line;

antennae weakly clavate; scape reaching to front ocellus; pedicel twice as

long as thick at apex; first ring-joint about half as long as the second which is

more than twice as broad as long; funicle joints increasing very slightly in

thickness from first to last, the first a little broader than long, second sub-

quadrate, sixth a little less than twice as broad as long; club ovate, barely

thicker than the sixth funicle joint, about as long as the three preceding

funicle joints together, the first and second joints broader than long, apical

joint conical and about as long as broad at base; dorsum of thorax sculptured

like the head, the punctures on mesoscutum very slightly coarser than those

on scutellum; propodeum punctate, a little more strongly so medially that

laterally; spiracles elliptical; mesopleura punctate but with a smooth area

below the base of hind wing; legs rather slender; hind coxae outwardly reti-

culate; forewing bare of discal cilia at base, the apex of costal cell with

a few cilia, and the surface of wing from a little basad of apex of sub-

marginal vein outwardly to apex of wing rather closely set with short

cilia except immediately behind the base of marginal vein where the ciliation

is weak and sparse; hind wing sparsely ciliated at base and more strongly so

beyond the vestigial basal vein; abdomen polished, the petiole very short;

the first segment (not counting the petiole) comprising about one-third the

total length; following segments subequal. Head and thorax dull coppery

green; antennal scape reddish testaceous basally, shading into dark brown

beyond the middle, pedicel and flagellum brownish-black; coxae all concolor-

ous with the thorax, rest of the legs dark reddish testaceous; abdomen above

mostly purplish-black but with the base and apex more or less metallic green,

the under side concolorous with the thorax but more shining; wings hyaline,

the venation dark brown; tegulae testaceous.

Male—Length 1.5 to 1.75 mm. Smooth area on head narrowest at base

of mandible, becoming gradually broader on the cheek and broadest behind the

eye and terminating at a point on the eye-margin about as far below the vertex

as the lateral ocellus is distant from the eye; abdomen shorter than the thorax

and about as broad as thorax, elliptical in outline; antennae more slender than

in the female, the funicle joints all subequal and subquadrate, the scape

entirely testaceous and the pedicel and flagellum brownish testaceous. Other-

wise agrees with description of the female.

Nov. 4, 1923 GAHAN: CHALCIDOID PARASITE 411

Type locality—Hyeres, France.

Type—Cat. No. 26537 U.S. N. M.

Host—Phytonomus posticus Gyll.

Described from twenty-eight females and forty-two males received from

G. I. Reeves of the Bureau of Entomology Laboratory at Salt Lake City,

Utah, under Salt Lake Station No. 2745, and reared from material collected

at Hyeres, France, by T. R. Chamberlain. Specimens of the species are in

the collection of the National Museum also from Milazzo, Sicily.

The species is one of those which the Bureau of Entomology is attempting

to introduce into the western states to combat the alfalfa weevil. The female

is figured in Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 112, p. 35, Fig. 16, where it is

referred to as a Pteromalid egg-parasite of the alfalfa weevil. This figure is

acceptable, except in one respect, i.e. the parapsidal grooves are not nearly

so well defined as illustrated being traceable on the posterior half of the

mesoscutum as very faint lines only.

The larva is said to feed externally on the egg masses of Phytonomus

posticus.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY

164TH MEETING

The 164th meeting of the Botanical Society was held at. the Cosmos Club,

Jan. 2, 1923, at 8 p.m., with Dr. L. C. Corsert in the chair, and 66 persons

present.

Brief notes and reviews of literature:

Dr. A. 8. Hrrcucock stated that the subject of the National Botanic Garden

had been discussed by the Botanical Society of America at the Boston meet-

ing, and that $50.00 had been appropriated to defray expenses of distributing

the circular and map of the proposed Garden to members of the Society.

The appointment of a member residing in Washington, to act jointly with

other societies in the matter, was also authorized.

Program: H. C. Skrets: An early-fruiting strain of the chayote, Chayota

edulis Jacg. (Illustrated.)

The chayote is a perennial cucurbitaceous vine found from Mexico to

Brazil and in the West Indies. The flowers are of two kinds; the pistillate

are usually solitary on short peduncles in the axils of the leaves, while the

staminate are scattered in sessile clusters on separate inflorescences often a

foot long. When both kinds appear at the same node the pistillate flower is

open to receive pollen while the staminate inflorescence is still but an inch

or two long. By the time this inflorescence bears the first staminate flower

ready to shed pollen the pistillate flower has formed a fruit about two

inches long.

The chayote fruit is a small solid squash about six inches long, shaped like

a pear flattened sideways, or in some varieties nearly spherical, and varying in

color from dark green to nearly white. It contains one large flat seed which

often starts to sprout before the fruit falls from the vine, but which remains

inside the fruit, only the tips of the cotyledons protruding half an inch from

the large end and the plumule and radicle developing from between these tips.

412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 18

Two chayotes were planted at Takoma Park, Md., on May 20,1922. The

first fruit was large enough to use on Oct. 15. On Oct. 28, because of threaten-

ing frost, the sixteen largest fruits were picked. The vines, growing on a

grape arbor, were covered with canvas, to protect them from frost, until Nov.

25, when a hard freeze stopped most of the growth. At this time the crop

consisted of a half bushel of fruits more than 4 inches long and enough smaller

ones to fill 3 quart jars; these small fruits were made into pickles.

About the time the first fruit was picked, it was noticed that some of the

staminate inflorescences were bearing pistillate flowers. Some of these

were examined, and were found to have part of the stigmatic surface changed

into another and bearing pollen. Many of these pistillate flowers produced

fruits and, hanging in clusters on the long stalks of the staminate inflores-

cences, formed a marked contrast to the normal fruits which were borne on

short peduncles in the axils of the leaves. It is thought that the extra flori-

ferousness was due to heavy rains during the summer washing manure from

a chicken yard down onto the level ground in which the chayotes were growing.

Chayotes grown at other places in Takoma Park and elsewhere near Washing-

ton did not produce any flowers, though the vines made strong growths and

were apparently healthy. Considering that possibly these two vines might be

developed into an early fruiting strain, one vine was transplanted to the green-

house at the Bell Plant Introduction Garden, Glendale, Md., while the other

is being protected from frost as much as possible where it grew. Ten of the

maturest looking fruits have been placed in cold storage at Arlington Farm

and will be planted next season. It is interesting to know that two fruits from

one of these vines, which have been kept in a moderately cool room, were

showing the tips of the cotyledons on Jan. 2, 1923, proving that they are

mature enough to grow. As the vine at Bell Station is thriving nicely, the

prospects are good for a thorough test of the early fruiting possibilities of this

strain.

Witson Popenor: Fruit-growing and ornamental gardening in Chile.

(Illustrated.)

Chile has been called the California of the South. In topography, in eli-

mate, and in soil it strongly resembles the Pacific coast region of our own

country, and eventually it should vie with California as a producer of fruits

such as the peach, the apricot, the pear, the apple, and the prune. For many

years Chile obtained such large revenues from the nitrate industry that rela-

tively little attention was devoted to agriculture. Since the end of the World

War, nitrate has been at so low a figure that the country has realized the

necessity of greater diversification in its resources. One of the first steps

taken by the government has been to foster the expansion of commercial fruit

growing.

The ornamental plants found in Chilean gardens are, in the majority of

cases, ones familiar to Californians. The Lombardy poplar is much used for

avenues, and a few native Chilean trees, such as Maytenus boaria and Boldoa

fragrans, are seen in gardens. Various species of Hucalyptus and other trees

from Australia are commonly grown, and numerous ornamental plants have

been introduced from the Mediterranean region. On the whole, it may be

said that one familiar with the plants grown in California gardens finds

himself altogether at home in Chile.

Roy G. Prerce, Recording Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 13 NovEMBER 19, 1923 No. 19

GEOPHYSICS.—Density distribution in the Earth. EK. D. Wi1LutAM-

son and L. H. Apams, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Insti-

tution of Washington.

There are four principal sources of information concerning the

interior of the Earth: (1) the constant of gravitation, from which

the total mass and average density of the Earth are determined;

(2) the constant of precession and other astronomic and geodetic data

from which the moments of inertia of the Earth may be calculated,

the moment of inertia allowing important inferences to be drawn

concerning the density distribution within the Earth; (3) seismologic

data from which the elastic constants of the materials in the interior

may be computed; and (4) the known flattening of the Earth as

determined from the data of geodesy with which any assumed dis-

tribution of materials must harmonize. The first three of these

sources, together with the values of the elastic constants of various

rocks previously obtained by the authors,’ provide the basis for the

present estimate of the density and composition of the Earth at

various depths. The bearing of the above classes of data on the

constitution of the Earth’s interior will first be discussed briefly.

Mean density of the Earth. The constant of gravitation from direct

experimental observation is known to be 6.66 X 10-* cm'/g-sec’.

This fixes the average density of the Earth at 5.52, and, as is well

known, this fact alone allows certain qualitative inferences to be

drawn concerning the interior. The density of any ordinary rock is

much less than 5.52; therefore in all probability the density near the

center must be considerably higher than 5.52 in order to bring the

1 Received October 19, 1923.

2 Journ. Franklin Inst. 195: 475-529. 19253.

413

414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 19

mean density of the Earth to the correct value. A number of empiri-

cal laws have been suggested for the increase of density with depth.

The best known of these is the one proposed by Laplace. According

to this the density at any distance r from the Earth’s center is given

by the equation

Pp = — —— | (1)

in which pp is the density at the center and q is a constant of which

the value is fixed by the known total mass of the Earth. Another

well-known relation is that of Roche:

p = po (1 — kr’) (2)

in which k is a constant which also can be determined from the total

mass or the mean density of the Earth. Either of these formulas,

with the usually assumed surface density 2.7, indicates a density at

the center somewhat above 10.

The increased density at the center obviously may be due either to

the presence of heavier material, presumably iron or nickel-iron, or to

a diminution of volume by the tremendous pressure existing at great

depths—or both factors may enter. It has often been assumed that

the increase of density with depth is merely the result of the com-

pressibility of the homogeneous material, and that the Laplace law,

for example, could be used to calculate the compressibility of the

Earth at the surface and in the interior. There is no a priori reason

why this could not be so, but clearly other lines of evidence must be

examined before an answer to this question can be secured.

Moment of inertia of the Earth. It is obvious that for a given mass

(or for a given mean density) the moment of inertia depends on the

distribution of density,’ e.g. if there is heavy material at the center

and light material at the surface the moment of inertia would be

considerably less than if the central density were smaller than that

of the surface. The moment of inertia itself is not sufficient to fix

’ The moment of inertia of a sphere with its mass symmetrically distributed about

the center is

Oo ee

in which p is the density at distance r from the center. For a homogeneous sphere this

becomes

C= apr=04 Mr

M being the total mass.

NOV. 19, 1923 WILLIAMSON AND ADAMS: DENSITY IN EARTH 415

the density distribution; it can be used, however, as an important

check on a density curve deduced from other considerations. The

moment of inertia of the Earth about the polar axis is known to be

close to 8.06 x 10" g-cm’. Since the moment about the equatorial

axis differs from that about the polar axis by only 4 of 1 per cent,

very little error is introduced by dealing with a sphere of radius

equal to the mean radius of the Earth and having a moment of inertia

equal to the value just mentioned.

The moment of inertia of the Harth if of uniform density from

surface to center would be 9.7 x 10“, significantly higher than the

true value. In other terms, the moment of inertia of the earth is

that of a homogeneous sphere of density 4.6. From this fact follows

the qualitative conclusion that in general the density must increase

toward the center, in harmony with the inference already drawn from

the high density of the Earth as a whole.

Transmission of earthquake waves. The velocity with which earth-

quake waves are transmitted through the Earth furnishes important

information concerning the interior. It has been shown from the

theory of elasticity that any disturbance in a sphere of elastic isotropic

material should give rise to various kinds of waves traveling with

velocities depending only on the density and elastic constants of the

material at each point. Waves of two of these kinds pass through

the Earth, while the others, which are less simple to analyze, travel

over the surface. A seismograph recording the time of arrival of the

various waves at some other point would show the arrival first of the

two waves passing through the Earth and later that of the various

surface ones. One of the “‘through-waves’”’ consists of transverse vibra-

tions and travels with a velocity

Us ¥" (3)

while the other consists of longitudinal vibrations and travels with

the higher velocity

[ K+ 3 R

A ere:

R being the rigidity and K the bulk modulus. These thrcugh-waves

should theoretically be easily distinguished from the surface-waves

by the circumstance that their apparent velocity (i.e., the velocity

Up =

(4)

416 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 19

obtained by comparing their times of arrival at various points on the

surface with the corresponding distances from the origin) should

vary with the distance, whereas the velocity of the surface-waves

should be constant. The data obtained from seismograms indicate

that the material of the earth, except at the surface, may be treated

as (megascopically) isotropic. It is fortunate that this is the case,

since otherwise the mathematical treatment of seismologic data would

be extremely difficult.

Starting from a time-distance curve, that is, the times of arrival

of a disturbance at given distances along the surface, by a compara-

tively simple process one can calculate the elastic constants of the

material of the earth at various depths. The steps in the process are

as follows: (a) from the slopes of the time-distance curves the ap-

parent surface velocities of each of the varieties of through-waves is ,

obtained; (b) by graphical integration of a certain function of the

surface-velocity there is obtained the maximum depth for a wave

traveling between two points separated by a specified distance;

determined; (d) and finally, the bulk modulus K and the rigidity R

are calculated from the equations:

R/p = Vs? (5)

K/p = wt — 509 6)

obtained directly from (3) and (A).

With the time-distance curve given by Turner! the velocity-depth

curve shown in Fig. 1 was obtained.’ In this figure the abscissae

represent depth in kilometers and the ordinates the velocity in km/sec.

This curve closely resembles that obtained by Wiechert® and by

Knott.?7. The velocity of both kinds of waves increases rapidly at

first, and then steadily and almost linearly until a depth of 1600 km

is reached, after which the velocity, although nearly constant, shows

a tendency to fall off, especially at about 3000 km. By the use of

equations (5) and (6) it is evident that these curves could be con-

verted into a compressibility-depth and a rigidity-depth curve—pro-

vided that the density were known.

4See Davison, Manual of Seismology, p. 145.

5 further details will be given in a subsequent communication.

6 Nachr. Kgl. Ges. Wiss. Géttingen. 1907, pp. 415-549.

7 Proce. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 39: 167. 1918.

NOv. 19, 1923 WILLIAMSON AND ADAMS: DENSITY IN EARTH 417

Density change due to compression. We shall next use the above

results to determine to what extent the higher density of the interior

of the Earth may be due to compression alone. The decrease in

volume caused by pressure at great depths can not be calculated from

the measured compressibility of rocks, even if the pressure were

known, because the compressibility decreases with the pressure, which

at a depth of only a few hundred kilometers is far beyond the range

of laboratory measurement. But, fortunately, the velocity of trans-

mission of earthquake waves yields information as to the variation

of compressibility (1/K) with depth. The values of K/p at various

depths were calculated by equation (6), and the results are shown in

Velocity, Am fer Sec.

200 400 600 §f00 000 200 /. 7600 /f00

DeprA 17 Ait lore ters

00 2000 22V0 2900 2600 2F00 3o0e 3200

Fig. 1. The velocities of longitudinal and transverse earthquake waves at various

depths below the surface of the Earth as calculated from seismologic data.

column 4 of Table 1. Now, it is reasonable to suppose that from

this information concerning compressibility it would be possible to

determine the aggregate diminution in volume at a given depth on

the supposition of a homogeneous earth whose central density is

made high by compression and not by a change of composition. We

proceed as follows:

In general,

dp _ _ 6.66 X 1078 mp

PAC isk rf s

where g is the acceleration of gravity and p is the pressure at distance

r from the center; and m, the mass of the sphere of radius 7, is obtained

from the relation

418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 19

m=4 r{o redr (8)

Now (7) may be written dp dp _ _ 6.66 x 10°* m p

dp dr r2

but, on the assumption of homogeneity, : ie = K, by definition.

p ap

TABLE 1—First Step In CALCULATION OF THE CHANGE OF Density DUE TO PRES-

SURE AT VARIOUS DEPTHS

10° cm LAPLACE 10” ae (& : xX 10° A In BN

6.37 3.00 5.98 0.299 2.86 0 3.00

6.00 3.61 5.39 0.446 2.24 0.102 3.32

5.50 - 4.44 4.56 0.651 1.54 0.191 3.63

5 .00 D.27 3.86 0.901 1.14 0.261 3.89

4.50 6.08 2.92 1.001 0.96 0.313 4.10

4.00 6.86 2.18 1.001 0.91 0.359 4.29

3.50 7.58 155 1.001 0.84 0.402 4.48

3.00 8.25 1.02 0.890 0.85 0.444 . 4.68

sin 3.726 X 10%

3.727 X 10°r

The values in column 3 are obtained by integration of equation 8, using the above

value for p.

K/p in column 4 equals 0.01 (vp? — # v2).

6.66 X 10~8mp

The sixth column is obtained from the fifth by integration (see equation 9) and

yields the values of p’ in the last column.

The values in column 2 are obtained from the equation p = 10.25

A equals >< 107 using the values in the previous columns.

Therefore, by division

dr © rK

—8

or \ In La = — sosslade at m p dr (9)

p- reK

- being the mean radius of the Earth and p; the surface density.

The density-depth relation is obtained from this equation by

approximation and repeated graphical integration. First the density

at various levels is assumed (consistent, of course, with the known

average density of the Earth). The quantity, 7’, is then plotted

against r, and m found by graphical integration of equation (8).

Nov. 19, 1923 WILLIAMSON AND ADAMS: DENSITY IN EARTH 419

Next, the quantity, mp/r?K, is plotted against 7, and p as a function

of r determined according to equation .(9) by another graphical

integration. This first approximation for p is used to calculate a new

curve for m, which in turn yields a second approximation for p. It

turns out that the convergence is very rapid, so that with almost

any initially assumed values of the density three successive integra-

tions of equation (9) are sufficient.

6.0

350

JO 400 800 200 /600 2000 RY00 £300 38200 3600

DepTs in Nhilomevrers

Fig. 2. For two initial densities, 3.0 and 3.5, these curves show the change of density

due to compression alone. The values are obtained from the variation of compressi-

bility, which in turn is determined from the earthquake velocity-depth curve.

Table 1 shows the first step of such a calculation, the initially

assumed values of p being those given by Laplace’s equation with a

surface density 3.0. From this first step alone it is evident that

Laplace’s distribution of density is impossible if the condition of

homogeneity were fulfilled, ie. the density according to Laplace

increases faster than can be accounted for by compression alone.

The final density curves for two different assumed surface densities

(3.0 and 3.5) are shown in Fig. 2. The proper value to take for the

420 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 19

initial density is difficult to determine. It has been placed all the

way from 2.7 to 3:7 by various investigators. It is generally agreed

that although the average density of surface rocks is from 2.7 to

2.8, corresponding to granite or granodiorite, nevertheless the granitic

layer is relatively few miles deep (say 5 to 20); and that underneath

this very thin skin of granitic (and sedimentary) rocks lies a more

basic material such as gabbro or even pyroxenite or peridotite.

For the moment it will be sufficient to note in Fig. 2 the density

curves with two initial densities, 3.0 and 3.5, corresponding respec-

tively to average gabbro and to dense peridotite. Although the

calculation was carried only to a depth of 3400 km, this limit being

set by the seismologic data, it is clearly evident that the density is

not increasing fast enough to make the mean density of the Earth

equal to 5.5. For the two assumed surface densities the average

density below 3400 km would be 15 and 20 respectively—obviously

much too high to be reached by any reasonable extrapolation of

the density curves. The high central density demanded by the

density curves of Fig. 2 may be considered a consequence of the fact

that the core of radius 3000 km has only 1/9 of the volume of the

Earth whereas 0.3 to 0.4 of the mass remains to be accounted for.

It is therefore impossible to explain the high density of the Earth

on the basis of compressibility alone. The dense interior can not

consist of ordinary rocks compressed to a small volume. We must

therefore fall back upon the only reasonable alternative, namely, the

presence of a heavier material, presumably some metal, which, to

judge from its abundance in the Earth’s crust, in meteorites, and in

the sun, is probably iron. We thus arrive at the conclusion accepted

by the majority of geophysicists, but, in addition, we have here (1)

a quantitative estimate of the increase of density due to compression

alone, and (2) direct evidence of the presence in the See of the

Earth of a dense material such as iron.

Effect of temperature. This is a disturbing and uncertain factor.

From the known temperature gradient at the surface it follows that

the temperature at 100 km depth must be considerably above the

melting-point of ordinary rocks; and it seems unlikely that the central

temperature can be less than several thousand degrees. ‘The effect

of this high temperature on the density is not easily estimated, and

might conceivably be very large, but it so happens that the problem

is simplified by the fact that at high pressures the expansion coefficient

becomes less than at low pressures. Now, the pressure half way down

to the center of the Earth is more than a million atmospheres, and

Nov. 19, 1923 WILLIAMSON AND ADAMS: DENSITY IN EARTH 421

it is not at all improbable that at this pressure the total thermal

expansion would be relatively small. For the present, at any rate,

we shall ignore the effect of temperature, but with some confidence

that in relation to density it is a minor factor.

Previous theories of density distribution in the Earth. Laplace’s

distribution, already mentioned, should perhaps best be regarded as

an empirical relation connecting density with depth, and should not

be taken to imply anything concerning the cause of the increased

density. The law of Laplace has been criticised because it requires

too low a surface density in order to yield the correct value for the

moment of inertia. Darwin’ suggested a different density law with a

surface density of 3.7 g. per cc. He held that the sedimentary layer

on the outside of the Earth was a mere shell, to be considered sepa-

rately, and that the density immediately beneath should be taken as

the starting point.

Dana’ in 1873 and Wiechert!® in 1897 assumed the Earth to be

made up of an iron core surrounded by rock. According to Wie-

chert’s later hypothesis the density of the shell is 3.4 and its thick-

ness 1500 km, the density of the core being 8.4. His distribution”

fits both the mass and moment of inertia of the Earth very well, and

the transition point from rock to metal at 1500 km is in fair agreement

with the sudden change of direction of the curve of earthquake

velocities shown in Fig. 1; but it takes no account of the density due to

compression, and fails to explain why there should not be an actual

discontinuity at the transition point. At moderate pressures the

velocity in basic rocks is notably higher than in iron, and at high

pressures this difference will probably increase rather than decrease.

Moreover, as may be seen in Fig. 1, the velocity below 1600 km

8G. H. Darwin. Proc. Roy. Soc. 1883.

9J. D. Dana, Manual of Geology. (1873.)

10 Nachr. Kgl. Ges. Wiss. Géttingen. 1897, p. 221.

Phys. Z. 11:.294. 1910.

121¢ may be noted that on the assumption of a core and a shell each of uniform

density the radius and density of the core may be calculated from the known mass and

moment of inertia and an assumed outer density by the two equations:

pa — p2 = (pi — po)

in which pq is the mean density, pm is the density of a homogeneous sphere of moment of

inertia equal to that of the Earth, p; is the density of the core, p2 that of the shell, and

x the ratio of the radius of the core to that of the Earth. Thus, if the density of the

outer layer is 3.00, its thickness must be 1300 km. and the density of the core is 8.03;

and if the outer density is 3.40, the thickness of the shell would be 1600 km. and the

central density 8.45.

13 Adams and Williamson. Op. cit.: p. 520.

422 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 19

changes very little—contrary to what might be expected of a homo-

geneous material under a constantly increasing pressure. It may

be argued that the effect of temperature in this region may decrease

the elastic constants and hence also the velocity. But on any hypoth-

esis the temperature is not increasing rapidly as far down as this,

and moreover it seems improbable that increasing temperature would

decrease both the rigidity and the bulk modulus by the right amount

so that the two velocities would remain so nearly constant.

In recent times Goldschmidt™ has postulated an arrangement of

the matter within the Earth as follows: (1) an outer silicate layer

120 km thick and of density 2.8; (2) a layer of dense silicates (eclogite)

extending to 1200 km depth with density varying from 3.6 to 4.0;

(3) an intermediate zone of sulfides and oxides of density 5.6 and

extending to 2900 km; and (4) a central core of nickel-iron having a

density .about 8. The average density of this arrangement is very

close to the accepted value, and the moment of inertia although 3 per

cent too low can be considered in fair agreement. Zoeppritz, Geiger

and Gutenberg,’ and Mohorovi¢ié,!® and others, have adduced evi-

dence in favor of the existence of various shells or layers in the Earth.

For lack of space we can not discuss them here, but will pass on to a

statement of the distribution here proposed.

PROPOSED DENSITY DISTRIBUTION

Outermost layer. The average density of the igneous rocks!’ at

the surface is about 2.8. Allowing for a small amount of sedimentary

rock let us take the surface density as 2.7. The density and basicity

of the rocks must increase with depth, the increase being gradual

but not necessarily regular. Probably the outer 10 to 20 km has the

average composition of a granite or a granodiorite. From the seismo-

graphic records of the Oppau explosion Wrinch and Jeffreys'’ found the

velocity of the longitudinal waves to be 5.4 km/sec which agrees well

with 5.6, the velocity in typical granite at moderate pressures as

determined by Adams and Williamson" from the elastic constants of

the rock. Theoretically the surface velocity can be obtained from the

initial slope of the ordinary time-distance curve, but on account of

144V. M. Goldschmidt. Z. Elektrochem, 28: 411. 1922.

16 Nachr. Kgl. Ges. Wiss. Gottingen. 1912, p. 121.

16 Beitr. z. Geophysik 18.

17H. S. Washington. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 33: 388. 1922.

18 Dorothy Wrinch and Harold Jeffreys. Roy. Astr. Soc., M. N., Geophys. Suppl. 1:

15-22. 1923.

19 On. ctt., p. 520.

NOV. 19, 1923 WILLIAMSON AND ADAMS: DENSITY IN EARTH 423

the scarcity of reliable observations for near earthquakes the extrap-

olation of the surface velocity back to zero distance is unsatisfactory

and, moreover, as emphasized by Wrinch and Jeffreys, the usual

uncertainty regarding the depth of focus would vitiate the results at

short distances. From Turner’s table the surface velocity of the

longitudinal waves seems to be about 7.1 km/sec—between the values

for pyroxenite (7.0) and for peridotite (7.2), and distinctly higher than

that for gabbro (6.9). Other seismologists give 8.0 km/sec for the

velocity just below the “crust.” The seismologic data, although not

yielding a satisfactory value for the velocity near the surface, seem

clearly to indicate a high velocity at a relatively small depth and thus,

in harmony with geological evidence, to imply a preponderance of basic.

material at something less than 100 km. We propose, somewhat

arbitrarily, to take 60 km for the thickness of the layer in which the

rocks change from acid to basic. The lower limit of this layer may or

may not be identical with the depth of isostatic compensation. From

gravity measurements in mountainous regions this depth is placed

by Bowie” at 96 km, but from the data over the whole United States

he places it at 60 km. Washington,”! moreover, finds the average

density of various regions on the Earth to harmonize with the average

elevation on the basis of isostatic compensation at a depth of 59 km.

In any case this layer has a volume of only a few per cent of the total

volume of the Earth and its thickness has little effect on the density

distribution of the Earth as a whole. The basaltic substratum,

postulated by Daly, Wegener, and others, and of great importance

in interpreting the geology of the earth’s crust, is here merely an

incidental feature in the transition from granitic to ultra-basic

material.

Basic Layer. Referring again to Fig. 1, one may note that the

earthquake velocity curves run regularly and almost linearly from

near the surface to about 1600 km depth. It is natural to assume

that this region then is a more or less homogeneous material the bulk

modulus and rigidity of which increase regularly with pressure.

From reasons given below it is probable that the normal density,

i.e. the density at low pressures, of this material is 3.3, which corre-

sponds to 3.35 at a depth of 60 km. The density at other depths may

be obtained by interpolation between the two curves of Fig. 2. Thus,

at 1600 km depth the density has increased by compression to 4.35.

20 W. Bowie. U.S. Coast & Geod. Survey, Sp. Publ. No. 40: 133. 1917.

21H. S. Washington. Op. cit., p. 405.

424 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 19

The normal density 3.3 corresponds to a pyroxenite or a peridotite.

Throughout this whole region the temperature must be very high,

and it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that this layer is all at a

temperature above its melting point, its high rigidity being maintained

by pressure.22 Both the density and the earthquake velocity will

probably be somewhat smaller in such a glassy material than in a

crystalline layer of the same composition, but the difference can

hardly be great enough to nullify the evidence in favor of an ultrabasie

layer.

It has been suggested that meteorites should have the same average

composition as that of the Earth or of any other part of the solar

system. Now this average composition?’ (due account being taken

of the proportion in which stony and metallic meteorites are seen to

fall) corresponds to: olivine, 35; aluminous pyroxene, 42; anorthite, 4;

troilite, 5; nickel-iron, 18. The silicate portion is principally an

olivine-pyroxene mixture and thus is essentially a peridotite, and

should have nearly the same density and compressibility as that

postulated for the basic layer.

Pallasite layer. A remarkable feature of the earthquake velocity

curves (Fig. 1) is the small amount of change beyond a depth of

1600 km. From compressibility measurements the velocity of the

longitudinal waves in iron at moderate pressures is 6.0 km/sec,

whereas the velocity in peridotite is 7.2. At high pressures the

difference will probably be greater. This circumstance immediately

suggests that the nearly constant velocity below 1600 km may be

due to a gradually increasing amount of metallic iron mixed with the

siliceous rock. The normal tendency for the velocity to increase

with depth is thus offset by the admixture, in gradually increasing

amount, of iron (or nickel-iron).

The material in this region may be thought of as resembling certain

meteorites consisting of a heterogeneous mixture of silicates and

metallic iron which is called pallasite. The lower limit of this zone

of incomplete segregation is thought to lie at about 3000 km depth

where the velocity shows distinct evidence of falling off.

Central metallic core. The remaining part of the Earth consists,

beyond reasonable doubt, mainly of iron or nickel-iron with density

2 Cf. R. A. Daly. Igneous Rocks and their Origin. (New York, 1914.) p. 172.

28 Cf. O. C. Farrington. Field Columbian Museum, Geol. Ser., Vol. 3, Publ. No. 120:

211-13. 1911.

W. D. Harkins. Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. 39: 864. 1917.

Nov. 19, 1923 WILLIAMSON AND ADAMS: DENSITY IN EARTH 425

appropriate to the conditions of pressure (and of temperature) existing

in the central region. This density should increase toward the center,

but by a relatively small amount.

Now, if we assume (a) that the density in the surface layer varies

linearly with depth from 2.7 to some chosen density p, at the top

of the basic layer, (b) that in this basic layer the density change can

be calculated by interpolation between the two curves of Fig. 2,

“/

a) 300 4600 2700 GZ0O ZOO YEOO 5600 6400

Depry? tr hilomesers

Fig. 3. The density of the Earth at various depths according to the present estimate

(full-line curve). For comparison Goldschmidt’s distribution (dotted lines), and the

density law of Laplace (broken line) are included.

(the simplest assumption), and (d) that in the central core the density

changes parabolically** (the simplest assumption compatible with

the necessary condition that dp/dr = 0 at the center), the fact that

the distribution must satisfy the known mass and moment of inertia

of the whole Earth, allow us to solve two simultaneous equations and

find the density distribution in the pallasite layer and in-the central

core. If this calculation be carried out for various values of p., it is

found that p, must be close to 3.35 in order to yield a reasonable

density-variation in the central core. The value 3.45 demands that

24 That is, according to the relation p = k, + kor’, ki and kz being constants. :

426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 19

in the core the density decrease with depth. On the other hand the

value 3.25 leads to an unreasonably high density at the center. For

this reason the density at the top of the basic layer has been taken

as 3.35, corresponding, as stated above, to a normal density 3.3 and

to a density 4.35 at 1600 km. The density of the iron would then be

9.5 at 3000 km and 10.7 at the center.

As a tentative distribution and as a basis for future speculation

let us therefore suggest: (1) an outer layer 60 km (about 35 miles)

thick in which the material changes more or less gradually from gra-

nitic to something more basic than a gabbro; (2) a shell extending to

Fig. 4. Diagram intended to suggest the segregation of metallic iron toward the

center, and the zone of pallasite (mixture of iron and silicates) surrounding the central

core.

a depth of 1600 km, consisting of peridotite, that is, mainly of iron-

magnesium silicates and having a normal density 3.3 and a density

at 1600 km of 4.35; (3) a shell of pallasite reaching to 3000 km below

the surface, in which silicate rock is gradually replaced by metallic

iron (or nickel-iron) not yet completely segregated, the density in

this shell changing gradually from 4.35 to 9.5; and (4) below this

layer of pallasite a central core of nickel-iron of nearly constant

density—varying from a little below to a little above 10. The exist-

ence of other layers or of other discontinuities is neither affirmed nor

Nov. 19, 1923 WILLIAMSON AND ADAMS: DENSITY IN EARTH 427

denied. The proposed density distribution merely attempts to

harmonize certain known facts regarding the mass and moment of

inertia of the Earth, the velocities of earthquake waves, and the

compressibilities of rocks.

The distribution here described is shown graphically in Fig. 3

(full-line curve). At the boundary between the various zones the

corners are arbitrarily slightly rounded. This diagram also con-

tains, for comparison, a plot of Goldschmidt’s distribution (dotted

lines), and the density according to Laplace’s law (dashed line) with

surface density 2.7.

roe

28 = 5 r vai

16 ~ t 1

/2 1Z H — |

fressure, itions of “Jega bars

8 = 4 T

04 = : ar r

0 P00 7600 Zoo 3200 4000 ZS0O S500 600

Deplh 17 Hilomerers

Fig. 5. Pressure as a function of depth, derived from the full-line curve of Fig. 3.

Fig. 4 is intended to illustrate the segregation of iron toward the

center and the fringe of pallasite surrounding the iron core. The

depth of the surface layer—60 km—is shown to scale by the thickness

of the outer circular line.

Pressure in the Harth. The pressures corresponding to the present

density distribution were obtained from the equation

iii < 107° gp

aan 2 a

-428 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 19

by graphical integration, m having previously been determined by

another graphical integration according to equation (8). The pres-

sures at various depths are plotted in Fig. 5. At the center the

pressure is 3.18 millions of megabars, remarkably close to the value

obtained from Laplace’s law (3.08 million megabars) when the surface

density is 2.7.

SUMMARY

For the density and composition of the Earth at various depths

there is here proposed a distribution which takes into account the

density change due to compression alone. When it is noted that a

pressure of 1,000,000 megabars is reached at a depth of less than

2400 km, it is evident that the reduction in volume under such a

pressure is a factor not to be neglected. By the use of earthquake

data a quantitative estimate is given of the density change due to

compression of a homogeneous material at various depths—or of that

part of the density change due to compression alone in the case of a

variable composition. The present distribution, moreover, reconciles

the continuity of the velocity depth curves with the difference in

velocity in metallic iron and in basic silicate.

Of the four zones described two are sensibly constant in compo-

sition but not of constant density (the central core of nickel-iron and

the peridotite shell immediately below the surface layer), and two are

of variable composition (the surface layer and the pallasite fringe

surrounding the metallic core).

The distribution here suggested is at best a rough approximation,

but it seems to be the simplest possible arrangement consistent with

the physical, seismologic and astronomic data.

In a paper by Gutenberg (Phys. 94: 296-9. 1923) which has just come to our atten-

tion, there is given a density-depth curve which like ours consists of four parts. By

assuming the core to be of constant density 2.3 times that of the next layer (also of

constant density), Gutenberg calculates that the density of the “Mantel,” extending

from 60 km to 1200 km depth, varies from 3} to 4}. This estimate of the density

change in the outer parts of the Earth is strikingly like our estimate obtained

directly from compressibility and involving assumptions quite different from those of

Gutenberg.

BOTANY.—Note on plants collected in tropical America. H. Prrrtmr.

Between October 1887 and the present time, I have collected about

18,000 plants in Mexico, Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Costa

Rica, Panama, Colombia and Venezuela. These plants have been

numbered in two series, and, as the numbers of the one series are

NOV. 19, 1923 PITTIFR: PLANTS COLLECTED IN TROPICAL AMERICA 429

frequently confused with those of the other, a short explanation may

be helpful to botanists who have to cite any of them.

The first series was started a few days after my arrival in Costa

Rica in October 1887. At that time, I proposed to the Costa Rican

Government that it conduct a general survey of the natural products

of the country, to be carried on simultaneously with the preparation

of a topographic map. The idea was favorably considered and resulted

in the organization of the Physico-Geographical Institute of Costa

Rica, of which I was director until about 1903, and the decline of which

began with my departure for the United States. The Institute as

planned was to consist of meteorological, topographical, geological

and botanical sections, the first three of which were in my immediate

charge. Mr. George K. Cherrie, the well-known American ornitholo-

gist and explorer, began his study of tropical birds while connected

with both the National Museum and the zoological section of the

above-named Institute. The position of botanist was filled by a

Swiss, Mr. Ad. Tonduz, who devoted about thirty years of his life

to plant collecting in Costa Rica, until his death in the fall of 1921.

I myself took an extensive part in the formation of the Costa Rican

Herbarium, and from the beginning saw to it that duplicates of the

plants were widely distributed between the principal collections of

Europe and the United States. I also obtained the collaboration of

a large number of plant specialists, whose monographs and enumera-

tions were partly published by the Institute, with the assistance,

first of Th. Durand, at the time Director of the Royal Botanical

Gardens of Brussels, and later, of the well-known student of the flora

of Central America, Captain John Donnell Smith of Baltimore.!

Originally it had been intended to distribute these plants through

my late friend, the above-mentioned Th. Durand, with whom I had

collaborated in the preparation of the Catalogue de la Flore Vaudorse,

and who certainly succeeded in awakening in me a live interest in the

flora of the country in which I had lately established myself. Labels

were printed with the heading Plantae Costaricenses HKxsiccatae, which

explains the mention of plants under that designation in some publi-

cations. It was soon found, however, that this plan did not work,

and after that, the distribution was made directly from San José.

New labels were prepared with the heading Herb. Inst. phys.-geograph.

costaric., and these were used, not only for the newly collected plants,

but also for the whole series, which includes in all about 23,000 num-

1See Duranp, TH. et Prrrier, H., Primitiae Florae Costaricensis vol. 1, Brussels,

1891-1893; vol. 2 (edited by H. Pittier alone), San José, 1898-1900.

430 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 19

bers. Besides the assistance of Mr. Tonduz, the Institute had the

active collaboration of a number of collectors, among whom were the

late Prof. Paul Biolley of Neuchatel, Switzerland, one of the most

efficient teachers brought into Costa Rica by the Government of this

latter country, Charles Wercklé, an erratic but very keen-eyed botan-

ist, C. Brade, ete., and, among the natives, J. J. Cooper, Anastasio

Alfaro, Carlos Brenes, Otdn Jimenez, and perhaps a few others.

The collecting was continued for several years after I left the country,

until the ultimate numbering went up, if [ am not mistaken, to about

23,000. Of these, I estimate that about a fourth part was collected

by me, half by Tonduz, and the rest by our other co-workers. Of

course, every label bears the name of the collector, which fact was the

origin of a certain confusion which was increased when I started my

own series after I went to Washington. This latter series includes,

up to-the present date, 11053 numbers, and contains plants from

every country of continental America, from Central Mexico to Vene-

zuela, the result of about twenty-two years’ explorations.

The most complete set of the Costa Rican collection is probably

that of the United States National Herbarium in Washington, which,

of course, has also all the plants I brought together while in the

service of the United States Department of Agriculture, and the most

complete set of my Venezuelan collections.

The botanical exploration of Costa Rica revealed that country as

an astonishing center of endemic development for a considerable

number of genera and families, and furnished also a large quota of

new species. The same can be said of certain parts of Panama, such

as the high mountains of Chiriqui and the lowlands of Darien, so

that the collection of types of the National Herbarium has been, and

is still being, considerably increased by the additions proceeding from

these countries.

The plants which form both collections have been, as mentioned

above, very often designated so as to cause mistakes and confusion.

The first series is that of the Physico-Geographical Institute, and the

only right way of citing the plants belonging to it is by mentioning

this fact. For instance, we would have:

Calathea macrosepala K. Schum.—La Verbena de Alajuelita, near

San José, 1000 m., in ditches (Pittier, Inst. Phys.-geogr. cost. 8832);

near Turrialba, 570 m. (T’onduz, Inst. Phys.-geogr. cost. 8310), ete.

Mentioning the first specimen as Pittier no. 8832, as it is done in

Schumann’s monograph of the Marantaceae,’ is misleading, because the

2In Encuer, Pflanzenreich, Heft 1V, 48:84. 1902.

Nov. 19, 1923 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 431

real Pittier no. 8832 in my own series is a Prestonia. Unless I am mis-

taken, Tonduz himself started a new series during the short stay,

interrupted by his death, in Guatemala. To continue the erroneous

system of numbering the collections in the formation in which |

participated, would result, in the end, in thousands of such mistakes,

and that is why I have thought it convenient to give the above expla-

nations, which should be put into the hands of all botanists who are

interested in the flora of Central America and the northern part of

South America.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The following resolution was adopted by the Board of Managers of the

Washington Academy of Sciences at a meeting held October 29, 1923:

Whereas, The work of scientific men has contributed enormously to the

welfare of the human race and especially to the people of the United States

of America, and

Whereas, The government of the United States has recognized the impor-

tance of scientific investigations and research by the creation of many

scientific bureaus, and has appropriated large sums of money for carrying

on their work which has been most beneficial to the health, industries, and

commerce of this country, and

Whereas, Our people should be kept informed promptly and fully of the

progress made and results accomplished by the scientific organizations of

the government, and

Whereas, The members of the government engaged on scientific activities

can only function to the best advantage by having conferences with scientific

men of this country not in government service and with such men of other

countries, and

Whereas, This contact can only be gotten by attendance at scientific

gatherings in this country and abroad; therefore, be it

Resolved, That the Washington Academy of Sciences hereby petition and

urge the President, the heads of departments of the federal government, and

the Congress of the United States to give the welfare of science in the United

States their earnest consideration and assistance; and to provide by law and

by appropriation of the necessary money for the attendance of such scientists

of the government as heads of departments may designate at scientific con-

gresses, conventions, and meetings in this country; and for the attendance of

such scientists of this country, both in the government and in private life, as

may be recommended to the Department of State by competent authority

and approved by the head of that Department or the official acting for him,

as representatives of the United States of America at international scientific

congresses, conventions, and meetings. These appropriations would be

exceedingly small as compared with the returns from them in great benefits

to eee advance in America and hence to the promotion of the national

welfare.

432 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 19

Be it further resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be sent to the

President of the United States, the head of each of the executive depart-

ments, the President of the Senate, and the Speaker of the House of Repre-

sentatives, and that they be published in the Journal of the Washington

Academy of Sciences.

Dr. R. B. Sosman, of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of

Washington, has been appointed by the National Research Council as

American member on the permanent committee for the standardization of

physico-chemical symbols of the International Union of Pure and Applied

Chemistry. The other members of the committee are: Prof. Ernst CoHeEn,

University of Utrecht, chairman; Prof. ALEXANDER Finpuay, ‘University of

Aberdeen, and Prof. CHARLES Marie, Sorbonne.

Dr. Artuur L. Day, Director of the Geophysical Laboratory and Chairman

of the Carnegie Institution’s Advisory Committee in Seismology, gave the

opening lecture of the Franklin Institute series for 1923-24 on October li,

1923. The subject of the lecture was Harthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Dr. Henry S. Graves, dean of the Yale School of Forestry, formerly chief

of the United States Forestry Service, has been elected provost of Yale

University.

Arrangements have been made with the Radio Corporation of America

for a number of short talks on the Smithsonian Institution and its branches

to be broadcasted from Station WRC. The first of these talks, on The Smith-

sonian Institution, its history and functions, was given by Austin H. Cuark

on October 19. The second, on The Bureau of American Ethnology; what tt is

and what it does, was given by Dr. J. W. Fewkes on October 22. Other sub-

jects are The Natural History Museum, The Arts and Industries Museum,

The Zoological Park, The Astrophysical Observator y, and Smithsonian Explora-

tions. It is estimated by officials of the Radio Corporation that these talks

reach an audience of nearly 2,000,000 people, and cover an area 1800 miles

in all directions from Washington.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 13 DECEMBER 4, 1923 No. 20

GEOLOGY.—The age of the supposed Lower Cretaceous of Alabama.

Epwarp W. Brrry, The Johns Hopkins University.!

A considerable area in eastern Alabama, extending from about the

latitude of Montgomery eastward into’ Georgia was mapped in the

80’s and 90’s of the last century by the Alabama and Georgia geologists

as a part of the Tuscaloosa formation of western central Alabama.’

Stratigraphically the beds in question, which are predominately sands

and clays, lie upon the crystallines, and are unconformably overlain

by the sediments of the Eutaw formation.

The physical evidence, admittedly inconclusive, led Clark, Stephen-

son, and the writer, to tentatively regard them as the continuation

of the ‘‘Hamburg beds” of South Carolina, the “Cape Fear” forma-

tion of North Carolina, and the Patuxent formation of Maryland and

Virginia. This opinion seemed to be partially confirmed by the

discovery (in 1910 by L. W. Stephenson) of poorly preserved plant

fossils in a bluff on the Tallapoosa River, near Old Fort Decatur in

Macon County, Alabama. These fossils were submitted to the writer,

who, although unable to conclusively determine any of the forms,

was led by the presence of certain cycadophyte remains, to express

the opinion that the deposit was of Lower Cretaceous age. The

presence of numbers of dicotyledonous leaves led to the suggestion

that these beds were younger than the Patuxent formation and could

scarcely be older than the Patapsco formation of the Maryland-

Virginia region.

This opinion was quoted in whole or in part by Clark in 19113

and by Stephenson in 1912 and 1914.4. The writer visited Old Fort

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.

2 Lanapon, D. W., Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 2: 587-606. 1890; Vearcu, Orro, Geol.

Survey Georgia Bull., no. 18: 82-106. 1909.

3 Cxiarx, W. B., Maryland Geol. Survey Lower Cretaceous pp. 96, 97. 1911.

4 SrmpHENsoN, L. W., U. S. Geol. Survey prof. paper 71: 606. 1912; idem. 81: 11.

1914.

433

434 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 20

Decatur in the summer of 1911 without, however, any success in

obtaining identifiable fossils. No additional attempt at settling the

question was made until the summer of 1923 when Stephenson re-

visited the locality, and collected a small amount of poor material

which was submitted to the writer. Although, as just stated, this

material was as badly macerated and poorly preserved as previous

collections, it contained one form that appears to be certainly identi-

fiable, and several others that it was found possible to name tentatively.

These indicate that the deposit is Upper and not Lower Cretaceous

in age, thus confirming the earlier opinion of the Alabama Geological

Survey. This conclusion seems important enough to warrant the

present note and to justify the appearance in print of the evidence

upon which it is based.

The species positively determined represents Araucarian cone-

scales, first discovered in west Greenland, and named Dammara

borealis by Heer.® The Alabama specimens are shown in the ac-

companying figures 5 and 6. This species has been recorded from a

large number of localities in both North America and Europe, but

since the various known species of Dammara have very similar cone-

scales too much reliance can not be placed upon specific determination.

All of the known fossil species of Dammara are, however, Upper

Cretaceous in age. In this country Dammara borealis has been

recorded from the Raritan, Tuscaloosa, Magothy and Black Creek

formations, and since all of these occurrences except the first were

identified by the present writer, and thus may be presumed to repre-

sent the same species of Dammara, their occurrence at Olid Fort

Decatur points to an age certainly not older and possibly consider-

ably younger than the Cenomanian stage of the European Upper

Cretaceous.

TABLE I

: :

io] a

elas A | 3 :

: 1 fea

«|6 meee leg | a eee

2 Fa a aI A a - < 3S

° m ‘a & a +2) a n &

SAN ta car eeeaniene 4) Sater hte, OR: ae

4 a & & ti a ° Qa i] =

; eC ete aoe So oes

ae WP fe =

Ee r=) A a =) 4 Bs z a a

Cycadinocarpus circularis.............+.| & | & rg

POMIMONG OONCOIS cae al ules vlogs wr a + x les x x

Diospyros PrIMGvG.v ice eee ea | we] ow PR PX |X | Ky XK pe

UNG UCRELACEG SIA Ge ones ee ee ae x x

GME JLECUORD seat atdy heiress ae at ase oe Ps ||! an ee, a he ial >, @ xX | xX

5’ Heer, O., Fl. Foss. Arct., 6: Abt. 2: 54, pl. 37, fig. 5. 1882.

DEc. 4, 1923 BERRY: LOWER CRETACEOUS OF ALABAMA 435

As can be seen from the accompanying figures, the balance of the

material is very incomplete. The tentative determinations which it

has been possible to make are given in the explanation of these figures.

The ranges of the species with which the Alabama specimens have

been compared may be given briefly in tabular form as follows:

‘The wide range, and the uncertainty of identification of these forms

in the present collection, rob them of any certainty for purposes of

precise correlation, but as none of them suggests any late Lower

Cretaceous species known to the writer they are entitled to some

weight, and as all of them have been found in the known Tuscaloosa

formation of Alabama, and as one of the species seems to be positively

identified, it would seem that the plant-bearing beds at Old Fort

Decatur are of about the age of the Tuscaloosa formation of western

central Alabama.

Explanation of Figs. 1-6

1. Salix flexuosa Newberry (?). 2. Inga cf. cretacea Lesquereux. 3. Diospyros

primaeva Heer (?). 4. Cycadinocarpus circularis Newberry (?). 5, 6. Dammara

borealis Heer.

436 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 20

BOTANY.—New species of plants from Salvador. IJ... Pauu C.

Sranp.eEy, U.S. National Museum.

In the present paper the notes upon two species of grasses have been

furnished by Mrs. Agnes Chase, of the U. 8. Department of Agricul-

ture, and the description of a new species of Piper by Dr. William

Trelease of the University of Illinois.

Paspalum botteri (Fourn.) Chase

Dimorphostachys botteri Fourn. Mex. Pl. 2: 14. 1886. Based on Bottert

118, collected at Orizaba, Mexico. The specimen was examined in the Paris

Herbarium. This is the species described as Paspalum macrophyllum

H. B. K. by Nash.2. The type of that species, also in the Paris Herbarium,

was likewise examined, and is found to belong to a different group, not to

that of P. botteri and its allies (the genus Dimorphostachys of Fournier) in

which the first glume is developed in at least one of each pair of spikelets.

Chase in Hitchcock’s Mexican Grasses* misapplied the name Paspalum

planifoltwm Fourn. to this species. That species is based on a Virlet speci-

men (without number) from San Luis Potosi, Mexico, and Miiller 2062

‘in herb. Petrop.”’ The Virlet specimen was examined in the Paris Her-

barium and is found to be the same as P. publiflorum Rupr. Miiller 2062 in

St. Petersburg Herbarium has not been examined. This collection in the

Kew Herbarium is P. ividwm Trin.

Satvapor: Volcano of San Salvador Hitchcock 8956. San Salvador

Calderén 944.

Syntherisma fiebrigii (Hack.) Chase

Panicum fiebrigii Hack. Rep. Sp. Nov. Fedde 8: 46. 1910. Based on

Fiebrig 5371 and 5375 from northern Paraguay, ‘“‘in herb. Hassler.” These

two specimens, named in Hackel’s script, were examined in the Hassler

collection in the herbarium of the Jardin de Botanique, Geneva.

SALVADOR: San Salvador, Calderén 1158.

Piper incanum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub, 1.5 or in richer soil 3-5 m. high, nodose; flowering internodes

moderately slender and short (4X40 mm.), gray-subtomentose; leaves

elliptic or subobovate, acuminate, inequilaterally subcordulate, rather small

(5-6 12-14 or as much as 8X16 em.), pinnately nerved from below the

middle, the nerves 5 or 6X2, gradually approximated downward, at length

bullulate, somewhat thinly appressed-hispid on both faces and gray beneath;

petiole rather short (8X2 mm.) and winged at base, or on the more equi-

laterally truncate-cordulate lower leaves twice as long and winged to or

beyond the middle; spikes opposite the leaves, gray-mucronate, in fruit

380 mm.; bracts roundish-subpeltate, gray-ciliate; peduncle gray-hairy,

12 mm. long; berries obconic, glabrous; stigmas 3, sessile.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. The

first paper of this series was published in the present volume of the Journal, pp. 363-369.

2N. Amer. Fl. 17: 179. 1909.

* Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 17: 234. 1913.

DEC. 4, 1923 §STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM SALVADOR II 437

Type in the herbarium of the University of Illinois, collected at San

Salvador, Salvador, by Paul C. Standley (no. 19129).

Cuscatlania Standl., gen. nov.

Slender perennial herbs with branched stems; leaves opposite, those of a

pair very unequal, the blades entire; flowers in terminal few-flowered leafy-

bracted inflorescences, cymose-paniculate, solitary or in pedunculate clusters

of 2 or 3, surrounded by an involucre of 4-8 distinct foliaceous bracts; perianth

funnelform, corolla-like, purple-red, the tube elongate, scarcely constricted

above the ovary, the limb shallowly 5-lobate; stamens 3, the filaments fili-

form, slightly exserted, inserted upon the perianth tube at its middle, the

anthers didymous; ovary oblong, the style filiform, exserted, the stigma

capitate; anthocarp oblong-obovoid, constricted at base and apex, almost

equally 10-costate.

Type species, Cuscatlania vulcanicola Standl.

In general appearance the present plant closely resembles some of the

species of Allionia and Mirabilis, to which it is no doubt related. In those

genera, however, the flowers are surrounded by a calyx-like involucre of

united bracts. The insertion of the stamens upon the perianth tube is

unique in the family Allioniaceae, so far as I am aware.

Cuscatlania vulcanicola Standl., sp. nov.

An ascending or decumbent herb, the slender branches glabrous below,

puberulent or villosulous above; petioles slender, mostly 1-1.5 cm. long,

glabrous or sparsely puberulent; leaves of a pair very unequal, the smaller

less than half the size of the larger ones; larger leaf blades ovate to oblong-

ovate or lance-oblong, 5-12 cm. long, 3-4.5 em. wide, acuminate or long-

acuminate, very unequal at base, on one side rounded, on the other acute or

acuminate, slightly fleshy, glabrous or nearly so, with numerous and con-

spicuous raphids on both surfaces; cymes dense, the bracts numerous, leaf-

like, 1-2 em. long, densely viscid-villosulous, short-petiolate, the branches of

the inflorescence also densely viscid-villous; flowers sometimes solitary and

often in clusters of 2 or 3, the subtending bracts free to the base, 4 to 8,

foliaceous, lanceolate or oblanceolate to oblong-elliptic, 10-15 mm. long,

acute or acuminate, narrowed at base into a short petiolule, long-ciliate and

viscid-villous; perianth about 3 mm. long, the tube very slender, densely

viscid-villous with very short hairs, the throat 3-4 mm. in diameter; fruit

about 8 mm. long and 3 mm. in diameter, very sparsely and minutely

hirtellous.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,137,438, collected in a

quebrada near the base of the Vole4n de San Vicente, Departamento de San

Vicente, Salvador, altitude about 500 meters, March, 1922, by Paul C.

Standley (no. 21678).

The generic name is derived from Cuscatldn, the ancient name of the

region which now forms the Republic of El Salvador.

Capparis stenophylla Standl., sp. nov.

‘Shrub, 1-1.5 m. high, glabrous throughout; leaves mostly clustered near

the ends of the branches; petioles very variable in length, often nearly ob-

438 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 20

solete and frequently as much as 7 cm. long, slender; leaf blades narrowly

lanceolate to lance-linear, mostly 17-26 em. long and 1.5-6 em. wide, acute

to long-attenuate at apex, rounded or subcordate at base, lustrous above and

with prominulous venation, paler beneath, the venation very prominent,

rather thin; flowers subumbellate, on peduncles 2.5—5 cm. long, the pedicels

slender, 6-20 mm. long; sepals imbricate in bud, rounded-ovate, obtuse,

2-3 mm. long; petals white, 12 mm. long or more; immature fruit long-

stipitate, cylindric, somewhat torulose.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,137,442, collected in a

quebrada near San Vicente, Salvador, altitude about 500 meters, March,

1922, by Paul C. Standley (no. 21681). The following additional specimens

have been examined.

SALVADOR: Sonsonate, alt. 220 meters, Standley 22330. Sierra de Apaneca,

near Finca Colima, Departamento de Ahuachapdn, Standley 20121.

Nicaraaua: Without definite locality, Wright.

Capparis stenophylla may be no more than a narrow-leaved form of C.

baducca L., a common species of Central America, but the leaves are of so

distinctive a form that it seems probable that the Salvadorean shrub merits

specific rank.

Sedum salvadorense Standl., sp. nov.

Plants perennial, the stems suffrutescent, about 14 cm. high and 6 mm.

thick, granular-papillose above; leaves rather few, alternate, narrowly

spatulate-oblanceolate, 2-9 em. long, 0.5-2 em. wide, obtuse or rounded at

apex, narrowed below into a broad petiole, flat, thin and flaccid, green, the

young ones granular-papillose; inflorescence a dense few-flowered cyme

about 2 em. broad, the bracts small, linear or oblanceolate, papillose, the

pedicels slender, 2-8 mm. long; sepals linear-oblong, 44.5 mm. long, nar-

rowed to a blunt apex; petals white, oblong-ovate, equaling the sepals,

cuspidate-acute.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,136,003, collected on a rock

in forest, Finca Colima, Sierra de Apaneca, Departamento de Ahuachapan,

Salvador, January, 1922, by Paul C. Standley (no. 20143).

Only a single colony of the plants was found, and the plants were some-

what withered as the result of the long dry season. In spite of their unsatis-

factory condition, the specimens seem to represent a species clearly distinct

from any heretofore reported from Central America or from Mexico.

Prunus axitliana Standl., sp. nov.

Shrub or tree, 3—-7.5 m. high, glabrous throughout, the crown broad and

rounded, the young branchlets bright red; petioles slender, 7-11 mm. long,

bright red; leaf blades ovate or elliptic-ovate, 5.5-11 em. long, 2.5-5 em. wide,

obtusely acute or acuminate, rounded to subacute at base, very lustrous on

the upper surface, the costa depressed, paler and dull beneath, the slender

costa salient, two small round glands present on the lower surface of the blade

about 3 mm. above the base; fruiting racemes solitary on young branchlets

of the year, stout, about 4 em. long, few-fruited, the pedicels stout, 6 mm.

long; calyx deciduous; fruit subglobose, 10-12 mm. in diameter.

pec. 4, 1923 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM SALVADOR II 439

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,152,610, collected on hills

near Santa Tecla, Salvador, March, 1923, by Dr. Salvador Calderén (no.

1519). The following sterile specimens obtained by the writer in 1922 also

belong here:

Sautvapor: Santa Tecla, alt. about 900 m., Standley 23011. Voledn de

San Vicente, alt. 1500 m., Standley 21515.

Prunus axitliana is related to P. samydoides Schlecht., a Mexican species,

but is distinguished by its solitary racemes and large leaves. Dr. Calderén

reports the vernacular name as cangrejillo. The specific name commemorates

the King or Topilzin Axitl, founder of the Province of Cuscatlén and of the

kingdom Hueytlato or Payaqui, now the Republic of El Salvador.

Acacia calderoni Standl., sp. nov.

A shrub, the branches brown, the young ones densely fulvous-pilose,

unarmed; stipules linear-subulate, 5-7 mm. long; petioles 1.5-2 cm. long,

without glands, the leaf rachis 5-7 cm. long, densely fulvous-pilose; pinnae

6-9 pairs, mostly 3.5-5.5 cm. long; leaflets about 23 pairs, oblong, 4-6 mm.

long, 2 mm. wide, very obtuse, densely covered on both sides, especially

beneath, with curved yellowish hairs, the venation obsolete on the upper

surface, but both costa and lateral nerves prominent beneath; peduncles

axillary or forming a terminal raceme, solitary or geminate, 1—-1.5 cm. long,

densely pilose; flowers racemose, the racemes very dense, 1.5-2 cm. long,

about 1.5 cm. in diameter, the pedicels very short; calyx and corolla 2.5 mm.

long, densely pilose with short yellowish hairs.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,151,942, collected on the

Cerro de la Olla, on the Guatemalan frontier near Chalchuapa, Salvador, in

1922 by Dr. Salvador Calderén (no. 977).

Closely related to A. polypodioides Standl., a species of southern Mexico

and Nicaragua, but easily recognized by the elongate racemes, the flowers of

A. polypodioides being capitate.

Pithecollobium microstachyum Standl., sp. nov.

Tree, 6-7.5 m. high, the young branchlets slender, puberulent or short-

pilose; stipular spines stout, brownish, 1.5 cm. long or less; petioles sometimes

4 em. long but often much shorter, glabrous, or puberulent, bearing at the

apex a stout columnar sessile gland; pinnae one pair, the leaflets also one

pair, nearly sessile, oblong to oblong-obovate, mostly 3.5-7 cm. long and

1.5-3 cm. wide, but on flowering branches often not over 1 em. long, rounded

or very obtuse at apex, oblique and obtuse or rounded at base, thick, slightly

glabrous but ciliate when young, the venation prominently reticulate on both

surfaces; flowers dirty white, in slender spikes 1-3 cm. long, these mostly in

ample terminal panicles, the rachis pilosulous, the bracts lance-oblong, shorter

than the calyx; calyx sessile, about 1 mm. long, acutely dentate, minutely

appressed-pubescent; corolla 3 mm. long, minutely sericeous, the lobes

oblong-lanceolate, acute; stamen tube not exserted; fruit several-seeded,

short-stipitate, curved or coiled, minutely puberulent or glabrate, the valves

thin, red or pink, constricted between the seeds; seeds black and shining, 7-8

mm. long and broad, compressed, surrounded at base by a fleshy white aril.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,136,477, collected in dry

440 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 20

thicket near La Unién, Salvador, near sea level, February, 1922, by Paul

C. Standley (no. 20646). The following additional specimens have been

collected:

Satvapor: Acajutla, Calderén 1663; Standley 21975.

Honpuras: Amapala, Standley 20744.

It is probable that this is the tree reported from the Gulf of Fonseca by

Hemsley as P. oblongum Benth. The Salvadorean plant is distinguished

from that species by its elongate spikes and very small flowers. The vernac-

ular name employed at La Unidén is mongollano, a name applied also to P.

dulce (Roxb.) Benth.

Apalatoa choussyana Standl., sp. nov.

Tree, the branchlets and leaves glabrous; bud scales densely brownish-

tomentulose; leaflets 6 or 8, oblong or lance-oblong, 3-6.6 cm. long, 1.5-2

cm. wide, acute or short-acuminate, with blunt tip, unequal at base, cuneate

on one side, rounded on the other, thick and firm, lustrous above, paler

beneath, the costa subimpressed above, prominent beneath, the lateral

nerves not conspicuous; petiolules 2 mm. long, the leaf rachis and petioles

together 5-8 cm. long; rachis of the inflorescence and peduncle in fruit 5-9

cm. long, glabrous; fruiting pedicels 4—5 mm. long, stout; legume orbicular

or rounded-oval, 5-7 em. long, 4-5.5 cm. wide, thin, with slightly thickened

margin, densely and minutely fulvous-tomentulose, conspicuously rugose.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,152,621, collected on the Finca

San Nicolds, Salvador, May, 1923, by Dr. Salvador Calder6n (no. 1573).

At the request of Dr. Calder6én this species is named in honor of Mr.

Felix Choussy, for many years a resident of Salvador and formerly director

of the Escuela de Agronomia, of the Salvadorean government, which was

located at Izaleo. The vernacular name of the tree is said to be chichzpate.

Only one species of Apalatoa has been reported previously from Central

America, A. Acuminata (Benth.) Standl.,4 which was collected by one of the

collectors who accompanied the British ship Sulphur in its voyage along the

western coast of tropical America. The type of this species is said to have

come from ‘‘Central America,” and it is probable that it was collected either

at Realejo, Nicaragua, or about the Gulf of Fonseca. The writer has seen

no specimens of A. acuminata, but according to the description, it differs from

A. choussyana in its large, abruptly acuminate leaflets, which are widest

above the middle. Apalatoa antillana (Urban) Standl.* also is closely

related to the Salvadorean tree, but differs in its larger, thinner, and com-

paratively narrow leaflets.

Cashalia Standl., gen. nov.

Large unarmed trees; leaves odd-pinnate, the leaflets herbaceous; stipules

minute, caducous; flowers racemose, the racemes elongate, many-flowered,

simple, the bracts and bractlets caducous; calyx tube broadly campanulate,

4 Crudia acuminata Benth. Bot. Voy. Sulph. 89. 1844.

5 Crudia antillana Urban, Symb. Antill. 6: 10. 1909.

Dec. 4, 1923 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM SALVADOR II 441

the limb 5-lobate, the 3 lower lobes triangular-ovate, subequal, the 2 upper

ones similar, united for half their length; petal one, rounded-obovate, nar-

rowed below into a broad claw; stamens 10, free, subhypogynous, the filaments

slender but broadened below, glabrous, subequal, the anthers oval, uniform,

attached near the base, dehiscent by longitudinal slits; ovary short-stipitate,

2-ovulate, attenuate to a slender curved style, the stigma terminal, minute;

fruit ovoid or cylindric, 1 or 2-seeded, turgid and subterete, coriaceous,

bivalvate; seeds large, ovoid, exarillate, without endosperm, the cotyledons

thick and fleshy, the radicle very short, inflexed.

Type species, Cashalia cuscatlanica Standl.,

Cashalia cuscatlanica Standl., sp. nov.

A very large deciduous trec, the young branchlets and petioles densely

brown-pilose with stiff spreading hairs; leaves petiolate, the rachis 20-35

em. long, subterete, brown-pilose; leaflets usually 11 or 13, alternate, the

petiolules stout, 2.5-6 mm. long, densely pilose, the blades mostly oblong or

lance-oblong, usually broadest below the middle but some‘imes broadest

toward the apex, acuminate or long-acuminate, broadly rounded or sub-

cordate at base, mostly 9-23 cm. long and 2.5-9 cm. wide, the lower ones

smaller, thin, bright green on the upper surface and glabrous, beneath

paler, densely pilose with short spreading brownish hairs, the lateral nerves

13-19 pairs, nearly straight, extending quite to the margin, the secondary

nerves in age prominent and closely reticulate; rachis of the racemes about

30 cm. long, stout, densely brown-tomentose, the pedicels stout, 2-3 mm.

long; calyx about 8 mm. long, densely brown-tomentose, the lobes about

equaling the tube, obtuse or subacute, tomentose within; standard about

18 mm. long, the blade 15 mm. broad, rounded at apex, tomentose on the

outer surface, glabrous within; stamens about 15 mm. long, the anthers

scarcely 1 mm. long; ovary densely brown-pilose, the style nearly glabrous;

fruit 6-10 cm. long, subterete, acute at base and apex, covered with a very

dense and fine, brown tomentum, the stipe very stout, about 6 mm. long;

seeds terete-ovoid, 3-4 cm. long, 2 cm. in diameter, pointed at base, rounded

at apex.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,136,051, collected in mountain

forest on the Finca Colima, Sierra de Apaneca, Departamento de Ahuachapdn,

Salvador, January, 1922, by Paul C. Standley (no. 20197). The following

additional collections belong here:

SALVADOR: Comasagua, December, 1922, Calderén 1379. Hills near

Santa Tecla, July, 1923, Calderén 1752.

The genus Cashalia, a member of the family Fabaceae, appears to be closely

related to Tounatea (Swartzia), the specimens of the Salvadorean tree bearing

some superficial resemblance to the curious Brazilian Swartzia polycarpa

Ducke. In the genus Tounatea, so far as can be learned, the stamens are

always numerous. Bentham and Hooker state that the ovules also are

numerous, but this is improbable since the various species often have one-

seeded fruits. The calyx of Cashalia is very different from that of Townatea,

and there is nothing to indicate that it is closed in anthesis, as it is in the latter

genus.

Cashalia cuscatlanica is perhaps the most abundant and probably the

largest tree in the primeval forest of the Finca Colima. At the time of the

writer’s visit to that region, the trees were in flower and nearly devoid of

442 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 20

leaves. The trees were so large that it was impossible to climb them in

order to get specimens, but some of the racemes were found upon the ground

and leaf specimens were secured from young plants. Dr. Calderén’s speci-

mens from Comasagua are sterile, but recently he was so fortunate as to find

ample fruiting material on the hills near Santa Tecla, whose flora is similar

to that of the Sierra de Apaneca. Dr. Calderén has forwarded a photograph

of the tree from which the fruits came, eivdently a gigantic one, which he

states was larger than a ceiba, sufficient indication of its size to those who are

acquainted with Central American trees. The seeds were found upon the

ground, where they were beginning to germinate, their cotyledons at that time

being of a deep but brilliant green.

This tree is well known in Salvador, under the vernacular name of cashal.

It is said to be an important lumber tree.

Amerimnon cuscatlanicum Standl., sp. nov.

Tree, the branchlets and leaves glabrous; stipules oblong-ovate, 10-12

mm. long, obtuse, soon deciduous; leaves somewhat blackened in drying,

the petioles and rachis slender, 20-25 cm. long, the petiolules slender, 2.5—4

mim. long; leaflets 13-17, lance-oblong or the lowest ovate, 6-10 cm. long and

2-2.5 em. wide, the lower ones smaller, slightly narrowed to the obtuse apex,

rounded to subacute at base, thin, bright green above, the venation promi-

nently reticulate, much paler beneath, the venation prominent and finely

reticulate; racemes numerous, forming a dense panicle about 8 cm. long on

old wood, the bracts similar to the stipules, ciliate, the branches densely

brown-pilosulous, the bractlets minute, oblong, densely pilosulous; flowers

white, about 16 mm. long; calyx 4-5 mm. long, densely brown-pilosulous, the

lobes about equaling the tube, oblong-ovate, obtuse, the carinal lobe much

longer and narrower than the others; petals glabrous, the standard short-

clawed, the blade suborbicular, 12 mm. long, rounded at base, obscurely

retuse at apex, the wings obovate, oblique, rounded at apex, nearly 10 mm.

long.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,152,618, collected at San

Salvador, Salvador, in 1923, by Dr. Salvador Calderén (no. 1557). Sterile

specimens which probably represent the same species were collected at

Comasagua in December, 1922, by Dr. Calderén (no. 1555).

The Salvadorean tree is related to Amerimnon lineatum (Pittier) Standl.®

and A. retusum (Hemsl.) Standl.,” of Costa Rica and Panama, but differs

from both in its perfectly glabrous leaflets, which are also more numerous

and narrower. The vernacular name is funera. The wood is highly valued

for cabinet work and for general construction purposes.

Amerimnon lineatum, described from the Nicoya Peninsula of Costa Rica,

also has been collected at San Salvador, where it bears the name of funera.

Dr. Calderén states that the trees of A. cuscatlanicum are leafless during the

dry season, but that in the middle of March the young leaves and flowers

are produced, the flowers, however, lasting only two or three days. The

stipules are conspicuous upon the very young branches, but quickly fall.

6 Dalbergia lineata Pittier, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 12: 63. 1922.

7 Dalbergia retusa Hemsl. Diag. Pl. Mex. 8. 1878.

DEC. 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 443

The specific name is derived from Cuscatldin, the aborginal name of the

Valley of San Salvador and of its principal city.

Amerimnon melanocardium (Pittier) Standl.

Dalbergia: melanocardium Pittier, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 12: 57.

1922.

The type of this species was collected in the Department of Santa Rosa,

Guatemala. It has been recollected recently at Santa Tecla, Salvador, by

Dr. Salvador Calderén (no. 1517), who reports the vernacular name as

chapulaltapa, a name applied -in Salvador to several leguminous trees of

various genera.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

176TH MEETING

The 176th meeting of the Acapemy was held jointly with the Geological

Society of Washington, the Biological Society of Washington, and the Botani-

cal Society of Washington in the Auditorium of the Interior Building, the

evening of Wednesday, March 14, 1923. The evening was devoted to a

sympos'um upon The fossil swamp deposit at the Walker Hotel site, Connecti-

cut Avenue and De Sales Street, Washington, D. C. The program was as

follows:

C. K. WentwortH. The geologic relations. (Read with supplemental

remarks by L. W. STEPHENSON.)

E. Brown, Department of Agriculture. Seeds and other plant remains.

(Presented by FREDERICK V. CovVILLE.)

E. W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University. The plant remains and their

significance.

ALBERT MAnn, Carnegie Institution. The remarkable fresh water diatom

flora from the swamp deposit, and its significance.

LAURENCE LA Foren. The physiographic relations of the swamp deposit.

These addresses will be published in full in the JourNnat of the Washington

Academy of Sciences.

177TH MEETING

The 177th meeting of the AcaApEmMy was held jointly with the Philo-

sophical Society of Washington, the Washington Society of Engineers, and the

American Society for Steel Treating, in the Auditorium of the Interior Build-

ing, the evening of Saturday, March 31, 1923. Dr. Water RosENnuHaIn,

F. R.8., of the National Physical Laboratory, England, delivered an address

entitled, The structure and constitution of alloys.

Dr. RosENHAIN discussed the general theory of the constitution of ferrous

and non-ferrous alloys, the construction of constitutional diagrams which

represent graphically the transformations that occur in a metal or an alloy

on cooling or heating, their interpretation and relation to the physical prop-

erties of alloys. Lantern slides of typical constitutional diagrams were shown

and discussed. The question of laboratory equipment for the study of the

structure and physical properties of alloys was next considered, and many

interesting photographs and diagrams were shown of apparatus developed

444 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13,,No. 20

by Dr. Rosenuatn and his collegaues at the National Physical Laboratories.

These included special microscopes, heating and quenching furnaces, special

furnaces for the determination of thermal transformations and high tem-

perature thermostats. The latter are used for the heating of alloy speci-

mens for a period of several weeks or months at a constant temperature

which has been proved necessary to obtain equilibrium conditions. The

development of this thermostat has made possible the determination of the

constitutional relation of certain alloys in which the phase changes take

place very slowly and about which there has consequently been considerable

doubt.

Dr. RosEnHAIN also discussed briefly the organization of the department

of metallurgy at the National Physical Laboratories and some of their prob-

lems, particularly their work on the ternary diagrams of the light aluminum

alloys.

178TH MEETING

The 178th meeting of the AcAprmy was held jointly with the Philo-

sophical Society of Washington and the Chemical Society of Washington in

the Auditorium of the Interior Building, the evening of Tuesday, April 17,

1923. Dr. James C. Irvine, Principal and Vice-Chancellor, University

of St. Andrews, and Dr. F. G. Donnan, Professor of Chemistry, University

College, London, addressed the Societies concerning their own recent re-

searches in chemistry.

Principal IrviINE spoke on researches on The constitutional formula of

starch. The first step was to determine the constitution of maltose, and

this proved amenable to a method already developed by the speaker in

which glucosides and complex carbohydrates are methylated before hydrol-

ysis. Determination of the constitution of the scissive products thus ob-

tained shows how the constituents of the complex molecule have been com-

bined. By this method the maltose molecule was shown to be formed from

two glucose residues by junction at the ends of the carbon chain. A similar

process carried out on starch showed that two-thirds of the products cor-

responded with those obtained from maltose, but the remaining one-third

showed that a third molecule of glucose goes to make up the unit molecule of

starch and that it is attached in the manner characteristic of cellulose. The

simplest possible unit for starch is therefore one containing the nuclei of

three molecules of glucose, two attached as in maltose and the third as

mentioned above. An objection to this is that some experimenters have

claimed a larger yield of maltose than the 72 per cent which would result

from starch of this structure. These yields, however, refer to material

which does not behave as a chemical individual towards bacteriological

tests, and the most careful experimenters have declared that the maximum

yield of the pure substance is about 70 per cent.

Professor Donnan discussed Membrane equilibrium. He dealt with a

number of cases of solutions separated by membranes which are imper-

meable to certain of the ions. The exact equations for the relative concen-

trations can be obtained by Gibbs’ method of equating the u-function for

the ions which can pass the division. Approximate results may be ob-

tained by using the usual dilute solution formula for the y-function. These

approximations agree fairly closely with the results of a large number of

experiments on solutions of various salts separated by ferrocyanide and

other membranes. The predicted differences in e.m.f. across the membrane

also agree fairly well with the facts.

DEC. 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 445

179TH MEETING

The 179th meeting of the AcapEemy was held jointly with the Geological

Society of Washington and the Philosophical Society of Washington in the

Auditorium of the Interior Building, the evening of Wednesday, April 18,

1923. The program consisted of three addresses dealing with The Taylor-

Wegener hypothesis.

The first paper, by Franx B. Taytor, was entitled, The lateral migration

of land masses.

One of the most remarkable things on the Earth is the great belt of Ter-

tiary fold-mountains which forms a nearly complete girdle around the

globe. It is believed that the distribution of this belt and certain other

well defined characteristics associated with it furnish the key to the nature

of the cause which made it. These mountains form a folded and faulted

margin along the entire southern front of the continent of Eurasia; then

passing over into North America through the are of the Aleutian Islands,

which in reality belongs to the Asiatic structure, the belt turns southward

and forms the Cordilleran ranges through the entire length of the two

Americas. From the East Indies a branch extends eastward and southward

around the north and east sides of Australia to New Zealand, but shows only

as chains of volcanic islands. The ranges of the entire belt are all of sub-

stantially one age; they were all either greatly augmented or made outright

in the Tertiary age.

The salient facts are these, and they have a profound bearing on the nature

of the cause: (1) The Tertiary ranges which lie along the southern margin

of Eurasia show many times the strength of those parts which are related

to the two Americas and to Australia, and this applies to all of the phe-

nomena associated with them—to the arcuate expression of the ranges and

the larger earth-lobes, to the rifts in high latitudes, and to the narrow fore-

deeps. (2) Although the development of subsidiary arcs in the two Ameri-

cas is much weaker than in Asia, it is much stronger than that associated

with Australia, where no subsidiary arc-forms are recognizable. (3) The

cause, whatever its nature, is clearly and strongly related to latitude. The

continental crust-sheets of Eurasia and North America migrated in southerly

directions, while at the same time those of South America and Australia

moved in northerly directions. All of the masses that moved migrated from

high latitudes toward low latitudes, as though impelled by a force which

tended to increase slightly the oblateness of the Earth’s figure. (4) The

Tertiary mountain belt mapped on Mercator’s projection does not give a

true idea of the relation of the crustal sheet of Eurasia and its marginal

mountain belt. On a north-polar projection, or better on the land-hemi-

sphere, one sees that from the Canary Islands to the mountain angle in Alaska

is about 230° of longitude, or considerably more than half-way around the

globe. The striking uniformity of strength through this whole distance is

strong proof that it was the continental crust-sheet which moved southward

in forming the mountains, rather than the sinking and landward thrust-

ing of oceanic segments, an idea which would require India and Africa to be

counted with the sinking masses, whereas Suess says that India and Africa

remained unmoved during the Tertiary mountain-making. Many separate

segments would necessarily be involved, but to produce the observed uni-

- form result they must all act with about equal strength, and with markedly

446 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, NO. 20

ereater strength than those segments which affected the two Americas and

Australia.

In the opinion of the writer the movements of the continental land masses

in the Tertiary mountain-making are not in accord with any form of con-

traction hypothesis, neither with that derived from Laplace, nor Chamberlin,

nor Wegener, but are in perfect accord with the action of a tidal force. The

present tidal force exerted by the Moon upon the Earth is calculated to be

equal to about 1/1,000,000th of gravity—too small, apparently, to be re-

garded as competent. The problem, then, is to find a competent tidal force.

For many years the writer has entertained a theory of direct capture for

the origin of satellites, including, of course, the Moon. The event of the

Moon’s capture toward the close of the Cretaceous period, and its retention

as a permanent satellite of the Earth, furnishes the circumstance and a

competent agency for the production of the necessary tidal force. The

following considerations are believed to afford adequate support for this

claim.

‘“‘The tide-producing force of a body varies inversely as the cube of its

distance and directly as its mass.’’ (Young’s Manual, 1912, p. 303). ‘The

Moon’s present mean distance is in round numbers 240,000 miles. At half

this distance the tide-producing force would be 8 times as strong. At 1/10th

or 24,000 miles it would be 1000 times as strong. At 1/20th or 12,000

miles it would be 8000 times as stong. The present tidal force is equal to

about 1/1,000,000th of gravity. At 24,000 miles it would be 1/1,000th of

gravity, and at 12,000 miles 1/125th of gravity.

The eccentricity of the Moon’s present orbit is 0.0549, or nearly twice

that of any other large satellite. The first fourteen of the short-period com-

ets in Young’s table (p. 586) have eccentricities ranging from 0.40 to 0.84.

If the Moon was acquired by direct capture, as here postulated, its eccen-

tricity must have been much greater at first than it is now. In the absence

of direct knowledge, it seems reasonable to assume that the Moon’s eccen-

tricity at the time of capture was of about the same order of magnitude as

those of the short-period comets or something between, say, 0.50 and 0.90.

Thus, when the Moon was first captured, the tidal force was, in all probability,

something between 500 and 3000 times as strong as it is now. With the

Moon’s perigee 24,000 miles from the Earth, the tidal force would be 1000

times greater than it is now, and this is certainly a conservative assumption

for the Moon’s eccentricity at that time, and for its distance at perigee.

Since capture, the reduction of eccentricity has, of course, been extremely

slow, capture having taken place at least two or three millions and perhaps

four or five millions of years ago.

At the present time earthquakes show well marked maxima and minima

corresponding to the Moon’s nearest and farthest distances from the Earth

respectively. This effect is intimately responsive to the varying power

of the tidal force, and with increasing degrees of eccentricity and decreasing

distance of perigee it would be rapidly increased under the law stated above.

The maximum tidal force would, of course, act for only a few days in each

month, but it would be very powerful and fully competent, in the writer’s

opinion, to produce the observed results. It would tend to increase by a

small amount the oblateness of the Earth, and would by so much increase,

1In a paper entitled Bearing of the Tertiary Mountain Belt on the origin of the

Earth’s plan (Bull. G.S. A., 21: 179-226. 1910) the writer discusses these and other

points more fully.

DEC. 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 447

in effect, the altitude of all lands in high latitudes. It would also exert a

powerful force tending to cause high-standing crustal masses in high and

middle latitudes to creep away toward low latitudes, leaving rifts near the

poles, and causing folding, faulting, and uplifting, with narrow outside fore-

deeps in a marginal belt toward the equator, precisely as is so well ex-

emplified in the distribution and characteristics of the great Tertiary moun-

tain belt. To accomplish this, the Earth, in the writer’s opinion, must be

supposed to have a solid, rigid central body, viscous to prolonged stress in

a film next beneath the zone of fracture.

The crustal movements and mountain-making of the earlier geologic

periods are not related in any way to the Moon’s tidal force, for the Moon

had not then been captured. - They are, in all probability, related to the

solar tidal force which was much more powerful in its action on the Earth,

when the Earth was nearer to the Sun. (Author’s abstract.)

A critical review of the Taylor-Wegener hypothesis was next presented by

Prof. Regrnatp A. Daty, Harvard University.

According to Pepper’s Playbook of metals, published in 1861, the sug-

gestion that continents have migrated through long distances had already

been clearly expressed by M. A. Snider. The idea was adopted by O. Fisher

in his Physics of the Earth’s crust (1889), and has been greatly elaborated

by F. B. Taylor (1910) and A. Wegener (1912-1922). The general grounds

for the hypothesis include: many topographic, structural, and _ biological

(paleontological) correspondences among the continents; the difficulties of

land-bridge theory; the difficulties facing other theories of crustal deforma-

tion; and the asymmetry, arcuate plans, of mountain chains. The follow-

ing abstract relates especially to Wegener’s statement.

Wegener assumes (1) that essentially all of the Paleozoic land formed one

continent, which had been derived from a universal salic shell of the primi-

tive earth; (2) the flotation of this unique continent in a practically fluid,

basaltic shell (the Sima), which also floors the whole ocean; (3) the existence

of a force sufficient to cause a drift of continental blocks toward the equator

(the Polflucht); (4) the existence of a force sufficient to move each continent

to the westward (Westwanderung); and (5) the spasmodic displacement of

the earth’s axis of rotation with reference to the crust, and that through

many tens of degrees.

He concludes that the Polflucht force caused the east-west mountain chains

of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. During the Mesozoic the

great continent was broken into large fragments which then, and at inter-

vals until the present day, drifted, and either separated, with the formation

of the Arctic, Atlantic, and Indian oceans, or collided, with the development

of mountain ranges in the loci of collision. He explains all islands as funda-

mentally salic, representing the smaller fragments; the arcuate mountain

ranges of eastern Asia are fragments left behind during the westward migra-

tion of Eurasia. With these exceptions all mountain chains are attributed

to the downstream pressures exerted by moving continental blocks. Taylor

had adopted the same conclusion but made no exception of the east-Asiatic

arcs, whose asymmetrical but systematic plan prompted his statement of

1910.

Wegener’s assumption of practically no strength in the sub-oceanic crust,

the salic, continental part having notable strength, is basal to his whole

reasoning and yet appears to be quite indefensible. Believing the Szma,

cold or hot, to be essentially fluid, he could permit himself to think that

448 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 20

rotational and tidal forces are adequate to cause the Polflucht and West-

wanderung of floating continents. Lambert, Epstein, and Schweydar have

proved the insignificance of these forces.

Wegener lays down as a principle that, during the westward migration,

the larger continental blocks should outstrip the smaller. Yet he considers

the less massive Americas to have moved faster than Eurasia-Africa, which

was also left behind by the long but narrow fragment represented in the

mid-Atlantic swell. This is but one of several inconsistencies in his reason-

ing.

His speculation regarding extensive wanderings of the poles encounters

both geophysical and geological difficulties. With the earth’s axis in the

positions given in the third edition of his book, one has trouble in accounting

for many facts, including: the Mesozoic coals of South Africa and the Cre-

taceous coals of British Columbia; the persistence of the Tethys and cor-

related lands; and the postulated movement of India (which actually had

to climb the Polflucht slope). Wegener assumes peninsular India to have

been endowed with energy out of all proportion to its mass, but offers no

reason for the peculiarity of this particular fragment of the Paleozoic con-

tinent. ~

Wegener’s presentation of the case has provoked much discussion and

many objections, in addition to those listed. So obvious are his logical

inconsequences and his failure properly to weigh ascertained facts that there

is danger of a too speedy rejection of the main idea involved.. The question

remains whether a better statement of the hypothesis can be made in terms of:

(1) considerable strength of the suboceanic crust as well as of the continental

part of the crust; (2) a density of the suboceanic crust greater than the den-

sity of the basaltic shell (substratum) immediately beneath it, involving one

cause of crustal instability; (3) possibly a similar, though smaller, contrast

of densities in the case of the continental part of the crust and its basaltic

substratum; (4) the elastico-viscosity of the basaltic substratum, rigidity

and time of relaxation increasing to a depth of about one-half of the earth’s

radius; (5) deleveling of the continental part of the crust through a com-

bination of oceanic pressure, the earth’s contraction, secular denudation,

differential radioactivity, secular dimunition of the earth’s rotational velocity

(the axis fixed), and the temporary deformation of the geoid because of over-

thrusting. Such deleveling gives a second condition for instability. When the

amplitudes of the crustal inequalities became large enough, a break-up of the

Paleozoic. continent and the sliding of the fragments were compelled. The

sliding is expected to have been directed toward the central Pacific, on all

sides of that basin, and also directed in the sense of the meridian. (See

two articles in the American Journal of Science, May, 1923.)

Whether or not this sliding hypothesis can be shown to be more valid

than Wegener’s drift hypothesis, geologists have good reason to retain the

root idea embodied in the writings of Fisher, Taylor, and Wegener. (Au-

thor’s abstract.)

The concluding address, by W. D. Lampert, of the United States Coast

and Geodetic Survey, was entitled, The mechanics of the Taylor-Wegener

hypothesis of continental migration.

The amount of published matter dealing with Wegener’s development of

the hypothesis of continental migration so greatly exceeds that dealing with

Taylor’s presentation, in spite of the latter’s priority of publication, that this

discussion necessarily deals with Wegener’s form of the theory rather than

with Taylor’s.

DEC. 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 449

The hypothesis of large displacements of the earth’s axis of rotation in the

body of the earth (or of the poles on the surface) forms part of Wegener’s

scheme, although it is not a necessary corollary of the assumption of

continental migration. In general, large displacements of the pole, apart

from oscillations of short period, imply extensive rearrangements of mass

within or upon the earth, rearrangements too large for geologists to accept.

On Wegener’s scheme of continental blocks of “sial’’ floating in ‘‘sima’”’ even

the shifting of a large continental block over many degrees of great circle

would involve such a small effective rearrangement of mass that the resultant

displacement of the pole would be unimportant. Wegener cites two articles

as tending to show that large displacements of the pole might take place

without correspondingly large rearrangements of mass; one citation is based

on a misapplication of the words quoted; the other article cited involves

fundamental fallacies in mechanics.

If the earth were a rigid spheroid, an increase in its speed of rotation or in

the tide-producing action of a satellite would tend to move a particle on its

surface toward the equator. This idea has been invoked as a_ possible

explanation of the equatorward drift of the continents. But the continents

are not particles but masses of matter forming part of a continuous crust and

therefore impeded in their motion by their surroundings; furthermore, the

earth is not rigid but is presumably plastic under the action of long-continued

forces. Therefore, the result of such an increase in the speed of rotation or

in tidal action would be merely an increase in the flattening, to which the

earth would adjust itself by plastic flow or by ruptures here and there, the

continents remaining in the same general relative position with respect to

their surroundings.

There is, however, a small residual equatorward force that acts on an

object floating on the earth’s surface. It is due to the change in direction

of gravity with elevation and is approximately proportional to the distance

between the center of gravity and the center of buoyancy of the floating body.

This force is invoked by Wegener as an explanation of the equatorward

movement of a continental block of “sial’’ floating in “‘sima.”’ The force is

so small (about 1/1,000,000 of gravity) that it seems inadequate to overcome

the resistance of the “‘sima.’”’ In rebuttal to this objection it is urged that a

very small force acting through geologic ages might produce considerable

effects, since, in the yielding of a viscous liquid, time is the all-important

element rather the magnitude of the force. This argument assumes that

so-called solids like the “‘sima”’ are really extremely viscous liquids. There

is, however, a real distinction between soft solids and viscous liquids, as was

pointed out long ago by Clerk Maxwell, and as has been more recently

verified by Bingham and Durham. It seems far more probable that the

-“sima’’ is a solid with a yield-point well above the stresses due to this ex-

tremely minute equatorward force than that it is a viscous liquid; if the

“sima”’ is a true solid, the force:in question would be ineffective in producing

equatorward displacements of the continents.

The fact that the higher portions of the earth’s crust are lighter than the

deeper-lying portions and the hypothesis of isostasy based on this fact both

suggest the conception of floating continental blocks, of which Wegener has

made such free use. But this whole hypothesis of a floating crust is rather a

convenient simile than an adequate statement of all the facts, and must not be

pressed too far. On the hypothesis of isostasy the stresses in the crust are

not hydrostatic (that is, such as occur in flotation) until the depth of com-

450 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No, 20

pensation is reached. The assumption of an absolutely rigid continental

block floating in a liquid is therefore an unsatisfactory basis for calculating

the stresses involved.

Taylor’s conception of the continental migration makes it mainly toward

the equator. Wegener conceives of it as mainly westward and suggests that

this westward movement may be due to the deflecting force of the earth’s

rotation which would result from an equatorward movement. On the most

favorable assumptions, however, the equatorward movement is so slow that

this explanation is entirely inadequate.

The hypothesis of continental migration is a serious attempt to coordinate

and explain facts that need explanation, but the suggested mechanical

explanations of the migration are unconvincing. ‘Till some more adequate

explanation is offered, mathematicians and physicists are likely to doubt the

validity of the hypothesis. (Author’s abstract).

180TH MEETING

The 180th meeting of the AcApEMy was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, the evening of Thursday, October 18, 1923. Dr. AEs

HroutéKa, Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology, U. 8. National

Museum delivered an address on Ancient man in Europe.

The speaker, who had just returned from his third trip over the field of

ancient man in Europe, gave a general account of his impressions, of the

principal discoveries, and of the present status of research and opinion

relating to Early Man.

The strongest impressions brought back are those of the vastness of the

European territories and deposits yielding cultural and even skeletal remains

of geologically ancient man; of the amount of work, particulrly that of an

archeological nature, which has already been done in this field; of the far

greater amount of work still to be done; and of the peculiar neglect of the

field by American scientists, with the great opportunities for American partici-

pation now and in the future.

As the material evidence of man of different ages together with that of the

contemporary fauna and the geological deposits accumulates, former con-

ceptions in all these lines are changing. There is, especially, a growing

uncertainty as to the subdivisions and duration of the Glacial Age. The

problems of continuous or interrupted human evolution and progress, of the

number of human varieties and races in the past, of the fate of some of them,

and of the derivation of others that seem to have come from elsewhere, are

all slowly being worked out; but in some if not all these respects anthropology

is still far from a definite solution. There are many opinions, some of them

held very tenaciously, but they are more or less premature. Much additional

light is needed, light to be secured through systematic and thoroughly’

scientific work, such as is now being carried on at a few sites, especially in

southern France.

What is demonstrated is that man has existed in Europe throughout or

nearly throughout the Quaternary, and that he has in a large measure, if

not entirely, developed there both culturally and physically.

In conclusion, Dr. HrpurKka, who among other results of his last journey

was honored by being the first American scientist privileged to examine the

original remains of the Pithecanthropus, again stressed the opportunities for

American participation in active research in this great European and Old

pec. 4, 1923 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 451

World field; such participation would be welcomed and would exert a whole-

some, stimulating influence in many directions.

The lecture was illustrated by charts and by photographs of a series of the

most important localities where ancient skeletal remains of man were

discovered.

WiuuiaM R. Maxon, Recording Secretary.

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY

165TH MEETING

The 165th meeting was held-at the Cosmos Club, February 6, 1923, at

8 p.m. with Dr. H. L. SHantz in the chair, and 31 persons present.

Program: Dr. PERLEY SPAULDING: Notes on some tree diseases in Europe.

(Illustrated.) Melampsorella elatina causes cankers on the trunks of Abies

pectinata which greatly reduce the timber value. Fomes annosus causes root

rot especially of Abzes pectinata, in some places preventing the use of this

species. Cronartium ribicola is generally distributed in Europe wherever

Pinus strobus occurs. It is exterminating this species as well as P. monticola

and P. flexilis, both of which are more susceptible than is P. strobus. Pinus

excelsa is quite resistant and may well be substituted for P. strobus, not only

in Europe but in North America. Trees of P. strobus from 4 to 118 years of

age were killed by this fungus, age giving no degree of immunity. Dasyscypha

willkommii attacks the larches in Great Britain, but a new hybrid larch is

not only immune to this disease but is the fastest growing larch known there.

Robinia pseudacacia, wrecked in America by Fomes robinzae and a wood borer,

is a real tree in Europe because these two enemies have been left behind in

America.

N. Rex Hunt: Steam and chemical soil disinfection. A cheap, effective,

practicable method of soil disinfection is needed to exterminate the potato

wart disease before it spreads to important potato growing regions. Potato

wart extermination methods were studied at Freeland, Pa., and Washington,

D. C., 1920-22 by F. G. O’Donnell, Rush P. Marshall, and the speaker.

The inverted steam-pan method was found fairly effective but expensive and

impracticable for large scale use. A pressure regulator was found to insure

more uniform treatment of soil. Soil temperature changes brought about by

steaming were determined. Fourteen chemical treatments, ranging upward

from $250.00 per acre in cost, were found effective against wart, mercuric

chloride, borax, chloride of lime, copper sulphate, sodium carbonate, sodium

fluoride, and. sulphur were used dry. Kerosene and crude oil were used un-

diluted. Effective solutions were mercuric chloride, Bordeaux, cleaning solu-

tion, lime sulphur, sodium chromate, and Fairmount weed-killer. Some

chemicals were applied to the surface and some were worked into the soil.

The variable growth of potato plants in these treated plots is recorded. Ihe

effect of the treatments on the hydrogen-ion readings of the soil was record-

ed. A study of the effect of treatments on the soil flora was begun.

The influence of soil moisture and soil type on the penetration of some

chemicals was determined and found to be very important. The addition

of sodium chloride increased the penetration of mercuric chloride remarkably.

Better penetration and more uniform distribution of this solution is secured

by applying all chemicals in part of the water, and then applying the re-

mainder of the water. Kerosene penetrates several times as well in damp as

in dry soil. .The various groups of data secured have a very practical bearing

452 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 20

on the problem of field treatments. A bibliography of 3,000 titles has been

assembled. A better knowledge of the fundamental principles governing

soil treatments, is greatly needed to aid in the solution of an ever increasing

number of soil treatment problems.

166TH MEETING

The 166th meeting was held Tuesday, March 6, 1923, in the Crystal Dining

Room of the New Ebbitt Hotel with 146 persons present.

Following dinner, Dr. W. E. Sarrorp, the retiring President, gave an

address on Economic botany as a means of determining the origin and

dissemination of primitive tribes.

Dr. A. F. Woops, President of the University of Maryland and first Presi-

dent of the Botanical Society of Washington, was present as guest of honor.

After the address there was dancing.

Roy G. Pirrcer, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

F. E. Marrues, of the U.S. Geological Survey, gave a lecture on November

3 before the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences on The cliffs and water-

falls of the Yosemite Valley.

T. WayYLAND VauGHAN and A. H. Brooks, who represented the Geological

Survey at the Pan-Pacific Scientific Congress in Australia, have returned to

Washington.

Pau C. Stanpuey, of the National Museum, left recently for Panama,

where he is to continue the investigation of the flora of the Canal Zone, a work

commenced several years ago.

JOURNAL

: OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 13 DEcEMBER 19, 1923 No. 21

GEOPHYSICS.—The density of the Earth as calculated from the

densities of Mauna Kea and Haleakala. Hinry 8. WASHINGTON,

Geophysical Laboratory. .

Of the various methods for determining the mean density of the

Earth the oldest is that of measuring the attraction exerted by an

isolated mountain. This was employed at Chimborazo by Bouguer

as early as 1749, next at Schiehallion by Maskelyne and Hutton in

1775, and later by others at other mountains.2. The method is open

to very serious objections, as pointed out by Boys; difficulty in meas-

uring the geometrical form and mass of the mountain, and ignorance

or uncertainty as to the homogeneity or distribution in heterogeneity,

the solidity of the mountain, and the character of the underlying

crust of the Earth. This method, indeed, has been superseded by

those based on laboratory experiment, such as with the torsion

_ balance or the chemical balance.

The last geodesist to use the ‘‘mountain observation” method for the

determination of the mean density of the Earth (A) was E. D. Preston,

of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, in connection with pendulum

and latitude observations at Mauna Kea on the Island of Hawaii’

in 1892. |

In the course of a recent petrological study of the lavas of the Island

of Hawaii I determined the specific gravities of the specimens that I

analysed, including those of Mauna Kea,‘ and was struck with the

discrepancies between my specific gravities and their average and

those given by Preston, as well as the resulting values for the density

of the Earth.

1 Received Nov. 26, 1923.

2 Cf. C. V. Boys in Glazebrook, A dictionary of applied physics, 3: 279. 1923.

3K. D. Preston, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Report for 1893, Appendix No. 12,

pp. 625-634. 1894.

4H.S. Washington, Amer. Journ. Sci. 5: 487-502. 1923; and Amer. Journ. Sci. 6: 361.

1923.

453

454 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 21

The specimens of lava that Preston collected at Mauna Kea were

examined by Merrill,> who determined the specific gravities of four-

teen of them, the average being 2.63. This is very low and is ac-

counted for by the fact that many of the specimens were vesicular

or not fresh, as pointed out by Merrill. From his pendulum obser-

vations and estimates of the altitude and radius of the base of the

mountain, Preston calculates the value 6 = 0.5654; in which 6 is

the average density of the rocks and A is the average density of the

Earth. The value given is the mean between those arrived at on

the assumption that the attraction of the mountain is the mean

between that of an infinite plane and of a cone. Using Merrill’s

average specific gravity the mean density of the Earth is, therefore,

calculated to be 4.655, a figure far below the accepted value. Preston,

however, does not use Merrill’s data alone but combines these with

the specific gravities of lavas from Mauna Loa and Kilauea, as deter-

mined by E. 8. Dana.* He thus arrives at the average Mauna Kea

rock specific gravity 2.90 and the value 5.13 for the mean density of

the Earth, this last being also much below that generally accepted,

which may be taken as 5.52.”

I determined the specific gravities of nine specimens of the Mauna

Kea rocks, some of whole hand specimens with the balance and others

of the rock powder with the pycnometer.* The results, with two

determined by Daly,® are given in Table I, with the calculated densi-

ties. The specific gravity No. 1 (2.870) is a new determination of

that of the andesite of Laupahoehoe, the previously published value ;

(2.709)'® having been too low because of the vesicularity of the speci-

men. No. 10 (2.959), of the olivine basalt of Kaula Gulch, is also

new. ‘These results give an average specific gravity of 2.969 and an

average density of 2.963; hence, using Preston’s value A = 1.776,

A = 5,245, This is much higher than the value (4.655) obtained from

the specific gravities of Preston’s specimens, and somewhat higher

than that (5.13) calculated by Preston, but is still much below the

generally accepted value.

Regarding these results some comment is called for. Preston

seems to have selected more or less vesicular specimens because he

°G. P. Merrill in Preston, op. cit., 630.

6K. 8. Dana, Amer. Journ. Sci. 37: 441. 1889.

"Cf. the value (5.525) selected by Burgess (Boys in Glazebrook, op. cit., p. 285); also

Williamson and Adams, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 18: 413. 1923.

® The pyenometer determinations on the rock powder are consistently higher than

those made on the hand specimens.

*R. A. Daly, Journ. Geol. 19: 208 and 301. 1911.

10H. S. Washington, Amer. Journ. Sci. 5: 490. 1923.

DEC. 19, 1923 WASHINGTON: DENSITY OF EARTH 455

appears to have thought, judging from the conspicuous flows on the

surface, that they represented well the bulk of the rocks of the volcano.

In this I think that he is in error, because my examination of the deep

ravines cut by erosion in the eastern flank of Mauna Kea showed

“the almost.complete absence of ash and scoria beds” and the over-

whelming prevalence of compact or but very slightly vesicular forms

of lava among the interior flows. It is therefore probable that my

specimens, most of which were compact or in which vesicularity was

compensated for by pulverization, represent the mass of the volcano

far better than do Preston’s surface specimens of pahoehoe or the

rough aa crust, conspicuous forms that a non-geologist would naturally

collect.

In the next place, Preston seems to be scarcely justified in using

Dana’s data for Mauna Loa and Kilauea in discussing the density of

Mauna Kea. My recent study has shown that the general petro-

graphical and chemical characters and the average densities of the

five voleanoes on Hawaii are markedly different the one from the

other. Thus, to confine our attention only to densities, I obtained

the average specific gravity 2.969 for Mauna Kea, 2.932 for Kilauea,

2.953 for Mauna Loa, and 2.940 for the whole island of Hawaii.

The differences are not great, but they are so marked that they should

be taken into account.

Five years earlier than his study at Mauna Kea, Preston,!! from

pendulum observations at Haleakala on Maui, obtained the value é =

0.48A at this voleano, which was considered as a cone. From this,

accepting the value of A as 5.67, he calculates the average density of

the rocks of Haleakala as 2.72.

This average specific gravity seems much too low, and that derived

from the specimens that he collected, (2.21) is certainly far below the

true value, as may be seen from the individual specific gravities and

from Merrill’s descriptions, which indicate that most of Preston’s

Haleakala specimens were either very vesicular or not fresh. I have

therefore determined the densities of nine specimens of lava from

Haleakala that were collected in 1920 by Dr. J. Allan Thomson and

kindly. given by him to me for study.’2 The freshest, most compact,

and the most representative specimens, so far as could be judged

without microscopical examination, were selected. The determina-

4K. D. Preston in U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Report for 1888, Appendix No.

14, p. 5380. 1889. He gives a slightly lower value (0.43) in Amer. Journ. Sci. 36: 311.

1888.

#2 These will be described, with analyses, in a forthcoming paper in my series on the

petrology of the Hawaiian Islands.

456 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 13, No. 21

tions were all made on whole hand specimens with the balance, in-

closed air being expelled by exposure in water to a pressure of about

2 em., and subsequent soaking for eight hours before weighing in

water.

The results, given in Table I, indicate that the average density of

the rocks of Haleakala is 2.812, which is markedly lower than that of

Mauna Kea (2.963). From this Haleakala density the mean density

of the Earth, using Preston’s value 6 = 0,484 for Haleakala, would

be 5.877, a figure that is about as much above the accepted value as

that derived from the Mauna Kea data is below it. The average of

the two values for A, based on my specimens from Mauna Kea and

Haleakala, is 5.560, which is fairly close to the accepted value.

TABLE I

7 MAUNA KEA HALEAKALA

Sp. gr. C° | Density Sp. gr. c° Density

2.870 ile 2.864 2.706 si 2.698

2.911 (Daly) 2.911 2.734 PAaye 220

2.761 (Daly) 2.761 2.924 PASS 2.915

2.982 223 2.976 2.836 25° 2.828

3.040 22 3.033 2.929 2p 2.920

3.018 APB Ia 3.010 2.788 pate 2.780

2.994 Ped ah 2.987 2.718 25 2.710

2.972 yy 2.968 3.067 252 3.058

2.978 22.30 2.971 2.680 aD 2.672

2.959 AA EP 2.954

3.164 25° 3.158

Average 2.969 2.963 2.820 2.812

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The death is announced of Rev. Joun THompson Heprick, at St. Andrew-

on-Hudson, Poughkeepsie, N. Y., October 24. Dr. Hedrick was formerly

director of the Georgetown University Observatory. He was a generous

contributor to astronomical publications and an accepted authority on the

_ subjects upon which he wrote.

A “get together meeting” of the Society of the Sigma Xi of Washington

and vicinity was held at the Cosmos Club on November 22, 1923. Ten-

minute talks on The most interesting thing I have seen the past summer

were made by various members, including L. O. Howarp on the Wellcome

Medical Historical Museum in London, Paunt BarrscH on under-water

“movies” in the Bahamas, H. L. SHanrz on botanical excursions in Switzer-

land, E. E. Stosson (president of the local Society) on electrification in

Sweden, W. T. Ler on the newly explored enormous caves in New Mexico,

EK. D. Batt on petrified forests in the Bad Lands. CHARLES Brooks, of

the Department of Agriculture is secretary.

INDEX TO VOLUME 13

A { denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated Society. A § indicates

an item published under the head Scientific Notes and News.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Biological Society of Washington.

Botanical Society of Washington.

Chemical Society of Washington.

Entomological Society of Washington.

Proceedings: 110, 234, 372.

Proceedings: 113, 187, 411, 451.

Proceedings: 163.

Proceedings: 159, 258, 374.

Philosophical Society of Washington. Proceedings: 43, 65, 91, 138, 215, 333.

Washington Academy of Sciences.

Proceedings: 13, 294, 443.

AUTHOR INDEX

Apams, L. H. Density distribution in

the Earth. 413.

AxsricHt, Horace M. 7{Yellowstone Na-

tional Park, protecting wild life in.

235.

AupricH, J. M. Insect distribution, Ca-

nadian life zone as indicated by. 237.

—— tWilliston, 8. W., manuscript auto-

biography of. 259.

Aston, F. W. jIsotopes and the structure

of the atom. 13.

Autt, J. P. tAir navigation. 334.

AvrRoussEAU, M. Silica, residue from, in

rock analysis. 330.

Bautpwin, S. Prentiss. tBird banding,

new method of bird study. 373.

Batu, E. D.. {Training for biological

work in Government service. 110.

BeatTti£, J. H. {Sweet potato nomen-

clature. 239.

Bennett, A: H. {Photographic lenses,

aberrations of anastigmatic. 91.

Bernton, H. 8. tHay fever, biological

aspects of. 236.

Berry, Epwarp W. Lower Cretaceous

of Alabama, age of the supposed. 433.

Buaks, 8. F. Cyathomone, new genus

[Composite]. 105.

— Ericentrodea, new genus [Com-

posite]. 104.

— Narvalina, new genera related to.

102.

—— Rensonia, new genus of Composite.

144.

Salvador, new Composites from.

143.

Bovine, A. S.

OL ne L622

Bowen, N. L. Melilite, genesis of. 1.

Bowigr, Wiiu1aAmM. {International Geo-

detic and Geophysical Union and

International Astronomical Union,

meetings of. 43.

— TIsostatie investigations,

progress in. 267.

BRIDWELL, J. C. {Bruchus bixal, habits

of. 261.

+Chaleid, clover-seed, in seeds of

Astragalus. 260.

{Eurytoma rhois, retarded develop-

ment in. 262.

{Rhagoletis suavis, walnut hull mag-

got, pupae living two years. 262.

Briaes, L. J. tAir speed in wind-tunnels,

direct measurement of. 93.

Britton, N.L. Rubiaceae, new plants of,

from Trinidad. 105.

Cuase, Acnss. Identification of Raddi’s

7Blister-beetles, biology

recent

grasses. 167.

—— jTypes of plants in European

herbaria. 373.

CuarK, Austin H. Annacrinus, new

genus of Pentacrinidae. 11.

—— Pentacrinidae, revision of recent. 8.

— Saracrinus, new genus of Penta-

crinidae. 8.

— Vertebrates, origin of. 129.

457

458

Cuark,. H. A.

facture of. 93, 294.

CLEVELAND, —. {Intestinal protozoa of

termites, from physiological stand-

point. 375.

Coss, N. A. {Coconut industry, eco-

nomic importance, and disease of

coconut caused by nematode. 189.

— Hoplolaimus [genus of nemas},

amendation of. 211.

-—— }tNematodes inhabiting trees. 111.

—— +Paratylenchus, genus of nemas,

notes on. 254.

Cocuran, Doris M. Anolis, new species

of, from Haiti. 225.

— Leptodactylus, new frog of genus.

184.

— Sceloporus, new lizard of genus.

185.

Couuns, G. N.

relatives. 111.

Coxtuins, W. D. tIndustrial aspects of

modern methods of water purifica-

tion. 296.

Cook, O. F. Opsiandra, new genus of

palms from Guatemala. 179.

— Pseudophoenix insignis, new .palm

from Haiti and two other new species

from West Indies. 397.

Covert, R. N. §Measurement of wind.

91.

Covitur, F. V. +Rhododendron seedlings,

effect of aluminum sulphate on. 237.

CritTeNnDEN, E. C. Measurement of

7Thermometers, manu-

tMaize and its wild

light. 69.

DanuGren, Unricw. jtLuminosity of in-

sects. 159.

Day, Reernatp A. {Critical review of

_ Taylor-Wegener hypothesis. 447.

Dewey, L. H. +tPlant fibers, misleading

names of. 114.

Dickey, Donatp R. tWild game of New

Brunswick. 110.

Donnan, F. G. Membrane equilibrium.

444,

Ewina, H. E. Lice, sucking, new genera

and species of. 146.

Frerauson, Joun B. Iron,

275.

Frrauson, 8. P. §Measurement of wind.

91.

Foorr, Paut D.

oxides of.

tAlchemist, the. 335.

AUTHOR INDEX

{Variation of metallic

with electrostatic

ForMAN, NINA.

conductivity

charge. 45.

GAHAN, A. B. Chalcidoid parasite of the

alfalfa leaf-weevil, identity of. 408.

— {Role of taxonomist in present day

entomology. 258.

Gipson, K. S. {Visibility of radiant

energy. 65.

Gitcurist, R. {tOsmium, new determi-

nation of atomic weight of. 45.

GoutpMAN, E. A. {Deer of Grand Canyon

National game preserve. 374. ~

Hampurcer, H. J. {tChemistry, signifi-

eance of, in medical thought and

practice. 15.

Hamitton, C. C.

beetles. 375.

Hamuin, JoHn C. fInsects to destroy

eactus. 160.

Heck, N. H. {Seismology, relation of,

to geodesy and tides. 298.

Hey, Paut R. Prime numbers, remark-

able formula for. 150.

Hrrcucock, A. 8. {Chloris tenera found

on Island of Hainan. 190.

— Dissanthelium, an American genus

of grasses. 223.

Hopason, C. V. {Measurements of dis-

tances on the earth, precise. 216.

Howarp, L. O. {Fabre’s work, value of.

160.

tHouse-fly plague in American Ex-

peditionary forces. 374.

tBiology of tiger

— }Phoresie, case of, in Belgian

Congo. 234.

Hrpuicka, Ars. tAncient man in

Europe. 450.

Humeureys, W. J. Murmur of the forest

and the roar of the mountain. 49.

Hunt, N. Rex., {Soil disinfection, steam

and chemical. 4651.

Hystov, J. A. tPlastoceridae, Coleop-

terous. 375.

Irvine, James C. {Constitutional for-

mula of starch. 444. ;

Ives, J. E. Illumination used by en-

gravers of steel plates. 299.

JorRDAN, Davip Sarr. Gonorhyncus

moseleyi, new herring-like fish from

Honolulu. 347.

Kanout, C. W. +tHydrogen, liquid and

solid. 298.

AUTHOR INDEX

§Relativity. 192.

Kempton, F. E. {Barberry eradication

in the United States. 191.

Kiess, C. C. tSpectra of chromium and

molybdenum. 218.

— Titanium, regularities in are spec-

trum of. 270.

Kress, Harriet K. Titanium, regulari-

ties in are spectrum of. 270.

Kanure, Exutsworta P. Urticaceae, new

species of, from Colombia. 354.

Krausg, K. Schizocasia regnieri; note

on, 253. ;

Krocu, Aucust. {Respiration of insects.

160.

Lampert, W. D. {Mechanics of. the

Taylor-Wegener hypothesis of conti-

nental migration. 448.

Lititz, Frank R. +Hormones, sex, prob-

lem of. 235.

Linpsera, A. R. {Variation of metallic

conductivity with electrostatic

charge. 45.

LirrLenALes, G. W. {Geographic posi-

tion, finding of, from observation of '

celestial bodies. 215.

Lorka, Atrrep J. Quantitative para-

sitology. 152.

Lounssury, C. P. tEntomological work

in South Africa. 159.

LumspDEN, Davip. {Raising orchid seed-

lings by use of mycorrhizal fungus.

187.

Mann, ‘A. B. tUsefulness of diatoms.

Bia.

Marmer, H. A. {Tidal phenomena in

New York harbor. 219.

Matuews, A. P. Space and time, reduc-

tion of all physical dimensions to

those of. 195.

Maxon, W. R. Microstaphyla, the [fern]

genus. 28. !

McCuvre, F. A. tHainan, observations

of botanical collector on island of.

238.

Meccers, W. F. §Line structure in com-

plicated spectra. 139.

—— Vanadium, regularities in are spec-

trum of. 317.

Mersincer, C. LeRoy. j{Free-air pres-

sure maps and their accuracy. 333.

Merriam, J. C. {Cats of Rancho La

Brea. 238.

eves Plants

459

Meyer, K. F. +tBacillus botulinus, sum-

mary of studies on. 14.

Mouter, F. L. §Atomic structure of

chemical elements. 94. :

Moorr, R. B. 7tGases, rare, history,

properties, and uses. 13.

Morey, Grorce W. Heating-curve and

quenching methods of melting-point

determinations. 326.

OBERHOLSER, Harry C. Nectariniidae,

new East Indian. 226.

Orton, W. A. tPhysiatric botany. 191.

Putrers, C. G. {Refraction of glass at

high temperatures, changes in index

GED, 21%

Prrrizr, H. Melastomataceae from Vene-

zuela and Panama, new or little

known. 384.

collected in

* America, note on. 428.

Poprnorn, Wixson. tFruit-growing and

ornamental gardening in Chile. 412.

Posniak, Evemn W. Lithium iodide and

rubidium floride, crystal structures

of. 393.

Ranvs, Rosperr D. +Botanical gardens

and plant industries of Java and

Sumatra. 239. ,

Rouwer, 8. A. Hymenoplera, three new

Pemphredonine wasps. 369.

ROSENHAIN, WALTER. {Structure

constitution of alloys. 4438.

Rupe, G. T. fInstruments and methods

for observation of tides. 138.

Ryppere, P. A. Senecioid Composites.

tropical

and

287.

SANDHOUSH, Grace ADELBERT. Key to

South American bees of genus

Halictus, subgen. Chloralictus. 383.

SCHALLER, WALDEMAR T. Argentojaro-

site, new silver mineral. 233.

ScuramM, G. N. {Tarnishing and de-

tarnishing of silver. 139.

Suantz, H. L. {Botanic gardens of

South Africa. 189.

Simmons, Perez. tHouse-fly plague in

American Expeditionary forces. 374.

Skeets, H.C. tChayote, Chayota edulis,

early fruiting strain of. 411.

SmytH, E. Graywoop. {Trip to Mexico

for parasites of Mexican bean beetle.

259.

460

Snoperass, R. E. tAnatomy and meta-

morphosis of apple maggot. 260.

Snyper, JOHN OTTERBEIN. Gonorhyncus

moseleyi, new herring-like fish from

Honolulu. 347.

Snyper, Tuomas F. Reticulitermes, new,

from the Orient. 107.

SomMeRFELD, A. {Evidence for theory of

relativity afforded by atomic physics.

218, 297.

Sosman, R. B. {Structure and poly-

morphism of silica. 47.

SpaLtpinG, Perutey. Biology of Pinus

strobus. 237.

{Tree diseases in Europe. 451.

SranpitEy, Paut C. Calderonia and

Exandra, new genera of Rubiaceae.

289.

— Cashalia, new genus of Fabaceae.

441.

— Cuscatlania, new genus of Allionia-

ceae. 437.

— Mexico, new species from. 5.

—— Rubiaceae, new plants of,

Trinidad. 105.

—— Salvador, new species of plants

from. 363, 436.

— Trees from Salvador,

species of. 350.

SrepHEeNsonN, L. W. {Cypress swamp,

ancient, in Washington. 111.

Stites, C. W. tAmoeba in man, fre-

from

ten new

quency of. 112.

—— j{Bryan’s revolution against evolu-

tion. 372.

Swanton, Jonn R. Siouan peoples, early

history of. 33.

Tanaka, TyozaBuro. {Citrus fruits of

Japan, history and creation of new

varities by bud variation. 189.

Taytor, FRANK B. +{Lateral migration of

land masses. 445.

Troporo, N.G. tPhilippine botany with

special reference to Musa. 113.

—— {Phytopathology in the Philip-

pines. 113.

TucKERMAN, L. B.

continuity. 94.

§Continuity vs. dis-

AUTHOR INDEX

TynpDALL, E. P. T. {Visibility of radiant

energy. 65.

Van Dycx, A. +Vacuum tube in present

day radio. 14.

Van Orstranp, C. E. {Deep-earth tem-

peratures in the United States. 65.

VauGuHAN, T. WAYLAND. Stratigraphy of

Virgin Islands, of Vieques and

Culebra Islands, and of eastern Porto

Rico. 303.

Vina, G. W. {Tarnishing and detarn-

ishing of silver. 139.

Watters, F. M. Iron, regularities in

are spectrum of. 2438.

WaSHINGTON, Henry S. Cogmagmatic

regions and the Wegener hypothesis.

339.

— Density of the Earth calculated from

that of Mauna Kea and Haleakala.

453.

— Stone adzes of Egypt and Hawaii.

377.

Wetts, R. C. {Chemistry of the sea.

163.

WENNER, F. {Variation of metallic con-

ductivity with electrostatic charge.

45.

Wuerry, Epear T. Plant distribution

in relation to soil acidity. 374.

Relations between active acidity

and lime requirement of soils. 97.

Wuitre, Watter P. Electric heating of

calorimeters. 17.

WixiraMson, E. D. Density distribution

in the Earth. 413.

WooprinG, WENDELL P. Haiti, geologi-

cal reconnaissance of. 117.

Woopwarkp, RospertS. fCompressibility

of the earth. 44.

Wricut, F. E. Pearls, natural and cul-

tivated, methods for distinguishing.

$219, 282.

Wyckorr, R. W.G. {Atomic radii. 216.

—— {Crystal structure of alums. 216.

— Lithium iodide and rubidium flu-

oride, crystal structures of. 393.

SUBJECT INDEX 461

SUBJECT INDEX

Aeronautics. {Air navigation. J. P.

AULT. 334.