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34 itt -—
NewG
JOURNAL
of the
WASHINGTON
ACADEMY
of
CIENCES
Vol. 54: .* (No. 1
JANUARY
1964.
—-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY. OF SCIENCES
Editor: SAmMuEL B. DeTwI Ler, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Associate Editors
Harotp T. Cook, Department of Agriculture Russert B. STEVENs, George Washington
RicHARD P. FArRow, National Canners Asso- University
ciation
Contributors
AtBert M. Stone, Applied Physics Laboratory GERHARD M. Braver, National Bureau of
FRANK A. BIBERSTEIN, JR., Catholic University Standards
Cuartes A. WHITTEN, Coast & Geodetic Survey Howarp W. Bonn, National Institutes of Health
MarygoriE Hooxer, Geological Survey
: if ILEEN E. Stewart, National Science Foundation
REUBEN E. Woop, George Washington Univer- i
sy ALLEN L, ALEXANDER, Naval Research Laboratory
JosEPpH B. Morris, Howard University Victor R. Boswett, USDA, Beltsville
Frank L. Camppett, NAS-NRC Harotp T. Coox, USDA, Washington
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes historical
articles, critical reviews, and scholarly scientific articles; notices of meetings and abstract proceed-
ings of meetings of the Academy and its affiliated societies; and regional news items, including
personal news, of interest to the entire membership. The Journal appears nine times a year, in
January to May and September to December.
Subscription rate: $7.50 per year (U.S.) or $1.00 per copy; foreign postage extra. Subscrip-
tion orders should be sent to the Washington Academy of Sciences, 1530 P St., N.W., Washington,
D.C. Remittances should be made payable to “Washington Academy of Sciences.”
Back issues, volumes, and sets of the Journal (prior to Volume 51) can be purchased
direct from the Johnson Reprint Corporation, 111 5th Avenue, New York 3, N.Y. This firm also
handles the sale of the Proceedings of the Academy (Volumes 1-13, 1898-1910), the Index, and
the Monograph.
Current issues of the Journal (past two calendar years) may still be obtained directly
from the Academy office at 1530 P Street, N.W., Washington 5, D.C.
Claims for missing numbers will not be allowed if received more than 60 days after date of
mailing plus time normally required for postal delivery and claim. No claims will be allowed
because of failure to notify the Academy of a change of address.
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Washington, D.C. Such notification should include both old and new addresses and postal zone
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Second class postage paid at Washington, D.C.
OFFICERS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
President: BENJAMIN D. Van Evera, George Washington University
President-Elect: FRANcois N. FRENKIEL, David Taylor Model Basin
Secretary: Grorce W. Irvine, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Treasurer: MaAtcotm C. HENDERSON, Catholic University
Science Education
Raymond J. Seeger
National Science Foundation
Today’s education is for tomorrow!
Today’s students are tomorrow’s citizens!
Today’s lessons are for use 25 years from
now! What is our outlook today for 1985?
What was our outlook for 1960 25 years
ago, in 1935? Did we thrill our students
with the unbelievable story of electromag-
netic radiation that ranges from penetrating
X-rays and colorful lights to radio-fre-
quencies, low ones for sound and _ high
ones for TV sights; radiation that would
shortly include superhigh radio-frequency
for radar defense and for radio-astronomy
exploration? Or did we disregard science
as being out of place in a world worried
about social problems? Did we amaze our
students with the new alchemy of nuclear
transformations, soon to supply atomic
energy for war and for peace? Or did we
insist that physics even in a technical high
school should be included in only one of
15 curricula, and then merely as an elective
—just prior to the war sometimes called
the physicists’ war? Did we allow our stu-
dents to play with ever fascinating num-
bers, about to flash in high-speed comput-
ing machines that would solve abandoned
problems in physics, answer undreamed
questions in sociology, guide flying mes-
sengers out into uncharted space? Or did
we scoff at mathematics as a curious fossil
belonging to an archaic education? What-
ever our outlook in 1935, certainly it was
too shortsighted for World War II and the
post-war world.
What is our outlook in 1960 for 25 years
hence, in 1985? Are we thrilling our
* Address at the dedication of the Science
Building at Montgomery Junior College, October
20, 1960.
JANUARY, 1964
for Tomorrow*
students now with glimpses of the strange
frontier of a new world of biology and
medicine, seen from the wonderland of
biophysics and biochemistry? Or are we
relegating chemistry and physics to tech-
nical training, improper for the cultural
heritage of a liberal education? Are we
opening our students’ eyes to the inter-
national vista of global sciences encom-
passing the trembling rocks beneath our
feet, the restless seas on either hand, the
glorious atmosphere above our head? Or
are we focusing their attention upon tech-
nological gadgetry and national compe-
tition? Are we stimulating our students to
probe logical techniques subtly involved
in language, in mathematics, in science;
to invent new thought patterns for our
increasingly complex knowledge? Or are
we dulling their thinking with the lethargic
security of superficial surveys? Whatever
our outlook in 1960, undoubtedly it will be
too rigid for the new discoveries and ex-
citing developments of our radically chang-
ing science.
Regardless of “what” and the “how”
of current curriculum tactics, we need to
be ever watchful for the “why” of new edu-
cational strategies. Let us watch out for
science education for tomorrow!
In the first place, let us watch out for
the unity of nature! The broad complexity
of nature has forced man to approach it
from narrow viewpoints. It is quite com-
mon nowadays to deplore the abandonment
of comprehensive generalization for inade-
quate specialization. For example, take the
familiar case of a falling body. In physics
we are little concerned whether an elephant
or a mouse slides down a smooth inclined
STITUTE ry 19h4
plane (the physicist’s hill). The downward
motion of either body is similarly de-
scribed. As physicists, we have no occasion
to be particularly interested in biological
aspects. One day a lawyer visited me at the
university. He began cautiously, “Are you
a physicist?” In view of the sign on my
office door I could not deny this vocation.
By way of introduction he said, “Can you
help me solve a case involving a falling
body?” As a teacher of physics, I could not
ignore this elementary problem. “A man
leaned out of a third-story window and
fell to the ground. Was it suicide?” he
asked simply. Obviously a falling body, but
far more complicated than the kind we are
wont to study in physics. Perhaps as
physicists, we become so engrossed in
examining the fall that we actually forget
the body. This tendency to abstraction has
resulted in more serious consequences for
larger intellectual areas. One of the best
books dealing with mathematical hydro-
dynamics (published about 1932) refers
casually to the basic law of the now com-
mon shockwaves of supersonic flow with a
footnote: “no physical evidence is adduced
in support of the proposed law.” Likewise
much of our modern mathematics may
become too far removed from nature to
be of immediate help in science—or even
in mathematics. Certainly the danger of
over-specialization may loom up at any
moment.
On the other hand, specialization if pur-
sued sufficiently close to one’s goal leads
inevitably to generalization. When I first
joined the Foundation’s staff, I was as-
signed the problem of outlining research
programs, together with their budgetary
requirements, for two years ahead in as-
tronomy, in chemistry, in earth sciences,
in engineering sciences, in mathematical
sciences, and in physics. As an inquiring
scholar I was overcome with the prospect;
as a government servant | learned to over-
come my scruples. In a short while I was
proudly reviewing my budget justification.
[t dealt with fluid dynamics in astronomy,
fluid dynamics in chemistry, fluid dynamics
2 JOURNAL OF
in earth sciences, fluid dynamics in engi-
neering sciences, fluid dynamics in mathe-
matical sciences, and fluid dynamics in
physics. No wonder! I saw fluid dynamics
everywhere—not just because I am a fluid
dynamicist, but because fluid dynamics is
all about us. It is not without reason,
therefore, that the public has become in-
creasingly familiar in recent times with
aerophysics and atmospheric physics, with
astrophysics and geophysics, with bio-
physics and chemical physics, with engi-
neering physics and mathematical physics,
etc. Physics, too, is everywhere.
The history of physics reveals striking
instances where the answer to a particular
problem has been obtained only by con-
sidering related problems. For example,
in the eighteenth century many people
showed considerable interest in the gla-
morous conduction of electricity in solids.
The observational evidence, however, did
not permit one to differentiate sharply
between two possible theories: whether
electricity is a single fluid or really two
fluids—what might be called the electrical
dilemma of the eighteenth century. In the
nineteenth century some individuals in-
vestigated the less popular conduction of
electricity in liquids. Here, too, a dilemma
was soon apparent: whether electricity
occurs as an continuous fluid or in discrete
units. By this time, however, even research
physicists were no longer challenged by
the conduction of electricity in solids or in
liquids—or in anything else. Nevertheless,
the clue to both these electrical dilemmas
was latent in the conduction of electricity
in gases, a neglected field of physics until
the end of the nineteenth century. The
answer was the electron, a _ negatively
charged particle, which alone moves in
solids. About the same time as this dis-
covery, X-rays were encountered. How!
Although they afford a solution to a medi-
cal problem and the answer to a biological
question, as to how to get inside an
organism without surgery, I doubt if they
would ever have been produced by any
direct frontal attack—regardless of the
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
availability of funds, private or public. The
discovery of X-rays, indeed, was a bypro-
duct of the curiosity of a physicist who was
investigating an entirely different matter.
Complementary to the dead-end danger
of overspecialization is the precipitous
hazard of undergeneralization. Speciali-
zation is inadequate to solve any complex
problem nowadays. For example, an en-
gineer who desires to build an electric
motor cannot be merely an electrical expert.
He must know also about the properties of
materials, the mechanics of structures, and
the flow of heat, as well as about the be-
havior of electricity.
No matter where or when man goes
in the universe, he finds always uniformity
—nature is apparently the same every-
where. There is evidently an inter-related-
ness, which suggests a coherent unity.
Nature, indeed, is like a room. It can be
entered by different doors, but regardless
of the mode of entrance the room is still
the same.
Nature is like a wheel. You may easily
grab it on one outside spoke and I on
another one, but as we move along the
spokes nearer the center, we come also
closer together. Do you recall the facetious
remark that scientists are people who aim
to learn more and more about less and less,
whereas philosophers are those who strive
to know less and less about more and
more? The fact is that if we know all
about anything, at the same time we know
something about all. For something is a
part of everything! Nature is whole; there-
fore, we must look at it whole. Watch out
for the unity of nature! Do not be content
with a partial view of the universe. Or, to
translate this general principle into a
specific rule: do not study any special
science, like physics, except as a part of the
general science of nature.
Let us watch out also for the simplicity
of man! In all our experiences we soon
realize that we are dealing with incomplete
information. Note the line (a circular arc)
that I have drawn upon the blackboard.
What picture immediately comes to your
JANuARY, 1964
mind? A whole circle? Your inference is
quite incorrect. It is only that broken line
which I wished to draw—nothing more.
Man is always prone to extrapolate his
partial data and to fill out the whole pic-
ture as he sees it (cf. the observed Great
Dipper as the imagined Ursa Major).
Some years ago, when I was teaching
college physics, I proudly told my class
how the story of nature could be written
with elementary words like atoms and
molecules; how these, in turn, could be
expressed with a universal PEN of three
fundamental letters, namely Proton, Elec-
tron, Neutron. Perhaps it is fortunate that
I am not teaching general physics nowa-
days, inasmuch as the number of elemen-
tary particles is approximately 30—as of
this date.
Let us look for a moment at the elusive
electron! What is it, really? “A particle!”
immediately claim some. The ionization
along the straight path of an electron in
a cloud chamber indicates clearly a course
like that of a moving particle. “No! An
electron is a wave,” insist others. The
pattern formed by electrons passing
through a thin sheet of metal is similar to
the wave formation on a rippling surface
of water. Well, what is an electron? Is it
a particle, or is it a wave? This problem
turned out to be one not so much of phys-
ical analysis, as of logical inference. What,
indeed, are the definitive criteria for a
particle? A linear path? But this requires
precise knowledge of the position and ve-
locity of the particle at every moment. For
the determination of a propagated wave,
in turn, one must measure precisely at any
instant the energy of the disturbance. To
our dismay we have learned from quantum
mechanics that we cannot measure simul-
taneously with exact precision either the
position and the velocity of an elementary
particle, or the energy and the time of a
wave. In other words, we have never been
completely justified in stating that an elec-
tron is definitely a particle, or truly a
wave. In view of our inexact data, we must
humbly admit that under: certain physical
3
conditions an electron apparently behaves
like a particle, whereas under others like
a wave.
A child is engaged in solving a jig-saw
puzzle. A visitor asks him, “What are those
pieces?” “Oh,” says the child proudly,
“Those are the white caps of a blue sea.”
Later when the picture is completed, the
visitor returns and exclaims, “Where are
the white caps in the blue sea?” Disdain-
fully the child explains, “Those pieces were
white clouds in a blue sky!” The same
pieces fit together exactly as before, but
the overall view has changed. As we form
our pictures of nature out of our necessarily
fragmentary information, consciously or
unconsciously, we are inclined to make
them simple. This is one of man’s preju-
dices. In his provocative book, “Nature
and the Greeks,” Erwin Schrodinger, a
Nobel prize winner in physics, recommends
that nuclear physicists study Greek ideas.
Why? Because the Greeks were experts in
atomic theory? Of course not! On the
contrary, we should become familiar with
Greek thinking because they were preju-
diced. What can ancient biases have to do
with modern science? The fact is that we,
too, are prejudiced! Unfortunately, at times
we become sensitive to our own ingrained,
orthodox opinions only by being shocked
by the exposed, heretical attitudes of others.
Let us examine a few such examples of
Greek prejudice. Three famous mathema-
tical problems perplexed the Greeks, who
tried unsuccessfully to solve them with only
a straight edge and a compass: the dupli-
cation of a cube, the squaring of a circle,
the trisection of an angle. It developed
later that these problems are all unsolvable:
the first because it involves an irrational
number; and the second, a transcendental
number. The trisection of an angle, it is
true, can be solved, but not under the
Greek stipulation. This limitation, there-
fore, evidently restricts the possible solu-
tions. The narrower problem, which later
yielded hidden treasures of modern mathe-
matics, stunted the growth of Greek
mathematics.
4, JOURNAL OF
All of us, I suppose, are thrilled with
the simple perfection of a circle. The
Greeks thought that heavenly bodies would
naturally move in perfect circles. Accord-
ingly, they investigated only circular
motions for planets despite their knowledge
of the more descriptive ellipse. The pro-
gress of theoretical celestial mechanics was
thus retarded for 1800 years.
One other incident! Are you familiar
with the Greek number system? If so, you
recall that each letter of the alphabet rep-
resented a different number: alpha for one,
beta for two, gamma for three, etc. If you
have ever tried to add or subtract such
Greek numbers, you realize why the Greeks
never made much progress in arithmetic.
What arithmetical success they did have
was acheieved solely through ingenious,
but often cumbersome geometric tech-
niques. If only they had eradicated the
deep-rooted prejudice favoring their own
system of numbers and had cultivated the
fruitful seeds of other civilizations, they
might have contributed as much to arith-
metic as to geometry. As we look at Greek
mathematics from the prespective of his-
tory, we become increasingly aware of the
importance of Greek presuppositions.
Man’s mind is able to play so significant
a role in intellectual history because of the
very comprehensibility of nature. Einstein
once remarked that the one thing about the
universe incomprehensible to him is its
comprehensibility. Not only is nature
seemingly reasonable, but it is understand-
able in man’s own language. You may
recall the story of Winnie-the-Pooh’s search
for a Woozle. As he was going around a>
spinney of larch trees, he espied the tracks
of a strange animal. He invited his friend
Piglet to help him trace the owner of these
unknown tracks. Each time they went
around the spinney, they noticed additional
sets of similar tracks—their own. In one
of his books, Eddington tells of a strange
footprint that man has found impressed
upon the intellectual sediments of natural
phenomena—it is man’s. To a large degree
nature is simple because man regards it as
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
simple. What we see is often merely a re-
flection of what we wish to see.
Watch out, therefore, for the simplicity
of man! Do not be content with a childish
view of the universe. Or, to translate this
general principle into a specific rule: do
not study any science without under-
standing the limitations of its data and of
its method.
Finally, let us watch out for the huma-
nism of science. About a hundred years
ago we rejoiced in the birth of the science
of sociology. Only in the last 25 years,
however, have we begun to appreciate the
growth of the sociology of science. We have
learned that no single criterion is sufh-
cient for the social acceptability of the
truth of a scientific theory—not even the
necessary condition that it be true to ob-
servations. Take, for example, the Coper-
nican theory. Both the heliocentric and
geocentric hypotheses of the sixteenth
century satisfied equally well the astro-
nomical observations of that day. The dis-
tinctive advantage of the Copernican theory
was its mathematical convenience. The
Ptolemaic theory, on the other hand, was
akin to common sense, and seemed to fit in
better with the popular philosophy. No
wonder that the geocentric view was gen-
erally more acceptable to the intellectual
class. Not only does the development of
science determine to some degree the future
of history, but the history of the past also
influences in some measure the develop-
ment of science. The very inter-relations
of the several sciences find expression in a
unity of science—what might be called the
philosophy of science.
Even the physical sciences can and do
make evident contributions to the meaning
of the social sciences. For example, con-
sider a person’s ethics (in essence, applied
sociology). Regardless of what a scientist
may do as a man, as a scientist he is
irrevocably bound by an absolute truthful-
ness to the observed data and to their
reasonable interpretation. Lying is out of
place in a physics laboratory! One wonders
if the social sciences will ultimately have
JANuARY, 1964.
to subscribe to this same principle, which
has been so successful in the physical
sciences.
What about social problems? for ex-
ample, the critical improvement of inter-
national relations. How are we to achieve
mutual understanding? First of all, we
must have common interests in order to
have a common ground even for the meet-
ing of people—not to say, of minds.
Politics and religion are hardly attractive
subjects to draw all men together. The
only common denominator apparently in
sight is science. Regardless of creed or
color or country, peoples from all over the
earth discuss with one another, freely and
joyously, natural phenomena and man’s
understanding of them. Science may well
become a stepping stone, rather than a
supposed stumbling block, to the achieve-
ment of world peace.
Let us consider spiritual values! In the
vastness of the universe, in its compre-
hensibility through reason, in the careful-
ness of its details, all of us are inspired
with a mystical feeling of empathetic
wholeness. The nature of God, I believe,
can be inferred to some extent from His
imprint upon nature. The heavens do
declare the glory of God to His children.
Thus we see that man’s everyday rela-
tions, his problems of personal ethics, his
social problems like international rela-
tions, his spiritual values of supernatural
religion, all are imbedded in science to
varying depths. We cannot study science
without being involved in_all-significant
values; we dare not consider such values
without including all-important science.
Science is not to be cultivated in an acade-
mic vacuum. Behold, the glory that was
Greece! What were its glowing peaks?
Most people would immediately cite the
literature, the philosophy, the politics of
Athens. Do not gaze solely upon Athens!
Look also toward the eastern horizon of
colonial Asia Minor, where science was
born. The Greek world comprised both
Athens and Asia Minor; Greek culture
produced both humanism and science. It
BS)
was their very combination that contributed
to the Greek miracle. The genius of the
Greek people enabled them to envisage the
whole of life. So, too, humanistic science
today can truly be a natural bridge be-
tween the humanities and the sciences.
Watch out, therefore, for the humanism of
science! Do not be content with an in-
human view of the universe. Or, to
translate this general principle into a spec-
ific rule: do not study any science without
emphasizing its history, its philosophy, its
sociology.
In conclusion, let us keep watch in the
universe! Let us watch out for the unity
of nature! Do not study any special science
except as a coherent part of the general
science of nature. Let us watch out for
the simplicity of man! Do not study any
science without noting definitely the limita-
tions of its data and of its method. Let
us watch out for the humanism of science!
Do not study any science except in the
matrix of history, philosophy, and sociol-
ogy. Science is not an isolated corner of
education separated from the rest of cul-
ture; rather, “the stone which the builders
refused is become the headstone of the
corner.’ Mind you, [I am not claiming
that science is a sufficient educational way
for all—or even for a few. I am insisting,
however, that science is a necessary educa-
tional way for everyone today and to-
morrow. Let us keep watch in the universe
today! Let us watch out for science educa-
tion for tomorrow!
The Engineer in Today’s Society*
Robert M. Page
Director of Research, Naval Research Laboratory
In May 1962, the Institute of Radio
Engineers published in the 50th Anniver-
sary Issue of its Proceedings a monograph
on “Man-Machine Coupling—2012 A.D.”
In this somewhat imaginative bit of writ-
ing it was predicted that within the next
20 years the communication between men
and machine would be perfected to a
degree that would permit coupling between
the human mind and a mechanical brain,
much closer than is now possible between
two human minds. The article went on to
speculate that once the secrets of tight
* Address at installation banquet of the Dis-
trict of Columbia Gamma chapter of Tau Beta
Pi, national engineering honor society, at George
Washington University on February 16, 1963.
First published in THE Bent of Tau Beta Pi for
April 1963. Reprinted by permission.
coupling to the human mind were mastered,
the machine might be eliminated, and the
coupling be effected directly between two
human minds. At this point the subject
was dropped, and it was left to the reader
to visualize a group of people tightly
coupled together and highly organized to
concentrate all minds on a single purpose.
Could we perhaps call such an organiza-
tion of people an “all-human machine”?
The construction and operation of such
an all-human machine could pose some nice
engineering challenges. For example, the
engineering exercise of matching im-
pedances at the interfaces might seem
formidable, but they could well be dwarfed
by the problems of stabilizing human trans-
fer characteristics in desirable modes. We
might say that these would be truly prob-
lems in human engineering.
6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
But the tight coupling of mind to mind
does not produce the problems of matching
impedances and stabilizing transfer char-
acteristics. It only intensifies these prob-
lems, bringing them into focus where we
can see and understand them better, and
thus, perchance, do something about them.
The problems exist in everyday personal
relationships in any society of people. We
recognize them as human problems, and
wonder what engineering as we know it has
to do with them. It might interest us to
consider engineering “as we know it,” and
then explore its possibilities.
To exemplify a product of engineering,
we think of a system, in which a number
of components function harmoniously
together to accomplish a desired operation.
The coupling of one component to another
is a means of communication by which one
component receives information from the
other. Matching impedances means design-
ing the coupling so that both components
comprehend the same language at the same
intelligence level. Thus each understands
the other perfectly.
Each component is identified for engi-
neering purposes by its transfer character-
istic. In simple language, the transfer
characteristic describes what the component
does in response to information it receives
from other components. Technically speak-
ing, it is the relationship between the out-
put and the input. As with each component,
so also the system as a whole may be iden-
tified by the over-all transfer characteristic.
It is determined by the summation of the
transfer characteristics of all the com-
ponents. If the transfer characteristic of
one component has undesirable features,
these undesirable features can be balanced
out by adding another component with a
compensating transfer characteristic. In
some cases the over-all performance may
be improved by actually degrading the
transfer characteristic of a particular com-
ponent. Take, for example, the preacher
who increased his Sunday collection by
using a butterfly net for a collection plate!
Then all will be well as long as the transfer
JANUARY, 1964,
characteristics remain stable. If any com-
ponent is unstable in its transfer charac-
teristic, there is no way to compensate for
it. From this we can see that for any com-
ponent, the stability of its transfer charac-
teristic is more important than its basic
features, since undesirable features can be
compensated for, but instability can not.
If one must use a component whose transfer
characteristic varies unpredictably, the
whole system must be designed in such a
way that the influence of the unstable com-
ponent on the over-all transfer charac-
teristic is reduced to a minimum.
It has been customary for engineers to
think of their systems as being composed
entirely of mechanical components. Many
systems, however, include one or more
human beings as components, and engi-
neers have been forced to cope with the
transfer characteristics of human beings.
Now, the transfer characteristics of human
beings have some very interesting peculiari-
ties. They are non-linear, discontinuous,
have a rather narrow frequency band pass,
and, worst of all, they are highly variable.
Needless to say, engineers have had quite
a time trying to fit that component into
a system whose performance could be
predicted with some degree of confidence.
When a system includes only one human
being among its components, it is possible
to add compensating components which
satisfactorily reduce the influence of human
unpredictability on the over-all transfer
characteristic of the system. This is a
tribute to the relatively new field of Engi-
neering Psychology. The problem becomes
vastly more complicated when the system
includes two or more human _ beings,
especially when they react on each other
in the functioning of the system. May we
now repeat a statement made a few mo-
ments ago? “The construction and opera-
tion of an all-human machine could pose
some nice engineering challenges.” I think
we can recognize here some of the marks
of an understatement.
Having looked briefly at one phase of
engineering “as we know it,” can what
|
we know be of any use to us in under-
standing the human problems of man in
a society of people? Let us think of the
society of people as an engineering system,
with human beings only as components.
Each component is coupled more or less
tightly to many other components, by vari-
ous means of communication. Perfect
mutual understanding depends on perfectly
matched impedances in all channels of
communication. This involves not only
speaking the same language at the same
intelligence level, through any and _ all
sensory media, but correctly interpreting
gestures of the body, expression in the
eyes, involuntary muscular movements, and
signs of agitation and calm, such as breath-
ing rate, skin color change, and all other
tell-tale indices of emotion.
It requires a good matching of imped-
ances for concepts and ideas to flow freely
from one person to another. Captain Horn,
a good friend of mine, in the U. S. Navy,
identified a poor impedance match when
he said, “I gave him the pitch, but he
failed to hoist it aboard.’ But a good
impedance match is no guarantee of how
a person will react when he does “hoist it
aboard.” It is said that ideas, like fleas,
jump from person to person, but they
don’t bite everyone. [| think we all realize
that the impedance match between two
people is in some cases pretty wonderfully
good, in others pretty sadly poor, with
the average fully adequate for preservation
of the race, if not always of the individual.
Now what can we say about transfer
characteristics? Just what is the transfer
characteristic of a human being in a society
of people? We have defined it broadly as
what the component does in response to
information it receives from other com-
ponents. Might it now be more succinctly
stated as the sum total of all one’s reac-
tions to other people that one passes on
to other people? Many volumes have been
written on this broad and elusive subject,
but I venture the opinion that nowhere
has it been considered as a transfer charac-
teristic in an engineering sense. And I
further venture to suggest that if it were
so considered, much needed enlightenment
could be injected into the solving of human
problems. May we just take a moment
to glance briefly at some of the possibili-
ties?
As a component in a man-machine sys-
tem, man’s transfer characteristic was
found to be non-linear, discontinuous, with
narrow frequency band pass, and variable.
These are basic features and all carry over
into his transfer characteristic as a com-
ponent in a society of people. Different
persons differ widely in each of these basic
features. For example, some people rise
to great heights of diplomacy in the arena
of oratory, while others open their mouths
only to change feet.
In machine systems we found the most
critical factor in a transfer characteristic
to be its stability. This could well be true
also in a society of people. Here we must
be careful to distinguish between input and
transfer characteristic. For example, a
mere tap on the shoulder can evoke widely
different reactions in the same man with
no change in transfer characteristic. Sup-
pose he is dancing to sweet music under
soft lights with the girl of his dreams, his
spirit soaring far into his dream world.
A light tap on the shoulder, and the soft
spoken words, “Pardon me, Buddy, it’s
my turn now,” and he goes meekly off
looking for another man to tap on the
shoulder. But suppose he has been trying
vainly to climb out of a freshly dug grave
into which he had fallen when taking a
short-cut through a cemetery at night, and
from another man who had preceded him
in a similar accident comes a light tap
on the shoulder and the soft-spoken words,
“Tt’s no use, Buddy, you can’t make it.”
He generally does. But this very different
reaction is not from a difference in transfer
characteristic. It can be traced to certain
subtle differences in the input.
Undesirable traits in one person can
be recognized, and appropriate allowances
made by others to protect or to compensate.
But variability in transfer characteristic
3 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
appears as unpredictability of personal
reactions, and unreliability of performance.
There is no way of compensating for this,
and a successful society manages to adjust
itself so as to reduce to a minimum the
influence exerted by its most unstable
members.
Now permit me to draw the line a little
finer in exploring the bases of instability
in human transfer characteristics. We will
pass over such superficial or transient
phenomena as the wonderful play of the
night before, the flu virus you just caught,
the cold coffee for breakfast, or when two
men across the street look like three when
there is only one. Stabilizing the transfer
characteristic against that type of “noise”
is merely a matter of “growing up” and
acquiring the natural stability that charac-
JANUARY, 1964
terizes emotional maturity. We look for
a more basic foundation, a stable element,
if you please, to which the transfer charac-
teristic might be served, and we find such
a stable element in the person’s character.
As long as one’s transfer characteristic,
one’s reactions to other people which are
passed:on to other people, is a true ex-
pression of what one really is, it will be
as stable as human character is stable. But
when one tries to be some one or some
thing other than what he really is, then
his transfer characteristic will vary with
the mood and the weather. It was a good
engineer who said, “First to thine own
self be true, and it follows as day follows
the night, thou canst not then be false to
any man.”
Academy Proceedings
January Meeting
(66th Annual Dinner Meeting)
DATE: THURSDAY, JANUARY 16, 1964
PLACE: John Wesley Powell Auditorium, Cosmos
Club, 2170 Florida Avenue, N.W.
SCHEDULE: Cocktails at 6:30, Dinner at 7:00, Meeting
at 8:15
PROGRAM: Reports of Officers and Committees
Installation of Delegates of Afhliated Societies
Presentation of Awards for Scientific Achieve-
ment, Conducted by Robert W. Berliner, Chair-
man of Awards Committee
AWARD WINNERS
Biological Sciences
Brian J. McCarthy, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of
Washington, “for his role in deciphering the biosynthetic relationships among nucleic
acids.” Introduced by Richard B. Roberts, Staff Scientist, Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism.
Physical Sciences
George A. Snow, Department of Physics, University of Maryland, “for outstanding
research on the fundamental properties of elementary particles.” Introduced by Wilson H.
Elkins, President, University of Maryland.
Engineering Sciences
Gordon L. Dugger, Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, “for
major investigations and leadership in the field of hypersonic propulsion.” Introduced
by Ralph E. Gibson, Director of the Applied Physics Laboratory.
Mathematies
James H. Bramble, Institute of Fluid Dynamics and Applied Mathematics, University
of Maryland, “for his contributions to the numerical treatment of partial differential
equations.” Introduced by Wilson H. Elkins, President, University of Maryland.
Teaching of Science
Frank T. Davenport, Frank W. Ballou High School, “for performance as an in-
10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
spiring teacher of high school biology.” Introduced by Carl F. Hansen, Superintendent of
Schools, District of Columbia.
George M. Koehl, Physics Department, George Washington University, “for sustained
excellence in teaching the beauty and order of physics.” Introduced by Thomas H. Carroll,
President, George Washington University.
Leo Schubert, Chemistry Department, American University,
“for contributions to
science education at the high school and college levels.” Introduced by Hurst R. Ander-
son, President, American University.
BOARD OF MANAGERS
MEETING NOTES
The Board of Managers held its 559th
meeting on November 21, 1963 at the
Cosmos Club, with President Van Evera
presiding.
The minutes of the 558th meeting were
approved as previously distributed.
Announcements. Dr. Van Evera made
the following announcements:
(2) Messrs. T. W. Lashof of NBS,
R. W. Krauss of the University of Mary-
land, and K. B. Morris of Howard Uni-
versity had been appointed to represent
the Academy on a “Joint Committee on
Recognition of Engineering, Science, and
Architecture” of the Academy and _ the
D. C. Council of Engineering Societies.
(2) Russell B. Stevens had been asked
to consider appointment as Academy archi-
vist; his decision was pending.
(3) He expected soon to name a chair-
man of the Ways and Means Committee,
which would consider, among other things,
the establishment of a permanent secre-
tariat for the Academy.
(4) The slate of officers for 1964 had
been established as follows: F. N. Frenkiel,
president; Leo Schubert, president-elect;
G. W. Irving, Jr., secretary; and M. C.
Henderson, treasurer. Four candidates had
been named for two Board positions,
namely, Allen Alexander, Michael
- Goldberg, Marion Parker, and Francis
Reichelderfer.
JANUARY, 1964.
Executive Committee. Dr. Van Evera
reported that the Committee had met on
November 13 to discuss such matters as
duplication of membership application
forms and plans for future Academy
directories.
Meetings. Chairman Robbins announced
that the Academy’s December 19 meeting
would be held at the Naval Observatory,
and would consist of a lecture, “From
Harrison No. 4 to the Atomic Clock—200
Years of Timekeeping,” preceded by an
exhibition of Harrison’s Timekeeper No. 4
and modern timekeepers.
Membership. In the absence of Chair-
man Hobbs, the Secretary presented the
names of two candidates for fellowship,
for First Reading.
Grants-in-Aid. Chairman McPherson
announced that one application for a
grant was being prepared, but was not
yet ready for Board action.
Treasurer. Treasurer Henderson re-
ported the following balances: Academy,
$5,125.61 as of November 15: Junior
Academy, $999.89 in checking account and
$1,539.92 in savings account; market
value of assets as of November 18,
$78,436.50.
Editor. Editor Detwiler reported that
the October Journal was in the mail; that
galley proofs were at hand for the No-
vember issue; and that copy was being
prepared for the December issue.
Mr. Detwiler presented the following
comparison of costs of the September
(directory) issues for 1962: and 1963:
fa
1962 1963
Master card list of members $ 9.87 $ 9.12
Directory questionnaire ........ 79.96 138.53
MBM services. ee 359.07 387.04
ABYOMERINOE§ | ete tt cian Gtereee ae 543.00 832.75
italic oe sete eaten ae Pe 18.73 17.90
Bostave west ee ori RSs 63.82 18.96
Miscellaneous 4-24-50 0.00 8.24
Oa eres ie eka ees $1074.45 $1412.54
Mr. Detwiler indicated that the four
Affiliates, whose complete rosters were in-
cluded in the 1963 directory, would be
asked to make the following nominal
contributions to its cost (at 25 cents per
copy): Code F (entomologists), $40.00;
Code K_ (botanists), $47.00; Code W
(dental researchers), $16.75; Code 4
(IFT), $35.50.
In the ensuing discussion, it was empha-
sized that the Academy would appreciate
reactions from the four afhliated societies
whose complete membership rosters were
published in the 1963 directory, to guide
the Academy in development of its 1964
directory.
New business. The Board agreed that
the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, recently formed by merger of
the American Institute of Electrical Engi-
neers and the Institute of Radio Engineers,
should be recognized as an affiliate of the
Academy, seniority to be determined by
the elder of the two merged societies
(American Institute of Electrical Engi-
neers), and that the Board certify this
action pending necessary amendment of
the Bylaws. Since the change in name
will require revision of the Bylaws, it was
suggested by Dr. Van Evera that the
Policy and Planning Committee be asked
to develop language for action by the
membership, which would revise the By-
laws suitably so that future changes of
this type would not require Bylaws revi-
sion. This could be effected by listing
Society affiliates in the Standing Rules
rather than in the Bylaws. The Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers will
be asked to name a single delegate repre-
senting the merged organization.
Inasmuch as the Institute of Aerospace
Sciences recently absorbed the American
Rocket Society and assumed the new
name, American Institute of Aeronautics
and Astronautics (AIAA), the Board
agreed that the AIAA be considered the
affiliate of the Academy, and that the
Academy certify such affiliation pending
revision of the Bylaws. Dr. Frenkiel indi-
cated that the AIAA had designated Maj.-
gen. A. W. Betts as its delegate to the
Academy.
Dr. Van Evera indicated that President-
elect Frenkiel would attend the AAAS
meeting in Cleveland in December, and
would represent the Academy on _ the
AAAS Academy Council. Since the
Academy can have two delegates, Dr.
Van Evera expected to name a second
representative.
The secretary read a letter from Ray-
mond J. Seeger, president of the American
Association of Physics Teachers, suggest-
ing that some liaison between the Academy
and his organization be established so
that common objectives could be better
achieved. The Board directed the secretary
to reply to Dr. Seeger, indicating that the
Academy was considering a mechanism for
liaison or affiliation.
MN
12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Science in Washington
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
January 13—American Society for
Metals
Thomas F. Kearns, Bureau of Naval
Weapons, “The Metalworking Processes
and Equipment Program.”
AAUW Building, 2401 Virginia Ave.,
N.W., 8:00 p.m. Dinner at 6:30 p.m. at
same address.
January 13—Computer Science
Colloquium
Regular meeting. “Information Process-
ing on the IMP Satellite.”
Rm. 26, Computer Science Center, Uni-
versity of Maryland, 4:00 p.m.
January 14—James Curley Lectures
in Science
C. C. Kiess, professor of astronomy,
Georgetown University, “Interpretation of
Martian Phenomena.”
Gaston Hall,
8:30 p.m.
Georgetown University,
January 14—American Institute of
Industrial Engineers
Professor Tullier, Naval Academy,
“Practical Uses of Operations Research.”
Perpetual Building Association Audi-
torium, llth & E Sts., N.W., 8:00 p.m.
Dinner before the meeting at O’Donnell’s
Restaurant, 122] E St., N.W.
January 15—Society of American
F oresters
Luncheon meeting. Rep. Compton I.
White, Jr., member of House Committee
on Interior and Insular Affairs, “The
Public Land Problem in the Western
States.”
Occidental Restaurant, 1411 Pennsyl-
vania Ave., N.W., noon.
JANUARY, 1964.
January 15—Paleontological Society
of Washington
Norman K. Sachs, Geological Survey,
“An Oceanographic Cruise to the Equa-
torial Atlantic.”
Rm. 43, National Museum, 10th St. and
Constitution Ave., N.W., 8:00 p.m.
January 20—American Society for
Microbiology
Charles W. Shilling, director, Biological
Sciences Communication Center, “A Mis-
sion Oriented Information Center.”
Officers Club, Walter Reed Army Medi-
cal Center, 6:30 p.m.
January 20—American University
Lecture Series
Maurice Ewing, director of Lamont
Geological Observatory, Columbia Uni-
versity, “Oceanology.”
Glover Hall, American University, 8:00
p-m. The lecture is sponsored by Opera-
tions Research, Vitro Corporation of
America, and Harris Research Labora-
tories.
January 21—Anthropological Society
of Washington
Michael Moermann and Jasper C.
Ingersoll, American University, “Village
Roles in North and Central Thailand:
Controlled Comparisons in a Single
Culture.”
Rm. 43, National Museum, 10th St. and
Constitution Ave., N.W., 8:15 p.m.
February 13—Chemical Society of
Washington
Joint meeting with Washington Junior
Academy of Sciences. Ralph K. Iler,
E. I. duPont de Nemours and Com-
pany, “Inorganic Colloids—Some Interest-
ing Properties.”
National Naval Medical Center, Bethes-
da, 6:15) pm: :
13
SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS
Contributions to this column may be
addressed to Harold T. Cook, Associate
Editor, c/o U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Agricultural Marketing Service, Fed-
eral Center Building, Hyattsville, Md.
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT
R. E. Hardenburg, Agricultural Mar-
keting Service, received the distinguished
service award of the Produce Packaging
Association at its 13th Annual Convention
in Chicago, November 11.
A. M. Pommer attended a meeting of
the Association of Military Surgeons of the
United States, held in Washington on No-
vember 8, and a Symposium on Relation of
Geology and Trace Elements to Nutritional
Problems, held by the Geochemical Society
in New York on November 17.
Chester R. Benjamin was recently ap-
pointed chairman of the Fungus Nomen-
clature Committee of the Mycological So-
ciety of America. This is in addition to Dr.
Benjamin’s assignment as representative of
the Society on the National Research Coun-
cil.
C. H. Hoffmann, assistant director of
the Entomology Research Division, was
guest speaker at the annual dinner meeting
of the William Penn Chapter, Soil Con-
servation Society of America, on November
26 at Newtown Square, Pa. Dr. Hoffmann’s
address was on “Benefits and Hazards of
Modern Insecticides and New Approaches
to Insect Control.”
In October, Harold H. Shepard visited
several research facilities of the pesticide
industry in England and Switzerland, as
well as the Pest Infestation Laboratory at
Slough (England), the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development in
Paris, and the World Health Organization
at Geneva. Dr. Shepard noted that criticism
_ of pesticide usage is now widespread in the
European press, similar to what was at its
peak in American journals some months
ago. Rachel Carson’s “Silent Spring” can
now be obtained in French and German
translations.
Justus C. Ward, during a recent trip to
San Francisco and Hawaii, gave talks be-
fore the National Pest Control Association
at San Francisco, the Hawaiian and Na-
tional Associations at Honolulu, a confer-
ence of State of Hawaii agriculturists,
health workers and University faculty mem-
bers in Honolulu, and a small gathering of
similar specialists at Lihue, Kauai. All
these talks were on the general subject of
pesticides, the existing laws dealing with
their labeling, and the importance of proper
use.
I’. W. Poos was presented a meritorious
award and citation for distinguished service
to agriculture and entomology by the East-
ern Branch of the Entomological Society
of America at its annual meeting in New
York, October 24-25. Dr. Poos recently re-
tired as editor of the Journal! of Economic
Entomology, a position he had occupied
since his retirement as senior entomologist
in the Agricultural Research Service.
CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY
Frank A. Biberstein, head of the De-
partment of Civil Engineering, is a member
of the Building Research Institute Planning
Committee on Masonry in Building. The
Committee met on November 19 at the
Mayflower Hotel.
COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY
Joseph L. Stearn, research mathemati-
cian, gave a 40-minute talk before a group
of graduate students and faculty members
in the Department of Geodetic Sciences,
Ohio State University, on November 15.
First, the results of a research study of
tests of departure from normality for
theodolite errors of observation were out-
lined, followed by brief topics for research
on the subjects of minimum deviation as
an adjunct to least squares, pseudo-inverse
solution of singular systems, and ill-con-
ditioned matrices.
Aaron L. Shalowitz, who retired from
C & GS after 46 years of continuous service,
14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
has been recalled to active duty to complete
Volume Two of his treatise, “Shore and
Sea Boundaries.”
Leonard M. Murphy, chief of the Divi-
sion of Seismology, attended the Defense
Research Board—ARPA meeting in Ot-
tawa, Canada, on October 28-30, where
joint cooperation in seismological research
between the United States and Canada was
discussed.
HARRIS RESEARCH
LABORATORIES
Harvey Alter was moderator of a Sym-
posium on Plastics in the Building Industry
at a meeting of the Baltimore-Washington
Section, Society of Plastics Engineers, in
Washington on December 3.
Alfred E. Brown attended the semian-
nual meeting of the Scientific Manpower
Commission in Washington on December 2.
HOWARD UNIVERSITY
L. N. Ferguson spoke on “Physicochem-
ical Studies on the Sense of Taste” before
the Central Pennsylvania Section, American
Chemical Society, held at Pennsylvania
State University October 25.
M. D. Taylor recently discussed his re-
search before a gathering of the research
staff of the Dow Chemical Company at Mid-
land, Mich. Recently he was appointed to
the Advisory Board of the new publication,
Chemistry, of the American Chemical So-
ciety.
J. B. Morris has been appointed to serve
as one of the representatives of the Wash-
ington Academy of Sciences on a committee
with representatives of the D. C. Council
of Engineering and Architectural Societies,
to promote recognition of engineers, sci-
entists, and architects in the Washington
area. He attended the Eastern Analytical
Symposium on Analytical Chemistry at
New York on October 13-15.
The following have been recent guest
speakers at the Physical Chemistry Semi-
nar: October 8, R. R. Stromberg, NBS,
“Ellipsometry and Some Applications”;
October 22, F. Saalfield, NRL, “Mass Spec-
JANUARY, 1964
trometry of Volatile Hydrides’; November
11, E. Horowitz, NBS, “Preparation and
Properties of Coordination Polymers”;
November 19, F. A. Khoury, “Aspects of
the Solid State Structure and Morphology
of Synthetic Organic Polymers.”
NATIONAL BUREAU OF
STANDARDS
Gordon M. Kline retired in December
as chief of the Polymers Division after
more than 37 years of Government service.
A specialist in plastics, he is internationally
known for his research on the chemistry
and properties of polymers and the develop-
ment of standards for plastics. In 1953, the
Commerce Department awarded him its
Exceptional Service Gold Medal for “major
contributions to science and technology
through pioneering work and accomplish-
ments in the field of organic plastics and
for distinguished authorship.” He also
holds the Honor Award of the Washington
Section of the American Institute of Chem-
ists.
Harry C. Allen, formerly chief of the
Analytical and Inorganic Chemistry Divi-
sion, has been named chief of the Inorganic
Solids Division. In his new post Dr. Allen
will direct Bureau research on properties of
nonmetallic inorganic solids, including such
industrially important materials as ceram-
ics, glass, and refractory oxides.
On December 5, Allen V. Astin received
a 1963 Rockefeller Public Service Award,
the highest private honor for Government
career service. Dr. Astin is one of five
Government senior career employees chosen
for the 1963 Award because of outstanding
contributions they have made to the nation
through their work.
Abner Brenner, chief of the Electroly-
sis and Metal Deposition Section, Metal-
lurgy Division, has recently published (Aca-
demic Press) a massive two-volume treatise
entitled, “Electrodeposition of Alloys,”
which represents the most comprehensive
treatment of this subject in the field.
Floyd Buckley, former assistant chief
of the Physical Chemistry Division, retired
5
on September 11 after 15 years of service
with NBS. Mr. Buckley first came to the
Physical Chemistry Division in 1943.
Irvin L. Cooter has returned from a
year’s training assignment at Oxford Uni-
versity. During this period he visited sev-
eral magnetic laboratories in England and
on the Continent.
Earle K. Plyler, internationally recog-
nized expert in infrared spectrometry, re-
tired from the Bureau on October 8. Dr.
Plyler has been an NBS staff member since
1945, and chief of the Infrared Spectros-
copy Section in the Bureau’s Atomic Phys-
ics Division since 1952. In 1962 he was
awarded the Commerce Department’s Gold
Medal for Exceptional Service on the basis
of his “pioneering advances in the physics
of infrared radiation and for major ad-
vances in instrumentation for infrared spec-
troscopy.”
Hideo Okabe, a member of the Physical
Chemistry Division, left on October 3 to
begin a one-year tenure as visiting profes-
sor at the Institut fur Physikalische Chemie
at the University of Bonn, Germany, which
is under the direction of Professor W. E.
Groth. Dr. Okabe will work on field ion
mass spectrometry; he is expected to re-
turn to the Bureau in October 1964.
Recent talks by Washington staff mem-
bers:
H. C. Allen, Jr.: “The John-Teller Effect in
Some Copper Chelates”—North Carolina State
University, Department of Physics, Raleigh.
R. K. Cook: “Very Low Frequency Atmos-
pheric Sounds Caused by Geophysical Phenom-
ena’ —Rice University, Houston; and “Radiation
from Subsonic Surface Waves’—Acoustical So-
ciety of America, University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor.
W. J. Hamer: “Standard Cells and Zener Di-
odes”—Chicago Section of the Electrochemical
Society, Chicago; Pacific Northwestern Section
Electrochemical Society, Spokane, Wash.; San
Francisco Chapter, Electrochemical Society,
Berkeley; and Southern California-Nevada Elec-
trochemical Society, Los Angeles.
G. C. Paffenbarger: “Present Day Plastics for
Use as Denture Base Materials”—Greater New
York Dental Meeting, New York; “Some High-
lights of the Current Research Program of the
Dental Research Section at the National Bureau
of Standards”—New York Academy of Dentistry,
16 JOURNAL OF
Columbia University Club; “Gallium Alloys” and
“The Use of the Specifications of the American
Dental Association as Teaching Aids in the Sci-
ence of Dental Materials” —Conference for Teach-
ers of Dental Materials, Northwestern University,
Chicago.
A. H. Scott: “Techniques for Using the Air-
gap Method for the Precise Determination of the
Die’ectic Constant and Loss Angle of Solid Disk
Specimens.”
G. Shapiro and O. B. Laug: “Project FIST—
Fault Isolation by Semi-Automatic Techniques”—
NASA-Battelle Seminar on Automatic Checkout
Equipment and Techniques, Columbus.
C. M. Sitterly: “What is the Sun Made of?”—
Visiting Scientists and Engineers Program—Joint
Board on Science Education, North Bethesda Jun-
ior High School.
J. K. Taylor: “An Evaluation of Coulometric
Titrations” and “Crisis in Analytical Chemistry”
—KEastern Analytical Symposium, New York.
C. M. Tchen: “Plasma Oscillations with Col-
lective Correlation”—Case Institute of Technol-
ogy, Cleveland.
R. Zwanzig: “Current Status of Irreversible
Thermodynamics” — Chemical Engineering Semi-
nar, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.
NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF
HEALTH
Margaret Pittman, chief of the Divi-
sion of Biologics Standards Laboratory of
Bacterial Products, directed a 3-day sym-
posium on pertussis vaccine. Eighty-one
scientists from the United States and four
foreign countries participated.
Bernhard Witkop and Fritz Marki of
the National Institute of Arthritis and
Metabolic Diseases have isolated the toxic
principles of the lethal venom secreted by
the skin of the kokoi frog. Poison from
this frog is used by the Cholo Indians of
Colombia.
Norman B. McCullough, chief of the
Laboratory of Bacterial Diseases, National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Di-
seases, discussed his work on brucellosis
at the NIAID Grand Rounds on October 9.
UNCLASSIFIED
Roy C. Dawson represented the Food
and Agriculture Organization at the Dairy
Society International Meeting in Dallas,
November 3-5. He also spoke to the Col-
lege Park (Md.) Rotary International on
“Freedom from Hunger,” on November 6.
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Eugene W. Weber, deputy director of
civil works for policy, Corps of Engineers,
was one of five to receive the 1963 Rocke-
feller Public Service Award at a luncheon
on December 5. The award was given for
accomplishments in the field of adminis-
tration.
DEATHS
William E. Wrather, director emeritus
of the Geological Survey, died November
28 at his home in Washington. Born in
Brandenburg, Ky., in 1883, Dr. Wrather
became one of the world’s foremost petro-
leum geologists. After graduation from
the University of Chicago, he joined the
J. M. Guffey Petroleum Company (now
Gulf Oil Company) to become one of the
first to apply geological knowledge to the
exploration for oil. As a consulting geolo-
gist in Dallas from 1918 to 1942, Dr.
Wrather achieved outstanding recognition
by the oil industry. Among his accom-
plishments was his location and supervi-
sion of drilling operations that resulted
in the discovery well at Desdemona, Co-
manche County, Tex. His many explora-
tions in foreign countries during the 1920’s
and 1930’s led to important oil discoveries
abroad.
Dr. Wrather became director of the
Geological Survey in 1943 and served
until his retirement in 1956.
Dr. Wrather was a past president of the
American Institute of Mining and Metal-
lurgical Engineers, the American Asso-
ciation of Petroleum Geologists, the
Society of Economic Geologists, and the
Texas Geological Society, and an officer or
member of many other professional groups.
He received honorary degrees from
Southern Methodist University, Colorado
School of Mines, University of Kentucky,
and Montana School of Mines, as well as
numerous other awards for distinguished
accomplishment.
MN
January, 1964
SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT
A new technique using carbon 1 for
pinpointing sources of saline waters
which contaminate many coastal areas of
the United States was reported at the 75th
anniversary meeting of the Geological So-
ciety of America on November 18 by Bruce
Hanshaw, William Back, and Meyer Rubin
of the Geological Survey. Dr. Rubin is a
member of the Washington Academy of
Sciences. With the new technique in a test
area near Brunswick, Ga., the authors
found that the salt water contaminating
the drinking water came from ancient lime-
stone formations and not from the ocean,
which was eliminated as a source because
of its relatively high carbon * content.
The new technique may be useful in sol-
ving existing or threatening salt water
contamination problems in such areas as
Long Island, Philadelphia, and the Florida
coast.
Accurate long-range weather fore-
casts can be based on “the certainty that
the family of regular harmonics of 273
months, in solar radiation and terrestrial
weather, is a controlling geophysical fact.”
This assertion is made by Charles G. Abbot,
formerly secretary of the Smithsonian In-
stitution and director of the Smithsonian
Astrophysical Observatory. A harmonic is
defined as a recurring fraction of a larger
number, such as 3/273, 9/273, 27/273,
etc. If the 273-month family of regular
harmonic periods exists in weather with
such amplitudes that by their summation
a controlling influence is exerted, then the
weather should tend strongly to repeat its
features at intervals of 22 years and 9
months. Dr. Abbot’s conclusions are the
result of a detailed study of the measure-
ments of the solar radiation constant since
1876. His paper, “Solar Variation and
Weather,” was recently published by the
Smithsonian Institution.
A survey of doctorate-degree produc-
tion in the nation’s universities, issued
by NAS-NRC, reports that (1) the United
States will double its 1962 annual output
of 12,000 Ph.D. graduates by 1969 if
My
present trends continue; (2) two geo-
graphic regions—East North Central and
Middle Atlantic—produce nearly half the
annual total of doctorates, but employ only
one third; (3) graduate education is sys-
tematically spreading wider, with less con-
centration in the leading schools; (4) the
proportion of doctorates in the physical
sciences—about 30 percent of the total—
has not increased over a 40-year period;
(5) women account for only 5 percent of
the doctorates awarded in the natural
sciences now, compared to 11 percent in
1920. The 215-page report presents data on
more than 183,000 persons who earned
third-level research degrees in the period
1920-1962. The total includes the Ph.D.,
Sc.D., Eng.D., and Ed.D. degrees, but not
such degrees as M.D., D.D.S., and D.V.M.
A Symposium on Statistical Associa-
tion Methods for Mechanized Docu-
mentation will be held March 17-19 at the
National Bureau of Standards. Sponsored
by NBS, the American Documentation In-
stitute, and the Research Information
Center and Advisory Service on Infor-
mation Processing, the symposium will
review the state of the art of the application
of statistical association methods to mecha-
nized documentation systems. The fol-
lowing topics will be covered: (1)
pioneering applications of statistical as-
sociation techniques in documentation, (2)
information retrieval and search renegoti-
ation; (3) statistical association methods
and citation indexing; (4) automatic as-
signment indexing; (5) automatic classi-
fication and categorization; and (6) future
prospects. Original papers and _ critical
reviews are being considered for presen-
tation. Further information can be obtained
from Mary E. Stevens at NBS.
Hurricane Beulah was seeded with
silver iodide crystals on August 23-24 to
determine if the energy patterns in a
hurricane could be changed. Known as
“Project Stormfury,” the enterprise was
conducted by the Navy Department and
Weather Bureau with NSF support, as a
continuation of experiments begun in 1961.
A Navy A3B Skywarrior dropped newly-
designed silver iodide canisters into the
hurricane clouds from a height of 35,000
feet; a vertical “sheet” of silver iodide
more than 20,000 feet in depth was swept
around by the strong hurricane winds in
a path from 15 to 35 miles from the storm
center. As the silver iodide was injected,
“flying laboratories” penetrated and tra-
versed the clouds at various levels to
observe and record the results. While a
complete analysis of the experiment is not
yet available, project scientists observed
that winds following the seeding on August
23 continued to increase, but did decrease
on the days after the seeding on August 24.
The Earth Science Curriculum Proj-
ect, an interdisciplinary science program
for secondary schools that is conducted
by the American Geological Institute
with NSF support, has begun publication
of an “ESCP Newsletter” to keep interested
persons informed of progress. Volume 1,
Number 1, issued in October 1963, sur-
veys the project’s organization, objectives,
philosophy, and future. Subsequent issues
can be obtained free upon request to
Earth Science Curriculum Project, P.O.
Box 1559, Boulder, Colo.
Use of stereophotogrammetric
measurements to detect underground
nuclear explosions is being investigated
by the Army Engineers’ Geodesy, In-
telligence, and Mapping Research and De-
velopment Agency at Fort Belvoir. The
system under study essentially involves
stereoscopic observation and measurement
of photographs taken at a test site before
and after an explosion, Ground surface
changes that might occur above an under-
ground nuclear explosion would be shown
by these stereophotogrammetric measure-
ments. The heart of the method is
GIMRADA’s Halcon Plotter System, now
under development. Designed for high
altitude mapping, the interim system con-
sists of two 12-inch focal length convergent
cameras and a specially built, highly
precise, projection-type plotter with 12-
inch projectors to match the cameras.
18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
A systematic two-stage approach for
fitting families of curves to data de-
pendent on two variables has been de-
veloped at the National Bureau of
Standards. In the first stage, the method
takes advantage of the relations that usually
exist among the curves so that the curves
can be fitted simultaneously, often as a
family of straight lines. In the second
stage. the functional form of the relation is
determined.
National Bureau of Standards scientists
have designed multistaged electron guns
that will pass the maximum possible
number of low-voltage electrons through
a given space. These guns give a current
at low voltages at least an order of magni-
tude higher than previously attainable, and
therefore can be used in performing ex-
periments heretofore considered impossible.
Two such guns have been built and evalu-
ated.
The October 1963 American Documenta-
tion Institute meeting was the occasion for
an NSF-supported experiment in con-
ference programming to promote more
effective speaker-participant communi-
cation and rapid exchange of information
on a personal basis. An opportunity was
provided also to demonstrate that certain
forms of scientific publication can be ac-
complished in significantly shorter time
than they have in the past. Papers pre-
sented at the annual gathering, held this
year in Chicago, were not read during the
meeting, but were printed and distributed
to the registrants in advance. Along with
the papers was enclosed a checklist of
authors, to be used by the registrant to
indicate his desire to discuss work with
particular authors. All responses were pro-
cessed and schedules established to bring
authors and participants together for
small-group discussions on _ particular
subjects. The rapid publication of the
papers was accomplished by putting them
on punched tape for automatic typesetting,
indexing, and word analysis. An edited,
line-adjusted version of the tape was then
prepared by computer for operating photo-
typesetting equipment. This master tape
was also used to compile and print an
index and a glossary of all key words used
in the papers. The final volume was printed
and distributed to registrants prior to the
ADI meeting.
Research scientists, as well as librar-
ians, abstractors, and bibliographers,
now have a new tool available with pub-
lication of a “Subject Heading List’ by
the National Agricultural Library, in co-
operation with the Rockefeller foundation.
The breadth and complexity of agriculture
are shown in the compilation of 93,000
subject headings and cross-references used
by the library in its card catalog. This is
the most comprehensive international list
of agricultural subjects ever published,
according to library officials. Based on the
National Agricultural Library’s subject
file, which has been developed over the
past 100 years, the list is a tool for pro-
viding access to the world’s agricultural
literature through abstracting and indexing
services and library catalogs.
22 2
JANUARY, 1964
19
Delegates to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Representing
the Local Affiliated Societies*
LAMA NE TIM OOCIELY AOlm WiASUIN LOM 12.85, pce .5o Feo. shee cele ssccte dens bee +vigacodasea suvievvereicl vastédueudeers R. D. Myers
Amtimopological Society of Washington ................c..c- -coce-essceteesecenceseneeeesenenseee REGINA FLANNERY HERZFELD
Eee poe SO CIEL YW OF © WASINIMIO EON: cisco. 8. ial coc conte cspencspoennnentaveedageleteeteesnatizedoseneees Joun L. Parapiso
Ghemmeal Society of Washington 00.2. eee De ae MeN Leo ScHUBERT
Paaromroincical Society Of Washington «oo... ccc... ceceescececes ceacetenecrcenssneeeceessesenenteaces Frank L. CAMPBELL
MEA eA COOMA ING: SO OCKELY. ce. scice.6o ate ccaccdecutecveees! auessiucunnl sabi iseanssontgsagssqacageede » inten ALEXANDER WETMORE
eiaiealmsocieny, Of Wi aShaimetom: 222..ccs.cxic-521 ge acanskgemnoneceteadesecupsaessousentrstelanlosdereetnonesaes G. ARTHUR COOPER
Medical Society of the District of Columbia ....000....0cc..ccc-ccccssccsessescsse cesssetesessessevceeseteeseee FREDERICK O. COE
lemma tlistorical SOCIELY 2.22. -..2<.5.2..55c52poeescasecsneeccgeceesecaevoe? sae dea AIRE Cea ee eR U. S. Grant, II]
MME SOCTELY AOL SW ASHIMOE OM 5...0.20650..c0 ee gescecsGubie. su-vopsscesteoosvocsoosencseesQussevsbavvessdaeeeso¥t Wirsur D. McCLetian
Seta MP ATTEC TIC AT cE OTCSUCTS «ooh occ cco asad see tan nse te nsedeacaeenSovancpasivvadeestrsaceesecneadesceece Harry A. FoweE Lis
Wag prpeticm Siren wie Obra) (ee re Martin A. MAson
incite ot Electrical and Electronics Emgimeers:.......4..:..............00s000.s60es00000-0-. Delegate not appointed
Aumentean Society of Mechanical Engineers ............... ..ccccse-sssce0-scorsscececaceececeesscsscsesocsees Wituiam G. ALLEN
Helmimbtnolotical Society of Washington ...2..............c.0c0c-cccsecsececcaccecedneeeccesngcesacstesteveeesoneeee. Doys A. SHORB
PERE ATIS ORIEL ALOT NEICTOIDIOLO ZY ..o22..c..cic-nec0ecdee oie as tcaeucssacutvcveceveceseassedeccedesscvivsessessess HowarD REYNOLDS
Bacmeingoramencan Military Hneineers (0.0.2.1... Uose.seccicesieeceect eee eee sence teenesneacee. Delegate not appointed
Pmeaieamesociety, of Givil Engineers 52. .26..2..ieec.nscscscocse-sessecncttacesssueeectesenneeeeseoschcereee THORNDIKE SAVILLE, JR.
Sueiciymor experimental Biolozy and Medicine .......:...........2..:c.:-..ssccscsteeeeneceenseesesesecncnenenen FALCONER SMITH
ecngricam Sheielign Ceci ire ei. secede eae eee ee na oe en HucuH L. Locan
international Association for Dental Researchy ....................4..:ccccccccceececceecseceessersecesecennseeees GrorGE Dickson
Seneca institute of Aeronautics and Astromauties.:.........006....0..0....c00cccccsceeeceetesecececneeceesecee: A. W. Betts
Paneer Metcorolorical SOCte by, 25 iocc ce oes sc debi eeneccvescndateeesercecherecsencisonseess J. Murray MitcHeE 1, Jr.
MMe CHICAS SOCICEY OL WASHINSTOD cece cee cecececevne cen ctectuvscinnceacceneevcenecenesrsseseseeeuercuanacasbadeseens Rosert A. FULTON
Eee ISD AES OCLC EY FON PATINCTUCA oes. c25 oe 25 eco ccieei tos. Sae cc tae ndsb2-Pedewacsonsdeanscestaseettanenseaseceens Matcotm C. HENDERSON
Smran EHTS ATIMMNN NTC Le ATE SO CIEE NI iis fesse ssn soe eee a Quon vil es oan vulebendtiscascedaclanesdainaved Ae¥eosesdatens Georce L. WEIL
RSPR CMOS MN OOM MleClTIOLOSISUS) cee c-c.54/--:ose-a0s.0aisesoeten steesnecacentaccsacencasecssaceceessetevecesdisnedecens RicHarD P. Farrow
smerionin Commareniye QOm a 7 a eee eee ee ene J. J. DiAmonp
2 EERE@E NSIT B TI | SLE OVEt nip Ig ee ea eee er Delegate not appointed
*Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective affiliated societies.
Volume 54 JANUARY 1964 No. lL
CONTENTS
Science Moducation: 1or~ LOmerrow: ....2...40-55.- 22 tee . Lo 1
t
The Engineer in’ Today’s Society -.:............. 28:0 oogiioed os er 6
Academy Proceedings
January Meeting = 2..2..0:...0-5/ehes Gc kn See 10
Board of Managers Meeting Notes ©....0...00..0 00 ee 11
Science in Washington
Calendar ‘of Events -.......0.000.000.cc. a ee ee 13
Scientists in the News: ¢..............0:..c00cu) ie 14
Science and Development ............0......0...20. nus ke
Washington Academy of Sciences 2nd Class Postage
1530—P St., N.W. Paid at
Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C.
Return Requested
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‘ WAS
JOURNAL
of the
WASHINGTON
ACADEMY
of
SCIENCES
FEBRUARY
Vol. 54 ¢ No. 2
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Editor: SamueEt B. DETWILER, JrR., Department of Agriculture
Associate Editors
Rocer G. Bates, National Bureau of Standards RicHarp P. Farrow, National Canners Asso-
Harotp T. Coox, Department of Agriculture ciation
RusseLtt B. Stevens, George Washington University
Contributors
Apert M. Stone, Applied Physics Laboratory GrrHarp M. Braver, National Bureau of
FrANK A. BIBERSTEIN, JR., Catholic University Standards
Cartes A. WHITTEN, Coast & Geodetic Survey Howarp W. Bonn, National Institutes of Health
cae "E. ae tena ee Ingen E. Stewart, National Science Foundation
: ALLEN L. ALEXANDER, Naval Research Laboratory
sity
JosepH B. Morris, Howard University Victor R. Bosweit, USDA, Beltsville
Frank L, Camppett, NAS-NRC Harotp T. Coox, USDA, Washington
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes historical
articles, critical reviews, and scholarly scientific articles; notices of meetings and abstract proceed-
ings of meetings of the Academy and its affiliated societies; and regional news items, including
personal news, of interest to the entire membership. The Journal appears nine times a year, in
January to May and September to December.
Subscription rate: $7.50 per year (U.S.) or $1.00 per copy; foreign postage extra. Subscrip-
tion orders should be sent to the Washington Academy of Sciences, 1530 P St., N.W., Washington,
D.C. Remittances should be made payable to “Washington Academy of Sciences.”
Back issues, volumes, and sets of the Journal (prior to Volume 51) can be purchased
direct from the Johnson Reprint Corporation, 111 5th Avenue, New York 3, N.Y. This firm also
handles the sale of the Proceedings of the Academy (Volumes 1-13, 1898-1910), the Index, and
the Monograph.
Current issues of the Journal (past two calendar years) may still be obtained directly
from the Academy office at 1530 P Street, N.W., Washington 5, D.C.
Claims for missing numbers will not be allowed if received more than 60 days after date of
mailing plus time normally required for postal delivery and claim. No claims will be allowed
because of failure to notify the Academy of a change of address.
Changes of address should be sent promptly to the Academy Office, 1530 P St., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. Such notification should include both old and new addresses and postal zone
number, if any.
Second class postage paid at Washington, D.C.
ACADEMY OFFICERS FOR 1964
President: Francois N. FRENKIEL, David Taylor Model Basin
President-Elect: Lko ScHuBERT, American University
Secretary: Greorce W. Irvine, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Treasurer: Matcotm C. HenpeErson, Catholic University
Seven Scientists Receive
Academy’s Annual Awards
Awards for outstanding scientific accom-
plishment were conferred upon four young
research scientists and three science teach-
ers at the Washington Academy’s 66th
Annual Dinner Meeting on January 16 at
the Cosmos Club.
The young investigators honored were
Brian J. McCarthy of the Carnegie Institu-
tion of Washington, in the biological
sciences; George A. Snow of the Uni-
versity of Maryland, in the physical
sciences; Gordon L. Dugger of the Applied
Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, in the engineering sciences; and
James H. Bramble of the University of
Maryland, in mathematics. The science
teachers were Frank T. Davenport of
Frank W. Ballou High School, George M.
Koehl of George Washington University,
and Leo Schubert of American University.
Award winners were introduced by Rich-
ard B. Roberts, staff scientist of the De-
partment of Terrestrial Magnetism, Car-
negie Institution; R. Lee Hornbake, vice
president for academic affairs, University
of Maryland; Ralph E. Gibson, director of
the Applied Physics Laboratory; Thomas
H. Carroll, president of George Washing-
ton University; Carl F. Hansen, superin-
tendent of District of Columbia schools;
and Keith C. Johnson, science supervisor
of District of Columbia schools.
The Academy’s awards program was
initiated in 1939 to recognize young scien-
tists of the local area for “noteworthy dis-
covery, accomplishment, or publication” in
the physical, biological, and engineering
sciences. An award for outstanding teach-
ing was added in 1955 and another for
mathematics in 1959.
Unusual this year was the fact that for
the first time three awards for the teaching
of science were made. The multiple awards
Fepruary, 1964
were made in recognition of the large num-
ber of excellent candidates nominated and
as a reflection of the intent to recognize
excellence in teaching at the school level
as well as at the university level.
Biological Sciences
Cited “for his role in deciphering the
biosynthetic relationships among nucleic
acids” was Brian J. McCarthy, of the De-
partment of Terrestrial Magnetism, Car-
negie Institution of Washington. The work
of Dr. McCarthy and his associates has
contributed to knowledge of the mecha-
nisms whereby the genetic information
stored in the DNA of the cell nucleus is
translated into the structural proteins and
enzymes of living organisms. Dr. McCar-
thy’s work has helped to clarify the proc-
esses involved in the synthesis of ribosomes,
and, with his associates, he has developed
a technique which makes it possible to
obtain highly purified strains of DNA and
RNA for further study and analysis. The
technique can also be used to show genetic
relationships between organisms by estab-
lishing that they share the same or closely
similar strains of DNA or RNA.
Born in London on March 7, 1934, Dr.
McCarthy received the B.S., M.A., and
Ph.D. degrees from Oxford University. In
1958 he came to this country as a Car-
negie Institution fellow, and he has stayed
on as a staff member in its Department of
Terrestrial Magnetism. He now resides
with his wife and two children in Ken-
sington, Md.
Physical Sciences
George A. Snow, professor of physics at
the University of Maryland, was cited “for
outstanding research on the fundamental
properties of elementary particles.” Among
his contributions to modern’ physics have
2]
FEB 1 24064
SMITHSORIAN
WASTITUTIOR
Award Winners at Annual Academy Meeting
Ba,
BRIAN J. McCarTHY | GEORGE A. SNOW
LEo SCHUBERT
been his studies demonstrating the equal
parity of sigma and lambda hyperons, and
studies clarifying the mechanism of meson
capture by nuclei.
Born August 24, 1926 in New York
City, Dr. Snow received the A.B. degree
from C.C.N.Y. in 1945, and the M.A. and
Ph.D. degrees from Princeton. He joined
the faculty of the University of Maryland
int be Sye
Engineering Sciences
An authority on propulsion systems for
hypersonic flight (ze. above 3000 miles
per hour), Gordon L. Dugger is a member
of the principal professional staff at the
Applied Physics Laboratory. He was cited
“for major investigations and leadership
in the field of hypersonic propulsion.” His
experimental work has proved the feasi-
bility of the combustion in supersonic flow
needed to achieve orbital speeds in air-
planes equipped with ramjet engines.
GeEorGcE M. KorEHL
Gorpbon L. DUGGER JAMES H. BRAMBLE
F. T. DAVENPORT
Born in Winter Haven, Fla., in 1923,
Dr. Dugger is married and has three
children. He received the B.Ch.E. degree
(with honors) from the University of
Florida in 1944 and his M.S.E. from the
same university in 1947. In 1953 he re-
ceived the Ph.D. from Case Institute of
Technology. 3
Mathematies
Cited “for his contributions to the nu-
merical treatment of partial differential
equations,” James H. Bramble is a research
associate professor in the Institute for
Fluid Dynamics and Applied Mathematics,
University of Maryland.
Born in 1930 in Annapolis, Md., Dr.
Bramble received the A.B. degree from
Brown University in 1953. In 1955 he
received an M.A. from the University of
Maryland where he was also awarded the
Ph.D. degree in 1958.
22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Dr. Bramble served on the University of
Maryland staff from 1953 until 1957 when
he became manager of the Mathematics
Group, General Electric Company. After
serving in this position until 1959, he was
a mathematician at the Naval Ordnance
Laboratory for one year. In 1960 he be-
came a consultant to the National Bureau
of Standards and rejoined the University
of Maryland staff.
Teaching of Science
The teachings of Leo Schubert, chair-
man of the Department of Chemistry,
American University, have not only influ-
enced his own students but also students
and teachers from all over the country.
For eight years he has directed a summer
institute for high school teachers of chem-
istry and physics. During this time over
400 teachers from all over the country and
from several foreign countries came under
the influence of his teaching. Many con-
cepts presented during this time antici-
pated the work of such chemistry pro-
grams as the CHEM study and the CBA
study for high school students.
Professor Schubert was cited “for con-
tributions to science education at the high
school and college levels.”
A teacher of undergraduate physics for
the past 26 years at George Washington
University, George M. Koehl is singled out
by President Carroll as “that excellent
combination—all too rare in University
circles today—of a first-rate teacher and
administrator.” Professor Koehl has con-
sistently shown creativity and originality
in developing new methods of instruction
for use in elementary physics laboratories,
and in designing new laboratory equip-
ment for teaching physics. Over the years
he has become noted for his meticulous
preparation of lectures and _ laboratory
materials. He has also demonstrated a
warm, human interest in his students,
which extends to their general programs
of studies as well as to their work in
physics. His approach to teaching places
emphasis on individual instruction.
Professor Koehl was cited “for sustained
excellence in teaching the beauty and order
of physics.”
Frank T. Davenport organized the course
of study and taught the advanced biology
course offered to secondary school students
in the District of Columbia for the first
time in 1961. A biology teacher at Frank
W. Ballou Senior High School in Wash-
ington, Mr. Davenport received the Out-
standing Biology Teacher Award for the
District of Columbia, presented by the
National Biology Teachers’ Association in
1962. He was later chosen by the Associa-
tion as the Outstanding Biology Teacher
for Region V (comprising eight states and
the District of Columbia).
Mr. Davenport was born in 1926 and
now resides in Arlington, Va. He received
the B.S. degree in 1950 from Edinboro
State Teachers’ College, and the M.Ed. de-
gree in 1957 from the College of William
and Mary.
He was cited “for performance as an
inspiring teacher of high school biology.”
<2
FEBRuARY, 1964
23
The Meaning of “Least”
In Least Squares*
Churchill Eisenhart
National Bureau of Standards
I. Introduction
The present status of the Method of
Least Squares is this: Everyone uses it,
but not in exactly the same way, nor for
the same reasons. There is thus some sim-
ilarity to the present status of Probability,
with respect to which Bertrand Russell has
remarked (1): “While interpretation in
this field is controversial, the mathematical
calculus itself commands the same measure
of agreement as any other branch of
mathematics.” But the situation with re-
spect to the Method of Least Squares is
not exactly parallel: In the case of the
Method of Least Squares there is com-
plete agreement on the procedure for
forming the ‘normal equations’ from the
fundamental ‘observational equations,’ and
everyone comes up with the very same
numbers for the solutions of the normal
equations; but their reasons for employing
the Method of Least Squares, their under-
standing of its objectives and the condi-
tions under which these are achieved, and
their interpretations of end results of its
application, may be quite different. Fur-
thermore, in contrast to the situation in
Probability, individuals who utilize the
‘Method of Least Squares’ as a tool in
their own line of work are usually not
aware of the existence of alternative for-
mulations of this technique.
This somewhat extraordinary situation
results from the fact that the Method of
Least Squares was developed originally
* Extracts from a paper in preparation on
“The Background and Evolution of the Method
of Least Squares.”
from three distinctly different points of
view: (1) Least Sum of Squared Residuals
(Legendre, 1805), (2) Maximum Prob-
ability of Zero Error of Estimation (Gauss,
1809), and (3) Least Mean Squared Error
of Estimation (Gauss, 1821). These differ
not only in their aims and in their initial
assumptions, but also in the meanings that
they attach to the numbers that all three
yield as a common answer to any given
problem. Unfortunately, the existence of
these three different formulations and con-
sequent different interpretations of the end
results of applying ‘Least Squares’ are
rarely mentioned in books on the practical
application of the Method of Least Squares.
The only exception in English of which |
am aware is Whittaker and Robinson’s
The Calculus of Observations (2), first
published in 1924: chapter IX contains a
discussion of Legendre’s original formula-
tion, in which no probability considerations
are involved; a full treatment of Gauss’s
first “proof,” in which what we now term
the ‘normal distribution’ plays a central
and indispensable role; and a brief sum-
mary of Gauss’s second development, which
he showed to be independent of the func-
tional form of the law of error involved
whenever the ‘best values’ implied by the
techniques of Least Sum of Squared Resid-
uals are linear functions of the basic ob-
servations. Gauss himself decidedly pre-
ferred his second formulation, the existence
of which seems to be virtually unknown to
almost all American users of “Least
Squares,” except students of advanced
mathematical statistics.
24, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Il. Minimization of Residuals and
Legendre’s ‘“‘Methode des
Moindres Quarres”’
The Method of Least Squares evolved
early in the 19th century in response to a
recognized need for a ‘best’ general pro-
cedure for the combination of observations
in astronomy: and geodetic surveying.
When two or more related quantities are
measured individually, the resulting meas-
ured values usually fail to satisfy the con-
straints on their magnitudes implied by the
given interrelations among the quantities
concerned. In such cases these ‘raw’ meas-
ured values are mutually contradictory and
require ‘adjustment’ in order to be usable
for the purpose intended.
Inasmuch as the actual errors of individ-
ual observations are usually unknown and
forever unknowable, the early attempts to
achieve a good adjustment seem to have
concentrated on minimizing the apparent
inconsistency of a set of observations as
evidenced by some simple function of their
restduals.* The practical requirements of
unigue solutions and computational sim-
plicity then led, in due course, to the tech-
nique of Least Sum of Squared Residuals.
This was the essence of Legendre’s
“Méthode des Moindres Quarrés,” pro-
claimed in 1805 (3). No probability con-
siderations were involved.
The successive stages of this evolution
of the Method of Least Squares were:
1. When several “equally good’ measure-
ments of a single quantity were available,
the Principle of the Arithmetic Mean stated
that the ‘best’ value to take was their arith-
metic mean. The arithmetic mean a of a set
of measurements Y;, Yo, .. .,Y, is the solu-
tion of the equation
Slt) Y;, Yo, ..., Yn are observed values of a
magnitude @, then Yi—a—Ki, Y2—a= F,...,
Y,—-a—E, are the errors of the respective ob-
servations. If, the value of @ being unknown, one
adopts some particular value for it, say a, then
Yi1—a=Ri, Yo—a=Re, ..., Yn—a=Rn are the
residuals of the observations corresponding to
the adjusted value a.
FEBRUARY, 1964
points (Y1, x1), (Yo, x2),
1
>(Y,—a) = O, (1)
yi
that is, the value determined by the condi-
tion of zero sum of residuals.
This principle seems to have originated
in western Europe sometime in the latter
half of the 16th century A.D. and appears
to have evolved from the technique of tak-
ing measurements in pairs such that the
two members of a pair are affected by
systematic errors of (approximately) equal
magnitude but of opposite signs, in which
case the arithmetic mean of a pair is (at
least, more nearly) free from the effects of
these errors.
2.,Roger Cotes (1682-1716), in his
Aestimatio errorum (4), suggested that,
when several determinations of a single
quantity were available that were subject
to unequal uncertainties, then the ‘best’
value to take for the quantity in question
is the weighted arithmetic mean of the in-
dividual determinations weighted “inverse-
ly proportional to the lengths of the Devia-
tions over which one can spread [their]
Errors.”
3. Application of Cotes’s suggestion to
determining the slope 8 of a line through
the origin, y= 8x, from observational
Be (CV eed
affected by errors in the y-direction only,
leads to taking the value 6 determined by
the equation
(2)
as the ‘best’ value for 8, when the uncer-
tainties of the respective Y; are essentially
constant over the range of value of x in-
volved. If the Y; are regarded as observed
values of the respective quantities Bx;, for
which the corresponding adjusted values
Eien Ciba da 5) Vag EEN LZ)
clearly expresses the condition of zero sum
of residuals; and, when written in the form
Y — Bx — O, (3)
25
where Y and x are the arithmetic means of
the Y- and x-values respectively, shows
ihat “the Cotes line,” y= Bx == (Y/x) x,
passes through the two-dimensional center-
of-gravity of the data, (x, Y).
4. In 1748, Leonard Euler (1707-1783)
and Tobias Mayer (1723-1762) independ-
ently devised and applied (5, 6) an exten-
sion of the condition of zero sum of resid-
uals to multi-parameter problems that is
today called the Method of Averages: this
consists of subdividing the observational
points into as many subsets as there are
coefficients to be determined, the subdivi-
sion being in terms of the values of (one
of) the independent variable(s), and then
applying the condition of zero sum of
residuals to the points of each subset, in
the manner of equation (2) above. Pro-
vided that one is thus able to form as
many distinct observational subsets as there
are unknown parameters to be determined,
the Method of Averages will always come
up with a value for each parameter. But
there is usually some arbitrariness and
room for subjective choice in the forma-
tion of the subsets, with consequent varia-
tion in the answers obtained.
9. As a means of overcoming such arbi-
trariness and subjectivity, Roger Joseph
Boscovich (1711-1787) proposed that, giv-
en more than two pairs of observed values
of variables x and y connected by a linear
functional relationship of the form y =a
+ Bx, then the values (a and b) that one
should adopt for a and £ in order to
obtain the line (y =a + bx) that is most
nearly in accord with all of the observa-
tions should be those determined jointly by
the two conditions :—
I. The sums of the positive and negative
residuals (in the y-direction) shall be
equal.
Il. The sum of the absolute values of all
of the residuals shall be as small as
posstble.
Condition I implies that the best fitting
line y==a- bx shall pass through the
centroid (x, y) of the observational points.
Condition II in conjunction with Condi-
tion I requires that the slope 6 shall satisfy
the equation
n as a
=| (yi—y) —b (x;—x) | = minimum. (4)
c——
Consequently, determination of a “Bosco-
vich line” reduces to determining its slope
6 from equation (3) and then evaluating a
from the relation a = y — bx.
Boscovich stated and applied his two
conditions for a line of best fit for the first
time in his 1757 summary and reevaluation
(7) of the measurement of a meridian arc
near Rome by Christopher Maire and him-
self, first published in 1755. In this first
pronouncement and application of his
method he does not give any indication of
how he solved equation (4) to obtain the
‘best’ value of the slope 6. Three years
later (8), Boscovich restated his two con-
ditions and then gave a very useful algo-
rithm for solving equation (4), together
with a geometric proof of its validity, fol-
lowed by a step-by-step illustration of its
application. His algorithm and his proof,
in outline, may be found in my chapter in
the Boscovich Memorial Volume edited by
L. L. Whyte (9).
6. Pierre Simon, Marquis de Laplace
(1749-1827), in his first memoir on the
Figure of the Earth (10), proposed, as a
test of the adequacy of a linear relation
y==a-+t bx to describe a given set of
data, that the values of a and b be chosen
so as to minimize the absolute value of the
largest deviation and then a_ subjective
judgment made whether the resulting larg-
est residual is, or is not, explainable in
terms of the recognized uncertainties of
the data involved. He also outlined a pro-
cedure for determining the required values
of a and b. In his second memoir on the
Figure of the Earth (11), Laplace adopted
Boscovich’s two criteria for a line of best
fit and gave an algebraic formulation and
derivation of Boscovich’s algorithm for
solving equation (4) above. In Book III,
Chapter 5, of his Mécanique Celeste (12),
20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Laplace described again (pp. 417-424) the
method that he had used in 1783 to de-
termine the line that minimizes the absolute
value of the maximum residual and then
gave (pp. 424-434) an alternative pro-
cedure for achieving the same end “when
the number of observations is consider-
able.” He also extended (pp. 438-442) his
1789 algebraic formulation of Boscovich’s
technique to the case of observational
points of unequal weight.
7. In 1795, at the age of eighteen, Carl
Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), mathemat-
ical peer of Archimedes (287-212 B.C.)
and Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) and
unequaled in mathematical precocity, dis-
covered the algebraic and arithmetical ad-
vantages of the technique of Least Sum of
Squared Residuals for adjustment of ob-
servations in geodesy.
“Originally Gauss did not attach great im-
portance to the method of least squares; he felt
it was so natural that it must have been used
by many who were engaged in numerical -calcu-
lations. Frequently he said that he would be will-
ing to bet that elder Tobias Mayer (1723-1762)
had used it in his calculations. Later he dis-
covered by examining Mayer’s papers that he
would have lost the bet.” (13. p.113).
This may serve to explain in part why
Gauss did not publish anything on the
Method of Least Squares for over a decade,
although he employed the Method almost
daily from 1801 onwards in a great variety
of astronomical calculations. (14, p. 98).
8. Adrien Marie Legendre (1752-1833)
introduced the world to the technique of
Least Sum of Squared Residuals in his
book on “New Methods for Determining
the Orbits of Comets” (3) published in
1805. In an Appendix “On the Method of
Least Squares,” occupying pages 72-80, he
wrote:
“Of all the principles which can be proposed
for [the .combination of observations] I think
there is none more general, more exact, and
more easy of application, than that of which we
have made use in the preceding researches, and
which consists of rendering the sum of the
- squares of the errors as a minimum. By this
means there is established among the errors a
FEBRUARY, 1964
sort of equilibrium which, preventing the ex-
tremes from exerting an undue influence, is very
well fitted to reveal that state of the system
which most nearly approaches the truth.”
Legendre then proceeded to deduce his
now well-known rules for forming the so-
called ‘normal equations.’ He then shows
that the Principle of the Arithmetic Mean
is a special case of his Principle of Least
Sum of Squared Residuals.
Unfortunately, throughout Legendre’s
exposition of his “Méthode des moindres
quarrés,” and his illustrations of its appli-
cation, he used the term “errors” for what
are more accurately termed residuals. This
has served to confuse the unwary and to
conceal the distinction between what he
merely asserted in 1805 and what Gauss
showed in 1821 to be a statistical property
of the procedure. The essence of what
Legendre said is this: If in the interest of
achieving an objective adjustment one
seeks to minimize the mutual inconsisten-
cies of the observations as measured by
some simple function of their residuals,
then the practical requirements of general
applicability, unique arithmetical solutions,
and ease of computation lead to the adop-
tion of the technique of Least Sum of
Squared Residuals. No probability consid-
erations were involved. And his “discovery”
simply marked the culmination of the at-
tempts by Euler, Mayer, Boscovich, La-
place, and others to develop a practicable
objective method of adjustment based
solely on consideration of residuals.
Ill. ‘Laws of Error’ and Gauss’s First
‘Proof’? of the Method of Least
Squares
The error of a measurement Y is, by
definition, the difference Y—7z between
the measurement and the true value 7 of
the quantity measured. The error of a
particular measurement, y, is, therefore,
a fixed number, y—vz. The numerical
magnitude and sign of this number are
ordinarily unknown and unknowable, be-
cause 7, the true value of the quantity
concerned, is usually unknown and un-
27
knowable. A mathematical theory of errors
is not possible so long as individual
measurements are regarded as unique en-
tities, that is, as fixed numbers ¥1, y2,.-- -
A mathematical theory of errors is possible
only when particular measurements 91, Y2,
. are regarded as instances characteristic
of the measurements Y;, Yo, ... that might
have been, or might be, yielded by the
same measurement process under the same
circumstances. This fundamental step was
taken on March 4, 1755, by Thomas Simp-
son (1710-1761), Professor of Mathematics
at the Woolwich Military Academy, in
“A Letter to the Right Honourable George
Earl of Macclesfield, President of the
Royal Society, on the advantage of taking
the mean of a number of observations, in
practical astronomy” (15). This remark-
able letter began as follows:
“My lord, it is well known to your lordship,
that the method practiced by astronomers, in
order to diminish the errors arising from the
imperfections of instruments, and of the organs
of sense, by taking the Mean of several observa-
tions, has not been so generally received, but
that some persons, of considerable note, have
been of opinion, and even publicly maintained,
that one single observation, taken with due
care, was as much to be relied on as the Mean
of a great number.
“As this appeared to be a matter of much
importance, I had a strong inclination to try
whether, by the application of mathematical
principles, it might not receive some new light;
from whence the utility and advantage of the
method in practice might appear with a greater
degree of evidence. In the prosecution of this
design (the result of which I have now the
honour to transmit to your Lordship) I have,
indeed, been obliged to make use of an hypoth-
esis, or to assume a series of numbers, to ex-
press the respective chances for the different
errors to which any single observation is sub-
Hele 6 Gc
“Should not the assumption, which I have
made use of, appear to your Lordship so well
chosen as some others might be, it will, how-
ever, be sufficient to answer the intended purpose:
and your Lordship will find, on calculation that,
whatever series is assumed for the chances of
the happening of the different errors, the result
will turn out greatly in favour of the method
now practised, by taking a mean value.”
Simpson’s first “hypothesis” was that
the errors of measurements of a single
quantity by a particular measurement
process be regarded as taking the values
—v, —v+l1,..., 2, 1, 0, 1, 2,..., v—I,
v, with equal probabilities, 1.e., a discrete
uniform distribution. Next, he assumed
that the errors be regarded as taking on
the above values with probabilities pro-
portional to 1, 2, ..., v—l, v, v+1], »,
..., 2, 1, respectively, t.e., a discrete isos-
celes triangle distribution. Utilizing the
generating function techniques that had
been employed by Abraham DeMoivre
(1667-1754) for the solution of problems
relating to tosses of dice and other games
of chance (16), Simpson derived, for each
of these distributions, the probability dis-
tribution of the sum of n independent
errors from such a distribution, and then
from these the corresponding distributions
of the arithmetic mean of n independent
errors. He summed up his findings as fol-
lows:
“Upon the whole of which it appears, that the
taking of the Mean of a number of observations,
greatly diminishes the chances for all the smaller
errors, and cuts off almost all possibility of any
great ones: which last consideration, alone, seems
sufficient to recommend the use of the method,
not only to astronomers, but to all others con-
cerned in making of experiments of any kind
(to which the above reasoning is equally appli-
cable). And the more observations or experiments
there are made, the less will the conclusion be
liable to err, provided they admit of being re-
peated under the same circumstances.”
In a second paper on “the advantage
arising by taking the mean” (17), Simp-
son found the distribution of the mean of
n independent errors from a continuous
isosceles triangle distribution, by proceed-
ing to the limit as the spacing between the
error values in the fixed interval (—a,
+a) tends to zero.
It should be noted that Simpson did not
prove that “taking of the arithmetic
mean” was the best thing to do, but merely
that it zs advantageous. However, in ac-
complishing this goal he did something
28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
much more important: he took the bold
step of regarding errors, not as individual
unrelated happenings, but as properties of
the measurement process itself and the ob-
server involved. He thus opened the way
to a mathematical theory of measurement
based on the mathematical theory of
probability.
Simpson’s idea of probability distribu-
tions of error was taken up quickly on the
Continent. Joseph Louis, Comte de La-
grange (1736-1813), an Italian by birth,
a German by adoption, a Frenchman by
choice, and one of the greatest mathema-
ticians of all time, reproduced and elabo-
rated on Simpson’s results—without men-
tion of Simpson—in a long memoir “on
the utility of taking the mean” (18). By
a similar passage to the limit he deduced
the (subsequently oft rediscovered) dis-
tribution of the arithmetic mean of n in-
dependent errors from a continuous uni-
form distribution.
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782), nephew
of James Bernoulli (1654-1705) whose
Ars Conjectandi (1713) is one of the
great landmarks in the history of prob-
ability, published in 1778 a highly original
paper on “The most probable choice be-
tween several discrepant observations and
the formation therefrom of the most likely
induction” (19) that apparently existed in
manuscript as early as 1774 (20, p. 634).
In this paper Bernoulli proposed (1) a
semi-circular law of error,
f(x) —= Vane ag a a,
ra
where x == y —7 is the error of y as an
observed value of the true value +, and
- a are limits which an error will never
exceed; and (2) advocated maximization
of the product {(x1)f(x2) (oa) =
ro a
( 5 yu ieee g Meta ech co.
7a? i=1|1
spect to 7 to obtain the “most likely
value” of 7 indicated by the observations
1, ¥2, --+) Yn» Today we would call this
mmost- likely value”, T—T (yi, ye, .--
FEBRUARY, 1964
Yn), the maximum likelihood estimate of
7 corresponding to the law of error f(x).
For n= 3, evaluation of T requires the
solution of an equation of the fifth degree
consisting of twenty terms; and for n > 3,
the algebra and arithmetic become un-
manageable. However, for y1 = ye = 3,
Bernoulli showed that his “most likely
value” T is greater than, equal to, or less
than the arithmetic mean of the three
values according as the middle value (y2)
is less than, equal to, or greater than the
midpoint 14(y1-+ ys) between the ex-
tremes, respectively. His 7 thus assigns
greater weight to the more distant of the
two extreme observations. The actual mag-
nitude of the difference T— x depends,
however, on the choice of a, the limit an
error will never exceed in absolute value,
but tends to zero rapidly as a— o, lead-
ing Bernoulli to remark: “Those who are
most shocked by our principles will have
nothing further to contradict if only they
make the field of possible deviations as
large as possible.”
In 1774, Laplace, in his first discussion
of the problem of the ‘best mean’ (20),
proposed (1) a double-exponential law
of error,
m —m|x|
(ge) === 2¢ 5 Kae 8)
2
and (2) adoption as the ‘best mean’ that
function T(Y,1, Ys, Y3) of three observa-
tions for which the average value of
|T — 7| is a minimum. Today we would
call his T the minimum mean absolute er-
for estimotor | of 7, Lor Nl==d and
¥1 = ¥2 = ¥3, Laplace’s “best mean’ T is
greater than, equal to, or less than ye, the
middle value (i.e., the median), according
as ye is less than, equal to, or greater than
16(y1 + ¥3), the midpoint between the
extremes, respectively. 7’ is thus a ‘cor-
rected median’, the correction being in the
direction of the more distant of the two
extreme observations. Furthermore, T —> yz
as m— o (i.e., very high precision) ; and
T— y, the mean of the three values, as
m—> 0 (i.e., very poor precision).
29
Thus, while Simpson’s and Lagrange’s
work had shown the arithmetic mean to be
increasingly ‘good’ as n— o, Bernoulli’s
and Laplace’s work implied that the arith-
metic mean was ‘best’ only in the limiting
case of infinitely poor precision.
As noted above, Gauss discovered the
great algebraic and arithmetical advantages
of the technique of Least Sum of Squared
Residuals in 1795. In 1797 he attempted to
justify this procedure via the calculus of
probabilities, concluding that determina-
tion of “most probable values” of unknown
quantities is impossible unless the law of
error is known explicitly. “When this is
not the case, nothing remains but to as-
sume such a function as an hypothesis. It
seemed to him most natural to proceed
first the other way around and to look for
that function on which the whole theory
should be based if for the simplest case
there is to result the rule generally accepted
as good, namely, that the arithmetic mean
of several values obtained for the same
unknown through observations of equal
reliability is to be considered as the most
probable value” (14, p. 98). By June
1798 (13, p. 113) he had completed his
now famous ‘proof’ of the Method of
Least Squares, in which he (a) adopted
as a postulate the Principle of the Arith-
metic Mean, (b) utilized the concept that
repetition of a measurement process gen-
erates a probability distribution of errors,
and (c) applied Bayes’s method of inverse
probability—without reference to Thomas
Bayes (1702-1761). Starting from these
premises he showed that if the arithmetic
mean of n independent measurements of
a single magnitude is to be the most prob-
able value of this magnitude a posteriori,
then the errors X;== Y,;—v7 of the in-
dividual measurements Y; must be distrib-
uted in accordance with the law of error
hee) e
Va
(5) Then he showed that, if errors are
normally distributed, and if the unknown
values of the essential parameters have
uniform a priort distributions, then the
most probable values of the unknown im-
plied by a given set of observational data
are given identically by the application of
the technique of Least Sum of Squared
Residuals. He did not publish these re-
sults, however, until 1809, in Book II,
Section 3, of his Theory of the Motion of
Heavenly Bodies Moving about the Sun in
Sections (21).
Gauss was well aware that this deriva-
tion of his now famous law of error and
consequent justification of the technique
of Least Sum of Squared Residuals was
merely an extension of the Principles of
the Arithmetic Mean and stood or fell with
this Principle. Thus, he remarked that the
principle that “the most probable system
of values of the unknown quantities [is
that for which] the sum of the squares of
the differences between the observed and
computed values of the functions [ob-
served| is a minimum. . . must, every-
where be considered an axiom with the
same propriety as the arithmetical mean of
several observed values of the same quan-
tity is adopted as the most probable value”
(21, art. 179). But his analysis of the
Method of Least Squares remains notable
because he recognized that “the constant
h can be considered as a measure of the
precision [praecisionis| of the observa-
tions” and then went on to give (1) the
formula for the precision of a linear func-
tion independent observations of equal or
unequal precisions, and (2) the rule for
weighting results of unequal precision so
as to obtain the combined result of maxi-
mum attainable precision. These are ever-
lasting accomplishments of his first ‘proof’.
Laplace greatly strengthened Gauss’s
first ‘proof? almost immediately after its
publication, by his discovery (22 pp. 383-
389) that, under certain very general con-
ditions (not considered in full generality
by Laplace) the distributions of linear
functions, and hence of the arithmetic
means, of n independent errors can be ap-
proximated (when properly scaled) by
30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Gauss’s law of error (5), with the error
of the approximation tending to zero as
n— o. From this it follows directly that
the Method of Least Squares as developed
by Gauss leads to ‘most probable values’
(under “very general conditions”) when
the number of independent observations
involved is large. The Method of Least
Squares was, therefore, regarded as
firmly established, not merely on grounds
of algebraic and arithmetical convenience,
but also via the calculus of probabilities—
at least when the number of independent
observations is large!
IV. Minimum Errors of Estimation
and Gauss’s Second ‘Proof’
As noted above, Laplace suggested in
1774 (20) that the ‘best mean’ to take in
practical astronomy is that function of
the observations which has an equal prob-
ability of over- and under-estimating the
true value, showed that this is equivalent
to adopting the principle of Least Mean
Absolute Error of Estimation, and gave an
algorithm for finding this particular func-
tion of three observations in a one-para-
meter case. By this algorithm his ‘best
mean’ is given by the abscissa 7'(y1, yo, y3)
that divides the area under the curve
f(y1—7) f(y2—r) f(y3—17), considered as
a function of 7, into two equal halves,
f(x) being the law of error involved. In
1778 (23), Laplace extended this agree-
ment to the case of n independent observa-
tions and termed this procedure “the most
advantageous method” of estimation. This
approach was invented anew and _ fully
explored by E. J. G. Pitman in 1939 (24).
Unfortunately, it usually leads to intract-
able equations for the “most advantageous”
estimates, except for very special choices
of the law of error. Thus, in 1811] (25),
Laplace found that, among all laws of
— (x?)
error of the form f(x) — Ke ;
where ¢(x”?) is an arbitrary continuous
function of x” = (y—7)?, the Gaussian
law (5) is the only one for which the
arithmetic mean Y of n independent ob-
FEpRuARY, 1964
servations is the “most advantageous” esti-
mator of 7.
By adopting instead the principle of
Least Mean Squared Error of Estimation
and the requirement that the resulting
“best mean” should yield the true values
of the quantities concerned if it should
happen that all of the observations were
entirely free from error, Gauss showed in
1821-23 (26, 27) that, when the resulting
‘best values’ are linear functions of the
observations, then they are identically the
same as those given by the technique of
Least Sum of Squared Residuals (which
provides the practical modus operandi for
obtaining them), and that in this important
case the Least Mean Squared Error prop-
erty is completely independent of the law
of error involved. This fact, which mathe-
matical statisticians today express by say-
ing that the Method of Least Squares
yields minimum variance linear unbiased
estimators of the unknown magnitudes
concerned under “very general conditions”,
is considered by many mathematical
statisticians today to be the real theoretical
basis of the Method of Least Squares.
Henri Poincaré (1854-1912) remarked in
1893-94 (28, p. 168), “This approach
justifies the [Method of Least Squares|
independently of the law of errors... .
is, thus, a refutation of Gauss’s [earlier |
reasoning [and] it is rather strange that
this refutation is due to Gauss himself”.
And it is equally surprising that this best-
linear-unbiased-estimator property of Least
Squares seems to be unknown to many
users of the Method of Least Squares today.
V. Concluding Remarks
The robust survival of the Method of
Least Squares as a valuable tool of ap-
plied science no doubt stems in part from
the algebraic and arithmetical advantages
of Least Sum of Squared Residuals and in
part from the fact this procedure also
yields estimates of Least Mean Squared
Error in the important case when the end
results are linear functions of the basic
observations. This one-to-one correspond-
3]
ence between minimizing some function of
the residuals and minimizing the same
function of Errors of Estimation appears
to be a unique property of Least Squares.
And although the Method of Least Squares
does not lead to the best available estimates
of unknown parameters when the law of
error is other than the Gaussian, if the
number of independent observations avail-
able is much larger than the number of
parameters to be determined the Method
of Least Squares can be usually counted
on to yield nearly-best estimates.
References
(1) Russell, Bertrand. Human Knowledge:
Its Scope and Limits. Simon and Schuster, New
York, 1948, p. 344.
(2) Whittaker, E. T. and Robinson, G. The
Calculus of Observations. Blackie & Son, Ltd.,
London, 1924. 2nd edition, 1932; 3rd edition,
1940.
(3) Legendre, Adrien Marie. Nouvelles méth-
odes pour la détermination des orbites des
cométes. Paris, 1805. Appendix, ‘Sur laMéthode
des moindres quarrés’, pp. 72-80. (English
translation of pp. 72-75, by Henry A. Ruger and
Helen M. Walker, in David Eugene Smith, 4
Source Book in Mathematics, McGraw-Hill Co.,
Inc., New York, 1929, pp. 576-579. Reprinted in
2 vols., Dover Publications, Inc., New York,
1959.)
(4) Cotes, Roger. Aestimatio errorum in mixta
mathesi, per variationes partium trianguli plani
et spherici, Opera Miscellania (appended to his
Harmonia Mensurarum, Cantabrigiae, 1722), pp.
1-22.
(5) Euler, Leonhard. Piéce qui a remporté le
prix de |’Academie royale des sciences en 1748,
sur les inégalités du mouvement de Saturne et
de Jupiter. Paris, 1749.
(6) Mayer, Johann Tobias. Abhandlung tber
die Umwalzung des Mondes um seine Axe,
Kosmographische Nachrichten und Sammlungen,
Vol. I (1748), pp. 52-183 (published 1750).
(7) Boscovich, Roger Joseph. De Litteraria
Expeditione per Pontificiam ditionem, et Synopsis
amplioris Operis, ac habentur plura ejus ex
exemplaria etiam sensorum impressa, Bononiensi
Scientiarum et Artum Instituto Atque Academia
Commentarii, Tomus IV, pp. 353-96, 1757.
(8) Stay, Benedict. Philosophiae Recentioris,
a Benedicto Stay in Romano Archigynasis Publico
Eloquentare Professore, versibus traditae, Libri
X, cum adnotationibus et Supplementis P. Rogerii
Josephi Boscovich S.J., Tomus II, Romae, 1760.
(9) Eisenhart, Churchill. Boscovich and the
Combination of Observations. Chapter 7 in R. J.
Boscovich, F.R.S.: Studies of His Life and Work,
edited by Lancelot Law Whyte, Allen and Unwin,
Ltd., London, 1961.
(10) Simon, Pierre, Marquis de Laplace.
Mémoire sur la Figure de la Terre. Mémoires de
l’ Académie royale des Sciences de Paris, pour
Vannée 1783, pp. 17-46, Paris, 1786. Reprinted in
Oeuvres de Laplace, National Edition, Vol. 11,
Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1895.
(11) Laplace. Sur les degrés mesurés des
méridiens, et sur les longueurs observées sur
pendule, Histoire de l’Académie royale des in-
scriptions et belles lettres, avec les Mémoires de
littérature tirées des registres de cette académie,
Année 1789, 18-43 of the Memoires. Paris, 1792.
(12) Laplace. Traité de Mécanique Céleste,
Vol. II. Paris, 1799. Reprinted as Vol. II of
Oeuvres de Laplace, Paris, 1843; National Edi-
tion, Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1878; English
translation, with notes and commentary, by
Nathaniel Bowditch, Boston, 1832.
(13) Dunnington, Guy Waldo. Carl Friedrich
Gauss: Titan of Science. Hafner Publishing Co.,
New York, 1955.
(14) Gauss, Carl Friedrich. Summary of his
paper “Theoria combinationis observationum
erroribus minimis obnoxiae, pars prior.” Got-
tingische gelehrte Anzeigen, February 26, 1821;
Gauss Werke, vol. IV, p. 96-100.
(15) Simpson, Thomas. A letter to the Right
Honourable George Earl of Macclesfield, Presi-
dent of the Royal Society, on the advantage of
taking the mean of a number of observations, in
practical astronomy, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lon-
don, Vol. 49, Part I, pp. 82-93, 1755.
(16) Demoivre, Abraham. The Doctrine of
Chances: or a Method of Calculating the Prob-
ability of Events in Play. London, 1718 (2nd ed.,
1738. 3nd. ed., 1756):
(17) Simpson. An attempt to show the ad-
vantage arising by taking the mean of a number
of observations in practical astronomy. In his
Miscellaneous Tracts on Some Curious and Very
Interesting Subjects in Mechanics, Physical-
Astronomy, and Speculative Mathematics, pp.
64-75. J. Nourse, London, 1757.
(18) Joseph-Louis, Comte de Lagrange. Mém-
oire sur lutilité de la méthode de prendre le
milieu entre les résultats de plusieurs observa-
tions; dans lequel on examine les avantages de
cette méihode par le calcul des probabilités; et
ou l’on résoud différents problémes relatifs a
cette matiére. Miscellanea Taurinensia, Vol. 5
(1770-1773), pp. 167-232 of Mathematics portion.
Reprinted in Oeuvres de Lagrange, Vol. 2, pp.
173-234. Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1868.
(19) Bernoulli, Daniel. Dijudicatio maxime
probabilis plurium observationum discrepantium
atque verisimillima inductio inde formanda. Acta ©
Academiae Scientiorum FPetropolitanae, Vol. I
(1777), Pt. I, pp. 3-23 of the Memoirs. St.
32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Petersburg, 1778; English translation by C. G.
Allen, Biometrika, Vol. 48, Pts. 1 and 2 (June
1961), pp. 3-13.
(20) Laplace. Probléme III: Déterminer le
milieu que l’on doit prendre entre trois observa-
tions données d’un méme phénoméne. Pp. 634-
644 of his “Mémoire sur la probabilité des
causes par les événements”, Mémoires de
Mathématique et de Physique, Vol. 6, pp. 621-
697, Paris, 1774.
(21) Gauss. Theoria Motus Corporum Coe-
lestium in Sectionibus Conicis Solem Ambi-
entium. Frid. Perthes et I. H. Besser, Hamburg,
1809; Reprinted in Carl Friedrich Gauss Werke,
Band VII. Gotha, 1871. English translation by
Charles Henry Davis, Boston, 1857; reprinted by
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1963.
(22) Laplace. Mémoire sur les approximations
des formuies qui sont fonctions de trésgrands
nombres, et sur leur application aux probabilités,
Mémoires de la classe des Sciences Mathéma-
tiques et Physiques, de l'Institut de France
Année 1809, pp. 353-415; Supplement pp. 559-
965. Paris, 1810.
(23) Laplace. Mémoire sur les Probabilités,
Histoire de l’Académie royale des Sciences de
FEBruary, 1964
Pars, Annee 17716, pp: 227-302. Paris, 1781.
(24) Pitman, E. J. G. The estimation of the
location and scale parameters of a continuous
population of any given form, Biometrika, Vol.
XXX, Parts 3 and 4 (Jan. 1939), pp. 391-421.
(25) Laplace. Mémoire sur les _ intégrales
définies et leur application aux probabilités, et
spécialement a la recherche du milieu qu'il faut
choisir entre les résultats des observations,
Memoires .de la Classe des Sciences Mathéma-
tiques et Physiques de I’Institut Impérial de
France, Année 1810, pp. 279-347. Paris, 1811.
(26) Gauss. Theoria combinationis observa-
tionum erroribus minimis obnoxiae. Pars prior.
[presented 15 Feb. 1821.] Commentationes
socletas reglae scientiarum GoOttingensis recent-
tores, Vol. V, pp. 33-62, 1823. Reprinted in Carl
Friedrich Gauss Werke, Vol. IV, pp. 1-26. Got-
tingen, 1873.
(27) Gauss. Theoria combinationis . . . Pars
posterior. [Presented 2 Feb. 1823.] Commenta-
tiones . . ., Vol. V, pp. 63-90, 1823. Reprinted
in Werke, Vol. IV, pp. 29-53. Gottingen, 1873.
(28) Henri Poincaré. Calcul des probabilités.
Lecons professées pendant le deuxiéme semestre
1893-1894. Georges Carré, Paris, 1896.
33
Academy Proceedings
February Meeting
(478th Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences)
SPEAKER:
SUBJECT:
TIME:
PLACE:
BENJAMIN D. VAN EVERA
Dean for Sponsored Research, George Wash-
ington University
ADDRESS OF THE RETIRING PRESI-
DENT
THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 20, 1964—
ree eo a eae
JOHN WESLEY POWELL AUDITORIUM,
COSMOS CLUB
2170 Florida Ave., N.W.
Abstract of Address—At a time when the country needs excellent teaching more than
it ever has before, society is imposing on teachers, both active and potential, pressures
which lead them not to teach or to neglect their teaching. Some of these pressures are
enumerated and discussed and suggestions are made for improving the situation.
Election Results
Announced
Returns from the annual mail ballot of
the membership, sent out in mid-December,
were tallied by a Committee of Tellers on
January 3 and reported at the Academy’s
annual meeting on January 16.
This year’s balloting covered only the
election of officers and managers; no By-
laws changes were involved. About 340
valid ballots were cast, as compared with
278 returns in January 1963 and 468 re-
turns in January 1962.
Leo Schubert of American University
was elected president-elect, without op-
position.
George W. Irving, Jr., of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and Malcolm C.
Henderson of Catholic University were re-
elected secretary and treasurer, respec-
tively, without opposition.
Allen L. Alexander and Francis Reichel-
derfer were elected managers-at-large for
the period 1964-66, defeating Michael
Goldberg and Marion Parker.
The successful candidates took office at
the close of the annual meeting on Janu-
ary 16. At the same time, Francois N.
Frenkiel, last year’s president-elect, auto-
matically assumed the presidency.
A complete roster of officers, managers,
and committee chairmen will be published
in an early issue of the Journal.
34, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Summary Annual Report of Secretary for 1963
The Secretary’s annual report of Acad-
emy activities in 1963 is intended to sup-
plement, and in some instances summarize,
detailed reports of other officers and com-
mittee chairmen.
Membership. This year, as a result of
amendments to the Bylaws approved by
the necessary two-thirds majority of the
membership, the Academy had two classes
of membership—fellows and members. The
term “fellow” identifies all who qualified
for membership prior to the Bylaws
amendments, and to future candidates of
equivalent scientific status who are ap-
proved by the Board of Managers. The
term “member” identifies persons who
are interested in supporting science, but
who do not have all of the qualifications
necessary to become “fellows.” Member-
ship is approved by the Membership Com-
mittee of the Board of Managers.
Donald H. Williams of the Dairy In-
dustries Supply Association had the dis-
tinction of being the first official member
of the Academy under the new membership
rules.
As of the end of 1963, there were 12
qualified members. However, the Mem-
bership Committee has recently furnished
the Secretary with approved applications
of 30 new members as a start for 1964.
During 1963, 19 applicants qualified as
fellows.
The following deaths, with the dates in-
dicated where known, were reported in
1963: Sara E. Branham, November 16,
1962; William W. Coblentz, September 15,
1962; Robert C. Duncan, May 8, 1963;
Virginia F. Griffing, September 5, 1963;
EK. F. Mueller, July 1963; Kenneth L. Sher-
man, November 5, 1962; B. T. Simms,
September 26, 1963; Lloyd W. Stephen-
son, October 13, 1962; William E.
Wrather, November 28, 1963; H. A. Al-
lard; Earle S. Belote; and Michael X.
Sullivan.
Meetings. The March, April, May and
November meetings of the Academy were
FEBRUARY, 1964
held in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium
of the Cosmos Club. The October meeting
was held at Carnegie Institution, and the
December meeting at the Naval Observa-
tory.
The 65th annual dinner meeting of the
Academy was held in February 1963 in-
stead of January, and was recorded by the
Secretary in his report for 1962, published
in the March 1963 issue of the Journal.
Raymond J. Seeger, special assistant to
the director, National Science Foundation.
addressed the 472nd meeting of the Acad-
emy on March 21, 1963, “On the Sociology
of Science.”
On Thursday, April 18, Ragnar Rollef-
son, director of the Office of International
Scientific Affairs, established in the De-
partment of State in 1962, addressed the
473rd Meeting of the Academy. His sub-
ject was, “Science in the Department of
State.”
“Conformation of Proteins in Solution:
Optical Rotatory Dispersion Studies” was
the subject of the address by Sherman
Beychok, assistant professor of biochemis-
try in the College of Physicians and Sur-
geons, Columbia University, at the 474th
meeting of the Academy, on May 16.
The 475th meeting on October 17 con-
sisted of a debate on “The Nature of the
Lunar Maria” between Ralph B. Baldwin
and John A. O’Keefe.
“The International Indian Ocean Ex-
pedition,” the subject of the 476th meeting
of the Academy, came about as the result
of a meeting of a Special Committee for
Oceanic Research of the International
Council of Scientific Unions in 1958. Irvin
E. Wallen, assistant director for ocean-
ography at the National Museum, the
speaker, talked primarily about the bio-
logical program of the Expedition.
At the 477th meeting of the Academy,
William. Markowitz, director of the Time
Service Division, Naval Observatory, dis-
cussed “200 years of Timekeeping: From
Harrison Number 4 to the Atomic Clock,”
35
following an open house at the Observatory
where Harrison No. 4, constructed in 1759,
and modern timepieces were on exhibition.
The 66th annual dinner meeting was held
on January 16, 1964, in the John Wesley
Powell Auditorium of the Cosmos Club.
The winners of awards for scientific
achievement for 1963 are Brian J. Mc-
Carthy, Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism, Carnegie Institution of Washing-
ton—biological sciences; George A. Snow,
Department of Physics, University of
Maryland—physical sciences; James H.
Bramble, Institute of Fluid Dynamics and
Applied Mathematics, University of Mary-
land—mathematics; Frank T. Davenport,
Frank W. Ballou High School; George M.
Koehl, Physics Department, George Wash-
ington University; and Leo Schubert,
Chemistry Department, American Uni-
versity—teaching of science.
Miscellany. The annual student awards
dinner meeting of the Academy was held
May 1, 1963 in the faculty dining room at
Georgetown University. Father Francis J.
Heyden, S.J., chairman of the WAS
Committee on Encouragement of Science
Talent, was in charge of the arrangements.
Forty outstanding science students were
presented with certificates of merit at the
dinner. The speaker for the occasion was
Robert Page of the Naval Research Labora-
tory. His topic was, “Man and Machines in
the World Today.”
Five grants-in-aid to young scientists of
the area were approved by the Board of
Managers upon recommendation of the
committee headed by A. T. McPherson,
and the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science was authorized to
disperse $520.20 for approved projects
such as polishing a crystal for a ruby
laser, utilization of acoustic vibrations to
destroy boundary layers in electrodialysis,
distribution of small mammals in the Mid-
dle Peninsula of Virginia, effects of pesti-
cides on fish, and further investigations on
salamanders.
Volume 53 of the Academy’s Journal
appeared during the year in nine issues
having a total of 232 pages. Eight of the
issues, as in 1962, contained a variety of
articles by leading area scientists, review-
ing the status of research in a number
of important fields; special reports of
science education and other major Acad-
emy program; and news concerning the
Academy’s organization, plans, and ac-
complishments. The ninth issue, appear-
ing in September, contained a directory of
the membership, classified alphabetically,
by place of employment, and by member-
ship in afhliated societies. It included,
also, as a trial for feasibility, the complete
membership rosters of four of the Acad-
emy’s afhliated societies—Entomological
Society of Washington, Botanical Society
of Washington, International Association
for Dental Research, and the Institute of
Food Technologists.
George W. Irving, Jr., Secretary, 1963
Delight Hall Rothe
Mrs. Delight Hall Rothe, who served as
assistant treasurer for the Washington
Academy of Sciences in 1962 and up to
March 1963, died on January 16 as a re-
sult of a riding accident she had suffered
the previous Saturday. Her horse appar-
ently stumbled after completing a jump;
Mrs. Rothe was thrown on her head, and
although she was wearing a riding hat, her
head and spine were injured and she never
recovered consciousness.
Mrs. Rothe’s prior experience as office
manager for the Chicago Daily News Bu-
reau was most valuable in her work for the
Academy, and your treasurer has had many
reasons to be grateful for her assistance.
Aside from her part-time work at the
Academy, she was an active author and
book reviewer, particularly of modern
French fiction and art history. She also
operated a private research office and un-
dertook research assignments for the
Smithsonian Institution. Her funeral was
held in the Bethlehem Chapel of the Wash-
ington National Cathedral on January 20,
with Dean Sayre reading the service.
—Malcolm C. Henderson
36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Annual Report of the Treasurer for 1963
Washington Academy of Sciences
Receipts
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BEMVIGESIACON Dobbs, ool scsi te iieeent 200.00 TBVASN 8] fl nip yoo Dae recon th cea, Sec eye Mea pete a 1,000.01
Taxes Reimbursable .......0.0..00000000000.... 274.11 INO. Somenal Fasciitis das eons 495.62
ELIE OV RCTS: TR eee eae ee 1,355.36 Dec’ Journal 2.2 hin ecu. 589.44
$21,971.31 $21,971.31
FEBRUARY, 1964 37
Assets
(Market values as of Dec. 16, 1963)
9802 cle Nassanvestors, Mrust \@) W5sAG) soits wn). Re cee cece nee cee er $ 44,725.78
(64 sh. Capital Gain Dividend + $12.99)
1149. sh: Investment Coot America @ 1087 <2. .6..5.2. ee eee 12,489.63
(25 sh. Cap. Gain Div. -+ $9.92)
6liech’) State. St. Investment Co.,@ 40500 cee ee ee 2,592.00
(3 sh. Cap. Gain Div. + $0.42)
1745* sh. Washington Mutual Inve (Co, @ 10.70 2. 18,811.10
(50 sh. Cap. Gain Div. + $7.40)
Capital Cash (Balance from 1962) =- Cap: Gain Divs:) (2 783.66
Income: Gash a (poslG2eh2 aWlessiGa:00) eisai ne ee Shea. et Se eee 4,398.46
Grand - Total (Not. including Petty Cash) ¢.......2...20.0.. ee $ 83,800.63
Income from Investments
Dividends: “Miassachusetts Imvestors Trust. (.2.c.c0ictcceepeee- seo $1,179.09
Investment “Company” of ‘America sisi se.cc.oce tiene eee 284.78
State Street Investment. Company .2.08..2.icsnc ook ee ee 94.40
Washington Mutual Investment Company) 2.2:0...23.03002 ee ee 589.30
Interest von. ‘Treasury Notes) -..5.6csch0000.0s. ees aie 74.85
otal ote esc.) PR eset AES See ORR CURE TPR: Oi La wenn aes MRC ioc «sachet sak: with $2,178.42
Comparison 1/1/63 12/31/63
WIASSstocks -atimiarkcet) valtte 2555s ee creer er oat ee eee $67,651.07 $78,618.51
SN 87a crise cheese ie tds ah ca sl Se one. ey ee 4,926.82 yg sym BA
dG tier ls spared: fs ces MARR efoto, ie a ciel tiie ORNL! cis Dei ae ea oe a A $72,577.89 $83,800.63
Membership
New Members: in: 2963) fc... ccc. 25v cw Seceee ee we ediemerdig to oe ee 12
New Fellows “in 1963) scccccpccsleccsb eet oiene lit ce cee enactth eosasces qin tsceescdes seed concent eee 19
Pili: Miler ets sai. cocis.s cose coeaovn deeded focsnedscenaered Og akan ob ae 4
Active Fellows
Paid: Dues for L963: 5 ...cosageelcockestnad sot Oeeeeen adesa sp cctwel hs.cdtvenceses ieee 947
PardeDues: tor LOG ee as ancestral te, Sore eee nee en MR con! oso: 2
Delinquent for 1963. only: «.......0...06..2.s0-<.sousseadenondes'henaasent0sandseneside tee oaee Borne 40
Delinquent for 1962 -&- 1963 ~...0.......ccccccsecsess series ssecssrannli ni le 23
Delinquent for 1961-1963 ooc..0.0..6.chsescs do cecckcuscewsesesbaseda cases neal ep BR 3
Emeritus Status, receiving Notices, Bulletin and Journal
Paid Subscription to’ Journal oo.c6....ccccccccsccescsecoscam sss ee ee @
Galt OF WINS ie nso cee cake Be acca TE Pane a. ciel ae cide 3
Oywitig FOE MW 9GS o.ohlicksccesep accede cdascesocguvtund slSrbeesbaeueawsene seebtsgeuearegun cbee ee oul Seguin Le eee rrr 7
aheured’ Smo Pay Ment See toe ok ae Bee gese eee cao. kecloe meee ose ee Oe Ge ee 43
Emeritus: Status, Receiving Notices & Bulletins ......c.scjccccs.cceceesceceeeceeeoeeteeesss eee 69
Total) Memalershrigy 50.0 sec2es cou snseis<s0ehoucbyorecntlon sbetossedsuoseosssivughas ene 1.Cesee nae ee ae ee ee 1,179
Reestemed ~Irt, L9G3 osc cscicces socsoscsedsetosnssousvenssucirgeeosdescweyea seuss ve sessebecte thee: tecedeee aoe ee 9
De Gease dn ioisci feiss: o.Seoneih ices Sues ctor asics adalact sue saoasge cole. sls LORE cee EN 10
DO Vop poe dh tec Pres 2s be tic tara Rares icay meee ee te alc Lestssdicsen 5)
Balance Jamuary DT, T9GB e. pe. ccsct sates cacsscst sah oeeta vse oth unc bateten oe a $ 8,931.68
Total, Receipts: ce ei2d Sn cee ee a 8,700.00
$17,631.68
Expenditures “(paid thromeh WAS)® (0.0.0.0: A cpovivshiae wana stg date <u beuttek sol sae eae a $14,111.71
Balance carried forward ito: 1964... hick Adee eee 3,519.97
38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Washington Junior Academy of Sciences
Checking Account
[Beal Pern Vevey (Go ol UB LO, cs aR ee $ 349.59 Expended in 1963
De Mata Lee Te $3,482.64
PAPE CURUSMATI OOS) tcc): crcasgisee de cueesek-asnamnes a0o4.25 balanee. Wee. 30; M963 — occ ccoeececee sce. 1594.20
$4,233.84 $4,233.84
Savings Account
iBaullzinc eno ene ipa A032 ae Pea soeo2, Wathidrawar, LOGS o 2s) hls... l se esee $1,900.00
ETDS ARES Cs e a 2,000.00 jbalanceDeci30, 1963) 1.3 1,539.92
$3,439.92 $3,439.92
Forward to 1964:
ETT OS, AV BIUNTITAEE Le ojo. Becca. cee perc 0 Oe Ee Eee ee eer $1,539.92
asses, lenfyeiesti 2 ueck SR Soe sci), SU AUR es ne ne en ee 53.60
eae a al ae OM NGC e(O NITTNPRY ee nn SE tet Oe Tee ae ee crc SARs LEA a darohvdnrsunsucagecopauletoadel 751.20
(D4VS, SSRIS sah caaaloelle sels Salas weeiy oot yar UNS aie gi aa oe i IRI He DE es et ee a a a a $2,344.72
Report of Committee on
Grants-in-Aid of Research, 1963
The Committee presents the following
report for the period from January 14,
1963, to January 16, 1964.
Grant Funds. The amount available for
grants according to letter of January 29,
1963, from Hans Nussbaum, Business
Manager, AAAS, to Dr. Van Evera, was
$920.88. The following grants were ap-
proved by the Board during the Academy
year 1963:
June 12. Daniel Peacock (Sponsor:
Charles O. Handley, Jr., Smithsonian In-
stitution. Project: Study of the Distribu-
tion of Small Mammals on Middle Penin-
sula of Virginia) $100.00
June 12. Hunter Woodward. (Sponsor:
C. R. Naeser, George Washington Uni-
versity. Project: Utilization of Acoustic
Vibrations To Destroy Boundary Layers
mm) Blectrodialysis) ............0.:..00... $250.00
Oct. 15. James Steakley (Sponsor:
R. Yamamoto, NIH. Project: Continuation
of Research on Salamanders) .... $ 38.30
Oct. 15. Howard Ozer. (Sponsor: An-
thony Inglise, Fish & Wildlife Center.
Project: Investigation of Pesticides on
Shh) Ce es $131.90
Potal grants awarded .................... $520.20
_ Balance (Available for obligation
TDS) ee eerie eee ee $400.68
FEBRUARY, 1964
Malcolm C. Henderson, Treasurer, 1963
Aproximate amount expected to be
alloted by AAAS in 1964. ............ $460.00
Approximate Total Available for
Grants-in-And,, 1904)". 2.4... $860.68
Grants Not Recommended. One applica-
tion was not processed because a pre-
liminary experiment that was suggested
showed that the basic idea was not feas-
ible. Several inquiries and _ discussions
with students led to the withdrawal of
applications because scientists to whom
the students were referred recommended
improvising equipment instead of buying
the items sought.
Publicity Regarding Grants. The at-
tached policy regarding Grants-in-Aid of
Research, which was approved by the
Policy and Planning Committee on Decem-
ber 28, 1962, has been circulated infor-
mally among Board members and science
supervisors. To give it wider publicity, it
is recommended that this policy statement
be published in the Journal of the Wash-
ington Academy of Sciences.
—A. T. McPherson, Chairman
Policy Statement on Grants-in-Aid
of Research
The Washington Academy of Sciences makes
grants-in-aid of research from funds _ provided
for the purpose by the American Association for
the Advancement of Science and such other
funds as may become available. The grants are
39
made to assist in meritorious original work and
are awarded by the Board of Managers of the
Academy on the basis of recommendations by
the Committee on Grants-in-Aid.
1. Who is eligible for a grant? Grants may be
made to any person, group, or organization in the
Washington metropolitan area. (In recent years
most of the recipients have been high school
students. )
2. Amount of grants. Grants are usually made
in amounts of less than $100, although larger
grants have been made when warranted by the
nature and requirements of the project. (The
total amount currently available is about $500
per year.)
3. Basis of awarding grants. Proposed projects
are judged on the basis of (1) the merit of the
project as a subject of scientific investigation;
(2) the qualifications of the applicant as shown
by his analysis and presentation cf the project,
his previous accomplishments, and his school
record.
4. Permissible Uses of Grant Funds. Grants
are usually made for special materials, supplies,
and equipment that cannot be obtained through
the schools or through laboratories that co-
operate in school science programs. Grants have
been made, however, for travel expenses for
necessary field work and for lunches and bus
fares for students who engage without compen-
sation in summer work in research laboratories.
5. Applications for grants. Applications for
grants may be made at any time. No special
form is required for the application. The appli-
cation should describe the proposed project and
itemize the objects for which funds are requested.
If the applicant has done previous work on the
project, this should be summarized in the appli-
cation. lf the work is to be done with the use of
school facilities, the application should be en-
dorsed by a teacher or science supervisor either
in a letter or by a note written at the bottom of
the application.
6. Review by a research scientist. If the ap-
plicant for a grant has not already been in
touch with a scientist in the field in which he
proposes to work, the Committee on Grants-in-
Aid will put him in touch with such a person.
This discussion with someone working actively
in the field may lead to changes in the project
which will save time and effort and, in some
cases, may result in special facilities and equip-
ment being made availab!e to the applicant.
7. Processing of grants. When the. applicant
and the sponsoring scientist have agreed on the
proposed project, the Committee undertakes to
act on the application promptly and report its
recommendation at the next meeting of the
Board. If the Board takes favorable action, the
Secretary will send a request to the AAAS for the
amount of the grant and when this is received
by the Treasurer of the Academy, he will send
a check for the amount of the grant to the suc-
cessful applicant. The whole transaction from the
initial filing of the application to the payment of
the grant seldom takes more than two months.
8. Reporting on grants. In the past, most per-
sons awarded grants have voluntarily reported
significant accomplishments such as the publi-
cation of papers and the receipt of honors or
prizes. Henceforth, a summary report will be
expected from all awardees. This report should
tell what was done and what results were ob-
tained, and should give an accounting of the
expenditure of funds.
Grants are not made primarily for the purpose
of preparing exhibits for science fairs, but recipi-
ents of grants are encouraged to present their
work in fairs whenever it is possible to do so.
BOARD OF MANAGERS
MEETING NOTES
December Meeting
The Board of Managers held its 560th
meeting on December 19, 1963 at the Old
Europe Restaurant, 2434 Wisconsin Ave-
nue, with President Van Evera presiding.
The minutes of the 559th meeting were
approved as previously distributed, with
a minor correction.
Announcements. Dr. Van Evera made
the following announcements:
(1) Russell Stevens had declined to ac-
cept appointment as archivist.
(2) Bourdon F. Scribner had accepted
appointment as chairman of the Ways and
Means Committee.
(3) President-elect Frenkiel expected to
represent the Washington Academy at the
Academy Council meeting, to be held in
conjunction with the AAAS sessions in
Cleveland, the last week in December.
(4) The American Board of Microbiol-
ogy had approved of certification in public
health and medical laboratory virology for
Mary Louise Robbins; also, she was now
a diplomate of the American Board of
Microbiology, and was one of two to re-
ceive recognition in 1963 in this particular
field.
Meetings. Chairman Robbins announced
that the Academy’s annual dinner meeting
would be held January 16 in the Cosmos
40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Club auditorium. Reporting for Alphonse
Forziati, chairman of the Banquet Com-
_ mittee, she indicated that the social hour
would begin at 6:30 p.m., followed by
dinner at 7 o'clock and the meeting at
8:30. The Board of Managers would meet
at 5:30. On motion of Dr. Robbins, the
Board agreed to subsidize the dinner to
the extent of one dollar per ticket.
Awards for Scientific Achievement. In
the absence of Chairman Berliner, Dr.
Van Evera announced the following selec-
tions for awards to be made at the January
banquet: Engineering sciences, Gordon L.
Dugger of the Applied Physics Laboratory,
Johns Hopkins University; biological sci-
ences, Brian J. McCarthy, Department of
Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution
of Washington; physical sciences, George
A. Snow, Department of Physics, University
of Maryland; mathematics, James H. Bram-
ble, Institute of Fluid Dynamics and Ap-
plied Mathematics, University of Maryland.
Additionally, there were three selections
for the teaching-of-science award—Frank
T. Davenport of Ballou High School;
George M. Koehl of the Physics Depart-
ment, George Washington University; and
Leo Schubert of the Chemistry Depart-
ment, American University. The Board ap-
proved all seven of these selections.
Grants-in-Aid. Chairman McPherson in-
dicated that one application for a grant
was being processed, but was not yet ready
for Board action.
Election of Fellows. Following the Sec-
ond Reading of their names by the secre-
tary in the absence of Membership Chair-
man Hobbs, two nominees were elected to
fellowship in the Academy, as follows:
Edward J. Baldes and Jacob J. Diamond.
Treasurer. Treasurer Henderson pre-
sented the following statistics on the mem-
bership: New fellows qualified, 19; new
members qualified, 12; active fellows (resi-
dent and nonresident), dues-paid for 1963,
94.7; dues-excused past presidents, 12; dues
paid for 1964, 2; delinquents for 1963, 40;
delinquents for 1962 and 1963, 23; delin-
quents for 1961, 1962, and 1963, 3; emeriti
(receiving notices, ballots, and Journals),
with $3.75 paid for Journals for 1963, 7:
emeriti owing $3.75 for 1963 Journals, 7;
free Journals to past presidents of WAS, 4;
“retired,” no payments (reason unknown),
43; emeriti (receiving meetings notices and
ballots), 69; resignations in 1963, 9; 1963
deaths reported in 1963, 5; deaths prior
to 1963 and reported in 1963, 5; dropped
for nonpayment of dues or unable to
‘locate, 5.
Editor. Editor Detwiler asked for the
assistance of Board members in securing
material for publication in the Journal.
New Business. The Board began consid-
eration of a revision of its standing rules.
Further consideration was expected to be
given at the next Board meeting on Janu-
ary 16.
SN
FEBRUARY, 1964
4]
Science in Washington
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
February 10—American Society for
Metals
Howard Cross, Battelle Memorial Insti-
tute, “Superalloys.”
AAUW Building, 2401 Virginia Ave.,
N.W. Dinner at 6:30 p.m., meeting at 8
o'clock.
February 10—Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers
Panel discussion on “Global Communi-
cations—Cable or Satellite?’ Moderator,
Ralph L. Clark, special assistant to direc-
tor, Telecommunications Management,
OEP. Discussion leaders, Leonard Jaffee,
director, Communications Systems, NASA,
and Herbert H. Schenck, executive vice-
president, U. S. Undersea Cable Corp.
National Museum, auditorium, 8:00 p.m.
February 18—Anthropological So-
ciety of Washington
John Adair, NIMH, NIH, “The Role of
Anthropology in the Navaho-Cornell Med-
ical Project.”
Rm. 43, National Museum, 8:15 p.m.
February 186—James Curley Lectures
in Science
Gen. James McCormack, USAF (Ret.)
and vice-president for sponsored research,
MIT, “The Socialization of Science.”
Gaston Hall, Georgetown University,
8:30 p.m.
February 19—Engineers, Scientists,
and Architects Day
Sponsors: D. C. Council of Engineering
and Architectural Societies, and Washing-
ton Academy of Sciences.
Presidential Arms. Program and awards,
9:30-11:30 a.m. Luncheon, 12:15 p.m.
February 19—Georgetown University
Distinguished Lecture Series
Rev. Francis J. Heyden, director, George-
town Observatory, “Space Astronomy, the
New Frontier.”
Gaston Hall,
8:00 p.m.
February 25 — Washington Collo-
quium on Science and Society
Georgetown University,
Panel discussion on “Societal Implica-
tions of Modern Biological Researches.”
Panelists: Thomas Kennedy, Office of Di-
rector, NIH; Daniel S. Greenberg, Edi-
torial Office of Science magazine; Joseph
Cooper, adjunct professor, American Uni-
versity.
Lounge of School of International Serv-
ice, American University, 8:00 p.m.
SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS
Contributions to this column may be
addressed to Harold T. Cook, Associate
Editor, c/o U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Agricultural Marketing Service, Fed-
eral Center Building, Hyattsville, Md.
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT
C. H. Hoffmann, assistant director of
the Entomology Research Division, served
as expert and chairman of the 3rd session
of the FAO Committee on Pesticides, held
December 9-14 in Rome.
M. B. Matlack retired on December 30.
He had been with USDA since 1930 as
nutritionist, food technologist, grain tech:
nologist, and biochemist. Previously, Dr.
Matlack had held positions with the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards, Georgia Tech,
and General Foods Corporation.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
At the annual meeting of the Mineralog-
ical Society of America in New York City,
November 17-20, George T. Faust was
elected vice president for the coming year,
and Marjorie Hooker was _ re-elected
treasurer. Miss Hooker returned in early
November from Europe, where she met
with mineralogists in various countries and
did library research in Naples and Lisbon.
42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
HARRIS RESEARCH
LABORATORIES
Anthony M. Schwartz gave a talk on
“Cosmetic Practices in Cleansing Hair” be-
fore the Chicago meeting of the American
Academy of Dermatology on December 4.
John Menkart attended the Research
Advisory Committee meeting of the Textile
Research Institute in Princeton, N.J., on
December 6.
NATIONAL BUREAU
OF STANDARDS
The 52nd meeting of the International
Committee of Weights and Measures was
held in Paris in October. A. V. Astin was
the U. S. member of the committee. Major
decisions affecting international coopera-
tion in science were reached at the meeting.
Gordon M. Kline retired in January
as chief of the Polymers Division after
3744 years of Government service. A
specialist in plastics, Dr. Kline is interna-
tionally known for his research on the
chemistry and properties of polymers and
for the development of standards for
plastics. He is a recipient of the Commerce
Department’s Exceptional Service Gold
Medal. He also holds the Honor Award of
the Washington Section of the American
Institute of Chemists. Dr. Kline will con-
tinue as technical editor of Modern Plas-
tics, and will serve as a part-time consul-
tant on standards at NBS. He also expects
to assist in developing a polymers program
at a Florida university. He and Mrs. Kline
will reside in their new home in Lake
Worth, Fla.
Ladislaus L. Marton, chief of Inter-
national Relations, has returned from the
University of Paris, Faculty of Sciences,
where he spent the academic year 1962-63
as a visiting professor. Dr. Marton held
seminars in electron physics at the Uni-
versity, and lectured in Belgium, Denmark,
England, Germany, Holland, Italy, Poland,
Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland.
The University of Brussels conferred a
‘medal upon him as an expression of ap-
preciation.
FEBRUARY, 1964.
On December 11 at Wesley College in
Dover, Del., Charlotte M. Sitterly, as-
tronomer and NBS staff member since
1945, was one of seven women—each rep-
resenting a specific field of endeaver—to
be awarded the Annie Jump Cannon Cen-
tennial Medal. The medals were awarded
at a centennial celebration, honoring Dr.
Cannon (1863-1941), who has_ been
called the world’s most famous woman
astronomer. Dr. Sitterly was one of the
speakers at the ceremony.
Recent talks by staff members have in-
cluded the following:
G. C. Paifenbarger: “Research and Saving of
Teeth” and “The Current Program of the Dental
Research Section at the National Bureau of
Standards” — Alpha Omega Fraternity, Miami
Beach.
C. M. Tchen: “Plasma Oscillations with Col-
lective Correlations’—Ford Motor Scientific Lab-
oratories, Dearborn, Mich., December 31, and
“Kinetic Theories of Plasma’”—National Aero-
nautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research
Center, Cleveland, Ohio.
D. Rosenblatt: “On Some Recursive Models
of Large-Scale Information Systems” — AAAS
meetings, Symposium, Joint Program of Sections
on Organization, Search, and Retrieval of Sci-
entific Information, co-sponsored by the Institute
of Management Sciences, Cleveland, Ohio.
R. Stair: “Recent Investigations Relative to the
Use of Thermal Detectors and Quartz-Iodine
Lamps in Radiometric Measurements’’—Collo-
quium of G. E. Lamp Research and Development
Laboratory, General Electric Company, Nela Park,
Cleveland, Ohio.
NATIONAL INSTITUTES
OF HEALTH
Marshall W. Nirenberg, chief of the
Section on Biochemical Genetics, National
Heart Institute, presented the 24th National
Institutes of Health Lecture at the Clinical
Center auditorium on December 4. The
title of Dr. Nirenberg’s lecture was, “On
the Nature of the RNA Code.”
George A. Hottle, chief of the Labora-
tory of Viral Immunology, Division of
Biologics Standards, retired from the Pub-
lic Health Service on November 30 after
more than 17 years as a Public Health
Service officer. Dr. Hottle served as a dele-
43
gate to the Washington Academy of Sci-
ences. He will continue his work on
bacterial toxins and viral vaccines at the
University of California, where he has been
appointed head of the Division of Bacteri-
ology, Naval Biological Laboratory, School
of Public Health.
NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
At the AGARD 17th S&M Panel Meeting
in London last September, G. R. Irwin,
superintendent of the Mechanics Division,
presented a pilot lecture entitled “Struc-
tural Aspects of Brittle Fracture.” The
text of Dr. Irwin’s lecture was scheduled
to appear in the January 1964 issue of
Applied Materials Research.
L. S. Birks of the Optics Division
visited Japan in November at the invita-
tion of Japanese scientific societies. He
presented papers on election probe micro-
analysis and fluorescent X-ray spectroscopy
at the Universities of Tohoku, Nagoya, and
Osaka, and also at the Tokyo National
Conference on X-Ray Analysis, sponsored
by the Society for Analytical Chemistry.
His other visits in Japan included many
government and industrial laboratories en-
gaged in X-ray research as well as manu-
facturers of X-ray and electron probe in-
struments.
On December 16, Richard Tousey,
head of the Rocket Spectroscopy Branch,
received the Navy Award for Distinguished
Achievement in Science. The award, the
highest offered by the Navy to its scientists,
was accompanied by a check for $5,000.
The presentation was made to Dr. Tousey
by the Hon. James H. Wakelin, Jr., As-
sistant Secretary of the Navy for Research
and Development.
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
The following scientists recently joined
the staff of the Museum of Natural History:
Dan H. Nicolson, a recent graduate of
Cornell University’s Department of Botany,
as associate curator, Division of Phanero-
gams; Clayton E. Ray, formerly assistant
curator at Florida State Museum and as-
sistant professor at the University of Flor-
ida, as associate curator, Division of
Vertebrate Paleontology; and Richard B.
Woodbury, formerly associate professor
of anthropology at the University of
Arizona, as associate curator, Division of
Archeology.
DEATHS
James I. Hoffman, 71, who retired
two years ago as consultant to the director
of the National Bureau of Standards, died
January 16 at his home in Halifax, Pa.
An analytical chemist, Dr. Hoffman spent
43 years with the Bureau. He was instru-
mental in developing a method for purify-
ing uranium during World War II when
the Manhattan Project was working on the
atomic bomb.
A native of Pennsylvania, Dr. Hoffman
held degrees from Franklin and Marshall
College, George Washington University,
and American University. At NBS, he was
chief of the Surface Chemistry Section,
assistant chief of the Chemistry Division,
and chief of the Metallurgy Division be-
fore becoming consultant to the director.
He held the Hillbrand Prize of the
Chemical Society of Washington, the Com-
merce Department’s Meritorious Service
Silver Medal, the Department’s Exceptional
Service Gold Medal, and the 1959 Fisher
Award in Analytical Chemistry.
In addition to his membership in the
Washington Academy, Dr. Hoffman was
a member of the Cosmos Club, a councilor
of the American Chemical Society, and a
past president of the Chemical Society of
Washington.
po Cen 4
44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Delegates to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Representing
the Local Affiliated Societies*
Anillasopplanicall Saye Chi Wiis) oF nic) 0 eerie eee enee re seee ees tee eee ee R. D. Myers
Amemmopolozical Society of Washimgton .....2..:..........cccicecssesessseessenesenecnseseceeeeee Recina FLANNERY HERZFELD
Leen OaeM ME SOCICL YA OL WV ASMIME TON sc c.soc.0 ese ssnsoeesnocceociesssesoeesnonesendvstuncversasuesscteuedecesseuetersess JouHn L. Parapiso
Chemical Society of Washington ..................2cccccccccccscsscccssssssceeeses Ie here FS ne WittiaAm A. ZIsSMAN
moummlocical Society, OL Washington ...:.....0....c....csce.occsesesceessesssscessssesseseesecvonseasnetseses FRANK L, CAMPBELL
MRE MIM COCA DIIC W SOCICLY, ..64.6.c4-csceseicsassvosereasenceeerensnoesnveapasodachdsnenanenssaparsanacecs ALEXANDER WETMORE
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Eritrea ATIC CANN WH OCSECTS | cco ccesclscetsouhesosuess snctsuiesedenancoedousdlecdessehacesssvessedeasvscsbeban ease Harry A. Fowe.ts
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*Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective affiliated societies.
Volume 54. FEBRUARY 1964 - No. 2
CONTENTS
Seven Scientists Receive Academy’s Annual Awards .....00.000000000000000ccccectetee cece 21
The Meaning: of “Least” in Least-Squares:..1s.00.s00.000 0 24
Academy Proceedings
Pebruary -Wectine: 2). ooo ee eo eee ure 34
Flection ~ Resullis \erce ak bc A oe ear eg Sk 34
Annual Report of ‘Secretary ...0604...0000 40.000) de ee ee 39
Annual- Report’ of Treasurer .........0......050 000 ee Leon,
Report of Committee on Grants-n-Aid 270... 2... 39
Board of Managers Meeting Notes (3.0.0.0... 40
Science in Washington
Calendar -of Events: .:....020.00.0-4¢ 00. SG) Si ee 42
Scientists in the News .....0..0.00 2.00. a ee 42
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Vol. 54 ¢ No. 3
MARCH
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DRIRADD A eeshab tbat
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
= — ~ \ ae | : 5 \
Editor: Samuet B. DETwiter, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Associate Editors
Rocer G. Bates, National Bureau of Standards
Harotp T. Coox, Department of Agriculture
RicHarD P. FArRow, National Canners Asso-
J. Murray MircHeti, Jr., Weather Bureau
Russet B. StevENs, George Washington Uni-
versity
ciation
Contributors
GERHARD M. Braver, National Bureau of
Standards
FRANK A. BIBERSTEIN, JR., Catholic University
CuHarLes A. WHITTEN, Coast & Geodetic Survey
Margorte Hooker, Geological Survey Howarp W. Bonn, National Institutes of Health
Reusen E. Woop, George Washington Univer. [LEEN E. Stewart, National Science Foundation
sity ALLEN L. ALEXANDER, Naval Research Laboratory
JoseEpH B. Morris, Howard University Victor R. Boswett, USDA, Beltsville
Frank L. Camppert, NAS-NRC Harry A. Fowetts, USDA, Washington
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes historical
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ACADEMY OFFICERS FOR 1964
President: Francois N. FRENKIEL, David Taylor Model Basin
President-Elect: Leo ScHUBERT, American University
Secretary: Greorce W. Irvine, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Treasurer: Matcotm C. HENDERSON, Catholic University
‘The International
Indian Ocean Expedition:
A Status Report*
Irvin E. Wallen
Assistant Director for Oceanography, Museum of Natural History, Smithso-
nian Institution
The Planning Period
One measure of the success of the Inter-
national Geophysical Year (IGY) has been
the large number of international cooper-
ative projects that have followed in its
wake. Inspired by the monumental collec-
tion of comparable data on a broad scale
during the IGY, new committees were
formed by the International Council of
Scientific Unions to consider the initiation
of international cooperative projects in the
future. Out of one of these committees,
the Special Committee on Oceanic Research
(SCOR), grew the International Indian
Ocean Expedition (IIOE). Dr. Georg
Wiist, a member of the committee from
Germany, proposed that over an appro-
priate period of time many ships should
visit the area, making standard observa-
tions and collecting data for a detailed
description of the physical, chemical, bio-
logical, and geological characteristics of
the Indian Ocean.
Since this ocean exhibits unique phe-
nomena, the desirability of such an expedi-
tion was easy to demonstrate. Unlike the
Atlantic and Pacific, the Indian Ocean is
located entirely within tropical and south-
ern zones, enclosed by a land mass at its
* Address presented at a meeting of the Wash-
ington Academy of Sciences on November 21, 1963.
Marcu, 1964.
northern limit. Nowhere else is there a
similar seasonal reversal of the prevailing
wind, for in that part of the Ocean lying
above the equator two monsoons occur
annually, one blowing from the northeast
for approximately six months and the other
blowing from the southwest during the
rest of the year.
Closely related to the mass air movements
are such basic oceanographic questions as
how much time is necessary for winds to
produce ocean currents, and how rapidly
such currents deepen with time. Also, in
contrast to the extensive areas along the
west coasts of North and South America
and of Africa, where deep water comes to
the surface by upwelling, it appears that
near the coast of northwest Australia there
is only spasmodic upwelling. An oppor-
tunity to study this phenomenon promises
to bring a closer understanding of the
presently inexplicable factors in the phe-
nomenon of upwelling, wherever it occurs.
The Indian Ocean includes 28 million
square miles of water, which is about
14 percent of the earth’s surface, an area
greater than that of the continents of Asia
and Africa combined. However, primarily
because of its isolation from the research
impetus of the Northern Hemisphere, less
than two dozen vessels had carried out
oceanographic investigations in the Indian
Ocean prior to 1957, when the IGY began.
45
30° East
26°North ,
Center
* ‘Mauritius
INDIAN OCEAN
pet se
Biological
$f Kerguelen
5
30°
andapam
Camp °*
AUSTRALIA:
50° South
116° East
Figure 1. Outline map showing locations of IIOE shore stations at Bombay, Nossi Bé, and two in
South India.
Except for data collected during the
IGY, the structure of the earth’s crust and
the topography of the floor of the Indian
Ocean are barely known. Trenches, under-
sea mountain ranges, fracture zones, and
other bathymetric features remain to be
discovered and described.
From a practical standpoint, the goals
of the IIOE are to seek data related to new
sources of proteins, better long-range
weather forecasting, and better navigation-
al charts. In addition, it is hoped that
the Expedition will provide intensive train-
ing and experience in oceanographic re-
search to scientists in the area. It is ex-
pected to serve as a device to attract
students to careers in oceanography, thus
helping to relieve a shortage of specialists
in the field.
Biologists have been enthusiastic about
the IIOE plan, in part because of their
recognition that the IGY had included little
biology and their determination not to be
excluded from the IIOE, and in part be-
cause of reported biological conditions in
that Ocean. .
As an example, spectacular flowering of
the phytoplankton and subsequent growth
of zooplankton have occurred following the
onset of the southwest monsoon. It is de-
sirable to understand the mechanism that
permits this increase in production. Also,
in June, 1957, a Russian merchant ship
enroute between Colombo, Ceylon, and the
Gulf of Aden reported millions of tons of
dead fishes floating in an area about 600
miles long and 125 miles wide, extending
across the middle of the Ocean. Similar
46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
» rambo
_ region.
reports came from British ships in the
It is not known how these fishes
were killed, but this served as an indication
of extensive productivity in the area.
From a biological standpoint, the ob-
jectives deyeloped for the ITOK are (1) to
_assess the magnitude of the living resources
through studies of primary and plankton
production and of demersal and pelagic
fisheries populations, including the effects
of seasonal changes; (2) to explore the
distribution of plants and animals in rela-
tion to the physical and the biological char-
acteristics of the Ocean; (3) to obtain
information regarding the potentiality for
commercial fisheries, through assessment of
the pelagic fish populations, including the
distribution of their eggs and larvae; (4)
to investigate the effects of island com-
plexes on productivity; and (5) to ‘study
the productivity of coral reefs. ‘ |
Biological observations include such
things as (1) the occurrence and size of
schools of fishes; (2) instances of large-
scale fish mortality; (3) census of fishes
in dip net catches under lights at night;
(4) numbers and species of sea birds, seals,
cetaceans, flying fishes, surface jelly fishes,
squid, sea snakes, etc.; and (5) occurrence
and sampling of discolored water.
In the United States the National Acad-
emy of Sciences Committee on Oceano-
graphy (NASCO) developed plans for the
IIOE. After receipt and consideration of
such plans, the National Science Founda-
tion (NSF) agreed to budget funds for the
Expedition. During Fiscal Years 1963
and 1964: a total of over $5 million will be
spent by NSF on the IIOE, and almost
that much more is planned for Fiscal Year
1965. In addition, the Department of the
Navy has budgeted over $5 million for the
three fiscal years, and smaller amounts
will be spent by the Coast and Geodetic
Survey, the Bureau of Commercial Fish-
eries, and other Government agencies.
In late 1959 an international coordinator
for IIOE, Robert G. Snider, was employed
by SCOR to visit the various nations hav-
ing an interest in the Indian Ocean and
Marcu, 1964
to assist in developing and coordinating
their participation. In 1962 the inter-
national aspects of the project were trans-
ferred to the offices of the new Intergovern-
mental Oceanographic Commission in the
Paris Headquarters of UNESCO. Also in
1962, John Lyman of NSF was appointed
U. S. coordinator for the Expedition.
Participation
Up to the present time 20 countries—
Australia, Ceylon, East Africa, France, Ger-
many, India, Indonesia, Israel, Japan,
Malagasy Republic, Malaysia, Mauritius,
Netherlands, Pakistan, Portugal, Thailand,
Union of South Africa, Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics, United Kingdom, and
the United States—have provided or
planned to provide vessels or shore facili-
ties for the Expedition. An additional nine
nations—Austria, Brazil, Burma, Canada.
China, Denmark, Rumania, Sweden, and
the United Arab Republic—have arranged
to have their scientists participate in the
expedition on ships or shore facilities of
other nations. Most of these countries
have established national committees to de-
velop an IIOE program and to follow its
progress.
Ships
United States participation in the Ex-
pedition includes 14 vessels, operated by
Columbia University, Scripps Institution
for Oceanography, Woods Hole Oceano-
graphic Institution, the Coast and Geodetic
Survey, and the Naval Oceanographic Of-
fice. Guest scientists from U. S. universi-
ties and government organizations, as well
as from foreign universities, have been or
will be aboard most of these vessels.
Aircraft
Five United States aircraft have been
included in the IIOE for collections of
weather data. A (C54Q aircraft from
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution has
made one series of flights and will make
another in 1964. Observations will be
made of dropsonde humidity: and tempera-
ture, of wind, of solar and albedo radiation
47
Figure 2. With guidance from Mrs. Beatrice Burch (right), assistant supervisor of the Smithsonian
Oceanographic Sorting Center, and Mrs. LaNelle Peterson (center), museum specialist, museum aides
separate marine specimens from Indian Ocean collections. (Photo courtesy Smithsonian Institution.)
fluxes, and of turbulent transport of heat,
water vapor, and momentum. Also, nuclei
counts will be made, cloud distribution will
be studied, and radar data will be obtained
of precipitation areas. In addition, four
U. S. Weather Bureau research aircraft
spent three months in 1963 making flights
in the IIOE area and will again make ob-
servations in early 1964. All have installed
modern equipment for collection of varied
meteorological data, much of it recorded
digitally on magnetic tape for use in the
International Meteorological Center, which
was established in Bombay for the IIOE.
Shore Stations
Five shore stations, using existing fa-
cilities, have been established with assist-
ance from the United States, at Nossi Bé
in Madagascar, and in India at Cochin
(Ernakulum), Mandapam Camp, and Bom-
bay (two stations). Arthur G. Humes,
professor of biology at Boston University,
has been designated as chief scientist and
liaison officer for U. S. participants plan-
ning to visit Nossi Bé. A motor vehicle,
inflatable boat with outboard motor, micro-
scopes, and laboratory equipment and sup-
plies have been provided to supplement
that which has been furnished directly to
participating scientists. Under the direc-
tion of M. Angot, the Center, which is oper-
ated by the Institute of Scientific Research
in Madagascar, is providing housing, food,
and lodging to scientists in residence for
marine research.
The Indian Ocean Biological Center at
Cochin has nominal support from the
United States, with principal support com-
ing from the Intergovernmental Oceano-
48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
graphic Commission and substantial sup-
port from the government of India. Estab-
lished in April 1963 and operated in a
building belonging to the Oceanography
Department of the University of South
India, the assistant director in charge is
an Indian national; however, Vagn Han-
sen, from the governmental scientific staff
in Denmark, serves as curator of the Center
with responsibility for its scientific pro-
gram.
Each ship taking part in the IIOE is
expected regularly to make a_ vertical
plankton haul from 200 meters to the sur-
face. This is accomplished with a stand-
ard IIOE net which was developed in Eng-
land and is distributed through the Inter-
governmental Oceanographic Commission.
These standard samples are being sorted
by the staff of the Indian Ocean Biological
Center and _ distributed to scientists
throughout the world for studies of the
classification and abundance of plankton
organisms, particularly as they may lead
to a better understanding of fish produc-
tion in the Ocean. Approximately 150
samples had been sorted by the end of
December 1963.
An Indian biological station, made avail-
able to U. S. and other foreign scientists, is
the Central Marine Fisheries Institute at
Mandapam Camp, across from Ceylon, in
South India. A major research installation
of the Indian government, it has biological
laboratories and a new guest house for
scientists. At Mandapam Camp the em-
phasis is on marine biology, including
primary productivity, fish farming and
physiology, fishery survey and statistics,
and algology. The U. S. Biology Program
of NSF has supplied field and laboratory
equipment to the Institute. With a good
library and adequate laboratory facilities,
approximately 20 Indian scientists and at
least 24 scientists from the United States,
Sweden, Canada, Brazil, and Pakistan have
visited the Institute or plan to work there
before the end of the IIOE.
In Bombay the U.S. Biology Program
Marcu, 1964,
supports an Indian scientist, who serves as
its liaison representative in making ar-
rangements for the participation of scien-
tists and for the preservation, storage, and
shipment of specimens.
Also in Bombay is an _ International!
Meteorological Center which coordinates
that aspect of the ITOE. Located on the
southern tip of Bombay peninsula, this
Center is operated by the Meteorological
Department of the Indian government.
Synoptic weather charts will be distributed
through 1964 and research is being con-
tinued under the supervision of Indian
and foreign scientists at the Center. Several
U. S. scientists are participating in the
collection and in the analysis of the data,
which accumulate from an _ automatic
weather station, special aircraft, satellites,
and ships. An IBM 1620 computer has
been provided by the U. N. Special Fund
to check, collate, and average surface
weather observations, as well as to permit
modeling of weather conditions.
Data Exchange
A special working group of SCOR called
attention to the necessity for effective and
rapid national and international exchange
of data, cruise plans, and cruise reports.
Provision was made to maintain complete
records of data from the Expedition at
World Data Centers A and B, in Wash-
ington, D. C., and Moscow, respectively.
The Inter-governmental Oceanographic
Commission in Paris was given responsibil-
ity for international interchange of pub-
lished data. Specialized centers, such as the
Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level in
England, the International Hydrographic
Bureau in Monaco, and the International
Council for the Exploration of the Sea
in Denmark, have agreed to store and re-
lease data appropriate to their interests.
At least three special manuals were de-
veloped specifically for U. S. participation
in the IIOE. An instruction manual for
use by the scientific staff of the U. S. Pro-
gram in Biology was developed by David
W. Menzel of the Woods Hole Oceano-
49
graphic Institution. In it, procedures for
collecting data at ocean stations were pro-
vided in detail to insure that consistent and
comparable results would be obtained over
two years’ operation of the research vessel
Anton Bruun.
A preliminary guide to the birds of the
Indian Ocean was prepared by George
Watson, Richard Zusi, and Robert Storer
and published by the Smithsonian Institu-
tion. This guide was intended to sum-
marize existing information on Indian
Ocean birds in such a way that inexperi-
enced ornithologists could make field iden-
tifications and observations which would
have value for future research on birds of
the area. A planned program of observa-
tions has been undertaken by the Smith-
sonian Institution to supplement the guide
with a substantial quantity of new data.
A third manual, written by Bruce Col-
lette and Robert Gibbs, was published by
the Smithsonian Institution with assist-
ance from the NSF Biology Program for
IIOE. Because of the importance of tunas
and mackerels as human food, this pre-
liminary guide to the scombroid fishes of
the Indian Ocean was considered to be
useful. A summary of existing knowledge
and current research concerning these
fishes should increase the rate of observa-
tions during the expedition and promote
the collecting of new kinds of data.
The two field guides were distributed to
each participant in the IIOE Biology Pro-
gram and to specialists in the Indian Ocean
area. The Smithsonian Institution also
furnished equipment, taxonomic keys, pic-
tures, and instructions for the capture and
identification of seals, porpoises, and other
cetaceans.
Te Vega Program
In addition to diverting vessels of Amer-
ican oceanographic institutions from re-
search programs in the Atlantic or Pacific
Oceans, the United States also has con-
verted two vessels for use by oceanographic
biologists during the ILOE. One of these
is the Te Vega, a two-masted, steel-hulled
schooner, 134 feet long and having a gross
weight of 265 tons. Although its main pro-
pulsion is by sail, it has an auxiliary motor
and is air conditioned for tropical work.
Built in Germany in 1930, it was registered
as an undocumented yacht before conver-
sion under auspices of NSF for use by
Stanford University as an oceanographic
vessel.
The Te Vega accommodates a senior
scientific staff of seven and a professional
crew of 15. Eight graduate students are
on board for courses in biological ocean-
ography, which will be offered by Stanford
University three times during the current
year. Under the direction of the senior
staff the students keep a biological log;
operate the many kinds of gear and instru-
ments; preserve, sort, label, catalog, and
pack the biological collections; make
meteorological and hydrographic observa-
tions; tabulate the data collected; and make
preliminary charts and graphs of the re-
sults. Opportunities are provided to ob-
serve living organisms in aquaria on board
the vessel, as well as in the field. The stu- —
dents work closely with members of the
scientific staff on research projects on
plants and animals of the Indian Ocean.
Anton Bruun
The other special U. S. biological ocean-
ographic ship is the research vessel Anton
Bruun, formerly the U. S. Presidential
Yacht, Williamsburg. It was released by
President Kennedy early in 1962 for con-
version by NSF. Two hundred and forty-
three feet long and displacing 1,700 tons,
it was originally constructed in 1930 as
the Aras. She served as a Navy escort
vessel during World War II, when her
name was changed to Williamsburg. After
conversion in the Baltimore yard of the
Maryland Shipbuilding and Drydock Com-
pany, the vessel was named the Anton
Bruun after the famous marine biologist, §
Anton Bruun of Denmark, who had par-
ticipated in cruises in the Indian Ocean
and had been very active in the Special
Committee on Oceanic Research. Dr.
20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Bruun was serving as first president of the
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commis-
sion at the time of his sudden death in
1961.
The Anton Bruun carries a complement
of 26 scientists and 19 crew members. As
organized for the International Indian
Ocean Expedition, she accommodates eight
staff scientists, employed from graduate
schools of various universities to carry out
routine scientific observations for the two
years of the Expedition. In preparation
for this assignment, the staff scientists re-
ceived three months training under the
supervision of John Ryther at the Bermuda
Biological Station.
Biological Program
The principal scientific research efforts
are carried out by biological ocean-
ographers from various private and gov-
ernmental laboratories, from universities
in the United States, and from comparable
agencies and institutions from cooperating
countries.
Ten members of the permanent staff of
the Smithsonian Institution either have
participated or are scheduled to participate
in the IIOE. In addition, one permanent
staff member is participating in the expedi-
tion from the standpoint of administration
to assist in the development of techniques
of collection, preservation, record keeping,
and storage of specimens. Another scien-
tist has been employed temporarily by the
Smithsonian Institution for the purpose of
participating in the Expedition. An addi-
tional staff member represented the United
States at the advisory committee meeting
of the Indian Ocean Biological Center in
Cochin, India.
The Anton Bruun, designated as the
principal research vessel for biological
oceanography in IIOE, performs the fol-
lowing basic program:
(a) Hydrographic cast to 1,000 meters
for obtaining data on temperature, salinity,
dissolved oxygen, phosphates, nitrates,
nitrites, silicates, and ammonia com-
pounds.
Marcu, 1964.
(b) Van Dorn bottle casts to depths
corresponding to penetration of 100, 50,
25, 10, and 1 percent of incident light for
pigment analysis as well as for 24-hour
simulated in situ, and 4-hour incubator
carbon-14 uptake experiments.
(c) Determination of submarine light
penetration of all daylight stations.
(d) Vertical plankton haul from 200
meters with standard IIOE net (mesh aper-
ture—0.300 mm.) ; samples for deposition
in the Indian Ocean Biological Center at
Cochin, India.
(e) Vertical microplankton haul from
200 meters with number 25 mesh net.
(f) Oblique plankton tow with Bé sam-
pler (mesh aperture = 0.330 mm.) from
2000 meters or greatest depth possible in
shallower water.
(g) Bathythermograph observations.
Additional work is undertaken on the
vessel, varying with each cruise. Intensive
sampling with Gulf shrimp trawls, Isaacs-
Kidd midwater trawls, gill nets, long lines,
dip nets, aqualungs, and other devices as-
sist in an evaluation of the fishery poten-
tial in the Indian Ocean. For example, on
Cruise 2 of the Anton Bruun by means of
long-line and other methods of fishing, 185
large tunas of four species, 24 marlins of
three species, 81 specimens of nine other
commercial-sized species, and 87 specimens
of five kinds of sharks were taken. The
distributions of adult tunas, marlins, and
sharks are being studied by the Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries in relation to water
temperature and ocean circulation during
the two monsoon reasons. Serological tech-
niques are used to identify subpopulations
of tunas and other apex predators. Catches
are weighed and measured; recordings are
made of sex and maturation stage of
gonads; collections are taken of stomach
contents, ovaries, and blood samples; and
certain whole specimens are retained for
taxonomic study. Using bottom trawling
procedures, similar studies will be made of
demersal fishes.
Collections taken with plankton nets pro-
vide scientists with data to evaluate the
ol
populations of larval tuna and other fishery
species and to ascertain their relationships
within the food web.
Smithsonian Oceanographic
Sorting Center
The specimens collected by the Anton
Bruun and the Te Vega are partially sorted
on board the vessels, where they are pre-
served, carefully packed, and sent to the
Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center
in Washington, D. C. Here they are sepa-
rated into general taxonomic categories and
are made available to scientists for syste-
matics and ecologic research. Such speci-
mens are not considered to belong to the
Smithsonian Institution but to the collec-
tor. The Sorting Center thus assists in
expediting research on the specimens and
maintains a central record of all specimens
collected during the expedition. The sort-
ing is provided as a service by the Smith-
sonian Institution as a part of its contribu-
tion to the IIOE. The samples sent to the
Sorting Center do not include the standard
plankton samples; in accordance with the
IIOE cooperative program, these are sent
to the Indian Ocean Biological Center in
Cochin.
At the end of calendar year 1963, a large
proportion of the nonstandard specimens
from IIOE Cruise 1 of the Anton Bruun
had been received and sorted at the Sorting
Center. The total number of specimens
received was over one million. Included
were 17,427 fishes of 133 families, 18
sea snakes of an estimated three species
of the family Hydrophiidae, 31,357 pelagic
and benthic invertebrates of 94 major
taxonomic groups, and over 960,000 plank-
ton organisms of which 94,188 specimens
of 45 taxonomic groups were counted.
The specimens of this rich and interesting
fauna are available to biologists for studies
of their classification, abundance, and
ecology. Advisory committees to the Sort-
ing Center will determine the distribution
of these specimens to specialists in accord-
ance with commitments and plans of the
U. S. Biology. Program.
Results of the Expedition are just be-
ginning to be realized. Published reports
of research results from IJOE should be
appearing for many years to come.
Bibliography
Bezrokov, P. C. Studies conducted by
the Vityaz under the International Indian
Ocean Expedition program. Rey. Acad.
Sci. USSR (8), 97-104, (1963) (trans-
lated by OTS).
Brown, H., et al. Recommended program
for United States participation in the In-
ternational Indian Ocean Expedition, also
appendices A-E. NAS Com. Oceano., Mim.,
8l pages (1961). 3
Deacon, G. E. R. The Indian Ocean Ex-
pedition. Nature 187, 561-562 (1960).
Gibbs, R. H., Jr., and Collette, B. B.
Preliminary field guide to the mackerel-
and tuna-like fishes of the Indian Ocean
(Scombridae). U. 5. Nat. Mus., 48 pages
(1963).
Knauss, J. A. The International Indian
Ocean Expedition. Science 134, 1674-1676
(1961).
Knauss, J. A. and Bruce, A. T. Measure-
ments of currents along the equator in the
Indian Ocean. Nature 198 (4878), 366-
377 (1963).
Lyman, J. Report of the United States
participation in the International Indian
Ocean Expedition. Mim., 56 pages (1963).
Menzel, D. W. Instruction manual for
routine measurements for the U. S. pro-
gram in biology, International Indian
Ocean Expedition. Mim., 34 pages (1962).
Ramage, C. S. The International Indian
Ocean Expedition. Special leaflet, U. S.
Dept. of Commerce, Weather Bureau,
folded presentation (1963).
Ramage, C. S. International Indian
Ocean Expedition, meteorological research
goes to sea. The Marine Observer 551.506.5
(267), 74-78 (1963).
Shor, G. G., Jr., and Pollard, D. D. Seis-
mic investigations of Seychelles and Saya
da Malha Banks, Northwest Indian Ocean.
Science 142, 48-49 (1963).
Snider, R. G. The Indian Ocean. A
SP JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
preliminary prospectus. Internat. Council
Sci. Unions, Special Committee on Oceanic
Research, Mim. report, 7 pages (1960).
Terada, K., ed. IIOE Newsletter of
Japan, Numbers 1, 2 and 3. IIOE Data
Center of Japan, Mim. (1962-63).
UNESCO. International Indian Ocean
Expedition. Intergovernmental Oceano-
graphic Commission Information Papers
Nos. 1-4, Mim. (1963).
Watson, G. E., Zusi, R. L., and Storer,
R. L. Preliminary field guide to the birds
of the Indian Ocean. U. S. Nat. Mus., 214
pages (1963).
Statistics in Its Proper Place*
William J. Youden
National Bureau of Standards
Enthusiasts sometimes drag statistics
into studies when tables or graphs are in
themselves completely convincing. Statis-
tical techniques are sometimes employed to
establish the statistical significance of ex-
perimental effects which are, however, so
small as to be of no practical consequence.
Resort is sometimes had to statistical tech-
niques in the hope, almost always vain,
that some large collection of data contains
something worth publishing. Sometimes
elaborate statistical operations are used to
dress up an otherwise mediocre paper. The
best interests of science are not served
when statistics is found in places like those
just enumerated.
Statistics can be found in respectable
places, however. The average or arithme-
tic mean is a “statistic.” The average is
widely used to summarize data and there
are other “statistics” that serve this
function. The probable error and the
standard deviation are used to measure
one’s confidence in averages. There are
formulas for computing the average and
———-
the standard deviation of a set of measure-
ments. The essence of statistics lies in
knowing when and how to use these
formulas.
* Presented at an NBS staff seminar in Janu-
ary 1964.
‘Marcu, 1964. |
Suppose we plant 20 seeds with the pur-
pose of measuring the heights of the plants
one month after planting. Thirteen plants
come up and one of these just barely shows
through the soil. If we take the sum of the
13 heights plus 7 zeros, shall we divide by
20, 13, or 12? Our choice makes a big
difference. And the choice also makes a
tremendous difference in the value we
would get for the standard deviation.
Our choice would be easier if we had
formulated the ground rules of the game
before we started the experiment. Picture
the kind of a poker game we would have
if we endeavored to formulate the rules of
the game after the hands were dealt and
examined. Yet this happens over and
over again in what are intended to be
scientific investigations. Statistics has no
useful place trying to formulate the ground
rules after the data have been taken. Stat-
isticians can examine preliminary data and
make suggestions regarding possible sta-
tistics, i.e., ground rules, for evaluating
the main event.
Now there are some standard rules, just
as there is a fairly standard poker game.
But we must be sure that all in the game
are playing by the same rules. A straight
is a straight. But suppose a poker player
looks at his hand and declares that a
run of odd cards—3, 5, 7, 9, J makes a
a3
Smith straight and this should beat a
regular straight. There are people who
go looking for just such odd relationships
in a stack of data. You can always find
such pseudo relationships if you are in-
dustrious. Good science and good statistics
require setting forth the rules before the
game starts.
What does this mean in a scientific in-
vestigation? First it means formulating at
least one definite, clear-cut question that
the investigation presumably will try to
answer. Efficiency demands that a number
of questions be thought of because they
may be all included in the one study. These
questions should be written out before-
hand. General statements such as “I pro-
pose a study of a system made up of A,
B, C” invite later trouble. Better to state:
“I propose to measure the effect of tem-
perature changes on Property Y in the
system A, B, C.” Even this is not enough.
We should know why this property Y is
of interest. We should have a fair idea
of how accurately we expect to measure
property Y. Preliminary data plus statis-
tical techniques permit us to estimate the
amount of work necessary for any desired
accuracy.
If the amount of work, time, and money
available is not enough to constitute an
improvement on earlier work, perhaps we
shouldn’t undertake the program. This
may reduce the number of programs aban-
doned after considerable work has been
expended. What I am saying here is, that,
instead of asking statistics to evaluate the
data you have collected, you might ask
statistics to evaluate the size of the program
needed to get what you want. Of course
this requires that you know what you
want, or what you are willing to accept as
constituting a contribution to knowledge.
In almost every case, data consist of
measurements made by some specified pro-
cedure, often using specified equipment on
samples or specimens prepared in a par-
ticular way. If the measurement involves
the destruction of the test specimen, there
is no easy way to separate the contribu-
tion that specimen variation makes to the
measured result. One may prepare a spe-
cial batch of specimens made to very exact-
ing tolerances and compare the results with
those obtained using routinely prepared
specimens from the same stock. If the
specimen is an important factor there
should be a reduction in the spread ex-
hibited by the specially prepared set. Here
practical considerations are apt to be over-
ruling. Generally speaking, the instru-
mentation used in the measurement need
not be refined beyond the point where its
contribution to the uncertainty is less than
half that of the specimen. At this point,
overall improvement of any consequence
demands more uniform specimens, and
continued improvement requires an_alter-
nation of effort between specimen and
equipment.
The foregoing paragraph leads immedi-
ately to a very important point. Let us
suppose that two materials are to be com-
pared using four specimens prepared from
each material. The specimen preparation
and measurement follow the standard pro-
cedure. We further suppose that the ma-
terials fall well within the range of ex-
perience. We have before us four measure-
ments relating to each material, and these
repeat measurements provide an estimate
of error. There is a standard statistical
procedure, the t-test used to compare the
two means.
4x4
s | 4+ 4
Here s is the pooled estimate of the stand-
ard deviation, with six degrees of freedom.
If ¢ exceeds the value 2.447, we know that
this would happen five percent of the time
even when the two materials are identical.
We say that the difference is statistically
significant at the 5 percent level.
The above formula can be found in many
books. But there is often a better way to
appraise these data. We were talking
about a method of measurement that pre-
sumably has been in regular use, and we
o4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
really ought to know this measurement
method thoroughly. In particular, we
should know what performance we can
expect with materials of this class, using
this specimen-equipment combination.
This should be one of the first things
to which we should devote our attention.
What we want to ascertain is the measure-
ment error that goes with this combination
of materials, specimens, instrumentation,
and technique. We will find this out by
pooling a series of estimates of s each
derived from sets of data similar to those
referred to in the preceding paragraph.
Examining such a series of even as few
as ten such estimates of s, we arrive at a
consensus which may fairly be designated
by o, the standard deviation that is a
property of this measurement process.
A statistical glance must be taken to
satisfy ourselves that the values for s are
not drifting with time or are otherwise
unacceptably erratic. Once we are satis-
fied on that point, we will use the con-
sensus value o in any new set of data
rather than the s associated with that par-
ticular limited set of data. If we do this,
the numerical value of ¢ that gives the same
five percent confidence limit is now 2.00
and with further experience can drop to
1.96. In other words, we can now detect
similar differences between materials.
Naturally we will keep a sharp eye on
each individual s which we will continue
to calculate even though we do not use it
to calculate ¢. The individual values for
s must stay below an appropriate upper
bound. Individual values for s based on
six degrees of freedom will, under nor-.
mal circumstances, be 50 percent larger
than o about five percent of the time. So
long as there is no evidence of a deteriora-
tion in the measurement technique, it is
better to use the consensus o than the
individual s. Indeed there is no correla-
tion whatever, under normal circumstances,
between the individual estimates of the
standard ‘deviation and the errors in the
averages.
Marcu, 1964
Admittedly an out-of-line value for s
will disturb the average as well as play
havoc with the estimate of s for that set
of data. Indeed, this estimate for s is an
extremely useful way to pick up such prob-
lem results, because we do have a solid
value for o as a criterion. Most tests for
outliers use only the information in the
particular set of data and are relatively
conservative when it comes to the rejec-
tion of results. An unusually large value
for s may justify rejection of the whole
set of data. Notice that a particular danger
attaches to tests that use the individual
values for s. A large s makes a large
difference between an average and a re-
quired specification value apparently ac-
ceptable, because the ratio ¢ falls within
the acceptable limit. Test procedures
should, wherever possible, require that in-
dividual values for s stay within a specified
limit in order to maintain the quality of
the testing. Incidentally, this approach is
exactly that of the quality control tech-
niques widely used in industry.
Although I have chosen as an example
a routine method of testing materials, the
ideas presented may be carried over into
basic research. Here, too, a set of ap-
paratus and a measurement routine are al-
most always required. Naturally the intent
is to get numerical values which will ulti-
mately go into the tables and graphs that
constitute the basis for the research paper
or report. Far too often little thought is
given to the calculation of the errors in
the results until the writing stage is
reached. Surely in the debugging of the
equipment an eye is kept on the consist-
ency of repeat measurements, but seldom
is any formal evaluation of the measure-
ment errors attempted during the course
of the investigation.
Substantial advantages come from a sys-
tematic and current error calculation made
as the work progresses. Among these are
the detection of seemingly aberrant results
while it is still possible to verify them or
to disclose them as aberrant. Another pos-
sibility is that the error may depend on
35)
the magnitude of the measured result. In
such a case it is easy to adjust the number
of measurements taken for various mate-
rials so that the averages can be taken as
of equal weight. This immensely simpli-
fies the visual inspection of the results as
well as any subsequent curve-fitting ac-
tivities.
Why is it that investigators so frequently
underestimate the magnitude of the errors
in their work? I attempted to answer this
question about three years ago (1).
It is obvious that within a laboratory
every effort is made not to change experi-
mental conditions, whereas differences
exist between the procedures of different
laboratories. Yet a laboratory truly in-
terested in getting an idea of the sources
of variation would deliberately introduce
changes. Particularly in analytical work
do we find laboratory disagreements. But
what laboratory intentionally tries a new
reagent supply, or different thermometers,
meters, hot plates, or other pieces of equip-
ment? There must be some cause or
causes for the greater disagreement found
between laboratories. These causes can
only be located when one laboratory delib-
erately abuses the procedure. There are
systematic ways of approaching this prob-
lena (2)?
The use of statistics in place of the
scientist's common sense is not proper. At
best, statistics puts in quantitative terms
the qualitative judgments of the experi-
menter. The blind use of statistical pro-
cedures sometimes leads to ridiculous re-
sults. The experimenter, spell-bound by
the statistical snake, apparently abdicates
his proper role and accepts utter nonsense.
As an instance [ recall a recent report deal-
ing with a study to ascertain whether
tedious and lengthy reference methods
could be replaced by more rapid and
convenient procedures. The methods were
for Side, magnesium, and R:,O3. Two
alternative methods in addition to the
referee method were tried for each of
these determinations. Four materials were
selected and four laboratories participated.
All determinations were run in duplicate.
We have, therefore,
Determinations © 00.20... 0000.0.0....0 3
Methods 20.0 ee 3
Materials ws ee ee 4
Laboratories. .4..c.0séssstacnn Re 4
= 144 pairs of duplicates.
These 144 pairs were examined by an
appropriate statistical test, and seven pairs
were rejected at the 5 percent level be-
cause of excessive differences. The disturb-
ing fact was that some of the rejected pairs
had means that were in very good agree-
ment with results from other laboratories
while some pairs were retained even when
their means were outrageously out of line
with the consensus of results from other
laboratories. This seems to mean that if
a laboratory is very careful to repeat
exactly a wrong operation and hence get
good agreement of duplicates the results
should be kept. Now a careful scrutiny of
the analytical error as revealed by the
duplicates should not be deplored. In
fact, if a particular laboratory has the task
of comparing two or more similar mate-
rials, the error as established by the dupli-
cates is the appropriate one.
In the study just outlined the agreement
of the duplicates was only part of the
story. The task was to compare the
referee method with shorter methods. What
is more important is how well the four
laboratories agree using the same method,
coupled with the requirement that any sub-
stitute method should not have a large
bias when compared with the referee meth-
od. After all, the conclusions drawn from
the study presumably were to serve as a
guide to all laboratories concerned in such
work. At the very outset, before getting
any data, we see that we are confronted
with the problem of extrapolating from the
performance of four laboratories to the
whole population of laboratories doing such
work. The between-laboratory error for
all methods was much greater than the
duplicate error and was therefore the de-
termining error in appraising the work.
The study served to reveal the relative
56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
- have 16 laboratories.
importance of the within and _ between-
_laboratory errors, and to guide the investi-
gators as to which of the methods merited
further study.
What was missing from this study was a
preliminary statement of objectives. Clear-
ly we might anticipate that short-cut ana-
lytical procedures would show more be-
tween-laboratory scatter than would a
referee method, and in addition might be
subject to bias. We need this information
to come to a decision. We ought to formu-
late, in advance, how large an increase in
interlaboratory error we would accept. We
have to do this eventually. Should one ac-
cept a threefold increase in the between-
laboratory error? If the answer is, “Cer-
tainly not,” then the program. of work had
better be adequate to detect such an in-
crease in error. The data we have will
look like this, using the duplicate means
Procedure
Laboratory Referee SE SZ
A wa AAT Mr de 2
B ral ito ships!
Cc ee path ie Hie
D =
Only four results on each method are
available from which to calculate the real
error of interest. The sad fact is that a
substitute method could have three times
the error of the referee method and there
would be a very poor chance of getting
statistically acceptable evidence of this
state of affairs. More laboratories are
needed.
The above table presents the data for
just one of the four materials that were
circulated. Thus we have the results from
three other similar sets to look at and can
strengthen our comparison of the methods.
It should be emphasized that while we do
have 16 results of each method we do not
There are only four
laboratories, no more, and it is from the
Marcu, 1964
performance of these four that we must
predict the suitability of a substitute meth-
od for all laboratories.
It appears that this seemingly simple and
straight-forward experimental inquiry has
led us very quickly into some rather com-
plicated matters. How are we to come to
an evaluation? Shall we insist on includ-
ing all the materials or should we be pre-
pared to recommend a substitute method
for certain classes of materials? How
large an average bias are we prepared to
accept? These are examples of the ques-
tions that unavoidably beset the investiga-
tor after the work is done. Surely these
questions should be considered before
starting the work. [If a committee cannot
agree on criteria beforehand how can we
expect agreement later?
It is not for statistics to formulate the
questions of interest to the investigator.
Given the questions, statistics has a place
in appraising the data to see if the answers
are “yes,” “no,” or “inconclusive.” Largely
as a result of experience, statisticians may
suggest questions (prior to seeing the ac-
tual data!) to ascertain whether these
questions are of interest. Here care must
be observed lest the statistician come close
to taking over the thinking that the experi-
menter should do.
Statistics has only a small proper place
in the scheme of things. Well planned
programs often require only simple and
conventional statistical action. Generally
speaking, if the issue is so close that the
fine edge of elaborate statistical procedures
is needed for discrimination, many will
want additional data. In any event, the
statistical tail must never wag the scientific
dog.
(1) Youden, W. J. Systematic errors in physi-
cal constants. Physics Today 14 (9), 32-34, 36,
38, 40, 43 (1961).
(2) Youden, W. J. The collaborative test.
J. Assoc. Official Agr. Chemists 46 (Feb. 1963).
(3) Youden, W. J. Experimental design and
ASTM committees. ASTM Materials Res. and
Sid. pp. 862-7 (Nov. 1961).
The Ultraviolet Realm of Spectroscopy
Charlotte E. Moore
National Bureau of Standards
The bands of color familiarly known as
the visible spectrum portray but a small
section of the total electromagnetic spec-
trum. The optical spectrum overlaps the
X-ray spectrum at the short wavelength
end of the extreme ultraviolet, and ex-
tends many octaves into the long-wave
region where infrared detectors are used,
then still further where the electromag-
netic spectrum is detected by radio tele-
scopes. The extensions of the visible
spectral range in both directions are of
special interest to astrophysicists because
of the striking advances in space technol-
ogy during the past 20 years. The present
comments will be confined to the short
wavelength or far ultraviolet region of the
spectrum, from 3000 A to 13 A.
The question may be raised as to why
this interval of the spectrum is of special
interest today. The answer rests with man’s
inherent curiosity about the unknown, in
the present case the ultraviolet spectrum
of the sun, our nearest star.
Nature has provided a delicate balance
of atmospheric conditions that make it
possible for life to exist on this planet, the
earth. The earth’s atmosphere contains
the constituents required to maintain both
plant and animal life. Among the com-
monest are simple compounds such as
H2O and Os made up of familiar and
abundant chemical elements. The ozone
in the atmosphere provides a blanket of
protection against the deadly ultraviolet
radiation from the sun. This makes it
impossible, however, to observe the ultra-
violet solar spectrum from the surface
of the earth.
The sun provides a_ powerful light
source for spectroscopic study. At least
four different types of spectra in the re-
gion accessible to study have contributed
much to our knowledge of the physical
conditions pertaining in this star. The
spectrum produced by integrated light
from the solar disk contains some 26,000
lines. This is the familiar Fraunhofer
spectrum consisting of absorption lines
produced by the solar reversing layer.
The spectrum of sun spots is also very
rich in lines but is of a different type
than the Fraunhofer spectrum.
The solar chromosphere is rich in emis-
sion lines. It can be studied at a solar
eclipse when the moon masks the main
part of the disk but leaves a very thin
crescent at second and third contacts.
Without the disk as a background, emission
lines replace the absorption lines seen in
the normal solar spectrum. The light from
this. crescent is that of the solar atmos-
phere above the reversing layer. Finally,
the outer solar corona reveals a still dif-
ferent emission spectrum.
On the basis of years of study of
these spectra, the solar physicist has
speculated about the wealth of information
in the ultraviolet solar spectrum concealed
by the ozone layer in the earth’s atmos-
phere. At last the stage of speculation is
over, and this long-cherished dream of the
astronomers has been realized. In 1946,
Tousey (1) and his associates at the Naval
Research Laboratory first succeeded in
flying a spectrograph in the fin of a V2
rocket, taking successive film exposures
of the solar spectrum as the rocket rose
above the ozone layer. This classical film
reveals the gradual unmasking of the
ultraviolet region on the last three expo-
sures as the rocket gained altitude from
34 to 55 and, finally, to 88 km. The in-
strument withstood the impact of the crash
when the rocket landed in the desert at
White Sands, N.M.
58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Very strong leading lines of the familiar
elements magnesium and silicon could be
readily detected, as had long been antici-
pated. It was evident, also, that the spec-
trum was rich in lines. A realm of reward-
ing research both in space and laboratory
spectroscopy was coming into being.
At present, solar spectra observed from
rockets soaring to heights of some 233 km,
and from an orbiting solar observatory,
are accumulating photometric and spectro-
scopic records of the ultraviolet radiation
that extend to 13 A, thus overlapping the
soft X-ray region of the spectrum. An ex-
cellent account of the contributions made
by workers at various institutions such as
Johns Hopkins University, the University
of Colorado, the Air Force Cambridge Re-
search Laboratories, and the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration,
has been published by Tousey and his
staff (2, 3). The solar data accumulated
to date cannot be adequately interpreted
because of the present serious lack of
knowledge of laboratory spectra.
One of the most important and most
challenging problems is to identify the
solar lines as to chemical origin. This
spectrum is a mixed or blended one pro-
duced by the various atoms and ions that
are constituents of the solar atmosphere.
The interpretation of the spectrum involves
a careful sorting process. The starting
point is to make a comparison of the solar
spectrum with well-known atomic spectra
produced in the laboratory. The solar
lines must match accurately in position
and in relative intensity the leading lines
of a given laboratory spectrum if the ele-
ment is present in the sun. By such a
process Rowland (4) in 1895, from his
observations of the visible spectrum, listed
39 chemical elements in the sun, all but
two of which were confirmed by later work.
It is obvious from such a comparison that
not all elements are equally abundant.
For example, almost every laboratory line
of the are spectrum of iron, Fe1, has its
counterpart in wavelength and _ relative
intensity in the solar spectrum. Silver is
Marcu, 1964
noticeably more rare, only the very strong-
est lines being present but not strong in
the sun. These are simple illustrations of
a far more complex problem. Before an
attempt is made to interpret the short-
wave solar region, the vista now opened
up by space research, a few general com-
ments on the laboratory analyses of atomic
spectra may serve to clarify the astro-
physical aspect.
The starting point is the periodic chart
of the atoms, where the chemical elements
are arranged by atomic number, Z, start-
ing with hydrogen (Z—1) and extend-
ing to Lawrentium, an element artificially
produced, and having the largest known
atomic number, Z=—103. Each of the
chemical elements is made up of atoms
characterized by special properties that
distinguish them from all other atoms.
One of these properties is their optical
spectra which are produced by the outer or
valence electrons. In general, the com-
plexity of the spectra increases with Z; in
particular, it increases according to the
number of electrons that are not firmly
bound in “‘shells,” i.e. the number that
are active in producing the optical spec-
tra. With sufficient excitation in the lab-
oratory source, it is possible to produce
spectra of different stages of ionization of
a given element, the stage of ionization
being defined by the number of electrons
the atom loses as the energy of excitation
increases. In 1946 Meggers (5) pointed
out that for the 92 chemical elements then
commonly included in the periodic table,
the theoretical number of possible atomic
spectra added up to a total of 4278. This
number is never realized with laboratory
sources because it would require nuclear
energies to strip the atoms of all their
electrons. Today the total number of op-
tical spectra of all elements which have
been wholly or partially analyzed prob-
ably does not exceed 550. This figure
embraces a wide variety of spectra ranging
from those that have been well observed,
some of which have thousands of lines,
to those known only from a few of the
a9
strongest lines.
More important than the number of
known atomic spectra is the significance
of the origin of spectra. Each spectrum
has its own distinctive pattern of lines
having characteristic relative intensities
under varying conditions of observation.
From precise measurements of the posi-
tion of each line, its wavelength in A
(Angstrom units) is determined. From
the wavelengths and the measured or esti-
mated intensities of the lines, a detailed
study of the regularities in the spectrum
can be made. Each line is produced by
the transition of an electron from one
energy state to another. Conversely, from
the observed lines a limited number of
energy levels characteristic of the spectrum
is derived. These are constants of nature
and furnish a permanent record of the
quantum properties of the atoms or ions
producing the spectrum. Each spectrum
is thus analyzed according to the well-
known principles of the quantum theory.
The “shells” occupied by electrons of dif-
ferent types, the binding energies of the
various electrons, and the excitation and
ionization potentials can thus be deter-
mined from careful laboratory observa-
tions of a given spectrum.
Hydrogen, the first and lightest of the
elements, has a simple spectrum consisting
of regular series of lines produced when
a single electron makes transitions between
different energy levels. The familiar series
in H occur in widely separated spectral
regions. The strongest H line, known as
Lyman alpha, is the leading line of the
Lyman Series and occurs in the ultra-
violet at 1215 A. To judge from the great
strength of other lines of H which have
higher excitation potentials and lie in the
accessible region of the solar spectrum,
one would expect this line, which arises
from the ground state, to be by far the
most conspicuous of all ultraviolet solar
lines. This expectation has been abun-
dantly confirmed; it is the strongest line
observed on all rocket solar spectrograms
and photometric tracings of this region.
In fact all of the lines of the hydrogen
series are well-known features in the solar
spectrum, and the observation of the Ly-
man series is consistent with our earlier
knowledge of the great abundance of
hydrogen in the sun.
The second lightest element, helium, has
an interesting history. The name of this
element is the Greek word for “sun.” It
was so named as the source of a yellow
line observed in the flash spectrum at the
total solar eclipse of 1868. The element
was not found in the laboratory until
1895, when Ramsey discovered it as a
chemical constituent of the earth’s atmos-
phere.
Helium having atomic number Z—=2,
has two spectra, He 1 and He U, the first
being that of the neutral atom, i.e. the
spectrum produced by two electrons; the
second, He u is that produced by the
radiation of helium atoms that have lost
one electron. More excitation of the atoms
is required in the laboratory source to
produce the second spectrum. This spec-
trum resembles in structure the spectrum
of hydrogen because it is produced by the
configurations of a single outer electron.
More energy is involved, however, and
consequently the series lines of He
occur further to the violet than the cor-
responding hydrogen lines. The great
strength of the helium chromospheric lines
in the visible region indicates that the
strongest lines in both spectra, which lie
in the far ultraviolet, will stand out in
this “rocket” region. The “raies ultimes”
or the principal lines of He I at 584 A
and the He m pair at 303 A appear as
conspicuous features in the spectrum, as
expected.
Next in order of abundance come the
light elements carbon, nitrogen, and oxy-
gen, having respective atomic numbers
6, 7 and 8, with carbon and oxygen ex-
ceeding nitrogen in abundance. As the
atomic number increases, so do the num-
ber of observable spectra. Similarly, as
the ‘stage of ionization increases, the spec-
tral lines lie further toward the short-wave
60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
see tie A I CEE AEE DAs I SE TT EE SAE eT
r —
region. The first spectra of these elements
have long been known in the solar spec-
trum. For the spectra of higher ionization,
however, the region now observed from
rockets and the like offers interesting pos-
sibilities. Among the earliest identifica-
tions were lines of O vi at 1031 A and
1037 A, we. lines produced by oxygen
atoms that have lost five electrons. Others
were lines of Cu, Cm, Civ and Nv
in the region from 1100 A to 1600 A.
More recently, the solar observations have
been extended to still shorter wave lengths.
The interesting counterpart of the strong
Lyman alpha line of H1 Hel, etc. has
been observed in Cvi at 33 A.
The identifications of the selected solar
lines mentioned above present a most
incomplete picture of the span of solar
observations now opened up by space re-
search. As yet there is no detailed com-
pendium of the spectral lines shorter than
5000 A. From this limit to 2200 A,
more than 3,000 absorption lines have
been observed that are as yet unidentified.
To wavelengths short of 2000 A, “the
Fraunhofer lines are progressively replaced
by emission lines, the radiation coming
from higher and higher regions” (6).
From here to shorter wave lengths, the
high-ionization spectra of familiar ele-
ments appear, spectra requiring energies
of excitation approaching those required
to produce the spectrum of the outer solar
corona. Some 300 emission lines remain,
however, whose chemical origin is still
unknown.
The spectra of abundant metals account
for a large number of the solar lines.
Magnesium, silicon, and iron are of spe-
cial interest. Both Mgi and Mgt are
conspicuous in the solar spectrum. Among
the first detectable features in the 1946
rocket spectrogram were a pair of well-
known Mg mu lines near 2800 A, a Mg 1
line at 2852 A, and a Si line at 2881 A.
Later Mg x and Si xm emission lines
were found near 600 A and 500 A, respec-
tively. Iron is equally interesting. The first
and second spectra are rich in lines and
Marcu, 1964
are readily identifiable among the num-
erous solar lines short of 3000 A. An in-
teresting recent identification is that of
two lines near 360 A attributed to Fe
XVI, t.e. iron atoms lacking 15 electrons.
This spectrum belongs to the Nat isolec-
tronic sequence, and the observed lines
are analogues of the very strong Mgit
lines mentioned above.
From the general study of the various
spectra whose origin is the radiation from
the sun, 62 chemical elements have been
detected without question in the solar
atmosphere. There is a possibility that
four more may be present, but further
evidence is needed for confirmation. One
element, neon, has been added from the
ultraviolet solar observations. Two lines
at 770 A and 780 A are due to Ne vin
and furnish the first evidence of this ele-
ment in the sun. One line of Ne vi has
also been identified.
The “space” observations in the realm
of the ultraviolet solar spectrum have pro-
vided tremendous impetus to solar re-
search. Enough is known to present many
challenging problems. The temperature
gradients in the solar atmosphere, and the
related study of the mechanisms whereby
the high-excitation energies of the identi-
fied emission lines can be produced, are
illustrative. Studies of line profiles, mea-
surements of line intensities for work on
abundances of chemical elements in the
sun, theoretical work on solar models, and
the like, are of great astrophysical in-
terest. Tousey has pointed out, however,
that “Solar ultraviolet and X-ray spec-
troscopy is still in the observational stage.
A number of excellent spectra have been
obtained, but many more are needed,
along with more identifications, inten-
sities, and spectroheliograms” (6).
The astrophysical interpretation of the
ultraviolet solar spectrum starts basically
with the correct identifications of the ob-
served lines. The active extra-terrestrial
spectroscopic programs briefly described
above create an urgent need for equally
active laboratory programs on the analyses
61
of atomic spectra of abundant elements.
With modern light sources and equipment,
the earlier analyses can be greatly ex-
tended. High-ionization spectra should be
systematically observed down to the region
where optical and X-ray spectra overlap.
The present work with plasma sources
points the way and should be greatly
expanded.
New observations are needed to extend
the analyses of familiar complex spectra
such as Fert and Niu. From such work,
many solar lines between 2200 A and
3000 A could be identified. These are
but a few examples of important research
projects for the coming decade. With teams
of well-trained laboratory spectroscopists
working side by side with those who will
continue to observe ultraviolet solar spec-
tra, a golden era of astrophysics lies
ahead.
References
(1) Tousey, R., Strain, C. V., Johnson, F. S.,
and QOberly, J. i Astron, J. 52, No. 1162, 158
(1947).
(2) Tousey, R. Space Science Rey. 2,
(1963); Appl. Optics 1, 679-694 (1962).
(3) Tousey, R., Purcell, J. D., Austin, W. E.,
Garrett, D. L., and Widing, K. G. COSPAR 4th
Int. Space Sci. Symp. and 6th Plenary Meeting,
Warsaw, Poland, June 3-12, 1963.
(4) Rowland, H. A. See Astrophys.
(1895-1897) .
(5) Meggers, W. F. J. Opt. Soc. Am. 36, 442
(1946).
(6) Tousey, R. The Obserrarces: in press
(January 1964).
3-69
Jee es
62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
:
| Nth-Order Effects of
The Government’s Support
Of Research®
Ralph G. H. Siu
Scientific Director, Research Division, U. S. Army Materiel Command
A concrete embodiment of an old ab-
stract argument may be taking place today
with profound social consequences. The
philosophical controversy involves the
question whether or not quantitative
changes can bring about qualitative ones.
From a practical standpoint, the transi-
tion may be regarded as the point at which
latent effects begin to demand attention.
An important transformation of this nature
is becoming visible as a result of increas-
ing government support of research and
development.
The impact of the Federal outlay upon
the American scene can be appreciated
from a few facts and figures.
The United States Government will
spend about 200 billion dollars next year.
About one out of every seven of these
dollars will be expended on research, de-
velopment, and testing of technological
innovations. The Defense Department
alone is currently spending about seven
billion dollars a year in the area.
About 70 percent of the two billion
dollar annual research and development
budget of American universities is pro-
vided directly by the Federal Government.
As high as 60 percent of the total operating
costs of individual universities comes from
Government sources, not counting such
indirect - benefits as tax credits. Sizable
fractions of the total are spent in large
* A talk presented in 1963 at a seminar spon-
sored by the Army Research Office staff at Duke
University.
Marcu, 1964,
research centers. Forty percent goes to 35
government-owned, university-operated in-
stallations such as the Argonne National
Laboratory, Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
and Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory.
Most of the funds go to the larger schools.
Sixty-eight percent is alloted to 25 uni-
versities.
A comparable influence is exerted upon
industry. It is not rare nowadays to find
companies with about half of their total
income being derived from research and
development contracts; a large proportion
of this comes from the government. The
current controversy surrounding the newest
experimental tactical fighter plane, TFX,
clearly shows the nature of competition in-
volved in some cases.
All in all, about three-fourths of the
total research and development expendi-
tures for the whole country are provided
directly or indirectly by the Federal Gov-
ernment.
This generous support of research and
development gave rise to the major tech-
nological advances of today, impressive
even to the casual observer. These repre-
sent the readily apparent first-order effects
of the government’s patronage of research.
The results had been knowingly contracted
for by the government and other sponsors.
They had been openly agreed to by the
scientist and engineer in the laboratory.
Three examples may illustrate the genesis
and nature of such first-order effects.
The first example is taken from the area
of natural resources. It is expected that
63
based on our present state of knowledge,
the United States either has available
within her own boundaries or can gain ac-
cess to sufficient quantities of food, cloth-
ing material, water, energy, and space to
continue to improve the standard of living
with increasing populations for at least 50
years. In 1961 only 304 out of 638 million
acres of high productivity have been
planted. Only nine per cent of the labor
force was required to produce the needed
amount of food. By 1980 only 297 million
acres, using only six percent of the labor
force, would be needed, producing a 40
percent increase in crop yield. Beyond the
year 2000, however, it may be necessary to
have much faster-growing varieties of
plants and animals. Research grants and
contracts are therefore being awarded in
plant and animal genetics and breeding.
The resulting scientific information and
new varieties of plants and animals repre-
sent first-order effects of the sponsorship
of research by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
The second example is drawn from the
electronic industry. With increasing de-
mands for international communications,
new devices with much higher capacities
for handling messages in undersea cables
are required. A new amplifier, transmitting
128 telephonic conversations simultane-
ously in two directions and requiring no
maintenance for 20 years, represents a
first-order effect of the support of research
by the Bell Telephone Laboratories.
The third example comes from basic
research in biochemical genetics. Consid-
erable progress has been made during the
last two decades on the mechanism of
transfer of characteristics from one gener-
ation of organisms to another. The Na-
tional Science Foundation and other
agencies have been supporting work along
One of the latest theories
to have come out of these activities is
this direction.
quantum genetics. According to this hy-
pothesis, the genetic information is coded
in the coils of the DNA molecule itself, as
influenced by the proton position in the
hydrogen-bonding between the paired
DNA molecules. These protons obey
quantum laws. Occasionally these wave
packets spread through potential barriers
to unlikely positions, thereby bringing
about mutations, which are responsible
for evolution. This genetic model of the
quantum-mechanical tunnel effect in solid-
state diodes represents a first order effect
of the government grants in basic re-
search.
With the generously increasing support
of science and technology over the past
several decades, higher-order effects are
becoming visible. These are the changes
brought about by money expended for re-
search and development which have been
covered neither in the scope of the contract
or grant, nor in the expressed purposes of
the technical studies involved. No one has
explicitly or implicitly planned for or
against their occurrence. They do not
come into consideration in the formulation
of overall programs for government sup-
port, in the allocation of specific grants,
or in the solicitation of such assistance on
the part of industry and universities. No
one and no agency can be held responsible.
No one and no agency is assuming the
responsibility unto himself or itself.
Seven examples of such higher-order
effects are described in the following para-
graphs.
Change in the Character of the
American University
Prior to the forties, nearly all of the re-
search in American universities, except
agricultural studies in land-grant colleges,
was carried out by the academic depart-
ments. There was no dean for research, no
research coordinator, no vice-president in
charge of research, no research contracting
officer. With the increasing involvement
in research supported by outside funds,
various changes occurred. Progressively
larger numbers of full-time research as-
sociates were added to the academic de-
partments. This was accompanied by more
64, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
——
cohesive groupings of outside sponsored
research activities in the form of institutes,
as integral parts of the university, such as
the Anthropoid Center being set up in
California.
At the same time heavy capital invest-
ments were made, which require continued
support, such as the Illiac high-speed digi-
tal computer at the University of Illinois.
Universities were no longer reluctant to
manage government-owned, university-op-
erated centers such as Brookhaven National
Laboratory. At the same time, affiliation
with non-profit research organizations,
such as Armour Research Foundation and
the Stanford Research Institute, became
accepted practice.
The previous loose administration of
research in universities could not cope
with the far-flung activity. A more formal
organizational structure appeared involv-
ing contract attorneys, negotiators, public
relations experts, and an administrative
hierarchy. Because of the presence of
organized centers and project teams, per-
sonnel with managerial competence be-
came important on the campus. These are
the people who can manage complex multi-
million dollar organizations, who can weld
diverse talents into directional programs,
and who can maintain appropriate con-
tacts for the required funds, personnel,
and awards. In many institutions these
personalities have begun to replace the
scholar in international prestige. The tone
of the campus is reflecting this emphasis
from the scholarly to the managerial.
In addition there is an emergence of a
“research community” drawing its support
from non-academic sources. A growing
concern is in evidence regarding the frac-
tion of the university’s energies that should
be apportioned for such “non-instruc-
tional” activities. A minority favors divest-
ing the campus of all research institutes
and reverting back to the earlier system
of academic departments. By and large,
however, faculty members argue that the
best education is associated with the best
research, and that a strong research effort
Marcu, 1964
on the campus is necessary for a strong
educational program. The situation is still
in a state of vigorous contention. The
question, “How much research is
much?” remains unanswered.
too
Change in the Place of Universities
in the Community
With two decades of academic experi-
ence in large-scale technical projects, and
with the return to its campus of professors
who have whetted their appetites in the
action whirl of World War II, the uni-
versity has become a reservoir of technical
and executive talent for non-academic ex-
ploitation.
There is the call for technical coordina-
tors in organizing international programs,
such as the International Geophysical
Wear:
There is the demand for managers of
affliated research institutions, such as the
Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hop-
kins University.
There are the financial lures of industrial
consultancies, such as the 700 university
consultants used by the American Tele-
phone and Telegraph in 1960.
Efforts have been made to facilitate these
relationships, such as the 115-acre campus
of the Illinois Institute of Technology,
being located adjacent to a 50-acre indus-
trial research park.
There is, thus, a move on the part of
universities to tie closer with the outside
world of practical affairs. At the same time
there is a move on the part of industry
and government toward the direction of
research of an academic type. The abund-
ance of available funds for research has
made it possible for a series of interesting
experiments in the industrial support of
basic research. Many companies are now
maintaining central research laboratories,
in which quite fundamental thinking is
going on.
The government laboratories themselves
have become a significant contributor to
science and technology. Some of their ad-
vanced research rivals the best of academic
research institutions. |
65
It appears that, as a result of these
trends, the difference in research com-
petences and orientation between the uni-
versities and the rest of the community
is no longer a qualitative affair but rather
a quantitative one. One is no longer sur-
prised nowadays to hear of a Nobel
laureate from the industrial world. No
longer is the university the sole preserve
of the “lone wolf” pioneer. There are
equally “lone wolves’ outside the ivy
walls—although admittedly not many as
yet. No longer is the university faculty
member regarded as a naive academic
scholar. There are practical business minds
within the ivy walls—although admittedly
not too many as yet. But the qualitative
separation between the two sides of the
academic fence has been demolished. How
far the diffusion process will go and what
the equilibrium constant will turn out to
be, no one can say.
Decrease in Intellectual Influence of
Academic Presidents and Deans
In their sponsorship of research, fed-
eral agencies have been very careful not to
“control research.” Yet the very facts of
federal appropriations require that judg-
ment be exercised in the selective distribu-
tion of research funds among the large
number of requests. Partly in a desire to be
above suspicion, partly in response to the
professional custom of being “evaluated
by one’s peers,” and partly in an honest
attempt at the best decisions in public
interest, government agencies have resorted
to the use of advisory panels in many
cases. These panels are composed pre-
dominantly of university personnel. Al-
though their deliberations are understood
to be advisory, nevertheless their evalua-
tions do constitute one of the most im-
portant factors in determining whether or
not a given professor receives research
support.
This evaluation system creates an in-
teresting situation. The research being
undertaken by a professor on Campus A
is dependent for support, to a considerable
extent, upon opinions of a group of pro-
fessors on Campus B, C, D, etc., and vice-
versa. The type of research is not as much
dependent, as it once was, upon the presi-
dents and deans of the various universities.
The question arises, as to whether there
has been a significant erosion of university
presidential leadership in developing the
character of the educational system. Some
observers liken the present dilemma to
that in the story about the 1848 uprising
in Paris. A person saw his friend tagging
along with a mob about to storm a barri-
cade. Knowing that the troops behind the
barricade were well-armed and seasoned,
he urged his friend to get back from the
crowd. Whereupon his friend replied, “I
can't. ’'m their leader!”
Increasing Acceptance of Thinking as
an Article of Commerce
The offering of one’s creative talents
for monetary returns has been an age-old
practice. On the whole, the exchange of
intellect and creativity for money during
the earlier days had been relatively sub-
dued. The transactions were conducted
quite demurely.
During recent decades, however, there
has been a greatly increased number and
fervor of organizational representatives
“selling,” so to speak, their intellectual
prowess to the highest bidder. The prob-
lem to which the talent is to be devoted or
the sponsor for which the work is done,
often appears to merit only secondary con-
sideration.
A pertinent example of the extent of
commercial traffic in thinking is a fair size
industrial subsidiary set up with the ex-
pressed purpose of doing basic research at
a profit on the free market. Although the
concern is doing quite well at the present
time, it is difficult to say whether or not
this precedent will develop into a major
trend.
Another concept regarding the place of
basic research in the scheme of things is
being explored by some people. The idea
66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
es
has not gained much support at the present
time. Nevertheless, it is significant as an
indication of the kind of change that may
be taking place in the American attitude
toward basic research. The funding plan
divides research activities into two cate-
gories, namely:
(a) Those devoted to the fulfillment of
stipulated materiel systems or social needs,
which lie within the possibility of our cur-
rent knowledge.
(b) These devoted to the fulfillment of
stipulated materiel systems or social needs,
which lie beyond the possibility of our
current knowledge.
According to this scheme of manage-
ment, advances in fundamental knowledge
will no longer be recognized as an approved
objective for explicit support. Instead
they are to be achieved as a derivative
fall-out of the second category. This ex-
emplifies an extreme reaction to the art-
for-the-sake-of-art thesis of the Romantic
period of history.
Creation of a New Avenue of Power
Because of the sheer magnitude of the
money involved and because of the im-
portant economical and international rami-
fications of research findings, scientific
advisors have been offered an unparalleled
opportunity for political power.
In some respects, this recalls the ob-
servation of Heinrich Heine on writers in
1852. He referred to the passage in Hugo’s
Notre-Dame in which Frollo held a huge
book in his hands and pointing to the
towers of Notre-Dame, said, “This will
annihilate that!”’ The press will supersede
the padre. Lemoinne later said the same
thing about newspapers when he stated
that “the Journal will supersede the Parlia-
ment.” Heine commented that “if these
hopes, even irrationally, are beginning to
inspire men of intellect—which of them,
do you think, will spend his time string-
ing rhymes, weaving novels and romances,
when he can aspire to rule national masses
of men?”
Marcu, 1964
Great writers have continued to appear
since 1852, despite Heine’s fears. Never-
theless, a new social power—that of the
political press—has become a _ reality.
Whether or not a comparable power of
political chemists, political physicists, and
other political scientists (of the new tech-
nological’ vintage) are here to stay in to-
day’s world is not clear at the moment.
More Influential Role of the
Government in Intellectual Fashions
Quite apart from the size of patronage,
the selection of the intellectual problems
to be pursued and the determination of
areas of exploration have thrust the gov-
ernment into a new role.
In this connection, the legend about
America’s first Nobel laureate may be of
worth relating. In contrast to other pro-
fessors, A. A. Michelson was said to have
been not too enthusiastic about graduate
students. He was supposed to have ex-
pressed the feeling that the incompetent
students would only bungle the fine re-
search problems delineated for them; the
more capable and successful ones, however,
would inevitably fail, in their conceit, to
recognize the importance of the proper
problem selection on the part of the pro-
fessor.
It is true that most of the research prob-
lems being undertaken under government
sponsorship have originated from the uni-
versity and industrial workers themselves.
Nevertheless, the government is now in-
volved in the formulation of research prob-
lems and in the definition of new investi-
gational salients to a much higher degree
than ever. This is tantamount to setting
the intellectual fashions of the day—some-
thing new in the recent evolution of gov-
ernment leadership.
Change in Value Preferences in the
American Society
The above events cannot help but exert
considerable influence upon our value
norms. Formerly, thinkers in the field of
philosophy, ethics, and social studies set
67
the pace on questions involving norms. De
facto, however, today’s guidelines seem to
be influenced more by the market of ex-
change, the financial rewards, the prizes,
and the psychic compensations. The skewed
support of the sciences in the universities,
the junior science fairs, the greater outlet
for jobs in fields related to research being
supported by government funds—such
factors have greatly increased the attrac-
tiveness of the physical sciences as a way
of life. This higher-order effect of research
affluence has been discussed repeatedly in
other articles and needs no repetition in
this essay.
It may well be that the higher-order
changes, brought about perhaps only in-
directly by liberal government sponsor-
ship and research and development, con-
stitute an inevitable evolution in the tech-
nological phase of man’s historical devel-
opment. The issue may not be a matter of
preference.
Nevertheless, the scholar and scientist
may ask himself a crucial question regard-
ing the preservation of his own values and
attitudes. The seeker after enlightenment,
who carries on in his own chambers un-
strutted by the resources of the government
and other public sources of revenue, may
continue to preserve his traditional free-
dom from financial auditors, program re-
viewers, and other interlocutors of society.
Few will begrudge him the accoutrements
of the classical academicians.
The majority of the scientists, however,
is faced with a more difficult choice. Their
fortunes are tied to the new research
affluence. They hope and strive to preserve
their former prerogatives. But a moral
issue has emerged onto the public plane:
Should a person who has extended his
influence to the social sphere retain the
privileges attendant to his activities when
they were more personal and private in
consequence? The debate will continue
long and loud. But the eventual outcome
appears reasonably certain, if society at
large is to have the say. It may not please
many a sincere scholar and scientist.
68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
a
ee ad
Academy Proceedings
March Meeting
(479th Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences)
SUBJECT: CONVERSAZIONE
DATE: THURSDAY, MARCH 19, 1964—
8:15 to 10:30 p.m.
PLACE: JOHN WESLEY POWELL AUDITORIUM,
COSMOS CLUB
2170 Florida Ave., N.W.
Fellows and Members of the Academy are invited to an interdisciplinary social
hour. Come and exchange ideas with your fellow scientists in other fields. Discuss
your scientific problems with a cup or glass* in hand.
Meet the individual members of the Board of Managers of the Academy and pre-
sent your gripes—but do not forget to offer a solution!
Reservations are required. Reservation cards were mailed to Academy members.
Those who have not returned the cards should do so immediately or phone Miss Greta
Townsend, FE 3-9000, Ext. 554. Name tags and tickets will be distributed at the door.
* Snacks, coffee, soft drinks, and one cocktail will be on the house.
Marcu, 1964 69
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ORGANIZATION FOR 1964
President
President-Elect
Secretary
Treasurer
1962-64
1962-64
1963-65
1963-65
1964-66
1964-66
Editor
Executive Committee
Committee on
Membership
Committee on Policy
Planning
Committee on Ways
and Means
Committee on
Meetings
Committee on
Awards for
Scientific
Achievement
Committee on
Grants-in-Aid
for Research
Committee on
Encouragement of
Science Talent
Committee on Pub-
lic Information
Committee on Sci-
ence Education *
Committee on
Bylaws and
Standing Rules
Officers
Francois N. FRENKIEL
Leo SCHUBERT
Georce W. Irvine, Jr.
Matcotm C. HENDERSON
David Taylor Model Basin
American University
Department of Agriculture
Catholic University of America
Managers-at-Large
Harotp H. SHEPARD
RusseE_t B. STEVENS
Mary Louise Ropsins
JoHn K. TAYLOR
ALLEN L. ALEXANDER
Francis W. REICHELDERFER
The Journal
SAMUEL B. DETWILER, JR.
Department of Agriculture
George Washington University
George Washington University
National Bureau of Standards
Naval Research Laboratory
Weather Bureau
Department of Agriculture
Chairmen of Standing Committees
Francois N. FRENKIEL
Ricuarp K. Cook
B. D. Van Evers
Bourpon F. ScRIBNER
Mary Louise Rogsins
MARGARET PITTMAN
ARCHIBALD T. McPHERSON
Rey. Francis J. HEYpDEN, S.J.
Watson Davis
Joun K. TAytor
David Taylor Model Basin
National Bureau of Standards
George Washington University
National Bureau of Standards
George Washington University
National Institutes of Health
National Bureau of Standards
Georgetown University
7
Science Service
National Bureau of Standards
Chairmen of Special Committees
LAWRENCE A. Woop
National Bureau of Standards
* The Academy contingent of the Joint Board on Science Education, which is sponsored by the
Academy and the D. C. Council of Engineering and Architectural Societies.
70
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Summary of Journal Operations for 1963 (Volume 53)
On February 12, 1963, the Board of Managers ap proved a budget item of $8,000 for nine issues of
the Journal (eight regular issues from January through May and October through December, and a
directory issue in September).
pages in 1962. The following statement contains comparable cost figures for 1962.
Eight Regular Issues Directory Issue
1963 1962 1963 1962 1963
Expenses *
Type composition ........ $2,844.75 $2,793.11 $ 34.75 $ 28.00 $2,879.50
Printing and binding 2,385.74 2,441.62 798.00 515.00 3,183.74
Engraving ............... 165.61 346.84 0.00 0.00 165.61
Addressing and
BUNAW BINS 0 sco, snscese ones 147.05 144.73 17.90 18.73 164.95
Mailing envelopes .... 0.00 ol.lo 0.00 0.00 0.00
Postage deposits ........ 150.00 110.20 15.00 63.82 165.00
Staff expenses ............ 24.79 41.61 0.00 0.00 24.79
IBM services ............ 0.00 0.00 387.04 359.07 387.04
Directory question- :
IMAINES “CCE ooo. occ esn- 0.00 0.00 147.65 89.83 147.65
Office equipment ....... 138.54 0.00 0.00 0.00 138.54
(CO ee eee $5,856.48 $5,935.86 $1,400.34 $1,074.45 $7,256.82
Income Credits *
‘SIL SISCHENVOVITIOAS god Shae vO al ile eee ts een ROR ts Sinn ace lc gO $2,403.69
Sele Ol LOTTI TTT) See ea ee, gt em al rartnnr sd Al e a 62.25
WDE gc ssence soAkdh seen a eRe BC Ee ts ASE Soe te EP 2 oe $2,465.94.
Reprints *
Pye DRMAERUITCOMMEDTECELVE Mie, cen. ue ne ene RR Wa Lk aah dh aaa rads $ 187.50
a Sees OTA RINT CONE MCLIC vee feo ayo d ccc oo cao. see x heces saghinesd cpus bossvsdastegtcbdsecsnsncadne 25.60
MISTRTERS) TESTE EM OSHS Vid ee ae nea ee SR en 223.60
PNET [OTM ONNG a sete ese st ences aa Ges UM gi ca Ala vento clontoude Ruapmesctvcres $ —10.50
Summary
JP ORGTADONL” CER OSES Ay woemer a has vey ancnc cee ae MR eel aac Me uae RRR 2 te eee en ae $7,256.82
PSITTATSM Mae OM M ERE MAES OM nas ese Sn eM cia Sea Ses. scecedsos-escsnscdsawloccdeadfechueetstseusevee 2,465.94.
MARA GenMe DuTe DINE MTC OMNES seseiee a. cts-etoe0 «tems leeaes boas. snpearo stub laverssscesssescestdeeagsncmunioness —10.50
INFEStepC OS ImCta MOTDNTCE emninc Mae de ne ecg cc. tarSeen adh teasnnasashedes-obsssensbesaveesvanec’ $4,801.38
' Obligated in year
* Received in year.
“Income earned, expenses obligated in year.
Marcu, 1964
These nine issues contained 232 pages of text, as compared with 228
Total
1962
$2,821.11
2,956.62
346.84
163.46
Die
174.02
41.61
399.07
89.83
0.00
$7,010.31
$1,717.00
1,238.07
$2,955.07
$ 246.90
296.40
493.20
$ 50.10
$7,010.31
2,955.07
50.10
$4,005.14
71
Report of Committee on
Science Education, 1963
The Science Education Committee is
responsible for planning, organizing, and
implementing a program io stimulate stu-
dent interest in science, and to encourage
high-quality teaching of the sciences and
mathematics. Activities are carried out
jointly with representatives of ithe D. C.
Council of Engineering and Architectural
Societies under an organization known as
the Joint Board on Science Education.
The program is directed primarily to
secondary schools located in the munici-
palities and counties within a 25-mile
radius of the National Capital. Virtually
all schools within this area—public, pri-
vate, parochial—are served. Several thou-
sand teachers and many thousands of
students are contacted directly or in-
directly.
Activities have been developed to stimu-
late interest in science among students of
all levels of academic achievement. The
program is financed from two sources—
local contributions and National Science
Foundation grants.
Local Program
During the academic year 1962-63, the
Board obtained contributions amounting
to $5,500 from local technical societies and
science-oriented business organizations. Ac-
tivities supported were as follows:
Science Fairs. Printed matter including
posters, entry blanks, and related mate-
rials was supplied to the five local area
fairs. The expenses of six students and
three teachers were provided for their par-
ticipation in the National Science Fair—
International at Albuquerque, N. M., during
May 1963. Four other students and two
teachers from the area also attended the
fair under sponsorship of a school system
and a business association. The five area
fairs and the school fairs which preceded
them involved participation of some 20,000
students.
Teacher Awards. Sixty local teachers
were given citations for excellent science
teaching at the Engineers, Scientists, and
Architects Day luncheon held on February
20, 1963. Of these, 12 were given awards
for outstanding teaching, consisting of a
two-day trip to research laboratories in the
New York area.
School. Contacts Program. A scientist
or engineer liaison contact was provided
for each of the 210 secondary schools of
the Washington area. A directory of
school contacts, containing information
on science resources available to the
schools, was published.
Women in Science. A luncheon semi-
nar was held which emphasized present-
day opportunities for women in science.
Some 100 girls of the area were guests on
this occasion.
Frontiers of Science Lectures. Four
lectures on recent advances in science were
given for high school students of the area.
Held on Saturday mornings during the
spring of 1963, a cumulative audience of
600 was in attendance.
Project Ideas for Young Scientists. Some
2,000 copies of this source book for science
projects were sold during the past year.
Orders were received from literally every
state and several foreign countries.
NSF Program
The Academy received a grant of $18,-
600 to carry on during 1962-63 the three
projects outlined below. A sum of $15,875
also was granted to provide for several
activities during the 1963-64 academic
year. This program was administered by
the Joint Board with John K. Taylor as
program director.
Visiting Scientists and Engineers Pro-
gram. A roster of 600 scientists and
engineers is maintained to speak to school
classes, judge at science fairs, replace class-
room teachers for special purposes, and for
related activities. A catalog of 441 talks
was distributed to the schools. Two hun-
dred and eight of these talks were pre-
sented at 70 schools during the year.
Zz JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
= <2 a : a
Science Conferences. Ten conferences
-on various aspects of science, mathematics,
and engineering were held during the
school year. Involved were three closely
related parts: A series of conferences on
problems related to science teaching in
elementary and secondary schools; a con-
ference on stimulating the interest of girls
in science education; and a regional con-
ference of neighboring state academies on
programs concerned with the encourage-
ment of science talent. Scientific and en-
gineering societies co-sponsored several of
the conferences.
The conferences provide the opportunity
for teachers, college instructors, and pro-
fessional scientists to meet in all-day ses-
sion to discuss current trends in science
education as well as local problems con-
cerned with the teaching of science and
mathematics.
The all-day conferences were held on
Saturdays in conference rooms provided
by schools and universities, or in other
convenient facilities. Luncheon was served
to those who attended. The programs con-
sisted of speakers of high reputation in
their fields, followed by discussions, either
general or in groups.
The Reporter. An _ eight-page news-
letter was published monthly during the
1962-63 year and bimonthly during the
1963-64 year. Carrying news of interest
to teachers, it is sent free to all science
and mathematics teachers of local second-
ary schools and to scientists interested in
promoting science education. The circula-
tion is 3,000.
Conclusion
The program of the Academy ihrough
the Joint Board is considered by many to
be a model undertaking. It has stimulated
a more active program in two neighboring
academies. Several cities are considering
organizing a similar operation.
The Academy can justly claim consider-
able credit for the high level of interest
in science on the part of students of the
area and for their commendable achieve-
_ Marcu, 1964.
ments in such national competitions as the
science fairs and the talent search. The
Committee recognizes that its local pro-
gram is the result of the efforts of many
individuals, whose cooperation is acknowl-
edged with sincere thanks.
—John K. Taylor, Chairman
BOARD OF MANAGERS
MEETING NOTES
January Meeting
The Board of Managers held its 561st
meeting on January 16, 1964 at the Cosmos
Club, with President Van Evera presiding.
The minutes of the 560th meeting were
distributed and approved.
Announcements. Dr. Van Evera an-
nounced appointment of Paul Oehser,
Alfred E. Brown, and Paul Foote to ihe
Ways and Means Committee. Also, he
introduced Kurt H. Stern, delegate repre-
senting the Electrochemical Society, who
was attending his first Board meeting.
Grants-in-Aid. Chairman McPherson
submitted the annual report of his Com-
mittee and discussed the application of
John H. Fournelle for a grant to pursue
a research project on production of ultra-
violet-induced pigment mutants in Chlo-
rella. The Board approved a grant of
$32.50.
Meetings. Chairman Robbins submitted
the annual report of her Committee and
indicated that at its February 20 meeting
the Academy would be addressed by Dr.
Van Evera as retiring president.
Encouragement of Science Talent. Chair-
man Heyden announced that the Commit-
tee roster had been completed; that pro-
ceedings of the most recent meeting of the
Junior Academy, at Georgetown Univer-
sity, were being printed and would soon
be available for distribution; that since
the D. C. public schools appeared to lack
interest in Junior Academy activities,
means were being explored for stimulating
interest; and that he would welcome sug-
gestions on a site for this year’s science
fair.
13
Tellers. Chairman Fowells reported the
results of the recent election, as follows:
President-elect, Leo Schubert; secretary.
George W. Irving, Jr.; treasurer, Malcolm
C. Henderson; managers (1964-66), Allen
L. Alexander and Francis W. Reichelderfer.
Secretary. Secretary Irving submitted
his annual report and reported new dele-
gates of affiliated societies, as follows:
Frank Hettrick, University of Maryland,
replacing Howard Reynolds as delegate of
the American Society for Microbiology;
Harold H. Shepard replacing Frank L.
Campbell as delegate of the Entomological
Society; and Luna Leopold replacing G.
Arthur Cooper as delegate of the Geologi-
cal Society.
Treasurer. In the absence of Treasurer
Henderson, Dr. Van Evera distributed
copies of the treasurer’s annual report,
which was accepted by the Board. Dr.
Van Evera announced that the Auditing
Committee (Lawrence A. Wood, chairman,
W. G. Brombacher, and Gordon W. Mc-
Bride) had found the treasurer’s accounts
in order, and that the treasurer’s report
for 1963 represented ‘“‘a true and accurate
statement of the transactions of the year
and the current assets of the Academy.”
Editor. Editor Detwiler reported that
the January issue of the Journal had been
mailed on January 7; repeated a previous
appeal for feature material for the Journal;
and indicated that additional individuals
were being added to the Journal staff.
Old Business. Continuation of the
Board’s review of a draft of the revised
Standing Rules was deferred.
New Business. Dr. Van Evera advised
the Board that the Washington Section
of the American Chemical Society (Chemi-
cal Society of Washington), one of the
Academy’s affiliates, had requested that
the Bylaws of societies with which the
ACS is affiliated should include a clause
similar to the following: “No organization
which is a member of the Washington
Academy of Sciences shall be committed
by any of its actions in conflict with the
charter, constitution, or bylaws of said or-
ganization, or of its parent society.” After
brief discussion, the matter was referred
to an Academy Committee on Bylaws and
Standing Rules, which was established by
concurrent action.
Science in Washington
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
March 18—Institute of Environmen-
tal Sciences
Walter Carlson, director of technical in-
formation, OSD, “The Sources of Informa-
tion in the Field of Environmental
Science.”
Harry Diamond Laboratories, Building
133, Connecticut Ave. and Van Ness St.,
8:00 p.m.
March 24—CU Mathematical Lecture
Series
Lecture Series in Mathematical Statistics
and Probability Theory, sponsored by
Catholic University Statistical Laboratory.
William G. Cochran, Harvard University,
“Sequential Experiments for Estimating
the Median Lethal Dose.”
Rm. 109 Caldwell Hall, CU, 3:30 p.m.
March 25—Society of American
Foresters
Meeting from 9:00 a.m. to about 2:30
p-m. on subject, “Depressed Areas—Can
They Be Cured?” Principal speaker, at
9:30, Hon. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Jr.,
Under Secretary of Commerce, “National
Problems and Federal Responsibilities.”
Luncheon at 12:55. Luncheon speaker, Ed
Dodd, creator of Mark Trail, “Mark Trail
Views Forestry, Conservation, and De-
pressed Areas.”
Presidential Arms, 1320 G St., N.W.
74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
April 1—University of Maryland
Loology Colloquium
Wesley C. Hymer, National Institutes of
Health, “Studies on the Isolation and
Characterization of Two Different Types
of Cellular Organelles Obtained by Using
New Isolation Techniques.”
Rm. 405 McKeldin Library, University
of Maryland, 4:00 p.m.
April 6-8—Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers
International Conference on Nonlinear
Magnetics.
Shoreham Hotel.
April 7—James Curley Lectures in
Science
Ansley J. Coale, Princeton University,
“Population Trends and Population Con-
trol.”
Gaston Hall,
8:30 p.m.
Georgetown University,
April 9—Chemical Society of
Washington
F. Albert Cotton, MIT, “pi-Bonding in
Metal Carbonyls—a Quantitative Ap-
proach.” Hans L. Falk, National Cancer
Institute, NIH, “Air Pollution and Cancer.”
Howard University, 8:15 p.m.
SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS
Contributions to this column may be
addressed to Harold T. Cook, Associate
Editor, c/o Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Marketing Service, Federal
Center Building, Hyattsville, Md.
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT
Justus C. Ward gave talks on pesticide
regulations at the 17th Annual Cotton In-
sect Research and Control Conference at
Memphis, Tenn., on January 8, and at the
1964 Southern Weed Conference at Jack-
son, Miss., on January 15.
_ GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
_ Speakers at the January 22nd meeting
of the Geological Society of Washington
- Marcu, 1964
included Robert O. Fournier, who
talked on “The Effect of Supersaturated
Silica Solutions During the Hydrothermal
Alteration of Feldspars,” and Thomas P.
Thayer, who talked on “The Ophiolite
Concept vs. the Alpine Magic Magma
Stem, 7
George Phair has been appointed to a
two-year assignment as Geologic Division
editor for the Annual Review, the Geologi-
cal Survey Professional Paper summarizing
the economic and scientific work accom-
plished during each fiscal year. During
the first year of the assignment Dr. Phair
will be assistant editor and during the
second year, editor-in-chief.
GEORGE WASHINGTON
UNIVERSITY
Reuben Wood has been appointed di-
rector of GWU’s spring Peace Corps Train-
ing Project. The University will conduct
a 10-week special training program for
about 55 Peace Corps volunteers preparing
for service in Nepal.
HARRIS RESEARCH
LABORATORIES
Milton Harris attended the American
Management Association Planning Council
meeting in New York on January 9. On
January 17, Dr. Harris addressed the Ore-
gon State University Department of Science
on the subject, “University, Science, and
Government”; on the same day, he spoke
at the 75th anniversary celebration of the
University’s Home Economics Department
on the subject, “Textiles in the Modern
World.”
Alfred E. Brown addressed the Wash-
ington Chapter of the American Institute
of Chemists on January 14. His subject
was, “New Efforts toward Cooperation
among Scientific, Technological, and Edu-
cational Organizations in Washington,
DeG
NATIONAL BUREAU OF
STANDARDS
Director Allen V. Astin was one of
five senior Government career employees
7o
who recently received the 1963 Rockefeller
Public Service Award.
William N. Harrison has retired as
chief of the Metallic Building Materials
Section after 41 years with NBS.
Donald Hubbard retired in January
after 38 years of service at the Bureau.
NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF
HEALTH
Bernard B. Brodie and Marshall W.
Nirenberg were among 10 medical men
who _ recently received Distinguished
Achievement Awards from the editors of
the international medical journal, Modern
Medicine. Dr. Brodie, chief of the National
Heart Institute’s Laboratory of Chemical
Pharmacology, was cited for “his creative
contributions in basic research of how
drugs act in the body.” Dr. Nirenberg,
chief of the Section on Biochemical Ge-
netics in the Laboratory of Clinical Bio-
chemistry, was cited as a leader in the field
of molecular biology.
SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT
The Department of Civil Engineering at
Catholic University sponsored a University
Faculty Panel Discussion on ‘“The Ameri-
can City—Its People, Its Plans and
Its Politics’? on December 11, in con-
nection with the University activities for
its diamond jubilee year. The moderator
was Col. William A. Roberts, chairman of
the Federation of Citizens’ Associations of
the District of Columbia. Panel members
included Paul J. Claffey (transportation),
Rev. Robert G. Howes (city planning),
Joseph Miller (architecture), John P. Mc-
Carthy (politics) and Russell W. Leedy
(social service). Despite threatening
weather, nearly 200 people attended this
interdisciplinary program.
Georgetown University was_ recently
awarded a three-year predoctoral re-
search training grant in the space-
related sciences by the National Aero-
nautics and Space Administration. The
University will select up to six participants
in space-related predoctoral studies to
enter the program in September 1964. The
students may elect to work in the fields of
astronomy, biology, chemistry, mathe-
matics, or physics. Each graduate fellow
will receive a stipend of $2,400 for 12
months of training, and he may be en-
titled to an additional allowance for de-
pendents. He may be assured of three years
of predoctoral study if he maintains a satis-
factory record.
Georgetown already has three faculty
members cooperating with various activi-
ties of NASA: Father Francis J. Heyden,
chairman of the Astronomy Department;
William J. Thaler, chairman of the Physics
Department; and Father Matthew P.
Thekaekara, associate professor of physics.
An “FDA Institute for Advanced
Analytical Chemistry” has been es-
tablished at Georgetown University.
It will offer four 12-week courses each
year of intensive study of advanced theory
and applications of instrumental methods
to analytical chemistry. The institute will
enable FDA scientists to continue to keep
abreast of the latest advances in analytical
chemistry, and apply the most up-to-date
instrumentation to their work. Instruction
will be given by the faculty of the George-
town University Chemistry Department.
Enrollment will be limited, with FDA
chemists having enrollment priority.
Twenty-two postdoctoral resident
research associateships are being
awarded for 1964-65 by USDA’s Agri-
cultural Research Service. They will
enable the recipients to study and do basic
research on animal genetics, biochemistry,
microbiological chemistry, physical chem-
istry, entomology, histopathology, micro-
biology, mineral nutrition of plants, plant
physiology and plant virology in pioneer-
ing research laboratories in Albany,
Calif.; Beltsville, Md.; Lafayette, Ind.;
New Orleans, La.; Peoria, Ill.; Phila-
delphia, Pa.; Washington, D. C.; and Plum
Island, N.Y.
76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Delegates to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Representing
the Local Affiliated Societies*
Trcic nag angel: Sere 8 got AN/2 Vt He) Renee ec ee on ee R. D. Myers
Prinoanlgeical society of Washington: «00.0.0... eee eee REGINA FLANNERY HERZFELD
SRM MME SOIC LYIIOL. VW) ASTIN EOI 6 esc oie nce acc tac ecaconnbaeseegbeevensnscestesdtvaptessectonee JoHn L. Parapiso
Se RAPE DSM CEN AMOS WASNT OIN theese 2225, saa eso Slnoa dotencdodvalulateosersssereheacheees WituiAM A. ZIsMAN
Eanami@iocieal Socicty of Washimetom .............2...-..00. cess secesceceessoceeeeteevepececeeeeeasneawess Haroitp H. SHEPARD
REMMI OC SO RTELY. ae. 5 oe ence GephaoeBe enna ves teask ec nv edudeecnsctnntuaptoaenueeaede e chesete ALEXANDER WETMORE
Searels MS OCICLY VON WAS iITSUOM occ ence ccseeeecee sence ne csueseeeca2ssncdsenesceensesseodee Peles endsbeneseaseceseden Luna LEopoip
Medical Society of the District of Columbia ..................... eter rere ee Ne EL a? FREDERICK QO. COE
Colma Historical Society ....................:..... Jee ybsebnaeace Oa Remeee LES ant tel te ae etn ee U. S. Grant, IH
Botanical SDSS DPN SUSAR IO NT Ce eam cece Rees lee ene te Renee ee Wizsur D. McCLeLian
SvEN EY Cif se MRDSHT GTN Md BOTTECY SS och tals eee oe ee ne Harry A. FOweELLs
Washington Society of Engineers ..............0.0000....... ee 5 oll fa bel IAA RR RROD Martin A. Mason
inemimer ot Electrical and Electronics Engineers................5....000c.:ccccecseeeseeese- Delegate not appointed
American Society of Mechanical Engineers ................ ais ten eee tae Un. a ae ee Wittiam G. ALLEN
Pemmtuminiosical) Society Of Washinton © .............c.....cccc.2eccccessececsoceesscseseeseseressseeeleceseuses. Doys A. SHORB
AOOEE Ea Sweep cetre LMI Ce) oye) Layee 7 eee nee ee ees ne FRANK HETTRICK
Society of American Military Engineers ...................... Nee een RS ee Ges Delegate not appointed
Pumas ocieny role Cavill Emoimeers, <.......2. 2.2. s2cc.5- sisi veesnstensnteeesseeeetee see vansesesuenteneate THORNDIKE SAVILLE, JR.
Saeiemiiar txpenmental Biology and Medicine .2.........0..2....-...ccssccsssescsccececeeeeessseetesesesereceee FALCONER SMITH
aecesheg, Siqehernp igi WMG ey Sacer ee ee re Hucu L. Locan
International Association for Dental Research ........... BN ORE eH ss nathan GrorcE DicKson
Awnerican Inciinte of Aeronautics and Astromautics.........00.......0.0..0..0cccccccccccteteeeeceteeesseeneed A. W. Betts
American Meteorological Society ..............0..0.0.0005 deel ee el es reek ae J. Murray MITcHELL, Jr.
URSEDTGAIS SOS Oe ANGI Cc 25,30) «ol ee eee Rosert A. FULTON
AEE DSioel Sorel yy ron CaS eT (Cre ee Matcoim C. HENDERSON
American Nuclear Society ...... = suspacind5eeh abeM Rincon he Snubs Baye le tea ae GeorcE L. WEIL
Mera rU a mer ee iG) MECIMMOLOCTSES) 92-0. 0ecctce.2.oeesacsccccaac-a soteeusescscvontascnscaseiareesaccestseseedevseesecees. RicHAarD P. FARRow
ER BSE (CORPSuATIVE SOC Ec S aet ee ae ne ee J. J. DiAmonp
Milcctrochemical Society ....2....,.....sccie ee eceecesesseetessenee oe toh ek UG ace te ec Kurt H. STERN
"
al * Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective affliated societies.
roe
a
Volume 54 MARCH 1964 No. 3
CONTENTS
The International Indian Ocean Expedition: A Status Report........00000000000000... 45
Statistics in Its Proper Placece, 2 rece: Be See ee eee ain a3
The Ultraviolet Realm of Spectroscopy................ Javier a50
Nth-Order Effects of the Government’s Support of Research... 0.00... 63
Academy Proceedings
March. Meeting: ...50....0 000 Re ee 69
WAS Organization for [964.000 sc2... cicceccdacct ees seeeeans ocd oe 70
Summary of Journal Operations for 1963... el
Report of Committee on Science Education, 1963... TD:
Board of Managers Meeting Notes (January)... 4... ee ere. 16
Science in Washington
Calendar of Events..0.0:..2.0..0200. A208. See ee 74,
Selentisis am’ the News ge. 2 ee. Lied: ~ = e 19
Science and Development.........000.000.../ cee er 76
Washington Academy of Sciences | 2nd Class Postage
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Return Requested
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US NATIONAL MUSEUY
; WASHINGTON zS 0c §
Wy | Coe eer.
ae
DawWaS JOURNAL
of the
WASHINGTON
ACADEMY
of
SCIENCES
\ Vol. 54 ¢ No. 4
APRIL
1964
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
\
Editor: SAmuet B. Detwiter, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Associate Editors *. .») \— \ \
Rocer G. Bates, National Bureau of Standards HELEN L. REyNoLDs, Food and Drug Adminis-
Harotp T. Cook, Department of Agriculture tration
RicHARD P., FARROW, National Canners Asso- RusseEL.L B. STEVENS, George Washington Uni-
ciation versity
J. Murray MircuHe ty, Jr., Weather Bureau
Contributors
FRANK A. BIBERSTEIN, JR., Catholic University GERHARD M. Braver, National Bureau of
CHARLES A. WHITTEN, Coast & Geodetic Survey Standards
Marsorte Hooxer, Geological Survey Howarp W. Bonn, National Institutes of Health
Reusen E. Woop, George Washington Univer. ILEEN E. Stewart, National Science Foundation
sity ALLEN L. ALEXANDER, Naval Research Laboratory
JosepH B. Morris, Howard University Victor R. Boswett, USDA, Beltsville
Frank L. Camppect, NAS-NRC Harry A. Fowetts, USDA, Washington
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes historical
articles, critical reviews, and scholarly scientific articles; notices of meetings and abstract proceed-
ings of meetings of the Academy and its affiliated societies; and regional news items, including
personal news, of interest to the entire membership. The Journal appears nine times a year, in
January to May and September to December. It is included in the dues of all active members and
fellows.
Subscription rate to non-members: $7.50 per year (U.S.) or $1.00 per copy; foreign post-
age extra. Subscription orders should be sent to the Washington Academy of Sciences, 1530 P St.,
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Proceedings of the Academy (Volumes 1-13, 1898-1910), the Index, and the Monograph.
Current issues of the Journal (past two calendar years) may still be obtained directly
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Second class postage paid at Washington, D.C.
ACADEMY OFFICERS FOR 1964
President: Francois N. FRENKIEL, David Taylor Model Basin
President-Elect: Lko ScHUBERT, American University
Secretary: Greorce W. Irvine, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Treasurer: Matcotm C. HEeNpERSON, Catholic University
American Society for Microbiology
Holds Annual Meeting Here
The Washington Branch of the Ameri-
can Society for Microbiology will be
host for the 64th annual meeting of the
national society, to be held at the Shera-
ton-Park and Shoreham hotels, May 3 to
7. Expectations are that this will be the
largest meeting in the history of the So-
ciety, with an estimated attendance of
more than 4,000 microbiologists.
Registrants will have an opportunity to
attend their choice of 10 symposia, 14 or
Symposia
Information Retrieval and Documentation
Mechanisms of DNA Replication and Recombi-
nation
History of Micrebiology
The Fine Structure and Replication of Bacteria
and Their Parts
Papova Viruses
Current Research in Medical Mycology
The Enterococci
Microbial Insecticides
Round Tables
Current Trends in Diagnostic Microbiology
Proposed Changes for the 12th Edition of Stand-
ard Methods for the Examination of Dairy
Products
Antiseptics and Disinfectants
The Anaerobic and Microaerophilic Microflora
of the Soil
Culture Collections and Their Documentation
Application of Microbiology to Developing Na-
tions
Pollution of Marine Waters
Gaseous Sterilization
Current Problems in Meningococcal Meningitis
A Discussion on Microbial Contamination of
Surfaces
) Vitamins and Amino Acids
~The Anaerobic Spirochetes
Antibiotic Residues in Tissues
Laboratory Experiments and Demonstrations in
Microbiology
APRIL, 1964
more round tables, and 77 sessions in
which a total of approximately 750 short
scientific papers will be given. The “paper
sessions” cover a wide range of subjects,
including Metabolic Control Mechanisms,
Protoplasts and L-Forms, Genetics, In-
dustrial Fermentation, Aquatic Microbi-
ology, Mycology, Viruses and Tumors,
and Immunological Reactions. The titles
and conveners of symposia and scheduled
round tables are as follows:
Convener
Harold W. Batchelor, Fort Detrick
Edward A. Adelberg, Yale University
R. N. Doetsch, University of Maryland
Roger M. Cole, National Institutes of Health
Karl Habel, National Institutes of Health
Charlotte C. Campbe!l, Harvard School of Public
Health
C. F. Niven, Jr., University of Chicago
Harlow H. Hall, Department of Agriculture
Convener
A. Balows, University of Kentucky
William G. Walter, Montana State College
J. C. McCaffrey, Illinois Department of Health
F. E. Nelson, University of Arizona
Paul A. Wolf, Dow Chemical Co.
L. E. Casida, Jr., Pennsylvania State University
William A. Clark, American Type Culture Col-
lection
Martin Alexander, Cornell University
John J. A. McLaughlin, Haskins Laboratories
and St. Francis College
Robert R. Ernst, Wilmot Castle Co.
Michael Pelczar, University of Maryland
Joseph J. McDade, Communicable Disease Cen-
ter, HEW
E. B. Ferrer, Upjohn Co.
Thomas A. Nevin, Communicable Disease Center,
HEW
Robert Hans, Parke, Davis and Co.
L. S. McClung, Indiana University.
~!
~]
An important special feature of the
annual meetings is the Office of Naval
Research Lecture, given by a prominent
foreign microbiologist under the auspices
of the Office of Naval Research. The lec-
ture is regularly a part of the opening
session on Sunday evening. This year the
lecturer is R. R. Porter of the Wright-
Fleming Institute of Microbiology, Lon-
don. His subject will be “The Chemical
Structure and Biological Activities of
Antibodies.” |
Another special feature is the address
of the Eli Lilly Award winner, on Mon-
day evening. This award of $1,000 is
given annually to a young microbiologist
who has performed outstanding research
in microbiology or immunology. The
name of the winner will not be announced
until the meeting.
A special round table on Laboratory
Experiments and Demonstrations in Mi-
crobiology has been arranged for science
teachers and high school and college
students and will be held on Thursday
morning. This session will be followed by
a tour of the scientific exhibits and an
opportunity to attend the Science Film
Theater.
The Science Film Theater will be open
every afternoon to show outstanding films
ranging from “Arthrobotrys conoides, a
Nematode-trapping Fungus,’ to “The
Microscope: Design and Function.” More
than 100 scientific and commercial ex-
hibits will be on display throughout the
meeting.
Lest the microbiologists become satu-
rated with scientific papers and discus-
sions, arrangements have been made for
tours to the American Type Culture Col-
lection, the National Naval Medical Cen-
ter, the National Institutes of Health,
Walter Reed Army Institute of Research,
a dairy processing plant, and the New
York Yankees-Washington Senators base-
ball game. Since the meeting will be held
at the time Washington is at its loveliest,
many of the male members of the Society
will probably bring their wives. These
ladies have not been forgotten. Their
special activities include a tour of Wash-
ington, with a White House appointment;
a visit to historic Georgetown; and an
embassy tour and tea.
Many details of the meeting are the
special responsibility of the local com-
mittee on arrangements, under the lead-
ership of Roy C. Dawson, general chair-
man, and Lloyd G. Herman, vice-chairman
and treasurer. Committee members, with
their responsibilities, are William L.
Sulzbacher and John Alford, registration;
Howard Reynolds, A. P. Dunnigan, and
Thomas P. O’Barr, session rooms;
Gabriel A. Castellano and Louis R. Heiss,
commercial exhibits; Matthew Fusillo and
Elizabeth J. Oswald, public relations;
Mary Louise Robbins and Ruth G. Witt-
ler, round tables; Donald Boyd and Judd
Wilkins, scientific exhibits; William A.
Clark and Rudolph Hugh, tours; Robert
G. Coon and Frank Bradley, special
meals; E. R. Kennedy and C. C. Cutchins,
hotel reservations; Mrs. Donald Boyd,
Mrs. Francis B. Gordon, and Mrs. Glenn
G. Slocum, hostesses; Raymond ON.
Doetsch, history of bacteriology; Chester
W. Emmons, president’s reception; Glenn
Slocum and L. R. Shelton, banquet; H. R.
Curran, mixer; Richard Finkelstein and
Earl Richardson, information; C. W.
Bohrer and C. B. Denny, “Incubator.”
CRS
latent
New
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
American ype Culture Collection
Presents Dedication Symposium
In conjunction with the annual meet-
ing of the American Society for Micro-
biology, the American Type Culture Col-
lection will hold a symposium on May 1
and 2 to celebrate the dedication of the
first building designed specifically for the
Collection.
Most of the events will take place at
the Shoreham Hotel. The scientific §ses-
sions will be devoted to one general sub-
ject, “Stability in Dynamic Microbial
Systems,” divided into three specific sub-
topics, as follows: Bacteria, Fungi, and
Protozoa (C. W. Emmons, convener) ;
Viruses (R. L. Thompson, convener) ;
and Cell Lines (W. F. Scherer, convener).
At the dedication dinner, R. E. Bu-
chanan of Iowa State University will dis-
cuss the history and development of the
American Type Culture Collection. C. B.
van Niel of the Hopkins Marine Station
also will speak, on a topic to be an-
nounced.
Dedication ceremonies will be held on
Saturday afternoon, May 2, at the new
building in Rockville, Md. The principal
address will be given by Colin M. Mac-
Leod of the Office of Science and Tech-
nology, Executive Office of the President.
History of the Washington Branch,
American Society for Microbiology
Raymond N. Doetsch *
University of Maryland
The Washington Branch of the Ameri-
can Society for Microbiology was founded
by a small group of bacteriologists, asso-
ciated mainly with national governmental
agencies, on January 17, 1917. It thereby
shares with the Connecticut Valley Branch
(initially designated the New Haven
Branch) the honor of being oldest among
local branches of the society.
Since its beginning 47 years ago, many
internationally-known bacteriologists have
served as officers. J. J. Kinyoun was the
first elected president; and such pioneers
* Chairman of the Committee on History of the
Washington Branch, American Society for Mi-
crobiology.
APRIL, 1964.
as George W. McCoy, Charles Thom, Lore
Ae hozers, Oo. Hs Ayers, A. Parker
Hitchens, Alice Evans, Sara Branham,
Erwin F. Smith, and James M. Sherman,
among many others, have served in vari-
ous capacities.
Seven members of this branch have
been elected national presidents, as fol-
lows? Hrwin Ef. Smuth (1006). [ok
Kinyoun (1909), Lore A. Rogers (1922),
A. Parker Hitchens (1924), Alice C.
Evans (1928), James M.. Sherman
(1937), and Charles C. Thom (1940).
Previous national meetings of the society
have been held in Washington, D. C., in
1902, 1911, 1917, 1924, and 1937.
APR 1 31964
baS TDG Tae
WASHINGTON BRANCH, AMERICAN SOCIETY
FOR MICROBIOLOGY
Organization for 1964
Naval Medical Research Institute
George Washington University
Francis B. GorDOoN
RupoLteH HucH
President
Vice President
Secretary Joun A. ALFORD Eastern Utilization R&D Division,
Department of Agriculture
Treasurer Marvin P. BRYANT Animal Husbandry Research Divi-
sion, Department of Agriculture
Members-at-Large, Lewis F. AFFRONTI
Executive Committee
George Washington University
DonaLp H. HuNTER Walter Reed Army Institute of Re-
search
Viota Mar Younc National Institutes of Health
Councilor to the Ameri- P. ARNE HANSEN
can Society for Micro-
biology
University of Maryland
Delegate to the Washing- FRANK HETRICK
ton Academy of
Sciences
University of Maryland
Meetings
Regular meetings of the Society are held six times a year, on the fourth Tuesday of January,
February, March, May, October, and November. The meetings are generally held in the Stern-
berg Auditorium of the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research. The November meeting is the
annual business meeting and is usually preceded by the annual banquet. Other meetings are usually
devoted to current business and presentation of scientific papers by members of the Society or
invited speakers.
During its early years the Washington
Branch met four times a year in the
various government buildings in the city.
The first secretary-treasurer, Lore A.
Rogers, recorded 40 members in 1917.
(Present-day membership is approximate-
ly 300.) The first scientific paper pre-
sented before the Washington Branch was
given at its second meeting (March 15,
1917) by Erwin F. Smith. This paper,
‘Sllustrated with lantern slides,’ was en-
titled, “Newer Studies on Crown Gall
Bacteria with Special Reference to Tumor
Formation.” The relation between gall
formations and cancer had always in-
trigued Smith, and he wrote 40 papers
on it during his lifetime.
Subsequently, a practice was begun
whereby members of a given institution
or bureau would be responsible for the
scientific program at a given meeting.
Thus, the fourth meeting (December 14,
1917) was the responsibility of the Mi-
crobiology Laboratory of the Bureau of
Chemistry, the fifth (February 15, 1918)
of the Hygienic Laboratory, and _ the
sixth (April 5, 1918) of the Dairy Divi-
sion, Bureau of Animal Industry. This
practice was continued with few varia-
tions for some years, during which ses-
sions of high scientific caliber were held.
Article II of the constitution of the
Washington Branch, adopted on January
30, 1917, stated: “The object at) tne
society shall be the promotion of the
80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
—
I
science of bacteriology, the bringing to-
gether of Washington bacteriologists, the
demonstration and discussion of bacteri-
ological information, and the considera-
tion of subjects of common interest.”
This aim still remains foremost among
the present-day membership.
In 1923 the Washington Branch _be-
came the 16th affiliate of the Washington
Academy of Sciences.
Currently, the Washington Branch
meets six times a year in the Sternberg
Auditorium of the Walter Reed Army
Institute of Research, in Washington. The
membership is representative of all fields
of microbiology; and because of this fact,
the ever-changing, ever-advancing front
of this discipline is constantly a reminder
to them of Leeuwenhoek’s exclamation:
“Lieve God, wat zijnder al wonderen in
soo een kleyn schepsel!”
A History of Microbiology
In the Washington
American Type Culture Collection
The need for the development of a
national collection of microorganisms had
long been recognized by the Society of
American Bacteriologists. In 1911, un-
der the leadership of C. E. A. Winslow,
a “Bacteriological Collection and Bureau
for the Distribution of Bacterial Cultures”
was established at the American Museum
of Natural History in New York City. In
1922 the Winslow Collection was tempo-
rarily housed in the Army Medical Mu-
seum at Washington, D.C., under the care
of a group of local bacteriologists. In 1924
the National Research Council obtained a
grant from the Rockefeller Foundation to
make the Collection self-supporting. Two
representatives each from the Society of
American Bacteriologists and the Mc-
Cormick Institute and one each from the
American Phytopathological Society, the
American Association of Pathologists and
Bacteriologists, and the American Zoo-
* Condensed from a 36-page brochure prepared
by the Washington Branch, American Society
for Microbiology, for distribution at the 64th
annual meeting of the national society, May
3-7. The brochure is the work of the Committee
on History of the local Branch, headed by Ray-
mond N. Doetsch of the University of Maryland.
APRIL, 1964
Area*
logical Society were appointed to a Com-
mittee on Maintenance. In 1925 the
Committee incorporated the Collection as
a nonprofit scientific institution under
the name “American Type Culture Col-
lection” and transferred it to the John
McCormick Institute for Infectious Di-
seases in Chicago, where it remained for
12 years. Ultimately the number of
strains preserved at the McCormick Insti-
tute was about 1500; another 300 to 600
strains were available from a number of
special collections.
Because of financial losses during the
Depression, the McCormick _ Institute
could no longer sponsor the collection,
and the Committee accepted an offer of
quarters from the Georgetown University
School of Medicine in 1937. As the size
of the Collection increased, the facilities
at Georgetown became inadequate, and in
1947 the Collection was moved to 2029
M St., N.W. In 1956 the Collection was
moved again to 2112 M St., the present
quarters. Because of expansion to include
the national repository and distribution
center for animal cell lines in 1961, ad-
ministrative and business offices were
located at 1025 Connecticut Avenue. A
ol
building fund drive, headed by R. D.
Coghill, was initiated in 1960. The Na-
tional Science Foundation, the National
Institutes of Health, private mdustry, and
other organizations responded so favor-
ably that modern, permanent facilities
are now located in the Washington-Rock-
ville Industrial Park.
The “Committee on Maintenance” of
1924 became known as the Board of
Trustees when the Constitution of the
ATCC was formulated in 1947. The fol-
lowing comprise the current nominating
societies represented on the Board: Amer-
ican Association of Immunologists, Amer-
ican Association of Pathologists and
Bacteriologists, American Institute of
Biological Sciences, American Phyto-
pathological Society, American Society
for Microbiology, American Society of
Zoologists, Genetics Society of America,
Mycological Society of America, and the
National Academy of Sciences-National
Research Council.
Many efforts have been expended to
make the Collection self-supporting since
the initial grant from the Rockefeller
Foundation. Aid was given by the Society
of American Bacteriologists, UNESCO,
private industry, and the U.S. Public
Health Service. The fee for cultures was
substantially increased in 1948, and a
large contribution was made to the Col-
lection by commercial firms. Recent fi-
nancial assistance has been obtained
from the National Science Foundation,
the National Institutes of Health, private
industry, and several scientific societies.
By 1960 the activities of the Collection
necessitated an administrative reorganiza-
tion. The following departments, all re-
sponsible to a director, were established:
bacteriology, mycology, virology, tissue
culture, and information. The depart-
ments are supported by a Facilities De-
partment and a Business Office.
Initially established as a repository and
distribution center for bacteria, the Amer-
ican Type Culture Collection now con-
tains extensive collections of bacteria and
fungi, a large collection of viruses, and
small collections of algae and protozoa.
The ATCC also acts as the distributing
agency for the Plant Virus Registry.
Recently a substantial grant was obtained
from the National Institutes of Health to
establish a collection of animal cell lines.
The Viral and Rickettsial Registry was
established in 1949 as a cooperative un-
dertaking by a group of scientists en-
gaged in the study of viral and rickettsial
diseases. Its purpose is to ensure the con-
tinued existence of classical or reference
strains and to provide an efficient means
for their distribution. Anyone who de-
posits an agent in the Registry is required
to supply documentation for the strain.
Because of the rapid increase in the
use of cell cultures in many areas of
biology and medicine in the past 10 years,
Jerome T. Syverton of the University of
Minnesota was asked in 1959 to organize
a committee to establish a national animal
cell culture collection to provide well
characterized and contaminant-free cell
lines for reference material in long-term
studies. Aided by a grant from the Na-
tional Cancer Institute, the ATCC estab-
lished a repository for animal cell lines.
The American Type Culture Collection
is developing a necessary program of
service and research to provide scientists
with the specimens they require.
Department of Agriculture
Dairy Products — Bacteriology has
played an active role in research at the
Dairy Products Laboratory for more than
60 years. Lore A. Rogers, chief from 1906
to 1942, was active in research on the
bacteriology of milk and milk products,
especially cheese. In 1937, he received
the first Borden Award in Dairy Manu-
facturing. In 1962, at the age of 87, he
received the second Distinguished Service
Award of the American Dairy Science
Association.
This laboratory was the scene of the
classic work of W. M. Clark on pH and
indicators in connection with studies on
82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF ScIENCES
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the colon-aerogenes group, _ bacterial
media, and cheese. The early classic work
of Alice C. Evans on Brucella abortus
was also done here. Long-range studies
| have been done by L. A. Burkey on
Swiss cheese starters and the bacteriology
of Swiss cheese, and on the bacteriology
of bovine mastitis; H. R. Curran on ef-
fects of nutritional and environmental
factors on formation and germination of
bacterial spores with emphasis on their
thermal resistance; W. T. Johnston on
bacterial flora of milk, milk sanitation,
and the microbiology of Swiss and Blue
_ cheeses; M. Rogosa on the bacteriology
a a rr -_—
ll I
and the
of Swiss cheese and bovine mastitis (with
L. A. Burkey), the taxonomy of the
lactobacilli (with R. P. Tittsler), and the
vitamin and mineral requirements of lacto-
bacilli; R. P. Tittsler on effects of en-
vironmental factors on Propionibacteri-
um, the taxonomy of lactobacilli, effect
of temperature on growth of lactic cheese
starters, and the bacteriology of Cheddar,
Swiss, and Provolone cheeses; and R. E.
Hargrove on effects of antibiotics on
cheese starters, synthesis of vitamin By»
by Propionibacterium, composition of
cheese starters, control of bacteriophage
in cheese starters, cheese bacteriology,
and development of a selective medium
for Leuconostoc.
Plant and Soil Sciences—Work on
plant diseases in the Department of Agri-
culture began in 1885 when F. Lamson-
Scribner joined the Division of Botany
as head and entire technical staff of the
new Section of Mycology. Mycology, ap-
plied mycology, pathology
were then essentially synonymous; the
and plant
early work was largely confined to plant
diseases, all presumably due to parasitic
fungi. The Section and the Division un-
derwent various organizational changes
through the years. The present Agricul-
tural Research Service is composed of
several divisions with microbiological in-
terests. These include the Crops Research
Soil and Water Conservation
AprIL, 1964
Research Divisions at the Plant Industry
Station.
Karly in the 1890’s, Erwin F. Smith
began research on bacteria as an impor-
tant factor in plant pathology. His first
paper dealt with the bacterial wilt of
cucurbits and was followed by numerous
publications on specific bacterial diseases,
an exhaustive treatise in three volumes
on “Bacteria in Relation to Plant Di-
seases,’ and his monumental work on
crown gall (plant cancer). In 1897, a
polemic developed with Alfred Fischer of
Berlin University on occurrence of bac-
terial diseases. Smith won his case and
established his world leadership in_bac-
terial pathology.
The Bureau of Plant Industry was
formed in 1901. Miss Charles, C. L.
Shear, and B. O. Dodge worked out the
polymorphism of a bread mold, Monilia
sttophila, the conidial stage of Neuro-
spora sittophila. The Laboratory of Soil
Bacteriology and Water Purification was
established in 1904, mainly to develop
methods for producing legume bacteria
and field inoculation of legumes. When
K. F. Kellerman was made chief in 1907.
work was broadened to include pioneer
studies on cellulose-decomposing bacteria
in soil, their identification and classifica-
tion. Felix Lohnis joined this laboratory
in 1914, the year Kellerman started the
Journal of Agricultural Research, and
became chief in 1923.
In 1904, Charles Thom was appointed
mycologist at Storrs Experiment Station.
Connecticut. After studies in Europe on
ripening cheeses by molds, he isolated and
and
described Penicillium camemberti
P. roqueforti from imported cheeses.
Later he straightened out the confusion
in the literature about the penicillia and
aspergilli. In 1914 he moved to Wash-
ington and was joined by Currie, Church,
and others. They conducted a long series
of studies on aspergilli and_ penicillia,
some of which led to important industrial
acid,
fermentations—citric acid, oxalic
83
etc. Thom became the world’s undisputed
authority on Aspergillus and Penicillium
and the Aspergillus glauwcus group. He
correctly identified Fleming’s mold as
Penicillium notatum. When the Bureau of
Chemistry and Soils was formed in 1928,
he was made chief of soil microbiology.
Francis Clark did outstanding early
work on the biological control of plant
diseases, especially cotton root rot, by
green manures. F..E. Allison, 5S. R.
Hoover, and D. Burk (1933) isolated a
vitamin they called coenzyme R. Almost
simultaneously two other laboratories in-
dependently isolated growth factors
called “biotin” and “vitamin H.” The
three substances were later shown to be
the same and are now all called biotin.
Dean Burk and H. Lineweaver did _ pio-
neer research on the biochemistry of
Azotobacter and its mechanism of nitro-
gen fixation. L. A. Pinck and associates
showed how clay minerals in soils ad-
sorb and inactivate organic substances.
Charles Drechsler, making observations
on fungi habitually parasitizing resting
oospores in old isolation plate cultures,
encountered numerous related clampless
hyphomycetes that subsist through cap-
ture of nematodes, often intermingled
with conidial phycomycetes that were
destructive mainly to rhizopods. The 75
members of this new Order of Zygomy-
cetes (the Zoopogales), the 25 species he
described in the Pythiales, and the 25 new
species of the Entomophorales represent
a substantial portion (about 11 percent)
of all the lower fungi now known.
Food and Drug Administration
In 1907, under Harvey W. Wiley, the
Bureau of Chemistry of the Department
of Agriculture was given the job of en-
forcing the first general Food and Drug
Act. The earliest bacteriological investi-
gation recorded concerned causes of
spoilage and the use of preservatives in
canned food products. At about the same
time, the water supply of Roanoke, Va.,
was studied in an effort to combat an
epidemic of typhoid fever.
Over 400 organisms isolated from vari-
ous sources were identified and many
chemicals were evaluated as germicides.
Some work was also done on sterility of
dressings, bandages, pads, ligatures,
gauzes, etc. In 1909 extensive bacteri-
ological investigation of shellfish and the
shellfish industry was begun, and a
pharmacological laboratory was set up,
as well as facilities for microchemical
and bacteriochemical work. In 1913 a
microbiological laboratory was estab-
lished, with Charles Thom as head, and
extensive research and control opera-
tions in food microbiology were con-
ducted. Work was expanded in food sani-
tation and food poisoning, e.g., studies of
shellfish from polluted water as a source
of typhoid fever and other enteric disease
and studies of Clostridium botulinum in
commercial and home-canned food.
Stewart Koser explored the metabolism of
coliform organisms and established the
basis for distinguishing FE. coli from
other members of the group.
The Food and Drug Administration
later became a new, separate bureau of
USDA and still later was transferred to
the Federal Security Agency, now the
Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare. The Bacteriological Laboratory,
under A. C. Hunter, was made a branch
of Division of Food. Attention was
focused on food spoilage, food poisoning,
and bacteriological aspects of food plant
sanitation. Work was renewed on sterility
control of drug products and on sutures
and surgical dressings. A separate labor-
atory in the Insecticide Division evaluated
products represented as antiseptics and
disinfectants. In 1939 all bacteriological
activities were consolidated in a separate
Division of Bacteriology under Dr.
Hunter. This division merged with the
Microanalytical Division in 1945 to form
the Division of Microbiology, now di-
rected by G. G. Slocum.
Following the Food, Drug, and Cos-
metic Act of 1938, a new division, di-
84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
NE I ae a RE ena ee ag ee
rected by Henry Welch, was established
-to deal with regulatory control of peni-
cillin and later of other antibiotics. This
group keeps a constant check on potency,
toxicity, sterility, pyrogenicity, and other
requirements of all antibiotics that come
under the certification program.
National Canners Association
The National Canners Association was
founded in February 1907 with its first
headquarters at Bel Air, Md. In 1909 a
modest laboratory was set up and R. S.
Page was retained to investigate the
claims of food poisoning that were be-
coming prevalent. Dr. Page studied hun-
dreds of cases of illness reported to be
due to canned foods and showed that
canned foods rarely were the cause of
food poisoning.
The NCA now maintains three labora-
tories: one in Washington, D.C. at 1133
20th St., N.W.; one in Berkeley, Calit.,
which began as a Western Branch Labora-
tory in San Francisco in 1926; and the
Northwest Laboratory’ established in
Seattle in 1919 principally for the salmon
industry. I. I. Somers is now Director
of Research for all three. C. A. Greenleaf
is Associate Director at Washington, C. T.
Townsend is Associate Director at Berke-
ley, and W. V. Yonker is manager of
the Northwest Laboratory.
The first major bacteriological pro-
gram was concerned with isolating and
identifying canned food spoilage organ-
isms and determining the heat resistance
of their spores. Food poisoning by
Clostridium botulinum was a_ great
threat to the canning industry between
1918 and 1924. The basic knowledge to
control it was acquired in 1925. Methods
developed in the NCA Research Labora-
tories were fundamental to the investiga-
tion and helped solve the problem faster.
Under E. J. Cameron, the Washington
laboratory investigated spoilage causes
and their elimination. In 1926, Cameron
inaugurated the field laboratory to investi-
gate sources of contamination within the
_ Aprit, 1964
canning plant itself. In 1945, NCA de-
veloped a program for the U.S. Army
Quartermaster Corps personnel assigned
to three Army mobile laboratories housed
in large trailer trucks and subsequently
cooperated in operating the mobile truck
laboratories in several states. In 1947, a
fully equipped laboratory was installed
in a 24-ft. house trailer, and bacteriolog-
ical studies of canning operations were
conducted from Minnesota to Florida.
In 1952 the feasibility of cold steriliza-
tion of foods was investigated. Early
studies indicated that Cl. botulinum was
the most resistant to gamma radiation of
all spoilage organisms, almost completely
reversing the phenomenon noted in heat
sterilization. The Army Quartermaster
Corps contracted with NCA for a detailed
study of sterilization requirements using
high dosage rate sources, in collabora-
tion with the American Can Company
and the Continental Can Company. It was
found that the doses required to destroy
10,000 spores per gram of product were
great enough to adversely affect the
quality of the product.
National Institutes of Health
The history of microbiology at NIH is
made up largely of individual contribu-
tions. The following are a few of these
contributions:
J. J. Kinyoun bacteriologically con-
firmed bubonic plague from cases during
the San Francisco epidemic in 1900.
G. W. McCoy isolated, identified, and
cultivated the causative organism of tula-
remia, a plague-like disease. Edward
Francis demonstrated that it is trans-
mitted to humans from infected wild
rabbits, either through vectors or by di-
rect contact. R. E. Dyer, by recovering
typhus organism from fleas on rats
trapped in areas where typhus cases had
been reported, demonstrated the source
of typhus and its mode of transmission.
With Kenneth Maxcy, Lucius Badger.
Adolph Reureich, and William Workman
he helped to clarify the confusion be-
85
tween typhus and Rocky Mountain Spot-
ted Fever. R. R. Spencer and R. R. Parker
perfected a vaccine against the latter. Ida
Bengtson was first to cultivate the ricket-
tsia of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
and the virus of lymphocytic choriomen-
ingitis in developing chick embryos. She
also cultured the rickettsiae of endemic and
epidemic typhus fever in tissue culture.
Charles Armstrong was the first suc-
cessfully to transmit poliomyelitis virus
to a small laboratory animal (1939).
When he returned from assisting J. P.
Leake to investigate the St. Louis out-
break of encephalitis in 1933, he brought
back samples of brain tissue from fatal
cases, from one of which he isolated a
new virus. He gave the first description
of the agent, which he named Lympho-
cytic choriomeningitis virus.
Alice C. Evans showed that raw milk
from infected cows is a common source
of human brucellosis. She served on the
Committee on Infectious Abortion of the
NRC from 1925 to 1930 and was presi-
dent of the Society of American Bacteri-
ologists in 1928.
M. J. Rosenau and J. F. Anderson pio-
neered in studies of anaphylaxis. Dr.
Anderson and W. H. Frost were first to
demonstrate that the serum of normal
adults contains neutralizing antibodies to
poliomyelitis. Karl Habel developed a
test with laboratory animals to establish
a workable standard for potency of rabies
vaccine. He improved the method of
killing the rabies virus in the vaccine by
using ultraviolet irradiation instead of
phenol. With J. A. Bell and associates,
he confirmed that the paralytic factor in
vaccine is caused by introduction of for-
eign brain tissue. Leon Jacobs was first
to succeed in recovering the Toxoplasma
parasite from a human eye in a collabora-
tive study with Walter Reed Hospital.
Sara Branham provided information on
meningococci that made possible the de-
velopment of a classification system for
their identification and _ differentiation.
Her research made it clear that menin-
gococcal epidemics are caused by one
particular serological group.
Naval Medical Research Institute
Laboratories for bacteriological and
virological research at the Naval Medi-
cal Research Institute were completed in
February 1943. Early investigations in-
cluded treatment and control of strep-
tococcal and diarrheal diseases. A section
for study of prevention and therapy of
tropical diseases gradually developed; a
major study was concerned with rickett-
sial disease, particularly scrub typhus.
After World War II, divisions of bacteri-
ology, parasitology, and virology were
formed.
Commander L. A. Barnes (now Cap-
tain) was head of the Bacteriology Divi-
sion from 1946 to 1955. A field trial of
the efficacy of monovalent parenteral and
oral vaccines composed of Shigeila flex-
nert 3 was conducted during this period.
Also, R. A. Nelson evaluated the trepone-
mal immobilization test on a large scale
and later reported on the immune-ad-
herence phenomenon. Captain Barnes
was succeeded by Cmdr. T. M. Floyd
(now Captain). Investigation centered
around the nutrition of Shigella flexneri
and the search for a suitable laboratory
animal for pathogenesis study. Recently
the bacteriologic aspects of habitability
tests in fall-out shelters have been studied.
The Navy’s Salmonella Typing Center
(expanded to include other enteric patho-
gens) was transferred to the Institute
in 1946. The collectidn, now under the
care of Mrs. M. C. Babcock, numbers
more than 10,000 strains of enteric path-
ogens obtained from all parts of the
world.
C. G. Huff was appointed head of the
parasitological laboratories in 1947.
Basic programs have been developed on
malaria, schistosomiasis, filariasis, and
insect vectors of disease. In 1958, Dr. Huff |
received the Distinguished Civilian Serv-
ice Awards of the Department of the |
Navy and Department of Defense for his
86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
‘dies.
significant contributions to malaria stu-
Research in schistosomiasis has
been concerned with factors relating to
larval penetration of the skin of the host
and serological reactions against it. In
entomology, the emphasis has been on
bionomics, breeding and feeding habits,
effects of gamma radiation of mosquitoes,
and physiology of digestion of blood in
mosquitoes.
General investigations of the Virology
Division up to 1954 included scrub typhus,
typhus fever, arboviruses, influenza viruses,
tobacco mosaic virus, bacteriophage,
poliomyelitis, measles, Newcastle disease,
and lymphocytic choriomeningitis. Cap-
tain Herbert Hurlbut studied arthropod
transmission of Japanese encephalitis
virus and the susceptibility of a variety
of arthropods to parenteral inoculation of
many representative arboviruses. Lieu-
tenant J. E. Banta revealed the capacity
of several human cell lines to support
growth of representative arboviruses.
Commander N. B. Wiebenga extended
this work with special emphasis on den-
gue 1 virus. Lieutenant Commander D.
L. Walker studied factors influencing
host-virus relationships, using Coxsackie
and influenza viruses.
Since 1954, F. B. Gordon, head of the
Division, and E. Weiss have been con-
cerned mainly with the large viruses of
the psittacosis-lymphogranuloma-trachoma
(PLT) group and with the rickettsiae
and related microorganisms. Dr. Gordon
has studied drug resistant psittacosis
strains and the production of strains with
dual drug resistance from mixed cul-
tures of singly resistant strains. Dr.
Weiss has investigated metabolic activi-
ties of rickettsiae and related micro-
organisms, including the development of
strains of Rickettsia prowazekii with in-
creased resistance to p-aminobenzoic acid,
erythromycin, and chloramphenicol. V. L.
Blackford investigated the influence of
Various metabolites on the growth of
Coxiella burnetii in tissue culture. Weiss
and Suitor, collaborating with W. F.
3 APRIL, 1964
Myers of the Department of Bacteriology
of the University of Maryland Medical
School and with E. M. Neptune, Jr., of
the Institute, studied the metabolic activi-
ties of Wolbachia persica paralleling
those of rickettsiae.
In July .1962, the Division of Bacteri-
ology and the Division of Virology were
combined and are now known as _ the
Department of Microbiology, with F. B.
Gordon as director.
Universities
American University has been expand-
ing its bacteriology program rapidly in
recent years. General bacteriology was
first taught to nine students in 1930. The
next 25 years saw little change—in 1955,
Martha Sager taught the course to only
seven students in a basement laboratory.
Starting in 1957 she also taught an ad-
vanced course, stressing soil and indus-
trial microbiology. General bacteriology
is now taught to about 40 full-time stu-
dents, with a night section for part-time
students. Advanced courses in pathogenic
bacteriology and immunology, bacterial
genetics, and virology are now offered.
The first M.S. degrees with a major in
bacteriology were granted in 1963. Pres-
ent research deals mainly with bacterio-
phage studies, particularly of staphylo-
cocci.
Catholic University has offered bacteri-
ology as a formal course for 50 years.
G. T. Brilmyer joined the Biology De-
partment in 1914 and introduced bacteri-
ology as an undergraduate course, with
orientation toward medicine. Emphasis
gradually shifted from etiological agents
of disease to the biology of microorga-
nisms after W. F. Simpson joined the
staff in 1922. Simpson was interested in
bacterial mutants, culture methods of
Endamoeba, and the sterile culture of
larval nematodes. Interest in research was
greatly stimulated by E. G. Reinhard, an
invertebrate zoologist who succeeded J. B.
Parker, an entomologist, as head of the
Biology Department in 1940. The first
37
doctorate in biology was granted in 1915;
the earliest bacteriological dissertation
appeared in 1926. In the early 1940’s, the
popularity of graduate study of micro-
biology increased markedly, and it is now
a major field of study in the Department.
At George Washington University,
microbiology became an independent de-
partment in the fall of 1932, when the
Department of Bacteriology, Hygiene, and
Preventive Medicine was formed. The
Department is now known simply as
Microbiology since an independent De-
partment of Preventive Medicine was
established in 1962. In the early days
of the University, Major Walter Reed,
while curator of the Army Medical Mu-
seum and professor of bacteriology of
the Army Medical School, taught path-
ology and bacteriology at GWU from
1901 to 1907, assisted by his associate,
James Carroll. Surgeon-General of the
Army G. M. Sternberg, a member of
the first Yellow Fever Commission sent
to Cuba, was professor of preventive
medicine in the School of Medicine from
1906 to 1916. His text on bacteriology
was well known. Since 1932, 43 Ph.D.
degrees and 72 master’s degrees have
been granted in this field. Course work
offered by the Department has increased
from eight courses in 1932-33 to the
current 13. All are graduate or medical
school courses, except one course in gen-
eral microbiology.
No history of microbiology at GWU
would be complete without a word about
the man who led the Department for 20
years. Intensely and primarily interested
in medical and graduate education, L. W.
Parr was a devoted teacher, a wise and
friendly counselor to students and _ staff
members, and an active participant in
professional activities. For four and one-
half years he was national secretary-
treasurer of the Society of American
Bacteriologists.
At Georgetown University, bacteriology
was apparently taught for the first time
at the School of Medicine in 1892. The
course, consisting of lectures, demonstra-
tions, and laboratory work on_bacteri-
ology, epidemiology, sanitary science, and
public hygiene, was given to first and
second year medical students. Second
year students could also take a laboratory
course on bacteriological investigation for
diagnosis, given unassisted by one man,
G. M. Kober. Dr. Kober received his
M.D. degree from Georgetown Medical
School in 1873, was appointed an acting
assistant surgeon of the Army and sent
to the West Coast, and remained in the
Army until 1888 when he established him-
self in Washington. He soon became
connected with Georgetown Hospital, and
was pre-eminent in building up the George-
town Medical School, of which he was
dean from 1900 to 1929. In 1890, Dr.
Kober suggested that pollution of the
water of the Potomac was a factor in the
prevalence of typhoid fever in Washing-
ton. In 1895, at the request of the health
officers and the District commissioners,
he investigated the causes of typhoid
fever in Washington and was the first to
point out the role of flies as vectors.
In 1894 the bacteriology course was
renamed “Special Pathology and Bacteri-
ology” and later “General Pathology and
Bacteriology.” More emphasis was given
to infectious diseases, their etiology,
pathology, and prophylaxis. In 1930,
Bacteriology and Parasitology became a
separate department called Bacteriology
and Preventive Medicine, comprising
bacteriology, immunology, mycology, pro-
tozoology, and parasitology. The Depart-
ment is now headed by R. E. Ritts, who
received his M.D. from George Washing-
ton School of Medicine. His particular
interest is immunology.
Howard University began the first ses-
sion of the four-year curriculum for the
medical degree on October 1, 1894.
Bacteriology and pathological histology
were taught in the third year. W. W.
Alleger was head of the department from
1894 to 1910; M. W. Lyons from 1910 to
1915; R. D. Adams, E. R. Whitmore, and
88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES |
E. S. Keener, respectively, from 1916 to
1922; and A. B. Jackson from 1923 to
1931. Dr. Jackson’s successor was H. A.
Poindexter, who served from 1931 to
1949. During this time, he instituted
many changes in the program: student
group problems, student and staff research
and department seminars. His interests
ranged from protozoal infections to health
surveys of Negroes in the rural areas of
the Southern States. When Dr. Poin-
dexter entered the Medical Corps of the
CeSeearmy im 1943, P. 5S. Cornely be-
came head and continued until his ap-
pointment as medical director of Freed-
man’s Hospital in 1947. Dr. Cornely’s
interests were primarily in public health
and medical education. Ruth E. Moore
was acting head of the department until
1949, when she became head. In 1958
she was succeeded by C. W. Buggs. The
new basic science building was completed
and occupied in 1956. The same year
Preventive Medicine and Public Health
became a separate department. The name
was changed to Microbiology in 1957.
In the early days of the University of
Maryland, bacteriology was under the
Department of Veterinary Science. After
World War I, course offerings were ex-
panded. Graduate research was encour-
aged and seminars and several specialized
courses were instituted. In 1922, the
Department of Bacteriology and Sanita-
tion was organized. Bacteriology was
separated from veterinary science in 1930,
and L. A. Black, the first faculty member
with a doctorate in bacteriology, was
appointed associate professor. In 1931,
the first doctorate was awarded to W. G.
Malcolm, now president of the American
Cyanamid Company. L. H. James served
as chairman of the department until
1944 and O. N. Allen until 1946. The
present chairman is J. E. Faber. Since
1931, the Department of Microbiology (as
it has been designated since 1959) has
_ awarded over 100 doctoral degrees and
has gained international recognition. Its
primary aim is the discovery and dis-
_ Aprit, 1964
semination of basic information on the
biology of bacteria and related micro-
organisms.
Walter Reed Army Institute
of Research
Surgeon-General George M. Sternberg,
founder of the Army Medical School,
pioneered in bacteriology. Early mile-
stones were F. F. Russell’s development
of a typhoid immunizing agent and its
first use on a massive scale in 1911;
C. F. Craig’s extensive studies on tropical
diseases; J. S. Simmon’s research on
dengue fever, malaria, and St. Louis en-
cephalitis; E. B. Vedder’s demonstrations
that emetine was the therapy for ame-
biasis and that including rice grain husks
in the diet prevented beriberi; and R. A.
Kelser’s development of immunizing
agents for rinderpest and rabies. Captain
C. R. Darnall, a 1910 faculty member,
originated the chlorine method of purify-
ing water and developed a mechanical
liquid chlorine water purifier. Health
and medical problems of World War I
increased the projects in preventive medi-
cine, control of communicable diseases,
and manufacture of biologic products.
F. G. Blake and Russell Cecil produced
and studied experimental pneumonia in
monkeys.
Equine encephalomyelitis became vir-
tually non-existent in the military after
Col. Raymond Randall, a Veterinary
School officer, developed a vaccine in
1939. Major F. E. Rodriguez, Army
Dental School, was first to isolate strains
of lactobacilli from carious teeth and to
emphasize their importance in dental
caries. That not a single soldier in World
War II died of typhoid may be credited
to the school and to Col. J. F. Siler’s
development of a more potent typhoid
vaccine in 1939. J. E. Smadel and asso-
ciates demonstrated in 1949 that both
scrub typhus and typhoid fever could be
effectively treated with
rapidly and
chloramphenicol.
In April. 1957, M. R. Hilleman of
89
WRAIR read a New York Times item
reporting that 250,000 people in Hong
Kong had been stricken by an epidemic
of influenza. Suspicious of this high
infection rate, Dr. Hillman obtained
throat washings from the flu victims. Five
round-the-clock working days later, he
and his associates had isolated and identi-
fied a new influenza virus for which no
antibodies were present in the body.
Samples were dispatched to six drug com-
panies in time to prepare, test, and pro-
duce a vaccine before Asian Flu could
gain a serious hold in America.
Recent special projects of the Institute
include the establishment, in 1956, of a
germfree laboratory, fourth in the world.
Here chicks, rats, and guinea pigs are
brought to life and maintained in com-
pletely germ-free environments.
Studies on the Agent of Trachoma
At Naval Medical Research Institute*
Francis B. Gordon
Department of Microbiology, Naval Medical Research Institute, National
Naval Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland
The World Health Organization has
estimated that more than 500 million
people are afflicted with trachoma (1).
The disease is seen especially in the
Middle East, the Mediterranean area, parts
of Africa, southern and southeast Asia,
and parts of South America. Incidence of
affected persons in different populations
varies but may exceed 90 percent. In
spite of the value of antibacterial drugs
in treatment, control of trachoma has not
been entirely successful due to the pro-
longed course of therapy needed, the
occurrence of reinfection, and other so-
cial or economic factors in affected popu-
lations.
Laboratory investigation of trachoma
entered a new phase following a report
from China in 1957 by T’ang and his
associates on the cultivation of the tra-
* From Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, Navy
Department, Research Task MR005.09-1200.05.
The opinions or assertions contained herein are
the private ones of the writer and are not to be
construed as official or reflecting the views of the
Navy Department or the naval service at large.
choma agent in the yolk sac of embryo-
nated eggs. Confirmation from various
parts of the world soon appeared, and
infection of human volunteers with culti-
vated strains soon fulfilled Koch’s third
postulate. The availability of numerous
strains of this microorganism, cultivable
in yolk sacs, provided new tools for in-
vestigation. The result has been a great
increase in the study of the epidemiology
of trachoma, the nature of the etiologic
agent, and renewed search for better meth-
ods of diagnosis and control.
The agent of trachoma, first recognized
as cytoplasmic inclusions in infected con-
junctival cells by Halberstaedter and von
Prowazek in 1907, and the similar agent
of inclusion conjunctivitis have recently
been given the interim name “TRIC”
agents to avoid the cumbersome longer
names. The etiologic agents of lympho-
granuloma venereum, and the numerous
“psittacosis-like” strains from birds and
mammals are closely related to the TRIC
agents. The members of this large group
have long been called viruses because
90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
\
}
Fig.l. Strain TW-1 of trachoma agent, cultured
in entodermal cells of chick embryo. May-Green-
wald-Giemsa stain. A. Initial bodies 18 hours
after inoculation. Approx. 1950 X. B. Two
mature ovoid vesicles (inclusions) at 60 hours
after inoculation. The darker bodies are host
cell nuclei. Approx. 980 X.
of their small size (infectious particles
being about 300 mu in diameter) and their
dependence upon an intracellular environ-
ment for growth. Accumulating evidence
in recent years, presented in a current
review by Moulder (2), indicates that
these agents possess the essential prop-
erties of bacteria and can no longer be
called viruses. There is no consensus
at present on suitable taxonomic terms,
Miyagawanella and Chlamydia being the
recommendations for generic names found
in Bergey’s Manual; others favor Bed-
sonia as a generic term (3) for some
members of the broad psittacosis—lympho-
granuloma venereum — trachoma (PLT)
group.
_ Aprit, 1964
Among the investigators who quickly
went into trachomatous populations with
the new laboratory tools was a group at
Naval Medical Research Unit No. 2 at
Taipei, Taiwan. They, and others, made
available to us their early isolates. The
remainder of the present communication
will describe briefly the investigations
performed in the past four years on tra-
choma and inclusion conjunctivitis (blen-
norrhea) strains, as well as psittacosis and
related agents, at the Naval Medical Re-
search Institute in Bethesda. What is
reported here represents the contributions
of a number of scientists and our sup-
porting staff working on different aspects
of the program. Individual identifica-
tion with various phases of the work will
be indicated principally by reference to
publications (4).
Cultivation in Cell Monolayers. Our
first efforts were directed toward cultiva-
tion of TRIC agents in cell cultures such
as Weiss and Huang had used earlier for
study of the feline pneumonitis agent.
The cultures consisted of explants from
the blastoderm of 4-day chick embryos,
which form monolayers of large flat cells.
Centrifugation of the inoculum onto monc-
layers was found (5) to increase the level
of infection as much as two orders of
magnitude, when determined by inclusion
counts. By examining such preparations
at intervals, the developmental cycle of
the trachoma strains was observed (6)
and seen to be similar in all essential
characteristics to that of the previously
described psittacosis cycle. Initial bodies,
900 mp or greater in diameter, had
formed small clusters by 18 hours. These
increased in size by further multiplica-
tion of individual particles. Particles of
smaller size began to appear and _ in-
creased rapidly in number relative to the
large particles, eventually forming at 48
to 72 hours a large, mature vesicle, the
typical inclusion, composed mainly of
elementary bodies. This sequence is illus-
trated in Figure 1.
All strains of TRIC agents appeared
91
essentially the same when studied by this
technique, but a striking difference in
morphology was seen when they were
compared with strains of psittacosis, fe-
line pneumonitis, and other avian and
mammalian agents of this group. Figure 2
illustrates the irregular pattern made by
the psittacosis inclusion and may be com-
pared with Figure 1 where the much more
rigid trachoma inclusion is_ illustrated.
An additional difference can be seen in
this and other types of infected cell
cultures when the inclusions are stained
with lugol’s solution or with periodic
acid—schiff’s reagent (PAS). The TRIC
inclusions contain glycogen or a gly-
cogen-like material which stains differen-
tially with these reagents. This is also
true of isolates of lymphogranuloma
venereum, inclusion conjunctivitis, and
two strains derived from rodents, but
glycogen was not found in the inclusions
of many other PLT strains. Glycogen
first appears on the second day after cells
are infected, reaches its peak at about
48 hours, and tends to fade and disappear
on the third and fourth days, coincident
with maturation of the inclusion body.
It is demonstrable in many varieties of
host cell, and in our hands its presence
or absence has been governed entirely by
the strain of infective agent. This suggests
that its formation is the result of activity
of the intracellular agent rather than the
host cell and may be a valid character for
a taxonomic subdivision of the PLT group.
The comparative susceptibility of a num-
ber of cell strains in comparison with
chick embryo entoderm was studied. The
TRIC agents are obviously not fastidious
as to host cells since inclusions were
obtained in many types of cells tested
by us and others, including chicken,
rabbit, mouse, monkey, and human. The
McCoy cell line, first used for PLT agents
by Morris Pollard, proved to be especially
suitable and has been extensively used in
our laboratory. Intracellular growth of
these agents, as measured by numbers or
size of inclusions, is readily influenced by
Fig. 2. Feline pneumonitis agent 48 hours after
inoculation of entodermal cells of chick embryo.
Irregular inclusions are seen surrounding the
host cell nucleus. May-Greenwald-Giemsa stain.
Approx. 1950 X.
factors in the environment. Increasing
the level of glucose in the cell culture
medium from the usual 5.6 mmoles
(0.1 percent) by addition of 30 mmoles
increased the number of inclusions pro-
duced and the infective titer of the har-
vest obtained (7). The temperature of
incubation directly affected the size of
the inclusion. An incubation temperature
of 32° instead of the usual 35° produced
a smaller inclusion, presumably by de-
creasing the rate of growth. Reduction in
the concentration of horse serum in the
medium to 1 percent similarly reduced
the average size of the inclusions from
that seen with 10 percent horse serum.
Our standard culture medium is now
composed of Eagle’s minimal medium
with vitamin and glutamine supplement,
with 10 percent horse serum, and with an
added 30 mmoles of glucose. McCoy cell
monolayers are grown on coverslips in
flat-bottomed tubes to allow centrifuga-
tion of the inoculum onto the cells.
Most strains of TRIC agents produce
only a single developmental cycle in a
cell culture inoculated in the usual man-
92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Ss
arations.
ner with dilute emulsions of infected yolk
sac tissue or with partially purified prep-
That is, few or no host ceils
are infected by elementary bodies spon-
taneously released from first cycle inclu-
sions. Nevertheless, infection is readily
detected by observing stained inclusions,
and quantitation is accomplished by
counting the number of inclusions in a
unit area of the coverslip.
Although progressive infection of cell
cultures ordinarily does not occur, as
mentioned above, mechanical breaking of
infected cells in a sonic oscillator, or in
some cases by forceful pipetting, will
release infective particles so that passage
in cell culture can be effected. With two
strains, TE-55 and MRC-1/G, the latter
from inclusion blennorrhea, and _ both
especially amenable to passage, we were
able to maintain chronically infected
flask cultures over a period of many
months. Reinfection of fresh host celis
was encouraged by suspending and re-
setting the infected cultures at frequent
intervals to break up infected cells and
release elementary bodies. After two or
three such suspendings and _ resettings,
almost all of the cells of the culture would
be infected and the culture thereby de-
stroyed, but we prevented this by lower-
ing the temperature of incubation to 32°.
When this occurred, the cells grew faster
than the intracellular agent and _ shifted
the equilibrium in favor of the cells. By
alternating a culture between 35° and
32° and suspending and resetting at ap-
propriate intervals, the infection couid
be encouraged or retarded and the culture
could be carried indefinitely (8). At each
suspending, a portion of the culture was
removed and stored. By this means large
quantities of cell culture grown agents
were harvested and used in immunologic
studies to be described below.
Susceptibility of TRIC Strains to
Chemotherapeutic Agents. One of the
early bases for suspicion that the PLT
agents were not true viruses was their
susceptibility to sulfonamides (some
APRIL, 1964
strains) and to antibiotics. Our interest
in this general subject has been concerned
with the possible appearance of drug-
resistant strains of these agents and
whether drug-resistant TRIC strains can
be produced in the laboratory as has
been accomplished with lymphogranuloma
venereum, psittacosis, mouse pneumonitis,
and feline pneumonitis strains. We have
also studied antibacterial agents for sup-
pression of contaminating bacteria in
yolk sac or cell cultures of these forms.
Although the feline pneumonitis agent,
meningopneumonitis, and others of the
PLT group are naturally resistant to
sulfonamides, TRIC agents are sensitive,
and there has been no report of natural-
ly-occurring sulfonamide-resistant TRIC
strains. There has been one report, as yet
unconfirmed, of the development in the
laboratory of a sulfadiazine-resistant
trachoma strain. We have made repeated
attempts to induce sulfonamide and
chlorotetracycline resistance in trachoma
and inclusion conjunctivitis strains with-
out success.
The antibacterial drugs that we tested
against the TRIC agents are listed in
Table 1 along with the results obtained
(9). Ten-fold dilutions of virus with
selected concentrations of drug were
mixed and allowed to stand at room
temperature for 30 minutes before inocu-
lation into 12 eggs per dilution. A titer
based upon embryo mortality was thus
derived for the agent cultivated in the
absence and in the presence of each level
of drug. We found, as have others, that
streptomycin can be used in high con-
centrations without adverse effect on
TRIC agents. This is the drug used
mainly for isolation of these agents from
conjunctival specimens. Ristocetin also
had no adverse effect at the concentra-
tions used. Mycostatin in doses as great
as 500 units per egg, and perhaps greater,
is likewise suitable. Bacitracin showed no
adverse effects on trachoma isolates in
the concentrations used but some reduc-
tion in titer was observed in similar and
93
Table 1. Effect of selected antibiotics on yolk sac titrations of TRIC agents
Antibiotics TW-3
Streptomycin S 10000 *
Bacitracin, mixed with inoculum 1000
Bacitracin, separate inoculation into
ese
Ristocetin $2500
Mycostatin 500?
Polymyxin B, mixed with inoculum 0.05
Polymyxin B, separate inoculation
into egg S50
* Figures indicate highest antibiotic dose, in wg, showing no reduction in infectivity
most instances no end-point was reached.
repeated tests with MRC-1/G. Whether
this drug can be used to differentiate be-
tween strains within this group is not yet
apparent. Another surface-active anti-
biotic, polymyxin B, exhibited a great
adverse action on TW-3 when mixed in
vitro. When similar or greater doses of
bacitracin or polymyxin B were put into
the egg ajter inoculation, no reduction in
infectivity was apparent, indicating that
the adverse effect was entirely in vitro
before infection was established. The con-
clusions derived from the results depicted
in Table 1 were confirmed in infected
cell cultures.
As a result of these tests, we regularly
employ ristocetin and streptomycin at
100 pg and 50 wg per ml, respectively,
when antibacterial drugs are needed in
the cultures.
Purification of Infectious Particles. The
only satisfactory method of growing the
TRIC agents in large numbers is to use
the yolk sac of the embryonated egg. This
culture medium has decided disadvan-
tages if one wishes to purify a suspension
of infectious particles. Nevertheless, a
reasonable degree of purification can be
obtained without undue inactivation by
various modifications of methods first
used for rickettsiae, and many satisfactory
preparations have been used in our lab-
oratory for various purposes. The method
Strains
TE-55 Cal-2 Har-l MRC-1/G
>=1000 S1000 1000 1000
3500 S500 S500 <P ol
=1000
S1000 S=1000 S1000 =1000
$3000
titer. In
is to treat suspensions of infected yolk
sacs with trypsin, 0.5 percent final solu-
tion, for 30 minutes at room temperature
and then to use two or more cycles of
high and low speeds of centrifugation.
To this can be added a treatment with
Celite or exposure to an anion exchanger
for removing extraneous material.
With such preparations, factors influ-
encing the stability of these agents were
studied (10). It became apparent from
these studies that these agents required
some osmotic protection. The concentra-
tion of sucrose needed for optimal sta-
bility in some strains was as high as 0.4
M. The addition of bovine plasma _al-
bumin further increased stability to a
level comparable to that of the crude
yolk sac preparations. Although the sta-
bility of intracellular microorganisms is
often greater in a diluent high in potas-
sium rather than sodium ion (rickettsiae
and some malarial parasites), this was
not true of strain TW-3. This phenome-
non can be explained by analogy with
the effect of these ions on rickettsiae and
on Wolbachia persica, which is also more
stable in an environment of Nat. Potas-
sium ion stimulates the respiratory activ-
ity of both agents; nevertheless, active
metabolism is associated with high sta-
bility of the infectivity of rickettsiae but
more rapid decline of infectivity in the
94, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
case of W. persica.
Metabolic Activity. The presence of
~ glycogen or a glycogen-like substance in
the inclusions of trachoma agents, with
circumstantial evidence that this is pro-
duced as an activity of the microorganism
rather than the host cell, directed atten-
tion to the possibility of a carbohydrate
metabolism of these microorganisms.
While Richard A. Ormsbee of the Rocky
Mountain Laboratory, Hamilton, Mont.,
was a guest scientist in our laboratory,
he and Emilio Weiss, using purified
preparations, provided conclusive evi-
dence for glucose utilization by purified
suspensions (11). This was accomplished
by incubating the suspensions with C‘+
glucose. When the COs was examined,
high radioactive counts were obtained
when carbon 1 of the glucose had been
labeled, but not from labeled carbon 6.
Since then Dr. Weiss has demonstrated
similar activity of other strains including
those of the psittacosis group (12). These
results are summarized in Table 2. The
amount of glucose utilized, 0.2 to 0.3
pmole, was not sufficient to produce
measurable manometric changes in the
Warburg respirometer, and this explains
the failure of previous investigators to
demonstrate this phenomenon. These re-
sults represent the strongest evidence yet
obtained that these agents are bacterium-
like rather than virus-like.
Analysis of Infectious Particles. Sus-
pensions of purified particles of TRIC
agents, prepared as_ described above,
were subjected to sonication in an attempt
to provide fractions for. antigenic and
chemical analysis. Although the particles
ean be ruptured by treatment in a sonic
oscillator under standard conditions after
1 to 2 hours of oscillation, it was found
that this time could be reduced to 15 to
30 minutes if small glass beads were
introduced into the suspension. By dif-
ferential centrifugation of such sonicated
preparations, it was possible to prepare
two fractions arbitrarily termed “cell
sap’ and “cell walls.” The cell walls could
APRIL, 1964
be visualized under the electron micro-
scope as empty sacs not unlike the sim-
ilarly prepared walls of bacterial cells
(Figure 3). Chemical examination of the
cell walls revealed only trace amounts of
nucleic acids and gave total protein and
carbohydrate values which agree closely
with those shown by others for PLT
agents.
Table 2. Metabolism of glucose by PLT
agents
CO: produced from glucose
carbons in positions:
I 3,4 6 All
(Micromoles per gram of agent
protein)
Psittacosis 84 N.D.* 0.5 322
Meningo-
pneumonitis 54 N.D. N.D. Iba Bi)
Feline
pneumonitis 27 39 0.2 71
Mouse
pneumonitis 64 N.D. 0.6 192
Trachoma 36 N:D: 0.2 96
Inclusion
blennorrhea 41 4.7 0.2 95
Control unin-
fected yolk
sac (four
prepar-
ations) O83) NDS 0:04-0:07,5 LIEKG
* Not done.
Serologic Studies. Limited observations
with the fractions described above indi-
cated that the group antigen common to
the entire PLT group was present in both
the cell sap and the cell walls. One of
the objectives of this line of study is to
provide a stable species-specific antigen
that will allow the detection of antibodies
formed as a result of trachoma infection
and will not be reactive to antibodies
formed against psittacosis infection. Such
a reagent would be of great potential
value in identifying trachoma. Although
such antigens have at times been re-
ported, their reproducibility has not been
regular. .
95
Immunologic relationships within the
group were studied more extensively by
means of the CF test, by Alexander L.
Terzin who was on our staff during 1963
as a guest scientist (13). Antisera were
prepared in rabbits using McCoy cell
grown strains TE-55 and MRC-1/G. Such
antisera can be used without difficulty
against antigenic preparations derived
from infected volk sacs because of the
absence of any common antigen, 1.e.,
yolk sac, in the immunizing and _ test
antigens. When these antisera were ab-
sorbed with boiled antigen preparations
(mouse pneumonitis strain, mopn), the
group antibody was easily removed leav-
ing specific antibodies. By using such
absorbed sera, the species-specific anti-
gens distinguishing between the TRIC
agents on the one hand and psittacosis
antigens on the other hand were easily
demonstrated by the CF test. Purified
suspensions of elementary bodies, pre-
pared as described above, were found to
possess species-specific antigenic activity
when used as complement fixing antigens
against the absorbed rabbit antisera.
Such antigens, although retaining their
species-specific property for long periods,
will still react with group antibody in
nonabsorbed sera. They are useful, how-
ever, for detecting a specific antibody in
sera from which group antibody has been
Fig. 3. Electron micrograph, 9875 X. Air-dried
preparation, shadowed with chromium at an
angle of 23°. Cell walls of trachoma strain
Cal-1 following 10 minutes of sonication with
glass beads. Two or more intact particles remain.
absorbed by boiled antigen. These find-
ings are illustrated in Table 3. Dr. Terzin
made two additional findings of practical
interest to persons performing CF tests
with this group of agents. A number of
preparations of guinea pig complement
were found to contain anti-PLT anti-
bodies (14). This was ascribed to proba-
ble unrecognized infection of the guinea
pigs with a PLT agent. Since this finding,
such an infection, causing spontaneous
inclusion conjunctivitis in guinea pigs,
has been described (15). A second inter-
esting finding was the demonstration of
an antigen common to normal yolk and
Table 3. Antibody titers in CF tests that demonstrated presence or absence of specific
antigen in various preparations
Preparations with
group antigen
only
Antisera
Mopn, Psitt,
boiled ether
extracted
MRC-1/G 128 128
MRC-1/G, absorbed * <4 <4
TE-55 1024 512
TE-55, absorbed * <16 <16
* Absorbed with group antigen (boiled Mopn).
~
Preparations with both
group and specific antigens
(elementary body suspensions)
MRC-1/G TES5 Psitt
64. 256 128
8 16 <8
512 1024 —
16 32 ~-
96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Ee
= 3 SS
SS :
a
to PLT agents (16). Various chemical
and immunological manipulations pro-
vided evidence that this observation was
not the result of a nonspecific or anti-
complementary activity. It was clear that
a similar substance from both sources
was able to fix complement in_ the
presence of anti-PLT antisera. The recog-
nition of these two factors will increase
the accuracy of CF tests with the PLT
group and will provide explanations for
occasional irregularities in such tests.
Table 4. Comparison of indirect hemag-
glutination with complement fixation tests
using solubilized antigen; antiserum titra-
tion
Antiserum
Antigen
TE-55 Psitt. 6BC
ii. Giles gJ-He CE.
TE-55 (trachoma) 2560 128 <5 128
Cal-2 (trachoma) 2560 256 <5 52
6BC (psittacosis) <5 64 10 64
Another improvement in _ serologic
methods with these agents was sought by
means of indirect hemagglutination (IH)
techniques. This study was initiated by
Willie Turner while in this laboratory in
1962 as a guest scientist. Antisera were
prepared in rabbits, as described above,
using McCoy cell grown TE-55 and
MRC-1/G. When sonicated preparations
of suspended elementary bodies were ab-
sorbed onto tanned sheep erythrocytes,
hemagglutination was observed’ with
homologous antisera and to a less extent
with the heterologous strain (17). These
observations have since been confirmed
by N. A. Vedros using other PLT strains.
Table 4 shows representative results of
comparisons between IH and CF tests.
It is clear that the antigen detected by
the CF tests is the commonly known
group antigen, present in all members of
the PLT group. Using the same antigenic
preparation and antisera, IH tests de-
APRIL, 1964
tected antigens present in the trachoma
strains, but not in the psittacosis strain,
and vice versa. This technique is being
further investigated to determine its use-
fulness with this group of agents.
Problem of Laboratory Diagnosis. Two
procedures have been available for detec-
tion for the causative agent of trachoma
in infected eyes, i.e., microscopic exami-
nation of direct smears and the inoculation
of conjunctival scrapings into the yolk
sac of embryonated eggs. The first method
is time-consuming and far from 100 per-
cent positive in clinically positive cases.
The latter method is usually positive only
during the acute stage, and although it
has been used as a valuable research tool
it is not satisfactory as a routine diag-
nostic procedure. Blind passages in yolk
sacs are often needed before a specimen
can be called negative and many weeks
may be required to complete the test. Re-
cently a report has appeared from another
laboratory in which encouraging results
were obtained with fluorescent antibody
staining (18).
Because the sensitivity of cell cultures
was found to compare favorably with the
sensitivity of the egg for detecting high
dilution of laboratory established trachoma
strains, a study was undertaken to deter-
mine the potential usefulness of cell cul-
tures for detecting the trachoma agent in
infected eyes (19). Two monkeys were
inoculated with strain Cal-l, originally
isolated from a case of trachoma in Cali-
fornia. Both monkeys developed conjunc-
tivitis within a few days accompanied by
the cardinal features of acute trachoma in
man. Conjunctival specimens were ob-
tained at frequent intervals after inocula-
tion by means of washing the conjunctival
sacs and by swabbing the tarsal conjunc-
tiva with a cotton applicator. Table 5 sum-
marizes in shortened form the results of
our attempts to recover the agent in McCoy
cells and in yolk sacs. Although not quite
equal to the yolk sac in these tests, it
appears that the cell culture method com-
pares favorably and has the distinct ad-
97
vantage of giving results in a few days
rather than the weeks required with the
yolk sac method.
We had the opportunity to try the cell
culture technique in a human infection
following a laboratory accident (20). A
hypodermic needle became separated from
the syringe during intravenous inoculation
of mice, and some of the inoculum, which
was a 20 percent suspension of infected
yolk sac material, splashed onto the face
of a laboratory technician. Five days later
the patient noted periods of slight irrita-
tion and itching in the right eye. The fol-
lowing day there was redness, itching, and
some pain in both eyes. An acute bilateral
conjunctivitis developed and the signs of
acute trachoma appeared. On days 6, 7,
and 8 smears were made in which tra-
choma inclusions were eventually found
(days 6 and 7). On day 6, a specimen
was taken on a sterile cotton applicator
and transferred to tubes containing the
McCoy cell culture medium. Cell cultures
were inoculated in the usual manner and
on day 8 inclusions in these cultures were
demonstrated after staining with lugol’s
solution. Some of the material taken on
day 6 also was inoculated into embryo-
nated eggs. One embryo died on day 11
and the yolk smear showed the elementary
bodies typical of trachoma. This experi-
ence encouraged us to consider cell cul-
tures for examination of material taken
from naturally-occurring cases of tracho-
ma. Such a study is under way at present
in which cell culture is directly compared
with yolk sac. Although some positive re-
sults have been obtained, the investigation
has not progressed sufficiently to provide
a satisfactory comparison of these two
methods for detecting naturally occurring
trachoma infection.
Summary. Trachoma is still a serious
health problem in many parts of the world.
In recent years, satisfactory methods of
cultivation of the etiologic agent have ap-
peared, providing new approaches to long-
standing problems. A brief review of in-
vestigations on the trachoma agent and
Table 5. Comparison of cell culture (CC)
and yolk sac of embryonated egg (YS) for
detection of trachoma infection in expert-
mentally infected monkeys
No. of Both tests CC positive,
tests positive YS negative
Monkey H a 1 0
Monkey M 24 15 1
Totals 31 16 ]
CC negative, Both tests
YS positive negative
Monkey H 2 4
Monkey M 3 5
Totals 5 9
related microorganisms, conducted at the
Naval Medical Research Institute, has been
presented. This has included cursory
résumés of studies on growth in cell cul-
tures, morphology, susceptibility to chem-
otherapeutic agents, purification, stability.
metabolic activity, analysis of infectious
particles, immunologic relations, and the
problem of laboratory diagnosis.
References and Notes
(1) Franceschetti, A. Eyes in danger at every
age of life. World Health, March-April, 1962.
(2) Moulder, J. W. The psittacosis group as
bacteria. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York,
1964.
(3) Meyer, K. F. Psittacosis group. Ann. N. Y
Acad. Sci. 56, 545. (1953).
(4) For sources of broader information, in-
cluding background and recent investigations
on trachoma, the following references are cited:
Gordon, F. B., Ed. The biology of the trachoma
agent. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 98, 1 (1962);
Bernkopf. H. Trachoma virus—recent develop-
ments. Prog. Med. Virol. 4, 119 (1962).
(5) Weiss, E., and Dressler, H. R. Centrifuga-
tion of rickettsiae and viruses onto cells and its
effect on infection. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. & Med.
103, 691 (1960).
(6) Gordon, F. B., and Quan, A. L. Morpho-
logic observations on trachoma virus in cell cul-
tures. Science 131, 733 (1960).
(7) Vedros, N. A., and Gordon, F. B. The
influence of glucose concentration on growth of
PLT viruses in McCoy cells. (abstr.) Bacteriol.
Proc. (1963).
98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
’ strains in cell cultures.
(8) Gordon, F. B., Quan, A. L., and Dressler,
H. R. Observations on growth of trachoma
(abstr.) Bacteriol. Proc.
(1963).
(9) Gordon, F. B., and Quan, A. L. Drug sus-
ceptibilities of the psittacosis. and trachoma
agents. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 98, 261 (1962).
(10) Weiss, E., and Dressler, H. R. Investiga-
tion of the stability of the trachoma agent. Ann.
N. Y. Acad. Sci. 98, 250 (1962).
(11) Ormsbee, R. A., and Weiss, E. Trachoma
agent: glucose utilization by purified suspen-
sions. Science 142, 1077 (1963).
(12) Weiss, E. Glucose metabolism by agents
of the psittacosis-trachoma group. Virology
(1964). In press.
(13) Terzin; A. L. : Serological. studies on
group and species specific antigens of trachoma
and inclusion conjunctivitis (TRIC) agents.
J. Hyg. (1964). In press.
(14) Terzin, A. L. “False positive” comple-
ment fixation eh psittacosis-trachoma . antigens
due to. antibodies in complement preparations.
ie Hyg. (1964). In press.
(15) Murray, E. S. Guinea pig inclusion con-
junctivitis virus. I, Isolation and_ identification
as a member of the psittacosis-lymphogranuloma
trachoma group. J. Inf. Dis. 114, 1 (1964).
(16) Terzin,..A. L. Studies. on a common
bedsonia-group, antigen (CBA) found in the
yolk of hens’ eggs. J. Immunol. (1964). In press.
(17) Turner, W., and Gordon, F. B. Indirect
hemagglutination with thé trachoma agent and
related microorganisms. J. Bact. (1964)... Jn
press.
(18) Nichols, R. L., McComb, D. E., Haddad,
N., and ineeee E. S. Studies on trachoma. II.
Comparison of fluorescent antibody, Giemsa, and
egg isolation methods for detection of trachoma
virus in. human conjunctival scrapings. Am.. J.
Trop. ‘Med. & .Hyg...12, 223 (1963).
(19) Gordon, F. B., Magruder, G. B., Quan,
A. L., and Arm, H. G. Cell cultures for detec:
tion of trachoma virus from experimental simian
infections: Proc: Soc. Exp. Biol. & Med. 112,
236 (1963) .
(20) Magruder, G. Bs Gordon, F, B., Quan,
INS Th aunvél Dressler, aE R. ecient cian
nego with rapid diagnosis by a cell culture
technique. Arch. Ophthalmol. 69, 300 (1963).
Potential Analytical Applications
Of T fetrahymena Pyri formis*
Howard Reynolds
amr Nutrition Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland
Roraiphiohe pyriformis was the first of
the protozoa to be cultivated in completely
defined media. ‘The exhaustive investi-
gations by the Amherst group, Kidder and
Dewey and co-workers (1, 2), defined its
absolute amino acid, vitamin and other
srowth factor requirements, and their ob-
servations were instrumental in ‘revealing
a-lipoic acid as a new member of ‘the
family of B- vitamins (3) and the final in-
gredient permitting assembly of a Leltet
oon for its" culture.
no Pee ana Dene on ee ne Amino
Acids of the Analytical Microbiology Group, at
the 63rd annual meeting of the American Society
for’ a ea held ee 5-9, 1963 im: Cleve-
Jaindic,) 215° : ;
APRIL, 1964
The observed nutritional requirements
proved to be remarkably similar to those
for mammals and birds; the similarity was
especially striking in the requirement, by
T. pyriformis, for the 10 amino acids
essential for normal growth of the rat. In
addition, serine, not an essential for mam-
mals, is synthesized too slowly by most
strains to permit normal growth without
an exogenous supply. Among the B-
vitamins, folic acid, nicotinamide, pan-
tothenic acid, riboflavin, thiamine, Bg, and
a-lipoic acid, the latter not a mammalian
requirement, are essential. It differs from
mammals and birds in requirements for
exogenous supplies of guanine and pyri-
midines and the absence of demonstrable
99
requirements for biotin, choline, Biz, the
fat-soluble vitamins, or lipid factors.
These biochemical characteristics pres-
aged a useful future for Tetrahymena in
the assay of nutrients and metabolites im-
portant in mammalian nutrition. Its re-
finement into an analytical tool for the as-
say of amino acids, purines, vitamins, and
other growth factors was a primary ob-
jective of the early work of the Amherst
group (4). This early promise has not
come to fruition, and little effort has been
directed toward the systematic exploita-
tion of Tetrahymena as an analytical tool.
Major obstacles to its routine use have
been summarized by Hutner and _ co-
workers (5) as: (a) the necessity for more
rigorous control of microbiological tech-
niques to maintain purity of cultures than
is required in bacteriological assays, (b)
carbohydrate sterilization, (c) require-
ments for aerobic growth conditions, and
(d) low growth temperature maximum.
Assays with the usual, hardy, lactic acid
bacteria are relatively immune to contami-
nation because of their rapid, essentially
anaerobic growth and the high rate of
acid production which quickly drops the
pH to levels inhibitory to ordinary air-
borne contaminants. In contrast, three or
more days of incubation are usually re-
quired to provide for adequate develop-
ment of Tetrahymena cultures, and the
optimum pH for its media is near neu-
trality. With aerobic conditions essential
for normal growth, the medium is not
acidified, hence provides excellent condi-
tions for growth of a variety of fortuitous
contaminants. The possibility for prac-
tical alleviation of this difficulty by the
judicious selection and use of antibiotics
would appear to be worth further inves-
tigation.
Glucose, the only simple sugar metabo-
lized by Tetrahymena, has usually been
used as a source of carbon and energy,
and it is generally inadvisable to auto-
clave it in the near neutral media required
by this organism. The necessity for sep-
100
0.4
0.2
(@) 2 4 6 8
CULTURE AGE -— DAYS
Fig. 1. Growth curves of Tetrahymena _pyri-
formis W in a defined medium with:
1, 2% dextrin; 2, 1% dextrin, 3 (open
squares), 2% glucose; 3 (closed cir-
cles), 1% glucose; 4, no carbohydrate.
(From Reynolds and Wragg, Reference
Cie)
arate sterilization and aseptic addition of
glucose to other ingredients complicates
the routine of assay procedure and intro-
duces further contamination hazard. This
difficulty, however, can be obviated by the
use of soluble starch or dextrin which is
heat-sterilizable with other media ingre-
dients. Dextrin has been demonstrated in
this laboratory (6, 7) to be a better growth
stimulator than glucose. In addition, it
does not exhibit the critical inhibitory
levels characteristic of glucose and shown
by Kidder and Dewey (3) to be determined
by the amino acid/carbohydrate ratio of
the medium. Relative growth stimulation
by glucose and dextrin in defined media
containing the 10 essential amino acids
plus serine is illustrated in Figure 1. In
the absence of carbohydrate, early decline
followed a limited maximum achieved after
three days of incubation. Growth stimu-
lation by 1 or 2 percent glucose was equiva-
lent and considerably less than that by 1
or 2.percent dextrin. Other data, obtained
under the same conditions but not pre-
sented here, showed a pronounced growth
lag with 3 percent glucose and essentially
complete growth inhibition at 4 and 5 per-
cent levels while 3, 4, and 5 percent levels
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
a a ri
i -
of dextrin were equally stimulatory and
_ somewhat better than 2 percent dextrin.
Under conditions of limited aeration.
Tetrahymena cultures develop growth-
limiting acidity resulting in death and
lysis of cells. Various devices, including
the slanting of tubes during incubation and
the use of small, 35-ml micro-Fernbach
flasks, have been used to obtain suitably
aerobic conditions during incubation. We
have obtained satisfactory growth, un-
accompanied by acidification, with 4-ml
quantities of media in 25 x 50 mm alumi-
num-capped shell vials incubated upright.
This provides a surface to volume ratio of
approximately 1, and growth is only mod-
erately reduced over that attained when
the surface to volume ratio is increased to
2 (Fig. 2). It will be seen that as the
surface/volume ratio (i.e., aeration) was
increased there were approximately parallel
increases in O.D., cell count, and pH, and
sharp reductions in cell volume and carbo-
hydrate utilization.
Hutner and Hamilton and co-workers
(5, 8, 9, 10) have discussed the present
applications of microbiological assays with
Tetrahymena and other protozoa and com-
2)
=
j>
Sz 2
a= -
ae OS =)
9 ww 6) Se
eo} Gye On
06 4 3
04 3 2 80
Ox2" 32 7.0
| 2
SURFACE/ VOLUME
Fig. 2. Effect of surface/volume ratio of medi-
um on O.D., cell count, pH, cell volume,
and carbohydrate utilization in Tetra-
hymena pyriformis cultures growing in
a defined medium. 1, O.D.; 2, cells/ml
x 10°; 3, pH; 4, average cell volume,
w® x 10%; 5, dextrin utilization, mg/ml.
APRIL, 1964.
bined this with some imaginative intro-
spection as to the potential future uses of
these organisms as tools to assist in the
unravelling of some of the many complex
biochemical problems that remain to baffle
and intrigue the investigator of nutrient
function and relation. It would be useless
redundancy to retrace here the expositions
of those scholarly theses. I will, there-
fore, consider here a few of the more
mundane aspects of the analytical appli-
cations of Tetrahymena and particularly
those where the work of our laboratory may
be of some pertinence.
Briefly with respect to some of the
B-vitamins: Kidder (1) has reported that
pyridoxal and pyridoxamine are 500 times
as active for Tetrahymena as is pyridoxine
and that pyridoxal phosphate is only 75
percent as active as pyridoxal. The rela-
tively low activity of pyridoxine is puzzling
in view of the apparently equal activity
for mammals of the three Bg moieties (11).
This might reflect a deficiency in Tetra-
hymena of an enzyme comparable to that
from rabbit liver described by Wada and
Snell (12) which oxidizes pyridoxine phos-
phate to pyridoxal phosphate. Nevertheless,
Hutner et al. (8), noting that in common
with mammals the Bg requirement of
Tetrahymena has not been bypassed, take
this as evidence that when serving as an
assay organism it is responding mainly
to this nutrient and not to products of its
catalytic activity. For this reason they con-
sider further study of the practicability of
such assays as worthy of continued effort.
Investigations by Kidder and Dewey
(13) showed Tetrahymena to be more ani-
mal-like in its folic acid requirements than
any other organism studied and demon-
strated its ability to respond equally to
free pteroyl glutamic acid and to its di-.
tri-, and penta-glutamates. On the basis of
these investigations, Jukes (14) described
a Tetrahymena assay for folic acid, noting
its advantage in comparison with bacterial
assays which require primary liberation of
folic acid thru the use of conjugase prep-
arations.
10]
-Stockstad et al. (15) describe a Tetra-
hymer4 assay for a-lipoic acid, recom-
mended by the specific response ‘of the’o or-
ganis® to both a-lipoic acid’ and >
conjugates, the latter being’ cmdbaitabte-¢ iO
other’ microorganisms. For the other vita-
mins Which it requires, Tetrahymena does
not appear to possess qualifications which
make it a likely candidate at this time to
replace the hardy, lactic- acid bacteria as
assay organisms.
The area where most interest has been
shown in the analytical application of
Tetrahymena is its development as an
analytical tool to replace the slow and
costly animal-feeding tests for assessing
the biological value of proteins. Tts suc-
cessful application for this purpose would
be of real economic value in such areas as
the rapid evaluation of large numbers of
protein samples, the control of oil seed
processing. operations, and ‘in the formu-
lation of mixed feeds.
Efforts to apply Tetrahymena to evalu-
ating proteins derive from the observation
of Kidder (16) that it utilizes intact pro-
teing readily. Attempts to apply Tetra-
hymena to protein quality evaluation were
begun by Rockland and Dunn in 1949
(17) and subjected to further study by
Williams and students in 1951 (18) and
1954 (19), by Rosen and Fernell (20, 21),
and by Viswantha and Liener in 1956 (22) ;
some modifications were proposed by Rosen
1960 (23). Teunisson in 1961 (24)
app lied the modified method to a survey
of 5 protein concentrates and later to tests on
4 t ihtbet of protein meals as part of a
col|jaborative study reported by Boyne et al.
(29), while Stott, Smith, and Rosen in
19e3 (26) described a simplified assay
procedure.
A major problem attending protein
quality evaluations with Tetrahymena has
been the lack of an unequivocal method for
estimating growth, or more specifically the
ayount of cellular protein synthesized in
media containing intact proteins in solu-
tig) or in suspension. Turbidimetric
methods are not applicable because of
102
changes in optical derisity associated with’
protein utilization.
Rockland and Dunn (17), applying tech-
niques used’ in bacteriological ‘assay ‘pro:
cedures, based growth estimates on thé
amount of acid produced during incubation’
for 41 days.
noted by others, acid production in Tetra:
hymena cultures is more a measure of
oxygen deprivation than’ of cell growth.
Williams and students (18, 19) proposed
an enzymatic test for measuring growth
of Tetrahymena in media containing pro-
teins. They were able to demonstrate a
linear relationship between numbers of
cells and enzymatic reduction of 2,3,5-
triphenyltetrazolium chloride.
— 60
E
oe tO
E 2
x<
ae -
Z be
re re)
°
« 20 ay
Qin, Sct
a
0.2 0.4 0.6
0.D.
Fi ig. 3. Relationship between O.D., cell count,
and protein synthesis in Teranena
pyriformis cultures in a defined medium
with glucose or dextrin. 1, cell count,
glucose medium; 2 (triangles), protein-
N glucose medium; 2 (circles), protein-
N, dextrin medians 3, cell count, dex-
trin medium. -
Rosen (21), examining growth measure-
ment methods previously used, demon-
strated that the intensity of color produced
in the Anderson-Williams (18) tetrazolium
reduction method ‘varied with the nature
of the protein present. Equal levels of dif:
ferent proteins could cause up to 100 per-
cent variation in color intensity. Assess-
ment of growth. by microscopic counting of
organisms. after culturing in media with
different proteins: resulted in some cross-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
As ‘shown here earlier; and’
Fernell and’
over of response with increasing levels of
- media protein, a difficulty previously ob-
served by Rockland and Dunn and by
Anderson and Williams. Observing that
ammonia production should reflect protein
catabolism and that.a low quality protein
should therefore lead to greater production
of ammonia. they examined and concluded
that the cell count/ammonia-N ratio pro-
vided a better measure of the efficiency with
which Tetrahymena made use of different
proteins.
-Subsequently, Rosen (23) observed that
the cell count/NH3;-N ratio as a criterion
for evaluating response of Tetrahymena
to proteins was subject to influence by the
ionic strength of the medium and _ that
anomalies attended its application to cereals
and some heat-damaged proteins. He there-
fore returned to the use of the direct micro-
scopic cell count as a measure of growth
response, a measure which, with Fernell
(20), he had previously reported as chang-
ing the relative values of some proteins as
protein level of the medium was increased,
as well as failing-to show a direct relation-
ship between growth of Tetrahymena and
accepted values of protein quality evaluated
by animal feeding tests.
Results obtained in our laboratory raise
questions as to the usefulness of either cell
count. or cell. .count/NH3-N ratio. as a
measure of the response of Tetrahymena
to media nitrogen. Its rate of growth, as
shown earlier, can be altered by changing
the type of carbohydrate in otherwise iden-
tical media. We have observed also that,
in both defined and crude media, average
volume of individual cells when carbohy-
drate is supplied as a polysaccharide, is 1.5
to 2 times that in the presence of glucose
(7). The effect of this differential response
on the relation between growth as meas-
ured by optical density and growth as
measured by cell count or by protein
synthesis is illustrated in Figure 3. It will
be seen that optical density provided a
satisfactory estimate of protein synthesized.
independent of the type of carbohydate.
while the relation between optical density
APRIL, 1964.
and cell count was quite different for cul-
tures from media with dextrin or glucose.
The problem of relating protein synthesis
to cell count is better illustrated by pre-
senting some of these data as in Figure 4.
Here, a cell count of 200,000/ml would
represent approximately 30 mcg/ml_ of
Tetrahymena protein nitrogen in media
with glucose as compared with approxi-
mately 45 mcg/ml in the dextrin media.
60
€
o
o
E 40
Zz
|
Zz
LJ
O
2720
fall
10 20 30
CELL COUNT x 10°
Fig. 4. Relationship between cell
count and
protein synthesized by Tetrahymena
pyriformis in a defined medium with:
1, dextrin; 2, glucose.
Type of carbohydrate can also have a
marked effect on the NH3-N/protein-N
ratio as is demonstrated by the data illus-
trated in Figure 5. With glucose in the
medium, there was a sharp increase in this
ratio as media nitrogen levels were in-
creased from 0.15 to 0.60 mg/ml. In the
presence of dextrin, change in this ratio
was relatively moderate and, at the highest
nitrogen. level, the apparent efficiency in
conversion of media nitrogen to protein
nitrogen was much greater in media with
dextrin than with glucose.
In contrast to the above noted problems
of assessing growth response in Tetra-
hymena in media containing complete pro-
teins, the number of reports of good cor-
103
relations between Tetrahymena and animal
assays of protein quality imply a solid
basis of similarity in the availability to
mammals and to this protozoan of amino
acids from different proteins. The largest
body of reported data comparing such
values is that of the collaborative study
reported by Boyne et al. (25). A sum-
mary of these data is presented in Table 1.
Data for three of the four zroups—13 to
18 samples each—of protein meals showed
statistically significant correlations _ be-
tween gross protein values (chicks) and
the Tetrahymena values. Of the three
groups in which net protein utilization
values (rat) were available, only those for
whale meat meals correlated with the ob-
served Tetrahymena values. At the same
time, the net protein utilization values and
gross protein values were not significantly
correlated with one of three groups of sam-
ples. Thus, on the overall record, the
agreement between the Tetrahymena and
animal protein evaluations compares favor-
ably with that of the two different animal
assays.
Results of these several attempts to eval-
uate protein quality on the basis of growth
response by Tetrahymena present the
anomalous aspects of reports, by most in-
vestigators, of good to excellent correlation
between the Tetrahymena assays and bio-
logical values as assessed by animal feeding
tests, even though all methods used in esti-
mating growth response of the protozoan
were equivocal in varying degrees. How-
ever, development of a reliable method for
measurement of growth response of Tetra-
hymena in protein media is essential for
any useful determination of its value for
assessing protein quality. Ideally this would
be separation of cells from the protein-con-
taining medium and determination, by
conventional methods, of the amounts of
cellular protein synthesized. Fernell and
Rosen (21), however, were unsuccessful in
attempts to separate Tetrahymena cells
from the protein media by differential
centrifugation in sucrose solutions or by
electro-migration techniques. At present
it would appear that measurement of
enzyme activity offers the greatest promise.
It is probably not being overly optimistic
to suppose that a systematic investigation
might be expected to reveal a satisfactory
dye reduction test or other appropriate
measure of enzyme activity, unaffected by
the nature of media protein, but directly
correlated with protein in the form of ac-
tive Tetrahymena cells.
Currently, protein evaluation methods
using microorganisms are subject to the
same criticism applied by Almquist (27)
to the determination of biological values
with higher animals. The situation is
analogous to attempting to determine the
adequacy of a food with respect to all
different vitamins by means of a single
It is also true that.
excepting those proteins with some rather
vrowth experiment.
extreme imbalance in their amino acid pat-
Table 1—Correlations between gross protein values (GPV ), net protein utilization (NPU)
and Tetrahymena evaluations (Tp) of quality of a series of protein meals | Adapted from
Boyne, et al. (25) |
Protein
GPV
i
Whale meat meals 0.894** (15)
Meat meals Gao seo)
Fish meals .070 (18)
Cottonseed meals 660% * (17)
Significant correlation: ** 1% level; * 5% level
( ) Number of pairs of samples.
104
Correlation coefficients (1)
NPU GPV
Tp NPU
0.821** (14) 0.904** (14)
3303 aC) ALT (TS)
WO2E F(eiG) 92277. (1G)
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
O
wz Dextrin
ea Glucose
O
00
Oo
oO)
©
£
NH3-N PROTEIN -N
(®)
Be
O eat : ; Hea a
OAS 2 eS) 4°°5
N-mg/ml O15
3 ae
0.30
0.60
Fig. 5. Growth of Tetrahymena pyriformis and relation of NHs-N to protein-N in defined media
with glucose or dextrin and three media levels of amino acid nitrogen. Superimposed
curves, growth as measured by O.D.; upper curve, dextrin medium; lower curve, glucose
medium.
terns, the results of such tests are primarily
determined by the limiting amino acid.
This aspect complicates the interpretation
of results based on attempts to evaluate
proteins with those bacteria requiring sev-
eral amino acids not essential for mam-
mals or not requiring some which are
essential. Of these tests Carroll (28) has
observed that results will be influenced by
such factors as the quantitative require-
ments of the test organisms for amino acids,
the relative amounts of these actually pres-
ent in the protein source, and the sus-
ceptibility of the proteins of the source
to enzyme digestion under the conditions
chosen for testing. These objections apply
also, in some measure, to protein evalu-
ations with Tetrahymena, but the mammal-
ian-like amino acid requirements of this
organism and its ability to digest proteins
with proteolytic enzymes exhibiting several
similarities to those of mammals (29) sig-
nificantly lessen these difficulties of inter-
pretation. Futhermore, Bender (30), re-
viewing biological methods of evaluating
protein quality, characterized attempts to
use bacteria such as Streptococcus faecalis
APRIL, 1964
(31) and Leuconostoc mesenteroides (32)
for this purpose as less successful ap-
proaches than evaluations with Tetra-
hymena.
Grau and Carroll (28), reviewing prob-
lems inherent in evaluating the nutritional
values of protein, conclude that, while
measures such as “biological value,” “net
protein utilization,” etc., will be convenient
to use for some years, the value of a pro-
tein source will eventually be expressed in
terms of at least 10 different amino acids—
one for each in which the nutritionist is
interested. Tetrahymena assays may well
contribute to the realization of this pre-
diction. Rockland and Dunn in 1946 (33)
assayed tryptophan in unhydrolyzed casein
using Tetrahymena and obtained values
within the range of 1.2 to ].4 percent by
improved colorimetric procedures. Here
again, much additional information is
needed before this organism can be used
as a reliable tool for estimating avail-
ability of amino acids from intact proteins.
While the qualitative amino acid require-
ments of Tetrahymena are well documented,
the optimum pattern and quantitative re-
105
quirements are far from definition, a prob-
lem. equally current in animal nutrition
(34, 35). Dewey and Kidder (36) have
shown that all of the essential, and at least
five of the non-essential, amino acids can
cause measurable inhibition of growth by
Tetrahymena when not in proper balance.
On the basis of investigations by Wil-
liams et al. (37) reporting good correla-
tions between carcass assay and amino acid
requirements of rats, chicks, and pigs,
Whalen (38) in Williams’ laboratory used
an amino acid pattern for Tetrahymena
medium based on the carcass analysis
pattern of its cells. Use of the carcass
analysis pattern as a criterion of an otr-
ganism’s amino acid requirements involves
the assumption of equal utilization of all
amino-acids for purposes other than cellu-
lar protein synthesis. Wu and Hogg (39)
have reported, however, that with the ex-
ception of histidine total utilization of
individual amino acids by Tetrahymena
greatly exceeded cellular incorporation,
while excess of utilization over cellular. in-
corporation varied widely among the differ-
ent amino acids. In this connection, also,
Cuthbertson, quoted by Dean (40), re-
ported that mice did better on a stock diet
than on one in which the protein source
consisted of completely homogenized mice.
Media adaptation presents another po-
tential. problem in the application of
Tetrahymena to protein evaluation or the
estimation of availability of amino acids
from intact proteins. Adaptation -could
alter the organism’s demands on its medium
for specific amino acids and thus affect its
response to a given protein, Elliot et al.
(41). have observed adaptive changes in
Tetrahymena following transfer from crude
to snythetic media, while Wu and Hogg
(42) reported significant changes in both
the distribution of cellular nitrogen and
incorporation of individual amino acids
in. cells from crude and_ synthetic. media.
Results in our laboratory have shown that
carbohydrate can affect the composition of
the free amino-acid pool of Tetrahymena
cells (Figure 6). Here it can be seen that
106
alanine.
THRE ONINE
|
6LYCINE
a o
P ° ~
eS ad
GLUTAMIC
-ACID
‘
@ 4
e:
DOEXTRIN GLUCOSE
_ “ASPARTIC
per: ACID
DEXTRIN DEXTRIN STO.
+ +
GLUCOSE SUCROSE
Fig. 6. Distribution of six amino were in eal
pools from Tetrahymena ‘pyriformis
grown in a defined medium ‘with differ-
ent carbohydrates.
the amino-acid pool of cells produced in
dextrin media was higher in serine and
threonine than was that of cells from glu-
cose media, while the latter was higher in
glutamic acid, glycine, and _ especially
When cells were produced in
media containing 2 percent dextrin pls
sufficient glucose or the non-utilizable sugar
sucrose to make them isotonic with 2 _per-
cent glucose medium, the cell pools were
like those of dextrin cells in being high in
serine and threonine and low in glycine
and like cells from glucose medium with
respect to glutamic acid and alanine con-
tent. Whether amino acid composition of
cell proteins is similarly affected is yet to
In this relation, Wu and
Hogg (42) observed no correlation _be-
be investigated.
tween amino acid distribution in cell pools
and in protein in up etrahymena, and most
investigators have agreed that composition
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
|
|
|
of tissue proteins in mammals‘ is independ-
ent of amino acid composition or balance
of the diet. Dean (40), however, con-
cludes that..nothing is known with cer-
tainty about:the relations between dietary
protein and body protein. It is, therefore,
possible that difficulties of this nature that
may attend the use of Tetrahymena may
be no more than another parallelism with
mammals.
In summary, it seems evident that Tetra-
hymena_ pyriformis has characteristics
recommending it specifically for the assay
of folic and a-lipoic acids and possibly for
vitamir Bg. At present, the most valuable
potential application appears to be its de-
velopment as an analytical tool for assess-
ing the biological value of proteins or for
determining the availability of individual
amino acids in intact proteins. Successful
routine application of Tetrahymena for
these purposes will require the develop-
ment of much additional basic data with
respect to media nutrient patterns provid-
ing’ for optimum growth and, at the same
time, not subject to imbalances arising from
additional nutrients: introduced with assay
samples. |
: Acknowledgment
The author wishes to acknowledge the
technical assistance of June B. Wragg in
connection with the experimental data used
in this review.
References |
(1)..Kidder,,.G. .W.,., and, Dewey, V. C. In
Biochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa, p.
323. A. Lwoff, ed. Academic Press, Inc., New
York (1951). se |
(2) Kidder, G. W. VI Intern. Congr. Micro-
biol., Rome, 44 (1953).
(3) Kidder, G. W., and Dewey, V. C. Arch.
Biochem. 20, 433 (1949).
(4) Dewey, V. C., Parks, R. C., and Kidder,
G. W. Arch. Bicchen: 29. 281 (1950).
(5) ‘Huther, Sei Cure eae and baler, WH.
Anal. Chem. 30, 849 (1958).
(6)) Reynolds, H., and Wragg, J. B. Bacteriol.
Proc., 40 (1960).
(7) Reynolds, H.). and Wrage, J: B. J. Pro-
tozool. 9, 214 (1962).
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‘Davis, R. J.,
(8) Hutner; S. H., Nathan, H. A., Baker, H.,
Sobotka, H., and Aaronson, S. Am. J. Clin.
Nutr. 7, 407 (1959).
(9) Hamilton, L. D., Hutner, S. H.,
vasoli, L:: Analyst 77, 618 (1952).
(10) Hutner, S. H., Provasoli, L., and Baker,
H.Microchem.: J..Symp., Ser. 1, 95 (1961).
(11) Sherman, H. In The Vitamins, Vol: III,
psr2ols. W. H.Sebrell,.dr..-and=R:iS! Harris,
eds.. Academic Press, Inc.,, New York (1954).
(12) Wada, H., and Snell, E. E. J. Biol. Chem.
236, 2089 (1961).
(13) Kidder,.G..W.,
Nat. Acad. Sci.
and_ Pro-
and Dewey, V. C. Proc.
Ue Se Sae- 95° (1947).
(14) Jukes,--T. H. Methods. of Biochem.
Analys, Zo, (2b (1955).
Ci5)iStokstad, “Ee VE. Re. Seaman, Ge he.
and Hutner, S. H. Methods of Bio-
chem. Analy. 3, 23 (1956).
(16) Kidder, G. W. Biol. Bull. 80, 50° (1941).
(17). Rockland, L. B., and Dunn, M. S. Food
Technol. 3, 289 (1949).
(18) Anderson, M. E.,
Nuit) 445 055) 4(lO5T)s
do), Pilcher, HH. 5 and Williams, He Hi J:
Nutr. 53, 589 (1954).
(20) Rosen, G. D., and Fernell, W. R. Brit.
Jee Note 10° 156~ (1956):
(21) Fernell, W. R., and Rosen, G. D. Brit.
J. Nutr. 10, 143 (1956).
(22) Viswanatha, T., and Liener I. E. Arch.
Biochem. Biophys. 56, 222 (1956).
(23)" Resen, G. D: Proc: 2 Intern.’ “Symp.
Microchem., Birmingham University, p. 212. Per-
gamon Press, London (1960).
(24) Teunisson, D. J. Anal. Biochem. 2, 405
(1961).
and Williams, H. H.
(25) Boyne, A. W., Carpenter, K. J., and
Woodham AL Ay JeSerm Eoodi Aer. 12.) a32
(1961).
(26) Stott, J. A.” Smith, H:, and) Resen;
G: 3D; Brut. J. Nutr: 17, -227- (1963):
(27) Almquist, H. J. In Amino Acids and
Proteins; p. 586. D. M. Greenberg, ed. C. C.
Thomas, Springfield, Ill. (1951).
(28)... Grau; .-G,; Ra ~and-;-Garroll, R:.:» W...dn
Processed Plant Protein Foodstuffs, p. 153.
A. M. Altschul, ed. Academic Press, Inc., New
York (1958).
(29) Viswanatha, T:, and Liener,:1.. E. Arch.
Biochem. Biophys. 61,.410. (1956).
(30) Bender, A. E. Proc. Nutr. Soc. (Engl.,
Scot.) 17, 85 (1958).
(31) Halevy, S.. and Grossowicz, N. Proc.
Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 82, 567 (1953).
(32) Horn, M. J., Blum, A. E., Womack,
M:)"and Gersdorff, C. E. F. J.’ Nutr. 48, 231
(1952).
(33) Rockland, L. B., and Dunn, M.S. Arch.
Biochem. J]; 541 (1946).
107
(34) Williams, R. J. In Protein and Amino
Acid Nutrition, p. 45. A. A. Albanese, ed. Aca-
demic Press, New York (1959).
(35) Leverton, R. M. Jn Protein and Amino
Acid Nutrition, p. 477. A. A. Albanese, ed.
Academic Press, New York (1959).
(36) Dewey, V. C., and Kidder, G. W. Arch.
Biochem. Biophys. 73, 29 (1958).
(37) Wilhams:s H. Ef, “Gustin, oL: Vin Abrae
ham, Je: oosli je) Ko wund: Maynards iL) Aca:
Biol. Chem. 208, 277 (1954).
(38) Whalen, A. A. M. S. thesis, 1961, Cor-
nell Univ.
(39) Wu, C., and Hogg, J. F. Arch. Biochem.
Biophys. 62, 70 (1956).
(40) Dean, R. F. A. Jn Processed Plant
Protein Foodstuffs. A. M. Altschul, ed. Aca-
demic Press, Inc., New York (1958).
(41) Elliott, A. M., and Hogg, J. F. Physiol.
Tool, 25, 318 (1952)
(42) Wu, C., and Hogg, J. F. J. Biol. Chem.
198, 753 (1952).
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108
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Some Preliminaries
On the Soul Complex
In Eskimo Shamanistic Belief
Svend Frederiksen
7906 West Park Drive, Adelphi, Maryland
It has not been known before that the
Eskimo universal deity was metamorphic
and clearly anchored in the myth about
the Sun and the Moon, who are respec-
tively associated with sister and brother.
It has been known that silap inua (liter-
ally: of air, its person) was some sort of
an Eskimo supreme deity, without, how-
ever, a knowledge and understanding of
what this deity actually was, its role and
its function. The descriptions have been
rather confused and distorted, not alone
because of many observers’ lack of under-
standing of the Eskimo language (which
to be sure has often proved a serious im-
pediment) but also because its counterpart
and metamorphic character were not at
all sensed. The many recordings | have
in Eskimo from my field research in Can-
ada, Alaska, and Greenland, leave no
doubt about this question. However, de-
scriptions which we have as early as the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries strong-
ly indicate that the Eskimos felt them-
selves allied with the cosmic elements (see
V. C. Frederiksen: Om det gamle Eski-
moraab til de forste Sofarende efter Nord-
botiden, Meddelelser om Gronland LIX,
Kobenhavn 1924 [About the Old Eskimo
Shout to the first Seafarers after the Norse
Era] ).
The Sun and the Moon are regarded as
a hole, or window, in the universe. At this
hole, in day appears the sister, who at
the time of sunset becomes the brother
and at dawn becomes again the sister. We
could so far also call the universal deity
the universal soul, as it is the identical
APRIL, 1964
counterpart to each and everyone of the
life souls. The life soul is the corporeal
soul which is physically present within,
and bound to, the body. Every person’s
life soul is the counterpart of the meta-
morphic deity or the metamorphic uni-
versal soul.
The night side of the deity, the “moon’”-
brother in the sky, is an embryo creature,
which at the turning point from night io
day takes its seat in the adult woman, who
becomes pregnant. All child-bearing wom-
en are thus the mothers of the metamorphic
deity, but of its night side only. We have
here something in the nature of a parallel
to Jung’s Animus-Anima statement. The
day side, the sister, has the form of a bird,
which is in itself the symbol of resurrec-
tion, and to the Eskimos a religious reality.
A metamorphic event takes place at the
initiation of the male Shaman novice when
he receives his Shaman name and has his |
night side life soul turned into a day side
life soul of a bird shape. This is exactly
what we see in the world-famous Lascaux
caves in France, which have been deter-
mined by radiocarbon dating to be about
16,000 years old. There we have a pros-
trate man, shown with the face and beak
of a bird, and next to him a bird sitting
on a pole, the axis mundi—sitting on the
top of the world. The concepts of the bird-
soul and of the axis mundi—the world tree
or tree of life—are found in many religions
in different parts of the world.
The Eskimo soul complex is, however,
dualistic beyond the relationship of the
corporeally bound (life) soul, with its
109
counterpart in the deity. The individual
soul, which also could be termed the free
soul, the image soul, or the name soul, is
a non-physical counterpart soul, which like
the universal, physical, life soul, splits off
in an amoeba-like -manner.
This has not been recognized in the
scholastic literature, although it has been
known that individual soul and name are
identical. It is on the basis of the indi-
vidual soul that misconceived and con-
fused ideas of so-called Eskimo multiple
-souls have been described. The name rep-
resents the image of the person. The mir-
roring image as seen in the water would
_represent the individual soul of the person
there reflected. Thus any picture taken of
the person represents his individual soul.
Naturally Eskimos, as other aboriginals,
were frightened, years ago; when pictures
were taken of them. I have myself experi-
enced such an incident, which however is
now an extreme rarity.
The Eskimo name system—and we can-
not describe the individual soul without
relevance to it and without realizing the
purpose of the personal name in Eskimo
belief—has not been recognized in all its
essential facets in the scholastic literature,
nor has its far-reaching significance in
Eskimo culture, language, and_ religion
been sensed. This is not only because of
unfamiliarity with the Eskimos’ language
and_ thought processes, but also because
concepts from our modern world have been
projected as extraneous elements into the
old Eskimo culture. This is one. of the
reasons why the concept of counterpart
souls, their structure and function, has not
been understood.
Each given name is related to successive
cycles of human life as: (1) embryo, (2)
birth, (3) puberty (and its opposite, the
menopause in women), and, in addition,
(4) illness (temporary name). At each of
these stages a new name is given, each
being a soul name. When a person dies,
his name soul splits into two parts, one of
which remains in the realm of the dead
while the other is transferred to another
person, for example a newborn baby, a
boy or girl at puberty, or a Shamanat
his initiation or during illness. In the case
of an infant, the name given must be ‘that
of a person who has-died recently. When
the novice Shaman receives his new name,
it must be that of a long-dead ancestor.
Nicknames also occur, but they are not
regarded as real names; they are not soul
names.
It follows logically that when a soul
name is discontinued, is in the process of
being shifted, the Eskimo conceives of him-
self as “dead” for a period. Often the! éx-
pression: “In some way I died,” is used.
The most crucial impact of the name shift
on a person’s consciousness would: be
where he is first able to visualize the con-
sequences of the name shift; this usually
happens at puberty, where the person must
undergo the Shamanistic novitiate. All the
horrors of death and the great novelty! of
resurrection are here experienced. |
It may also be realized as a logical con-
sequence that the entire Eskimo community
is educated and geared for Shamandom.
In the name system, the name given \at
birth is the name which leads to Shaman-
dom. The fact that Eskimos often may
travel long distances and live far apart in
small groups also underlines the necessity
of this Shamanistic extension. However,
not every adult may be regarded as a full
and actual Shaman: To be called “a
Shaman, it is necessary that the person be
able to perform in public.'A Shaman‘ is
one who can face the realm of death and
easily enter into and out of it. We must
note that to die means for? the Eskinio
only a transition. Death is not conceived
as extinction. The realm of death is just
another transcendence. All the dead: ones
are alive, and their individual souls have
their namesakes among the actual living.
It must be emphasized. that the counter-
part souls are coexisting souls. The old
soul: continues to exist in the realm. of
living “dead ones.” This is mot the same
as incarnation or reincarnation, phénom-
ena of some ofthe so-called higher reli-
110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
gions. What happens is that two, soul units,
both of them formed in amoeba-like. fash-
ion, are brought together and that both
are subject to constant mutation.
When a person dies, his name: must not
be nientioned until he has been renamed.
This is quite understandable. because of
the great mobility of the individual soul
(which even in dreams is supposed to leave
the body). If the counterpart of the name
soul of the dead is not properly transferred
to the living, danger and disorder will re-
sult. If the deceased is called by his own
name, it would mean that the person men-
tioning that name would be possessed by
the name soul of the dead one, and that he
himself would die. The’ entire soul system
must have a chance to regroup and to be
brought in: order again. Nothing is so
dangerous as a disordered soul system.
The Shaman has this order-bringing task.
But we realize then that the fact of a
name which cannot be used for a certain
period. gives rise to the necessity for a
parallel language, the Shaman language.
A name that cannot be mentioned could
be one that was very useful or essential
in daily life. Thus, it would be inconven-
ient not. to have another name or meta-
phor for Polar Bear than nanogq, if a per-
son by that name had died. After renaming,
the word nanog could be used again.
. Let me use here a concrete example, a
late Eskimo friend of mine; a! Shaman
from | Chesterfield Inlet. His name leading
to Shamandom, the name he. received at
birth, was nanog, meaning Polar Bear. We
will see how at. his Shaman. novice initia-
tion he literally experiences the coming to
life of the Shaman language:. .
A relative of his was a female namesake,
nanoq, who lived very far away. (Whether
it was a female or. male namesake would
make no difference; sex has no role ‘in
connection with counterpart name souls).
According to this Shaman’s autobiography,
which I. recorded in Eskimo, he postulated
that he was: telepathically informed that
his relative: had died. As her::namesake
identity he had to: die too, ‘and he ‘felt
APRIL, 1964 ! Golaia: u |
that he did. His individual (name) soul
left his body entirely as it was. But it did
not go out of existence. It mutated, it went
over to another transcendence during his
initiation as.Shaman novice. It transmuted,
and as a polar bear it became a member
of his faculty of helping spirits, even be-
coming the leader of them. But since he
could not conceive of himself any longer
as nanoqg until his dead relative had been
renamed, he could only think of the con-
cept of Polar Bear under the metaphorical
expression _pisuktse, “the land animal,”
“the one you have as walker.” After his
dead namesake had been renamed, it was
safe to use the word nanoq again in con-
versation, but it would never again be his
name.
One may here sense that Shamanism is
a dive into the unconscious, which happens
at every trance and seance as a regression
of mind, where the Shaman language is
used in communication with the helping
spirits. In this regression he seeks the
origin of the ancestry (in the name soul
complex) and of the deity (in the life
soul complex).
At my friend’s initiation to the Shaman
novitiate, the officiating Shaman “dreamt”
a visitation to the mythical ancestress of
the Eskimos, the woman who lives at the
bottom of the sea, who once was married
to a dog. From her husband kanajogq, Sea
Scorpion, the officiating, Shaman learned
that my friend, who formerly had the name
nanog now had to answer to the new name
qumukseraq.
In. his initiation as a Shaman novice,
my friend “dreamt” about the male night
side embryo metamorphic deity, which up
to now had been his counterpart universal
(life) soul but which now at his “awaken-
ine” was transmuted to the female bird-
like day side counterpart soul: He thus
experienced unity with the female day side
bird-like. metamorphic deity. This was his
resurrection, and this happened on- the
fifth day of his initiation, when he: re-
ceived his new name from the officiating
name-giving Shaman.':He now was a re-
lll
generated individual with a new universal
counterpart soul and a new individual
counterpart soul. But in spite of the new
life, the new being he had become, the
transmutations preserved a link with his
past, with his previous existence, his ori-
gin in ancestry, and his origin in deity.
As to the metaphoric Shaman language,
the point is that it is used in the uncon-
scious state, when the Shaman is in a
trance, etc., as well as in the conscious
state, in the entire oral traditional litera-
ture of the old Eskimo culture.
Until now very little has been recorded
of the Shaman language, and its signifi-
cance and meaning have not been under-
stood. The Shaman metaphoric words
have been translated as ordinary words,
when they are something entirely differ-
ent. They are expressions of his soul, a
part of himself, expressions too of the soul
of his fellow Eskimos—a part of them-
selves. The myths, the legends, the entire
“literature” of the aboriginal Eskimo are
interwoven with Shaman words. This has
definitely not been known before. There
is much, much more to be recorded. We
must study this “literature” in an entirely
new light, and it must be done now, while
some of the older Eskimos who possess
this unique knowledge are still alive. In
a few more years it will be too late. The
only effective way of doing this is to have
an Institute of Eskimology, which for a
number of years I have been trying to or-
ganize. Such an Institute, which could be
established at a modest cost, could ac-
complish this urgent task while there is
still time.
Photocontrol of Anthocyanin Synthesis
R. J. Downs
Agricultural Research Service, Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Mary-
land
We have no way of knowing when man
began to appreciate the beauty of the au-
tumn coloration that appears in the deci-
duous forests of the temperate and sub-
arctic zones. Nor do we know when he
began to use and cultivate flowers for or-
namental purposes. We are not even cer-
tain when man began to correlate fruit
ripeness with color. As they became aware
of the plants around them people must
have noticed the predominance of reds and
blues and attempts must have been made
to use these colors as dyes for religious
costumes, face and body painting, etc.
Thus, the fact that the substances respon-
sible for the blue and red colors of many
plant parts are water-soluble probably was
apparent at an early time. Because they
were soluble in water the colored mate-
rials were easily separated from the plant
tissue and, of course, had to be given a
name. Undoubtedly many names were
given to these water-soluble, colored sub-
stances from plants, but the one we use
today is anthocyanin, from the Greek
anthos, a flower, plus kyanos, dark blue.
We know that man began inquiring into
the nature of anthocyanin over 300 years
ago. In 1664, for example, Robert Boyle
(1) noted that an extract from blue-violet
petals turned red when an acid such as
vinegar was added to the solution. By
1600. (2) it was known that light was
generally required for anthocyanin syn-
thesis, and by 1900 (3) the evidence
clearly showed that the accumulation of
soluble carbohydrates was essential.
The chemical identity of anthocyanin
112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
fe)
OH
HO OH HO OH
ai
OH
Pelargonidin
HO
O
+
HO
Zou
Cyanidin
ZO OH
Delphinidin
HO
Fig.l. The three most common anthocyanidins.
was established in 1913 by Richard Will-
statter (4). A number of other investiga-
tors added details that have resulted in a
rather complete picture of the chemical
structure. Anthocyanins are glycosides
that are hydrolyzed on heating with acid
into sugars and an anthocyanidin. The
anthocyanin glycoside is frequently formed
by replacing the hydroxyl group of the
middle ring by sugars. Sugars can also be
attached to places other than the central
ring but normally only in the 3 position
or in the 3 and 5 positions. Identification
of an unknown anthocyanin thus depends
on identifying the anthocyanidin and de-
termining the number and kind of sugars
present and where they are attached. Since
anthocyanins are sometimes formed as
acylated glycosides, the presence of an
acyl component must be determined and
the associated organic acid identified.
As might be expected, a large number
of anthocyanins can be formed from only
a few anthocyanidins. For many years the
major anthocyanidins were pelargonidin,
cyanidin, and delphinidin, and most of the
anthocyanins were placed in one of these
three categories (Fig. 1). By 1958 (5),
10 anthocyanidins could be listed, and
what were once considered as single an-
thocyanins now proved to be several, and
in some cases not anthocyanins at all. For
example, what had been considered to be
APRIL, 1964.
a cyanidin glycoside in Spirodela oligor-
rhiza was reinvestigated by chromato-
graphic means and shown not to be directly
related to any known anthocyanin (6).
The distribution of the anthocyanins in
flower parts is often complex, and this
complexity has yielded results of taxo-
nomic interest. In Papaver species, for ex-
ample, the species can be determined by
the distribution of the six anthocyanins
in the flowers (7).
A number of factors influence the for-
mation of anthocyanin. Genetics is, of
course, of prime consideration. Texas milo
seedlings, for example, produce twice as
much anthocyanin under a given set of
conditions as do seedlings of Texas Dwarf
white milo. An accumulation of soluble
carbohydrates is a definite requirement
for anthocyanin synthesis and any condi-
tion that affects this accumulation also af-
fects the amount of anthocyanin produced.
Thus, in nature cool temperatures would
operate to reduce respiration, thereby al-
lowing an accumulation of sugars and a
corresponding production of anthocyanin.
Light exerts a most emphatic control
over anthocyanin synthesis, and it is the
photocontrol of anthocyanin that we wish
to consider here. When all other condi-
tions are optimum, anthocyanin will usu-
ally not be formed in the absence of light.
In the few instances where some an-
113
300
16 hours
-2
7
i)
(eo)
(2)
i ie fre
Ye
fs
y; 600ftc
7 oV
“7 300 ftc
ABSORBANCY X 10
5
(eo)
ee ee a ee a we
—_——
_
noes ene savecsesaccees
2 hours
eee”
Gin ea 8 (GaenOm SnES OO 600 1200 2400
ILLUMINANCE (foot candles)
Fig. 2. Amount of anthocyanin formed in response to various durations of light from fluorescent
lamps at several illumination levels. Measurement was made after a 24-hour dark incubation
period (left). Amount of anthocyanin formed in response to various illumination levels after
several durations of exposure to light from fluorescent lamps. Measurements were made after a
24-hour dark incubation period (right).
thocyanin is, produced, in darkness, the
amount is increased many fold when the
plant material is illuminated.- Since light
can be introduced into a biological system
with a minimum. of. disturbance to the
cellular processes, it. provides a, unique
tool, for studies of the overall system of
synthesis.. Conversely, anthocyanin pro-
duction provides an excellent physiological
system, with which to study the photoreac-
tions involved. *
Although anthocyanin appears in a large
number of plants, its production has been
Table 1. Formation of anthocyanin after
exposures to 1,600 ft-c. fluorescent light in
several, varieties of Sorghum. vulgare
(milo, kaffir, and sorghum)
Variety Duration of
exposure
; (hrs) A «10?
Wheatland 16 ~ 280
Sumac 16 ...256
Hegari 16...» 140
Leoti 16 34
Sapling 16 17
Planter 23 235
Chinese. Amber 23 196
wart Ashburn Dey iS
Texas milo 23 134,
Texas DW milo 530°C . 77
Red Kafhr | De aoe
Feterita 20 10
investigated in detail (8, 9,.10, 11, 12) in
only a few. We will confine our discus-
sion to milo (11), turnip, and red cabbage
seedlings (8), and to the skin of apple
fruits (10). a
Milo seedlings grown in the dark do
not produce any anthocyanin. If dark-
grown seedlings three and one-half to four
days old are placed:in the light, they be-
come a faint: pink. in about six hours., If
the.seedlings are placed in darkness for 20
to 24, hours after the light period, the
elongate first internode becomes. an in-
tense red. An examination of. the. seedlings
shows that the root, the coleoptile, and the
rudimentary leaves are not necessary for
the formation of anthocyanin in the first
internode. However, the seed should re-
main attached to the shoot if an. appreci-
able. amount of anthocyanin is, to be
formed. If, the shoot is removed and the
seed left attached to the root, the, root will
form anthocyanin in the presence of, light.
A large number of varieties.of Sorghum
vulgare form anthocyanin. when the dark-
grown seedling is exposed to light. (Table
1). This discussion of milo will deal only
with the responses of the variety. Wheat-
land.:. The amount of anthocyanin formed
by Wheatland milo. seedlings. is dependent
upon the light intensity and: the duration
114 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
a — a a ng
70
60
Red cabbage
KelOje
mols /seedling
oO
(e)
Amount of anthocyanin
<—Turnip_
x0.25x 10”
mols /seedling
0 ae 4 6
Irradiation hours
(Irradiance 0.6x 10 °watts/cm* at 7O00A)
Fig. 3. Variation in anthocyanin ‘synthesis in
red cabbage and turnip seedlings with time of
irradiation at a constant irradiance euqivalent
in! photochemical effectiveness to ‘0.6 x 10°
watts/em> at 7000 A. The seedlings were ex-
tracted for analysis 24 hours after the begin-
ning of irradiation. Dashed lines indicate syn-
thesis in unirradiated seedlings (8).
of exposure. However, double’ the inten-
sity and half the time does not induce the
same result as unit intensity and time. For
example, doubling the illuminance from
1,200 to 2,400 ft-c does not increase the
amount of anthocyanin appreciably, but
doubling the time of exposure at 1,200
ft-c from 8 to 16 hours approximately ‘dou-
bles the amount of anthocyanin (Fig. 2).
At moderately high light intensities milo
seedlings accumulate anthocyanin at a
constant rate for at least the first 16 hours
of irradiation. At lower intensities, how-
ever, a lag period of four to’six hours oc-
curs before the linear phase of anthocyanin
synthesis begins. Light given continuously
over a certain period is not utilized as
efficiently as is light given in cycles. Light
in cycles of 2 minutes light, 18 minutes
dark over a four-hour period, for example,
was used much more efficiently than it was
in four hours of continuous light (Table
2).
~The amount of anthocyanin formed by
APRIL’ 1964
turnip and red cabbage seedlings is lin-
early dependent upon the duration of ex-
posure to light (Fig. 3). Anthocyanin
synthesis also depends on the intensity of
the light, but intensity is not so important
as time. As in milo, the reciprocity law
fails in turnip and red cabbage. The time
course for anthocyanin synthesis in turnip
seedlings shows a time lag prior to the
linear phase, whereas in red cabbage and
milo it does not. Perhaps the time lag
would disappear at higher energies, but
they were not available at the time the
experiments were conducted. Red cabbage
differs from milo and turnip seedlings in
that it makes an appreciable amount of
anthocyanin in complete darkness.
The red color in apples requires light
for its formation and the color variation
of different kinds of apples indicates dif-
ferent abilities to synthesize anthocyanin
(Fig. 4). Apple skin peeled from the apple
fruit forms anthocyanin as well as it does
on the fruit, providing the pieces of skin
are floated on a sugar solution. Since the
apple skin does not grow, it is a simpler
total system than seedlings. and therefore
merits. attention. Apples picked green
were. peeled and the green peel cut into
l-cm? sections. The sections were floated
on 0.3 M sucrose and exposed to various
Table 2. Relative accumulation of an-
thocyanin per unit of light* (11)
Light Relative accumulation
per cycle per minute of light
(min) (A107)
2 11.0
4 8.0
6 6.7
8 5.4
10 4.0
12 3.8
14 3.4
16 oul
18 3.0
20 oie
* One minute in each 20-minute cycle at an
illuminance of 2,400 ft-c from fluorescent lamps.
Total time was 4 hours; total light was 12 min-
utes.
115
O Jonathan
VY Rome Beauty
O Arkansas
A Arkansas
oO
108 x mols idaein /om@
(S) —
on re)
@ —T |
10 20 30 40
skin pieces
whole apples
50 60 70 80
Irradiation - hrs.
Fig. 4. The dependence of anthocyanin formation in apple skin on the time of exposure under con-
stant irradiance with a fluorescent light source equivalent in photochemical effectiveness to 0.6 milli-
watt/cm” at 7000 A. Results are shown for skin pieces of Jonathan, Rome Beauty, and Arkansas
varieties floating on 0.3 M sucrose and for whole Arkansas apples (10).
light conditions. Following the exposure to
light, the pieces of apple skin were al-
lowed to incubate 24 hours in darkness.
After the dark incubation, five sections of
peeling were placed in 5 ml of extracting
solution (1 percent HCl in methanol).
The solutions were placed at 5° C for 24
hours, then the absorbancy at 530 mp was
measured in a spectrophotometer. Optical
density was converted to moles idaein/cm?
by using a molecular extinction coefficient
of 3.43 x 10+.
The time course of anthocyanin syn-
thesis in apple skin (Fig. 4) shows a non-
reciprocal time and intensity relation simi-
lar to that found in milo, turnip, and
cabbage seedlings. Apples, however, re-
quire a greater period of illumination, and
the time lag is so great that it may be
regarded as a light-requiring preinduction
period. During the preinduction period
almost no anthocyanin is formed, but the
duration of the preinduction period de-
pends on the intensity of the light, the tem-
perature, and the time for equilibration to
116
occur between the appleskin tissue and
the sucrose medium. The induction phase
of anthocyanin synthesis in apple skin is
linear with the duration of the exposure
to light as was the case in milo, turnip,
and red cabbage seedlings. During the
preinduction period for apple and turnip
some substrate rises to a level that permits
formation of anthocyanin at a rate pro-
portional to the intensity (10). No pre-
induction period is required in milo and
red cabbage, which indicates an adequate
level of substrate.
In order for light to produce a physi-
ological response it must be absorbed by
some substance within the plant. Photo-
receptors generally absorb in specific re-
gions of the spectrum; therefore they can
be characterized by their absorption
spectra. However, photoreceptors cannot
always be isolated for direct absorption
measurements, so the absorption charac-
teristics are determined indirectly by the
wavelength dependency of the response,
that is by an action spectrum. An action
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
a _.
aT
i ‘
a
spectrum is determined by placing the
biological material in various wavelength
regions of the spectrum and discovering
how much energy is required at each nar-
row waveband to produce the physiologi-
cal response being investigated. It follows
that the narrower the waveband the more
precise the action spectrum.
Action spectra not only characterize the
spectral absorbance of the photoreceptor
but they also equate different physiologi-
cal responses to the same photomechanism.
The effective use of action-spectra studies
is found in the study of phytochrome. Ac-
tion spectra showed that such diverse light-
controlled responses as germination (13),
internode elongation (14), leaf expansion
(14), initiation of flowers (15), and pig-
mentation of the tomato-fruit epidermis
(16) were controlled by the same photo-
receptor. The absorption peculiarities of
phytochrome revealed by the action spectra
provided the assay by which phytochrome
was subsequently extracted and purified
hs) -
Since phytochrome controls so many
diverse plant responses to light, it seems
natural to inquire as to wheiher phyto-
chrome is also the photoreceptor control-
ling synthesis of anthocyanin. In order to
make such an inquiry we must first under-
stand the characteristics and modus
operandi of the phytochrome system. Phy-
tochrome exists in two forms; a red-ab-
sorbing, inactive P, form that has a maxi-
mum absorption near 660 mm; and a far
red-absorbing, physiologically active Py,
form that absorbs near 730 mp. When ir-
radiated with red, P, is transformed to
P;,, and when Py, is irradiated with far
red, it is converted to P,. P;, also slowly
teverts to -P, Generally,
phytochrome-controlled plant responses re-
quire. relatively low energies for brief
periods of time. When the time required
for a phytochrome reaction seems unduly
long, it could be a result of a restricted
supply of the substrate upon which Py,
acts. In that case we find that pulses of
in darkness.
APRIL, 1964
red radiant energy as well as continuous
light keeps enough Ps, present long enough
to induce the plant response. The fre-
quency of the pulses must be great enough
that excessive dark reversion of P;, to P,
does not occur during the intervening dark
periods.
Detailed action spectra for anthocyanin
synthesis of milo, red cabbage, and turnip
seedlings, and for apple-skin sections were
determined with a _ large _ prism-type
spectrograph (18). All material studied
showed that irradiation in the blue region
Table 3. Anthocyanin formation in turnip*
and red cabbage seedlings irradiated with
an energy of about 0.1 joule/cm? of red
(580-690 mp) and/or far red (690-800
mu) (8)
Anthocyanin content
Type of per seedling
irradiation Red cabbage Turnip
10*° moles 10°° moles
None 25 297
Red 38 2.94
Far red 26 2.97
Far red, red 37 a
Red, far red 29 —
* Turnip seedlings were irradiated after in-
duction of anthocyanin synthesis by exposure
for 4 hours to a fluorescent source.
of the spectrum resulted in anthocyanin
synthesis. Activity at longer wavelengths,
however, varied from none in milo seed-
lings to maximal activity at 650 mp in
apple skins, at 690 my in red cabbage, and
at 725 mp in turnip seedlings. Because
of the long-wavelength response, the pos-
sible control of anthocyanin synthesis by
phytochrome was examined. Red cabbage
seedlings, which form some anthocyanin
in darkness, were irradiated briefly with
red or red imemdiately followed by far
red. The red radiant energy induced an
increase in anthocyanin content as com-
pared with synthesis in darkness, and the
effect of the red was reversed by a sub-
sequent far-red irradiation (Table 3).
However, phytochrome was not clearly
resolved as the principal photoreceptor or
as a secondary control mechanism. Turnip
117
seedlings. were \irradiated for 4 hours: to
induce. anthocyanin formation then irradi-
ated with red. or far red, but anthocyanin
synthesis was unresponsive to the state of
phytochrome.
In milo seedlings stattiesbo alata is clearly
controlled by two photoreactions. The
first photoreaction requires high intensi-
ties of light and exposures of ‘several hours,
and it has a maximum sensitivity near 470
mu. The second reaction controls the ef-
fects of the first one and is a typical phyto-
chrome response: Intensities are low, ex-
posure times are a matter of minutes, and
a maximum inhibitory effect is obtained
between 710 and 750 my. The effects of
the far-red irradiation are reversed by a
subsequent irradiation in the red region
of the spectrum between 630 and 670 mu
(Table 4).
Apple anthocyanin seemed to be unre-
sponsive to the state of phytochrome.
However, these early tests were made at
the close of the total light period of about
40 hours. More recent investigations have
shown a definite phytochrome control of
anthocyanin synthesis in apple-skin sec-
tions. An inquiry was made into the sta-
bility of the products of the. preinduction
period which seemed to be required for
successful operation of the linear induc-
tion phase. When various durations of
darkness were placed between the prein-
duction and the induction phases, about 40
percent of the effect of the preinduction
period was lost in about 24 hours (Table
5). If the dark period was preceded by. a
brief irradiation with far red, the loss of
preinduction effect was greater. The effect
of the far red was reversed when the far
red was followed by an exposure to red
(Table 6).
The details of the photocontrol of an-
thocyanin synthesis are confounded by the
presence and operation of two photorecep-
tors; one is unknown and the other is the
ubiquitous phytochrome. _ Siegelman and
Hendricks (8) called the first photoreac-
tion the high-energy reaction (HER)_be-
cause it required more energy than. did
Table 4. Reversibility of anthocyanin. for-
mation by far-red and red radiant energy*
(11)
<vut
Exposures *
Far red Red Anthocyanin
(number) (number) (A. 410125
0 0 106
1 0 48
1 1 106
2éf 26 45
27 27 109
38 Sif A8
38 38 97
42 Al 49
42 42 103
* After 3-hour exposure to an illuminance of
2,000 ft-c from fluorescent lamps.
** Three minutes of far red; I minute of red.
Table 5. Idaein formation in pieces of Ar-
kansas apple skin as affected by a dark in-
terval between the 16-hour preinduction
and the 24-hour induction periods
Dark interval Idaein
(hours) (10° moles/cm?”)
0 . 6:92 | gee
24 4.27
32 . 4.06
48 1.76
36 1.45
Table 6. Idaein formation in pieces of Ar-
kansas apple skin as affected by the condi-
tion of phytochrome at the beginning: of a
24-hour dark interval separating the 16-
hour preinduction and the. 24-hour induc-
tion periods
Treatment Idaein
(10 moles/cm*)
No dark interval SRA
24-hr dark interval Z eal 3 1)
10 min far red, 24-hr
dark interval ., 2:88.
10 min far red, 5 min red,
24-hr dark interval Re 3.58
phytochrome. The name has been per-
petuated by Mohr and is involved in other
plant responses to light than ee
synthesis (9, 12).
What is the HER and what is an vleene
receptor? Photosynthesis is. a possibility
because it, is a high-energy system) and jis
118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ee
PERCENT INHIBITION OF EFFECT
_Fig. 5. Inhibition — of
“evolution) and anthocyanin synthesis in apple
°° OXYGEN EVOLUTION
@ ANTHOCYANIN SYNTHESIS
ios \o-? io-6 1075
MOLAR CONCENTRATION DCMU
photosynthesis (oxygen
skin by 3(3,4-dichloropheny]) -1,1-dimethylurea
DCMU).
active in the red and blue regions. More-
over, chlorophyll is present in the apple
skin and photosynthesis does take place
(19). However, the production of soluble
carbohydrate by photosynthesis has been
ruled out because the young seedlings
used for anthocyanin studies are still self-
sufficient from cotyledons (12) and en-
dosperm, and sucrose must be added to the
medium for apple-skin sections if an ap-
_preciable amount of anthocyanin is to be
produced.
However, the . processes. of
photosynthesis. might be required to sup-
ply some substrate other than soluble car-
_bohydrate.
Emerson et al. (20) showed -that.the
“poor yield of photosynthesis produced. by
far red was enhanced by supplemental
From
which are closely related to system | have
maxima in the region. System 2 contains
most of the chlorophyll b, and photosyn-
thetic responses which depend on system
2 generally show an action maximum at
650 mu.
One manifestation of the dual pigment
system is the change in fluorescence of
chlorophyll that accompanies supplemen-
tal radiation in the red and far red. Apple-
skin sections show a 30 percent greater
fluorescence yield following supplemental
red as compared to far-red radiation. Thus,
the dual pigment system functions in the
apple skin (19).
DCMU (3(3, 4-dichlorophenyl)-1, 1-
dimethylurea) inhibits photosynthetic elec-
tron transport without interfering with
other metabolic reactions. The fluorescence
enhancement in the apple skin was in-
hibited 75 percent by 2 x 107° M DCMU
and a concentration of 1 x 10—® M in-
hibited oxygen evolution and anthocyanin
synthesis by 50 percent (19). The inhibi-
tion of oxygen evolution and that of an-
thocyanin synthesis in the apple skin were
the same for a number of DCMU concen-
trations (Fig. 5).
The action spectrum for anthocyanin
formation in the apple skin suggests that
chlorophyll system 2 might be contribut-
ing to anthocyanin synthesis. Since the
carbon substrate for the HER must be
supplied by exogenous sucrose, the photo-
synthetic system is apparently contributing
a supply of an oxidant or reductant, or an
energy source such as ATP.
The subsequent control by phytochrome
indicates that P;, action occurs on some
product of the HER and is, therefore, ,a
separate and different photoreaction than
the HER.
_radiation of shorter wavelengths.
this enhancement effect and the subsequent
work of Duysens (21) and, others, it is
generally agreed that electrons are trans-
ferred from water to pyridine nucleotide
_by two chlorophyll systems. Wavelengths
in the region of 680 to 730 mp are gen-
erally more effective in system ;1, and ac-
tion spectra for, photosynthesis. responses
The HER maximum in the far red that
induces anthocyanin formation in other
plant tissues (8, 9, 12) resembles the ac-
tion of photosynthetic pigment system 1.
Although data are not available to support
the hypothesis that pigment system 1 is the
HER for anthocyanin synthesis in these
plants, the idea is not incompatible with
_ APRIL, 1964. | 119
the facts, and investigations of this type
are currently in progress.
References
(1) Arthur, J. M. Biological effects of radi-
ation, ed. by Duggar, B. M., Vol. 2, pp. 1109-
1118, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1963.
(2) Senebier, J. Physiologie vegetale, Gene-
va, 1799.
(3) Onslow, M. W. The anthocyanin pigment
of plants, 2nd ed., Univ. Press, Cambridge,
1925.
(4) Willstatter, R. Ann. Chem. (Liebig)
401, 189-232 (1913).
(5) Harborne, J. B. J. Chromatography I,
473-488 (1958).
(6) Geicsmans bon... ander June: sles Arch:
Biochem. Biophysics 56, 259 (1955).
(7) Acheson, R. M., Harper, J. L., and Mc-
Naughton, I. H. Nature 1/78, 1283 (1956).
(8) Siegelman, H. W. and Hendricks, S. B.
Plant Physiol. 32, 393 (1957).
(9) Mohr, H. Planta 49, 389 (1957).
(10) Siegelman, H. W., and Hendricks, S. B.
Plant Physiol. 33, 185 (1958).
(11) Downs, R. J., and Siegelman, H. W.
Plant Physiol. 38, 25 (1963).
(12) Mohr, H., and van Nes, E. Zeit. f. Bot.
Dl, Ih (S168).
(13) Borthwick, H. <A., Hendricks, S. B.,
Parker, M. W., Toole, E. H. and Toole, V. K.
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 38, 662 (1952).
(14) Downs, R. J. Plant Physiol. 30, 468
(1955).
(15) Downs, R. J. Plant Physiolsie2ao
(1956).
(16) Piringer, A. A., and Heinze,
Plant Physiol. 29, 467 (1954).
(17) Borthwick, H. A., and Hendricks, S. B.
Science 132, 1223 (1960); Butler, W. L., and
Downs, R. J. Sci. Amer. 203, 56 (1960).
(18) Parker, M. W., Hendricks, S. B., Borth-
wick, H. A., and Scully, N. J. Bot. Gaz. 108,
1 (1946).
(19) Downs R. J., Siegelman, H. W., Butler,
W. L., and Hendricks, S. B. Nature, 1964 (in
press).
(20) Emerson, R.,
Po) Ek,
Chalmers, R., Cedar-
strand, C., and Brody, M. Science 123, 673
(1956).
(21) Duysens, L. N. M. Proc. Roy. +Sec.
B 157, 301 (1963).
The Teaching Crisis*
Benjamin D. Van Evera
Dean for Sponsored Research, George Washington University
Forty-one years ago this month, Profes-
sor Ben Peterson gave me the first teach-
ing assignment in which I had complete
charge of the course. This was a class of
student nurses who were taking chemistry
at night after spending 12 hours mopping
floors, emptying bed pans, and doing all
the thousand and one chores that were ex-
pected of student nurses in those days.
How much the nurses learned cannot now
be determined, but I learned some chemis-
* Address of the retiring president before the
Washington Academy of Sciences on February
20, 1964. The opinions expressed in this paper
are those of Dean Van Evera alone, and are not
necessarily those of either George Washington
University or the Washington Academy of Sci-
ences.
120
try and I learned to love teaching. From
that day to this, I have been associated
with universities, always either as an ac-
tive teacher or in administrative work
closely allied to teaching. I am now be-
coming increasingly concerned with the
pressures that are continually being put
on professors to devote portions of their
time, often large portions, to activities
other than teaching. These pressures at
times cause the professor to neglect his
teaching and at other times drive him com-
pletely from teaching. Both are events
that even rich America cannot afford. It is
to this problem that I wish to address my-
self tonight, and my excuse for taking your
time is that the past 41 years have given
me some background in this area.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
a
— - : - —
<
I am not the only person who is con-
cerned about this matter. John Kemeny,
professor of mathematics and chairman of
the Department of Mathematics at Dart-
mouth College, wrote an article in the New
York Times Magazine for June 2, 1963, en-
titled “Once the Professor was a Teach-
er ..., the subtitle of which is “Now all
too often he is a researcher or a consultant,
and his students seldom see him.” Paul
Gross, writing in Science for November 8,
1963, on the general subject “R&D and the
Relations »f Science and Government,”
states on page 648, “. . . there is now an
over-emphasis on research at the expense
of teaching .. .” In a letter to the editor
of Science on November 10, 1961, Paul
J. Kramer of the National Science Founda-
tion writes, “The effects on undergraduate
teaching of an excessive preoccupation
with research on university campuses is
seen in the fact that most of our graduate
students come from colleges where little
research is done, and relatively few come
from universities where research occupies
much of the time and energy of the staff.”
And again he says, “It seems possible that
a well-taught freshman course and a few
good students inspired to go into graduate
school may be a greater accomplishment
for most of us than our research.” The
problem as I see it is that everything pos-
sible is done to discourage excellence in
teaching, with few exceptions.
Teaching itself is looked down on. The
old saying, “Those that can, do. Those
that can’t, teach,” has a large place in the
back of too many people’s minds. Re-
search and consulting have been glam-
orized until they are considered to be the
chief end of man.
The teacher is often tempted away from
his classroom for longer or shorter periods
of time either for money, which his low
salary makes very attractive, for more
glamorous and publicity-producing service
on national boards or committees, or for
work which he feels a social or patriotic
duty to undertake.
Teaching salaries are so low that most
APRIL, 1964.
college professors and high schoo] teach-
ers are not able to live on their salaries
and must seek ways to supplement them.
Teachers are hired for only nine or ten
months a year and so must hunt for extra
work in the summer if they are to have
incomes during the summer. If they are
known for their research, they can usually
get something to do. But if they are merely
excellent teachers, they are likely to have
great difficulty.
Now some things are being done for
teaching. The National Science Founda-
tion supports both in-service institutes and
summer institutes. But these are aimed
largely at improving the technical knowl-
edge of high school teachers, and in that
respect they have helped high school teach-
ing greatly. The conferences for college
teachers similarly serve to help them. And
some awards are made for excellence in
teaching. But these attempts to ameliorate
the situation either are completely inade-
quate or else do not strike at the root of
the problem.
Perhaps now is the time to put our teach-
ing into perspective. In America our sec-
ondary schools do only teaching—no re-
search. I wonder what would happen if
our high school teachers of science were
encouraged to do some research. After all.
Pasteur was teaching in a French second-
ary school when he started on his series of
scientific triumphs. But our American pat-
tern is teaching only.
The job of the university is different.
A university must teach, and it must do
research. Originally, teaching took prece-
dence, between the two world wars teach-
ing and research approached equality of
emphasis, but now the research is so heav-
ily emphasized that teaching tends to be
given a minor role. This is the situation
that I wish to discuss tonight, and my dis-
cussion is primarily a plea for the develop-
ment of rules, rates of pay, and govern-
ment policies that will restore a normal
balance of effort between teaching and
other activities, including research.
The late Graham DuShane said it all in
12]
a few words in an editorial in Science in
the issue of July 21, 1961: “. .. few unt-
versity faculty members believe that time
devoted to teaching will receive either rec-
ognition or reward. It is a more usual,
and probably a more realistic, view that
time taken for teaching is time stolen from
research. and that the road*to academic
heaven is paved with publications.”
bitter part of the pill is that usually the
quality of the publications is never taken
into account. In the mad race for num-
bers of publications: research results are
published in as many pieces as possible,
each giving a separate publication, and
the result has been a flood of publications
that is so great that no one can keep up
with his. field.
The size of this flood is indicated by the
following quotation from Modern Docu-
mentation and Information Practices,
edited by O. Frank: “It has been estimated
that if a chemist, fluent in 30 languages,
started on January first to read all the
papers in his particular field for 40 hours
a week at a rate of four articles an hour,
then by December 31st he would: have read
not more than 1/10 of all the material
published during that year, from which
the benefit would be nil, as he would have
no time left to do anything with the knowl-
edge thereby gained.” How unworthy of
reading is much of this material is shown
by the fact that' even without reading it
the forward pace of science: approaches
the supersonic.
One of the myths of the teaching pro-
fession -is that, if one is to be a good
teacher and an inspiring one, he must have
some research going on. This was stated
to me very authoritatively in September of
1942 when, at the meeting of the Ameri-
can Chemical Society in Buffalo; N. Y., I
appeared before the Society’s committee
on professional training in an attempt to
get the chemistry department at George
Washington University on the».approved
list.
Parenthetically, here is as nice a piece
of weasel-wording as anyone could desire.
122
The ACS does not accredit chemistry de-
partments, it puts them on an approved
list. What the difference between being on
an approved list and being accredited is
I have never been able to understand. One
thing I do know—if you are not on the
list, you are discredited!
But to get back to Buffalo. After I had
been questioned about the research activi-
ties of our department, the chairman of
the committee pontificated that in his opin-
ion no teacher coulddo°a good job of
teaching if he were not interested also in
research. Since | was the supplicant be-
fore the all-powerful, I was scarcely in a
position to point out the reasons why I
thought he was—and is—wrong. Now I
am no longer under the scrutiny of this
awesome group, so here are those long-
suppressed reasons.
1. No one has ever reported a study that
proved that researchers in general make
better teachers than those who devote their
time to teaching alone.
2. No one has ever reported a case of
a professor’s teaching being improved just
because he started a research project. If
he is teaching on a graduate level, the
literature review that we hope he made be-
fore starting the research and the intensive
follow-up that he must pursue might give
added depth to a course in that specialty.
But if it is a general course such as gen-
eral advanced organic chemistry, for ex-
ample, the balance of the course may be
upset if he is so enamored of the small
area in which he does research that the
rest of the field is neglected. This happens.
3. The biggest source of inspired, young,
graduate students was then, and still is,
the small liberal arts college, as Kramer
says in the quotation referred to earlier
and as studies made by the National Re-
search Council also show. If research in-
spires so much good teaching, why aren’t
most of the good graduate students the
product of our great university depart-
ments that do so much research? This
situation is the more damning because
the great research universities: have’ the
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF‘ SCIENCES
glamor to attract the better high school
graduates.
No, I have been presented with nothing
more solid than opinions to support the
claim that research is essential to top-qual-
ity teaching, and I believe that the record
of the small colleges in producing gradu-
ates who do well in graduate school and
in industrial chemistry is solid evidence to
the contrary. One of our folk sayings is
that the proof of the pudding is in the
eating, and this is a very tasty dish. That
is why I call this statement a myth.
Research, however, is easy to: measure,
for published papers result, and the count-
ing of these is not arduous work for the
administrator who evaluates the professor,
but who is unable in most cases to evaluate
the papers he counts. Neither is it arduous
to add up the number of dollars brought
to the university as research support for
the professor, and these may both be used
in evaluating him. But to evaluate his
teaching is another matter.
How does one evaluate teaching? It
isn’t easy, for there is little that is quanti-
tative, and much of what can be measured
‘must be evaluated in the light of other im-
measurables. For example, a professor
may have a very low failure rate in his
classes. But this may mean that he has
taught well or that he is an easy grader
or that he is a superficial examiner, and
any evaluation must include consideration
of the quality of students that he had. If
these students take one of the national ex-
aminations, such as the cooperative exami-
inations in chemistry, and if they score
well, then he probably taught well. If his
students, taking a successive course in a
series, demonstrate in the succeeding
‘courses that they know well the material of
the course taught by our professor, then
one knows that’ he taught well. If the
students’ grades on the graduate record
examinations now required for admission
to, many.graduate schools are high, then
the department as a whole has taught well.
And finally, if a department’s students are
able to enter graduate schools and hold
APRIL, 1964
their own with their classmates, then the
department has taught at least as well as
the other departments. In other words.
the product resulting from the professor’s
teaching must be evaluated. That is the
only real test of any operation and, for
the teaching operation, it isn’t easy.
One can inquire of students as to their
opinion of the professor as a teacher, but
here one must be careful. Many students
are not discriminating and think a shallow
but entertaining teacher is a good one. A
poor student always says that the teacher
is no good, a defensive reaction that is
understandable but which too few deans,
in interviewing students who are doing
poorly, take into account. The opinions of
selected good students are much more reli-
able, for that is the type of student who
likes a challenge and appreciates it.
‘As an example, I will cite one case about
which I know. This teacher was rated
highly by the department and by the bet-
ter students who were in her classes. She
fired a number of her freshman students
with a love of chemistry which they never
lost. But because she had high standards.
a number of her students didn’t do well
and were interviewed by the dean because
they had poor grades. According to them,
their academic failures were all her fault.
So the dean decided she was not a good
teacher. [I personally begged him to talk
to some of the better students and get their
opinion of her, but he couldn’t be bothered.
As a result, this excellent teacher has left
teaching, and is now pursuing an_ out-
standing career in government service. But
our society is the loser, for her caliber of
teacher is very rare.
The evaluation of teaching is at best a
difficult and time-consuming job, and it
is little wonder that it is usually poorly
done. The sad thing about it is that poor
teaching is difficult to catch up with, and
when it shows up in the students’ work
years later it is too late to do anything
about it. The student may have been
handicapped for life or discouraged be-
cause of later failure caused by the poor
123
teaching in that one course. He may then
be deflected into some line of activity for
which he has much less basic ability and
for which society has much less need.
The feeling of the teacher that time
spent on teaching will bring him neither
recognition nor reward is real and it is
justified. Take the matter of recognition.
This Academy, on the record, gives five
awards each year—four for excellence in
research and one for excellence in teach-
ing. Twice the awards committee has re-
belled—two years ago when two teaching
awards were made, and this past month
when three teaching awards were made.
But for the record, there is one award for
each of four areas of research—in each
of which teaching is done—but only one
for teaching. The Chemical Society of
Washington gives one award—the Hille-
brand prize—which is for research. There
is no award for teaching. The American
Chemical Society gives one award for con-
tributions to chemical education, in the
description of which teaching is implied
but not specifically listed (it is listed as
“training of professional chemists’) ; one
for contributions to inorganic chemistry
which may include teaching; two for dis-
tinguished service to chemistry, not further
detailed; one for public communication
in the field of chemistry; one for out-
standing public service; and 20 for ex-
cellence in research. Certainly very little
recognition of teaching there.
One bright spot in the picture is the
Manufacturing Chemists Association,
which offers six awards annually to col-
lege teachers and no other awards at all.
The Association makes quite an affair of
the presentation, and these awards have
achieved a very high stature. There may
be similar awards in other areas of sci-
ence, but | am not aware of them.
High school teachers get somewhat bet-
ter treatment, at least in this area. One of
the three awards in teaching given by this
Academy last month was to a high school
teacher; and yesterday at Engineers, Sci-
entists and Architects Day 12 high school
124
teachers were recognized for their teach-
ing. On the college level, there is relatively
little recognition for good teaching.
Now let’s look at the rewards. There
just isn’t any real comparison between
teaching salaries and industrial or research
salaries or even government salaries. Dur-
ing my years of active teaching at George
Washington University, there was never a
year when I did not have students in my
classes whose salaries were higher than
my own. Ah yes, you say, but in teaching
you have your summers off and you can
do consulting. What this really means is
that the professor is hired for nine or ten
months and, if he wants an income during
the summer, he had better find a job to
bring it in; his employer assumes no re-
sponsibility for it. And when you say that
he can do consulting, you are saying that
you pay him a low salary so he has to
moonlight, much as one pays a waiter a
smail salary and expects him to make it up
in tips—only there aren’t any tips, just
extra jobs.
I have no objection to a professor’s con-
sulting in order to broaden his background
or because his knowledge and talents are
needed by our government, but I do ob-
ject to salary scales set so low that he has
to do consulting. I do not fear contradic-
tion when I say that a majority, and it may
be a huge majority, of the professors in
these rich United States of America cannot
live in a style suited to their positions in
society on the salaries they are paid and
that the majority have either a second job,
a working wife, or a private income. The
purpose of this is not high living but to
be able to send Butch and Peggy, and in
some cases Bill, Mary, and Elaine, to col-
leges of their choice, to take his wife to
the theatre occasionally and to the sym-
phony, and to enjoy the other amenities
of life we like to think of as typically
American.
One puzzling thing is that many mem-
bers of the teaching profession itself are
helping to denigrate teaching when they
boast of their small teaching loads. In-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
deed, the small teaching load has now be-
- come a status symbol, as has attending
endless conferences, or being a_ visiting
professor whether for a few lectures or one
or more school terms, or being called to
Washington as an expert. All these keep
the professor out of his classroom for long
periods or provide an interruption to his
classes. In either case, the student suffers.
For too few professors nowadays do the
students come first. Kemeny in his article
refers to the professor who gets an offer
from another institution and whose own
institution, rather than increase his salary,
cuts his teaching load in half. This means
that the cost of teaching at his institution
is doubled, where a 10 percent raise would
have been cheaper but would have put our
professor out of line salary-wise. Now the
university cannot afford to have its teach-
ing costs go so high, so rather than get
another professor of equal rank and salary
to teach the other half of our professor’s
teaching load, the university will have a
graduate student or other cheap “help”
meet these classes. The students will suffer
from the poorer teaching, and the univer-
sity and the professor apparently do not
care. Possibly neither realizes it, which
implies unforgivable stupidity. Later when
these students appear as graduate students,
the professor is likely to wonder why they
are so poorly prepared.
This drive for the professor to do things
other than teach, then, results either in
less than conscientious teaching or in no
teaching at all. Both are bad, but the lat-
ter is the more honest. And now what are
the forces causing this calamitous situa-
tion?
One is stupid university administration
—the evaluation of professors on the basis
of research or consulting activity rather
than on the basis of their teaching. It is
one thing to want your staff to publish,
but as soon as one adopts the policy of
publish or perish, the purpose of the publi-
cation is to get a promotion, not to trans-
mit one’s findings to one’s fellow scientists.
Further, the need to get out a publication
APRIL, 1964,
in order to get the promotion often causes
the professor to devote to his research and
writing much of the time he should spend
on preparing for his classes.
A second reason is akin to the first.
This is the overemphasis on research by
society. Young men get together at meet-
ings and compare numbers of papers pub-
lished, or numbers of research grants, or
numbers of dollars in research grants, so
that research grants and papers published
become status symbols; there are few com-
parable status symbols for teaching. Oh,
yes, the National Science Foundation gives
hundreds of postdoctoral fellowships and
faculty fellowships, but the recipient usual-
ly spends his time doing research in some-
one else’s laboratory, which will at best
have only an oblique effect on his teaching.
Perhaps here is where the low teaching
load status symbol develops.
A third reason is economic. Teaching
salaries are far too low. I have already
mentioned how the average professor has
to hunt for income during the summer,
whereas if he has a research grant he may
be paid from that during the summer. But
to get the grant, he has to have a research
program going, not a good teaching pro-
gram.
The way our teachers are paid in this
country is a social crime, and in this |
include teachers at all levels in all but a
few institutions. I refer to the practice of
paying teachers only during the school
year and letting them scavenge for scraps
in the summers. To add to the insult,
teachers in the grades and high schools
are required to go to summer school at
their own expense. Industry not only pays
better salaries the year round, but often
will pay all or part of the cost of any addi-
tional courses the employee takes, fre-
quently on company time.
It is little wonder, in a society that puts
so much emphasis on big cars and big
houses and expensive ways of life, that
teachers are looked down on as _ being
somewhat below normal. The average per-
son reasons that if the teacher really were
125
smart, he’d bein the money.’ So from hin
teachers 1 receive only an ELL show of
respect. ;
A fourth pressure is eo Our govern-
ment requires the advice of scientists in
great amounts. It has become almost a
social requirement certainly, and is also
a professional requirement, that one serve
on the many boards and committees set
up by more and more government agen-
cies. If one has never been asked to serve
on one of these, one just hasn’t arrived.
And, of course, if one is to be asked he
has to be known, and he gets known by
publishing the results of his research rather
than by the quality of his teaching. This
adds to the financial pressure, too, for the
work of many of these committees is time-
consuming and unpaid. Apparently, some-
one has decided that the decisions of these
committees are more pure, more free from
bias and prejudice; and more sound’ if
made by men who are given no honoraria.
The federal government can give millions
annually to dictators around the globe’ who
slap Uncle Sam’s face as a matter of rou:
tine, but it can’t give these committeemen
an honorarium.
As a matter of fact, this service on com-
mittees is really a contribution from the
university which pays the scientists’ sala-
ries. | am under the impression, \ which
may be wrong, that most of these commit-
teemen are university professors. If: this
is not true, then give industry,’ as’ well,
credit for a substantial contribution. | In-
dustry can forbid its men to serve on these
committees. Universities cannot for two
reasons. One is that one does’ not’ forbid
professors to do what the professor wishes
to do professionally unless he seriously
neglects his assigned duties, and second,
a university is a public service institution
and so is bound to allow its’ staff to do
public service jobs of this type. But the
universities are understaffed) and can ill
afford a great deal of this. One can say,
as some do, that this is just a drop in the
bucket; and that is true, but» of what is
a bucket filled? Drops. President. Johnson
126
has just’ announced that he has ‘cut. the’
White House light. bill’ from’ $5,000 to:
$3,000 per month by turning off! individual
lights.
All this atlsleg from the campus doesn’t’
help a man’s teaching one bit. Let me
quote from the article by Kemeny to which |
I referred earlier: |
“A great deal of scientific’ manpower is. spent
advising the Government: To assure that Federal
funds are spent wisely, panels are called to Wash-
ington. For example, to award various summer
institutes, 50 scientists’ take a week off from their’
universities. Has anyone evaluated’ the harm done’
by disrupting 100 classes for a week?”
Stop and think about it.’ A course is
not just a series of lectures; it is, or should’
be, an organized discussion of a subject
divided into finite pieces by the demands'
of the clock and the physical and mental
limitations of both teacher and student.
Any piece of this that one misses weakens’
the whole. One can get a colleagtie to
stand in front of the class and discuss the
same subject, but he has a different view’
of the subject than the professor has and
there is at least an even chance that his
bit of the course will not fit properly into
the mosaic that the professor is creating.
In colonial times, the prime requisite of
the teacher was that he be able to lick the
biggest boy in the school. Anyone who
could do that could maintain order and
was, therefore, able to teach. After all, he
had been to school. and’ had seen how
teaching was done. -From this has grown!
an American idea that a teacher is the
person who stands in front of the class
and talks, that anyone who can~stand in
front of the class can teach, and that teach-
ers are completely interchangeable. If pro-
fessor X can’t meet his class, graduate
student Y can do it for him. Y can use
some teaching experience, and who worries
about the students?
The point is that'some government poli-
cies and actions are contributing to the
deterioration of teaching at the, same.time
that they are trying to. improve teaching.
Taking professors out of the classroom for
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
even short periods of’ time’ is’ not good.
It is the shame ‘of the profession that they
let themselves be taken out. )
Another government policy that is not
helping teachers is the insistence of those
government agencies that give pre- and
postdoctoral fellowships that the primary
activity of the holder be research, and that
only a bare minimum of teaching be al-
lowed. The result is that the young scien-
tist is shown that research pays and teach-
ing doesn’t, for it’s obvious that if teaching
were considered important he would be
expected to do some.
Let’s face it. Good teachers do not grow
out of research activity. They grow be-
cause they serve as teaching assistants
under great teachers—as Professor Charles
Naeser did under B. S. Hopkins of Illinois,
and as Dean George Koehl did under the
late, great Thomas B. Brown. Not all who
served these apprenticeships became great
teachers, of course, but many did, and the
good graduate schools were the training
ground for good teachers as well as good
researchers. It was men like those [ have
mentioned who set high standards of teach-
ing and conduct. Unfortunately, today’s
holder of a fellowship—and ‘very nearly
all graduate students nowadays are bought
and paid for with fellowships of one kind
or another—is frequently forbidden’ to
assist in teaching at all or is so limited
in amount that he never gets any real
training in teaching. He is fed on research;
he is shown the path to glory; and by im-
plication, by action, and often by the terms
of his fellowship he gathers that that path
is the research path. If this young man
accepts a post in a university, he is likely
not to know much about how to teach in
the first place, and moreover he is likely
to consider it an activity of secondary
importance. It is from this that a low teach-
ing load has come to be a status symbol.
But there is another unfortunate aspect
of ‘our national policies on fellowships.
The fellowships are given to the very best
students; a worthy aim of course. But this
means that the holders of teaching assist-
APRIL; 1964 ° é
antships are frequently those men and
women who cannot qualify for the more
remunerative and more prestige-bearing
research fellowships. In other words, in
too many cases our present teaching fel-
lows tend to be second-rate students.
These‘ are the students who are inspired
to go into teaching because they are teach-
ing under good men. But the students they
teach may suffer because these second
raters are not first raters. One may say
that frequently the man who is not superior
in research actually makes a better teacher.
and this may be so. But it is far different
to conclude that this justifies conditions
which discourage our more brilliant young
people from going into teaching. We need
replacements for the likes of Pauling and
Hildebrand and Brown, top-flight scientists
who loved. teaching and who, while doing
solid pioneering research, were proud of
their work in the classroom, preparing for
their classes with, the same care that they
prepared for their research. The present
system is, In my opinion, not set up to
get men of this caliber into teaching ex-
cept, perhaps, as the teaching is afhliated
with their research.
In summary, then, my story is that the
future of American science is in jeopardy
because we are not encouraging our best
young scientists to go into teaching, and
that the factors which tend to discourage
them are:
(a) We are. not training them to. be
teachers, not. giving them a chance to
teach in their formative years.
(b) We glorify research from the time
the student gets his first fellowship and,
in later life, his rewards are likely to de-
pend upon his research much more than
on his teaching.
(c) If he goes.into teaching, he can
look forward to a very thin pocketbook.
And now what can be done about this?
With regard to our failure to train them
to be teachers: The givers of the fellow-
ships should require that all fellowship
holders do some teaching unless excused
by the chairman of the department. This
127
might help in lessening the glorification of
research. Professional societies can help
by rewarding teaching as thoroughly as
they do research, and university adminis-
trators must study the teaching of their
staffs more thoroughly, so that teaching
is properly rewarded in its own home.
The public attitude toward teachers will
change when this is done, and when teach-
ers salaries become more adequate.
The economic problem of the professor
can be solved very simply. Just give him
a pay raise with employee benefits and
the operating support he needs to make
his position competitive with industry.
The problem is money. Universities and
colleges with few exceptions just do not
have the funds required for modernization
of buildings, expansion of campuses, and
increasing salaries. There was a time when
an enterprising college president could
raise millions, sometimes from a single
individual, as Harper got millions for the
University of Chicago from Rockefeller.
But those days passed with the coming of
the confiscatory income tax. Today, some
of the better known schools are able to
raise substantial amounts of money, largely
from wealthy alumni, but in general this
is not the case. Some of the state-supported
universities are able to maintain proper
budgets, but again this is not the rule.
What is required is a new way of funding
these universities, and there is lots of talk
of federal government support.
Now of course, all this federal money
comes from the people, you and me. These
signs one sees on road construction sites,
to the effect that the cost of this project
is met 90 percent by federal funds and
only 10 percent by local funds, are an
attempt by the bureaucrats in charge to
pull the wool over the average citizen’s
eyes, and it is little credit to that citizen’s
intelligence that the propaganda is success-
ful. The truth of the matter is that all
of this money is local money, but 90 per-
cent detours en route via the federal gov-
ernment, with some not negligible dissipa-
tion on the way as overhead. So let’s face
it: When funds to support education come
from federal sources, they originally came
out of our pockets, not out of Santa Claus’
pack.
But federal funding means eventual fed-
eral control, and all the protest in the world
cannot disprove that statement. Already
the federal government sets down condi-
tions for getting federal funds. One has to
swear that he will not discriminate
against anyone because of race, religion, or
color—a control to achieve an object now
deemed desirable by the federal govern-
ment. So the principle of federal gov-
ernment control has been established. To-
morrow it may be deemed desirable that
everyone who enters college should take
some particular program of study, and all
colleges may be forced to require it if
they are to get federal funds. Far-fetched ?
It is not.
Last year the American Council on Edu-
cation held a conference at the Mayflower
Hotel in order to acquaint personnel from
the colleges and universities with govern-
mental programs of support. One of the
programs is a National Science Founda-
tion program which provides funds for the
purchase of equipment for the teaching of
science. The young man describing the
program made this statement: “The poorest
reason for giving funds for this equipment
is that the institution needs it.” I was
astounded and asked whether I had heard
correctly. I was assured that | had, and the
speaker proceeded to explain that they
were anxious to support forward-looking
programs. Determined as- forward-looking
by whom? The people who run the col-
lege, who know its problems, its clientele
and environment? Not at all. The pro-
grams that are worthy of support are de-
cided by a committee of busy individuals
who in the nature of things cannot spend
more than a few minutes studying each
proposal.
This is the kind of government control
now being exercised. The result is that
many deserving and needy schools do not
get the aid they need. How much this will
128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
magnify if the federal government expands
its support of education is obvious.
What is needed is a plan that will sup-
port schools and colleges quite impartially.
This cannot be done by bureaucratic dis-
tribution as is now done. What is needed
is a formula by which funds may be made
available directly. We use formulas for
lots of things. Our income taxes are com-
puted by formula. This isn’t equitable,
but it’s a lot better than each of us having
to have our income tax set by petition.
And the federal government does support
the land grant colleges according to a
formula. So formulas do work, and the
following plan is proposed as a way to aid
education substantially, without federal
control, without increasing the federal
establishment, and with negligible over-
head costs.
This plan involves the development of a
formula by means of which any college or
university could compute the sum which
it might collect for the current year. The
formula should be developed by repre-
sentatives of the colleges, perhaps the
American Council on Eduction. Let me be
the first to state that no formula will be
ideal—it will just be better than bureau-
cratic disbursement after supplication.
Now, Congress will have to do three
things—decide how much money _ that
otherwise would go into income tax should
go to education, authorize the colleges to
develop the formula referred to above, and
authorize the issuance of special receipts
by the colleges for these special gifts.
After Congress had passed the enabling
legislation referred to above, the colleges
would compute the funds that they might
collect and send their estimates to some
supervisory government agency, perhaps
the Office of Education. This office would
determine the total, compare it to the sum
Congress decided it would like to see go
to education, and prorate to each college
its share of the total authorized.
It is then up to the college to collect
donations. For each donation, the college
issues a receipt, similar to the W-2 form
APRIL, 1964.
with which we are all currently familiar.
The taxpayer, in making up his tax return
for the year, submits this receipt as evi-
dence of tax paid.
The income tax people take all the spe-
cial receipts, which are coded for colleges
as well as taxpayer, determine the amount
each college has received, and compare this
total with the college’s own report. This
is the simplest kind of machine computa-
tion and can be done by existing personnel
by missing one coffee break. After all,
there are only 2,100-odd institutions of
higher education in the United States.
Now, if Siwash College accepts more
money under this plan than its allotted
sum, that amount is deducted from next
years sum. If Siwash accepts too much
the second year in a row, then twice the
excess is deducted the third year. Since
that amounts to 50 percent interest on a
loan, it will happen only by accident and
then only once for any institution.
This plan should be applied to all in-
creases in college support, and should reach
back to include some support now given.
It might, for example, include a large
amount of the funds now doled out on a
job basis for basic research. It would not
affect the collection of funds from private
givers as now obtained.
The principle of the plan is simple. Con-
gress decides how much tax money it wants
to go to higher education. Higher educa-
tion has to collect it. Controls on the
amounts are built in by the penalty on the
second year’s overtake, yet a college can
get extra funds in one year for extra large
projects at no total penalty. The control of
the expenditure of the funds is left right
where it belongs—in the college or uni-
versity—and there is no government con-
trol, influence, or audit. This is in a sense
a proposed return to the days when the
government got things done by leaving the
doing in the hands of those who knew what
they were doing and setting up incentives to
make. people do it. The railroads were
built because the builders were subsidized
with land. Our present airlines are given
129
airmail subsidies, and our merchant marine
would not exist: without subsidy. The kind
of motivation. suggested here will cost the
taxpayer no more than Congress. is already
talking about, it will increase the overhead
not at.all, and it will insure against federal
control of: our education.
If this sounds drastic, it is not. It simply
applies to education the principle, long
established in America, of getting people to
do things by setting up conditions that will
make them want to do them.
Peoushes fhis,dalk, [diawe. been dis-
cussing teaching, and at times I have indi-
cated that I think, there is too much
emphasis on research. Yet my title is
Dean for Sponsored Research. How do I
reconcile this apparent conflict? There is
no conflict, for the operation .of.a univer-
sity is a team operation, and both teach-
ing and research are essential. A football
team with an /all-America backfield and a
weak line is. a sorry spectacle. In many
ways, teaching is the forward wall—the
line—of the university, for if the teaching
is not strong, the university. cannot. be
strong. _We are doing much to develop
a research capability but precious little.
really, to develop and set. up conditions
that. will encourage good teaching anda
devotion to it. Until a proper balance of
the two is restored, we are werk nan our
entire future. | |
Roots of Modern Climatology*
H. E. Landsberg”
U.S. Weather Bureau
Just 50 years. ago an eminent clima-
tologist (1) wrote: ,
“So impossible is it to keep our heads
above the rising tide of the new meteoro-
logical literature that. we are neglecting,
to our loss, the rich stores which lie. buried
in the books of a generation ago.”
If the new literature was a tide then it
has become a storm surge now, and less
than ever do we have the leisure to look
into the history of our science. Yet we
can measure progress best by taking an
occasional look back. We might even de-
rive a bit of comfort by noting that vicissi-
tudes beset our predecessors as much as
us. If we are particularly astute, we might
learn a good deal about the problems of
planning in science.
All environmental sciences inherit a share
* Presented January 30, 1964, at the annual
meeting of the American Meteorological ‘Society
in Los Angeles.
of their knowledge from other, more fun-
damental fields: Climatology is no ex-
ception. Even in its earliest stages it par-
took of two very diverse fields, astronomy
and medicine. A crude attempt is made
here to depict various stages of develop-
ment of this science, with special emphasis
on its evolution during the 19th century.
A table showing the early leaders in the
field may serve‘as a-convenient illustration
(Fig. 1). This lists the- personages who
have made notable ‘contributions, under
headings of their main field of endeavor or
early training. The date or dates of im-
portant publications of these individuals
also are shown; these publications are
listed in the bibliography. Monographic
studies or books have been given preference
over individual papers, and in the selection
of the authors as well as the publications
there is, of course, always an element of
Although it would be. nice
personal bias.
130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
a Sa a NS EE ——— SS
——- _ : _ - =
5 >
PEDIGREE OF CLIMATOLOGY
PHYSICS
EARTH SCIENCES | MEDICINE _|
BOTANY
eee MATHEMATICS ASTRONOMY
ERATOSTHENES [-276 To —194]
4
HIPPOCRATES [-460 To —376] |
1
(1774, 1788)
L. COTTE [1740-1615]
EARLY (1755)
SCIENCE ERA J.T. MAYER [1723-1762]
ERA OF (1832) (1834, 1836) 2727
EMERGENCE L. F. KAmTz [1801-1867] P. MURPHY [1762-1847]
(1843)
L. A. J. QUETELET [1796-1874]
FOUNDATION (1852, 1875) (1853)
ERA J. H. COFFIN [1806-1873]
(1853)
J. C. HOUZEAU [1820-1888]
(1647, 1857, 1869)
H. W. DOVE [1803-1879]
H. WILD [1833-1902]
A. C. BECQUEREL [1768-1878]
(1617, 1831) (1827) (1627)
A. V. HUMBOLDT [1769-1859] } F. SCHOUW [1789-1852] | LOVELL [1788-16836]
(1841)
W. MAHLMANN [1812-1848]
(1846, 1852)
M. F. MAURY [1806-1673]
(1840) (1842)
J. L. KLAUPRECHT [ ]| S. FORRY [i611-1844)
(1852) (1862)
A. E. DE GASPARIN [1763-1862]| A. a. MUHRY [1810-1688]
(1857) (1873)
A. H. GUYOT [1807-1884] H. HOFFMANN [1819-1891] ARMAND [ ]
CLASSICAL
PERIOD
8
J.
83)
(1868, 1869)
A. BUCHAN [1829-1907]
(1884)
A. SUPAN [1847-1920]
(1875, 1884)
A. I. VOEIKOV [1842-1916]
HANN [1839-1921]
(1900)
Ww. KOPPEN [1846-1940]
1
if one could trace each thought, principle,
or method to its very origin, this is quite
a difficult task and often requires access to
unpublished or very obscure sources. |
have rather used as a principal guide the
appraisal of the contemporaries. F're-
quently quoted material, even if it is not
the first source of an idea, has shown by
the fact of many citations its impact on the
development of the science. This logic in-
cludes textbooks which then often con-
tained much original material and which
reflect the state of the art of their period.
They often also served as the point of
departure and stimulus for a succeeding
generation. A guide to some of this liter-
ature is contained in Hellmann’s com-
pilations (2).
Climatology as a separately recognized
discipline started just about with the end
of the 18th century. Standardized instru-
ments had been developed and the first
attempts at organization of a network had
been made (3). A few decades of data
were available. Travelers and explorers
had been in nearly all parts of the globe
and a fair appreciation of the wide variety
of climates and their impact on plant, ani-
mal, and human population had become
clear.
The crucial step from an accumulation
of facts to a science is systematization and
development of causal relations. A basic
contribution to this transition was made by
Alexander von Humboldt (4), the great
explorer and earth scientist. He was the
first to give a definition of climate (5)
APRIL, 1964.
and to map a climatological element and
draw isolines, a technique which he had
adapted from another earth science, geo-
magnetism. His isothermal map of the
northern hemisphere was based on _ ob-
servations from 58 stations. It also con-
tained a diagram of vertical temperature
lapse rate for reduction of mountain
observations to sea level. In his analy-
sis he emphasized the departure of
the isotherms from latitudinal circles
to which they had been supposed to
conform by traditional hypothesis. He
also offered an explanation of the distor-
tion of the isotherms as caused by the
contrasts of continents and oceans and by
oceanic currents. This paper, originally
written in French, appeared, in extract, in
four journals in three languages within two
years of its presentation. A full trans-
lation into English appeared in 1820. None
of these carried the chart. The first full
German translation did not appear until
1853 in a collection of his casual papers.
The climatic chart with isolines has since
become the standard medium of presen-
tation and has been extended to the repre-
sentation of most elements. In the 19th
century the most notable contributions
were:
(1) The revised annual isotherms for
the northern hemisphere by Kamtz *, using
1Ludwig Friedrich Kamtz (1801-1867) was
not primarily interested in climatology but in
physical meteorology. Born in Treptow, Prussia,
he got his doctorate in Halle-in 1822 in mathe-
matics. He stayed there as docent and professor
131
145 stations. The same author also showed
a circumpolar isotherm chart for the north-
ern latitudes about 50°, indicating two
continentally located centers of lowest tem-
peratures. He finally contributed a partial
world chart of barometric variability, cov-
ering primarily the North Atlantic and the
continents of Europe, Asia, Africa, and
Australia. It clearly showed the high baro-
metric unrest in the Icelandic and Green-
land region and the relative steadiness near
the equator.
(2) The first world chart of annual
isotherms devised by Mahlmann? (7),
which shows in the plotting model not only
the mean temperatures of summer and
winter (a system already used by Hum-
boldt) but also the mean temperatures of
the warmest and the coldest month. Mahl-
mann used data from 305 stations and in a
later revision (1844), 422 stations.
(3) The first series of monthly isotherms
for the earth constructed by H. W. Dove,
based on data from about 700 stations.
Dove, working independently of Mabhl-
mann, whom he apparently regarded as a
rival, published his first results in the
Transactions of the Berlin Academy of
Sciences in 1847, and made an announce-
until 1841. He got interested in meteorology in
1824 and won early fame by his three-volume
textbook of meteorology (6). He accepted a
chair at Dorpat (Tartu, Estonia), then part
of the Russian Empire. In 1865 he was elected
to the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St.
Petersburg (Leningrad) and succeeded A. T.
Kupffer as director of the Physical Observatory,
then the meteorological central of Russia, at
an age when others seek retirement. His tenure
was only two years, when he died after a short
illness.
* Wilhelm MahlImann (1812-1848) was a pro-
tégé of A.v.Humboldt. Little is known of his
early life and education, but he struggled as a
school teacher and acted later as editor for the
well-known Berlin Geographical Society. He
translated, revised and extended Humboldt’s
famous treatise on Asia (1844). In 1846 he
started the Prussian Meteorological Service
within the Statistical Office, but soon suc-
cumbed because of ill health which had
plagued him for years (10).
132
ment to the British Association for the
Advancement of Science in the same year.
The general secretary of that Society, Col.
Edward Sabine, was instrumental in hav-
ing Dove’s charts distributed and bringing
them to the attention of a world-wide
audience (8).
(4) The first isobaric charts for the
earth for January, July, and the year by
A. Buchan (9). These were presented to
the Royal Society of Edinburgh in two
memorable papers read on March 16, 1868
and April 19, 1869. The notable lag be-
tween the appearance of isothermal and
isobaric charts was due to the fact that
many of the early barometer records were
not reduced to sea level and hence not
comparable.
The middle of the last century also saw
the charting of other elements. Particu-
larly noteworthy was the effort of J. H.
Coffin ?, who collected wind data for 579
stations in the late 1840’s. From these he
constructed first a series of northern hemis-
phere wind charts (11), tediously calcu-
lating resultants from the wind frequencies.
Thus he was able to deduce that the single
cell hypothesis of circulation between
equator and pole was inadequate, and cor-
rectly demonstrated the existence of three
latitudinal wind belts at the surface. As a
collaborator of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, he continued his analysis of wind
records for another quarter century and
calculated wind resultants for 3,223 sta-
tions. His global wind study was finished
by his son and the Russian climatologist
A. Voeikof, and finally published as a
massive memoir by the Smithsonian In-
stitution (12).
’James Henry Coffin (1806-1873) was an
1828 graduate of Amherst College; became a
teacher and principal of the Ogdensburg, N. Y.,
Academy and an instructor at Williams Col-
lege (1840-1843). In the latter capacity he
maintained a wind recorder on Massachusetts’
highest peak, Mt. Greylock. He became professor
of mathematics and astronomy at Lafayette
College in Easton, Pa., in 1844, where he
stayed until his death.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Independently, M. F. Maury (1806-1873)
had begun to lay the groundwork for his
- world fame by gathering wind, current, and
sea temperature data over the oceans from
ships’ logs. His data collections and the
charts based on their analysis created a
phenomenal impact not only in the mari-
time but also in the scientific world. His
theoretical explanations were weaker. In
his comments on the general circulation
in the third edition of his wind and cur-
rent charts (13), although recognizing the
existence of several belts of winds, sep-
arated by zones of calms, he still indicates
two cells of essentially meridional circula-
tions in each hemisphere as the funda-
mental system. While he recognizes the
deflecting force of the earth’s rotation, a
grave misconception of the upper atmos-
pheric currents is maintained. This con-
tinues into his most famous work, “Physi-
cal Geography of the Sea” (14), which
went through six editions in less than five
years—a technical best-seller by all tokens.
Here Maury presents isotherms for the At-
lantic for the months of March and Sep-
tember. He also very correctly describes
the seasonal fluctuations of the equatorial
zone of calms and of the subtropical belts,
and quotes a lucid description of land-
and sea-breeze which was furnished to him
by his friend, the Dutch lieutenant M.
Jansen. He also correctly stamps the
oceans as the major sources of moisture
through evaporation for later precipitation
in continental areas. Yet he still ascribes
to terrestrial magnetism the peculiarities
of the general atmospheric circulation in a
rather weird explanation.
Of course, we should not overlook the
fact that some very popular books of the
era espoused the most fantastic conglomer-
ates of technical jumble. They had the
meteorological and climatological puzzles
all “solved”—or so they made the public
believe. Such a pseudoscientific effort—
not too unlike some still existing nonsense
—can be ascribed to P. Murphy (15, 16).
He had all the answers to the problems of
weather and climate and grandiosely dedi-
APRIL, 1964
cated his work to the King. He bitterly
complained that the Royal Society ignored
him, but hoped that “Englishmen of a
future dav. may, possibly, turn to these
discoveries with feelings of pride and
exultation.” The so-called discoveries were
some mystic hypotheses of solar and plane-
tary effects on weather via “the primary
forces of gravity, magnetism, and elec-
tricity.” In his “Anatomy of the Seasons”
he proposes a perpetual almanac, and elab-
orates the occurrence of “storm crises”
according to solar, lunar, and planetary
positions. In his second book we find
under the heading of “Climate, as con-
nected with locality” (16) such unintelli-
gible gobbledygook as:
“Locality, in its most comprehensive sense,
as connected with the temperature and weather
of the seasons, owing to the unity of the solar
and planetary actions on which they depend,—
embrace at once or within the same view,—the
opposite hemispheres of the earth. And between
these opposite hemispheres, owing to their be-
ing traversed throughout their extent by the
axis of magnetic action, equally as that of the
earth’s rotation, combined with the law in refer-
ence to the relative direction of electric action,
in its connexion with magnetic—a contrast, in
reference to the opposite actions of the sum—-
electric and magnetic—always exists.”
The problem of retardation of science by
quackery would make an interesting theme
by itself; but let us return now to the
main stream of developments.
Perhaps the most powerful influence for
the scientific development of climatology
came from the field of botany. Of course,
it had been known since the age of the
great geographical discoveries that the
plant cover of the earth also deviated from
a simple latitudinal scheme. With the
systematization of plants into genera and
species had also arisen a recognition of
ecological factors. The principal of these
was the climate. It is therefore a logical
step from plant geography to climatology.
Humboldt’s voyages had given him a broad
insight, but his observations were not
woven into a scheme.
A notable attempt in this direction was
undertaken by the Dane, Joakim Frederik
133
Schouw (1789-1852), professor of botany
at the University of Copenhagen (17). He
became so enthusiastic about climatology
that he devoted part of his time to analysis
of data and the first attempt at comparative
climatology (18). He hoped that clima-
tology “would rise from a chaotic mass of
observations to a true science.” His zeal
is shown by studies of wind frequencies at
Copenhagen. In this process he reduced
56,050 observations to 8-point frequencies.
One of his fundamental discoveries was
the fact that observations of different years
were quite divergent and that, for com-
parisons of various stations, simultaneous
intervals would have to be used. Although
he recognized the prevalence of west winds
in northwest Europe, he still thought these
were a part of the trade wind system.
However, he noted the existence of a Euro-
pean monsoon from the higher summer
frequency of winds from the Atlantic
quadrant. He related the ratios of wind
frequencies, westerlies to easterlies, to the
mean temperatures of various seasons and
thus arrived at a concept that we would
in modern parlance call the “source re-
gions of air masses.” Schouw also noted
the influence of wind on currents and sea
level fluctuations in the Baltic. He proved
conclusively that sea level changes were
primarily caused by wind piling up waters
in shallow seas rather than by pressure
changes.
In following the botanic stem of our
science, we have to cast a look into the
meteorological effort that had been started
at the University of Tubingen under Gustav
Schiibler, M.D. (1787-1834), professor of
natural history. He had written a book on
meteorology (19), a good bit of which
was devoted to the influence of the moon
on precipitation. Two rather interesting
dissertations. both for the medical doc-
torate, were written under his tutelage. The
first, by Wilhelm Neuffer (20), dealt with
effects of temperature on trees. Neuffer
measured, among other things, the temper-
ature of the tree trunk at 4-inch depth in
relation to air temperature, and speculated
134
about the thickness of tree ring formation
as a function of temperature. He also
raised the question of cooling of the tree
by evaporation with low environmental
humidity. His colleague, Hermann Werner
(21), presents us with a phenological study
of various plants in different localities
near Tubingen, including data on arrival
and leaving of birds, and the length of
stay of the storks in various years.
This line of investigation is followed up
in one of the earliest textbooks on clima-
tology by the superintendent of the Karls-
ruhe Forestry School, J. L. Klauprecht
(22). He defines climate as the combined
state of the weather and specifically refers
to “organic climatology”’—a term for
which we have now substituted bioclima-
tology—as the effect of climatic conditions
on organic life. He gives a very lucid dis-
cussion of the problem of temperature
sums and of the different influence of
freezing temperatures on various types of
plants. He recognizes the different bene-
fits that plants derive from rainfall of
varying duration and intensity. Then he
gives an excellent discussion on wind pro-
tection for sensitive plants. He is quite
aware of the difference of evaporation from
open water surfaces and vegetated soil. He
wonders about the moisture from dew and
its influence under marginal rainfall con-
ditions. Interestingly enough, he discussed
the effect of various CO» concentrations
on plants at a time when low-level fluctu-
ations were not even well established.
Finally, he refutes the belief that weather
changes are influenced by lunar phases—
and, contrary to widespread superstitions.
that these have any influence on the
growth of plants. In discussing hail fre-
quency he lambastes “hail arresters and
dissipators,’ whether they were in form
of straw or wood fires or the French prac-
tice of firing cannons into clouds. We also
find in his book a proposition for a cli-
matic classification on the basis of latitude
and annual temperature, with marine, con-
tinental, and mountain influences as modi-
fiers. |
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Klauprecht’s book was shortly followed
by an even more systematic text on agri-
cultural meteorology by the Count A. E.
de Gasparin (1783-1862). The second part
of this treatise is labelled “Climatologie”
(23). The presentation is by climatic ele-
ments: temperature, radiation, atmos-
pheric electricity, wind, rainfall, snow,
evaporation. These are succeeded by chap-
ters on climates for various crop plants
and limitations for cultivation of olives,
grapes, grains, pasture, and forests. Here
again we find an attempt at classification
of climate for a practical purpose. The
text is made notable by the fact that it is
based on, and illustrated by, actual obser-
vational series from diverse environments.
De Gasparin became frequently cited in
other books and papers in the middle of
the last century. Here we find even a be-
ginning of the aerodynamics of obstacles
and the effects of walls.
Chronologically, as well as regards sub-
ject matter, there follows a contribution
by a French physicist, Antoine César
Becquerel (1788-1878). Professor and
member of the French Academy of Sci-
ences, foreign member of the Royal Society
and the Prussian Academy, he shows the
tendency of the French academicians of
his age: to know something about every-
thing. He throws the weight of his author-
ity (24) into a controversial question of
the era: Does deforestation lead to a
change in climate? Two other famous mem-
bers of the French Academy had already
voiced some opinion about the case. The
celebrated D. F. J. Arago (1786-1853) had
pointed to the increases in surface wind
speeds on denuded soils, and the astute
J. L. Gay-Lussae (1778-1850) thought that
positive proof of any climatic influence on
deforestation would be difficult, if not im-
possible, just on the basis of available
climatie data.
Becquerel, in the best tradition of the
“immortals” of the Institut de France, set
about to survey the question compre-
hensively. Thus he devotes about 175 pages
of his treatise to a general discussion of
APRIL, 1964.
climate and the climates of France in par-
ticular. He draws heavily on the works of
Humboldt and Gasparin. Schibler also is
quoted. From Humboldt he borrows the
latitudinal variations of temperatures and
their different distribution in western
Europe and eastern North America. The
purpose of this survey is to arrive at a
scheme of causes for the climate of differ-
ent localities. He comes up with eleven
basic ingredients of climate. (We now
know that many of those enumerated are
interdependent.) Only the last, and pre-
sumably least important, is the vegetation
cover of the soil.
It is interesting to see his list of reasons
for deforestation: (1) effects of war, (2)
progress of civilization, (3) grazing ani-
mals, (4) industrial use of wood, (5) in-
adequate legislation to stop abuses. His
discussion of forests on the hydrological
cycle is very close to modern views. He
certainly had a good feeling of the com-
petition of forests with springs by using
water for evapotranspiration, that other-
wise might have percolated by infiltration
into acquifers. He also raises the question
of increase or decrease of precipitation
by forested areas but does not answer it.
He finally goes into all historical evidence
of climatic changes. He attributes the ma-
jor variations of climate to geological
influences, but finds no evidence of any
major changes in climate during historical
times in the Mediterranean, western Eur-
ope, and North America. Minor fluctua-
tions are readily admitted as possible. In
support of the latter he lists a long series
(1689-1850) of viticultural observations
on the beginning of the grape harvest in
Burgundy. It shows, interestingly enough,
the period of cooler conditions in the first
half of the 19th century. The grouped
listing of dates is a very early use of such
statistics.
Becquerel’s discussion of the influence
of forests on climate is also well ahead of
any direct observations. Many of his
statements were not observationally veri-
fied until 50 to 60 years later. He is quite
135
well aware of the change in the heat bal-
ance produced by the forest. He also cites
the use of shelter belts as a specific micro-
climatic modification of climatic condi-
tions in the Rhone Valley. These offered
protection against the Mistral. He quotes
the fact that a 2-meter-high hedge will
offer protection 22 meters downwind. At
that time the protection was used for grow-
ing peas.
The masterpiece among the studies by
botanists of the influence of climate on
plants was without doubt a book by Her-
mann Hoffmann (1819-1891), M.D. and
Ph.D., professor of botany at the Univer-
sity of Giessen. This contribution (25),
almost entirely based on original observa-
tions, marks a milestone. It contains very
detailed meteorological observations, in-
cluding regular readings of soil tempera-
ture at one-foot depth and detailed simul-
taneous measurements of growth of leaves
and heights of plants. While the analysis
clearly showed the effect of singular events,
such as freezes, it also established the col-
lective influence of the meteorological fac-
tors on plant development. It proved the
plant to be an integrator of the total en-
vironment. Hoffmann drops the effort to
find a simple formula for climatic influ-
ence on growth, such as growing degree
summations. This had been the favorite
system since R. A. F. de Réaumur’s work
over a century earlier. In spite of Hoff-
mann’s demonstration, the appeal of the
Réaumur scheme has persisted into our
times. We seem to have quite a few such
hardy “perennials” in our science.
In this portion of climatological lineage,
it only remains to relate that Wladimir
Koeppen (1846-1940), whose main fame
in the field came much later (27), also
started his scientific career with a botani-
cal dissertation (26) dealing with tem-
perature and germination. In his student
years he was tutored in meteorology by
Kamtz.
The other branch of biometeorology,
dealing with human beings, of course, had
a respectably long history, dating back to
Hippocrates. In his tradition, physicians
had faithfully described the atmospheric
and balneological characteristics of in-
dividual places. Also, the geographical
distribution of diseases and their epidemi-
ology seemed to be closely related to cli-
mate. Even nutritional deficiencies were
suspected to be climate-related. In the
early 19th century, the existence of eti-
ological agents and vectors as well as vi-
tamins was yet unknown; but the hope
existed that by systematic surveillance of
the environmental factors, the so-called
medical topography, new knowledge on
diseases and their prophylaxis could be
obtained. It was this faith that led James
Tilton (1745-1822) to order in 1814 the
post surgeons of the U. S. Army “to keep
a diary of the weather,” an act which
inaugurated the first official climatic net-
work of observations in this country.
It is true that physicians became close
observers of climate even though the con-
nections to disease and therapy stayed
elusive. Many of the data they presented
either stayed localized or were restricted
to specific regions. In the latter category
were the important compilations and
analyses of Lovell (1788-1836) (28),
Lawson (29), and Forry (30) in the
United States.
A few physicians accumulated so much
material on the climate of a variety of
locales that they felt impelled to share
the wealth of information with their col-
leagues and the scientific world at large.
Perhaps they had in mind that such collec-
tions could lead to proper prescriptions
for climatic change for patients who were
otherwise doomed. Among the diseases
for which a change in locale was the only
palliative in the middle of the 19th cen-
tury were phthisis and malaria, as well as
other tropical ailments. The most compre-
hensive of these surveys was one by Adolf
Miuhry, M. D. (1810-1888). This, with its
supplement, amounted to over 1,000 pages
(31, 32). Although covering the globe in
a geographical fashion, continent by con-
tinent, it was essentially an encyclopedic
136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
rather than an analytical work.
In the same tradition, but even more
medically oriented, was a somewhat later
volume by a French colonial physician,
Dr. Armand, who had much firsthand
knowledge of the so-called “climatic dis-
eases.” With his extensive climatic de-
scriptions of various parts of the world,
he also cites coresponding statistics on the
causes of morbidity and mortality. He
also gives a climatic classification * based
on annual mean values of temperature, one
of the earliest of many numerical attempts
(33).
Even before the middle of the last cen-
tury, the observational data from all parts
of the world became a veritable flood.
Dove, an appreciation of whose work we
will give below, lamented (34): “Lack of
material is not so much an obstacle to
progress as the inadequate utilization of
the data already at hand.” He also pleaded
for simultaneous series of records, as
Schouw had done earlier, and usage of
calibrated instruments according to a com-
mon plan. Obviously the large masses of
data called for a treatment that had not
been usual in science before. Here the
Belgian astronomer Lambert Adolphe
Jacques Quetelet (1796-1874) appeared as
a rescuer on the scene. To him we can
ascribe the first use of statistical tools in
climatology. He wrote a series of letters
to an interested patron of science, the
Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, on the theory
of probability which later appeared in
book form (1845). In letter 13 he con-
cerns himself with means and frequencies,
and uses for an illustration the mean daily
temperatures of July in Brussels for the
decade 1833 to 1842. These he gives both
in tabular form and also as a histogram.
In discussing the mean and the range of
*Climatic classification of Armand:
Annual mean temperature Climatic character
—18°C to + 0°C glacial
0°C to 52 cold
DaCetoudnc€ temperate
lide Cato 22°C warm
Po aGurom 20°C, very warm
Digtto, oo °C torrid
APRIL, 1964
the distribution he remarks on the ap-
proximate symmetry of the values. In
contrast, he noted in letter 16 the assym-
metry of a series of daily ranges of tem-
perature in January, also covering the
years 1833-1842. He compares this with
data from other months and concludes that,
while one might attribute symmetrical dis-
tribution to chance, a physical reason
underlies these skewed distributions.
Quetelet, in letter 33, also tackles the
phenological observations on lilac at Brus-
sels from 1839 to 1844, compared with
those at 20 other European stations and
one U. S. station (Rochester, N. Y.). In
explaining the variability, he too tries a
scheme different from that of Réaumur in
correlating the flowering date with various
temperature parameters. A first inkling of
regression analysis rings through this
analysis.
Quetelet’s compatriot and fellow-astrono-
mer, Jean Charles Houzeau (1820-1888) ,
won merit for instructions to observers and
standardization of methods. He also wrote
the first popular treatise on climatology
(1853). In it he uses the Brussels obser-
vations to illustrate climatological princi-
ples. He clearly conveys the concept that
climate is a consequence of the daily
weather events, the sum total of which rep-
resents the climate. He gives the contem-
porary view of global wind systems, but
adds a fairly good description of land and
sea breezes and of mountain and valley
breezes. Among other interesting points
he gives a very vivid description of the
sequence of weather with passage of a
cyclone. He also clearly established the
persistence principle: “We must therefore
conclude with a certain probability: The
weather persists.”
At the same time we meet a Swiss emigré
in the United States, who also acquired
great merit for the standardization and
reduction of meteorological observations,
Arnold Henry Guyot (1807-1884) °. He
° Guyot was born in Boudevilliers, Switzer-
land. He got his university education in Ger-
many, where he acquired the Ph.D. degree with
137
wrote the instructions for the observers of
the Smithsonian Institution, helped in the
selection of new stations, and issued the
first edition of the famous Meteorological
Tables.
Another Swiss-born physicist, Heinrich
Wild ® (1833-1902) gained fame as de-
veloper and standardizer of instruments.
He, together with C. Jelinek (1822-1876),
became the driving spirit of international
standardization and cooperation in metero-
ology. They called the first Congress of
Directors of Meteorological Institutes in
Vienna (1873). (Aside from the principals
who attended were W. Koeppen and J.
Hann as junior aides and observers.) Here
the groundwork was laid for uniform sys-
tems of observations, a development that
was of inestimable value to world-wide
climatology. Wild became later (1879)
president of the International Meteorologi-
cal Committee, which is the first antecedent
of the present World Meteorological Or-
ganization.
a dissertation on classification of lakes. There
he had attended Dove’s lectures on physics and
meteorology and became strongly influenced by
Humboldt. He became professor in NeuchAtel,
where he taught from 1839-1847. Then he lost
his job in the political turmoils and emigrated
to the United States. After a few years as lec-
turer at Harvard he became in 1854 professor
at Princeton. From 1849-1881 he was advisor in
meteorology to joseph Henry, secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution. He was an American
correspondent and supplier of data for Dove
(Dana, (35) ).
®° Wild was born in Uster near Ziirich, studied
at the University of Ziirich and got his Ph.D.
in physics at Konigsberg. He worked under
Bunsen and Kirchhof in Heidelberg, became
docent in Zurich in 1858, and later was _ profes-
sor and director of the Observatory. There he
added meteorological observations with self-re-
cording instruments and developed a plan for
a Swiss observing network. In 1861. he inau-
gurated the Swiss Office of Standards of
Weights and Measures. In 1868 he was made a
member of the Imperial Russian Academy of
Sciences and director of the Central Physical
Observatory in St. Petersburg, as successor to
Kamtz. In this capacity he completely reorgan-
ized and expanded the Russian network of
stations.
138
The name of Heinrich Wilhelm Dove
(1803-1879) “ has already been woven
through these historical notes. His influ-
ence on his contemporaries can hardly be
overestimated. He was a central figure in
meteorology and climatology for almost
four decades. Stimulated by Heinrich
Brandes (1777-1834), the celebrated in-
ventor of the synoptic method, Dove ac-
quired his Ph.D. in Berlin with a disser-
tation on barometric variability (36).
Although he devoted much of his time to
the theory of winds in storms and to
other problems of dynamic and physical
meteorology, his contributions to clima-
tology were very substantial. The influ-
ence of Humboldt is still quite notable in
his two major climatological contributions
(39, 40), but with his tireless collection of
data from all over the world he gained a
much broader outlook on the problems of
climates. He clearly states the principle
of interdependence of atmospheric condi-
“Dove was born in Liegnitz, Prussian Silesia,
and grew up in the midst of the turmoil of the
Napoleonic wars. He studied mathematics and
physics in Breslau and Berlin. From 1826 to
1829 he was docent at Konigsberg University.
He then became an extraordinary professor of
physics in Berlin. To supplement his meager
income from this post he taught in addition in
a high school and a military academy. Even
after assuming a chair of physics in 1845, he
still had to continue his other part-time activi-
ties. As a liberal, he became involved in the
political upheavals of 1848. He had also suc-
ceeded Mahlmann as head of the Prussian
Meteorological Institute at about that time. In
1858 he was elected rector of the University.
It is amazing that he had the time to publish
234 papers on meteorology and 104 in physics.
The honors conferred upon him reflected the
esteem in which he was held. They included
numerous honorary fellowships in learned so-
cieties. Among them were elections to the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1860)
and to the National Academy of Sciences
(1867). In his later years he was also vice
chancellor of the peace class of the prestigious
order “Pour le Meérite.” A celebration of the
o0th anniversary of his doctorate became a
public occasion with many tributes. In failing
health due to a stroke, he died in 1879. (Anony-
mous (37), Neumann (38).)
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
tions, in time and space: “We have come
to the conclusion that in the turbulent mo-
tions of the air no point can be viewed
in isolation; each phenomenon appears to
be caused by others and, in turn, causes
others.”
Dove plainly treats in his work the prob-
lem of singularities. He regards, on the
basis of his analysis, the Central European
cold snap of the middle of May as a date-
bound recurrent phenomenon. Buchan
elaborated on this problem two decades
later in greater detail.
He also had some decided ideas on the
Asiatic Monsoon for which he seeks a cause
outside the tropical zone in the interior of
Asia. This cause, in his opinion, is centered
at higher levels in the atmosphere rather
than at sea level.
In his earlier climatic treatise (39), Dove
also gives the first comprehensive view of
rainfall over the surface of the earth. His
explanation of the vast differences is still
mainly geared to the distribution of land
and ocean, disregarding dynamic reasons
for precipitation.
In Dove’s second major climatological
monograph (40) we find a number of more
sophisticated elements elaborated, among
them the concepts of continentality and
oceanicity as expressed in diurnal and
annual temperature variations, and general
temperature variability. The effect of sea
ice on the air above is well recognized,
and so are mountain influences. He also
notes that the general circulation of the
northern hemisphere differs from that of
the southern hemisphere. He further begins
to appreciate the role of meridional flows
in central North America and Siberia, but
his explanations are dynamically errone-
ous. But he specifically speaks of outbreaks
of “polar air,” an early forerunner of air
mass labelling.
In his climatographic work he expanded
his monthly world isothermal charts on the
basis of records from 1,684 stations. And
in his data tabulations he listed departures
from average for 13 years (1856-1868) for
426 stations with long record. On the basis
APRIL, 1964
of these records he notes teleconnections of
anomalies and discovers the tendency for
compensation in space of major anomaly
patterns. He invokes against a judgment
of the “unusual” in weather departures on
the basis of local conditions, and also
throws his weight against “popular” ex-
planations on the basis of lunar and plane-
tary constellations.
The importance of Dove for climatology
lies no less in his own work than in his
extensive teaching practice and a wide cor-
respondence. He influenced a whole gen-
eration of younger meteorologists. Among
them, for example, Voeikof (Wojeikov),
whose dissertation he inspired (41). From
his data collections, charts, and analyses,
it was only one small step to the age of the
broad inventory of the earth’s climates (42)
and the understanding of their origin un-
dertaken by the immediately succeeding
generation. Without his work, the attempts
at climatic classification which followed
would also have been hampered by lack of
analyzed data.
Here we stand at the threshold of the
classical period in climatology which lasted
for half a century after Dove’s death. It
was the era of the great triumvirate Julius
Hann (1839-1921) (43), Alexander Voei-
kof (1842-1916) (44), and Wladimir
Koeppen (1846-1940). Their papers, hand-
books, and text laid the foundation for the
present healthy state and proliferation of
our science.
References
(1) Ward, R. DeC. Lorin Blodgett’s “Clima-
tology of the United States”: An appreciation.
Mo. Wea. Rev. 42, 23-27 (1914).
(2) Hellmann, G. Entwicklungsgeschichte des
klimatologischen Lehrbuches; No. 11, pp. 1-4,
in Beitrige zur Geschichte der Meterologie, 3rd
vol., Verdff. Preuss. Meteorol. Inst. No. 315,
Berlin (1922).
(3) Societas Meteorologica Palatina. Ephe-
merides-Observationes, vol. 1-12, Mannhein
(1784-1795).
(4) Humboldt, A. de. Des lignes isothermes
et de la distribution de la chaleur sur le globe.
Mém. phys. et chim. Soc. Arceuil 5, 462-602
(1817). (Full engl. translation: On isothermal
lines and the distribution of heat over the
139
globe; Edinb. Phil. Journ. 3, No. 5, 1-19 (1820),
256-274 (1820); 4, 23-27, 262-281 (1820-21) ;
oy Ako) (UKSYAlD)-
(5) Humboldt, A. de. Fragmens de Geologie
et de Climatologie Asiatiques, 2 vols., Paris
(1831). Translated, enlarged and edited by
W. Mahlmann, Central Asien; Unterunchungen
tuber Gebirgsketten und die vergleichende
Klimatologie. 2 vols., Berlin, Carl J. Klemann
(1844).
(6) Kamtz, L. F. Lehrbuch der Meteorologie
2 Halle 595 (1832).
(7) Mahlmann, W. Mittlere Verteilung der
Warme auf der Edorberflache; in the 11th sec-
tion of “Repertorium der Physik”, ed. H. W.
Dover, 4 174 (1841).
(8) Dove, H. W. Remarks on his recently
constructed maps of the monthly isothermal lines
of the globe and some of the principal conclu-
sions in regard to climatology deducible from
them (By Professor Dove with an introductory
notice by Lieut. Col. Edward Sabine), from
Report Brit. Assoc. Ady. Sci. for 1848, 19
(London, 1849).
(9) Buchan, A. The mean pressure of the
atmosphere over the globe for the months and
for the year. Part I—January, July, and the
year; Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb. 6, 303-307. Same
title, Part Il; Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. 25, 575-637
and Plates XXV to XXVII (1868, 1869).
(10) Kassner, C. Carl Heinrich Wilhelm
MahlImann; Met. Zeitschr. 29, 309-318 (1912).
(11) Coffin, J. H. Winds of the northern
hemisphere. Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge 6, 197 (Washington, 1853).
(12) Coffin, J. H. The winds of the globe
or the laws of atmospheric circulation over the
surface (tables were completed and maps drawn
after the authors death by Selden Jennings
Coffin, with a discussion and an analysis by
Alexander Woeikof). Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge 268, 756 (Washington, 1875).
(13) Maury, M. F. Explanations and Sailing
Directions to Accompany the Wind and Current
Charts, 315 pp., XII plates, C. Alexander, Wash-
ington, 1851.
(14) Maury, M. F. Physical Geography of
the Sea, 389 pp., XIII plates, Harper & Brothers,
New York, 1855 (6th ed. 1859).
(15) Murphy, P., Esq. The Anatomy of the
Seasons. Weather Guide Book and Perpetual
Companion to the Almanac, 360 (London, 1834).
(16) Murphy, P. Esq. Meteorology. Considered
in its connexion with Astronomy, Climate and
the Geographical Distribution of Animals and
Plants Equally as With the Seasons and Changes
of the Weather, 277, J.B. Balliere, London, 1836.
(17) Schouw, F. J. Grundziige einer allge-
meinen Pflanzengeographie, Reimer, Berlin,
1823.
140
(18) Schuow, F. J. Beitrage zur vergleichen-
den Klimatologie; Erstes Heft, Copenhagen, 1827.
(19) Schiibler, G. Grundsatze der Meteorologie
in naherer Beziehung auf Deutschland’s Clima,
296, Leipzig, 1831.
(20) Neuffer, P. Untersuchungen itiber die
Temperaturverdnderungen der Vegetabilien und
verschiedene damit in Beziehung stehende Gegen-
stande, 41, Dissertation Tubingen, 1829.
(21) Werner, H. Beobachtungen tiber jahrlich
periodisch wiederkehrende Erscheinungen im
Thier-und Pflanzenreich, 35, Dissertation Tiubin-
gen, 1831.
(22) Klauprecht, J. L. Die Lehre vom Klima
in land- und forstwirtschaftlicher Beziehung, 172,
Karlsruhe, 1840.
(23) Gasparin, LeComte A. E. de. Cours
d’Agriculture, (Vol. II]—Météorologie Agricole,
Part 2 “Climatologie”, 211-373), Libraire Agri-
cole de la Maison Rustique, Paris, 1844, 1852.
(24) Becquerel, A. C. Des Climats et de
Vinfluence qui exercent les sols boisés et non
boisés, 562, Firmin Didot fréres, Paris, 1853.
(25) Hoffmann, H. Witterung and Wachstum
oder Grundztige der Pflanzen-klimatologie, 583,
A. Forstnersche Buchhandlung, Leipzig, 1857.
(26) Koeppen, W. Warme, and Pflanzenwachs-
tum, Dissertation Leipzig. (Publ. in Bull. Soc.
Imp. des Naturalistes de Moscou, 43 (3/4),
41-110 (1870).
(27) Koeppen, W. Versuch einer Klassifikation
der Klimate, vorziigsweise nach ihren Bezie-
hungen zur Pflanzenwelt, Met. Zeitschr. 18,
106-120 (1901).
(28) Lovell, J. Meteorological Register 1822-
1825, from observations made by the Surgeons
of the Army, 63 (Washington, 1826).
(29) Lawson, T. Meteorological
1826-1830, 161 (Philadelphia, 1840).
(30) Forry, S. The Climate of the United
States and its Endemic Influences, 378 (New
York, 1842).
(31) Miihry, A. Klimatographische Ubersicht
der Erde, 744, C. P. Wintersche Verlagshand-
lung, Leipzig and Heidelberg, 1862.
(32) Muhry, A. Supplement * zur
graphischen Ubersicht der Erde,
(1865).
(33) Armand, — Traité de Climatologie
Générale du Globe (Etudes Médicales_ sur
Tous les Climats), .868, G. Mason, Paris, 1873.
(34) Dove, H. W. Meteorologie; 11th sec-
tion in “Repertorium der Physik’, IJ, 263-404
(Berlin, 1839).
(35) Dana, J. D. Biographical memoir of
Arnold Guyot, Natl. Acad. Sci. Biog. Memoirs,
2, 309-347 (1886).
(36) Dove, H. W. De barometri mutationibus,
48, Dissertation Berlin, 1826.
(37) Anonymous.
Register
klimato-
ibid., 320
Wilhelm Dove.
Heinrich
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Proc. Am, Acad. Ants & Sei, (NS.) 7, 383-391
(1880) .
(38) Neumann, H. Heinrich Wilhelm Dove,
eine Naturforscher Biographie, 88, Liegnitz,
1925.
(39) Dove, H. W. Klimatologische, Beitrage,
1'*” Teil, 297, Reimer, Berlin, 1869.
(40) Dove, H. W. Klimatologische Beitrage,
2'°" Teil, 314, Reimer, Berlin, 1869.
(41) Wojeikoff (Voeikov), A. v. Uber die
direkte Insolation und Strahlung an_ verschie-
denen Orten der Erdoberflache, 78, Disserta-
tion Goettingen, R. A. Huth, 1865.
(42) Voeikof, A. I. Klimati Zemnago Shara
(The Climates of the Earth), 640, St. Peters-
burg, 1884.
(43) Hann, J. Handbuch der Klimatologie,
784, J. Engelhorn, Stuttgart, 1883.
(44) Woeikof (Voeikof), A. Die Klimate
der Erde (expanded German version), Pt. |
(396 pp.), Pt. Il (422 pp.), Hermann Costenoble,
Jena, 1887.
National Bureau of Standards
Is Reorganized
The Department of Commerce an-
nounced on February 2 a realignment of
several of its technical activities. At the
heart of the new plan, which is designed
to enhance the efficiency of operation and
to provide improved service to science
and industry, is a major reorganization of
the technical programs of the National
Bureau of Standards into four autonomous
institutes.
Director of NBS is Allen V. Astin, and
the deputy director is Irl C. Schoonover.
The four institutes and their directors
are as follows: Institute for Basic Stand-
ards, Robert D. Huntoon; Institute for
Materials Research, Irl C. Schoonover
(acting) ; Central Radio Propagation Lab-
oratory, C. Gordon Little; Institute for
Applied Technology, Donald A. Shon.
The Department’s Office of Technical Serv-
ices, formerly headed by Dr. Shon, and
the civilian technology program in textiles
will become part of the Institute for Ap-
plied Technology in the new organization.
Under the new alignment, the Institute
for Basic Standards will conduct the his-
toric NBS programs in the field of basic
measurement standards. It will include.
as well, the newly-established National
Standard Reference Data program. Pro-
grams in chemistry and metallurgy will be
APRIL, 1964
combined in the Institute for Materials Re-
search, with the objective of developing
reliable and uniform methods of measure-
ment for the properties of materials. The
Central Radio Propagation Laboratory,
located at Boulder, Colo., consists of those
NBS divisions which conduct research and
provide essential services to government
and industry in the field of radio propaga-
tion.
The establishment of the Institute for
Applied Technology, in particular, repre-
sents a step toward making science more
useful to industry. This institute will
bring together previously scattered activi-
ties related to the stimulation of techno-
logical progress in industry. One of the
concerns of the Institute will be the promo-
tion of technological innovation in indus-
try, while another will be to provide in-
dustry with performance criteria that are
both objective and broadly applicable.
Product development as such will not be a
part of the Institute’s activities.
The move has been under study for
some time. During this interval it was
considered thoroughly by the scientific,
technical, and industrial advisers to the
Department in order to make certain that
the needs of the professional and business
communities would be fully and effectively
141
met. The timing of the reorganization is
particularly important in view of the re-
location of NBS, now in progress, to new
laboratories and facilities at Gaithersburg,
Md.
The divisional grouping under the new
organization is as follows:
Office of Director and Deputy Director
Manager, Boulder Laboratories*
Office of Public Information
Technical Analysis Group
Office of Program Planning and Evaluation
Seven administrative divisions
Five technical support divisions
Institute for Basic Standards
Office of Standard Reference Data
Electricity Division
Metrology Division
Heat Division
Radiation Physics Division
Mechanics Division
Applied Mathematics Division
Atomic Physics Division
Physical Chemistry Division
Laboratory Astrophysics Division*
Radio Standards Laboratory*
Radio Standards Physics Division*
Radio Standards Engineering Division *
Institute for Materials Research
Office of Standard Reference Materials
Analytical Chemistry Division
Polymers Division
Metallurgy Division
Inorganic Materials Division
Reactor Radiations Division
Cryogenics Division*
Central Radio Propagation Laboratory*
Ionosphere Research and Propagation Divi-
sion*
Troposphere and Space Telecommunications
Division*
Radio Systems Division*
Upper Atmosphere and Space Physics Divi-
sion*
Institute for Applied Technology
Office of Technical Services (and Technical
Documentation Center)
Office of Industrial Services
Office of Weights and Measures
Office of Engineering Standards
Textiles and Apparel Technology Center
Building Research Division
Industrial Equipment Technology Division
Information Technology Division
Performance Test Development Division
Instrumentation Division
Transport Systems Division
*Located at Boulder, Colo.
142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Academy Proceedings
April Meeting
(480th Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences)
JOINT MEETING WITH WASHINGTON JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SPEAKER: ALVIN M. LIBERMAN
Professor of Psychology, University of Con-
necticut. Member, Research Staff, Haskins
Laboratories
SUBJECT: THE PERCEPTION OF SPEECH
DATE: THURSDAY, APRIL 16, 1964—
oro: P.M.
PLACE: JOHN WESLEY POWELL AUDITORIUM,
COSMOS CLUB
2170 Florida Ave., N.W.
Abstract of Address—The purpose of the talk is to describe some research on speech
perception that has been carried out over the past 15 years at the Haskins Laborato-
ries. From the beginning, this work has been directed at finding out why the sounds
of speech, alone among acoustic signals, are such highly efficient vehicles of informa-
tion transmission. The first task, as in studying the perception of anything, is to find
the controlling stimuli or cues. In the case of speech this is no small problem, since
the cues must be isolated from within a signal that is both complex and transitory. To
do this we built a machine which converts (hand-painted) spectrograms into sound.
We are able, then, to make a wide variety of changes in what we guessed to be the
important parameters of the speech spectrum, and to listen to the effects of these
changes on the sound as heard. On this basis we have found many, perhaps most, of
the acoustic cues. With the cues in hand we were able to investigate more broadly some
of the properties of the speech perception system. Among the findings of this aspect of
the research are several which help, we think, to explain why speech sounds are uni-
quely distinctive in perception.
The Speaker—Alvin M. Liberman was born in Missouri and spent almost half of his
life in his native state. He received the B.A. degree from the University of Missouri in
1938. He then moved to the East Coast, where he has remained ever since. In 1942,
he earned the Ph.D. degree at Yale, where he stayed four more years as an instructor.
After three years as an assistant professor at Wesleyan University, he joined the stafi
of the University of Connecticut, where he is now professor of psychology and head of
the Department. While still an instructor at Yale, he became a member of the research
staff of Haskins Laboratories in New York. He has continued to divide his time and
talents between Connecticut and New York for almost 20 years.
ApRIL, 1964. 143
ELECTIONS TO FELLOWSHIP
The following persons were elected to
fellowship in the Academy at the Board
of Managers meeting on February 20:
William J. Ambs, physical chemist,
National Bureau of Standards, “in recog-
nition of his contribution to corrosion re-
search, especially in the application of
field emission microscopy to the study of
the oxidation of metals.” (Sponsors: Law-
rence M. Kushner, George A. Ellinger,
H. P. R. Frederikse. )
Lawrence H. Bennett, physicist, Na-
tional Bureau of Standards, “in recogni-
tion of his contributions to solid state
physics, and in particular his researches
on nuclear magnetic resonance in metals.”
(Sponsors: Lawrence M. Kushner, George
A. Ellinger, H. P. R. Frederikse.)
Louis Costrell, chief of Nucleonic In-
strumentations Section, National Bureau
of Standards, “in recognition of his con-
tributions in the field of nucleonic instru-
mentation and measurement and in par-
ticular his development of large scale mon-
itoring systems and high speed systems
for nuclear research.” (Sponsors: Archi-
bald T. McPherson, Lawrence A. Wood.)
Langdon T. Crane, Jr., assistant pro-
gram director, Solid State and Low Tem-
perature Physics, MPE Division, National
Science Foundation, “in recognition of his
contributions to low temperature physics
and in particular his research in super-
conductivity.” (Sponsors: Howard W.
Etzel, J. Howard McMillen, James H.
Schulman. )
John R. Cuthill, solid state physicist,
National Bureau of Standards, “in recog-
nition of his contributions to the study of
metallurgical reactions by the application
of new experimental techniques.” (Spon-
sors: Lawrence M. Kushner, George A.
Ellinger, H. P. R. Frederikse. )
Roland deWit, physicist, National Bu-
reau of Standards, “in recognition of his
extremely significant contributions to the
theory of dislocations in solids.” (Spon-
sors: Lawrence M. Kushner, George A.
Ellinger, H. P. R. Frederikse.)
144
Robert E. Howard, physicist, National
Bureau of Standards, “in recognition of
his outstanding contributions to the theory
of point defects in crystalline solids.”
(Sponsors: Lawrence M. Kushner, George
A. Ellinger, H. P. R. Frederikse.)
John R. Manning, physicist, Metal
Physics Section, National Bureau of Stand-
ards, “in recognition of his major con-
tributions to the development of the theory
of diffusion in crystalline solids.” (Spon-
sors: Lawrence M. Kushner, George A.
Ellinger, H. P. R. Frederikse.)
Robert L. Parker, physicist, National
Bureau of Standards, “in recognition of
his outstanding researches on the kinetics
and mechanisms of the growth of metal
crystals.” (Sponsors: Lawrence M.
Kushner, George A. Ellinger, H. P. R.
Frederikse. )
Morton J. Rubin, chief, Office of Spe-
cial Programs, Weather Bureau, “in
recognition of his outstanding contribu-
tions to the analysis and understanding of
the atmospheric circulation in the South-
ern Hemisphere in general, and of the
Antarctic in particular.” (Sponsors: H. E.
Landsberg, J. Murray Mitchell, Jr., Paul
H. Putnins. )
Robert M. White, chief, Weather Bu-
reau, “in recognition of his outstanding
contributions to the knowledge of the gen-
eral circulation of the atmosphere and the
practice of weather forecasting through
empirical functions.” (Sponsors: H. E.
Landsberg, Jerome Namias, George P.
Cressman. )
Norman M. Wolcott, physicist, Na-
tional Bureau of Standards, “in recogni-
tion of his contributions to low tempera-
ture physics, and in particular to the
thermal and magnetic properties of metals
and superconductors.” (Sponsors: Law-
rence M. Kushner, George A. Ellinger,
H. P. R. Frederikse. )
Capt. Alfred G. Zimmerman, U.S.N.
(Ret.), “in recognition of his contribu-
tions to naval gunnery and the firing of
torpedoes and in particular of his contri-
butions to the design and production of
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the first radially expanded naval guns
produced in this country as well as the use
of hydraulic testing machines as the source
of pressure.” (Sponsors: Carl I. Aslakson,
Lansing G. Simmons, Donald A. Rice.)
ELECTIONS TO MEMBERSHIP
Over the past several months, the fol-
lowing persons have been elected to mem-
bership in the Academy by action of the
Committee on Membership:
George Abraham
Caroline L. Adams
Priscilla A. Beach
Clarence R. Breedlove, Jr.
S20) Bruck
Col. Gale W. Cleven
Carl T. Contee
Wade M. Edmunds
H. Kenneth Edwards
fee Pinan
Donald G. Fletcher
Gerald J. Franz
Raymond A. Galloway
James Q. Gant, Jr.
Louis A. Hansborough
Col. F. H. Holmes
William T. Kabisch
Barrett L. McKown
Elizabeth D. Peacock
Helen L. Reynolds
Charles Schertenleib
Raymond G. Smith
Walter S. Shropshire, Jr.
Marie C. Taylor
Charles A. Thomas
J. E. Uhlaner
Sanford H. Vernick
Willis H. Wheeler
Lillian E. Willier
BOARD OF MANAGERS
MEETING NOTES
February Meeting
The Board of Managers held its 562nd
meeting on February 20, 1964 at the Cos-
mos Club, with President Frenkiel presid-
ing.
The minutes of the 561st meeting were
APRIL, 1964.
approved as previously distributed, with
minor corrections.
Announcements. Dr. Frenkiel announced
appointment of the following committee
chairmen: R. K. Cook, Membership; B. D.
Van Evera, Policy Planning; B. F. Scrib-
ner, Ways and Means; M. L. Robbins,
Meetings; Margaret Pittman, Awards for
Scientific Achievement; A. T. McPherson,
Grants-in-Aid; Rev. Francis J. Heyden,
Encouragement of Science Talent; Watson
Davis, Public Information; John K. Tay-
lor, Science Education; and L. A. Wood,
Bylaws and Standing Rules.
Executive Committee. Dr. Frenkiel out-
lined briefly the topics discussed at the
committee’s meeting on February 18,
namely, Standing Rules, Budget, and the
Journal. He elected to discuss with the
Board major changes in the Standing Rules
at this time as part of the report of the
Executive Committee, with the objective of
obtaining Board approval of rules changes
in principle for guidance of the Committee
on Bylaws and Standing Rules in its
preparation of a systematic rewriting for
subsequent Board approval.
Chairman Wood of the Bylaws and
Standing Rules Committee indicated that
other members of the committee had not
yet been appointed, and that no meeting
to consider the Standing Rules revisions
had yet been held. He noted that the
American Chemical Society had requested
the Academy to revise its Bylaws at first
opportunity to include a _ “protective
clause” with respect to its affiliates. Dr.
Frenkiel asked Dr. Wood to develop suit-
able language for such a Bylaws change
and present it for Board consideration at
the March meeting; and if the Board ap-
proved, to assist the Secretary in obtain-
ing approval of the Academy membership
by mail ballot, and informing the Ameri-
can Chemical Society of the Academy’s
intent.
Dr. Frenkiel indicated that the Board
would consider major Standing Rules
changes in the order listed in the ex-
planatory memorandum sent to Board
145
members in advance of the present meet-
ing.
The Board approved the proposed
changes in Rule 1 (meetings, delegates).
as modified to delete from the first sen-
tence in Rule 1(b) (substitute delegates)
the words, “‘and with the agreement of the
President.”
As concerns proposed changes in Rule 6
(membership), the Board authorized Dr.
Wood, in consultation: with the chairman
of the Committee on Membership, to exer-
cise considerable latitude and discretion in
revising the language of this rule, to elimi-
nate duplications and conflicts with the
Bylaws, to take into account discussions at —
the present meeting, and to make other
non-substantive and editorial changes.
Before considering proposed changes
in Rule 15 (Journal), the Board permitted
Mr. Detwiler to present the report of the
Editor.
Editor. Mr. Detwiler distributed a finan-
cial summary of Journal operations for
1963, with brief explanations for the
information of the Board. He announced
that the Journal’s staffing situation had
been considerably improved with the ap-
pointment of the following able individ-
uals: Roger G. Bates, National Bureau of
Standards; Russell B. Stevens, George
Washington University; Ralph G. H. Siu,
Department of Defense; J. Murray Mit-
chell, Weather Bureau; and Helen L.
Reynolds, Food and Drug Administration.
He reported that the March issue of the
Journal would contain four feature articles
instead of only one or two as in the
recent past. And he indicated that, with
the stimulation and encouragement of Dr.
Frenkiel, he was exploring means to make
the Journal serve even more adequately
the Academy and its afhliates. For example,
the April issue will be considerably ex-
panded and addressed primarily to the
microbiologists who will be meeting in
convention here in May; extra copies will
be printed for local microbiologists.
Similarly, the May issue will be addressed
primarily to the geologists of Washington.
146
Additional costs will be involved, a point
to be considered by the Board in its es-
tablishment of the budget.
Executive Committee (Contd.). The
proposed changes in Rule 15 (Journal)
were further considered. A motion to ap-
prove the changes, with deletion of the
word “archival” as a description of the
Journal, was tabled.
Membership. On motion of Chairman
Cook, the Board elected the following 13
individuals to fellowship in the Academy:
Roland deWit, Robert E. Howard, Wil-
liam J. Ambs, Lawrence H. Bennett, John
R. Manning, Robert L. Parker, John R.
Cuthill, Norman M. Wolcott, Robert M.
White, Morton J. Rubin, Langdon T.
Crane, Jr., Louis Costrell, and Alfred G.
Zimmerman.
Treasurer. Treasurer Henderson dis-
tributed a tentative budget for 1964 for
subsequent consideration by the Board.
Because of the lateness of the hour, the
meeting was recessed until February 28.
The 562nd meeting of the Board was
reconvened on February 28 at the Cosmos
Club, with President Frenkiel presiding.
Announcements. Dr. Frenkiel announced
that Alfonse F. Forziati had accepted
chairmanship of a new Special Events
Committee.
Revision of Standing Rules. On motion
of Dr. Henderson, the Board accepted in
principle the draft Standing Rules previ-
ously circulated, leaving refinement of
language to the Committee on Bylaws and
Standing Rules, which will report its re-
view to the Board for approval at a
forthcoming meeting.
Meetings. Chairman Robbins discussed
plans for the next meeting of the Academy
—a “Conversazione’—to be held March
19 in the Powell Auditorium. She dis-
tributed a proof of the invitation, which
indicated in part: “Fellows and Members
of the Washington Academy of Sciences
are invited to an informal interdisciplin-
ary Conversazione, a social evening to dis-
cuss ideas and problems with a cup or a
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
glass in hand. A few special guests are
also invited. Participants may move from
_ table to table to discuss any subjects of
mutual interest. Some of the suggested
subjects are: Can scientific ability be
tested? Are Government in-house labora-
tories effective? Are we being computer-
ized into automation? Is science lengthen-
ing life? Are science fairs hindering
science education? Are the Washington
universities successful in educating scien-
tists? Is the new administration science
minded? Shall we nationalize the univer-
sities?”
Dr. Robbins also announced that at the
meeting of April 16, honoring the Wash-
ington Junior Academy of Sciences, Alvin
M. Liberman of the Department of
Pschology, University of Connecticut,
would give a lecture and demonstration
entitled, “Analysis of Speech.” The May
meeting was expected to be held at John
Hopkins’ Applied Physics Laboratory in
Howard County, Md.
Awards for Scientific Achievement.
Chairman Pittman indicated that appoint-
ment of a committee roster was in progress.
Encouragement of Science Talent. Dr.
Frenkiel indicated that he had received
a request from the Junior Academy of
Sciences for approval of its Bylaws. The
Board approved these Bylaws in principle,
with the stipulation that the Committee
on Bylaws and Standing Rules should
consider needed editorial revision and re-
visions and refinements, and report such
revisions to the Board for approval at a
forthcoming meeting.
Editor. Editor Detwiler supplemented
his earlier report by announcing that the
March issue of the Journal was in page
proof, and would consist of 32 pages.
Issues of greater length were planned for
April and May.
Archivist. Dr. Frenkiel indicated that he
was negotiating with a good prospect for
this position.
Treasurer. Treasurer Henderson reported
the following balances: WAS checking
account, $2,960.97; JAS checking account,
$1,710.80; JAS savings account, $843.52:
Joint Board checking account, $2,261.14.
Dr. Henderson read a list of 17 Academy
members whose dues had been in arrears
for more than two years. The Board
approved action to drop them from the
rolls.
New Business. The issuance of certifi-
cates of Fellowship or Membership was
discussed. It was agreed that the Secretary
would have completed, and the Treasurer
would mail, such certificates when specific
requests were received, billing the reques-
tor in the amount of $1.00. The present
supply of certificates would be used until
depleted, at which time the Executive
Committee would revise the format, which
is considered in need of revision. The
Editor was asked to announce occasionally
in the Journal that certificates can be ob-
tained for present and new members and
fellows, on request, at $1.00 per copy.
The next meeting of the Executive Com-
mittee was set for March 17, at a Cosmos
Club luncheon. The next meeting of the
Board was set for 5.00 p.m. on March 19,
also at the Cosmos Club.
Membership Certificates Available
Certificates of membership in the Acad-
emy, suitable for framing, will be supplied
by the Secretary upon specific request
from Fellows or Members. A nominal
charge of $1.00 is made for the certificates.
Requests accompanied by remittance may
be forwarded to the Academy office at
£530 Pet... NEW:
oN.
APRIL, 1964.
147
Science in Washington
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
April 11—Society of American Fores-
iers
Mrs. Orville L. Freeman, “A Woman
Looks at Russia” (colored slides). South-
gate Motel, Arlington, Va., 7:00 p.m.
Dinner at 7:45.
April 13—Computer Science Center,
University of Maryland
James Stewart, University of Maryland,
“Specific Algorithms of the X-ray 63 Sys-
tem for Crystallographic Computing.”
Room 26, Computer Science Center,
4:00 p.m.
April 17—American Society of Heat-
ing, Refrigerating, and Air-Con-
ditioning Engineers
Seminar, “Selection of Electric Motors
and Controls.”
Presidential Arms, 1320 G St., N.W.,
10:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m.
April 20—Computer Science, Center,
University of Maryland
James R. Holden, Naval Ordnance
Laboratory, “Discussion and Demonstra-
tion of the Programs Available in the
X-ray 63 System.”
Room 26, Computer Science Center,
4:00 p.m.
April 21-24—American Geophysical
Union
Forty-fifth annual meeting. Scientific
papers on the latest advances in geo-
physics will be presented.
National Academy of Sciences, 2101
Constitution Ave., N.W.
April 21—James Curley Lectures in
Science :
E. R. Piore, vice-president for research,
IBM, “Impact of New Materials and New
Instrumentation on Our _ Foreseeable
Technology.”
Gaston Hall, Georgetown University,
3:30 p.m.
148
April 21-23—American Federation
of Information Processing So-
cieties
Spring computer conference on subject,
“Computers *64: Problem-solving in a
Changing World.” (Program brochure can
be obtained from Mike Healy, P.O. Box
9896, Washington, D.C.)
Sheraton Park Hotel.
April 27—-Computer Science Center,
University of Maryland
Howard E. Tompkins, University of
Maryland, “Structures for Scientific Infor-
mation Storage.”
Room 26, Computer Science Center,
4:00 p.m.
April 27-29—NAS-NRC
10lst annual meeting of the National
Academy of Sciences.
National Academy of Sciences, 2101
Constitution Ave., N.W.
April 29-May 2—NAS-NRC
U. S. National Committee of the Inter-
national Scientific Radio Union.
National Academy of Sciences, 2101
Constitution Ave., N.W.
April 28-30—Ofifice of Naval Research
Symposium on Non-nuclear Weapons
Effectiveness. :
Industrial College of the Armed Forces,
ICAF, Fort Leslie McNair. (Additional in-
formation from executive secretary, Room
808, Old Post Office Building, 12th St. &
Pennsylvania Ave., N.W.
May 1—James Curley Lectures in
Science
Phillip Morse, professor
MIT, “Design for a Brain.”
Gaston Hall,
8:30 p.m.
of physics,
Georgetown University,
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
May 6—University of Maryland Sym-
posium
Sterling B. Hendricks, Mineral Nutrition
Laboratory, USDA, “Biological Timing
Mechanisms.”
McKeldin Library, Room 405, 4:00 p.m.
Coffee will be served at 3:00 p.m. in Room
114 Sylvester Hall.
May 11-14—Society for Industrial
and Applied Mathematics
Symposium on Applied Mathematics and
Mechanics, held jointly with Air Force
office of Scientific Research. (For further
information call Maj. B. S. Morgan, Jr.,
OX 6-1302.)
May 19—James Curley Lectures in
Science
Bentley Glass, Department of Biology,
Johns Hopkins University, “The Revolu-
tion in Biology and Medicine.”
Gaston Hall, Georgetown University,
8:30 p.m.
SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS
Contributions to this column may be ad-
dressed to Harold T. Cook, Associate
Editor, c/o Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Marketing Service, Federal
Center Building, Hyattsville, Md.
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT
Roy J. Barker, formerly with the
Pioneering Laboratory in Insect Physi-
ology, Agricultural Research Service is now
a senior entomologist with the Rohm and
Haas Company Research Laboratories at
Bristol, Pa.
Lawrence Zeleny was the United
States delegate to the first meeting of the
Expert Committee on Oils and Fats of the
Codex Alimentarius Commission, spon-
sored jointly by FAO and WHO and held
in London, February 25-27. The objective
of the Commission is to establish inter-
national standards for edible oils and fats.
APPLIED PHYSICS LABORATORY
Frank T. McClure, chairman of
APL’s Research Center, has been given a
APRIL, 1964
Department of Defense Certificate of Ap-
preciation for coordinating and contribut-
ing to a national effort which has led to
significant advances in understanding com-
bustion instability in solid fuel rockets.
HARRIS RESEARCH
LABORATORIES
Julian Berech was co-author of a
paper presented at the February 14 meet-
ing of the Washington Section, American
Association of Textile Chemists and Color-
ists, entitled, “Effect of Finishes on the
Launderability of Cottons.”
HOWARD UNIVERSITY
Floyd N. Ferguson spent January 23-
24. at Harpur College, Binghamton, N. Y.
as visiting scientist for the American
Chemical Society’s Division of Chemical
Education. He gave a seminar talk on
his research, held an organic chemistry
class session, and discussed chemical cur-
ricula with the faculty.
Moddie D. Taylor recently served as
visiting lecturer before chemistry student
and teacher groups at the following insti-
tutions: Atlanta University, Atlanta, Ga.
Savannah State College, Savannah, Ga.;
and Bridgewater College, Bridgewater, Va.
Elton Price joined the faculty in Feb-
ruary as assistant professor, after spend-
ing over a year with Ernest Grunwald at
the Bell Telephone Laboratories and two
years with Robert Taft at Pennsylvania
State University. Dr. Price gave a paper,
“Rates of Proton Transfer and Solvation
of Amines in Glacial Acetic Acid,” before
the Physical Chemistry Section of the
metropolitan regional meeting of the
American Chemical Society in New York,
January 27.
NATIONAL BUREAU OF
STANDARDS
David R. Lide, an NBS staff member
since 1954, has been named chief of infra-
red spectroscopy. Dr. Lide has specialized
in investigations of microwave and infra-
149
red spectroscopy and molecular structure.
In his new post he will direct research
aimed at determining highly accurate
molecular constants, and also will direct
studies of the fine details of molecular
structure.
George C. Paffenbarger, senior re-
search associate of the American Dental
Association at the Bureau, has been
awarded the 1963 Alpha Omega Achieve-
ment Medal in recognition of his research
and standardizing activities in the field of
dental materials. The medal was presented
at the 56th Annual National Convention of
the Alpha Omega Dental Fraternity, held
in Miami Beach, Fla. The Alpha Omega
Medal was first awarded on 1936; out-
standing past recipients include Albert
Einstein, Jonas Salk, and Selman A.
Waksman.
Roger G. Bates was a tour speaker
for the American Chemical Society in
March, addressing 10 local sections of the
Society in Tennessee, Alabama, and
Georgia on the subject “Acids and Bases
in Alcohol-Water Solvents.”
The following Bureau employees have
received the Department of Commerce
Gold Medal Exceptional Service Award,
its highest employee honor, which is con-
ferred for outstanding contributions to the
public service, the nation, or humanity:
Samuel N. Alexander, chief of the
Data Processing Systems Division, “for
inspired leadership in establishing and
directing the first laboratory entirely
oriented to research and development in
the design and application of automated
information processing devices and _ sys-
tems for the Government.”
Harry C. Allen, Jr., chief of the In-
organic Solids Division, “in recognition
of highly distinguished accomplishments
in research in molecular spectroscopy and
of effective leadership in the organization
and administration of research programs
in analytical and inorganic chemistry.”
Richard K. Cook, chief of the Sound
Section, Mechanics Division, “for out-
standing contributions and leadership in
150
the field of acoustics including the devel-
opment of an absolute method for the
calibration of microphones, pioneering
studies of infrasound in the atmosphere,
and important researches on the transmis-
sion and absorption of sound in building
materials and structures.”
Silver Medal Meritorious Service Awards
have been given to the following staff
members for services of unusual value to
the Department:
Gerhard M. Brauer, physical chemist
in the Dental Research Section, Polymers
Division, “in recognition of his valuable
contributions to the science of polymers,
in particular for his basic studies on the
chemical and physical properties of poly-
meric and other materials which have led
to improved materials for dental restora-
tion.”
Julian C. Eisenstein, physicist in the
Cryogenic Physics Section, Heat Division,
“for distinguished contributions to theory
in the field of solid state physics, and par-
ticularly in the magnetic and optical prop-
erties of solids.”
NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF
HEALTH
Bernice E. Eddy, chief of the Section
of Experimental Virology, Division of
Biologics Standards, with Ralph B. Young
and George E. Grubbs presented a paper,
“Method for Inhibiting Oncogenesis in
Hamsters Infected when Newborn with
SV 40,” at the Fourth Gustav Stern Sym-
posium on Perspectives in Virology.
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND
The Department of Physics and Astron-
omy has announced several new appoint-
ments of regular and visiting staff mem-
bers during the current academic year, as
follows: Claude Kacser from Columbia
University, as assistant professor of phys-
ics; David L. Harris from Goddard Space
Flight Center, as research associate;
Harold S. Zapolsky from NASA’s Insti-
tute for Space Studies in New York, as
research associate; Peter D. Forsyth
from Rice University, as visiting assistant
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
professor of physics; Carl Westerhout
from the Division of Radiophysics of the
Australian CSIRO, as visiting associate
professor; Gunnar Kallen from the Uni-
versity of Lund, as visiting professor of
physics; Pierre Longe from the Uni-
versity of Liege, as visiting postdoctoral
research fellow in physics; Lovro Pieman
from the University of Zagreb, as visiting
assistant professor in physics; Hong-Yee
Chiu from NASA’s Institute for Space
Studies in New York, as visiting associate
research professor in physics and astron-
omy; and Harry C. Allen from the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards, as visiting
lecturer.
UNCLASSIFIED
Henry Hopp, agricultural attache at
the American Embassy, Mexico City, gave
four lectures on Latin American Agricul-
ture at the University of Maryland in
December.
Roy C. Dawson represented the Food
and Agriculture Organization at the an-
nual meeting of the Association of South-
ern Agricultural Workers, held in Atlanta,
Ga., February 3-5, and at the annual meet-
ing of the American Society of Range
Management, held in Wichita, Kans.,
February 10-14.
Louis C. Graton, professor emeritus
of mining geology at Harvard University.
received an honorary LL.D. degree on
February 13 at Charter Day ceremonies
at the University of California, Riverside.
The citation read as follows: “Distin-
guished earth scientist; professor emeritus
of mining geology at Harvard University,
who during a long career has contributed
signally to both the academic and the
practical aspects of his chosen profession.
For fifty years a leader in the study of
ore deposits and the processes by which
they originate, and noted also for his
original work in mineralography and
volcanology. An inspiring teacher, he has,
through the accomplishments of his many
outstanding students, added greatly to the
impact of his own personal achievements.
APRIL, 1964
The University of California salutes him
today and welcomes him to honorary mem-
bership in its company.”
SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT
The December-January issue of NSF’s
Scientific Information Notes carried,
among numerous interesting items, a com-
ment on the plight of the librarian trying
to cope with the rapid expansion of his
research holdings—doubling in size every
16 to 20 years over the past century. Ac-
cording to James T. Babb of Yale Uni-
versity, selective book retirement, which
is the practice of putting into compact.
closed storage those items that are rarely
consulted, will ease but not solve the prob-
lem. In his experience, cost is reduced to
about one-fourth that of conventional
shelving, and volume count per square
foot is 64 in contrast to 14 in the open-
access bookstacks.
Possibly the problem is, in the final
analysis, insoluble, as suggested in Garrett
Hardin’s matchless satire, “The Last
Canute” (Scientific Monthly 63, 203-208
(1946) ). There, as you will recall, only a
colony of termites was found to be mak-
ing effective headway.
Sand and gravel, mundane as they may
seem, form a valuable resource in the
United States, particularly in view of our
needs for these materials as aggregates in
concrete and in highway construction. By
1970, annual production is expected to
reach about one billion tons.
A comprehensive investigation of metro-
politan Washington, aimed at updating
the geologic knowledge of the region, indi-
cates significant gravel resources in the
Beltsville area. Charles F. Withington, of
the Geological Survey, points out that in-
creased urbanization may well extend over
areas underlain by this gravel and that
better knowledge of its whereabouts should
aid in future planning and zoning.
The Food and Drug Administration, in
its newly-published regulations control-
151
ling prescription drug advertising, makes
certain allowances for what are considered
“old drugs’—drugs long in use in medi-
cine, which have substantial clinical ex-
perience to support their therapeutic
claims, but which have not actually been
subjected to controlled investigations as
now required. The general purpose of the
regulations is to insure that prescription
drug advertisements will show not only
established beneficial effects, but also any
likely side effects or contraindications.
An adaptive enzyme formed by a species
of Arthrobacter, a soil-inhabiting bacter-
ium, has proved capable of so altering the
herbicide Dalapon as to render it harmless
as pyruvic acid. Studies by Philip C.
Kearney, Donald D. Kaufman, and Millard
L. Beall, Jr., at Beltsville, indicate that the
organism removes two chlorine atoms from
the molecule (2,2-dichloropropionate) and
utilizes the carbon in its own metabolism,
a discovery based on tracer techniques.
Practically, of course, the breakdown of
the herbicide insures that it can be used
in situations where harmful, or at least
questionable, residues must be avoided.
One more theory on the origin and
nature of the moon has been suggested
recently by Charles R. Warren of the
Geological Survey. In his view the parent
body of the moon, some 41% billion years
ago, may have had a composition similar
to that of a comet’s nucleus, although
larger and heavier, a mixture of dust and
ice. As this mass then approached the sun,
the ices were volatized and began to
stream away, while the dust was held by
gravity and accumulated to a thickness of
many miles. Then, perhaps 3 billion years
ago, the mass was captured as an earth
satellite which, in its first orbits, was sub-
ject to tremendous tides. Heat generated
by these tidal frictions might then have
vaporized much of the remaining ice, pro-
ducing a lunar atmosphere which, as it
152
accumulated, permitted liquid water to
condense. If so, the hypothesis runs, the
moon’s maria may in fact, for a brief span
have actually been filled with water, in
line with interpretations of many years
ago. Presently, Dr. Warren feels that the
maria represent deposits of a pumice-like
material that floated on these bodies of
water initially. If he is correct, the maria
materials should provide a_ reasonably
firm foundation for vehicles and astro-
nauts. Water, even, in the form of a dilute
gas, might be obtainable on the moon by
drilling wells, and would, if available even
under these apparently adverse conditions,
be of great value in manned explorations.
Since January 1 of this year, weather
information exchange between North
America and Europe has utilized a newly-
completed cable circuit, replacing the
usual radioteletypewriter system. The lat-
ter, understandably, often proves unsatis-
factory when propagation is disrupted by,
of all things, weather. Increasing demand
for rapid and reliable service is leading
those concerned with international weather
information exchange to plan toward com-
munications satellites and high-speed com-
puter processing.
A Computer Sharing Exchange and a
Computer Service Center have recently -
been established at the National Bureau
of Standards on an experimental basis.
The new facilities were created in response
to a request of the Bureau of the Budget,
which has found that great savings in both
time and money can be realized through
computer sharing. The Sharing Exchange
will coordinate requests of Federal agen-
cies in the Washington metropolitan area
for help in locating appropriate computer
time and services for their essential work.
The Exchange will maintain records of the
availability for sharing purposes of the
electronic computer facilities of these
agencies.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Delegates to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Representing
the Local Affiliated Societies*
FehilesephneelSaciety OF WashimetOm, i. jc.ccacs eeetiecsterscsto oot esapssvece-cscnssesinsvennsessiessesscseesesearses Urner Lipper
Meaamopolocical Society of Washimgtom 2.2... ccceteccecsccceseesssesnessetesesnesee REGINA FLANNERY HERZFELD
Biological Society of Washington PE OAR eeelares coh ee Le Oe are SEE Joun L. Parapiso
Ghemicabesociety of Washimeton’ .............-.00ccbs eles vssseeen ee. ae eee Wituam A. ZIsman
mtmmmmmatetlesociety Of WaShIMetOm 2.0.205.f.cec.-c ces... cece tenenesnesecseeesseassssssesstnanendesenegees Harotp H. SHEPARD
Meee IETMRG MOT ADIGE ASOCLELY, cc... -seevee-cch-acthie-- seen cee Scstnsesnansenensbecessonerveuneadeudvatersvnereedt ALEXANDER WETMORE
Eee MMSOCIELY OL WasliM@tOM © ..52.-cecsc sn... ces .cecsed. <u sneauedbneacreaveuveccasesssenseessuverseuonsoveusisasene! . Luna LEOPOLD
Mendicalasociety of the District of Columbia ..............:.....-......5-.c:eesceeness. Biss Peehieye te FREDERICK QO. COE
Colvinsniene [Blgtiorptiall Scorer eg 2 2a soc eens eee oe cee Ree er U.S: Granr. 1H
Eireie@aeSOCIELY OMMW ASHIMGLOM. .........2.c--cc-cteee-dsses ov esneeorecsvsenvesennesssvaevbsceenedeeanicensetveees Wirsur D. McCLeLian
Sy MO MB MTVTCTIUC ATM OGCSCETS) ag. 2 iene enaitses cnt odedeseeacteenondwiuandscnneavtnwadsasventanatesuonousscuendins Harry A. FOowetts
UE eM MOMMSOCICLY TOL TMGMNECTS soot, yc e secon gioco ents shadedbenCustceestackstsetettecnensdeenscodenssnsnson Martin A. Mason
Incatimemote Electrical and Electromics Tmgineers...............:cccc.cccececeeneerensenss Delegate not appointed
Amenteanmsociety of Mechanical Engineers ..................-..scar-ctecsnecssoecececsesteceateecneceeetene Wittiam G. ALLEN
Helmuntnolocical Society of Washimgton: <.........:.-....0..--c0sec:cecscedencsedssdssarssedessoensnenscsstadenes Marion M. Farr
American Society for Microbiology ................00000..... Fa Ea a ee a FRANK HETTRICK
Saciepyotesmerican Military Engineers. ........:.-..-...01...eccecserscsseeescsneecsceseicsnssensersneessens Delegate not appointed
Mmmemtecmm society Of Civil HMeinEers. <...........c4cccecoceeececescensecnnesssscsarcoteteneveneesesescassecees THORNDIKE SAVILLE, JR.
Soeeietormxperimental Biology and Medicine ....................:.ccecccccessecseecetnensscsneceteseencoeeneee: FALCONER SMITH
Pera redl eS OCG BYRON MVM CLA Sao 3. eect coco hg eee eee cae yageudcnsiaehtoasinstsodueesbia sdateseseJassaseesendetvanedveanns Hucu L. Locan
International Association for Dental Research ...........0..0.. cc ccccceceeescceceeeceeseeeseeeees eee GreorcE DicKson
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astromautics.............0..c0..0ccc:c:cc:cece-leeceeesceceeeseeseessees A. W. Betts
PariemiGanmmNVlGlCOLOlOLICAl SOCIETY, «0. sacsdiecscessc.lpcesecdsovetecscssessevveslausspievsceteeestesnereeens J. Murray MircuHett, Jr.
MISC CHCIC EMS O CIC DY LOL OW ASIITNGEOMM: | 0... co coceccresci-s<cheeeestenseadecesescecenstersesesdeenuvesconesssseseesinss RosBert A. FULTON
EMIS MSOC (CLO AMTCTACA ey ooo. echt. asasacaashagistvdesedenesensasscancnicitoucesssseseeeeveceetoes Matcotm C. HENDERSON
emnericadm IN (nelle SOCICIS Tesch acer eel eee ses ae Oe cae eM e SAE Re AB GeorceE L. WEIL
Mrs nine MON OOG | MECHMOLOCTSES cc..c.02s0cs0...00cascacsssre0vasa dvdseasunevecaonsscasaverheosabocnevsvesscseovnesecueves RicHarD P. Farrow
PRIME BM rl tM Ce AMINE MS OCLEL YS 2 20. se oe ccc ede escveceees idescicesclscvarecacetesQrovesdssscbecssedevanvensedesdebeadersscsesubte J. J. DrAmonp
‘EL een neimn@alll - QOCHEIBY. seas seaoscntcbnan sel P Ne Ree eG ora OUCee es een errr Kurt H. STERN
* Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective affliated societies.
Volume 54 APRIL 1964 No. 4
CONTENTS
American Society for Microbiology Holds Annual Meeting Here .................... 4
American Type Culture Collection Presents Dedication Symposium .................... 79
History of the Washington Branch, American Society for Microbiology ............ 79
Organization Page of Washington Branch, ASM-.......2.... 2) eee 80
A History of Microbiology in the Washington Area |. 0.) 81
F. B. Gordon: Studies on the Agent of Trachoma at Naval Medical Research
Tmstitites 2 iets ao. led alee i insta Ske ee eee 90
H. Reynolds: Potential Analytical Applications of Tetrahymena Pyriformis ...... 99
The Washington Academy of Sciences: Objectives and Activities ...................0.... 108
S. Frederiksen: Some Preliminaries on the Soul Complex in Eskimo Shamanistic
PRELT CR a: a YOM S ele GF hee ad Se Seen em a et ate eee ee Se WP 109
R. J. Downs: Photocontrol of Anthocyani Synthesis 112
B.D. Van Evera: The Teaching Crisis «......00.....0[.0.0cuh a or 120
H. E.-Landsberg: Roots of Modern Climatology ............. ee 130
National Bureau of Standards Is Reorganized 1... as
Academy Proceedings |
April Meeting of the Academy |... 143
Elections to Fellowship: .....-...0...2.4.-45004s sop glee 144
Elections: to Membership .....:......0c.0.2.-.0.00u ben i 145
Board of Managers Meeting Notes (Pebruany) 9.) 2 ee a 145
Science in Washington
Calendar of Events .c..2.......céccccgcees tucson oe 148
Scientists: am the. News. c-cccses de pias oo Meee)
Science and Development ............5.0000.. oy ee 151
Washington Academy of Sciences , 2nd Class Postage
1530—P St., N.W. Paid at
Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C.
Return Requested
De WwW Ze
JOURNAL
of the
WASHINGTON
ACADEMY
of
SCIENCES
Vol. 54 e No.wd
MAY
1964
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Editor: SamueL B. Detwiter, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Associate Editors
Rocer G. Bates, National Bureau of Standards HELEN L. ReyNnotps, Food and Drug Adminis-
Harotp T. Coox, Department of Agriculture tration
RicHaRp P. Farrow, National Canners Asso- Russett B. Stevens, George Washington Uni-
J. Murray MircHett, Jr., Weather Bureau
Contributors
FRANK A. BIBERSTEIN, JR., Catholic University GERHARD M. Braver, National Bureau of
Cuartes A. WHITTEN, Coast & Geodetic Survey Standards
Marjorie Hooker, Geological Survey ILEEN E. Stewart, National Science Foundation
REUBEN E. D i iver-
sity Mioouswecorse W aciige ton sUmiver ALLEN L. ALEXANDER, Naval Research Laboratory
JosepH B. Morris, Howard University Victor R. Boswett, USDA, Beltsville
Frank L, Camppett, NAS-NRC Harry A. Fowetts, USDA, Washington
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes historical
articles, critical reviews, and scholarly scientific articles; notices of meetings and abstract proceed-
ings of meetings of the Academy and its affiliated societies; and regional news items, including
personal news, of interest to the entire membership. The Journal appears nine times a year, in
January to May and September to December. It is included in the dues of all active members and
fellows.
Subscription rate to non-members: $7.50 per year (U.S.) or $1.00 per copy; foreign post-
age extra. Subscription orders should be sent to the Washington Academy of Sciences, 1530 P St.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. Remittances should be made payable to “Washington Academy of Sciences.”
Back issues, volumes, and sets of the Journal can be purchased direct from the Johnson
Reprint Corporation, 11] 5th Avenue, New York 3, N.Y. This firm also handles the sale of the
Proceedings of the Academy (Volumes 1-13, 1898-1910), the Index, and the Monograph.
Current issues of the Journal (past two calendar years) may still be obtained donee hy
from the Academy office at 1530 P Street, N.W., Washington 5, D.C.
Claims for missing numbers will not be allowed if received more than 60 days after date of
mailing plus time normally required for postal delivery and claim. No claims will be allowed
because of failure to notify the Academy of a change of address.
Changes of address should be sent promptly to the Academy Office, 1530) BP Stae New:
Washington, D.C. Such notification should include both old and new addresses and postal zone
number, if any.
Second class postage paid at Washington, D.C. ‘
Comments at Press Time
This issue of the Journal is particularly devoted to the interests of the geologists of Washington.
With the active collaboration of President William T. Pecora of the Geological Society of Wash-
ington, we present a discussion of interesting geological formations of the local area; the first
geological report on this region, by Captain John Smith; the GSW Proceedings for 1963; and
the society’s roster of officers and committeemen. Free copies of the issue are being sent to some
650 local members of GSW.
Other disciplines have not been neglected. Program highlights of the forthcoming national
meeting of the Institute of Food Technologists have been summarized; a physicist discusses stel-
lar photometry in Washington; a botanist looks at science education; and two meteorologists
describe Washington’s climate and the difficulties of long-range forecasting.
This is the second of two experimental issues aimed at establishing closer liaison between the
Academy and its affiliated societies. Budgetary considerations permitting, the experiment will be
continued next fall.
Selected Geologic Localities
In the Washington Area*
H. W. Coulter and G. V. Carroll
U. S. Geological Survey
The geology of Washington attracts wide-
spread interest because so many scientists
live or visit here. Furthermore, it bears
relevance to rapidly evolving concepts that
are important facets of general geosyn-
clinal theory. If this article provides a
context in which resident scientists, and
visiting American and foreign geologists
as well, can “orient” observations of their
own, it will have accomplished its purpose.
This paper describes ancient metamor-
phosed sedimentary and igneous rocks of
the Washington Area and, particularly, di-
rects attention to easily accessible localities
where they are well exposed, and where
features that bear on their origins can be
observed. Young sedimentary rocks under-
lie a large part of Washington but for
want of good, permanent, local exposures
are not discussed here. Specialized termi-
nology that would be unfamiliar to many
scientists who are not geologists is avoided
if possible, or explained. Emphasis is
placed on field observations that can readily
be made by scientists or other interested
persons, who need not have had formal
training in geology. The general distribu-
tion of rock units and the selected locali-
ties are shown in the figure.
From late Precambrian time, over 500
million years ago, through the Paleozoic
Era, which ended about 200 million years
ago, the geography of eastern North Amer-
ica was very different from what it is
today. It was very similar to the present
geography off the Asian mainland, with its
bordering seas and its earthquake-prone,
* Publication authorized by the director, U.S.
Geological Survey.
May, 1964
volcano-topped clad arcs, such as those of
Japan and of Indonesia, beyond which lie
the abyssal basins of the Pacific and Indian
oceans. That is, eastern North America
was bordered by a geosyncline or great
downwarped trough, in portions of which
island arcs were raised by mountain-build-
ing forces, while sediments continued to
collect in neighboring portions that were
depressed by the same forces.
The eroded remnants of these ancient
geosynclinal rocks are visible today in that
portion of the eastern seaboard known as
the Appalachian Piedmont province. East
of the Piedmont province is the Coastal
Plain province, underlain by much younger,
soft sedimentary rocks. Washington lies
on the border between these two provinces.
Briefly, the metamorphic rocks of the Ap-
palachian Piedmont province are predomi-
nantly of sedimentary origin. These geo-
synclinal sedimentary rocks, along with
igneous rocks associated with them, were
ultimately carried to great depths in the
crust of the earth as portions of the geosyn-
cline collapsed or buckled in response to
mountain-building forces. In this deep-
crustal environment of high pressures,
stresses, and temperatures, the rocks under-
went the physical and chemical readjust-
ments, or dynamothermal metamorphism,
that gave them the character they have to-
day. Original sedimentary features were
mostly obscured but not obliterated. Con-
fining attention to the Washington area.
little is known, directly, of events that fol-
lowed dynamothermal metamorphism.
which seems likely to have been accom-
plished rather early in the Paleozoic Era,
perhaps no later than 360 million years
153
SMITHOGALAR MAY 1 9 $04
iBSTITUTION
ago. About 130 million years ago, late in
the Mesozoic Era, the ancient geosynclinal
rocks of the Piedmont province, as a result
of uplift and erosion, were exposed at the
earth’s surface. They then became the
basement upon which young sedimentary
rocks of the Coastal Plains province began
to accumulate as the Atlantic Ocean en-
croached upon the continental margin.
The missing Paleozoic and Mesozoic
chapters in the geological history of the
Washington area can only be reconstructed
from what is known of other regions. Thus,
west of the Blue Ridge there are geosyn-
clinal deposits of all Paleozoic periods, and
in local basins east of the Blue Ridge there
are Mesozoic deposits older than those of
the Coastal Plains province.
Metamorphosed Sedimentary Rocks
Rocks interpreted as metamorphosed
geosynclinal sedimentary rocks are particu-
larly well exposed along the Potomac River
and Rock Creek. Elsewhere large areas of
outcrop have undergone extensive chemical
decomposition by weathering and might be
mistaken for unconsolidated sediments. In
general the unweathered rocks are dis-
tinguishable from other rocks of the area
by their gray color and by a uniform, fine-
grained matrix in which more or less
abundant masses of quartz and fragments
of rock of diverse types, unlike the matrix,
are included. These quartz.and rock in-
clusions are scattered randomly through-
out the matrix. At most outcrops there is
no clear evidence of bedding that origi-
nated during sedimentation. However, there
is a planar structure, inclined steeply to
the west (west-dipping cleavage), imposed
during dynamothermal metamorphism.
This cleavage may easily be mistaken for
bedding, particularly where secondary,
open fractures (joints) are developed
parallel to the cleavage.
The quartz and rock inclusions show no
preferred orientation of their long axes
where cleavage is weakly developed. Where
cleavage is strongly developed, parallelism
154
becomes apparent, and if very strongly de-
veloped, rock inclusions are flattened to
mere wafers and quartz inclusions are
elongated markedly.
In any single locality where rock inclu-
sions are abundant, one lithology may pre-
dominate over others, and from place to
place there are considerable differences in
the predominant lithology; there is also a
considerable variation from place to place
in the proportions of quartz inclusions to
rock inclusions and in the proportion of
both to the matrix.
Selected Localities for
Metamorphosed Sedimentary Rocks
(1) Near Chain Bridge: Virginia shore
of Potomac River between Pimmit Run and
Gulf Branch.
In most outcrops here, both quartz and
rock inclusions are present; cleavage is well
developed so that the inclusions are elon-
gate somewhat east of north and with a
gentle northward inclination of long axes.
Rock inclusions are flattened rather than
blocky; chlorite-rich, blackish-green masses
are particularly conspicuous, but there are
many other types as well. In many, in-
ternal texture and structure are entirely
unlike the matrix. Some rock inclusions
show reaction rims consisting of marked
concentrations of chlorite, mica, garnet,
or other minerals at the contact between
inclusion and matrix.
At a very few outcrops, the generally
homogeneous gray rock shows individual
thin beds (6 inches or less) of lighter
color, thrown into small convolutions (drag
folds) whose axes (hinges) are aligned
with the gently northward-plunging long
dimensions of quartz and rock inclusions.
To find such outcrops, careful observation
is necessary. One particular outcrop show-
ing such a bed is marked by a long iron
pipe (bent downstream) driven into the
rock. The true sedimentary bed is much
more nearly horizontal than the steep,
west-dipping, false bedding effect produced
by cleavage in the more typical rock that
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
38°52'30
77°07'30"
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o10zZ0Ua9)
pup
D10Z0Saw
Sedimentary Rock
ond = = Alluvium
Granitic Gneiss
Hornblende Gneiss
0Z0aDYy Ajs0F
/
Ser pentinite and
Talc Schis:
Me tamorphosed
Sedimentary Rock
Selected
Localities
Geologic Sketch Map of the Washington west Quadrangle D.C—Md.—Va.
makes up the greater part of this exposure.
Bedding with especially good development
of drag folds is also well displayed in a
large loose block lying at the base of the
cliff within 100 yards southwest of the ex-
posure marked by the iron pipe.
(2) On the Washington shore of the
Potomac for a few hundred feet above
Chain Bridge, rocks similar to the fore-
going are exposed, except that here the
mineralogy of the rock inclusions is dif-
ferent. Light-colored rock inclusions with
an exceptional abundance of garnets are
common in many outcrops; in other out-
May, 1964,
crops dark inclusions prevail, and horn-
blende rather than chlorite is their char-
acteristic dark mineral.
(3) Rock Creek near Military Road:
West bank of Rock Creek just south of the
Joyce Street bridge.
Here cleavage is weakly developed and
may even escape detection in some out-
crops. The texture of the matrix is coarser
than near Chain Bridge, quartz inclusions
are more angular, and rock inclusions are
more irregular. Alignment of inclusions is
weak or absent and no inclusions have been
flattened to wafers. Rock inclusions are
159
unlike those near Chain Bridge. Some are
fine-grained, thin-layered, quartzofeld-
spathic, light-colored rock, while others are
highly micaceous; the latter show reaction
rims. Chlorite-rich, hornblende-rich, or
markedly garnetiferous inclusions are
lacking here. The rocks at this locality,
being less modified by cleavage during
dynamothermal metamorphism, are inter-
preted as more closely approximating an
original massive condition than those near
Chain Bridge.
(4) Piney Branch: Piney Branch Park-
way west of Beach Drive.
Here rocks similar to those at Chain
Bridge are associated with others in which
layering, in a manner suggestive of sedi-
mentary bedding, is delineated by changes
of color and mineral composition. Quartz
inclusions are sparse and small, or lack-
ing, and rock inclusions are either incon-
spicuous, by virtue of having been reduced
to wafers or even to shredded wafers, or
are absent. The layering is even and
regular and conforms to the west-dipping
cleavage. Accordingly, it is conceivable
that in this locality the layering might not
be original sedimentary bedding but a by-
product of local intense development of
cleavage (metamorphic differentiation).
However, in other places where rock frag-
ments have been wafered and shredded to
near obliteration, there is no concomitant
production of compositional layering in the
matrix.
(5) Sligo Creek Parkway between Car-
roll Avenue and Wayne Street.
Near Carroll Avenue the rocks are very
similar to those near Military Road. North-
ward near Piney Branch Road, cleavage in
the rocks becomes increasingly prominent,
and the texture of both the matrix and the
mica-rich inclusions becomes increasingly
coarse-grained. Between Piney Branch
Road and Wayne Street the effects of dyna-
mothermal metamorphism have modified
the rocks as greatly as at any place within
the immediate vicinity of Washington.
156
Origin of the Metamorphosed
Sedimentary Rocks
The metamorphosed sedimentary rocks
of Washington extend far northward into
Maryland, where their appearance becomes
more and more like that of igneous rock,
until at Sykesville, Md., they have the ap-
pearance of a granite contaminated by
xenoliths. At Sykesville an igneous origin
was ascribed to these rocks (Jonas, 1928).
Subsequently the Sykesville “granite” was
traced southward into Montgomery County
and Washington by Cloos and Cooke
(1953), who changed the name to Sykes-
ville formation to take account of increasing
evidence that the unit originated as sedi-
mentary rock. In collaboration with Cloos,
Hopson (1963) undertook a regional study
of the Sykesville formation and the associ-
ated Wissahickon formation to the west.
From detailed work in the Washington
area, the authors of the present paper had
tentatively interpreted the Sykesville for-
mation as a metamorphosed analogue of
certain “pebbly mudstones” of California
(Crowell, 1957). The California “pebbly
mudstones” were dumped by turbidity cur-
rents (Kuenen and Migliorini, 1950) in a
rapidly subsiding basin, as successive in-
fluxes of chaotically mixed fine and coarse
debris. Our interpretation required corrob-
borative evidence, which has been supplied
by Hopson’s painstakingly documented re-
gional study. Hopson (manuscript in
press) shows that the well-bedded to deli-
cately laminated rocks of the Wissahickon
formation and the massive mixtures of fine
and coarse debris that constitute most of
the Sykesville formation are very different,
yet essentially synchronous and genetically
related members of the same depositional
complex. |
Rocks of Igneous Origin
Rocks of igneous origin are of three dis-
similar types: serpentinite and tale schist
derived from it, hornblende gneisses, and
diverse granitic gneisses.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ett ALAA A _—e ee
Serpentinite and Tale Schist
(6) Fort Bayard Park, Western Avenue
and River Road.
At Fort Bayard Park there are several
large exposures of tale schist. This is a
very soft, flaky, pale-greenish rock with
prominent rusty staining and a character-
istic slippery feel. No serpentinite crops
out at this locality.
Serpentinite and talc schists were ex-
posed in excavations at the head of Soap-
stone Valley (Connecticut Avenue and Al-
bemarle Street) during 1963. The extent
of such rocks along Connecticut Avenue is
known from older geologic maps (Keith
and Darton, 1901) and from sub-surface
data.
These two occurrences are the most
easterly known in the Washington area.
They are portions of the eastern of two
belts of serpentinite that extend through
the Appalachian geosynclinal complex from
western North Carolina to Newfoundland
(Hess, 1955). The origins of geosynclinal
serpentinites are problematic but Hess (op.
cit.) postulates that they are among the
oldest rocks of igneous origin present in
geosynclinal complexes and are emplaced
only during the first great deformation of
a mountain belt eventually developed on
the site of a geosyncline.
The local serpentinites have partaken of
the dynamothermal metamorphism that af-
fected the metamorphosed sedimentary
rocks, as is indicated by the cleavage com-
mon to both. However or whenever the
serpentinite itself originated, talc schists
developed from it, probably as the thermal
intensity of metamorphism waned but while
deformation was still strong.
Hornblende Gneisses
The hornblende gneisses are readily dis-
tinguishable from other local rock by the
black color imparted to them by abundant
hornblende. Contacts between hornblende
gneisses and metamorphosed sedimentary
rocks are not exposed in Washington. How-
ever, as the concealed contact zones are
approached, cleavage becomes more pro-
May, 1964
nounced. In small, narrow bodies of
hornblende gneiss, the cleavage closely
parallels, both in direction and degree of
development, that of the enclosing meta-
morphosed sedimentary rocks.
Before metamorphism, the hornblende
rocks probably had gabbroic or dioritic
mineral assemblages. The larger bodies
are complex internally, as is shown by
local details of structure, texture, and min-
eral composition. While intense dyna-
mothermal metamorphism is capable of in-
ducing such effects in such rocks, the fact
that the hornblende gneisses which show the
strongest cleavage are the most homoge-
neous suggests that the textural and compo-
sitional complexities were original.
(7) Georgetown University Bluff: Canal
Road between Glover-Archibold Park and
Key Bridge.
The outcrops at this locality show vari-
ability of texture, both in grain size and
grain arrangement. Generally the rock is
rather coarse-grained, and its hornblende
prisms show no marked preferred orienta-
tion where cleavage is poorly developed.
Dikes of fine-grained rock locally cutting
through coarser-grained rocks and through
zones of compositional layering can be
seen.
(8) Rock Creek at Dumbarton Oaks
Park.
The hornblende gneisses are also well
exposed along Rock Creek at the foot of
Dumbarton Oaks Park and in the quarry
below the southeast end of Taft Bridge.
At both places, compositional layering and
textural variations are shown particularly
well.
Granitic Gneisses
Granitic rocks, most of them more or
less gneissic in texture and concordant to
cleavage in metamorphosed sedimentary
rocks, but a few massive in texture and
markedly discordant to cleavage in adjacent
metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, are
abundant in Washington. All are light-
colored: because the proportions of feld-
spar and quartz to biotite are very large.
There is considerable petrographic diver-
157
sity among them; they are designated as
“sranitic” to characterize their general ap-
pearance in the field, but true granites in a
technical sense are less common than
eranodiorites and tonalites.
(9) Broad Branch Quarry: Broad
Branch Road just south of Grant Road.
At this locality there is a large quarry
in a belt of granitic rock that extends from
the vicinity of the National Zoo well into
Montgomery County, Md. Of all the
granitic rocks of Washington, this is both
the most extensive and the most singular
in appearance. The distinctive feature of
the gneiss is the presence of evenly dis-
tributed dark spots up to the size of a dime,
composed chiefly of biotite flakes. The
texture of the rock is that of an augen
gneiss with individual lenses, or augen,
made up of feldspar and quartz about 10
mm x 3 mm and oriented so as to give the
rock a gneissic foliation. This foliation
dips steeply west as does the cleavage of
nearby metasedimentary rocks.
Downstream from the quarry, the augen
gneiss is in contact with metamorphosed
sedimentary rocks and the passage from
one to the other is abrupt. To the west
near the contact zone, the gneiss becomes
more and more divided by screens of meta-
morphosed sedimentary rock. Foliation of
the gneiss and cleavage of the metasedi-
ments of the screens are essentially paral-
lel but not perfectly so, and the contacts
of the augen gneiss are concordant: to
cleavage of the metasedimentary rocks. In
a few places the contacts are nearly per-
pendicular to cleavage of the metasedimen-
tary rocks for distances of several feet.
There is no hint of granitization of the
metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. The
abrupt nature of the eastern contact and
transitional nature of the western contact
of the gneiss are also characteristic of
exposures along Klingle Road and in Mel-
vin Hazen Park.
Unlike the hornblende gneiss in which
foliation and cleavage seem to have been
imposed upon older structures and textures
158
by deformation and metamorphism, the
texture of the augen gneiss at Broad Branch
seems to be the original texture. That is,
magma seems to have been intruded dur-
ing the time when cleavage was imposed on
the enclosing metamorphosed sedimentary
rocks.
(10) Dalecarlia Parkway at the first
bridge south of Westmoreland Circle.
At the bridge, dikes of granitic rock cut
across the cleavage of the metamorphosed
sedimentary rocks at low angles and are
in turn cut by faults. These discordant
dikes are interpreted as relatively young
granitic rocks, intruded along fractures in
the metasedimentary rocks as deformation
was waning.
Upstream, nearer Massachusetts Avenue.
granite augen gneisses are extensively ex-
posed. Like the augen gneisses at Broad
Branch which they resemble (except for the
lack of biotite “spots”), these rocks are
interpreted as being of a somewhat older
generation than the dikes near the bridge.
Dikes of granitic rock are also well
exposed, just west of the area mapped, on
Goldsboro Road north of MacArthur Boule-
vard. Some of these dikes are foliated;
others are sensibly massive and cross-cut-
ting. The latter are interpreted as being
among the youngest granitic rocks of the
area.
Age Relationships Between Rocks
of Igneous Origin
Resolution of the age relations among
the serpentinites, the hornblende gneisses,
and the granitic rocks of Washington has
not yet been fully possible, nor fully pos-
sible for the diverse granitic rocks them-
selves. Most critical of all field relations
are outcrops in which younger igneous
rocks unambiguously cut across older ones,
and there is a dearth of such outcrops with-
in Washington. New exposures are con-
tinuously being created in the course of
construction projects, however, so that one
may anticipate the eventual resolution of
unsolved problems. Little faith can be
placed in degrees of textural complexity as
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
—-
criteria of relative age when comparison
is made between rocks from widely sep-
arated localities. Thus, from place to place
the metamorphosed sedimentary rocks
themselves show great differences in de-
erees of textural complexity. It is thus
quite possible that a dike of macroscopically
massive igneous rock at one place may be
older than a well-foliated one elsewhere,
if the former is enclosed by metamorphosed
sedimentary rocks in which cleavage is
poorly developed, and the latter in meta-
morphosed sedimentary rocks in which
cleavage is very well developed. Neverthe-
less, such cross-cutting relations as there are
between younger and older igneous rocks,
and textural comparisons between outcrops
of unlike igneous rocks that are not widely
separated from one another, suggest strongly
(1) that the hornblende gneisses are de-
rived from rocks intruded before cleav-
age was imposed on metasedimentary rocks,
(2) that some granitic rocks were intruded
as cleavage was developing in the meta-
sedimentary rocks, and (3) that small dikes
of granitic rock were intruded during
the waning stages of deformation. Such a
sequence from dark to increasingly light-
colored rock is commonplace in many re-
May, 1964
gions where age relations between igneous
rocks of these types can clearly be estab-
lished. Except for the concept that ser-
pentinites are probably among the oldest
rocks of igneous origin in geosynclinal
complexes as a whole (Hess, op. cit.) , there
is no hint within Washington of their age
relationships to the other rocks of igneous
origin.
References
Cloos, Ernst, and Cook, C. W., Geological map of
Montgomery County and the District of Co-
lumbia: (Scale 1:62,500) Maryland Dept.
Geology, Mines and Water Resources, 1953.
Crowell, J. C. Origin of pebbly mudstones. Geol.
Soc. Amer., Bull. 68, 993-1009 (1957).
Hess, H. H. Serpentines, orogeny, and epeirogeny.
Geol. Soc. Amer., Spec. Paper 62, 391-407
(1955).
Hopson, C. A. Premetamorphic features of the
Wissahickon Schist, Maryland Piedmont. Geol.
Soc. Amer., Spec. Paper 76, 24 (1963).
Jonas, A. I. Geologic map of Carroll County,
Maryland. Maryland Geol. Survey, 1928.
Keith, Arthur, and Darton, N. H. Description of
the Washington quadrangles. U.S. Geol. Survey
Geol. Atlas, Folio 70, 1901.
Kuenen, P. H., and Migliorini, C. I. Turbidity
currents as a cause of graded bedding. Jour.
Geology 58, No. 1, 49-54 (1950).
159
The Sixt Voyage (1606) *
To Another Part of Virginia
Where now are planted our English Colonies
Whom God Increase and
Preserve
Discovered and Described
Captaine John Smith
Sometimes Governour of the Countrey
The Sommer is hot as in Spaine; the
Winter cold as in France or England. The
heat of sommer is in June, July, and Au-
gust, but commonly the coole Breeses
asswage the vehemency of the heat. The
chiefs of winter is halfe December, Janu-
ary, February, and halfe March. The colde
is extreame sharpe, but here the Proverbe
is true, that no extreame long continueth.
The ship sailed from England December
20, 1606. In the yeare 1607 was an ex-
traordinary frost in most of Europe, and
this frost was found as extreame in Vir-
ginia. But the next yeare of 8 or 10 dayes
of ill weather, other 14 dayes would be as
Sommer.
The windes here are variable, but the
like thunder and lightning to purifie the
ayre, I have seldome either seene or heard
in Europe. From the Southwest came the
* No account of the geology of the Washington
area would be complete without reference to the
very first geological reports on the area, the
reports on the early explorations of Captain John
Smith. These writings included information on
geography, surface features, drainage, climate,
geology, and natural resources. The following
extracts have been taken from a visitor's guide
prepared for the third general meeting of the
International Mineralogical Association, April
17-20, 1962.
160
greatest gusts with thunder and heat. The
Northwest winds is commonly coole and
bringeth faire weather with it. From the
North is the greatest cold, and from the
East and Southeast as from the Barmudas,
fogs and raines.
Sometimes there are great droughts,
other times much raine, yet great neces-
sitie of neither, by reason we see not but
that all the raritie of needful fruits in
Europe, may be there in great plentie, by
the industry of men, as appearath by those
we there planted.
There is but one entrance by Sea into
this Country, and that is at the mouth of a
very goodly Bay, 18 or 20 myles broad.
The cape on the South is called Cape Henry,
in honour of our most noble Prince. The
land white hilly sands like unto the Downes,
and all along the shores great plentie of
Pines and Firres.
The North Cape is called Cape Charles,
in honour of the Worthy Duke of Yorke.
The Isles before it, Smith’s Isles, by the
name of the discover. Within is a country
that may have the prerogative over the
most pleasant places knowne, for large and
pleasant navigable Rivers, heaven and earth
never agreed better to frame a place for
mans habitation; were it fully manured
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
= - a OE EE EEOOOerleeeerlreeeoreeeeeeerh hee ee ——————eeee
and inhabited by industrious people. Here
are mountaines, hils, plaines, valleyes,
rivers, and brookes, all running most pleas-
antly into a faire Bay, compassed but for
the mouth, with fruitful and delightsome
land. In the Bay and rivers are many
Isles both great and small, some woody,
some plaine, most of them low and not in-
habited. This bay lyeth North and South,
in which the water floweth neare 200 myles,
and hath a channell for 140 miles of a
depth betwixt 6 and 15 fadome, holding a
breadth for the most part 10 or 14 myles.
From the head of the Bay to the Northwest,
the land is mountanous, and so in a manner
from thence by a Southwest line: so that
the more Sourhward, the farther off from
the Bay are those mountains. From which
fall certaine brookes which after some to
five principll navigable rivers. These run
from the Northwest into the Southeast, and
so into the West side of the Bay, where the
fall of every River is within 20 or 15 myles
one of the other.
The mountaines are of diverse natures:
for at the head of the Bay the rockes are
of a composition like Mill stones. Some of
Marble, &. And many peeces like Christall
we found, as throwne downe by water from
those mountaines. For in Winter they are
covered with much snow, and when it dis-
solveth the waters fall with such violence,
that it causeth great inundations in some
narrow valleys, which is scarce preceived
being once in the rivers. These water wash
from the rocks such glistering tinctures,
that the ground in some places doth mani-
festly prove the nature of the soyle to be
lusty and very rich. The colur of the earth
we found in diverse places, resembleth bole
Armoniac, terra a sigillata, and Lemnia,
Fullers earth, Marle, and divers and other
such appearances. But generally for the
most part it is a blacke sandy mould, in
some places a fat slimy clay, in other places
a very barren gravell. But the best ground
is knowne by the vesture it beareth, as by
the greatnesse of trees, or abundance of
weeds, &c.
May, 1964
The Country is not mountanous, nor yet
low, but such pleasand plaine hils, and
fertile valleyes, one prettily crossing an-
other, and watered so conveniently with
fresh brookes and springs, no lesse com-
modious, then delightsome. By the rivers
are many plaine marishes, containing some
20 some ‘100, some 200 Acres, some more,
some lesse. Other plaines there are few,
but onely where the Salvages inhabit: but
all overgrowne with trees and weeds, being
a plaine wildernesse as God first made it.
On the west side of the Bay, we sayed
were 9. faire and delightful navigable
rivers.
The fourth river is called Patawomeke,
(Potomac) 6 or 7 miles in breadth. It is
navigable 240 myles, and fed as the rest
with many sweet rivers and springs, which
fall from the bordering hills. These hills
many of them are planted, and yeeld no
lesse plentie and variete of fruit, then the
river exceedeth with abundance of fish... .
Here doth the river divide itself into 3 or
4 convenient branches. The greatest of
the least is called Quiyough (Occoquan)
trending Northwest, but the river it selfe
turneth Northeast, and is still a navigable
streame. . . . The river above this place
maketh his passage downe a low pleasant
valley overshaddowed in many places with
high rocky mountaines; from whence dis-
till innumerable sweet and pleasant springs.
Concerning the entrailes of the earth,
little can be said for certaintie. There
wanted good Refiners; for those that tooke
upon them to have skill this way, tooke up
the washings from the mountaines, and
some moskered shining stones and spangles
which the water brought downe, flatter-
ing themselves in their owne vaine con-
ceits to have been supposed that they were
not, by the meanes of that ore, if it proved
as their arts and judgments expected.
Onely this is certaine, that many regions
lying in the same lattitude, affort Mines
very rich of diverse natures. The crust
also of these rockes would easily persuade
a man to believe there are other Mines then
161
iron and steele, if there were but meanes
and men of experience that knew the Mine
(ore) from Spar (dross). .
THE COMMODITIES IN VIRGINIA,
or that may be had by Industrie.
The mildnesee of the ayre, the fertilitie
of the soyle, and situation of the rivers are
so propitious to the nature and use of man,
as no place is more convenient for pleasure,
profit, and mans sustenance, under that
lattitude or climate. Here will live any
beasts, as horses, goats, sheepe, asses, hens,
&c. as appeared by them that were carried
thether. The waters, Isles, and shoales, are
full of safe harbours for ships of warre or
marchandize, for boats of all sorts, for
transportation or fishing, &. The Bay and
rivers have much marchantable fish, and
places fit for Salt coats, building of ships,
and making of iron, &. (Smith. 1629)
Geological Society of Washington:
Proceedings for 1963
342nd Meeting
The 842nd meeting of the Society was
held in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium
on January 9 with President Luna B. Leo-
pold presiding. The president announced
the deaths of Joseph J. Tregoning and
Donald W. Kessler.
Informal Communication. George Co-
hee reported on the meeting of the Inter-
national Commission for the Geologic Map
of the World in Paris.
Program
Harry Rose, Isidore Adler, and Francis
Flanagan: “X-ray Fluorescence Analysis of
Rocks.” Discussed by Mr. McKelvey.
Isidore Adler: “Electron-probe Micro-
analysis of Minerals.” Discussed by
Messrs. Henbest, Doe, Fawcett, Kinkle, and
Guild.
Louis Conant: “Geology in Libya.” Dis-
cussed by Messrs. Warren, Kinkle, Thayer,
Neuman, Cohee, McKelvey, Johnston,
Guild, Goudarzi, and the Chair.
643rd Meeting
The 843rd meeting of the Society was
held in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium
on January 23 with First Vice-President
David B. Stewart presiding.
162
Program
E. P. Henderson: “The Clovis Mete-
orite.” Discussed by Messrs. Stewart,
Warren, Skinner, Guild, Jackson, and
Roedder.
E. Dale Jackson: “Compositional
Changes in Coexisting Olivines and Chro-
mites in Layered Chromites.” Disussed by
Messrs. Thayer, Roedder, Sampson, and
Wones.
Andrew Griscom: “Appalachian Gravity
and Tectonics.” Discussed by Messrs. Doe,
Stewart, Hadley, and Robertson.
$44th Meeting
The 644th meeting of the Society was
held in the John Wesley Powell, Auditorium
on February 13 with First Vice-President
David B. Stewart presiding. The vice-
president announced the death of H. E.
Merwin. Edwin McKnight read a memo-
rial to A. H. Kosehmann.
Informal Communication. Lynton S.
Land. of Johns Hopkins University dis-
cussed Eolian Cross Bedding in the Beach-
dune Environment, Sapelo Island, Georgia.
Program
Thomas C. Hoering: “Reduced Carbon
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
in Precambrian Rocks.” Discussed by
Messrs. Stewart, Goldich, and Breger.
Clifford Hopson: “Chaotic Metasedi-
mentary Rocks in the Maryland Piedmont.”
Discussed by Messrs. Thayer, Leo, Cox,
Neuman, Coulter, Davis, Altschuler, and
Goldich.
O. J. Ferrians: “Till-like Glaciolacustrine
Deposits in the Copper River Basin,
Alaska.”
645th Meeting
The 845th meeting of the Society was
held in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium
on February 27 with First Vice-President
David B. Stewart presiding.
Program
William L. Straws: “Oreopithecus Bam-
bolii, a Lower Pliocene Nominaid Pri-
mate.” Discussed by Messrs. Whitmore,
Jones, and Hanshaw.
Bruce Velde: “Natural Illite Potytypes.”
Paul Seaber: “Relation of Ground-water
Chemistry to Topography, Geology, and
Flow Patterns in the New Jersey Coastal
Plain.” Discussed by Messrs. Davis, Neu-
man, Stewart, Wiesnet, Rubin, Le Grand,
and Warren.
346th Meeting
The 846th meeting of the Society was
held in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium
on March 13 with President Luna B. Leo-
pold presiding.
Program
Harry E. Legrand: “Hydrologic Zona-
tion of Limestone Formations.” Discussed
by Messrs. Neuman, Lohman, McKelvey,
Kiilsgaard, and McKnight.
Brian T. C. Davis: “Petrology of Part
of the Adirondack Anorthosite.” Dis-
cussed by Messrs. Stewart and Fournier.
Robert H. Rose: “Contributions of the
Geologic Profession to National Parks.”
847th Meeting
The 847th meeting of the Society was
held in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium
May, 1964.
on March 27 with President Luna B. Leo-
pold presiding.
Program
Louis Peselnick: “Stress-wave Velocity
in Limestone.” Discussed by Messrs.
Stewart, Milton, Faul, Tauner, Carder,
Robertson, and Toulman.
Raymond T. Benack: “Water and Di-
seases.” Discussed by Messrs. Carder,
Callahan, and Leopold.
Sam Rosenblum: “Geochemistry and
Heart Disorders.” Discussed by Messrs.
Ericksen, Benack, and Callahan.
843th Meeting
The 848th meeting of the Society was
held in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium
on April 10 with First Vice-President David
B. Stewart presiding.
Informal Communication. Edwin Roed-
der discussed the technique of neutron ac-
tivation analysis of fluid inclusions.
Program
A. P. Crary: “Glaciology in Antarctica.”
Discussed by Messrs. Denny, Zen, Milton,
Stewart, Broughton, and Boudette.
Harold E. Gill: “Evaluation of Geologic
and Hydrologic Data from the Island
Beach, N.J., Test Drilling Program.” Dis-
cussed by Messrs. Birdsall, Tracey, Mc-
Knight, Kinney, Roedder, Altschuler,
Owens, Milton, and Denny.
David Wones: “‘Biotite in Volcanic
Rocks.” Discussed by Messrs. Toulman,
Fournier, Roedder, Greenwood, Zen, Cox.
Barton, and Jones.
349th Meeting
The 849th meeting of the Society was
held in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium
on April 24 with President Luna B. Leo-
pold presiding. The president introduced
the following two high school students
who had been awarded prizes by the So-
ciety for their projects at area science
fairs: Linda M. White of Hyattsville for
her seismograph, and Kenneth J. Wiewara
of Alexandria for his study of variations
in the earth’s magnetic field. Both projects
163
were exhibited at the meeting. A memo-
rial to H. E. Merwin was read by J. W.
Greig.
{Informal Communication. Allen Heyl
discussed clay mineral alteration in the
upper Mississippi Valley zinc district.
Program
E. W. Rodoslovick: “Recent Ideas about
Layer Silicate Structures.” Discussed by
Messrs. Roedder, Zen, and Toulmin.
George Ericksen: “Geologic and Chemi-
cal Features of the Chilean Nitrate De-
posits.” Discussed by Messrs. Stewart,
Roedder, Schopf, and Altschuler.
Frank) C. Whitmore, “Jr:2 dertary
Mammals from the Panama Canal Zone.”
850th Meeting
The 850th meeting of the Society was
held in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium
on October 9 with President Luna B. Leo-
pold presiding. The president announced
the deaths of Roger Miller and James E.
Pepper. The president announced that an
anonymous giver had presented the Society
with a silver trophy to be awarded an-
nually for the best technical paper.
Program
W. D. Carter: “Structural Geology of
Central Chile.” Discussed by Messrs.
Erickson and Stewart.
Thor Kiilsgaard: “Zinc reserves of the
World.” Discussed by Messrs. Guild, Neu-
man, McKnight, and Genson.
Charles Milton: “Carbonatite Lava of
Tanganyika.” Discussed by Messrs. Roed-
der, Zen, Toulman, Guild, Pecora, Murata,
Barton, and Rosenblum.
Solst Meeting
The 851st meeting of the Society was held
in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium on
November 13 with President Luna B. Leo-
pold presiding.
Program
Donald H. Lindsley: “Petrology and
Paleomagnetism of Three Basalt Flows.”
164,
Discussed by Messrs. Tanner, Thayer, and
Robertson.
W. R. Muehlberger and S. S. Goldich:
“Age Determinations on Basement Rocks
of the Central United States.” Discussed
by Messrs. White, Anderson, and Fleischer.
852nd Meeting
The 852nd meeting of the Society was
held in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium
on November 29 with Second Vice-Presi-
dent William E. Benson presiding.
Program
Harry Rodis: “Ground-water Geology
of Kordorfan Province, Republic of Su-
dan.” Discussed by Messrs. Rozanski,
Neuman, Callahan, and Snyder.
Adolph Seilacher: “Transport and Re-
working of Cephalapod Shells.” Discussed
by Messrs. Stewart, Rozanski, Sohn, Mello,
Gordon, Hembest, Palmer, Squires, and
Bromery.
So3rd Meeting
The 853rd meeting of the Society was
held in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium
on December 11 with First Vice-President
David B. Stewart presiding. The vice-presi-
dent announced the death of William E.
Wrothers.
Program
Presidential address by Luna B. Leopold:
“Process and Probability.”
71st Annual Meeting
The 71st Annual Meeting was held im-
mediately following the 853rd regular meet-
ing. The reports of the secretaries, treas-
urer, and Auditing Committee were read
and approved. The award for the best
paper went to David Wones for his paper,
“Biotite in Volcanic Rocks.” Clifford Hop-
son was awarded second prize, and Donald
Lindsley honorable mention. The Great
Dane Award for the best informal com-
munication was awarded to Edwin Roedder
for his note on “Neutron Activation Analy-
sis of Fluid Inclusions.” The Sleeping Bear
Award was made to Luna B. Leopold.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
|
|
|
|
|
Officers for the year 1964: were then elected
as follows:
William T. Pecora
Mackenzie Gordon,
President
First Vice-
| President ........ hee es
Second Vice-
President ........ Linn Hoover
Te Bruce B. Hanshaw
(for two years)
Jane H. Wallace
George E. Ericksen,
Wenonah E. Berg-
quist and Donald
H. Lindsley (for
two years)
Treasurer
Council.
The Society nominated Luna B. Leo-
pold to be delegate to the Washington
Academy of Sciences for the year 1964.
—Avery A. Drake, Jr., Secretary.
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON
Officers for 1964
President
First Vice-President
Second Vice-President
Secretaries
Treasurer
Members-at-Large of
the Council
WILLIAM T. PEcoRA
MACKENZIE GORDON, JR.
Linn Hoover
AVERY A. DRAKE, JR.
Bruce B. HaNsHAW
JANE H. WALLACE
WENONAH E. BERGQUIST
GEorRGE E. ERICKSEN
GILBERT ESPENSHADE
Donatp H. LINDSLEY
Louis PAVLIDEs
Martin RUSSELL
Committee on Communications
Montis R. Kieprer, Chairman
Rogert D. Brown, Jr.
Georce H. Davis
J. THomas Dutro, Jr.
Stantey R. Hart
Committee
Greorce V. ConeEe, Chairman
CarLE H. DANE
Lioyp G. HENBEST
CuHartes L. McGuinness
CLiFFoRD A. Hopson
Rosert M. MoxHam
Eucene H. RosEBoom
VerRL R. WILMARTH
on Finance
PRIESTLY TOULMIN
Puitie M. BeTHKE, Alternate
MatcoLm Ross, Alternate
JanE H. WALLACE, ex officio
Chairmen of Ad Hoe Committees
Awards
Auditing
Bylaws
P. M. BETHKE
K. E. LoHMAN
MACKENZIE GORDON, JR.
Meetings
Meetings of the Society are held on the second and fourth Wednesdays of each month, October
through April, from 8 to 10 p.m. in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium. Meeting dates for the fall
of 1964 are October 14 and 28, November 11 and 25, and December 9.
May, 1964
165
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Objectives
The objectives of the Washington Academy of Sciences are (a) to stimulate interest
in the sciences, both pure and applied, and (b) to promote their advancement and the
development of their philosophical aspects by the Academy membership and through
cooperative action by the affiliated societies.
Activities
The Academy pursues its objectives through such activities as (a) publication of
a periodical and of occasional scientific monographs; (b) holding of public lectures
on scientific subjects; (c) sponsorship of a Washington Junior Academy of Sciences;
(d) promotion of science education and a professional interest in science among
people of high school and college age; (e) accepting or making grants of funds to
aid special research projects; (f) sponsorship of scientific symposia and conferences:
(g) assistance in scientific expeditions; (h) cooperation with other academies and
scientific organizations; and (i) award of prizes and citations for special merit in
science.
Membership
The membership consists of two major classes—-members and fellows.
Members are persons who are interested in science and are willing to support
the Academy’s objectives as described above. A letter or form initiated by the appli-
cant and requesting membership may suffice for action by the Academy’s Committee
on Membership; approval by the Committee constitutes election to membership.
Dues for members are $7.50 a year.
Fellows are persons who have performed original research or have made other
outstanding contributions to the sciences, mathematics, or engineering. Candidates
for fellowship must be nominated by at least two fellows, recommended by the Com-
mittee on Membership, and elected by the Board of Managers.
Dues are $10.00 a year for resident fellows (living within 50 cals of the White
House) and $7.50 a year for nonresident fellows.
Persons who join the Academy as members may later be considered for fellowship.
Application forms for membership may be obtained from the office of the
Washington Academy of Sciences, 1530 P St., N.W., Washington, D. C.
CFD
166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Institute of Food ‘Technologists
Holds Annual Meeting Here
The 25th annual meeting of the Institute
of Food Technologists will be held May
25-28 at the Sheraton Park Hotel. Of
major interest to food scientists and tech-
nologists will be the technical program
comprising 215 papers, and an _ exhibit
consisting of 160 displays.
The Institute of Food Technologists is
a professional society representing about
7,900 food scientists and technologists en-
gaged in all aspects of the food industry.
Individual members are associated with
government, educational, and industrial or-
ganizations. The Washington Section of
IFT is affiliated with the Washington Acad-
emy of Sciences.
Since the first small gathering in 1939,
each annual meeting has grown in size and
scope, so that in recent years the meeting
has become the foremost forum for the
presentation of new findings in food proc-
essing, utilization, packaging, and related
fields. The host section arranges the meet-
ing and prepares the program. The 1964
meeting is the first to be held in Washing-
ton, and is sponsored jointly by the Wash-
ington and the Maryland sections. Co-
chairmen of the General Arrangements
Committee are W. J. Hoover, Corn Indus-
tries Research Foundation, and W. J.
Hart, Dulany Foods. Amihud Kramer,
University of Maryland, is chairman of the
technical program.
From preliminary indications, attend-
ance at this 25th meeting is expected to
reach a new high of 4,000 food scientists.
The number of papers and exhibits to be
presented is the largest in the IFT’s his-
tory.
Since the time for the program is limited
to three days, presentations have had to be
scheduled in four and even five concurrent
sessions. Papers contributed by members.
which occupy most of the program, have
been organized in 16 half-day sessions of 7
May, 1964
to 14 papers each. In addition, special
sessions have been arranged as symposia
with invited speakers; some round-table
discussions also will be held.
A special feature of the 1964 program
is a symposium on international food
standards immediately following the gen-
eral introductory session on Monday morn-
ing, May 25—the only time during the three
days when not more than one session is
listed concurrently. Participating in this
symposium will be 14 outstanding authori-
ties, four from the United States and ten
from foreign countries. Chairman of the
morning session is Nathan Koenig of the
Department of Agriculture, United States
representative on the Codex Alimentarius
commission, who will begin the symposium
with a review of work and progress in the
development of internationally acceptable
standards for foods. Following Mr. Koe-
nig will be Otto Hogl, president of the
Codex Alimentarius in Switzerland, who
will speak more specifically on the Codex
Alimentarius and its relations to the Euro-
pean Economic Community. Justin L.
Powers, director of the Food Chemical Co-
dex, NAS-NRC, will then describe the work
of the Food Chemicals Codex and its rela-
tion to food standards. Professor Abram-
son of the Swedish Institute of Health will
discuss the position and importance of
different types of standards, such as whole-
someness, identity, and quality when ap-
plied to international conditions. The
morning session will end with a summary
by Emil Mrak, chancellor of the Univer-
sity of California (Davis).
The symposium will continue in_ the
afternoon of May 25. Speakers from other
foreign countries will discuss specific
aspects and problems of food standards
as they affect their own country and region,
and will also emphasize specific problems
167
with certain plant materials and animal
products; problems of shipment from
countries of the Far East, Mid East, Near
East, and West, and from the United
States; and problems of trans-shipment.
Frank Gunderson will be chairman of the
afternoon session, while Chancellor Mrak
will again summarize and lead the final
discussion.
On Monday evening these same _par-
ticipants will meet in a round-table discus-
sion with representatives of the food in-
dustry and of the various Federal agencies
involved in making standards. Moderator
of the evening session will be John Riordan
of the Department of Defense.
In addition to the symposium, three ses-
sions of contributed papers will be given
on Monday afternoon. The current em-
phasis on chromatographic methods, par-
ticularly gas chromatography, is recog-
nized by an entire session of 11 papers on
the application of this technique to the
measurement and identification of volatile
materials in fruits, vegetables, spices, oils,
meats, cereals. and cheese, and their rela-
tion to flavor. A concurrent session on
fruits, also consisting of 11 papers, will
be about evenly divided between new de-
velopments in fruit drying, such as foam-
mat drying, and effects of sprays, ripening
rates, and other growing conditions on the
biochemical constitution, composition, and
quality of the processed fruit products.
The third concurrent session for Monday
afternoon will consist of 13 contributions
on meats and meat products, including the
use of the rabbit as experimental material,
reflectance and transmittance spectrophoto-
metric methods for pigment and color
evaluation, histochemical and chemical ob-
servations, post-mortem and ante-mortem
rate studies, and palatability and tender-
ness studies. |
Food standards at the national level will
be the feature of a symposium on the morn-
ing of Tuesday, May 26. M. R. Stephens
will represent the Food and Drug Admnis-
tration; V. E. Stewart of the Florida De-
partment of Agriculture, regulation at the
168
State level; R. H. Cotton of the Continental
Baking Company, the freezing and baking
industries; and James Bell and Carlos
Campbell the processing industry in gen-
eral.
This symposium on national food stand-
ards will be followed by another on food
technology as a career and profession. Sev-
eral hundred high school students and
counselors, whose participation was or-
ganized by the education committees of the
Washington and Maryland sections of the
Institute, will attend.
A symposium on technical assistance to
developing countries, arranged by Harold
Rafson of Topco Associates, chairman of
the Institute’s committee on this subject,
will be held concurrently. J. M. Jackson
of the Green Giant Company will moderate
presentations by Leona Baumgartner, as-
sistant administrator of the Office of Human
Resources and Social Development, Agency
for International Development; Richard
Reuter, special assistant to the President;
Frank Goffio, director of CARE; Hans
Friend of the U.N. Technical Assistance
Board; and others.
A session of contributed papers for Tues-
day morning will be devoted to new objec-
tive methods for measuring quality. Vari-
ous instruments and procedures will be
described, which are capable of objectively
measuring such properties of foods as
viscosity or texture, flavor, and odor, or
detecting moisture or pathogens.
The keen interest and research activity
in irradiation of foods is recognized by
another session of 13 papers, all dealing
with sterlization or pasteurization of vari-
ous foods by irradiation. The session will
include reports on the effect of irradia-
tion on uncleotides, vitamins, and survival
of microorganisms.
The fifth session for Tuesday morning
will concern new processing methods other
than irradiation or freeze-drying; the latter
are covered in separate sessions. These
new methods include an electronic process
for juice concentration, other methods for
concentrating and drying, and freezing with
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
liquid nitrogen.
Sensory evaluation is the subject of the
symposium for Tuesday afternoon. Elsie
Dawson of the Agricultural Research Serv-
ice, chairman of the Institute’s committee
on sensory evaluation, will present the sen-
sory testing guide developed by the com-
mittee. Other contributors will discuss rat-
ing scales, statistical evaluation, subjective
versus objective evaluations, and compari-
son testing.
Space feeding, survival feeding, and
other special nutritional problems will be
considered in a concurrent session compris-
ing presentations by speakers from India,
Vietnam, Israel, and United States Army
laboratories at Natick, NASA, and General
Dynamics.
In a session on packaging, attention will
be directed to new edible coatings, trans-
parent plastics, and aluminum pouches, as
well as to problems with the tin can.
Freeze-drying will be discussed separately
in another concurrent session scheduled for
Tuesday afternoon. Several papers will at-
tack the problem of its high costs by report-
ing on freeze-drying rates in model systems.
In other papers, quality of freeze-dried
mushrooms, beef, and pork will be eval-
uated. Still other papers will report on
viability of microorganisms in freeze-dried
products.
In addition to a number of papers in
scattered sessions, survival and hazards of
microorganisms in foods will be the sub-
ject of two entire sessions in the morning
and afternoon of Wednesday, May 27. The
morning session of 12 papers will be de-
voted almost exclusively to reports on
thermal resistance and spore growth of
Clostridium botulinum. The afternoon ses-
sion will include papers on development of
spoilage-causing microorganisms and yeasts
in poultry, fish, meat, and fruit products.
The session on poultry on Wednesday
morning will open with a special sym-
posium on the technology of further-proc-
essed poultry products, and will continue
with contributed papers reporting on meth-
May, 1964
ods of chilling and cooking, evaluation of
toughness and color, flavor precursors, and
composition of the lipid fraction.
A concurrent symposium on quality con-
trol will be devoted to applications of
operations research to quality control prob-
lems of the food industry, and will cover
specific ways in which evolutionary opera-
tions are applied to the fruit, vegetable.
and dairy processing industries.
The session on vegetables scheduled for
Wednesday morning will begin with re-
ports on the instrumental measurement of
quality of sweet corn, peas, and beans, and
will continue with papers on the effect of
enzymatic changes on the rheology of cu-
cumber, tomato, and potato products, and
the use of antioxidants and synergists on
the stability of precooked products.
Hydrocolloids will be discussed at the
symposium scheduled for Wednesday after-
noon. Martin Glicksman of General Foods
will introduce the subject by describing the
importance of hydrophyllic gums in proc-
essed foods. Stanley Charm of Tufts Uni-
versity will describe physical methods for
measuring gum quality, and John Jonas of
National Dairy Products Corp. will discuss
the use of carbohydrate colloids in foods.
Other papers on properties and uses of
gelatins and starches will follow.
Also scheduled for Wednesday afternoon
is a session on chemistry and nutrition,
covering special problems with lipids.
flavonoids, amino acids, carotenoids, and
oxalates.
Also on Wednesday afternoon, a sym-
posium on natural food toxicants will be
conducted by D. G. Crosby, chairman of the
Department of Pesticide Residue Research.
University of California at Davis.
The final session of the program is al-
lotted to a collection of papers dealing with
enzymatic changes in cane, citrus, papaya.
strawberry, avocado, and eggplant, with
some general presentations of protein-car-
bonyl browning systems, proteolytic action
of pepsin, and pectinesterase inhibition.
Thursday, May 28, will be devoted to a
169
series of tours through various laborato-
ries, plants, and other points of interest in
the Washington-Baltimore area.
This summary of the technical program
is intended to indicate the breadth and
depth of the presentations. Chemists,
physicists, and microanalysts, as well as
engineers and biologists, all should find
something of interest.
The registration fee for the sessions is
$10 for national members of IFT and $20
for nonmembers. The registration desk will
be located in the front of the exhibit hall
at the Sheraton Park Hotel; it will be open
all day Sunday the 24th until 6:30 p.m.,
and from 6 to 5 on weekdays. Further in-
formation on the program may be obtained
from C. N. Grinnell at 338-2030.
Stellar Photometry in Washington
Robert E. Wilson
Georgetown College Observatory
Stellar photometry is the measurement of
the apparent brightnesses of the stars. Ap-
parent brightness is simply the brightness
as seen from the earth, with no correction
for interstellar absorption or distance ef-
fect, and is one of the few characteristics
of the stars which is measured directly. It
is usually expressed as a stellar magnitude,
where the magnitude, m, is given by
m— ms, == — 2.5 log I/I;,
where mg; is the magnitude of an adopted
standard star, / is the measured intensity
of the given star, and /, is the intensity of
the standard star. The unit of intensity
may be arbitrary because the ratio is used.
Before discussing the title issue, the
problem of making maximum use of photo-
metric equipment in the Washington area,
it seems in order to mention some of the
major uses for photometric measurements
and to explain how corrections are made
for atmospheric extinction. An important
application of apparent stellar magnitudes
is to provide data for both the horizontal
and vertical coordinates of the very useful
color-magnitude diagram. Here it is neces-
sary to define two quantities, color index
and absolute magnitude. A star’s color
index is its difference in magnitude as
measured in two different spectral re-
gions. It can be shown that, for black
bodies, color index is an indicator of tem-
170
perature, 7’, according to a linear relation
in 1/T. Since the stars are reasonably
good approximations to black body radi-
ators, a color index scale for stars is essen-
tially a temperature scale. Absolute mag-
nitude is the magnitude a star would have
if it were at the standard distance of 10
parsecs. A star’s absolute magnitude can
be found by correcting its apparent mag-
nitude for interstellar absorption and dis-
tance (inverse square law) effects, if these
corrections are known for the given star.
If stars are now selected whose color
indices and absolute magnitudes are known,
these can now be plotted as the two para-
meters in a diagram, known as the color-
magnitude diagram, which has been of in-
estimable value in the study of stellar
evolution and related fields.
Although it is beyond the scope of this
article to go into the significance of the
various observed color-magnitude diagram
configurations, it is probably a safe state-
ment to say that this diagram, along with
certain variations which also plot a tem-
perature indicator versus an _ intrinsic
brightness indicator, is the single most im-
portant diagram in stellar astronomy. No-
tice that measurements for both coordi-
nates are supplied by photometry. Fur-
ther, there is a case in which apparent
magnitudes may be used directly in place
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
a
ee
of absolute magnitudes, thus eliminating
the troublesome distance corrections. This
is the case in which all the stars considered
are at nearly the same distance. This
occurs when they are all members of the
same star cluster. Here then, a color-
magnitude diagram can be plotted with
photometric data only. In the case of
variable stars, much useful information can
be obtained by measuring only the change
in magnitude. Here the investigator may
never determine the actual magnitude of
the star, but may simply choose a com-
parison star of constant, but unknown,
brightness, and measure the magnitude dif-
ference between the variable star and the
comparison star as a function of time.
The problem of determining magnitudes
would be greatly simplified if the required
observations could be made from an air-
less planet, but for earth-bound observa-
tions, a correction for absorption of light
in the atmosphere (atmospheric extinction)
must be made. We assume that this cor-
rection is proportional to the amount of
air between the observer and a given star.
This amount of air is called the airmass,
and is usually denoted by X. The airmass
is naturally a function of the angular dis-
tance, Z, between the star and the zenith,
and for Z not greater than about 70° is
nearly equal to secant Z if we define unit
airmass for the zenith direction. Thus,
calling m; the inside atmosphere magnitude
and m, the outside atmosphere magnitude,
one can write
m—=m,+ KX
If typical medium band color filters,
which are about 800 A wide at the half-
transmission points are used, there is a
further complication due to the fact that
K is only constant for stars which have
identical radiation curves. This is because
atmospheric extinction is strongly depend-
ent on wavelength, and the effective wave-
length of a star-filter-photocell combina-
tion depends on the shape of the radiation
curve of the star. This means that the
effective wavelength of the observations of
May, 1964
a very red star will be to the long wave-
length side of that for a very blue star,
even though both are observed with exactly
the same instrumentation. Fortunately it
has been found empirically that K is very
nearly a linear function of color index, so
that we may replace K by an expression of
the form K, a Ks Len
Our previous equation now becomes:
m; == m, + (Ki + Ke [CI] ) X,
where X can be calculated from the known
position of the star and mj is the directly
measured quantity. The inside atmosphere
color index is also a measured quantity. It
can be reduced to outside atmosphere by
a relation similar to the above magnitude
equation before the magnitudes are
treated. K,, Ks, and m, remain as the
unknowns to be determined. If the inside
atmosphere magnitudes are measured for
a number of stars—say 10—during a sin-
gle night, this equation can be used as an
equation of condition for a least squares
fit to the observed data. This involves
the inherent assumption that K, and Kye
are constant throughout the night.
Of course the airmass for each star
changes steadily during the night and
reaches a minimum value as the star
crosses the meridian. Each star should be
observed at both high and low airmass
in order to have a long baseline for deter-
mining the extinction coefficients. Con-
siderable care is required in selecting the
stars to be observed so that each one will
be at high airmass for one of the two ob-
servations and at low airmass for the
other. A long baseline in color index is
also desirable so that Ky may be found
accurately. Therefore both red and blue
stars should be included. With A, and Kz
determined, the equation can now be used
to give the outside atmosphere magnitude
for any star whose color index and inside
atmosphere magnitude have been meas-
ured. For variable star photometry, the
full extinction correction for both vari-
able and comparison stars is not usually
made. Since only a magnitude difference
is measured, only a differential extinction
17]
>
3
wm @O NT Om GS G DW
0
phase
iS)
Fig. 1. Typical light curve of an eclipsing variable star, observed through a yellow filter.
correction is required—that is, a correc-
tion for the difference in extinction be-
tween the variable and comparison stars
is to be applied. This correction is found
by calculating the difference in airmass
for the two stars, which will be sec Zyay
minus sec Zeomp if we use the secant Z
approximation, and multiplying this by the
extinction coefficient for the night, K.
Since K is a function of color index, this
is strictly permissible only if the compari-
son star has the same color index as the
variable star, so it is very important to
choose a comparison star which fills this
requirement or very nearly does so. In
reality it is unlikely that the variable and
comparison stars could have the same color
indices at all times because most stars
which have a variable brightness also have
a variable color index. However, the ef-
fect of this on the observed magnitude
differences is small and is usually ignored
in practice unless the color index variation
is large.
With this preliminary material now at
least partially settled, the next question of
- interest is the main topic—what can one
reasonably expect to achieve in photo-
electric photometry in the Washington,
D.C., area? To begin, recall two basic as-
172
sumptions of the extinction analysis: (1)
that the extinction is constant throughout
the night, and (2) that extinction varies
over the sky as a smooth function of
zenith distance, secant Z being a sufh-
ciently good approximation. If these as-
sumptions do not hold, the method will
not give reliable results. To determine
magnitudes accurately, extinction correc-
tions must be made accurately, so the sky
at a photometric observing site should
meet conditions (1) and (2) on a reason-
ably large fraction of the nights during a
typical year. Experience has shown that,
in general, these conditions are not met
on a reasonable fraction of nights for ob-
serving sites in the eastern United States.
This is probably due partly to high humid-
ity and partly to concentration of industry.
The extinction problem is naturally most
acute in large eastern cities where the most
industrial smoke is found. In this respect,
Washington is not a typical case because
it has comparatively few industrial plants.
Visual inspection seems to indicate that
the air here is clearer than in most large
cities, and the fact that practical photo-
metric programs are carried on at the U.S.
Naval Observatory and at Georgetown
University Observatory would seem to sub-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
stantiate this. I should be inclined to say
that such programs would be, although
not entirely impossible, at least very dif-
ficult in other large cities. This is because
an astronomer can usually expect one
night in perhaps four or five to be suf-
ficiently cloudless to make photometry
possible. If on only one of several such
nights the wind is blowing in just the
proper direction so that no smoke is being
carried over his observatory, he is reduced
to one night in a dozen or so when he
could expect good results. It may not be
necessary to go very far from a city to
find a marked improvement in the situa-
tion. For instance, much accurate photom-
etry of eclipsing variable stars has been
done at the Flower and Cook Observatory
of the University of Pennsylvania, which
is only about 20 miles from Philadelphia.
Yet photometry at the University of Penn-
sylvania’s Student Observatory, which is
in Philadelphia itself, can be done profit-
ably only on nights when the wind is blow-
ing in certain directions. Special photo-
metric programs are carried out at this
observatory, but their nature is such that
they are not affected by transparency vari-
ations.
In Washington, specifically at the
Georgetown Observatory, it has been
found that most nights which one would
expect to be of photometric quality, be-
cause of absence of obvious clouds and
haze, really are so. Therefore, the Wash-
ington atmosphere seems to be a pleasant
exception to the general rule for eastern
cities. Nevertheless, it is still an eastern
atmosphere, and, as such, cannot be con-
sidered a rival to atmospheres at the best
sites.
In the West, the situation is quite differ-
ent. There, especially in the southwestern
states, low humidity is the rule and indus-
trial smoke is almost completely absent
in some areas. Furthermore, the general
elevation is high and numerous mountains
provide an opportunity to observe from
above much of the worst part of the at-
mosphere. These conditions result in ex-
May, 1964
tinction coefficients which are often nearly
constant throughout the night, and also
vary much less from one night to another
than those for eastern observatories. Also,
the coefficients at these excellent sites are
generally rather small. This means that
the extinction corrections will be small, so
that a given percent error in a correction
will correspond to a small error in the
final magnitude. In addition, this area
contains most of the world’s large tele-
scopes, including the Palomar 200-inch,
the Lick 120-inch, the Mount Wilson 100-
inch, the Kitt Peak 84-inch, and the Mac-
Donald 82-inch reflectors, and the Lick
36-inch refractor.
All these factors considered, it would
appear that all photometry should be done
at observatories in the western United
States. This would be an accurate apprai-
sal of the situation if only there were
enough telescopes in the West, but the fact
that the number of stars in the sky is much
greater than the number of astronomical
telescopes in the entire world makes it
obvious that there can never be enough
telescopes to do all possible useful photom-
etry. On the other hand, there is such
a discrepancy between the accuracies to
be obtained in determining stellar magni-
tudes in eastern as opposed to (south)
western sites that anyone attempting these
measures in the East is, at best, certainly
doing things the hard way, and should
probably be advised to pursue another
observing program. This other observing
program could very well be in photometry
because, as has already been mentioned.
there is another type of photometry.
namely variable star photometry, which is
not affected so severely by uncertainties in
the extinction corrections.
Figure 1 shows a typical light curve of
an eclipsing variable star, observed
through a yellow filter. The points are
individual photoelectric measurements of
the difference in magnitude between the
variable star and a comparison star, and
the curve is calculated from eclipsing bi-
nary theory. Naturally, as with any physi-
173
cal measurements, the points do not all lie
on the calculated curve, but scatter about
it because of accidental errors. It is the
main problem of the photometric observer
to make such errors as small as possible.
To do this, he must carefully consider the
various sources of these errors and try to
eliminate or minimize them one by one.
In some cases he will have to choose be-
tween two kinds of errors. That is, if he
plans his program so that the first is small,
the second will unavoidably be large, and
vice versa.
To illustrate this point, one source of
error in variable star observing comes
from errors in the differential extinction
corrections due to the fact that the ex-
tinction on some nights may not vary
nearly as secant Z, but in a somewhat ir-
regular way because the sky may be a bit
mottled. To minimize this source of error,
it is advantageous to choose a comparison
star which is very close to the variable in
the sky. A second source of error is the
already mentioned effect that the extinc-
tion for stars of different color is not the
same. Thus the observer may have to
choose between one comparison star which
is only 10 minutes of arc away from the
variable but differs in color index by 0.3
magnitudes, and another which is a degree
away, but differs in color index by only
0.05 magnitudes.
These are by no means the only con-
siderations, for the comparison star must
also be invariable and should be of nearly
the same brightness as the variable star.
The observing site will certainly influence
the choice among these criteria for good
comparison stars, for if the observations
are to be made in a very clear, uniform
sky, one need not worry so much about
the proximity requirement as one would
with a sky which is often suspected of
being patchy. However, the factors deter-
mining accuracy which depend most on
the conditions at the observing site have
not been mentioned to this point. These
are the relative amounts of the star, sky,
and dark currents from the photocell. The
174
latter two terms perhaps deserve some
brief explanation.
Dark current is simply the current
produced by the photocell in the absence
of light and exists because electrons can
be liberated from the photocathode by the
thermal energy of its component atoms
as well as by light. The sky current is
caused by the small amount of light from
the sky in the immediate vicinity of the
star which is measured along with the
starlight. When a star’s brightness is ob-
served with a photoelectric photometer, an
opaque sheet with a small hole is placed
in the focal plane of the telescope so that
the smallest possible amount of sky light
will pass through to the photocell. For a
typical moderate sized telescope the dia-
meter of the small circle of sky light pass-
ing through this hole may be perhaps 15
seconds of arc. The lower limit of this
diameter is set chiefly by the quality of the
telescope drive—the mechanism which
moves the telescope to follow the diurnal
motion of the stars—and by the quality
of the image. If the drive is very good,
a very small hole can be used without dan-
ger of the starlight ever being occulted by
the opaque sheet as the star moves about.
Also, if the image is very good (t.e., very
small—only about as large as the theoreti-
cal diffraction disk for a point source), a
small hole can be used. Let us omit con-
sideration of the angular size hole per-
mitted, because this depends on the tele-
scope and we are concerned here with the
observing site. Let us rather assume a
given angular size for the hole and see
how the ratio star:sky:dark current de-
pends on the conditions of observation.
In order to increase the signal-to-noise
ratio, it is obviously good to make both
sky and dark currents as small as possible.
Furthermore, the greater the star bright-
ness the better, within certain practical
limits. Reducing the dark current is an
instrumental problem and need not con-
cern us here, but it is important to note
that the desirability of decreasing the dark
current depends largely on the sky bright-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
~ a I
ness and on the telescope aperture. If the
sky is very bright, as in a major city, then
this will usually be the major source of
background signal, and dark current will
be negligible. On the other hand, if the
sky brightness is very small, as on a desert
mountain peak, it is to the observer’s ad-
vantage to make the dark current small,
for the dark current is then the major
source of background signal.
In these remarks, sky brightness denotes
the brightness of the sky image in the
focal plane of the telescope in units of
energy per solid angle per area of collec-
tor surface. (By collector | mean the main
lens or mirror of the telescope.) Thus it
will increase with the area of the lens or
mirror just as does the surface brightness
on the retina of an eye when the pupil
dilates. Therefore the sky current produced
by the photocell depends on the telescope
aperture.
At the Georgetown University Observa-
tory we have a situation intermediate be-
tween the extremes mentioned. That is,
the ratio of sky to dark current is such
that it is a definite advantage to take pains
to reduce the dark current, but not nearly
so much of an advantage as it would be at
a very isolated, dark sky observatory. How
this comes about can be illustrated by a
comparison between the Flower and Cook
28-inch telescope and the Georgetown 12-
inch. With the former, the sky and dark
current are roughly equal. Since it is loc-
ated in an almost unpopulated area,
whereas the Georgetown telescope is loc-
ated in the city of Washington, one might
expect that the Georgetown sky current
would be greater than the dark current
by a large factor. However, the ratio of
collection areas of the two telescopes is
(28/12), or about five, so that if they
were at the same location with identical
photocells, the smaller telescope would
have a five-times-smaller sky current for a
given angular sky area. This explains the
fact that the sky and dark currents are
also roughly equal for the Georgetown 12-
inch telescope, making it advantageous to
May, 1964
reduce the dark current. This we do by
cooling the photocell by evaporation of
liquid carbon dioxide.
With a very small dark current now
added to our given sky current, the major
remaining factor which influences the sig-
nal-to-noise ratio is the brightness of the
star. Naturally, the photocurrent produced
by a star image depends on the aperture
of the telescope as well as on the bright-
ness of the star. In fact, it is proportional
to the square of the aperture, just as is the
sky current. Therefore, when a factor of
five in sky current was lost in changing
from a 28-inch to a 12-inch telescope at
the same site, a factor of five in star cur-
rent also was lost, so that our star-to-sky
ratio was unchanged. However, the previ-
ous discussion of the sky-to-dark current
ratio indicated that the Washington sky
was roughly a factor of five brighter than
the sky at the Pennsylvania 28-inch, so the
star-to-sky ratio in Washington would be
only one-fifth that of a rather dark subur-
ban locale, such as that of the Pennsylvania
telescope. To regain this factor of five,
stars should be observed which are five
times as bright as those observed in dark
sky areas. An intensity factor of five cor-
responds to slightly less than two stellar
magnitudes, so if our 12-inch telescope
were transported from a relatively dark
place to its present location, about the
same results should be expected for sev-
enth-magnitude stars that previously were
obtained for ninth-magnitude stars.
Following this circumstance, it is our
policy at Georgetown to observe only stars
brighter than about the seventh magnitude.
The presently active programs involve
compiling light curves of variable stars
brighter than this limiting magnitude.
Such bright stars are rarely observed with
large telescopes because they do not re-
quire large telescopes. As a result. there
are no intensively observed, accurate light
curves for a surprising number of bright
variables. This is especially true for those
with fairly long periods—perhaps 5 to 20
days—because such a program on a large
Li
telescope would require a large amount of
very precious observing time.
I should like to stress that the foregoing
discussion of signal ratios and _ signal-to-
noise ratios was given with a number of
simplifications so that it could be pre-
sented in a reasonable space. Most promi-
nent of these was the simplification of con-
stant angular sky sample as the telescope
aperture was varied. In reality, it is gen-
erally possible to use a somewhat smaller
angular sky circle with large telescopes
than with small ones, but including this
fact would have introduced an entire new
dimension to the complexity of the situa-
tion. Also, space does not permit discus-
sion of the important effects of scintilla-
tion and shot noise.
In photometry, as in many fields of as-
K-9 Botany*
Russell B. Stevens
tronomy, the need for observations enor-
mously exceeds the capabilities of present
facilities. Even if the world never exper?
enced a cloudy night, there are enough
variable stars to keep every astronomical
telescope busy full time. In such a situa-
tion we must take advantage of every suit-
ably-equipped telescope. The photometric
quality of the Washington atmosphere
makes it possible to do so here.
I should like to thank Harvey W. Banks,
Fr. Francis J. Heyden, and Bernice G.
Lamberton of the Georgetown College Ob-
servatory, and William Blitzstein and
Frank Bradshaw Wood of the Flower and
Cook Observatory, for inspecting and cor-
recting the manuscript.
Botany Department, George Washington University
Not long ago I came to the somewhat
sudden realization that my 12-year old
son was learning, in his grade school bi-
ology, things that I should be teaching at
the University, and that I was in turn work-
ing overtime trying to teach to college
freshmen and sophomores a point of view
they should have picked up six years
earlier. If this topsy-turvy situation pre-
vails widely—and I’m very certain that it
does—it is high time to see what can be
done about it.
Not long before his death some years
ago, my father remarked that he had then
lived long enough to have done all of the
things he had most emphatically vowed he
*Address of the retiring president before
the Botanical Society of Washington, December
3, 1963:
176
would never do. For me to undertake an
analysis of education perhaps falls in a
comparable category; in any event, it is
too late to change now. My subject, trans-
lated from current educational jargon,
reads: “Kindergarten to 9th Grade Bot-
any; we shall concern ourselves with sci-
ence education and particularly with plant
sciences in the elementary schools.
Everyone seems to know just what should
be done in matters of education, and of
course none can prove them wrong. Small
wonder that the outpourings of published
literature and verbal debate in this area are
truly mountainous. I would refrain from
adding even so small an increment, did I
not feel that I had stumbled—this is the
honest term for it—recently upon some
items of great potential significance for
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the plant sciences. This is because | was
privileged this past summer to exchange the
dense, diurnal traffic of our capital city for
the equally dense but completely unstruc-
tured and unpredictable trafic of Minneap-
olis, there to work for eight non-aircondi-
tioned weeks at the job of “writing sci-
ence” for the elementary schools. I think
we must now consider, however sketchily,
five topics. Each will in due time relate
to our central theme. These are: science
for the citizen, biology in the colleges and
universities, the “new” biology in the high
schools, elementary school science, and
K-9 botany.
Science for the Citizen
As college attendance becomes more and
more fashionable, the question of science
for the non-scientist is of increasing con-
cern. It is really a concern of undergradu-
ate liberal arts education and is being in-
vestigated and discussed quite literally from
coast to coast. Of the many statements |
have seen, none is more suitable than that
by Gerald Holton, and I cannot improve
upon it:
“What, then, can be our own valid reasons
for presenting science to the nonscientist, and
what are the consequences that follow from
these reasons?
“. . One is, through an increased under-
standing, to help us orient ourselves, as individ-
uals and social groups, to our external surround-
ings, to one another, toward our own internal
capabilities and deficiencies. The total
orienting process of a young student in college,
it seems to me, has at least five goals. If he is
to emerge as an educated and sane person from
our educational institutions, the student should
be well on the road to recognizing which are
his own talents, whatever they may be; second,
he should know enough about his physical home,
this universe, not to feel either overwhelmed
by it or a total stranger in it; third, he should
know how to be in fruitful relationship with
his fellow men; fourth, he should know what
the past means and what the probable future
may be; and fifth, he should know the difference
between, and the relative functions of, his
mind and his soul.
se
. the student who will not go on in
scientific studies can and should have science
courses which attempt to contribute meaning-
May, 1964
fully to each of these general goals of educa-
tion . . . to do justice to the first goal would
mean seriously challenging, helping, testing, and
watching the student, to enable him to dis-
cover his abilities in scientific work including
the laboratory . . . The second goal implies the
all-but-impossible attempt to teach him, in the
limited time available, enough basic and sub-
stantive material to show that the natural uni-
verse is fundamentally knowable . .. The third
goal implies that the student should hear and
read at least occasionally about the social activity
called Science The fourth goal implies
that such courses will not shrink from showing
at the proper time that science has its historic
tradition as well as its characteristic way of
growing and, as it were, of anticipating the
future. The fifth goal would require us to con-
vey to our students, at least on occasion, what
has been thought to be the philosophical mean-
ing of scientific knowledge.”
Finally, Dr. Holton is careful to under-
score the dangers of science course im-
provement studies which overemphasize
the “Big Show,” the “Great National Bi-
ology Course,” and which discriminate
against “small groups, those below the
megaton range, which do not intend to
make themselves felt immediately through-
out the nation.” I would agree most heart-
ily with his view that we must “at all costs
preserve an honored and perhaps even a
preferred place for the individual and for
the small group that does not pretend to
know already what is good for every stu-
dent in the U.S.A.”
Biology in the Colleges and
Universities
It is a commonplace to point out that
there is a ferment in biology at the present
time. One hears such terms as the “new”
biology, or references to “molecular,”
“regulatory,” “developmental” as subdivi-
sions of the life sciences. What I think
all this really means is that the methods
and the points of view of the physical
sciences have now been proved so im-
mensely helpful in attacking certain kinds
of biological problems that we have fooled
ourselves into thinking that the biology it-
self has changed. Yet there does remain a
fundamental distinction, which too often
177
degenerates into misunderstanding, _be-
tween the primarily analytic and the
largely synthetic points of view—between,
if you will, the biochemist and the ecol-
ogist. And the chief obstacle to the resolu-
tion of this conflict lies not in the ill will
and suspicions of the individuals con-
cerned but in the sheer impossibility of
anyone being fully conversant with both
aspects of the field. It is a lack of under-
standing more than it is a misunderstand-
ing.
Of more immediate concern to plant
scientists as a group is their firm convic-
tion that their specialties fare poorly in
relation to the zoological emphasis in col-
lege biology. Botanists are somewhat
paranoid about this matter, but with good
reason. They feel themselves the victims
of a vicious cycle wherein biology to most
persons means zoology, where teachers
quite naturally pass along what they them-
selves were taught, and so plants get short
shrift generation after student generation.
Look where you will—in biology texts, bi-
ology courses, biology departments—bot-
anists and botany are, like Republicans, a
consistent minority. In spite of this, most
of us would agree, I think, that this state
of affairs would be acceptable if it were
in the best interests of the students and
of the life sciences—but it isn’t, and it be-
hooves us to redress the balance as best we
may.
Just as an aside, | think it entirely pos-
sible to solve the problem, in the orienta-
tion kind of biology, of the greatly dif-
fering backgrounds of the staff members
of departments essaying one of these
courses by a rather simple device. Quite
contrary to the usual practice of develop-
ing texts and laboratory manuals designed
to bring maximum uniformity to a course
taught by a diverse assemblage of faculty,
I would suggest that we devise teaching
materials which permit, even encourage,
- wide selection on the part of the individual
instructor as to how he puts across a par-
ticular concept. One of my tasks last sum-
mer was to block out a course in general
178
biology for prospective teachers of elemen-
tary school classes—a course, incidentally,
which would be permitted only a single
quarter of the students’ time. Under these
severe restrictions, there is no choice but
to single out a very few generalizations
considered absolutely essential and to em-
phasize these strongly.
Suppose, to continue the argument a bit
further, we assume development and mor-
phogenesis to be one of the pervasive
biological phenomena that belong in such
a “general education” course. Why should
not a botanist teach this concept largely
from the point of view of the growth of,
say, the onion root tip, and the zoologist,
in his lecture and laboratory sections, deal
mostly with the amphibian larva? Only
college registrars or deans are likely to ob-
ject that two students enrolled for the same
course with the same catalog number are
learning their biology with different il-
lustrations, and there is no need whatso-
ever to let them in on the secret. As for
the student, it is the biological significance
of development and growth that are cru-
cial, not whether the route to understand-
ing leads through the onion or the frog.
I am strongly persuaded that biology
courses so designed that “every staff mem-
ber teaches everything” are doomed to
sink to a rather low least common denomi-
nator. College catalogs are strewn with
the carcasses of such dead and dying ef-
forts.
The “New” Biology in the
High Schools
SMSG, PSSC, CBA, BSCS—these and
other symbols are becoming as familiar in
the educational jargon of the day as were
the alphabetical agencies of the Roosevelt
era and the New Deal. They signify, as
you well know, the so-called new science
courses for our nation’s high schools. They
would be the “Big Shows,” in Professor
Holton’s terminology. They have involved
many persons and cost many millions.
I confess to something far less than un-
bounded enthusiasm for the BSCS—the
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
a a I a
“blue,” the “yellow,” and the “green” ver-
sions of biology texts and manuals put out
by the Biological Sciences Curriculum
Study. This opinion is based on a rather
careful review of the first edition and a
more than cursory look at the revised ver-
sions. Even if we make allowances for the
Madison Avenue promotional advertising
—after all, every educational “experiment”
is reported as an overwhelming success—
I think it not unfair to say that the BSCS
has signally failed to do, in biology, any-
thing significant to solve the problem
which Arnold Arons has noted in relation
to his Amherst students, who
“,.. come to us out of a secondary school
experience which, despite all of the . . . im-
provements under way, simply does not prepare
them with certain attitudes and ideas that seem
to me necessary for successful progress in higher
education they have developed no self-
consciousness whatsoever about the character
of thought or of the nature of the knowledge
they assume they possess. They haven’t any
idea of what knowledge means. They have been
encouraged to accept the notion, passively, that
knowing names is knowing something; and
they have for years been flinging around fancy
names in all sorts of ways without being chal-
lenged on their use of them or on the meanings of
the ideas they are supposed to express. It seems
to me that one of the most significant functions
of higher education at this point is to try to
make young people aware that there is an idea
first and a name afterwards. I submit that very
little of our textbook productivity and pile of
educational materials is oriented in the direc-
tion of making clear notions of this kind to our
students.”
To be blunt about it, the BSCS has done
little more than transfer college biology—
good college biology, I grant you—to the
10th grade. This is just what I think Hol-
ton warns us that we should expect if we
assemble a “name band” to do the job.
One can only wonder, futilely, what eight
to ten sufficiently obscure biologists, with
a budget limited to $100,000, might have
been able to accomplish. That one of the
products of our new biology courses can-
not easily be distinguished from an equal-
ly able student who has had the “old”
biology was admitted to me, inadvertently
May, 1964.
of course, by one of the enthusiasts this
past summer when we discussed the matter
of examinations. More on that point later.
Elementary School Science
We come then to the question of elemen-
tary school science. As I see it, because
of the . factors pointed out somewhat
sketchily above, and of course others, the
crucial level in science education at the
present time lies in the grades below the
high school. Why is this so?
In the first place, science has been, and
is being, pushed ever backwards in the
high schools. What used to be taught in
the 10th grade is being put increasingly
into the 9th, and so on. Secondary school
material is showing up in the elementary
school.
In the second place, the climate of pub-
lic opinion, for the moment at least, creates
an understandable urge to begin science
early. We are told that we shall lose out
in the international kite-flying contest with
the Soviets if we do not produce more
scientists, and that one thing we must do
to avoid this is to begin earlier the formal
instruction of potential scientists.
Thirdly, and this to me is the only truly
important basis for action, unless some-
thing is done, and done well, for grade
school science, the enormous investments
of money and labor which have gone and
are going into high school and college
science teaching materials will be largely
wasted. We will, in short, continue the un-
fortunate situation | alluded to earlier—
college biology taught to 12-year olds, and
seventh-grade biology thus perforce taught
to college students.
There is an impressive amount of effort
now being spent in trying to do something
about elementary school science. A look
at the recent summary of NSF-supported
course improvement projects discloses. for
example: a “Coordinated Science and
Mathematics Curriculum for Grades K-9”
at the University of Minnesota; a “Science
Curriculum Improvement Study” at the
University of California; and an “Elemen-
179
tary School Science Project” at the same
institution. The University of Illinois is
working on an elementary school science
project in astronomy; Cornell University
is associated with Educational Services,
Inc., on still another program; and the
AAAS has developed an extensive effort.
Just what will come of these projects it is
too early to say for certain, but materials
are now appearing and are being sub-
jected to testing at a number of places.
Writing science for elementary schools has
become, in short, the thing to do.
Certain distinct advantages, and certain
dangers, attend any attempt to intensify
science education in the lower grades. For
a time at least, it is an especially exciting
challenge, because in quite a general sense
science teaching at this level hasn’t a long
history of being done wrongly. It hasn’t
been done wrongly largely because it
hasn’t been done at all, but the advantage
of starting with a clean slate, so to speak,
must not be minimized. It is exciting, too,
because of the sheer magnitude of the
task—one is dealing, potentially at least,
with thirty million kids and about one
million teachers! It is exciting above all
else, I suppose, because of the priceless
opportunity to start the child in the
“right” direction, as far as that can be
discerned.
But the stakes are high and the cost of
failure alarming. One faces the handicaps
of a corps of teachers who, through no
special fault of their own, have very little
background in science and, often, neither
liking nor aptitude for it. Or, at least, little
liking or aptitude for what they think sci-
ence to be. Many are even fearful of sci-
ence; its uncertainties, its exploratory ap-
proach, its provisional conclusions often
sit ill with teachers who, by tradition, have
long operated in a situation where every-
one expects them to have the answer.
We work also against a culture which in-
sures that many of the children, even by
the time they reach kindergarten, have had
a steady diet of “cute” nature stories, tele-
vision productions in which animals are
160
shown to have near-human personalities
and intelligence, and, often, a church
school background in which biological
phenomena are explained on the basis of
supernatural intervention.
The most frightening possibility is that,
given the golden opportunity to start
rightly, we shall through carelessness or
poor judgment start wrongly instead and
compound the total damage.
We must not, I think, turn the errors of
the new high school science (I am think-
ing here mostly of biology, but the other
sciences are probably making the same
mistakes) into an elementary school ca-
tastrophe by simply pushing high school
biology on down into the earlier grades.
If we deplore the fact that the high school
biology has changed from memorizing the
terminology of leaf margins (the “old”
biology) to memorizing the teminology of
the citric acid cycle (the “new” biology),
how much worse it would be to have the
elementary school students memorizing
the stages in cellular division—the very
thing, incidentally, which my _ seventh-
grade son was doing at the moment I made
the comparison cited in my opening sen-
tence!
No, I think we have a chance to do two
very important things at one and the same
time: (1) provide the elementary school
children with a start in science which will
make them aware of what the scientific
process is all about, and (2) by so doing,
provide the points of view and the meth-
ods of attack which will capitalize on the
new high school science. If we do this well
and quickly, it may just be that the new
high school courses will be successful, for
they will have students coming to them
who are ready to profit from their experi-
ence. If we do not, I think both elemen-
tary and high school science must almost
certainly fail.
K-9 Botany
At long last we arrive at the topic
stated in the title, botany for kindergarten
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
and the early grades. Because this must
seem, on the face of it, a ridiculous sug-
gestion, let me point out immediately that
I haven’t the slightest intention of arguing
for a formal course in botany in the high
schools, much less in the earlier grades.
The botany emphasis appropriate to ele-
mentary school biology is, in fact, as much
of a surprise to me as to anyone else.
Perhaps if I show how this realization de-
veloped it will be clear.
The “‘“Minnemast” program, with which
I was privileged to work this past summer,
is an extensive effort to prepare mathe-
matics and science teaching materials for
the early school years, under the general
direction of Paul Rosenbloom of the Uni-
versity of Minnesota. This is a long-range
program and aims to produce a thoroughly
integrated series of courses for all of the
grades up through the junior high school.
In the summer of 1963, 35. scientists,
teachers, and psychologists from colleges,
high schools, and elementary schools as-
sembled in Minneapolis for eight weeks
for the first of what is planned as a series
of writing conferences. They were teamed
up in smaller groups in such a way that
various levels, various backgrounds, and
various specialties were represented. Need-
less to say, the job was no more than
started in the time available, and the
sampling of materials was very nearly
random—that is, the subject matter chosen
and the grade level for which it was aimed
were left to the whim of the particular
team involved. Diversity, if nothing else,
was most assuredly the outcome. A con-
siderable portion of the draft material was
tried out in experimental classes at about
the second and the fifth grades. It is point-
less to expect that you could judge the
quality of these teaching units without
actually examining them first-hand, but a
few titles will suggest the range of cover-
age: objects and their properties; the sen-
ses; variation; measurement; interaction
and systems; temperature, substances, and
energy; light; biological photoreception;
density; and chemical models. Not all are
May, 1964
of equal caliber, but some are most pro-
vocative and will, I think, have a desirable
impact on elementary science. I must not
leave this point without recognizing that
valuable work is being done in comparable
programs elsewhere—the Minnemast ef-
fort is the only one I know first hand.
Now ‘the development which so aston-
ished me this summer was that, almost
irrespective of the participant’s back-
ground or the immediate objective of his
exercise, within two weeks he was involved
in botanical material. Specifically, as I
now recall it, a professor of zoology try-
ing to develop a unit on “variation” for
kindergarten found himself using leaf
shapes for illustration; a professor of
physics was using celery stalks (he thought
they were stems, naturally) for capillar-
ity and trying to show the interrelation of
environmental factors with bean plants
growing in bell jars. One of the elemen-
tary school teachers was trying to put
across the concept of growth by using
seedlings, and the college chemist was us-
ing plants for his exercises on photorecep-
tion. It is important to note that they did
this not because they planned to, not be-
cause they wanted to, or even because they
knew how to—believe me, there was some
appallingly bad botany demonstrated by
these men and women.
No—they used plants for one reason
only, because they were in a sense forced
to. Because it turns out that to the extent
that elementary school science deals with
the organic world—and it does so very
importantly—it must do so very largely
in relation to plants as distinct from
animals or microorganisms.
One wonders why this is so. Although
not all of the reasons are apparent, certain
ones do suggest themselves:
(1) Plants are cheap, abundant, and
readily available.
(2) Their reactions to many external
stimuli are comparatively slow; super-
ficially they appear simple and thus are
within the grasp of the children’s under-
standing.
1s]
(3) Like it or not, we must recognize
that there are fewer emotional problems
and involvements in experimenting with
plants than with animals—there are no
bills before the Congress, to my knowl-
edge, which seek to regulate work with
plants, and the antivivisectionists are not
likely to give us any trouble here.
(4) There are fewer children who bring
to a consideration of plants the teleologic,
subjective viewpoint that so clutters their
thinking about living organisms in gen-
eral, although there is no question that
by the time a youngster is of school age
he will have been misled many times by
the irrational explanations offered him by
his elders. Perhaps to free him of this
should be one of our chief objectives.
(5) There is the very practical con-
sideration that plants are much easier to
care for in a classroom situation than are
vertebrate animals, insects, or any of the
other organsms which might otherwise be
useful in teaching youngsters.
Conclusion
Make no mistake about it, then, science
is going to be increasingly emphasized in
the elementary schools. Furthermore, it
is going to have a life sciences component,
whether we have the wit and the enter-
prise to influence its content and methods
as we think they should go or stand aside
and leave the task to others. Botanists
have complained for decades that their
science doesn’t get a fair shake in the high
school and college biology courses; they
now have an unparalleled opportunity to
assist in a very vital way, for biology in
the elementary schools can best be taught,
more often than not, with plants. The de-
velopment of these teaching materials is
too important to be left to non-botanists.
Here is a priceless chance to promote the
plant sciences in the best sense of that term
—not in a parochial dispute over enroll-
ments with our colleagues in other fields
—but because we have the best material
there is to start youngsters toward an
awareness of the process of science as dis-
tinct from an accumulation of data about
science. All we have to do is to develop
teaching materials—they must be very de-
tailed, specific, and suitable for the
age group concerned—which convincingly
show the elementary school teachers and
their supervisors that science can be taught
as an exercise in discovery.
I cannot emphasize this last point too
strongly. If you will examine the units
coming out of the several elementary
school projects now in operation in this
country, you will notice one very remark-
able feature—they are keyed to the notion
that the young child can and should dis-
cover relationships on his own initiative,
that to impart information is perhaps the
poorest possible way of introducing sci-
ence, and that first priority must go to
developing a point of view and a method
of attack.
And, of course, if we botanists can get
our story successfully before 30 million —
kids early in their schooling, we shal! have
established a safe lead which will permit
no other discipline to catch up with us
later. Both we and the students will be
the winners thereby.
If you will think for a moment you will
realize that there is an elementary school
not far from where you live.
Pa a
182
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ee
—
The Climate of Washington
Ralph H. Frederick
Office of Climatology, U. S. Weather Bureau
The climate of the Nation’s Capital is a
popular topic of discussion, be it in cock-
tail lounges or the hallowed halls of the
Capitol. Congressmen are often loathe to
spend the summer here. Abraham Lincoln
sometimes spent summer nights at Soldier’s
Home in an attempt to escape the heat.
Be that as it may, when the facts and figures
are carefully considered, the climate is
found in many respects to be a rather
moderate one. The summer heat and hu-
midity (which supposedly constitute the
worst part of the local climate) are not the
source of discomfort that they are in many
parts of the southeastern states. Nor does
Washington have the winter snow and cold
typical of many northern states.
The skeleton of statistics on which the
climate is conventionally hung is portrayed
in Table 1. Here are shown the normals,
means, and extremes of various elements.
This table is, however, a statistician’s fruit
salad in the sense that some of the figures
cited are from different locations and in-
strumental exposure. Nevertheless, all the
figures are based on “official observations”
of the Weather Bureau accumulated since
1870. It may be helpful at this point to
describe briefly the origins of Washington
weather.
Late autumn and winter storms originate
mostly in Texas, the Gulf of Mexico, or near
Cape Hatteras. These move generally
northeastward and many pass close enough
to Washington to affect its weather. In a
normal year, about five of these storms
deliver an inch or more of snow to this
area. Others produce rain, and frequently
are accompanied or followed by strong
winds. As a rule, an outbreak of colder
air follows such storms. Our area, however,
is removed far enough from the source
regions of the cold air masses (central
May, 1964
Canada and Hudson Bay) that some mod-
eration of their temperatures can take place
by the time they arrive.
Summer weather in Washington is fre-
quently dominated by a northward flow of
air from subtropical latitudes. Summer
storm tracks are displaced far enough north
of the District that they do not bring us
adverse weather. Only the cold fronts that
dip southward behind them pass this area.
These cold fronts are the producers of local
showers and thunderstorms that constitute
the main source of summer precipitation.
As these cold fronts pass over the Appala-
chian mountains before approaching Wash-
ington, they frequently produce more rain-
fall in the mountains than here. Each
summer, in fact, several of them produce
not so much as a shower of any conse-
quence. These cold fronts are preceded by
a southerly flow of warm and increasingly
humid air, and are followed by a period of
drier, cooler, and generally pleasant weather
with winds out of the west or north
quadrant.
In the late summer and autumn, storms
of tropical origin, including full-blown hur-
ricanes, occasionally pass northeastward
along the Atlantic coastline, and these are
the source of a large portion of our rain-
fall at that time of year. About 20 percent
of the rainfall in August and 30 percent in
September is produced by such storms (1).
Luckily for Washington area residents, they
have usually lost some of their punch by
the time they reach this area. If they ap-
proach from the southwest over land, sur-
face friction weakens their winds; if they
approach from the southeast, they start to
lose their tropical characteristics before
they arrive and again their winds have
moderated. |
183
TABLE 1
JAN FEB
TEMPERATURE
Normal
Daily maximum 44.3 | 46.1
Daily minimum 29.5 | 29.4
Monthly 36.9 | 37.8
Extremes
Record highest 79 84
Year 1950 | 1930
Record lowest -14 -15
Year 1881 | 1899
Normal degree days 871 762
PRECIPITATION
Normal total 3.03} 2.47
Maximum monthly 7.09] 6.84
Year 1882 | 1884
Minimum monthly ~ 31 . 62
Year 1955 | 1901
Maximum in 24 hrs. 2.98) 2.29
Year 1915 | 1896
Snow, Sleet
Mean total 4.5 4.6
Maximum monthly 31.5 | 35.2
Year 1922 | 1899
Maximum in 24 hrs. 21.0] 14.4
Year 1922 | 1936
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
1:00 a.m. EST 71 67
7:00 a.m. EST 74 ivelt
1:00 p.m. EST 57 51
7:00 p.m. EST 62 57
WIND
Mean hourly speed 10.4] 10.7
Prevailing direction NW S)
Fastest mile
Speed 56 57
Direction NW NW
Year 1957 | 1956*
Pet. of possible sunshine 48 50
Mean sky cover sunrise
to sunset 6.6 6.5
MEAN NUMBER OF DAYS
Sunrise to sunset
Clear 7 7
Partly cloudy 8 7
Cloudy 16 14
Precipitation .01 inch or
more 11 9
Snow, sleet 1.0 inch or
more 2 1
Thunderstorms # #
Heavy fog 2 2
Temperatures
ivflaximum
90° and above 0 0
32° and below Tl 4
Minimum
32° and below 26 20
0° and below # #
*Also in later years
#Less than 1/2 day
Severe Storms
Although a few tornadoes have occa-
sionally been sighted in the Metropolitan
area over the years, happily they are rare.
During the warm season, squall-line and
thunderstorm conditions can result in fun-
nel clouds (tornadoes aloft), and the pos-
sibility of their occasionally touching the
NOV DEC ANNUAL
87 | 75 | 106
Jul '30-Aug' 18
jak -3 -15
1929 | 1917 | 1899
519 | 834 | 4224
60 62 78
E SW SE
1952 | 1957 | Oct. '54
9 10 105
8 6 105
13 15 155
8 9 114
# 1 5
# 0 30
2 2 14
0 0 28
0 5 16
ground is ever present. When tornadoes
do occur, only a small area of destruction
is likely to result. During most summers,
several thunderstorms pass by, which being
accompanied by strong winds, also cause
damage in certain parts of the District.
Occasionally hail is borne by these thunder-
storms. About 25 percent of all hailstorms
here occur in the month of May.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Day-to-Day Changeability
of Temperature
The change of temperature from one day
to the next is an important element of the
climate. In winter, three or four out of
every 10 days are characterized by a change
in maximum temperature of less than 5°.
On two out of 10 days the change is greater
than 12°. Minimum temperatures are less
variable, with interdiurna] changes being
less than 5° on more than half the days of
winter. Changes are even less in summer
when five to seven out of every 10 days
bring a change of less than 5° in daytime
maximum temperatures and over seven out
of 10 bring an equally small change in
nighttime minimum temperature. In sum-
mer, changes greater than 12° from one
day to the next are rare.
Weather by Seasons
Spring (March, April and May)—
Normal daily mean temperatures increase
about 10° during each month of spring.
Mean temperatures start at about 41° on
March | and end at just over 70° on May
31. At the beginning of March most record
daily high temperatures are below 80°.
Record highs increase to 90° or more
early in April, and reach 95° or more the
last half of May. Daily record low tempera-
tures increase from about 15° in early
March to over 40° by mid-May. April 10
is the average date of the last freezing
temperature in the spring, although in some
years freezes have occurred as late as
May 12.
The total monthly precipitation exceeds
2 in. during about one month in five dur-
ing spring. An average of one spring
month in 10 years has less than 1 in.
Snowfall is fairly common in March, and
in over half of the years 1 in. or more of
snow has been recorded in that month.
Once in a while, some snow also falls in
April.
Spring is usually the windiest time of
the year in Washington. Afternoons have
an average wind speed of over 11 mph in
May, 1964
March, but only 8 to 9 mph by the end of
May.
On an average afternoon, relative hu-
midities are lower during April than at any
other time of the year. The April average
afternoon humidity is 44 percent. Humid-
ity during the night runs between 62 and
71 percent during the spring months.
With the advance of spring, there is a
marked seasonal change in the character of
the weather systems. At the beginning of
March, precipitation is caused largely by
low-pressure areas that pass close to Wash-
ington. Gradually the storm tracks shift
northward, and in April and May rainfall
is of a more showery kind, caused by the
passage of cold fronts associated with low-
pressure areas well north of the Mason-
Dixon line.
Summer (June, July, and August)—In
summer, daytime high temperatures under
70° are exceptional in Washington, and
90° or higher can be expected one-fifth to
one-third of the time. Record high tem-
peratures have been under 95° on only
two days (both in June). After the middle
of June, record low temperatures of 50° or
less are exceptionally rare. The annual
temperature curve reaches a peak just after
the middle of July, but it is a flat curve and
in August the fall of daily mean tempera-
tures between the Ist and 31st of the month
is only about 4°.
Almost a third of all summer months
have 95 in. or more of rainfall. At the other
extreme, slightly less than 10 percent of
the summer months have less than | in. of
rainfall. Less than 10 percent of all hours
in summer have precipitation at any time
during the hour. Since most outdoor ac-
tivity in Washington is scheduled for the
afternoon or evening hours, it is interest-
ing to note that the probability of precipi-
tation in summer during the five hours from
2 p.m. to 7 p.m. is about 25 percent, and
that for the five hours from 7 p.m. to mid-
night also is nearly 25 percent. Precipita-
tion at this time of the year is derived
almost exclusively from showers and
thunderstorms. These are caused either by
185
a frontal or squall-line system, or from
heating of moist, unstable air (“air mass
showers’).
Although transient thunderstorms are
often accompanied by strong, gusty winds,
on an average summer is the time of year
having the least wind speed. Afternoon
speeds average 7 or 8 mph, and the period
from late evening until early morning has
an average of less than 5 mph.
During summer nights, the average rela-
tive humidity is over 80 percent, but dur-
ing the afternoon this average falls to
around 50 percent or less.
Autumn (September, October, and No-
vember )—Summer weather in Washington
often seems to linger into September, but
by the end of that month the average daily
temperature is almost 10° cooler than at
the beginning. Mean temperatures continue
to fall about 10° per month in October
and November. Whereas September usually
has 25 or 26 days with a high temperature
of 70° or more, by November less than 3
days as warm as this can be expected.
Temperatures over 100° have been experi-
enced in early September, but by the end
of November all record daily high tempera-
tures are below 75°. Record lowest tem-
peratures start at around 50° in early Sep-
tember and drop below 15° toward the end
of November. The first freezing tempera-
ture of autumn normally occurs during the
last few days of October or the first few
days of November. It has, however, been
known to occur as early as October 2.
Almost 15 percent of all autumn months
have 5 in. or more of total rainfall (Sep-
tember of 1934 had a record of 17.45 in.).
Monthly rainfall of less than 1 in. also
occurs in about 15 percent of all months
(October of 1963 had no measurable rain
at all). On a few occasions snow has been
recorded in October. In nearly a quarter
of Novembers, a snowfall of 1 inch or more
is to be expected.
A period of Indian Summer, charac-
terized by clear or hazy, warm, calm days,
and cool nights, is quite usual in October
or early November. This pleasant condi-
136
tion comes about when a large high-pres-
sure area stagnates or moves only very
sluggishly overhead.
The ragweed pollen season usually be-
gins about mid-August, but it reaches its
peak late in the first week of September
and gradually subsides after that. By the
end of September, the pollen count has
crept downward to bearable levels.
Winter (December, January, and Feb-
ruary)—The mean daily temperature at the
beginning of December is usually around
42°. By the latter third of the month it
levels off at around 36°, where it remains
until it starts to increase again after the
first of February. By the end of February
it has reached early December levels once
more. Record daily high temperatures
range between 65° and 75° all during De-
cember, January, and the first 20 days of
February. Toward the end of February,
record high temperatures are over 75° and
have reached as high as 84°. Record daily
low temperatures start near 15° during the
first few days of December and drop to 5°
or somewhat below zero on most days dur-
ing January and the first 20 days of Feb-
ruary. After that a few record daily lows
are no lower than 10°.
Winter precipitation is relatively uni-
form, with only 12 percent of the months
having more than 5 in., and less than 4
per cent receiving under 1 in. of melted
water content. Over 15 percent of all hours
during winter have precipitation sometime
during the hour. Although snowfall is quite
common, a third of all Decembers have less
than 1 in. of snowfall. January and Feb-
ruary usually have more snow than De-
cember but one-fifth of all Januarys and
Februarys have nonetheles recorded less
than 1 in. of snowfall. Precipitation during
the winter season in Washington is derived
almost exclusively from well-developed low-
pressure areas that move through or near
the Middle Atlantic States.
Wind speeds during winter afternoons
average 9-10 mph, but during the night
they drop to 6 or 7 mph.
Nighttime relative humidity is less than
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
in summer and averages between 70 and
80 percent. Afternoon humidity averages
around 55 percent.
Some Outstanding Weather Events
The Knickerbocker Storm of January 27-
29, 1922—Probably the most famous storm
in Washington’s weather records is what is
known as the “Knickerbocker Storm.” This
storm first showed up on weather maps as
a rain and shower producer in southeast
Texas on January 24. By the 25th it was
causing rain over a wide area including
Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia. At
8:00 a.m. on the 27th the storm center was
off the Atlantic coast east of the Georgia-
South Carolina border. From there it tried
to move northeastward along the coast, but
high pressure over the northeastern states
held on with remarkable persistence and
blocked its progress. By the 29th the center
had moved no further than to a point east
of Washington and south of Cape Cod.
It then began a more easterly course and
finally relaxed its grip on the Washington
area the afternoon of the 29th. Under
the influence of this unusual storm, snow
began in Washington at 4:20 p.m. on the
27th and fell wet and heavy until after
9:00 p.m. on the 28th. It finally stopped
about 12:30 a.m. on the 29th. The total
fall was between 28 in. and 30 in. in this
area. Under its crushing weight, the roof
of the Knickerbocker theater suddenly col-
lapsed during a performance on the even-
ing of the 29th, killing about 100 people
and injuring perhaps another 100. This
grave tragedy lent the storm its infamous
name.
Heavy rainstorm of April 8-12, 1918—
At 5:15 p.m. on April 8, 1918, precipita-
tion began which was to continue until
2:45 p.m. on the 12th. It began with a
weak low-pressure and trough system mov-
ing eastward through the South Atlantic
states. By the morning of April 9, this sys-
tem had become a vigorous storm located
just off the South Carolina coast. At the
same time, a high-pressure system was
May, 1964
moving slowly eastward through the north-
eastern states and blocked the storm’s
progress. The storm had reached only as
far as the Maryland-Pennsylvania border
by the morning of the 12th. Rainfall in
Washington due to this storm totalled 4 in.
On the 11th and 12th, 3 in. of snow and
some sleet became mixed in with the rain.
The cold spell of February 5-15, 1899—
On the midnight of February 4, 1899,
temperatures in Washington fell below
freezing and remained constantly below
freezing until the afternoon of February
15. Between the 5th and 8th of the month
there were four separate snowstorms.
Snow began again on February 11 and
lasted until late on February 13. This
latter storm dropped 20.5 in. of snow and
brought the accumulation on the ground
to 34.2 in. Winds reached 40 mph at the
time, qualifying the storm as a genuine
blizzard. During four days of this cold
period, below-zero temperatures were re-
corded. An all time-record low tempera-
ture for Washington, which still stands,
was reached on the morning of February
11. It was 15° below zero.
The hot spells of August 5-9, 1918, and
July 16-22, 19530—Summer hot spells in
Washington are usually caused by a strong
northerly drift of air from the subtropics
that accompanies a westward extension of
the Bermuda high-pressure area inland
over the South Atlantic states. This con-
dition was present for both of the spells
discussed here.
The hot spell of August, 1918,
marked by an average maximum tempera-
ture of 99.6° and an average overnight
minimum of 76.4°. A temperature of
105.5° was recorded at Weather Bureau
headquarters (24th and M Streets, N.W.)
on August 6, and numerous Washington
residents were prostrated by the heat. A
thunderstorm brought relief on the evening
of August 7 by dropping the temperature
from’ 102° at 5 p.m. to. 73° at 3:30, Dur-
ing this period the humidity also was op-
pressively high; the dewpoint averaged
Was
187
72.3°, and reached a record high of 82°
on the 8th.
In the heat wave of July 1930, the aver-
age maximum temperature was 101.2° for
five days. Minimum temperatures averaged
79.2° in the same period. Although the
average temperature was slightly higher
than in the August, 1918, hot spell, the
humiditv was less, with dewpoints averag-
ines (OO)
An interesting contrast to these statistics
on heat was the situation on July 18, 1891.
At 4 p.m. that day, normally the hour of
hottest weather, the temperature dipped to
only 54°. This very cool summer weather
was due to an unseasonable northeaster
moving along the coast and bringing heavy
rain to Washington.
Distribution of Climate in Washington
Every city alters its own climate to some
extent. Studies have recently been made
of the areal distribution of temperature
and precipitation over metropolitan Wash-
ington. It may be of interest to sum-
marize the principal results (2).
One of the most significant effects of a
city on its climate is its creation of a “heat
island’—an area of higher temperatures
in the most built-up parts of the city—
that is particularly evident at night. In
Washington this “heat island” encompasses
the National Airport to the south, parallels
the Potomac river nearly as far as George-
town to the west, and extends to Bright-
wood and Takoma Park to the northeast
and to the Anacostia river to the east. In
this “heat island,” lowest nocturnal temper-
atures average some 6° to 8° warmer than
the coldest peripheral portion of the metro-
politan area—namely, the area northeast
of town around Greenbelt and the Balti-
more-Washington Parkway. In contrast to
those of some other cities, Washington’s
heat island appears to be better developed
in summer than in winter.
During the afternoon hours, the “heat
island” is less conspicuous. That is to say,
the difference between urban and suburban
maximum daily. temperatures is not so
great. The daytime thermal maximum ap-
pears to extend from northeast Washing-
ton to University Park, Md. A secondary
afternoon maximum may exist between
Falls Church and Waverly Hills, Va. Tem-
perature differences are, however, only
about 2° to 3° across town during the day.
Annual total precipitation varies by
somewhat over 442 in. between the driest
and wettest parts of the metropolitan area.
The least precipitation falls at National
Airport and to the southeast along the
Potomac river. The wettest portion of the
area lies well to the north. There is a
logical explanation for this. In the sum-
mer the relatively cool water of the
Potomac river tends to cool the air from
below, thus stabilizing it and minimizing
shower activity locally. The area north
of the city, on the other hand, is at a rela-
tively higher elevation. Since most rainy
summer weather is accompanied by a south
to southwest wind, the orographic lifting
of air that results, together with the up-
wind addition of heat from the city (which
tends to create greater instability), en-
courages greater shower development to
the north.
Although snowfall has not been studied
to the same extent as temperature and
water content of precipitation, it appears
that the area south and east of the city
receives considerably less snow than sec-
tions to the northwest.
Climatic Trends
To a first approximation, the climate
of Washington has been invariant with
‘
Trends of winter temperature in Washington,
D. C., since 1870, based on Weather Bureau
records at M and. 24th Streets, N. W. All
data shown as 10-year moving averages. Upper
curve: mean temperature of 3-month season
December-February; estimated rate of warming
due to growth of city is given by background
trend line. Middle curve: lowest temperature
reached in each winter season. Lower curve:
seasonal total heating degree-days, defined as
cumulative daily mean temperature departure
below base temperature 65°F. (From (12) in
bibliography.)
188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
WINTER COLDNESS AT WASHINGTON, D.C.
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DECADE CENTERED ON
May, 1964 189
time during the past 90 years of available
records. Nevertheless, slight systematic
changes have been noted in many elements,
which fit a worldwide pattern of docu-
mentable climatic trends. For example,
various indices of winter temperature for
Washington reveal a gradual warming
trend in that season, as show in the figure.
Summer temperatures also have been
rather uniformly on the increase, at least
until some time in the decade of the 1950’s.
In passing, it may be significant that a
worldwide warming trend was in prog-
ress from about 1880 to the 1940’s, after
which the warming apparently yielded to
a cooling phase that is presumably still
under way. Inasmuch as Washington
participated in the worldwide warming
phase, the fact that we have had a run of
cold winters and cool summers in very
recent years may be indicative that Wash-
ington climate has begun to participate
also in the present worldwide cooling trend.
Nevertheless, it will be difficult for the
urban center of Washington to cool again
all the way down to its 19th-century levels,
even if the climate at large continues to
cool. The reason is that the intensity of the
urban “heat island” has locally increased
over the years as the city has become ever
larger and more densely built up. This
tendency for the city to make itself in-
creasingly warmer is undoubtedly the rea-
son why the curves in the figure contain
strong trend components. Comparable
curves based on rural climatological rec-
ords indeed show smaller net trends.
Since winter mean temperatures in
Washington are not far from the freezing
point, the trends of temperature shown in
the figure have important implications for
the fraction of winter precipitation that
falls as snow and for the length of time
that snow cover can persist on the ground.
All in all, Washington winters have become
less and less “wintry” over the years, at
least until quite recently. Unfortunately,
we are not able to predict with any cer-
tainty whether these tendencies will con-
tinue or change direction in the future.
190
This is but a brief, generalized descrip-
tion of Washington’s climate. For the bene-
fit of those desiring greater detail of some
particular element, the following biblio-
graphy is provided.
Bibliography
(1) Cry, G. W. Personal communication, 1964.
(2) Woollum, C. A. Unpublished manuscript,
1964.
(3) Abbot, C. G. Correlation of solar variation
with Washington weather. AGU Transactions 26,
No. 3 (1945).
(4) Abbot, C. G. Periodic influences on Wash-
ington and New York weather of 1949-1950.
Smithsonian Misc. Coll. VIII, No. 17 (1950).
(5) Abbot, C. G. Report on the 27.0074-day
cycle in Washington precipitation. Smithsonian
Misc. Coll., 1944.
(6) Dickey, W. W. Estimating the probability
of a large fall in temperature at Washington, D.C.
Menthly Weather Rev. 77, No. 3 (1949).
(7) Fergusson, S. P. The great snow of Jan.
27-29, 1922. Unpublished manuscript.
(8) Holleyman, J. B. The Washington, D.C.,
storm of June 26, 1954. Monthly Weather Rev. 82,
No. 7 (1954).
(9) Landsberg, H. E. Comfortable living de-
pends on microclimate. Weatherwise 3, No. 1
(1950).
(10) Landsberg, H. E. Some recent climatic
changes in Washington, D. C. Archiv fiir Meteor-
ologie, Geophysik, und Bioklimatologie, Serie B,
Band IIT (1951).
(11) Ludlum, D. M. The Washington and
Jefferson snowstorm. Weatherwise 10, No. 6
(1957).
(12) Mitchell, J. M. Jr. Link warmer climate
to city growth. Heating, Piping, and Air Con-
ditioning, Aug. 1956.
(13) Mook, C. P. The Knickerbocker snow-
storm of January 1922 at Washington, D. C.
Weatherwise 9, No. 6 (1956). *
(14) Mook, C. P., and Price, S. Objective
methods of forecasting winter minimum tempera-
tures at Washington, D. C., U.S. Weather Bureau,
Research Paper No. 27 (1947).
(15) Rapp, R. R. On forecasting winter pre-
cipitation amounts at Washington, D. C. Monthly
Weather Review 77, No. 9 (1949).
(16). Slocum, G. The annual march of tempera-
ture at Washington, D. C. Bulletin AMS 22, No.
5 (1941).
(17) Zoch, R. T. The trend in temperature at
Washington, D. C., for 1862-1949. J. Washington
Acad. Sci. 40, No. 11 (1950).
(18) Zoch, R. T. On the variation of the aver-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
age daily temperature at Washington, D. C.
J. Washington Acad. Sci. 42, No. 4 (1952).
(19) U.S. Weather Bureau. The climatic hand-
book for Washington, D. C. Tech. Paper No. 8,
U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1949.
(20) U. S. Weather Bureau. Climatography of
the United States. No. 82-50 Decennial Census of
the United States, Summary of hourly observations,
Washington, D. C., 1962.
(21) U.S. Weather Bureau. Local climatologi-
cal data, Washington National Airport, Washing-
tons: @; 1963.
Problems of Long-range
Weather Forecasting*
Jerome Namias
Chief, Extended Forecast Branch, U. S. Weather Bureau
Scientists who work in_ long-range
weather forecasting encounter great difficul-
ties, not only in the intricacies of their
chosen field but also in getting across to
other scientists and the lay public the essen-
tial nature of their problem and the reasons
for their painfully slow progress in the mod-
ern-day milieu of satellites, computers, and
atomic reactors. When solar eclipses can be
predicted to fractions of a second and the
position of a satellite pinpointed millions
of miles out in space, it is not readily un-
derstandable why reliable weather predic-
tions cannot be made for a week, month,
season, or even a year in advance. Indeed,
eminent scientists from disciplines other
than meteorology, underestimating the
complexity of the long-range problem, have
tried to solve it only to come way with a
feeling of humility in the face of what
the late John von Neumann called “the
second most difficult problem in the world”
(human behavior presumably being the
first). Why, then, is the problem so in-
tractable?
In the first place, the methodology of
long-range forecasting is largely dependent
* A modified form of this paper was submitted
to “Der Mensch und die Technik” of Suddeutsche
Zeitung, in connection with a special edition on
the occasion of World Meteorological Day, March
23, 1964.
May, 1964
on routine observations of natural phenom-
ena gathered over vast areas—and by vast
we mean at least hemisphere-wide coverage
in three dimensions. More probably the
entire world’s atmosphere must be surveyed
because of large-scale interactions within
a fluid which has no lateral boundaries but
surrounds the entire earth. In contrast to
the physicist, the meteorologist has no ade-
quate laboratory in which to perform con-
trolled experiments on this scale, although
some recent work with electronic computers
holds out hope for useful simulation.
When the immense scale of the atmos-
phere is realized, it becomes clear that the
present network of meteorological observa-
tions is woefully inadequate. Even in
temperate latitudes of the Northern Hemis-
phere, relatively well covered by surface
and upper-air reports, there are “blind”
areas of a size greater than that of the
United States. The tropics are only very
sparsely covered by reports, and the data
coverage in the Southern Hemisphere is
still poorer by an order of magnitude.
There, a moat thousands of miles in dia-
meter separates the data-rich Antartic
continent from the temperate latitudes.
making it virtually impossible to get a
coordinated picture of what is occurring
now, let alone what may occur in the fu-
ture. Thus, the “secrets of long-range fore-
19]
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192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
casting locked in Antartica”’—a_ cliché
often found in press articles—are indeed
securely locked. Of course, cloud and
radiation observations from satellites will
assist to an ever-increasing degree, but bet-
ter methods of determining the atmos-
phere’s pressure, wind, and temperature
distribution from satellite observations are
urgently needed.
Even if every cubic mile of the atmos-
phere up to a height of 20 km. were con-
tinuously surveyed (and there are 2500
million such volumes), reliable long-range
forecasts would still not now be realizable,
because, regardless of their frequency and
density, observations are not forecasts;
they merely provide “input data” for ex-
tended forecasting. Meteorologists have
yet to develop a sufhcient understanding
of the physics of the atmosphere to use
these input data effectively in long-range
forecasting.
In view of this state of affairs, it is sur-
prising that long-range predictions enjoy
as much success as they do. That they do
is attributable to a few fortunate aspects
of atmospheric behavior. In the first place,
the systems which produce most of the
weather over the world, the cyclones and
anticyclones of the weather map, are so
large that a fine mesh of observations is
not needed to detect and describe them. A
lattice of stations on the order of 300 km.
apart is quite adequate for that. Secondly,
the birth, growth, movement, and death of
these systems essentially depend on phe-
nomena of a still larger scale of size,
namely the long “planetary waves” found
in upper-air currents flowing between al-
titudes of 10,000 and 50,000 feet. Another
fortunate circumstance is that, in many
aspects of their behavior, cyclones, anti-
cyclones, and planetary waves are persist-
ently recurrent over weeks and sometimes
months. Thus, meteorological time series
are serially correlated, and average varia-
tions around a normal (for a week, month,
or season, for example) are much larger
than would be expected if daily weather
were randomly distributed. This statistical
May, 1964
property implies that there are forces
external to the atmosphere which force it
again and again to repeat essentially the
same series of weather developments. An
extreme example of this phenomenon is
offered by the abnormally cold European
winter of 1962-63.
What ‘are these external forces? Of
course, complex geographical influences
produced by mountains, ocean-land con-
trasts, and the like are highly important
in producing certain recurrent wind and
weather patterns, the net result of which
shows up in climatological statistics—
particularly in means computed for many
decades. But since individual winters
usually differ markedly from one another,
other external factors besides geography
must operate. Long-range forecasters dis-
agree, however, as to what the most im-
portant of these factors are.
Franz Baur in Germany and H. C.
Willett in America have pursued the idea
that variations in solar activity are the
primary external stimuli. Another school
of thought, of which the author is a pro-
ponent, believes that the thermal character
of the earth’s surface over both continent
and ocean provides the principal means for
quasiperiodically restoring certain wind
and weather patterns within a given month
or season. These surface variations result
from abnormalities in snow cover, ocean
temperatures, Arctic ice, etc.—abnormal-
ities affected by the preceding and con-
temporary atmospheric behavior. Whether
these external influences be solar or
terrestrial, our present knowledge is in-
sufficient to apply them in a physically-
based scheme of long-range prediction.
Much more observation and study, particu-
larly with the help of electronic computers,
must be carried on before this will be
possible. Therefore, statistical and synoptic
methods, together with qualitative reason-
ing, form the basis for most long-range
forecast methods practiced today. By these
methods we take advantage of the fact that
the influence of external factors is implicit
in meteorological time series, so that some
193
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194, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
degree of success in prediction can be
achieved. The statistical methods auto-
matically incorporate the coherence or
persistence factor, and some methods also
utilize cross-correlations or orthogonal
polynomials which describe some of the
interactions between remote portions of
the atmosphere. Naturally, this work has
been greatly facilitated by high-speed com-
puters.
Predictions are frequently made from
hemispheric wind and pressure patterns at
one or more levels and from sequences of
average patterns computed for a_ week,
month, or season. The primary prediction
is usually made for the prevailing pressure
pattern of a subsequent period. This out-
put is then transformed into probabilistic
temperature and _ precipitation patterns
which are usually expressed in terms of de-
partures from normal climatological ex-
pectancy. Such predictions have been made
in the United States for a week * with rea-
sonable skill, for a month with modest skill,
and for a season with marginal skill. No
one in the world has demonstrated to the
satisfaction of his scientific colleagues an
ability to predict day-to-day weather for
more than 4 to 6 days ahead. An example
of a recent 30-day prediction for the
the coterminous United States is shown in
the charts.
In spite of the rather discouraging state
of affairs described above, the future of
* For periods of three and four days, the use
of numerical (i.e., dynamical) methods has been
very helpful, and these are supplemented with
statistical and synoptic techniques for weekly
forecasts.
long-range prediction appears _ bright.
There are four reasons that justify such
optimism.
First, a new generation of young
meteorologists, well trained in mathematics,
physics, statistics, and synoptics has ap-
peared on the scene and is beginning to
show a ‘keen interest in the long-range
prediction problem—formerly a haven for
a small number of scientists and a larger
number of charlatans. Secondly, machin-
ery is now available to handle the neces-
sarily complex dynamical and _ statistical
computations. Thirdly, through world-wide
effort (largely through the World Meteoro-
logical Organization) adequate worldwide
meteorological coverage necessary to long-
range prediction may soon become a
reality.
Finally, man now clearly sees this prob-
lem as one of tremendous economic im-
portance, and as one whose solution is
prerequisite for an attack on another chal-
lenging problem: weather and _ climate
modification. With such stimuli as these.
important advances in long-range predic-
tion skill will surely follow.
Charts
Predicted and observed contours (labeled in
tens of feet) of the 700-mb. pressure surface for
February, 1964, representing the prevailing wind
flow in mid-troposphere. Undulations are plane-
tary waves.
Predicted and observed temperature departures
from normal for February, 1964, expressed in
categories determined from the frequency of
occurrence of February temperatures in past
climatological records.
Predicted and observed precipitation patterns
for February, 1964, expressed in three classes as
determined from climatological records of Feb-
ruary precipitation amounts.
—
May, 1964,
195
Academy Proceedings
May Meeting
(48lst Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences)
COMMEMORATION OF THE 400th ANNIVERSARY OF GALILEO’S BIRTH
DATE: THURSDAY, MAY 21, 1964
PLACE: HOWARD COUNTY BUILDING,
APPLIED PHYSICS LABORATORY
Before-Dinner Program at 6:30
Se SPEAKER: RALPH E. GIBSON
Decale, Director of the Applied Physics Laboratory,
Johns Hopkins University
SUBJECT: WHAT HAS BECOME OF GALILEO’S
IDEAS TODAY?
After-Dinner Program at 8:15
SPEAKER: RICHARD B. KERSHNER
Supervisor of Space Development Division,
Applied Physics Laboratory
bas & SUBJECT: NAVIGATION BY SATELLITES
Dr. Kershner
Dinner will be served from 7:00 to 7:30 in the APL cafeteria. Advance reservations
are required; they may be obtained from Dr. Mary Louise Robbins at the GWU Medical
School, FE 3-9000, Ext. 510.
Directions: APL’s Howard County Building is off US 29, 15 miles northeast of the
center of Silver Spring (intersection of Georgia Avenue and Colesville Pike). Pro-
ceeding on US 29, enter Howard County, pass through Scaggsville (intersection with
Md 216), and watch for a blue-and-white sign marked “Johns Hopkins Applied Physics
Laboratory.” Turn left at next intersection, on to Johns Hopkins Road. Continue to end
of this road; the Howard County Building will be visible on the righi.
Abstract of Dr. Kershner’s Address—The usefulness of artificial satellites for pro-
viding worldwide aid to navigation is discussed. A number of different possible schemes
~ are described with an indication of the advantages and disadvantages of the various pos-
sibilities. The importance of satellite altitude is discussed. It is shown that the factor
which limits the accuracy is the knowledge of the earth’s gravitational field. Thus, prog-
ress in navigation is intimately tied to progress in geodesy. This is true whether the
196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
navigation is accomplished by satellites or by earth-bound systems. An indication of the
present status of geodesy and prospects for the future are given.
The Speakers—Richard B. Kershner was born in Ohio, but he obtained his entire
education in Baltimore. At the age of 23, he received the Ph.D. degree in mathematics
from Johns Hopkins University. He taught mathematics at the University of Wiscon-
sin, then at Johns Hopkins. During World War II he was engaged in development
of ballistics systems at the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington, and in application of the principles of rocket propulsion at the Allegany
Ballistics Laboratory, Cumberland, Md. Since 1946 he has been at the Applied
Physics Laboratory, first in the Launching Group, then as supervisor of the Guid-
ance and Control Group. He now heads the division responsible for development of a
satellite navigation system and for the Laboratory’s space research programs. He has
twice received the Navy’s Distinguished Public Service Award—first in 1958, for his
leading role in the Terrier missile development; and second in 1961, for contributions
to the Polaris missile system.
Ralph E. Gibson, a native of England, came to the United States in 1924 and joined
the staff of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. He has been
with the Applied Physics Laboratory since 1946, and its director since 1948. In addition
to achieving a brilliant scientific career in his research on physical chemistry, rockets, and
guided missiles, and in his administration of research and development, he has found
time to serve as organist and choir director of Saint Columba’s Episcopal Church since
1939.
1964 Budget Approved
The following budget for 1964 was approved by the Board of Managers at its meet-
ing of March 19. For comparative purposes, estimated and actual figures for 1963 also
are included.
1963 1963 1964
estimated actual estimated
Receipts
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May, 1964 197
ELECTIONS TO FELLOWSHIP
The following persons were elected to
fellowship in the Academy at the Board of
Managers meeting on March 19:
Louis C. W. Baker, chairman of Chem-
istry Department, Georgetown University,
“in recognition of his contributions to in-
organic chemistry, particularly his re-
searches on the structures and properties
of heteropoly anions.”. (Sponsors: E. A.
Mason, H. W. Schamp, and C. E. White.)
Gale W. Cleven (colonel, USAF) proj-
ect manager, C&C Office, Advanced Re-
search Projects Agency, Department of
Defense, “in recognition of his contribu-
tions to the field of astrometry (stellar
position and motion), and in particular
his researches on a mathematical approach
to the problem of rectifying astrographic
catalogues (thereby achieving precision of
position) by means of electronic compu-
ters.” (Sponsors: M. Apstein, P. J.
Franklin, A. F. Forziati.)
Norman H. C. Griffiths, chairman,
Division of Dental Prosthesis, Dental
School, Howard University, “in recogni-
tion of his contributions to prosthodontics,
his aid in stimulating research in under-
developed countries, and in particular his
dissemination of knowledge of dental sci-
ence to practitioners in the United States
and several foreign countries.” (Sponsors:
G. M. Brauer, George Dickson, G. Paffen-
barger. )
The following persons were elected to
fellowship in the Academy at the Board of
Managers meeting on April 16:
George Abraham, head of Experimen-
tal Devices Section, Naval Research Labo-
ratory, “in recognition of his research on
solid state phenomena leading to genera-
tion of multistable states having broad ap-
plication to digital computers, communica-
tions, and microelectronics, and for his
role in graduate training programs at vari-
ous universities in the Washington area.”
(Sponsors: S. H. Liebson, L. A. DePue.)
198
Irving Gray (colonel, USA), professor
of biology (biochemistry), Georgetown
University, “in recognition of his contribu-
tions to biophysics and biochemistry, and
in particular his studies on the biochemical
effects of radiation and trauma.” (Spon-
sors: C. R. Treadwell, R. B. Roberts, B. D.
Van Evera. )
Gregory K. Hartmann, technical di-
rector, Naval Ordnance Laboratory, “in
recognition of his contributions to under-
water acoustics, explosives research, and
administration of research and develop-
ment.” (Sponsors: H. Polachek, F.
Frenkiel, Z. I. Slawsky.)
Albert J. Herz, research physicist,
Naval Research Laboratory, “in recogni-
tion of his contributions to high energy
physics and cosmic ray physics, and in
particular of his effective exploitation of
nuclear-emulsion techniques in these dis-
ciplines.” (Sponsors: M. M. Shapiro,
John McElhinney, Bertram Stiller.)
Freeman H. Quimby, chief, Exobiol-
ogy Branch, National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, “in recognition of
his work in developing a program of sys-
tematic research and development aimed at
the discovery and study of extra-terrestrial
life.” (Sponsors: Orr E. Reynolds, H. E.
Finley. )
David C. Rife, head, Biological Sciences
Section, Research Grants Branch, National
Institute of General Medicaj Science, “in
recognition of his background of experi-
ence in various aspects of the general field
of genetics and of his written contributions
to the field, . . . especially the genetics of
behavior.” (Sponsors: Paul W. Bowman,
B. D. Van Evera, N. T. Grisamore.)
Aaron Seamster, director, Educational
Programs Branch, National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, “in recognition
of his. research work in parasitology, in
particular with the monogenetic trematodes
of fish, and in recognition of his leader-
ship in science education and administra-
tion.” (Sponsors: H. L. Dryden, Urner
Liddel, M. Tepper.)
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Charles S. Tidball, acting chairman,
Physiology Department, George Washing-
ton University, “in recognition of his con-
tribution to gastro-intestinal physiology,
and in particular his research on the
mechanisms responsible for the movement
of water across the intestinal epithelial
membrane.” (Sponsors: M. L. Robbins, B.
Beekiddy, R. C. Parlett, C. R. Treadwell.)
Irvin E. Wallen, assistant director for
oceanography, Museum of Natural History,
Smithsonian Institution, “in recognition of
his notable contributions to the science of
biology, and in particular his contributions
to the development of the national ocean-
ographic program.” (Sponsors: M. L.
Robbins, N. D. Stewart, P. H. Oehser.)
ELECTIONS TO MEMBERSHIP
The following persons were elected to
membership in the Academy by action of
the Committee on Membership at its meet-
ing on March 23:
Frank D. Allan, associate professor of
anatomy, George Washington University;
John C. Bartone, assistant professor of
anatomy, George Washington University;
Suzanne F. Bershad, oceanographer,
National Oceanographic Data Center;
George W. Cry, meteorologist, Weath-
er Bureau:
Wade M. Edmunds, executive secre-
tary, Joint Board on Science Education;
Vannie E. Gray, chemist, National Bu-
reau of Standards;
Frank Hetrick, assistant professor of
microbiology, University of Maryland;
Torrence H. MacDonald, meteorolo-
gist, Meteorological Satellite Laboratory,
Weather Bureau;
Sidney O. Marcus, Jr., oceanographer,
National Oceanographic Data Center;
Frederick A. Moran, meteorologist
and analyst, Valley Forge Space Technology
Center;
William H. Myers, oceanographer, Na-
tional Oceanographic Data Center;
Augustine Y. M. Yao, research meteor-
ologist, Weather Bureau;
May, 1964
Nina S. Zikeev, meteorologist, Office of
Climatology, Weather Bureau.
WASHINGTON JUNIOR
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The following is a summary of WJAS
activities since December:
The Academy held its annual convention
on December 30 in the White Gravenor
Building at Georgetown University. Stu-
dent speakers presented papers in the morn-
ing sessions, and John D. Nicolaides, spe-
cial assistant to the director of the Offices
of Space Science at NASA, spoke after
luncheon.
On February 1, Louise H. Marshall of
NIH addressed the Academy on “The
Physiology of Dextran.”
The annual joint meeting of WJAS
and the Chemical Society of Washington
was held on February 13.
A “Summer Research Job Opportunities”
meeting of WJAS was held on February 29.
Dean L. Mitchell of the Naval Research
Laboratory spoke at the meeting of March
28, on “The Production and Use of High
Magnetic Fields.”
LETTERS
In examining the March issue of the
Journal I was impressed by the quality
of the articles and the fields of interest
represented. The Journal is now begin-
ning to approach the level which had been
proposed when it was reorganized—a good
balance of articles of scientific interest
combined with Academy news and notices.
I note that in this issue 24 pages are de-
voted to articles and 8 pages to notices
and news; this appears to be a desirable
ratio. I feel also that the type of general
interest article found in this issue is ap-
propriate for the Academy and will stimu-
late reader interest.
Bourbon F.
National Bureau of Standards
I am delighted with William J. Youden’s
seminar talk, “Statistics in Its Proper
SCRIBNER
199
Place,” published in the March Journal.
His very strong statement about using sta-
tistical methods to plan the collection of
data rather than to attempt their salvage
should be very helpful to scientists in avoid-
ing wasted effort. I have asked Dr. Youden
for a supply of reprints of his article, for
distribution to geologists who come to me
with statistical problems.
WILLIAM G. SCHLECHT
Geological Survey
After teaching statistical astronomy for
about 15 years, I found that the content of
the course gradually forced me to shorten
all discussion of such interesting topics as
least squares. . . I think that Churchill
Eisenhart’s essay in the February Journal,
on “The Meaning of ‘Least’ in Least
Squares,” should be read by every student
who must some day evaluate not only his
own work but that of others.
Francis J. HEYDEN, S.J.
Georgetown College Observatory
Report of Committee on
Encouragement of Science
Talent, 1963-1964
The following members were appointed
to the committee for the current year:
Francis J. Heyden, S.J., chairman, Alfred
Weissler, Lloyd Ferguson, John K. Taylor,
Howard B. Owens, and Roy Barker. Roy
Barker, who resigned in February because
he left the Washington area, was replaced
by Nate Haseltine.
The committee has performed the fol-
lowing tasks:
Counseling the Junior Academy. Mem-
bers of the committee have served as coun-
selors for the Junior Academy and assisted
them in arranging their meetings. Most
of the meetings of the Junior Academy and
of the Governing Council have been held at
Georgetown University because facilities
such as projectors were readily available.
The convention on December 27 was well
attended and the luncheon that followed
was a great success. However, the com-
mittee noted with regret that members from
Virginia and Maryland greatly outnum-
bered those from the District of Columbia.
The committee plans to make a special
effort before next year’s convention to in-
erest Washington students in attending.
Science Fair Arrangements. Georgetown
University was unable to offer the use of
its gymnasium because of its 175th anni-
versary celebration. A number of other
facilities suggested were too expensive.
Finally the U.S. Air Force offered the use
of Hangar No. 2 at Bolling Field. The offer
was arranged through Col. Gale Cleven,
USAF, a former graduate student of
Father Heyden.
Selection of Honors Winners. The next
task of the committee will be the selection
of the 40 winners to be honored by the
Senior Academy in May. These 40 will
be selected from among the honor group
of the Westinghouse Science Talent Search,
Science Fair winners, and others especially
recommended by science supervisors of
local schools.
—Francis J. Heyden, S.J., Chairman
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Science in Washington
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
May 19—Anthropological Society of
Washington
Saul Riesenberg and Clifford Evans,
Smithsonian Institution, “The Ethnology
and Archeology of Ponape.”
Rm. 43, National Museum, 10th St. &
Constitution Ave., N.W., 8:15 p.m.
May 20—Paleontological Society of
Washington
Porter M. Kier, Smithsonian Institution,
“Evolution of Paleozoic Echmoids.”
Rm. 43, National Museum, 10th St. &
Constitution Ave., N.W., 8:15 p.m.
May 28—School of Advanced Inter-
national Studies, JHU
Richard B. Kershner, Space Develop-
ment Division, Applied Physics Labora-
tory, “The Use of Artificial Satellites in
Geodesy.”
1906 Florida Ave., N.W., 8:00 p.m.
June 16-17—Office of Naval Research
Symposium on Computer Augmentation
of Human Reasoning, held jointly with
TRW Computer Division.
Rm. 1315 New State Department Bldg.,
23rd St. between C & E Sts., N.W.
SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS
Contributions to this column may be
addressed to Harold T. Cook, Associate
Editor, c/o Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Marketing Service, Federal
Center Building, Hyattsville, Maryland.
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT
Calvin Golumbic attended the Inter-
national Symposium on Mycotoxins in
Foodstuffs held at MIT, March 18-19. He
presented a paper on “Fungal Spoilage in
Stored Food Crops.”
N. R. Ellis participated in a series of
U. S. feed grain symposia at the London
May, 1964
(England) Trade Center, at Belfast, and
at Dublin during the period of March
1 to 13; his subject was “New Trends in
Swine Nutrition.” These meetings are a
part of a continuing program to encourage
improved livestock feeding in the United
Kingdom and Ireland.
A. L. Taylor, nematologist at Beltsville,
is taking a year’s leave of absence to accept
an assignment abroad with the Food and
Agriculture Organization. Initially sched-
uled to go to Cyprus, he is serving tem-
porarily with FAO headquarters in Rome,
pending the establishment of more favor-
able circumstances in Cyprus, or assign-
ment elsewhere.
W. T. Pentzer attended a fruit and
vegetable perishables handling conference
at the University of California, Davis,
March 23 to 25. He served as chairman of
sessions on quality evaluation and descrip-
tion of vegetables, and modified atmos-
pheres for the storage and transport of
fruits and vegetables.
Justus C. Ward was a USDA repre-
sentative at the invitation meeting of the
National Health Forum, held at Pittsburgh
from March 9 to 11.
At the Golden Anniversary Celebration
of Committee D-13 on Textiles, American
Society for Testing Materials, held in New
York City on March 5, Robert W. Webb
was awarded honorary membership “in
recognition of outstanding service to this
Committee and in appreciation of his de-
votion to its objectives.” Dr. Webb was
chairman of the Raw Cotton Section of
D-13 for 9 years, 1934 to 1943; under his
leadership ASTM’s first cotton fiber test
methods were developed.
Edson J. Hambleton retired in March
after more than 22 years of Government
service dedicated to technical assistance in
foreign plant protection. He was in charge
of Foreign Technical Programs, Plant Pest
Control Division, Agricultural Research
Service. Mr. Hambleton joined the former
201
Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations as
Field Service Consultant in entomology in
1943, later assuming responsibility for
administering the Regional Insect Control
Project, a cooperative program with the
Agency for International Development in
the Near East and Africa. Prior to his
service with USDA, Mr. Hambleton spent
14 years in entomological research and
teaching in Brazil and Peru.
ARMY ENGINEERS
Werner K. Weihe, an employee of the
Army Mobility Command’s Engineer Re-
search and Development Laboratories, Fort
Belvoir, and internationally known for his
work in infrared physics, recently was
elected a fellow of the Optical Society of
America. Fellowship in the Society is ac-
corded only to those who have “served with
distinction in the advancement of optics.”
GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Rev. Francis J. Heyden, S.J., was
awarded an honorary Doctor of Science
degree at the University’s 175th anniver-
sary convocation on March 19. The cita-
tion read in part: “The dynamic force of
the human intellect stimulates men as they
lift their gaze to the star-studded domains
of heaven not only to acknowledge the
Invisible Creator of these visible signs, but
also to discover the intimate secrets of
nature. The mind which advances far
beyond the flaming ramparts of the world
and traverses the vastness of space returns
to us a victor laden with the fruit of
victory.
“We assembled today in convocation
gladly render our debt of gratitude to a
colleague of our own, who by his obser-
vations and investigations of the sun,
planets and stars has increased the fund of
astronomical knowledge and by a more
- accurate measurement of the positions of
the moon’s craters has facilitated a more
reliable lunar cartography.”
202
HARRIS RESEARCH
LABORATORIES
Alfred E. Brown received the annual
Honor Scroll of the Washington Chapter,
American Institute of Chemists, at a dinner
held in his honor on May 5, at the Presi-
dential Arms. Dr. Brown was cited for his
contributions to professional societies and
science organizations in the Washington
area.
Dr. Brown participated in the Ninth In-
stitute on Research Administration spon-
sored by the Center for Technology and
Administration at American University,
April 20-24.
Henry Peper and Julian Bereh pre-
sented a paper at the 34th annual meeting
of the Textile Research Institute in New
York on April 9. The paper was entitled
“Surface properties of cotton finishes and
their relation to wet soiling and soil re-
moval.”
Arnold Sookne attended the spring
meeting of the Fiber Society, April 15 to
17, at Charlotte, N. C. He served as chair-
man of a session on mechanical behavior
of cotton and wool fibers.
NAS-NRC
Frank L. Campbell, a past president
of the Washington Academy of Sciences
(1959), will retire on June 30 from the
staff of the National Academy of Sciences
—National Research Council, where for
the past 10 years he has been executive
secretary of the Division of Biology and
Agriculture. He has been invited to be a
guest investigator during the next academic
year in the II Zoologisches Institut der
Universitat Wien, Wien I., Dr. Karl-
Lueger-Ring 1, Austria. This address, in
care of Professor Dr. Wilhelm Kiuhnelt,
should serve for communication. Dr. Camp-
bell reports that he will probably dabble
in cockroaches, as well as in Wein, Weib.
und Gesang.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
NATIONAL INSTITUTES
OF HEALTH
Paul N. Baer of the National Institute
of Dental Research has been appointed a
visiting associate professor of periodon-
tology in the Graduate School of Dentistry,
Boston University.
Wade H. Marshall, chief of the Na-
tional Institute of Mental Health’s Labora-
tory of Neurophysiology, is spending two
months at the Institut Marey, Université de
Paris, lecturing and collaborating in re-
search on central somatic mechanisms in
cats. His wife, Louise H. Marshall, on
leave from the Laboratory of Physical Biol-
ogy, National Institute of Arthritis and
Metabolic Diseases, is preparing for pub-
lication her research on the anaphylactoid
reaction of rats to dextran.
Ernestine Thurman, executive secre-
tary of the Tropical Medicine and Para-
sitology Study Section, Division of Re-
search Grants, has transferred to New
Orleans where she will be associated with
the Department of Pathology at Louisiana
State University School of Medicine. Dr.
Thurman, the only woman entomologist
commissioned officer in the Public Health
Service, had been with the Service since
1944.
NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
Albert W. Saenz gave a series of lec-
tures on the mathematical foundations of
quantum mechanics and quantum statistics
in March and April, in a seminar on sta-
tistical mechanics at Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity.
WEATHER BUREAU
J. Murray Mitchell, Jr., has been
awarded the Department of Commerce
silver medal for meritorious service, “for
a very valuable contribution to science
through meritorious authorship in the field
of climatic stability and change.”
May, 1964
UNCLASSIFIED
Roy C. Dawson spoke at the luncheon
meeting of the Norfolk (Virginia) Rotary
International on March 17. The occasion
was Rotary’s dedication to “World Under-
standing Week.” Dr. Dawson’s topic was
“World Food Problems and Technical As-
sistance Programs.”
Elvin C. Stakman has been selected to
receive the first Cosmos Club Award for
his distinguished contributions to the field
of plant pathology. The presentation cere-
monies are scheduled for May 13.
DEATHS
Lynn H. Rumbaugh, a physicist and
expert in tactical nuclear weaponry, died
recently of a heart attack at his Bethesda
home. He was a senior staff member and
research director at the Research Analysis
Corporation. Dr. Rumbaugh was a native
of Ira, Iowa. He was a graduate of Miami
University of Oxford, Ohio, and received
the Ph.D degree from California Institute
of Technology in 1932. Miami University
conferred an honorary doctorate on him
in 1953. Dr. Rumbaugh was formerly a
physicist with the Department of the Navy.
SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT
Despite overwhelming popular interest
in nuclear warfare, the Army continues
its efforts to improve the conventional
weapons and their use. Fort Belvoir lab-
oratory scientists, for example, are contin-
uing their search for better “old-fashioned”
explosives through an approach originated
by Fritz Zwicky of Cal Tech. Dr. Zwicky
has suggested that certain chemical reac-
tions such as combinations of carbon
and titanium to form titanium-carbide
have potential for producing up to six
times the energy of an equivalent of TNT.
If successfully modified for demolition
use, these high energy chemical reactions
would yield significant improvements on
203
present methods. The Army is also trying
out, by comparative tests, various tech-
niques of such apparently routine things
as blasting craters in roads as antitank
defense. By this means they have found
appreciable advantages in particular spac-
ings and depths of boreholes for explosive
charges, and that craters angled at 45
degrees to the roadway are more effective
than those perpendicular.
Even the table lamp built from a dis-
carded artillery shell may be soon a thing
of the past. Atlantic Research Corporation,
at its Pine Ridge Plant near Gainsville,
Va., has started pilot production of semi-
combustible cartridge cases, aimed at re-
ducing cost, weight, metal use in wartime,
and disposal in combat. Fabricated of
fibers processed in slurry form, suggestive
of today’s grocery store egg cartons, they
are already available in experimental quan-
tities.
Georgetown University’s Biology De-
partment has received grant awards from
NIH and NSF in support of two research
programs in microbial genetics; Otto E.
Landman, associate professor of biology,
is in charge of both programs. The NIH-
supported program, “Mode of Entry of
DNA into Bacteria,” has as its aim explora-
tion of the characteristics of a newly-dis-
covered step in bacterial transformation.
The NSF-supported program is entitled,
““Membrane-associated Inheritance in Bac-
teria.”
By virtue of very-short-wavelength ultra-
violet light, extracted from the National
Bureau of Standards’ synchrotron, and by
so accelerating and controlling electrons in
a new spectrometer that they travel at
nearly identical speeds, two new tools are
available for studying excitation of atoms
and molecules in the intermediate energy
range. This lies between the lower range
involved in common chemical reactions and
the higher ones involved in nuclear and
X-ray phenomena. Lack of well-defined,
controllable energies in this middle range
has hampered past research on the proper-
ties of atoms and molecules in this context.
Twelve substances, including all the rare
gases, already have been examined by
these tools.
One more step, presumably forward, in
the gigantic task of putting the scientific
worker in touch with published informa-
tion, has been taken by the space scientists.
In this instance, some 500 volunteer sci-
entists have permitted their “interest pro-
file” to be coded into a computer program,
which can then be matched with the subject
matter codes of the NASA abstract journal.
When there is a sufficiently high correla-
tion between pattern of investigator interest
and abstracted item, the latter is auto-
matically noted and mailed directly to the
individual concerned. Provision is made
for prompt receipt, where needed, of the
full report in addition to the abstract.
Continuing and expanding interest in
oceanography was marked recently by the
completion of the newest vessel to bear the
name “Oceanographer,” a 3800 ton craft
built for the Coast and Geodetic Survey at
a cost in the neighborhood of $7,000,000.
It, and a twin ship to be called the “Dis-
coverer,” will be highly automated in the
sense that a control system permits remote
starting and stopping of machinery, pro-
gramming of fuel and ballast, and auto-
matic recording of operating data. Closed
circuit television will be provided through-
out the engine room, and there will be a
central well in the ship which permits
equipment, divers, and so on to be lowered
into the water. Bow viewing ports below
the water line and some 4100 feet of lab-
oratory space are added features.
204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Delegates to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Representing
the Local Affiliated Societies*
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Amentcane society, of Civil Empimeers: .o2.-......c/...-cceseocesceteveee-coeesesdocensessecnseagesecedecnoces THORNDIKE SAVILLE, JR.
Societyaion !xperimental Biology and Medicine ............cc....ceccc-cccecscsssessesessereneseessiitesssvssseess. FALCONER SMITH
PREC MMe ME SOU TC HVAT OT NCEA S 0 sxc i coscdce bee cy te sult eanc vagnsvestvedocnnbnnscbcostbvsossadbeatuvastescunewesezers Hucu L. Locan
International Association for Dental Research: .......022..........0cc0ccessccssseeceeatteceeseuceoeesenceedoeeet, GeEorcE DicKson
Amerncan Institute, o: Aeronautics. and’ Astromautics................0..0c0cccceccseceeeeceeeeecseees EUGENE EHRLICH
AME eAdieeLEOLGOeUCall SOCIETY Geico. ...csokeTenk.che-cee soece cs csvecousosdevesoceasctreanseesecaweseese- J. Murray MITcHELL, Jr.
Iitiseetieider Society OF WaShinStoOn ................c.ccccccccucecsecswsensvacdsesccenoesesesscaseosessunecs Or eee Rosert A. FULTON
PNOOMSINCA OS OCICLY Ol ANMMCTA CA 1 o .0) Becca aveae oi cesecceecocsnectedeepeRnasselsleesesosctassedaesebsovesuerss Matco.tm C. HENDERSON
PERCE TINM NTN Le AUT SOC LEN ee hoa ccetc ooo ooo soso te adc Ssfacd etc accovede vousbepeastvsrseseesuaessusseletanveseonavdncess GeorcE L. WEIL
HriSpiEMe mate MOG MMeECHNOLOSTSES, o..25.0..c..0.....:skcasessaesane csducdescssescvecsetecdaacdsecsoorseacavtzeneseeeeootpes RicHARD P. FARROW
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Pheciies CE NSTITTO AIL SOC NY.” nos Migenei ce cece eee ee en Kurt H. STERN
* Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective affliated societies.
Volume 54. MAY 1964. No. 5
CONTENTS
H. W. Coulter and G. V. Carroll: Selected Geologic Localities in the Wash-
IMP TOM ATCA, eco Lois ae ae. vc Velo ae nach ee ee fas
Capt. John “Smith: “The Sixt Voyage” 2..0....-4.4...58....4. re 160
Geological Society of Washington: Proceedings for 1963 «............) 162
Geological Society of Washington: Organization for 1964.0... 165
The Washington Academy of Sciences: Objectives and Aciivities ................... 166
Institute of Food Technologists Holds Annual Meeting Here ............000..000... 167
R. E. Wilson: ‘Stellar Photometry in Washington ..................... 170
RoR. Stevens: K-9 Botany 00.0.2 Gee oe ee 8 eee 176
R. H. Frederick: The Climate of Washington ........0...00.0.4.<. 2 183
J. Namias: Problems of Long-range Weather Forecasting ....................000004 19}
Academy Proceedings
May. Meeting of the: Academy *...2.00 0.0... ee ee 196
ES 6 DAB rile RAE nee en. Speer ne Peek nut nines AR et er LOZ
Elections to Fellowship ......c....02000.0.. 05) fe 198
Elections to Membership ........... wig suhi yeu sdpeeie aes ee be}e) j
Washington Junior Academy of Sciences ........... inn a 199
| Li TTR: > aR ae eee hn Oe Ae MM MELE MINA MR SM cas. Pees... 199
Report of Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent .................... a 200 |
Science in Washington
@alendar of Events. .....0.:.45. 5 2 ee ee 201
Scientists) im the News .......-... 4h... d.. ee, eee Pan 201
Science andy Development. ....¢0 2 )he:..¢.+.2002-.0 ie cee nee a 203
Washington Academy of Sciences’ 2nd Class Postage
1530—P St., N.W. Paid at
Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C.
Return Requested
LIGBKRAAY
US NATIONAL wuUSEUY
_ WASHINGTO
NPS D6 ., is
JOURNAL
of the
WASHINGTON
ACADEMY
of
SCIENCES
Directory Issue
Vol. 54 e No. 6
SEPTEMBER
. AS Sa
Ry nore acenion
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Editor: Samuet B. Detwiter, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Associate Editors
Rocer G. Bates, National Bureau of Standards HELEN L. REYNoLDs, Food and Drug Adminis-
Harotp T. Coox, Department of Agriculture tration
RicHarD P. Farrow, National Canners Asso- Russexn B. SrEvENS, George Washington Uni-
ciation
versity
J. Murray MitcHeti, Jr., Weather Bureau
Contributors
FRANK A. BIBERSTEIN, JR., Catholic University Jacop Mazur, National Bureau of Standards
CHARLES A. WHITTEN, Coast & Geodetic Survey
Marjorie HooKer, Geological Surve
2 2 vey ALLEN L. ALEXANDER, Naval Research Laboratory
REUBEN E. Woop, George Washington Univer-
sity Victor R. Boswett, USDA, Beltsville
JosepH B. Morris, Howard University Harry A. Fowetts, USDA, Washington
ILEEN E. Strwart, National Science Foundation
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes historical
articles, critical reviews, and scholarly scientific articles; notices of meetings and abstract proceed-
ings of meetings of the Academy and its affiliated societies; and regional news items, including
personal news, of interest to the entire membership. The Journal appears nine times a year, in
January to May and September to December. It is included in the dues of all active members and
fellows.
Subscription rate to non-members: $7.50 per year (U.S.) or $1.00 per copy; foreign post-
age extra. Subscription orders should be sent to the Washington Academy of Sciences, 1530 P St.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. Remittances should be made payable to “Washington Academy of Sciences.”
Back issues, volumes, and sets of the Journal (Volumes 1-52, 1911-1962) can be purchased
direct from Walter J. Johnson, Inc., 111 Fifth Avenue, New York 3, N. Y. This firm also handles
the sale of the Proceedings of the Academy (Volumes 1-13, 1898-1910), the Index (to Volumes
1-13 of the Proceedings and Volumes 1-40 of the Journal), and the Academy’s monograph, “The
Parasitic Cuckoos of Africa.”
Current issues of the Journal (past two calendar years) may still be obtained directly
from the Academy office at 1530 P Street, N.W., Washington 5, D.C.
Claims for missing numbers will not be allowed if received more than 60 days after date of
mailing plus time normally required for postal delivery and claim. No claims will be allowed
because of failure to notify the Academy of a change of address.
Changes of address should be sent promptly to the Academy Office, 1530 P St., N.W.,
Washington, D.C. Such notification should include both old and new addresses and postal zone
number, if any. :
Second class postage paid at Washington, D.C.
ACADEMY OFFICERS FOR 1964
President: Francois N. FRENKIEL, David Taylor Model Basin
President-Elect: Lio ScHUBERT, American University .
Secretary: Grorce W. Irvine, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Treasurer: Matcotm C. HENDERSON, Catholic University
Washington Academy of Sciences
1964 Directory
The Academy and Nine of Its Affiliated Societies
Foreword
The present, 39th issue of the Academy’s
directory is again this year issued as the
September issue of the Journal.
As was the case last year, we have at-
tempted to produce an up-to-date listing
of the membership at minimum cost to the
Academy. Between the classified listing
and the Washington area telephone books,
there should be little difficulty in getting
in touch with local members; hence we
have not given the addresses of members.
Also, the Academy office at 1530 P Street
N.W. (AD 4-5323) is in a position to
supply addresses for all members, whether
local or nonresident, upon request.
Again this year, members are classi-
fied by three listings—alphabetically, by
place of employment, and by membership
in local societies affiliated with the Acad-
emy. Thus, the directory attempts to an-
swer the basic questions that arise when
the name of a scientist is mentioned:
Where does he work? and What does he
do? The knowledge that John Jones works
in the Agricultural Research Service and
that he belongs to the Entomological So-
ciety is the key to whether we have any-
thing in common with him, and if so,
how to seek him out.
With a few exceptions, we have
not indicated places of employment for
nonresident members, since this would
lead to a very complex coding system;
and such codes would scarcely be a re-
liable guide for written contacts. Nor,
SEPTEMBER, 1964
generally, have we classified emeritus mem-
bers by place of employment, since most
of them, presumably, have retired from
gainful employment.
Assignment of codes for place of em-
ployment and membership in affliated so-
cieties is based upon results of a postcard
questionnaire sent to the Academy mem-
bership. Where the questionnaire was not
answered, the coding was made on the
basis of other available information. Cor-
rections should be called to the attention
of the Academy office.
Last year, as an innovation, we included
complete membership rosters for four of
the Academy’s 29 affiliated societies,
whether or not the persons were mem-
bers of the Academy. In return for their
cooperation, the four afhliates were pro-
vided with a supply of copies of the di-
rectory at a very nominal cost.
This year, the practice has been ex-
tended to nine of the Academy’s afhliates,
namely, the Philosophical Society of Wash-
ington, the Entomological Society of
Washington, the Botanical Society of
Washington, the Society of American For-
esters, the American Society for Micro-
biology, the International Association for
Dental Research, the American Meteoro-
logical Society, the Institute of Food Tech-
nologists, and the Electrochemical Society.
It remains to be determined whether cost
considerations will permit further expan-
sion of this practice in future years.
SMITHSONIAN
institution OCT 15 1964
205
’
Explanation of Listings
Academy Fellows and Members
The alphabetical listing purports to in-
clude all fellows and members on _ the
Academy rolls as of July 1, 1964, whether
resident or nonresident (i.e., living more
than 50 miles from the White House),
and whether active (dues-paying) or
emeritus (retired).
Employment.—The first column of code
symbols after the name is a semi-mnemonic
cross-reference to place of employment, as
shown in the first classified listing. In
the employment code, 1 refers to Gov-
ernment agencies (and 1A to Agriculture,
1C to Commerce, etc.; and ICNBS re-
fers to the National Bureau of Standards
in the Department of Commerce) ;
2 refers to educational institutions,
both higher (2H) and secondary (2S)
(2HUMD is the University of Maryland) ;
3A refers to associations and 3I to private
institutions; 4 refers to consultants, phy-
sicians, and other self-employed persons;
© refers to business concerns (SHARE is
the Harris Research Laboratories, for
example); 6 refers to foreign and inter-
national groups (embassies, UN organiza-
tions, etc.); 7 refers to retired persons;
and 8 and 9 refer to persons whose places
of employment, if any, are not known or
not coded.
Places of employment are given pri-
marily for resident active fellows and
members, with few exceptions.
A filiation.—The second column of code
symbols refers to the person’s membership
in one or more of the societies affiliated
with the academy, as given in the follow-
ing list, which includes also the year of
the societies’ affiliation with the Academy:
Code
2B Philosophical Society of Washington (1898)
2C. Anthropological Society of Washington
(1898)
2D Biological Society of Washington (1898)
2E Chemical Society of Washington (1898)
2F Entomological Society of Washington
(1898)
2G National Geographic Society (1898)
2H Geological Society of Washington (1898)
21 Medical Society of the District of Colum-
bia (1898)
2J Columbia Historical Society (1899)
2K Botanical Society of Washington (1902)
2L Society of American Foresters, Washington
Section (1904)
2M Washineton Society of Engineers (1907)
2N Institute of Electrical and Electronics En-
gineers, Washington Section (1912)?
20 American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers, Washington Section (1923)
2P Helminthological Society of Washington
(1923)
2Q. American Society for Microbiology, Wash-
ington Branch (1923)
2R_ Society of American Military Engineers,
Washington Post (1927)
2S American Society of Civil Engineers, Na-
tional Capital Section (1942)
2T Society for Experimental Biology and Medi-
cine, D. C. Section (1952)
2U American Society for Metals, Washington
Chapter (1953)
2V_ International Association for Dental Re-
search, Washington Section (1953)
2W American Institute of Aeronautics and As-
tronautics, Washington Section (1953) ?
2X American Meteorological Society, D. C.
Branch (1954)
2Y Insecticide Society of Washington (1959)
2Z Acoustical Society of America, Washington
Chapter (1959)
3B American Nuclear Society, Washington Sec-
tion (1960)
3C_ Institute of Food Technologists, Washing-
ton Section (1961)
3D American Ceramic Society, Baltimore-Wash-
ington Section (1962)
3E Electrochemical Society, Washington-Balti-
more Section (1963)
Academy Status.—The third column of
symbols refers to membership status in
the Academy. AF refers to a fellow of the
1In 1963 the American Institute of Electrical
Engineers (affliated 1912) was merged with the
Institute of Radio Engineers (affiliated 1933) to
become the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers. IEEE has been assigned the same
seniority as the elder of the two merged societies.
* In 1963 the Institute of the Aerospace Sciences
(affiliated 1953) absorbed the American Rocket
Society and assumed the new name, American
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Academy, and AM to an Academy mem-
ber. RA refers to a resident active fellow or
member; NA refers to a nonresident active
fellow or member (living more than 50
miles from the White House); and RE
and NE refer respectively to resident and
nonresident emeritus fellows.
Nonmembers of the Academy
In the case of nine Academy affiliates
fenees 2h, 2F, 2K, 2L, 20, ZV, 2X, 3C,
and 3E), all members of the afhliates are
listed in the directory, whether or not they
belong to the Academy. Such persons are
coded in the first code column by place of
employment, where known. They are of
course coded by affiliation, in the second
code column. Non-Academy members are
not coded, in the third code column, by
membership status, since practices vary in
the different affiliates. However, generally
speaking, affiliate listings are restricted to
persons in the Washington area; and per-
sons known to be retired are designated
as “TRETD’ ;
Number of Listings
The directory lists the names of about
3,020 individuals. Of these, about 1,200
are members or fellows of the Academy.
The remainder are members of one or
more of the nine affiliates mentioned above
but not members of the Academy.
Organization, Objectives, and Activities
The Washington Academy of Sciences
had its origin in the Philosophical Society
of Washington. The latter, organized in
1871, was for a few years the only scien-
tific society of Washington. As other more
specialized local scientific societies were
formed, need was felt for federation of
all such societies under an academy of
sciences. Therefore 14 local scientific
leaders moved to establish the Washing-
ton Academy of Sciences, which was in-
corporated on February 18, 1898. In that
year the first eight societies listed above
became affiliated with the Academy. The
Philosophical Society heads the list because
of its key position in the establishment of
the Academy; the other seven are listed
in alphabetical order, and the remaining
21 in chronological order of affiliation.
Some of these 29 societies are local, with-
out other affiliation; most are local sections
or branches of national societies; one, the
National Geographic Society, became a
popular national society, whose present
affiliation with the Academy is only of
historical significance.
It should be noted that the Academy has
had a total of 30 affiliations, but that two
SEPTEMBER, 1964
societies—the electrical engineers and the
radio engineers—were recently merged as
mentioned above.
The primary purpose of the Academy is
the promotion of science in various ways
through cooperation among natural scien-
tists and engineers of the Washington
metropolitan area. Except during the sum-
mer, the Academy holds monthly meetings,
stressing subjects of general scientific in-
terest. It publishes a monthly journal,
which is intended to facilitate and report
the organized scientific activity of the
Washington area. It may sponsor confer-
ences or symposia and publish their pro-
ceedings, or it may publish suitable scien-
tific monographs. In many ways, the
Academy encourages excellence in scien-
tific research and e.g., by
sponsoring the Washington Junior Acad-
emy of Sciences; by sponsoring through
the Joint Board on Science Education,
experiments in and services to secondary
scientific education in the public and
private schools of the area; by making
annual awards to promising high school
students and to a few outstanding young
professional scientists for their achieve-
education,
207
ments in research or teaching; and by
making small grants-in-aid for support
of research. The Academy also may aid
public understanding of important scien-
tific developments through sponsored con-
ferences and teacher training. It may make
recommendations on public policy involving
scientific matters.
The Academy acts as the federal head of
its affliated societies, each of which is
represented on the Board of Managers by
a delegate appointed by his society. Annual
elections are by mail ballot.
The membership consists of three gen-
eral classes: members, fellows, and _pat-
rons. At present the membership is com-
posed principally of resident active fellows
who by reason of scientific attainment are
deemed eligible. Nominations for fellow-
ship, endorsed by at least two fellows of
the Academy, and changes in the status
of members, are acted upon by the Board
of Managers upon recommendation of the
Committee on Membership. The new cate-
gory, “member,” is open, upon application,
to any interested person who is approved
by the Committee on Membership.
Further information on membership in
the Academy is given in a statement else-
where in this issue.
As of July 1, 1964, the total membership
of the Academy was approximately 1200.
Organization for 1964
David Taylor Model Basin
American University
Department of Agriculture
Catholic University of America
Managers-at-Large
Department of Agriculture
George Washington University
George Washington University
National Bureau of Standards
Naval Research Laboratory
Officers
President Francois N. FRENKIEL
President-Elect Leo SCHUBERT
Secretary GeorceE W. Irvine, JR.
Treasurer MaAtcotm C. HENDERSON
1962-64 Haro_p H. SHEPARD
1962-64 RussELt B. STEVENS
1963-65 Mary LoutsEe Rossins
1963-65 JoHN K. TAYLOR
1964-66 ALLEN L. ALEXANDER
1964-66 Francis W. REICHELDERFER
Weather Bureau (retired)
Standing Committees
Executive Committee
Leo SCHUBERT
GeorceE W. Irvine, Jr.
Matcoitm C. HENDERSON
ALLEN L. ALEXANDER
FrAnNcis W. REICHELDERFER
Committee on
~ Membership WiituiAM G, ALLEN
BERNICE E. Eppy
HaAroxp E. FINLEY
RosBertT B. Hosss
SoLoMON KULLBACK
Raymonp L. NAcE
208 JoURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Francois N. FRENKIEL, Chairman
RicHARD K. Cook, Chairman
David Taylor Model Basin
American University
Department of Agriculture
Catholic University of America
Naval Research Laboratory
Weather Bureau (retired)
National Bureau of Standards
Maritime Administration
National Institutes of Health
‘Howard University
National Bureau of Standards
George Washington University
Geological Survey
(1) Agricultural
Sciences
(2) Chemistry
(3) Earth Sciences
(4) General Biology
(5) Mathematical
Sciences
(6) Medicai Sciences
(7) Physics and
Astronomy
(8) Engineering
Committee on Policy
Planning
Committee on Ways
and Means
Committee on
Meetings
Committee on
Awards for
Scientific
Achievement
Biological Sciences
Engineering Sciences
Physical Sciences
SEPTEMBER, 1964.
WiLuiAM E. BICKLEY
(acting)
Rosert B. Hosss
RAYMOND L. NACE
HarobLp E. FINLEY
SOLOMON KULLBACK
BERNICE E. Eppy
RIcHARD K. Cook
(acting)
WILuiAM G. ALLEN
B. D. Van Evera, Chairman
Maurice APSTEIN
DEAN CowWIE
RAYMOND J. SEEGER
Mary WARGA
Bourbon F. Scripner, Chairman
ALFRED E.. BROWN
Paut D. Foote
Martin A. MAson
Pau H. OEHSER
JACINTO STEINHARDT, Chairman
JOHN S. CoLEMAN
ERNEST P. GRAY
Pau H. OEHSER
Mary L. Rossins
EDWIN ROEDDER
Davip ROSENBLATT
SHIRLEIGH SILVERMAN
ARNOLD M. SOOKNE
Epwarp A. Mason, Chairman
Chairmen of Membership Committee Panels
University of Maryland
National Bureau of Standards
Geological Survey
Howard University
George Washington University
National Institutes of Health
National Bureau of Standards
Maritime Administration
George Washington University
Harry Diamond Laboratory
Dept. of Terrestrial Magnetism
National Science Foundation
Optical Society of America
National Bureau of Standards
Harris Research Laboratories
NAS-NRC
George Washington University
Smithsonian Institution
Georgetown University
NAS-NRC
Applied Physics Laboratory
Smithsonian Institution
George Washington University
Geological Survey
National Bureau of Standards
National Bureau of Standards
Harris Research Laboratories
University of Maryland
Subcommittees of Awards Committee
E. T. BoLton, Chairman
Louis S. BARON
Ira B. HANSEN
Epwarp F. KNIPLING
MARSHALL W. NIRENBERG
Marion W. ParKER
Martin A. Mason, Chairman
FRANK A. BIBERSTEIN
JosEepH L. GILLMAN, JR.
Jacosp RABINOW
JAmeEs B. SMALL
EuceNnE W. WEBER
SAMUEL N. Foner, Chairman
Harry C. ALLEN, JR.
Louis R. MAXWELL
Joun McELuHINEYy
JEROME NAMIAS
MEYER RUBIN
Dept. of Terrestrial Magnetism
Walter Reed Medical Center
George Washington University
Department of Agriculture
National Institutes of Health
Department of Agriculture
George Washington University
Catholic University
Consultant
Rabinow Engineering
Coast & Geodetic Survey
Army Corps of Engineers
Applied Physics Laboratory
National Bureau of Standards
Naval Ordnance Laboratory
Naval Research Laboratory
Weather Bureau
Geological Survey
209
Mathematical
Sciences
Teaching of Science
Committee on
Grants-in-Aid
For Research
Committee on
Encouragement of
Science Talent
Committee on Public
Information
Committee on Sci-
ence Education*
Committee on
Bylaws and
Standing Rules
Committee on
Special Events
Committee on Mem-
bership Promotion
Harry PoracHeEK, Chairman
Franz L. ALT
ABOLGHASSEN GHAFFARI
Monroe H. Martin
Matcoim W. OLIPHANT
Horace M. TRENT
LEO SCHUBERT, Chairman
KEITH C. JOHNSON
PHOEBE H. KNIPLING
GeorcE M. Koru.
Davip LocKArRD
MariE C. TAYLOR
ARCHIBALD T. McPHERSON,
Chairman
Don R. BoyLe
Rapu I. Cote
ASHLEY B. GURNEY
CLIFFORD HEwITT
ELIZABETH D. PEAcocK
Rev. Francis J. HEypen, S.J.,
Chairman
Lioyp N. FErcusoNn
NATE HASELTINE
Howarp B. Owens
JoHN K. TAYLor
ALFRED WEISSLER
Watson Davis, Chairman
Francis E. CAREY
THOMAS R. HENRY
JouN K. Taytor, Chairman
Haro.p E. FINLEY
Epwarp HacsKAYLO
KEITH C. JOHNSON
Davip LocKarpD
MaAtcotm W. OLIPHANT
WILiiAM F. SAGER
LEO SCHUBERT
ZAKA I. SLAWSKY
David Taylor Model Basin
National Bureau of Standards
Goddard Space Research Center
University of Maryland
Georgetown University
Naval Research Laboratory
American University
D. C. Public Schools
Arlington County Schools
George Washington University
University of Maryland
Howard University
National Bureau of Standards
National Bureau of Standards
Melpar
Department of Agriculture
National Institutes of Health
Georgetown University
Howard University
Washington Post
Prince Georges County Schools
National Bureau of Standards
Air Force
Scicnce Service
Associated Press
National Bureau of Standards
Howard University
Department of Agriculture
D. C. Public Schools
University of Maryland
Georgetown University
George Washington University
American University
Naval Ordance Laboratory
Special Committees
LAWRENCE A. Woop,
Chairman
ALPHONSE F. ForziatI,
Chairman
J. Murray MITcHELL, Jr.,
Chairman
National Bureau of Standards
Department of Defense
Weather Bureau
* The Academy contingent of the Joint Board on Science Education, which is sponsored by the
Academy and the D. C. Council of Engineering and Architectural Societies. Messrs. Sager and
Hacskaylo are the vice-chairman and secretary, respectively, of the Joint Board.
210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Editor
Associate Editors
SAMUEL B. DETWILER, JR.
Rocer G. BATEs
Haro.p T. Cook
RicHARD P. FARROW
J. Murray MITCHELL, Jr.
HELEN L. REYNOLDS
RussELL B. STEVENS
The Journal
Department of Agriculture
National Bureau of Standards
Department of Agriculture
Delegates of Affiliated Societies
See inside rear cover.
1898
1899-
1910
191]
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
Lo vail
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
The Bylaws of the Academy, as last
amended in September 1963, appear in the
John R. Eastman
Charles D. Walcott
Frank W. Clarke
Frederick V. Coville
Otto H. Tittmann
David White
Robert S. Woodward
Leland O. Howard
William H. Holmes
Lyman J. Briggs
Frederick L. Ransome
Carl L. Alsberg
Alfred H. Brooks
William J. Humphreys
Thomas W. Vaughan
Arthur L. Day
Vernon Kellogg
George K. Burgess
Past Presidents
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
Alexander Wetmore
Robert B. Sosman
Ales Hrdlicka
William Bowie
Nathan Cobb
Leason H. Adams
Robert F. Griggs
Louis B. Tuckerman
George W. McCoy
Oscar E. Meinzer
Charles Thom
Paul E. Howe
Charles E. Chambliss
Eugene C. Crittenden
Austin H. Clark
Harvey L. Curtis
Leland W. Parr
Clement L. Garner
John E. Graf
Bylaws
near future.
November 1963 issue of the Journal, pages
SEPTEMBER, 1964
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
208-212. They will
National Canners Association
Weather Bureau
Food & Drug Administration
George Washington University
Hugh L. Dryden
Waldo L. Schmitt
Frederick D. Rossini
F. H. H. Roberts, Jr.
Francis B. Silsbee
Nathan R. Smith
Walter Ramberg
Frank M. Setzler
Francis M. Defandorf
Margaret Pittman
Ralph E. Gibson
William M. Rubey
Archibald T. McPherson
Frank L. Campbell
Lawrence A. Wood
Philip H. Abelson
Benjamin D. Van Evera
Benjamin D. Van Evera
be reprinted in the
211
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Objectives
The objectives of the Washington Academy of Sciences are (a) to stimulate interest
in the sciences, both pure and applied, and (b) to promote their advancement and the
development of their philosophical aspects by the Academy membership and through
cooperative action by the afhliated societies.
Activities
The Academy pursues its objectives through such activities as (a) publication of
a periodical and of occasional scientific monographs; (b) holding of public lectures
on scientific subjects; (c) sponsorship of a Washington Junior Academy of Sciences;
(d) promotion of science education and a professional interest in science among
people of high school and college age; (e) accepting or making grants of funds to
aid special research projects; (f{) sponsorship of scientific symposia and conferences;
(g) assistance in scientific expeditions; (h) cooperation with other academies and
scientific organizations; and (i) award of prizes and citations for special merit in
science.
Membership
The membership consists of two major classes—members and fellows.
Members are persons who are interested in science and are willing to support
the Academy’s objectives as described above. A letter or form initiated by the appli-
cant and requesting membership may suffice for action by the Academy’s Committee
on Membership; approval by the Committee constitutes election to membership.
Dues for members are $7.50 a year.
Fellows are persons who have performed original research or have made other
outstanding contributions to the sciences, mathematics, or engineering. Candidates
for fellowship must be nominated by at least two fellows, recommended by the Com-
mittee on Membership, and elected by the Board of Managers.
Dues are $10.00 a year for resident fellows (living within 50 miles of the White
House) and $7.50 a year for nonresident fellows.
Persons who join the Academy as members may later be considered for fellowship.
Application forms for membership may be obtained from the office of the
Washington Academy of Sciences, 1530 P St., N.W., Washington, D. C.
CAI >)
212
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
EMMONS» CHESTER wW
EMSWELLER»e SAMUEL L
ENDICOTT+ KENNETH M
ENGEL» LOUISE S
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BENJAMIN L
CHESTER H
ROBERT M
SHIH-I
SEPTEMBER, 1964
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RICHMOND+s JOSEPH C 1CNBS 2B2G2M2wW3D AFRA ROTTY»s ROLAND 1AFOR 2L
RICHMOND» SUSAN V 7RETD 28 ROVELSTADs GORDON H 1DNMC 2v
RICHTERs DONALD A 1CWEB 2x ROWEs MARVIN H IDNOL 2B
RICKER» DANIEL L 1AOIG 2L ROWEs WALLACE P LHNIH AFRA
RICKERs PERCY L TRETD 2G2K AFRE ROZEBOOMs LE 2HJHU 2F
RIDDLEs JOHN L 1CNBS 2B RUARK»s ARTHUR E 1XAEC 2B
RIDDLE» OSCAR 8NRNC AFNE RUBEY+ WILLIAM w 8NRNC 2H AFNA
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RIOCHs DAVID M 1DAWR 2G2I AFRA RUBIN» MORTON J 1CWEB 2x AFRA
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RISHELL+ CARL A 4CONS 2L RUBINs VERA C 2HGEU 28 AFRA
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ROBERTSON» A F 1CNBS 2G AFRA RYMERs FRANK P JR 1D-xX 2x
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ROMNEYs CARL F 1DFX 2H AFRA SANSONETTI+ S JOHN BNRNC 3E
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231
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SCANLON+«+ JOHN P
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SIEKERe JOHN H
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SIMMONSe« LANSING G
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SIMONTONs LOIS A
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SINGERs+ IRA
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SKILES« FRANK L
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SLADEK+s JAROMIL V
SLAWSKY« MILTON M
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SMARTs J SAMUEL
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SMATHERSs EARL E
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SMITHs ALBERT C
SMITHs ALVIN L JR
SMITHs AUGUSTINE Vv P
SMITHs C EARLE JR
SMITHs CHARLES M
SMITHs CHAUNCEY W
SMITHe DONALD w
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233
STEFANSSONe VILHJALMUR 8NRNC AFNE SUTCLIFFEs WALTER D 7TRETD 2B2G2M2R AFRE
STEGUNe IRENE A 1CNBS AFRA SUYDAM. BERGEN R SCLUN 2B ‘
STEIGERe RONALD L 9CLUN 2B SVENSON+ H K 1IGES 2K
STEINe ROBERT P 1DNOD 2x SVIRBELYs WILLIAM J 2HUMD 2B
STEIN» WALTER L 1CWEB 2x SWALLEN+ JR 1XSMI 2K
STEINBERG» RA FJRETD 2k SWANNERe WILLIAM C 1D-X 2x
STEINBERGER+ RAYMOND L 10NRL 28 SWANSON+ DWIGHT WwW 1ASCS 2x
STEINER+ HAROLD A 1DFWS 2x SWANSON+s HENRY A 4DENT 2vV
STEINER+ ROBERT F 1ONMR 2B2E AFRA SWANSON+ NILS 1CNBS 2B
STEINER» WILLIAM F 3I1IDT™ 2B SWARTHOUTs PAUL A 1AFOR 2L
STEINHARDT+ JACINTO 2HGEU 2E AFRA SWAYNE+ WILLIAM W 1CWEB 2x
STEINHAVER+ ALLEN L 2HUMD 2F SWEENEYs« JAMES P 1ARNI 3C
STEPHANe ROBERT M 1HNIH eV AFRA SWEENEYe WILLIAM T 1CNBS 2E2U2V AFRA
STEPHENS+ ROBERT E 1CNBS 2B AFRA SWEFT+ JAMES S 1CWEB 2x
STEPHENSONe« JOHN L 1HNIH 2B SWEM+ THEODOR R LINPS 2L
STERNs ARTHUR M S9CLUN 2Q SWICKs CLARENCE H 7RETD 2B AFRE
STERN+ JOSHUA 1CNBS 2B SWIFT+s CLIFTON E 1ARNI 3C
STERN« KURT H 1CNBS 2E3E AFRA SWIFT*+ LLOYD Ww 7RETD 2b ;
STERNe WILLIAM L 1XSMI 2K SWINDELLS+ JAMES F 1CNBS 2B AFRA
STERNBERGs RICHARD W BAABC 3C SWINGLE+« CHARLES F 7RETD AFNA
STERNE+ THEODORE E 9CLUN 2B
STETSON+ ROBERT F S9CLUN 2B
STETTEN+ DEWITT JR 1HNIH 28 TABER»s ROBERT Ww 1DNOD 2x
STEVENS+ DONALD K 1XAEC 2B TALBERT+ PRESTON T 2HHOU 2E AFRA
STEVENS+ HENRY LARNI 2E2G2T AFRA TALBOT+ W WADE 1HFDA 2Q
STEVENS+s ROLLIN E 8NRNC AFNA TALBOTT+s F LEO 2HCUA 2B2G AFRA
STEVENS» RUSSELL B 2HGWU 2K AFRA TALCOTT+ MARION G 1CWEB 2x
STEVENSON» FREDERICK J 4CONS 2G AFRA TALIAFERROs WH 1XAEC AFNA =
STEVENSON+s JOHN A 7RETD 262K AFRE TALLEY+ J WALLACE 9CLUN 2B
STEWARTs DEWEY 1ARFR 2G2K AFRA TAPAGER+ JAMES R D 1IDNOC 2x
STEWARTs ILEEN & 1XNSF AFRA TAPKEs VICTOR F 7RETD 2K
STEWARTs ROBERT N 1ARFR 2K TARRANTs CARL J 1DAWR 2Q
STEWART+s SARAH E 1HNIH 2k AFRA TASAKIs ICHIJI 1HNIH AFRA
STEWART. Tt DALE IXSMI 2C AFRA TATEs DOUGLAS R 1CNBS 2B2G AFRA
STEYSKAL*+ GEORGE C 1ARFR 2F TATUMe GR 5VILA 2B
STIEBELINGs HAZEL K 7JRETD 2E AFRA TAUBENSEEs ROBERT E 1CWEB 2x
STIEHLERs ROBERT D 1CNBS 2B2E2G620 AFRA TAUSSKYs OLGA 8NRNC AFNA
STIEWIGs NATHAN W 1CWES 2x TAYLOR+s ALBERT L 1ARFR 2K AFNA
STILL + JOSEPH w 4PHYS 28 AFNA TAYLOR+ GLENN R 1XMDG 2Q
STILLERs BERTRAM 1DNRL 2B2G AFRA TAYLORs JAMES H 2HGWU AFRE
STIMSON+ HAROLD F 7RETD 2B2G AFRE TAYLOR+ JOHN K 1CNBS 2B82E2G3E AFRA
STINSONe+e AUBREY 1HFDA 2Q TAYLORs LAURISTON S 1CNBS AFRA
STIREWALTs EDWARD N SANSE 2B TAYLOR» MARIE C 2HHOU 2K AMRA
STIRLINGe MATHEW Ww 7RETD 2C2G AFRA TAYLOR» MODDIE D 2HHOU 2E AFRA
STITTe MERIE E PINES 2s TAYLOR+ RAYMOND L 3AAAS AFRA
STOBER+s ALFRED K 1XNAS 2B TAYLOR+s ROBERT L 1DAWR 2Q
STODDARD+s CHARLES H LIBLM 2L TAYLOR» ROSERT T 1ONX 2F
STOFFER+ DWIGHT R 1CWEB 2x TAYLOR+ W BRUCE 9CLUN 2B "
STOKES « Ley 1ARFR 2K TAYLORs WILLIAM 1DFWS 2x
STOMMEL e HERMAN G 1CWEB 2x TCHEN+ CHAN=MOU 1CNBS 2B AFRA
STONE*« ALAN 1ARFR 2F TEELEs RAY P 1CNBS 2B2G AFRA
STONEs ALBERT M 31APL 2B TELFORDs IRA R 2HGWU 2T AFRA
STONE+ JOSEPH C 3HDCG 2Q TEMPLE+ C E 7RETD 2K
STONE + LEON 1DFX 2x TEMPLETONs+ DAVID F SCLUN 2B
StOUT.s NETL J 1IBOR 2L TEMPLINe HERMAN A 1DNOL 2B
STOWELL+s DAVID J 1CWEB 2x TENNANT+s+ RAYMOND wW S5MIAS 2Q .
STRALKA+s RAYMOND J 1CWEB 2L2x TENNYSON»s GEORGE P JR 1XNAS 2X
STRAND: KAJ A 1DNOB 2B TEPPER+ MORRIS 1XNAS 2W2X AFRA
STRASBERG+ MURRAY 1DNDT 22 AFRA TERRELLs EDWARD E 1ARFR 2K
STRAUBs HARALD w 1ECGS AFRA TERWILLIGER+e RICHARD G 1DARO 2x
STRAUSS« SIMON wW 1DNRL 2B TEWELES+ SIDNEY 1CWEB 2x AFRA
STREEVER+ RALPH L JR 1CNBS AFRA THALER+ WILLIAM J 2HGEU AFRA
STRICKLER+e ROBERT F 1CWEB 2x THAYERe THOMAS P 1IGES: 2h AFRA |
STRINGFIELD+ VICTOR T 1IGES 2G2H2L AFRA THEODORIDES+« PHRIXOS J 7RETD 2B 4
STUART+ NEIL W 1ARFR 2K AFRA THIEL+ GORDON D 1CWEB 2x |
SUCHARDs.s MINNIE R AHGEU 2e THOMs HERBERT C S 1CWEB 2x AFRA :
SUDDETHs JIMMIE A 1CNBS 2B THOMAS+ ARTHUR R 1DFWS 2x
SUITOR» EARL C UR 1DNMR 2Q THOMAS+s BILLY D 1CWEB 2x
SULLIVAN+ DANIEL A JR 2HUMD AMRA THOMAS+s CHARLES A 1ARFR 2K AMRA
SULLIVANs WILLIAM N JR 1ARFR 2F THOMAS+ H REX 1ARFR 2K
SULZBACHERs WILLIAM L_ 1ARNI 2Q3C THOMAS+ HARRY F 1CWEB 2x
SUMMERS+ DONALD 1HPHS 3C THOMAS+ JAMES L 4CONS AFRA
SUMNER* HOWARD C 1CWEB 2x THOMAS+ L KAY JR 1INPS 2K
SUMP+ ALBERT W 1AFOR 2L THOMAS+ LEON R 1AFOR 2
SUNDERLAND+ LAWRENCE B 1XUST 2L THOMAS+ PAUL D 1DNOC AFRA
SUPPLEE+ MARGARET v 1CWEB 2x THOMAS» R F 1DNWS 2x
SURGEN+ RAYMOND C SCLUN 2Q THOMPSON+s BERTRAND J 1DNOC 2x
234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
THOMPSON «
THOMPSON ¢
THOMPSON ¢
THOMPSON
THOMPSON «
THOMPSON ¢
THOMPSON »
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THOMPSON 6
THOMSONs+ JAMES E
THORNTONs PHILIP L
THURMANe ERNESTINE B
TICKLES+s JOSEPH JR
TIDMANe DEREK A
TIDSALL« CHARLES S
TIEDEMANes JOHN A
TIERNANe« EDWARD Vv
TILDEN» EVELYN B
TILFORD+ SHELBY G
TILLSON+ ALBERT H
MIEeYERs E D
TIMCHALKs ANDREW
TIMMSs MARY L
TINER+ JACK D
TINGLE+« ADRIAN A
TIPSONe R STUART
TITTSLER+s RALPH P
TITUS+ HARRY M
TOBIAS+ JEROME
TOBINs RALPH A
TOBINs WILLIAM T
TODD» EDWARD L
TODD» FRANK E
TODD+ MARGARET R
TOEPFER+ EDWARD w
TOLDBY+ VERNER
TOLL» JOHN S
TOKEEs CHESTER -D
TOMKINS* GORDON
TOMLINSON+ HARRY R
TOMSs M ELAINE
TOOL+ ARTHUR Q
TOOLE+ EBEN H
TOOLEs VIVIAN K
TORGESENe JOHN L
TORRESON+ OSCAR WwW
TOULMINs PRIESTLEY
TOUSEYs RICHARD
TOWNSEND+s JAMES G
TOWNSENDs JOHN R
TRAGERe GEORGE L
TRAPPs ORLIN D
TRAUBs R G
TRAUBs+ ROBERT
TRAVISs CLARENCE w
TREADWELL + CARLETON R
TREBBE+ WILLIAM J
TRENT» EVA M
TRENT + HORACE M
TRESSIERs WILLIS L
TREXLER» JAMES H
TROGOLO*s ALBERT G
TROMBAs FRANCIS G
TROUNSON+ EDWARD P
TRUEBLOODs+ CHARLES K
TRUEBLOOD+ EMILY
TRUESDELL + DONOVAN F
TRUESDELL+ PAGE E
TRYONe MAX
TRYTTENe M H
TSAI« DONALD H
TULANEe VICTOR J
TULLY+ JOSEPH G
TUNELL « GEORGE
TURNER+ DAVID M JR
TURNERe JAMES E
DONALD R
EDWIN S
HAROLD P
HERBERT J
JACK C
JOHN I
JOHN V
PHILIP D
RANDALL L
RICHARD L
ROSCOE E
SEPTEMBER, 1964
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235
WALDO. GEORGE v 1XFCC 2B WEIR. CHARLES E 1CNBS AFRA
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236 JoURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
WILSON+ CLYDE R
WILSONs HM
WILSONs KATHERINE
WILSONe RAYMOND E
WILSONs ROBERT E
WILSON» WALTER T
WILSON» WILLIAM E JR
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wOODe CHARLES P
wOOD.+ ERNEST A
wOOD+ GARNETT
wOOD+ GWENDOLYN 8
wOODs JESSIE 1
WOOD+ LAWRENCE A
wOODs LLOYD A
wOODs+ REUBEN E
wOOD+ ROBERT C
wOOD. w B
woODe WILLIAM E
wOOD+ WILLIAM H
WOODBURY» C G
wOODS+ G FORREST
WOODS+ GILBERT N
wOODSe MARK w
WOODSTOCKs+s LOWELL W
WOOLF + HAROLD M
WOOLHISERs JE
WOOLLEY+s JOHN P
WOOLLUMs CLARENCE A
WORF « DOUGLAS L
WORKMANe WILLIAM G
WRAGG+ JUNE B
WRENCH+ JOHN W JR
WRIGHTs G R
WRIGHT+ GERAIL G
WRIGHT» ROBERT
WRIGHTs WILLIAM E
WULFe OLIVER B
WURDACK+s JOHN J
WYATT» SAMUEL V
WYCKOFF+ HAROLD O
WYETTs ROY E
WYMANs LEROY L
YAGODA+s HERMAN
SEPTEMBER. 1964
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237
Classification by Place of Employment
1 GOVERNMENT GROVER» FREDERICK w 2u
HACSKAYLO»s EDWARD 2G62K2L AFRA
1A AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT HAHN+s OSCAR M 2
HAIR»s DWIGHT 2L
1AASC AGRICULTURAL STAB & CONS SER HAMRE’s VERNON O aL
SHEPARDs HAROLD H OF 2Y AFRA HANSBROUGH»s JOHN R 2L
HANSBROUGHs RAYMOND 2k
1ACSR COOP STATE RESEARCH SERVICE HARDYe+ MALCOLM £E 2L
BOYDe EARL N Bic HARPER+ VERNE L 2L
BYERLY+ THECDORE C eT AFRA HARRIS+* RICHARD L ay
FULKERSONe JOHN F 2k HARTWICKs ROBERT A 2L
GARNER+ RICHARD G 3C HAYES» DORIS wW 2K2L
HEERMANe RUBEN M 2k HELLER» ROBERT C 2
JORANSONs PHILIP N 2 HENDEEs CLARE wW eu
KENNARDs WILLIAM C 2K HERRICKs DAVID E 2L
LEFEBVREs CAMILLE L 2k HOLTBYs BERT E 2L
MC GOVRAN»s EDWARD R 2F HOPKINSs WALTER S 2L
JEMISONs GEORGE M alle
1AERS ECONOMIC. RESEARCH SERVICE JOHANNESENs MARK M 2
DONOVANs WILLIAM J et JONESse WILLIAM v 2a
JOSEPHSONs HR 2L
1AFAS FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL SERVICE KEE. DAVID N eu
HOPP.» HENRY ale AFNA KERNe® JACK C 2L
KIHLMIREs PAUL M 2u
1AFCA FARMER COOPERATIVE SERVICE KINGs DAVID B 2
CARDWELL» CARROLL K 2uL LARSONs ROBERT w 2L
LEDFORD. ROY H 2L
1AFES FEDERAL EXTENSION SERVICE LIMINGs FRANKLIN G 2u
SOWDER+ ARTHUR M 2uL LITTLEs ELBERT L JR 2K2L AFRA
LOGAN» ALLEN J 2u
1AFOR FOREST SERVICE LOTTI»s THOMAS 2u
ALDRICH+ ROBERT C 2L LOVERIDGE.s MELVIN E 2L
ARNOLDe DALE L 2L LOWDENs+ MERLE S 2L
ARNOLD+>s R KEITH 2L LYMAN+ CHALMER K 2u
ARNST» ALBERT 2L LYNCHse DONALD w 2L
BARROWSs JACK S 2L MAKSYMIUK»s BOHDAN eFe2L
BEALs JAMES A e2Fe2L MAYS« L K 2L
BEATTIEs BYRON B 2 MC CULLEY+ ROBERT D 2L
* BENEDICT+ WARREN V 2L MC KAYs HAZEL H 2K
BERGOFFENe GENE S 2L MC KENNANe RUSSELL B 2L
BERGOFFENs WILLIAM wW 2L MC NAUGHTONe FINLEY HH 2L
BERNDT+ HERBERT W 2L MC ROREY+ RUSSELL P 2
BONGBERGs JACK w 2F2L METCALF se WALTER B 2u
BROWNs ARTHUR A 2L MILLER» ALLEN F 2u
BRUCE + MASON B 2u MOORE+ WILLIAM R 2u
BRYANe MILTON M 2L MOREYs HAROLD F 2L
BUCKs CHARLES C 2L MORRISS+s D J 2L ;
BURGTORF+s CARL 2u MULLENes ALLEN H 2uL
BURKS+ GEORGE F au MURPHYs WARREN T 2L
BYRNE» JAMES J aL NEEBEs DAVID J 2L
CARRELLs VIRGIL R aL NELSONs M M 2L
DILLER» JD 2k NELSON» THOMAS C 2L
DORTIGNAC» EDWARD J 2L NEWMAN» WALKER P 2L
DOVERSPIKE»s GEORGE E aL O NEALs NOLAN C_ 2
DRAVES+ ERNEST E 2L j OLINs DANIEL D aL
ELLIOTTs JOSEPH E JR 2 OLSEN» CARL F 2L
EVERARD>+ WILLIAM P 2L OLSONese ROY w aL
FARRELL s+ JOHN H 2L OSTROMs CARL E 2K2L
FEDKIWs JOHN 2L PALMER+ JOHN G 2K
FISHERe HAROLD E 2u PARISe« CHARLES D 2a
FOWELLS« HARRY A 2Kk2L AFRA PARKE+ WILLIAM N 2L
FOXse GORDON D 2 PARKER» KENNETH W 2K2L AFRA
FURNIVAL» GEORGE M 2u PAYNE>s BURNETT H 2u
GAMMONe ALVIN D e2L PHELPS+ ROBERT B a4 a
GIFFENs W D e2L PIEROVICHe JOHN M at
GILLe THOMAS G aL POTTER»s ROBERT v 2c
GORRELL» JOSEPH w 2L PRATER» LELAND J ra
GREELEYs ARTHUR W 2L PYLES»* HAMILTON K at
GREENe+ ALAN w 2u RASMUSSEN+ BOYD ale
GRESTs EDWARD G 2L REIDe WILLIAM H rae
238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
REINHARDT+ ROBERT E 2 ANDERSON*s DONALD M vd
RINDT+ CHARLES A Ae ANDERSON» WILLIAM H 2F
RITTER» EDWARD jade ANDREWS» JOHN S 2P AFRA
ROBERTSON» FINIS D 2u APP» BERNARD A 2F
ROLLER» JANE WwW 2k ATKINSONs PETER T 2K
ROTTY+s ROLAND Al BARCLAYs ARTHUR S 2k
RUMMELL + ROBERT S 2L BENJAMINes CHESTER R 202G2K AFRA
SALZMAN»s FRANKLIN aL BLICKENSTAFFs CARL C 2F
SANDOR+ JOHN A Ze ‘ BODENSTEINs WILLIAM G 2F
SCHOPMEYER»s CLIFFORD S @2L BORTHWICKs HARRY A 2D2G2K AFRA
SCHULTZ+ EDWARD WwW 2L BOSWELL»+ VICTOR R AFRA
SHIELDS» CHESTER A 2u BUCKs RAYMOND wW 2k
SHIELDS+ JOHN F 2L BULLOCK+ HOWARD R 2F
SMART+ ROBERT A 2 BURGESS» EMORY D 2F
SMITHe DONALD wW 2L BURKS» BARNARD D 2F
SMITHs HOWARD B 2u BUSBEYs RUTH L 2F
SPADA», BENJAMIN ZA CANTWELL» GEORGE E 2F
SPILLERS» ARTHUR R 2u CARNS+ HARRY R 2K
ST GEORGEs RAYMOND A 2D2F2L AFRA CHRISTENSON» LEROY D 2F2G62Y AFRA
STAHL + WILLIAM J 2 COCHRANs LLOYD C 2k
STOREYs+ HERBERT C 2u COFFMANs FRANKLIN A 2k
SUMP. ALBERT WwW 2L COOPERs JAMES F QF
SWARTHOUT+ PAUL A 2L COULSONs JACK R 2F
THOMAS+ LEON R aL CROOKS+ DONALD M 2K
THORNTONs PHILIP L Alls CULBERTSON» JOSEPH O 2K
VASAITIS» ANTHONY J 2L CULLINANe® FRANK P 2K AFRA
VITASs GEORGE Ale DAHMS+s REYNOLD G 2F
VOZZOs JOHN A 2K ' DAVISs DAVID w 2k
WADEs EARL Vv 2u DERMEN» HAIG 2K AFRA
WEAVERs CLAYTON N aL DIENER» THEODOR O 2K
WEBER+« FREDERICK P aL DOWDENe PHILIP B OF
WESSEIA+s CONRAD P 2L DOWNS» ROBERT J 2K
WHITESIDE+ JOHN M 2L DRECHSLER» CHARLES 262K ; AFRA
WIENER» ALFRED A 2L DUKEs JAMES A 2k
WILLIAMS*s ELLIS T 2L DUTKY+s SAMSON R 2F
WILLIAMS» w kK 2u DUTKY+ SAMSON R 2Q
WINTERS» ROBERT K éL EGOLF*s DONALD R 2K AFRA
YUILL« JOSEPH S 2F2G2L2Y AFRA EMSWELLER» SAMUEL L 2K AFRA
ZYLINSKI» JOSEPH elt ENNISs WILLIAM B JR AFRA
FALES»+ JOHN H 2F
1AM AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE FARR» MARIE L 2k
FARR+ MARION M 2P AFRA
1AMRP MARKETING REGULATORY PROGRAMS FLUNOe« JOHN A 2F
ANDERSENs ALICE M 2K FOGIEs+ HAROLD w 2K
-BARTLETTs RICHARD P JR 3C FOOTEs+ RICHARD H OF
CAREY» RICHARD T BE FOSTER» AUREL O 2P AFRA
COLBRYs VERA L 2k FRAPS»+ RICHARD M 2B2T AFRA
HARRIS*« MARSHALL £& 3¢ FROESCHNER»+ RICHARD CC 2F
HUNTs W HAWARD 2G AMRA FULTON» ROBERT A 2E2Y AFRA
KULIKs MARTIN M 2K GOTHse ROBERT W 2K
LAUDANI» HAMILTON QF GRASSL+ CARL O AFNA
LEESE+ BERNARD M 2k GURNEYs ASHLEY B 2D02F2G AFRA
STEELE+ ERNEST K BYE HALL« STANLEY A 2E2Y AFRA
ZELENYs LAWRENCE 2E2G AFRA HARMONe DANIEL 2k
HEGGESTAD+ HOWARD £ 2K
1ANAL NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY HENNEBERRY*s THOMAS J 2F2yY AFNA
BOYDs HELEN C 2k HERRINGe JON L 2F
CUSHMANs HELENE G aie HIGGINSe JOSEPH J 2K
HILDEBRANDe EARL M 2K2Q
1AOIG OFFICE OF INSPECTOR GENERAL HILTONe+ JAMES L AFRA
RICKER» DANIEL L 2u HINERe RICHARD L 3c
TOBINs WILLIAM T 2L HODGESe RONALD w OF
HOFFMANNes® CLARENCE H 2F2L2yY AFRA
1AR AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE HYLAND»s® HOWARD L 2k
JACOBSON» MARTIN 2E2Y AMRA
1ARAOQ OFFICE OF ADMINISTRATOR+s ARS JONES+ SLOAN E er
BRYANTs MARVIN P 20 KANE+ EDWARD A 2eE AFRA
HAINESs KENNETH A 2F2G62Y AFRA KAUFMANs* DONALD D 2a
HALL*»® DAVID G 2F KERR* THOMAS 2k
HILBERT+ GUIDO E— 2E3C KNIPLINGe EDWARD F 2F2Y AFRA
IRVINGs GEORGE wW JR 2E3C AFRA KRAMERe JAMES P 2F
LEXENe BERT R 2u KREITLOWs KERMIT W 262K AFRA
KROMBEIN+e KARL V 2F
1ARFR FARM RESEARCH LAMBERT+ EDMUND B 262K AFRA
ACKERMANs WILLIAM L 2K LANCHESTER+ HORACE P 2F
ADAIR+ CHARLES R 2K LE CLERGe ERWIN L 2k AFRA
ADAMS+ JEAN R 2F LENTZ» PAUL L 2K
ADLER+ VICTOR E = §2F LIPSCOMB+s BERNARD R 2K
SEPTEMBER, 1964 239
LOEGERINGe WILLIAM Q 2k WEBB. RAYMON E 2K
LUGENBILL + PHILIP JR 2F WEISMANe DONALD M 2F
LUMSDENe DAVID v 2k WESTER+ ROBERT € 2k
LUNDs EVERETT € 2Q WHITTAKER». COLIN W 2E2G6 AFRA
MASONe HORATIO C 2F WILLIAMSe LLEWELYN 2k
MAY« CURTIS 2k WINTERS+ HAROLD F 2k ‘
MC CLELLANe WILSUR D 262K AFRA WIRTHe WILLIS w 2F
MC GRATHe HILDE M 2K WOLFe VIRGINIA S 2F
MC GREWe JOHN R 2k YAMAMOTOe ROBERT T 2F
MC GUIRE+ JUDSON U JR 2F YEOMANS+ ALFRED H AFRA
MC KAY*« JOHN W 2K ZAUMEYERe WILLIAM J 2K
MC MURTREY+ JAMES E JR 2K
MC NALLY* EDMUND H 3c 1ARMR MARKETING RESEARCH
MEANS« URA M 2Q COOKe+ HAROLD T 2B2K3C AFRA
MENZIES* JAMES D 2Q - GOLUMBIC+ CALVIN 2E3C AFRA
MEYERe FREDERICK G 2k HAMANNe JOHN A 3c |
MICHAELe ALBERT S 2F HARDENBURGs ROBERT E AFRA |
MILLERe ALVIN H 2k HEINZE» PETER H 2E26G2K3C AFRA
MILLERe PAUL R 2k AFRA HORNSTEINe IRWIN 3C
MILLER+« ROBERT H 2K JUSTICE+ OREN L 2k
MITCHELL + JOHN w AFRA KOTULAs ANTHONY wW 3¢c
NIIMOTO+« DOROTHY H 2K LIEBERMANes MORRIS 2E AFRA
OAKES+ ALBERT J JR 2k LUTZ+ JACOB M 2K3C AFRA |
OMAN+ PAUL w 2F MERCURI+ ARTHUR J 3c
ORELLANAs RODRIGO G 2K NICKERSONe DOROTHY 26 AFRA
OWENSe LOWELL D 20 NORRIS+ KARL H 3C AFRA
PAPAVIZASe« GEORGE C 2k PENTZERe WILBUR T 2B AFRA >
PARKER» MARION w 2k AFRA ROSANOFFs+ BORIS P 28 |
PERDUE+ ROSERT E JR 2k RYALL» A LLOYD 2K3C AFRA
PIRINGERe ALBERT A 2k THOMPSONs JOHN I 3c
POLLOCKs BRUCE M 2G2K AFRA THOMSONe JAMES £ 3C
PRESLEYs JOHN T AFRA WEBBe ROBERT w 2B2K AFRA
PRICE+ SAMUEL 2K YEATMAN+ JOHN N 3c
PULTZ+ LEON M 2k
RAINWATER» CLYDE F 2F 1ARNI NUTRe CONSUMER G INDUSTRIAL USE
REED. LUCIUS B 2F ALFORDe JOHN A 2Q3C
ROBERT+ ALICE L 2k BANVILLE+ ROBERT R 2Q
RODENHISER»+ HERMAN A 2k BARDROW+s JANE 20
RUSSELL+« LOUISE M 2D2F2G AFRA BATCHERs OLIVE M 3c
SABROSKY» CURTIS W 2F BELOIANe ARAM 2Q
SAILERe REECE I! 2F AFNA BERMAN+ MORRIS D s{e
SAN ANTONIO+ JAMES P 2k BOUMAs CECELIA 20 |
SCHARENe ALBERT L 2k BROGDONe JENNIE L 3c
SCHECHTER+ MILTON S 2E2Y AFRA CHAPMANe VELMA J 3c |
SCHULTZ» EUGENE S 2K AFRE COULSONe E JACK 2e2T AFRA
SCHULTZE*+ wD 2a CURRAN+ HAROLD R 262Q AFRA
SCOTT+ DONALD H 2k DAWSON+ ELSIE H 3C H
SHORBe DOYS A 2P AFRA DETWILER+s SAMUEL B JR 2E AFRA
SKINNER+e HENRY T 2k EDMONDSONe LOCKE F 3c
SMITHe C EARLE JR 2k EHEART+ JAMES F 3C
SMITHe FLOYD F 2F2Y AFRA FORZIATI« FLORENCE H 2E AFRA
SPANGLER» PAUL J OF FREEMANe ANDREW F 2E AMRA
SPILMANe THEODORE J 2F FRIENDe BERTA 3G
SPRAGUE+ GEORGE F AFRA GADDIS+« ADAM M 3C
STEERE+ RUSSELL L 2k AFRA GILPINe GLADYS L 3C
STEWARTs DEWEY 262K AFRA GOUGH+ BOBBY J 2Q
STEWARTe ROBERT N 2K HIVON+ KATHARINE J 3C
STEYSKAL*+ GEORGE C 2F HOOVER. SAM R 3c
STOKESe ILEY E 2k IRWIN» ISABEL 3c
STONE» ALAN ae KURTZ+ FLOYD E 2E AFRA
STUARTe NEIL wW 2k AFRA LEVERTONe RUTH w AFRA
SULLIVAN+ WILLIAM N JR 2F LICHTENSTEINe HAROLD 20 |
TAYLOR» ALBERT L 2K AFNA LITTLE». RUBY @ 2K3C
TERRELL+ EDWARD E 2k LUNDe PAULINE G 2Q
THOMAS» CHARLES A 2K AMRA MACLAYs W DAYTON 3C
THOMAS« H REX 2K MATCHETT+ JOHN R 36 :
THOMPSON+ JOHN v 2F MATTHEWSe RUTH H ac
TODD+ EDWARD L 2F MC LEANe RUTH A 2Q3C
TODD:e FRANK E 2F2yY AFRA MC NEIL« ETHEL C 2Q3C
TOOLE+s VIVIAN K 2k MENCHERe JORDAN R 2Q
TROMBAs FRANCIS G 2p AFRA O BARR+ THOMAS P 2Q
TURNER» JAMES H =) AFRA PATTERSONe WILBUR I 3c
UHRINGe JOSEPH 2K PECOT+ REBECCA 3c
VANCE+ ARLO M 2F POMMER: ALFRED M 2E2G2T2H AFRA
VOGT+ GEORGE B 2F REDSTROMs RUTH A 3C
WALKER+ ROBERT L 2F REYNOLDS+ HOWARD 2Q3C AFRA
WALKLEYs LUFLLA M OF SCHLOSSER+« GEORGIA C 3C
WATSONe ALICE JU 2K SHANEYe JENNIE 3c
240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SMITHs JAMES L
SPIESs JOSEPH R
STEVENS» HENRY
SULZBACHER+s WILLIAM L
SWEENEY+s« JAMES: P
SWIFT+s CLIFTON E
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BRANDLY+« PAUL J
CALLAWAYs MINNIE
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DAVISe LOUIS G
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JOHNSTONs FREDERICK A
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SHERMAN+s RALPH wW
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SOLLERS-RIEDEL +s HELEN
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WALTON+s MARGARET
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WHEELERs WILLIS H
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ALEXANDERs+ LYLE T
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FETZER» CARL D
GRAHAMse EDWARD H
LEMMONs PAUL E
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1CCGS COAST & GEODETIC SURVEY
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CARDERs DEAN S
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GRAYs VANNIE E 2E AMRA MELMEDse ALLAN J AFRA
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HARRIS+ FOREST K 2N AFRA MUNIS* RICHARD H 2B
HARRISONs WILLIAM N 2B AFRA NETTLETONs RICHARD & 2B
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KANAGY» JOSEPH R 2E AFRA ROBINSONs HENRY E& AFRA
KEEGAN+ HARRY J 2E2G AFRA ROESER+ WILLIAM F 2B2G2R AFRA
KESSLER» KARL G 2B AFRA ROSENBLATTe DAVID 2B AFRA
KLEBANOFF,» PHILIP S 2B ROSENBLATT+ JOAN R 2B
KLEIN» RALPH 2B RUBIN+ ROBERT J 2B AFRA
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242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SCRIBNER+ BOURDON F
SHAPIROs GUSTAVE
SHAPLEYs A H
SHULERs KURT E
SILVERMANs SHIRLEIGH
SIMMONS+s JOHN A
SITTERLYs CHARLOTTE M
SMITHse JACK C
SMITHs SCOTT W
STAIR» RALPH
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STEPHENS*+ ROBERT E
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SUDDETHs+ JIMMIE A
SWANSONs NILS
SWEENEYs WILLIAM T
SWINDELLS»s JAMES F
TATE+ DOUGLAS R
TAYLORs JOHN K
TAYLORs LAURISTON S
TCHENs CHAN-—MOU
TEELE.s RAY -P
TIPSONs R STUART
TOOLs ARTHUR Q
TORGESENs JOHN L
TRYONs MAX
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VAN VALKENBURG» ALVIN
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WACHTMANs JOHN B JR
WALL»s® LEO A
WALTONs WILLIAM W
WASHERs F E
WASIKs STANLEY P
WATSTEINes DAVID
WEIRs CHARLES E
WEISSBERG+ SAMUEL
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WEXLER» ARNOLD
WILDHACKs WILLIAM
WILSON+ BRUCE L
WILSONs WILLIAM K
WOLCOTT» NORMAN M
wWwOOD+ LAWRENCE A
WYCKOFF s+ HAROLD O
WYMANs LEROY L
YOKLEYs« CHARLES
YOUDENs+ WILLIAM
YOUDEN+ WILLIAM
YOUNGs JESSIE M
YOUNG+s THEODORE R
ZWANZIGs ROBERT W
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1CPAO PATENT OFFICE
HULLs ROBERT B
1CWEB WEATHER BUREAU
ADEMs JULIAN
ADLER» GERHARD A
ALKIREs HL
ALLARD, ROBERT L
ALLEEs PAUL A
ALLEN+ GEORGE C
ALLEN+s ROGER A
ALTMAN+s HARRY E
AMANTE+s WILMA
AMOROSE+ CARL A
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ANDERSONs CHARLES C JR
ANDERSON» RALPH K
ANDREWS+ JAMES F
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SEPTEMBER, 1964
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BALDWIN+s JOHN L
BARTLETTs WAYNE H
BASSETT+s JAMES V
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BEARs FRED G JR
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BLAINs JOHN S JR
BLANCs MILTON L
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BOSWORTHs LESLIE W
BOWIEs GLENN L
BOWYERs»s DONALD w
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BRANDIS» PHILIP G
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COOKs ROBERT P
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MATTHEWS*+ MILDRED M
MC BIRNEYe HAROLD R
MC CARTER»s ROY M
MC CARTY*s+ MIRIAM E
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MC DONELL s+ JAMES E
MC EWENe ROBERT L
MC KINLEYe WILLIAM G
MEANS» LYNN L
MEINTEL? RALPH H
MILLER» HARRY A
MILLERe JOHN F
MITCHELL*® J MURRAY JR
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MORRISON+ WILLIAM
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MURINO+e VINCENT S
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NOFFSINGERe TERRELL L
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SEPTEMBER, 1964
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248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
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249
JONES+ JOHN L JR
LALOS+« GEORGE T
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CLARKe WILLIAM A 2Q AMRA
HWANGs SHUH WEI 2k
LESSEL» ERWIN F JR 2Q
3ICIR CORN INDUSTRIES RES FOUNDATION
GOODWIN» JOHN T JR 3¢
HOOVERs WILLIAM J 3C
3ICIW CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASH
BOLTONs ELLIS T 2G AFRA
BURKE+ BERNARD F AFRA
COWIEs DEAN 8B AFRA
HASKINSe CARYL P 2F2R AFRA
HOERINGs+ THOMAS C 2E2H AFRA
YODER» HATTEN S JR 2E2H AFRA
3IDTM DEPT TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISMs CIW
ECKLUNDs EVERETT T 2B
FORBUSHs SCOTT E 2B
LITTLE» CHARLES A 2B
ROBERTS» RICHARD B AFRA
STEINERe WILLIAM F 2B
TUVEs MERLE A 2B AFRA
3IERF EYE RESEARCH FOUNDATION
WILKINS* JUDD R 2Q
3IFOF FORD FOUNDATION
PATTERSON+ MARGARET E AFRA
3IGEL GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY» CIW
ABELSONs PHILIP H 2B2E2H2Q3B AFRA
KULLERUD» GUNNAR 2G AFRA
311CE AMER INST CROP ECOLOGY
NUTTONSONs M Y 2k
3IIDA INST FOR DEFENSE ANALYSIS
BRADLEY» WILLIAM E S\=
BRUECKNER»s KEITH A 2B
CULVER» WILLIAM H 2B
GAYLORD» RICHARD H 2B
GESSERT+ ROBERT A 2B
MARDER» STANLEY 2B
MONTROLL»s ELLIOTT W 2B AFRA
3IIPA NAT INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS
MC ARDLEs RICHARD E eu
31JBS JOINT BD ON SCIENCE EDUCATION
EDMUNDS»+ WADE M 2M2N3B
AMRA
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
3INAS NAT ACADEMY SCIENCES — NRC LYNCHs DANIEL F 2v
COOLIDGEs HAROLD J 26 AFRA MEADs STERLING v 2v
aoe! SAUL oD 2B AFRA NELSEN+s ROBERT J 2v
GIBBS» RC 2B SWANSON+s HENRY A 2v
HILL+ BERTON F 2G AMRA
JOHNSONe PAUL E 3c AFRA 4PATA PATENT ATTORNEYS
KAPLANs JOSEPH 2B CENTOLAs DAVID D 2B
LAPP» CLAUDE J 2B2G AFRA
LARRIMER+s WALTER H 2G2L2Y AFRA 4PHYS PHYSICIANS
SLACK» LEWIS 2B2G AFRA BERNTONe HARRY S 2I AFRA
+3 See 2B BURKE» FREDERIC G 21 AFRA
VORIS+ LEROY AFRA DRAEGERs R HAROLD AFNE
WELLS« HARRY WwW 2B GANT» JAMES @Q JR 262 12L2x AMRA
WICHERS» EDWARD 2E AFRA STILL» JOSEPH W 2B AFNA
3INFI NATIONAL FISHERIES INSTITUTE 4X MISCELLANEOUS SELF-EMPLOYED
MAGNUSSON» HARRIS W 3c HENRY» THOMAS R 2B AFRA
SISLER+s FREDERICK D 2Q
BINGS NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY TITUS+ HARRY M 2G AFNA
CARMICHAEL » LEONARD 2B2G2U2T AFRA
5 BUSINESS CONCERNS
3IPAC PACK FOUNDATION
GILL» TOM 2L S5ACFE ACF ELECTRONICS
WHELAN» WILLIAM T 2B
3B1SCS SCIENCE SERVICE
DAVIS* WATSON 2B2M2H AFRA SAEGE AERO GEO ASTRO CORP
EWINGe ANN M 2B SCHOLL» GEORGE S 2B
3IWMI WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE S5ALCH ALLIS—CHALMERS COMPANY
GABRIELSON+ IRA N AFRA HOOVER» ROLAND A 2B
4 SELF-EMPLOYED 5AMMA AMER MACHINE & FOUNDRY CO
BRACKETTs FREDERICK S 2B
4CONS CONSULTANTS EIWENe CHARLES J 2B
ARSEMs WILLIAM C 3E JAFFE* DAVID 28
ASLAKSONs CARL I 2B2M2R2S AFRA LONBERGER+ STANLEY T 2B
BATEMANs ALAN M 2H AFNE MORRISON» COHN L 2B
BEACHse PRISCILLA A AMRA SHARPE + THOMAS F 3E
BEAN+ HOWARD S 2D AFRA WINER» DAVID E 2B
BENNETT+ MARTIN T 2£ AFRA
BLUMs WILLIAM 2E2G63E AFRE S5ANSE ANALYTICAL SERVICES INC
BOUTWELL*» JOHN M — 2G2H AFNA STIREWALT» EDWARD N 2B
DEMINGs W EDWARDS 2B
DIEHL» WALTER S 2w AFRA SARCO AVERBACH CORP
ELCHIBEGOFFs IVAN M 2L CLARK+ GEORGE E JR AFRA
GILLMAN+ JOSEPH L UR 2E2M202U AFRA
GUNDERSONs+ FRANK L NG 5ARMF ART METAL FINISHING CO
HALL» ALBERT G 2L PIERDON+ ARTHUR G 3E
HINMANs WILBUR S JR 2s AFRA
HOWEs PAUL E 2E2T AFRA SARST ARMCO STEEL CORP
INSLEY*s HERBERT 2B2G2H3D AFRA DENHARD+ ELBERT E JR 3E
JACOBs KENNETH D 2E AFRA
JENNERs J SLATEN 4 2B SASPR ASSOCIATED PRESS
KAUFMAN+s H PAUL 2M2R AFRA CAREYs FRANCIS E AFRA
LORING+ BLAKE M 2U AFRA
MEGGERSe« WILLIAM F 2B2G AFRA 5ATRE ATLANTIC RESEARCH CORP
PARSONS+ DOUGLAS E& 2B2S AFRE FAGGs LAWRENCE w 28
PHILLIPSe MARCELLA L 2B2N AFRA MACEKs ANDREJ 2B
POOLER» LOUIS G 2B
REINHARTs FRANK W 2E2G6 AFRA S5BABI BALTIMORE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY
RISHELL+ CARL A aL CARSKI« THEO J 2Q
ROBERTS» ELLIOTT B 2B2G2R2S AFRA ROHDE»s PAUL A 2a
SILSBEE+ FRANCIS B 2B2G2N AFRA
SMITH»s WALDO E 2B SBECO BENDIX CORP
SOUDER+ WILMER 2PE2V DE MARCOs FRANCIS D 3E
ST.EVENSONs FREDERICK UJ 2G AFRA
THOMAS+ JAMES L AFRA SBERA BENDIX RADIO DIVISION
TOWNSEND» JOHN R 2B AFRA CARROLL+ THOMAS J 2B AFRA
WARINGs JOHN A 2G AMRA
WEIL+ GEORGE R 3B AFRA 5B IRE BIOMETRICS RESEARCH LAB
AZAROWICZ+ EN 20
4DENT DENTISTS
CAMALIERe WILLARD C 2v S5BOAL BOOZ ALLEN APPLIED RESEARCH
DAWSON» CLARENCE & 2v HALLANGER+ NL 2x
ERIKSONs EDWIN B 2v LUNCHICKs MYRON E 2B
KAPLAN+ HARRY 2v
KENNEDY* JAMES J av SBOEN BOWLES ENGINEERING CO
KROGHs HAROLD w 2v BOWLES* ROMALD E 2G2w AFRA
SEPTEMBER, 1964 259
S5CAPC CAPITAL CHEMICAL CO
ROLLOW+s J DOUGLAS QF
SCARE CATALYST RESEARCH CORP
MAY+ VERNON B 3E
5CHDE CHICAGO DEVELOPMENT CO
GULLETT« WILLIAM W SE
SCONC CONTINENTAL CAN CO
WILKINS* GEORGE R Sie
5DACH DAVISON CHEMICAL CO *BALTOX
SANCHEZ+ MOISES G 3E
5DERE DEFENSE RESEARCH CORP
BOGLE+ ROBERT w 2B AFNA
PUGHs GEORGE E 2B
5DFCO DIFCO LABORATORIES
KRETSCHMAIER+ HENRY 2Q
5DRDE DRUG DETECTION G&G DEV ORG
HILLIGe FRED 2E3¢
5EASS EASTERN STAINLESS STEEL *BALTOX
CLINGANe IRVINE C 3E
5EMRE EMERSON RESEARCH LABORATORIES
WEINTRAUBs STANLEY 2B
S5ENLA C W ENGLAND LABORATORIES
ENGLANDs C WALTER 3C
SFOCN FOOD CHEMICAL NEWS
ROTHSCHILDs LOUIS JR 3c
5FRAS J FREEMAN ASSOCIATES
FREEMANe JACOB J 2B
5GECO GILLETTE COMPANY
HARRIS» MILTON 2E AFRA
S5GETE GENERAL TECHNOLOGIES CORP
CHILDERS* H MALCOLM 2B
GRAVES+ JACOB D 2B
SHALA HAZELTON LABORATORIES
GARGUS+ JAMES L AMRA
HAZLETON+* LLOYD W 2E2Ge2T AFRA
HEIMe ALLEN H 2Q
SHARE HARRIS RESEARCH LABORATORIES
ALTERs HARVEY 2E AFRA
BERCHs JULIAN 2E AMRA
BROWNe ALFRED E 2B2E2G AFRA
BURAS+ EDMUND M JR 2E AFRA
FOURT« LYMAN 2E AFRA
HOLLIS+« NORMAN R 2e AFRA
KRASNYs JOHN F AFRA
MENKART»s JOHN H 2E AFRA
MIZELLe« LOUIS R Az AFRA
SCHWARTZ*« ANTHONY M 2E AFRA
SOOKNE+ ARNOLD M 2e AFRA
SHONE HONEYWELL
HONIGe JOHN C 2B
SHOSH HOT SHOPPES
MILLAR» ZELMA A 3
wWOOD+ WILLIAM H 3C
SHOWR HOWARD RESEARCH CORP
DYKEs+ EDWIN 2N AMRA
SHUAS HUNTER ASSOCIATES LAB
BLUNDELL» GEORGE P 2a
FOECKLER»s FRANCIS 2Q
HUNTERe RICHARD S AFRA
S5IBMC INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS MACHINES
KOROBKINs IRVING 2B
5INCR INSTRUMENT CONTROL & RESEARCH
GERBERGe EUGENE J 2F
SIONC IONICS INCORPORATED
MC GRIFF* STUART G 3E
51TTC INTERNATIONAL TELEPHONE & TELEG
VIGUE+ KENNETH J 2N AMRA
SLIPR LIQUIDS PROCESS CO
ROLLERe PAUL S 2B2E2G AFRA
5LISY LITTON SYSTEMS MD DIV
CUTLERe EDWIN P 2B
S5MART THE MARTIN CO %BALTOXO
SOLOW+ MAX 2B
SMATR MATRIX CORP
WALSHe J PAUL 2B
S5MELP MELPAR INC
FALLONe ROBERT J 2B2G AFRA
FELDMANe CHARLES 2B
FOLEYe ROBERT T 3E
HALPERT+ GERALD 3E
HARDY+ FRANK M 2Q
PARIKHe GOKALDAS C 2Q
RITT+ PAUL E 3D3E AFRA
TINERse JACK D 2a
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CALISHERe CHARLES H 2Q
CASTELLANO>+ GABRIEL 2Q
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SHELDONe DONALD R 2Q
TENNANT» RAYMOND W 2Q
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SMVRE MT VERNON RESEARCH CO
CALIO«e ANTHONY J 2B
5MXRE MEDICAL EXRAY RESEARCH LAB
SHUPINGe RALPH E 2B
5NECO NELSON COMPANY
NELSONe JOHN M et
SOPRE OPERATIONS RESEARCH INC
GREENSTONE» REYNOLD 2B
WADEY« WALTER G AFRA
5PACO PAGE COMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERS
VANDIVERE« EDGAR F JR 2B
SPNDY PNEUMO DYNAMICS CORP
ELLSWORTH» WILLIAM M 2B
STANWICKe TAD 2B
5PORB POPULATION REFERENCE BUREAU
COOK+ ROBERT C 2K AFRA
5QUSI QUADRI-SCIENCE INC
LAPP» RALPH E 2B AFRA
SRAAN RAFF ANALYTIC STUDY ASSOCIATES
RAFFs SAMUEL J 28
S5RACO RAND CORPORATION
KRAMISH»s ARNOLD 2B
SMITHe PAUL A 262H2S2w AFRA
5RAEN RADIO ENGINEERING LABS
260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
BURROWS+ CHARLES R 2B
5RAYC RAYTHEON CORPORATION
SPOONER+ CHARLES S JR 2G AFRA
5RBEN RABINOW ENGINEERING CO
RABINOW+s JACOBS 2B2N AFRA
S5REAN RESEARCH ANALYSIS CORP
BOYD+ DONALD M 2Q3C
FIACCOs ANTHONY V 2B
GRAMANNe RICHARD H 2B
HARDT+ JOHN P 2B
HIPP+» FRED C 2B
NEEDELS+* THEODORE S 2B
5RERS RESOURCES RESEARCH CORP
MC CABE+ LOUIS C 2E2G AFRA
5SCOP SCOPE INC
GERIG+e JOHN S 2B
5SCPR SCIENTIFIC PRODUCTS
POPE+ BRUCE M 2Q
5SHCH SHELL CHEMICAL CORP
ULLRICHs DONALD E 2F
5SNUR A H SMALL & SONS NURSERY
TURPINs JEAN M 2k
5SSAS S=-S ASSOCIATES
GOODMAN»+ STANLEY I 2B
5SURE SURVEYS & RESEARCH CORP
RICEs STUART A AFRA
S5UNCA UNION CARBIDE CHEMICALS
MC BRIDE* GORDON w ZESE AFRA
SUNSY UNDERWATER SYSTEMS INC
WEINSTEIN+e MARVIN S 2B
SVAEN VALUE ENGINEERING CO
WEINBERGs HAROLD P 2uU AFRA
5VERS VERSITRON INC
CASE+ ALFRED L 2B
MEISINGER+s H PETER 2B
SVILA VITRO LABORATORIES
JAFFEs DANIEL L 2B
JONES» CHARLES w 2B
NORSETHe HOWARD G 2B
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SWAPO WASHINGTON POST
HASELTINE« NATE AFRA
SWEEL WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CO %BALTO
TRAPP« ORLIN D SE
SWORE WOODARD RESFARCH CORP
WILKOFFse LEE J 2Q
5SWRMC WILKENS=-ROGERS MILLING CO
PANKEYs LINOAL H 3C
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6AUSO AUSTRALIAN SCIENTIFIC OFFICE
HARTLEYs+ WILLIAM 2K
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DAWSON+ ROY C 2Q
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GRAHAMs C E 3c
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CHAMBERLAYNEs EARL C 3c
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BROMBACHER»s WwW G 2B
BROOKS+s DONALD B
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COOLIDGE+s WILLIAM D
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GAFAFER»s WILLIAM M 2v AFNE MC KINNEY+ HAROLD H 262K2Q AFRE
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GARDNER+ IRVINE C 2B AFRA MEARS»* ATHERTON H AFRE
GARNERe CLEMENT L 2B2G2M2R2S AFRE MERRIAMs CARROLL F 2G AFNA
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GOLDBERGe MICHAEL 2B AFRA MOHLER» FRED L 2B AFRE
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GOLL« FL 2K MORRISON» BENJAMIN Y AFNE
GRAFe JOHN E 2F AFRA MUCKENFUSS» R S 2a
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HAVILAND+ ELIZABETH E 2F POPHAMe WILLIAM L 2F
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HUBBARD. DONALD 2E2G AFRA READ» WT 2E AFRA
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JENKINS« ANNA E 2K AFNE RICKER+ PERCY L 262K AFRE
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JOHNSTONs FRANCIS E& 2B AFRE RUTHERFORDs RM 2L
JOHNSTONe H FREEBORN 2B RYERSONs KNOWLES A 2G AFNA
JONES+ CYRIL J 2a SALMON+ S C 2k
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JUDSONs LEWIS V 2B2G6 AFRE SANFORD+ RAYMOND L 2B AFRE
JUHNs MARY 2T AFRA SCHIPULL+ WALTER L 2
KARRER+ ANNIE M H AFRE SCHOENINGe HARRY W 2P AFRA
KARRER+ SEBASTIAN 2B2E2G AFRA SCHOENINGe HARRY W 2a
KAUFFMANNes GLADYS Je) SCHREINER+« OSWALD 2D2E262K AFNE
KENNARD+s RALPH B 2B AFRE SCHUYLERe GL 2B
KEPHARTe L W 2k SCHWARTZ* BENJAMIN AFRE
KNOWLTONs KATHRYN 2E2T AFRA SCOFIELD+ CARL S eK
KYLEe CURTIS H 2K SEAQUIST+ EDGAR O 2B
LAMBERTs WALTER D 2B AFNE SERVICEs+ JERRY H AFNE
LANGs WALTER B AFRE SETZLER+ FRANK M 2C2G6. AFNE
LASSEN» LEON 2L SHAPOVALOVs MICHAEL 26 AFNE
LAVENDER+s ROBERT A ‘2B SIEGLER+ EUGENE A 2K
LEAKE, JAMES P 2a SIEKER+ JOHN H 2L
262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SIEVERS»s ARTHUR F
SIMS* IVAN H 2u
SMITH» CHARLES M 2yY
SMITH+ EDGAR R 2E
SMITHe FRANCIS A
SMITH» LAWRENCE W aL
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SUTCLIFFE+ WALTER D 2B2G2M2R
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WATERMAN» ALAN T 2Beaw
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WEAVER+s ELMER R 2e2e
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8NRNC
QCLUN
ONCOC
NONRESIDENT ¢
NOT CLASSIFIED BY OCCUPATION
SEPTEMBER, 1964
AFRE
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AFNA
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EMPLOYER NOT CODED
CLASSIFICATION UNKNOWN
ie
263
2B
Classification by Membership in Affiliated Societies
2B PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON BLEIL+« DAVID F 1DNOL
ABBOT+ CHARLES G 7JRETD AFRE BLIGHe ALAN B S9CLUN
ABELSONe PHILIP H 3IGEL AFRA BLINDERe S M 8NRNC
ABLARD+ JAMES & OCLUN BLOOMe MORTIMER C 1DNRL AFRA
ABRAHAMs GEORGE 1DNRL AFRA BLUMSTEINe ALFRED OCLUN
ADAMS+ A NORWOOD 10NOB BODLE+ RALPH R 8NRNC
ADAMS+ LEASON H BNRNC AFNE BOGLE+ ROBERT w SDERE AFNA
AITCHISONe CLYDE S 8BNRNC BORDENe AVIS 1DNOT
ALDRICH+e LOYAL B 7RETD BOURLAND+ LANGFORD T 1ONRL
ALDRIDGE+ MARY H 2HAMU BOWMAN+s ROBERT L 1HNIH
ALEXANDER« SAMUEL N 1CNBS AFRA BOWYERe C STUART 2HCUA
ALLENe HARRY C UR 1CNBS AFRA BOYD+ MARYVORIE E£ 1CNBS
ALLGAIERs ROBERT S 1DNOL BRAATEN+ NORMAN F 1CCGS AFRA
ALT+ FRANZ L 1CNBS AFRA BRACKETT+ FREDERICK S SAMMA
AMBLERe ERNEST 1CNBS BRADLEYs+ ROBERT B 1HNIH
ANDERSON+ BRUCE E TRETD BRADTs PAUL 8NRNC
ANDERSON+ ELMER £& 1DNOL BRAMHALL + ERVIN H 8NRNC
ANDREWSe REBECCA E 7RETD BRANSON+ HERMAN 2HHOU AFRA
ANGERSe WILLIAM P 8NRNC BRECKENRIDGEe FC 7RETD AFRA
ANNISe WILBERT 10-x BREMER+« HANS O SCLUN
APEL+ JOHN 31 APL BRENNANe JAMES G 2HCUA
APPLEBAUM. ALBERT 1DNOL BREWER» A KEITH 1DNNO AFRA
APSTEINe MAURICE 1DAHD AFRA BRICKWEDDE, F G 8BNRNC AFNE
ARISTEI+« JEROME 8NRNC BRICKWEDDE+ LANGHORNE ®8NRNC
ARKINGe ALBERT 8NRNC BROCKs JOSEPH S 1DNDT
ARMSTRONGs GEORGE T 1CNBS AFRA BRODD.+ RALPH J 8NRNC
ARONSON+s C J 1DNOL BRODE+ WALLACE R 7RETD
ARTMAN+ JOSEPH O 31 APL BRODZINSKY+ ALBERT 1DNRL
ASHCROFT+ JOSEPH M 1DAX BROGDEN+ JOHN wW 9CLUN
ASLAKSONs CARL I 4CONS AFRA BROMBACHER»s W G 7RETD AFRA
ASTINe ALLEN V 1CNBS AFRA BROWN+ ALFRED £& SHARE AFRA
AUSTINe WALTER E OCLUN BROWN+ C BRADNER 1DNOL
AXILRODe BENJAMIN M 1CNBS AFRA BROWNs CALVIN F 9OCLUN
BACKs GOLDIE 9CLUN BROWNs GEORGE £& 1DAER
BAILEY+ EMMET C 8BNRNC BROWN+s RICHARD w 1DNOL
BALDES» EDWARD uv 1DARO AFRA BRUECKNER, KEITH A 3I1IDA
BALL+ JOSEPH JU 1CNBS BRYANT+s ROBERT w 9CLUN
BARBROWs LOUIS E 1CNBS AFRA BUCKINGHAM. BURDETTE H 3IAPL
BARFIELDe VIVIAN S 1CNBS BUCKINGHAMe STEPHEN A 31] APL
BARRY» JOHN P 1DNRL : BUCKWALTER+ GEORGE E 1DNX
BARTELS+ WILLIAM C 1XAEC BUEHLER« JOHN H 8NRNC
BASS+ ARNOLD M 1CNBS AFRA BURGERS+ JM 2HUMD AFRA
BATES» CHARLES C 31APL BURINGTONs RICHARD S 1DNBW AFRA
BEACHse LOUIS A 1DNRL AFRA BURNS+ ROBERT O 10NNO
BEAMANs H CLAYTON 31APL BURROWS+ CHARLES R S5RAEN
BEARCE+ HENRY W 7RETD AFNE BUTLER+ WARREN L 1Ax
BECKETT+ CHARLES w 1CNBS AFRA CAHILL + WILLIAM F 1XNAS
BEIJUs K HILDING 7RETD AFNA CALDWELL» FRANK R 1CNBS AFRA
BEKKEDAHL » NORMAN 1CNBS AFRA CALDWELL» PAUL A 1DAHD
BELSHEIMs ROBERT O 1DNRL AFRA CALIO*s ANTHONY J SMVRE
BENESCHe WILLIAM 2HUMD AFRA CALLEN+s EARL R 1DNOL AFRA
BENNETT+ BRADLEY F 1DNRL CAMERONs JOSEPH M 1CNBS
BENNETT+ CLAUDIUS £& 8NRNC CAMERON+s LOUIS M 1DNRL
BENNETTs WILLARD H 8BNRNC AFNA CAMP+ GLEN D 8NRNC
BENSON+ LOREN A 1D-x CAMPBELL + FRANK L 7RETD AFNA
BERAHAs SAMI 2SMAR CAMPBELL*+ JOHN H 1DNRL
BERGER+ ROBERT L 1HNIH CANNON+ EDWARD w 1CNBS AFRA
BERKNER+s L V BNRNC AFNA CARDER+ DEAN S 1CCGS AFRA
BERL+ WALTER G 3IAPL AFRA CARLETONs PHILLIPS G 9CLUN
BERLINER+ ROBERT Ww 1HNIH AFRA CARLTONe A GEORGE 3IrAPL
BERNIERe CHARLES L 1D-xX CARMICHAEL «+ LEONARD 3INGS AFRA
BERNSTEINe ARTHUR 8BNRNC CARRINGTONe TUCKER 1CNBS AFRA
BERSHADER.+ DANIEL 8NRNC CARROLL e« THOMAS J SBERA AFRA
BESTUL+ ALDEN 8 1CNBS CASE+ ALFRED L SVERS
BIBERSTEINe FRANK A JR 2HCUA AFRA CASTIGLIOLAs JULIUS 1DNOL
BIRD+ JOSEPH F 31 APL CATTANEOe LOUIS E 1CNBS
BITTINGERs CHARLES 9CLUN CENTOLAs DAVID D 4PATA
BLACKBURNe WILLIAM J 1cCCGS CERCEO+ J MICHAEL 9CLUN
BLAKE+ LAMONT v 1ONRL CHA+ MOON H 1DNOL
BLAUs EDMUND J 31 APL
264. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
tt nx =e ep mg
2B
CHAET+ ALFRED B 2HAMU DOLECEKs RICHARD L 1DNRL AFRA
CHATHAMe THOMAS K 1DNOL DORSEY» HERBERT G 7TRETD
CHERTOCK+s GEORGE 1DNDT DOUGLAS» CHARLES A 1CNBS AFRA
CHERVENAK»s JOHN 1DNRL DRIMMER»s BERNARD E 1DNBw
CHI» ANDREW R SCLUN DRYDEN+ HUGH L 1XNAS AFRA
CHILDERS*+ H MALCOLM 5GETE DUERKSEN»s JACOB A JRETD AFRE
CLAIRE» CHARLES N 1CCGS AFRA DUFFEY+ DICK 2HUMD
CLARKs JOHN F 1XNAS DUNNE» HAROLD E 8NRNC
CLARK»s VIOLET 2SFCH DUNNINGs KENNETH L 1DNRL AFRA
CLEMENCEs GM 1DNOB : EAGLESONe HALSON V 2HHOU
CLEVENe GALE W 1D-S AFRA EATONs ALVIN R 31APL
COCHRAN» EDWARD L 31APL EATON+s HERBERT N BNRNC
COHENs LEON w 2HUMD EBYs+ RONALD kK 1CNBS
COHENe LESLIE 1DNRL ECKLUND+s EVERETT T 3I1DT™
COHENs SAMUEL L 1DNRL EDDY+ ROBERT P 1DNDT
COHNe ROBERT 1DNHS AFRA EDELMANes SEYMOUR 1CNBS
COLBY+ WALTER F 7RETD EGLI+« PAUL H 1DNRL AFRA
COLE+ KENNETH S IHNIH AFRA FICHORN» LARRY M 1XGAO
COLEMANes FRANK 7RETD EZISENHARTs CHURCHILL 1CNBS AFRA
COLLIER» CHARLES S 9CLUN EIWEN+ CHARLES J SAMMA
CONANTe JAMES S 3HGDH ELBOURN+s ROBERT D 1CNBS AFRA
CONDELL+ WILLIAM J JR 1D-x ELLSWORTHs WILLIAM M SPNDY
CONLANe JAMES 1DONOL ENIGs JULIUS Ww 1DNOL
CONRADs+ EDWARD & 1DAHD ENNISe WILLIAM w 9CLUN
COOK+ GUY S 7RETD ESTERMANNs»s IMMANUEL 1DNX AFNA
COOK+ HAROLD T 1ARMR AFRA EWINGe ANN M 31SCS
COOKs RICHARD K 1CNBS AFRA FAGGs LAWRENCE w SATRE
COOTERs IRWIN L 1CNBS AFRA FALLON»s ROBERT J SMELP AFRA
CORLISS* CHARLES H 1CNBS FANOs U 1CNBS
CORSON+s EDWARD M 2HGEU FAUSTs WILLIAM R 1DNRL AFRA
COSTRELL+ LOUIS 1CNBS AFRA FELDMANs CHARLES 5SMELP
COURT» LOVIS M 2HGWU FELOMAN+s JEROME P 1DNDT
COVILLE» CABOT OCLUN FERLAZZO+« GAETANO 8NRNC
COWANe CLYDE L JR 2HCUA FERRIS» CLIFFORD D 8BNRNC
CRAGOE>s CARL S JFRETD AFRE FIACCOs ANTHONY V 5REAN
CRAMER+s RAYMOND H 31 APL FINEs PAUL C 1XAEC
CRANE+ LANGDON T JR 1XNSF AFRA FINN» EDWARD J OCLUN
CRAVEN+s JOHN P 1DNSP AFRA FIOCKs ERNEST F 8NRNC
CROCKER» J ALLEN 1XNAS FLETCHER» FRANKLIN M 9CLUN
CRUMP+ STUART F 1DNDT FOLEY+ EUGENE P 1XSBA
CULVER+s WILLIAM H 3B11IDA FOLLINs JAMES W JR 31APL
CUNNINGHAMs FRED G 1XNAS FONERs SAMUEL N 3IAPL AFRA
CURCIO+« JOSEPH A 1DNRL FOOTE+ PAUL D 3INAS AFRA
CURTIS» ROGER W 8BNRNC AFNA FORBUSHs SCOTT E 3IDT™
CURTIS* WESTLEY F 1DNDT FORSYTH» PAUL S 1DF Xx
CURTISS+ LEON F 7RETD AFNE FOWLER+ HOWLAND A 1CNBS
CUTCHIS+ PYTHAGORAS OCLUN FOX+ JAMES F S9CLUN
CUTHILL»+ ELIZABETH H 1DNDT FRAPS+ RICHARD M 1ARFR AFRA
CUTLER» EDWIN P 5LISY FRASER+ LORENCE W 31 APL
DAHLSTROM, ROBERT K 3IAPL FREEMANs JACOB J SFRAS
DARWENTs+ BASIL DE B 2HCUA AFRA FRENKEL+ LOTHAR O9CLUN
DAVIS+ GEORGE E 8NRNC FRENKIEL*s® FRANCOIS N 1DNDT AFRA
DAVIS» RAYMOND 7RETD AFRE FRIEDMAN+ HERBERT 1DNRL
DAVIS+« RUTH M 1D-S FROELICH» KATHRYN 3IAPL
DAVISe WATSON 3I1SCS AFRA FULLER» EVERETT 1CNBS
DAVISSON»s JAMES w IDNRL AFRA FULLMER+« IRVIN H 1CNBS AFRA
DAYHOFF + EDWARD S 1DNOL FURUKAWA+ GEORGE T 1CNBS AFRA
DE MACEDO. PEDRO B 1CNBS FUSSELL + WILLIAM B 1XNAS
DE NOVENS» MARIE 1XNAS GAMOWs GEORGE BNRNC AFNA
DE PACKHs DAVID C 1DNRL AFRA GARGIAs LUIS F 9CLUN
DE PIANe LOUIS 2HGWU GARDNER» IRVINE C 7RETD AFRA
DE SAVAGE. BERNARD F 1DNOL GARNER+s CLEMENT L 7RETD AFRE
DE VORE»+ CHARLES 1DNOR GARRETT+ DAVID L S9CLUN
DE wIlTTe HENRY A 1D0NB8S GARRETTe JOHN H BNRNC
DEDRICK+ ROBERT L 2HGWU GAYLORD+ RICHARD H BIIDA
DEES» BOWEN C 1XNSF GEBHARD+ JACK Ww BIAPL
DEITCHMANe SEYMOUR J 1D-S GEHMAN+ JEAN R OCLUN
DEL GROSSOe VINCENT A 1DNRL GELLER» ROMAN F 7RETD AFRA
DEMINGse W EDWARDS 4CONS GENEVESE+ F 8NRNC
DENISONe I A 7RETD GERIG+s JOHN S 5SCOP
DENT+ ELLIOD 1DNRL GESSERT+ ROBERT A 3IIDA
DEROCCOs ANDREW G SCLUN GHAFFARI» ABOLGHASSEM 1XNAS AFRA
DETERS» OWEN J 31APL GIBBS+ RC 3INAS
DETWILER+e CHARLES R 1DNRL GIBSONe KASSON S TRETD AFRE
DEVINE +s JAMES F 11BMI GIBSON+ RALPH E 3IAPL AFRA
DINGERe HAROLD & 9CLUN GILL+* CHARLES w iDNX
DINGER+ JACOB E 1DNRL GILL+ JOCELYN 1XNAS
DISTADe MERRILL F 1DAHD GIROUARD+ PHILIAS H 8BNRNC
SEPTEMBER, 1964 265
GISHe OLIVER H
GLADDENe SANFORD C
GLASER+ HAROLD
GLASSER» ROBERT G
GODLOVE+ TERRY F
GOLDBERG» BENJAMIN
GOLDBERGs MICHAEL
GOLDBERG» RICHARD A
GOLDSTEIN+s GORDON D
GOLDSTEINe HERBERT
GOLOVIN»s® NICHOLAS E
GOODMANs+ STANLEY I1
GORBICSe STEVEN G
GORDON+s CHARLES L
GORDONs CLIFFORD M
GORNICK+ FRED
GOSS* WILBUR H
GOSSETT+ CHARLES R
GRAMANNe RICHARD H
GRANT+ F A
GRAVES+ JACOB D
GRAY+ DWIGHT E
GRAY+ ERNEST P
GREENe C B
GREEN>+ LOWELL F
GREEN» MELVILLE S
GREENLEE» MALCOLM B
GREENSPANe LEWIS
GREENSPANes MARTIN
GREENSTONE» REYNOLD
GRISAMORE + NELSON T
GRUNER» WAYNE R
GUAYs RAYMOND J
GUIER» WILLIAM H
GUILDNER» LESLIE A
GULLEDGEs [RENE S
HACKMANs EMORY E
HAFSTAD+s L R
HAGERTY+s LAURENCE J
HAISLMATER» ROBERT J
HALL» ROBERT w
HALL» WAYNE C
HAMMERSCHMIDTs W Ww
HAMMERSMITHse JOHN L
HANSCOME + THOMAS D
HANSENe EILEEN A
HARDT+ JOHN P
HARDY» ROBERT C
HARKIN» DUNCAN C
HARMANTAS« CHRISTOS
HARMONs+s GEORGE G JR
HARRINGTONs+s MARSHALL C
HARRISON» HARRY
HARRISON+ MARK
HARRISONs WILLIAM N
HARTs ROBERT WwW
HARTMANN+s GREGORY K
HARTZLER» A J
HAUPT+ RALPH F
HAUPTMANs HERBERT
HAWORTHse ELLIS
HAYDEN+ LEONARD O
HAYES» HARVEY C
HEALD» ROY H
HEER+ RAY R JR
HEILPRIN» LAURENCE B
HEINe ROBERT A
HELZs ARMIN w
HENDERSON» MALCOLM C
HENNEY» ALAN G
HENNEY» DAGMAR R
HENRY*s THOMAS R
HENZE*+ PAUL B
HERLINGs GARY H
HERSEY» MAYO D
HERTZ* HANS G
HERZ+ ALBERT J
HERZFELD»s CHARLES M
266
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1DNRL
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7TRETD
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1CNBS
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HERZFELD+s KARL F
HESSe« WILMOT N
HEYDENs FRANCIS J SJ
HILDEBRAND» BERNARD
HILL» FREEMAN K
HILSENRATHs JOSEPH
HIPP. FRED C
HIRESe ROBERT G
HIRSCHEL+s LOUIS R
HOBBSe« HERMAN H
HOBBS» ROBERT B
HODGE + MARY w
HODGE» ORLANDO J
HOEVE+ C A
HOFFMAN» JOHN D
HOGE*« HAROLD J
HOLBERTON» JOHN v
HOLLOWAYs+ MARSHALL G
HOLLYERse ROBERT N JR
HOLMGREN»+ HARRY D
HOLTONs WILLIAM B
HONES* EDWARD W JR
HONIGs JOHN C
HOOVER» JOHN I
HOOVER» ROLAND A
HOPFIELDs HELEN S
HOPKINS» JOHN J
HORL+ ERWIN M
HORNes PETER H
HORNBECKs GEORGE A
HORNYAKs WILLIAM F
HORTONs BILLY M
HOSKINSON» ALBERT J
HUANGe SU SHU
HUBBARDs WILLIAM M
HUBBELL» JOHN H
HUDDLE + FRANKLIN P
HUDSONs RALPH P
HUDSONs RICHARD L
HUG» EDWARD H
HULLe ROBERT B
HUMPHREYS» CURTIS J
HUNTERe WILLIAM R
HUNTINGs C EUGENE
HUNTOON+ ROBERT D
HURLBURT+ EVERETT H
IMLAY+ FREDERICK H
INGBERGs S H
INSLEY» HERBERT
IRWINs GEORGE R
IVORYs JOHN E
JACKSON»+ JOHN E
JACKSONs JULIUS L
JACOBSe+ WALTER WwW
JAFFE+ DANIEL L
JAFFE*s DAVID
JAQUES« ALVIN T
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JEHLE.« HERBERT
JENe CHIH K
JENNER» J SLATEN 4
JENSENe MALCOLM W
JESSUP+ RALPH S
JOHNSON+ DANIEL P
JOHNSONe ELLIS A
JOHNSON» KEITH C
JOHNSONe M H
JOHNSONs PAUL S
JOHNSTONe FRANCIS E
JOHNSTON» H FREEBORN
JOHNSTON+ ROBERT W
JOHNSTON» THOMAS F
“-JONESe CHARLES w
JONES» FRANK E
JONES+ JOHN L JR
JOSEPH» HORACE M
JOYCEs J WALLACE
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
JUDSONs LEWIS V
KAISER» HERMAN F
KAMMER»s ERWIN W
KAPLAN+ JOSEPH
KARLE»s JEROME
KARRER+ SEBASTIAN
KEENYs SPURGEON M JR
KEIMs SHEWELL D
KELLER» GEOFFREY
KELLEYs MARION R
KELLINGTON»s MYRTLE R
KELLYs ELIZABETH
KEMPNERs ELLIS S
KENDALL+® J ™M
KENNARDs RALPH B
KENNEYs ARTHUR wW
KERSHNER* RICHARD B
KESSLERs KARL G
KEULEGANs GARBIS H
KIES*s JOSEPH A
KILBOURNE» ELAINE M
KINGe PETER
KIRKLANDs GLENN I
KIRSTEINs MYRON
KITCHENSs J WESLEY
KLEBANOFF. PHILIP S
KLEIN» RALPH
KLEINe TRUMAN S
KLUTEs CHARLES H
KOLBs ALAN C
KOLODNYs SAMUEL
KOOMEN+ MARTIN J
KOPECs CASIMIR §S
KOPP+ ROBERT
KOROBKINs IRVING
KOSTKOWSKI» HENRY J
KOWAL» STANLEY J
KOWKABANY» GEORGE N
KRAFFTs JOSEPH M
KRAMISHs ARNOLD
KREBS» JAMES J
KRULFELD+» MYER
KSANDAs CHARLES J
KSULA+s WILLIAM M
KUCKs JOHN H
KUDRAVCEV»s VSEVOLOD
KUNDERTs OTTO R
KUNSTs EGBERT D
KURZWEG» HERMAN H
KUYATT+ CHRIS E
LA GOWs HERMAN E
LA VILLA+* ROBERT E
LALOS+ GEORGE T
LAMBERTs WALTER D
LANDER» JAMES F
LANDON+ HARRY H JR
LANSDELL» HERBERT C
LAPPs CLAUDE J
LAPP+ RALPH E
LARKIN» CHARLES R
LASHOF » THEODORE w
LASTER» HOWARD J
LAVENDER+ ROBERT A
LAYTONs L LAMAR
LEDER+ LEWIS B
LEFFINGWELL + THOMAS C
LEHNERT+ RICHARD
LEPSONs BENJAMIN
LEVYs LILLIAN
LIBELO+e LOUIS F JR
LIBENs WILLIAM
LIDDEL»+ URNER
LIEBSONs SIDNEY H
LIIMATAINENs T M
LIPNICKs MILTON
LIPPINCOTTs ELLIS R
LITOVITZ+* THEODORE A
LITTLE» CHARLES A
SEPTEMBER, 1964
7TRETD
1DNRL
1DNRL
3INAS
1DNRL
7TRETD
1XOST
1DNBS
1XNSF
1DNX
8NRNC
BNRNC
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7TRETD
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3SIAPL
1CNBS
1DAX
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8NRNC
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5RACO
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1DNRL
8BNRNC
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3IAPL
1HNIH
1DAX
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1XNAS
1CNBS
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AFRE
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LLOYD» EDWARD C
LOGANs JOHN K
LONBERGER+s STANLEY T
LONGs JOSEPH E—
LOWRYs LANCASTER
LUDWIGs GEORGE H
LUNCHICKs MYRON E
LYNNs W GARDNER
MAC CARDLE+s ROSS C
MAC DONALDs WILLIAM M™
MAC QUIVEYs DONALD R
MACAULEYs JOHN B
MACEKs ANDREJ
MACURDY+s ARTHUR C
MACURDY>s L B
MAENGWYN-DAVIESs G D
MAHANs ARCHIE I
MAISCHse WILLIAM G
MALETZs F J
MALETZs RED
MALMBERG+ PHILIP R
MALSTROMs ALVIN I
MALURKARs SL
MANDEL» JOHN
MANDELKERNs LEO
MANNs WILFRID B
MANNINGs IRWIN
MARDERse STANLEY
MARKOWITZs WILLIAM
MARSHALL» SAMSON A JR
MARSHALL +s WADE H
MARTIN» GORDON M
MARTINs JOSEPH P
MARTONs LL
MARTONs+s TIBOR W
MARVIN» ROBERT S
MASON» A HUGHLETT
MASONs CHARLES N JR
MASON+ EDWARD A
MASON» HENRY L
MASSEYs JOSEPH T
MATHESON» HARRY
MAVER»s FLOYD A
MAXWELL+ LOUIS R
MAYs ALBERT
MAYs DONALD C JR
MAYER+ CORNELL H
MAYS+« JOHN M
MAZUR+ JACOB
MC CLAIN»s EDWARD F JR
MC CLURE*s+ FRANK T
MC CLURGs GREGG H
MC CRAWs TOMMY F
MC CULLOHe KENNETH E
MC DONALD,» FRANK 8B
MC ELHINNEYs JOHN
MC GUIRE»s T R
MC KEEs W P
MC KENZIE+« LAWSON M
MC KINLEYs* JOHN D
MC KINNEYe JOHN E
MC MILLENs J HOWARD
MC MINNe WILLIAM O
MC NESBYs JAMES R
MC NISHe ALVIN G
MC PHERSONs« ARCHIBALD
MEARS+ THOMAS w
MECKLERes ALVIN
MEGGERSs WILLIAM F
METJERs P HE
MEISINGERs HW PETER
MELTONe BEN S
MENDOUSSE* JEAN S
MERKEL + EUGENE €&
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MIELCZAREKs EUGENIE V
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267
2B
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MILLERs MARLIN L 1DNOT PIEPER+ GEORGE F 31APL
MILLIKENe® LEWIS T 1CNBS PIOREs+ E R BNRNC AFNA
MILTONe CHARLES LIGES PLOTKINe HENRY H 1XNAS
MITCHELL «® CHARLES L 8BNRNC PLUMBs HARMON H 1CNBS
MITTLEMANs DON 1CNBS AFRA PLYLER+ EARLE K 1CNBS
MODINE« NORMAN F . 1HPHS PODOLAKs EDWARD 1XFAA
MOHLER®s FRED L 7RETD AFRE POLACHEK»s HARRY 1DNOT AFRA
MONCHICKs LOUIS 3IAPL AFRA POMEROYs« JOHN H 1XAEC
MONTROLL +» ELLIOTT w 31IDA AFRA POOLER» LOUIS G 4CONS
MOORE + DWIGHT G 1CNBS POWERS» JOSEPH 1CNBS
MOORE+ ROBERT M 2HGWU PRATHER» JOHN L 8NRNC
MOORHEADs JOHN G 1DAHD PROBUS» JAMES H 1D-xX
MORGAN+ RAYMOND 2HUMD AFRA PRYCEs AUBREY wW 1DNOR
MORRISON» COHN L SAMMA PUGH+ GEORGE E 5DERE
MORSCHERe LN JR 1DNOR PURCELL» J D 1ONRL
MORTON+s HAROLD S JR 8NRNC QUILL + JOHN J 1DNOL
MOYERs JAMES wW 8NRNC QUINNe JOHN J 8NRNC
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MUENCHe NILS L SOCLUN RADCLIFFEs« ALEC 3IAPL
MUNIS+* RICHARD H 1CNBS RADO+ GEORGE T 1DNRL AFRA
MURPHY + LEONARD M 1CCGS AFRA RAEZER» SPENCER D 3I1APL
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MURRAY» KENNETH M JR 1DNRL RALL»+ JOSEPH & 1HNIH
MUTCHe WILLIAM w 1DNRL RAMBERGse WALTER 1SXxX AFNA
MUZZEY*e DAVID S UR 1DNOL. RAMSAY« BERTRAND P 1DNOL
MYERS* RALPH D 2HUMD AFRA RAND+ SINAI 9CLUN
NALL*® JULIAN C OCLUN RAPPLEYE*s HOWARD S 7RETD AFRA
NAMIAS*+ JEROME 1CWEB AFRA RAYCHOWDHURY+s PRATIP N 2@HGWU
NARGIZIAN+ ANDREW A S9CLUN READINGe OLIVER S BNRNC AFNE
NAUGLE+« JOHN & 1XNAS REDMONDe JOHN P 3IAPL
NEEDELS+»s THEODORE S SREAN REED» CHARLES K 1DFOS
NETTLETONe RICHARD E 1CNBS REED+ HERBERT B JR 1DNOL
NEUMANNe META A BHSTE REICHARDT+ CHARLES H 1XAEC
NEWTONs ROBERT R 31 APL REICHELDERFER» F W 7RETD AFRA
NICOLAIDES+« JOHN D 8NRNC REYNOLDS» WH S9CLUN
NOBLE+ FRANK w LHNIH RHOADS+ FRANKLIN J 1DNRL
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NUCKOLLS+« RG 8BNRNC RICHMOND: SUSAN Vv 7RETD
NUGENT» LEONARD J 8NRNC RIDDLE+ JOHN L 1CNBS
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NUTTINGe P G UR 10-S RITZMANNe O F 8NRNC
O DELL» FRANCIS w 1DNRL ROBERGs JANE 1DNOL
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O ROURKE» RAYMOND C 8BNRNC ROBERTSONe+ ALBION L BIAPL
OBOURNs ELLSWORTH S 1HOED AFRA ROBERTSON» RANDAL M 1XNSF AFRA
ODISHAWs HUGH 9CLUN RODDY+« PATRICIA M 1HNIH
OEHSER» PAUL H 1XSMI AFRA RODDY+ VINCENT S 1DFX
OKADAs JOSEPH M 1DNRL RODNEYs WILLIAM S 1XNSF AFRA
OMIDVAR+ KAZEM 1XNAS ROEDDER+ EDWIN L1IGES AFRA
OPIKe ERNST J 2HUMD ROESER»s WILLIAM F 1CNBS AFRA
OSTENe EDWARD J 1XLIC AMRA ROLLER» PAUL S 5LIPR AFRA
OSTROFFs« EUGENE 1XSMI ROMANe NANCY G 9CLUN
OTTINGs WILLIAM J JR 1D-x ROSANOFFs BORIS P 1ARMR
OVERTONs WILLIAM C JR 8NRNC AFNA ROSENBLATT+ DAVID 1CNBS AFRA
PABLO+ MANUEL R 1DNRL ROSENBLATT« JOAN R 1CNBS
PAGEs BENJAMIN L 7RETD AFRE ROSSINI»« FREDERICK D BNRNC AFNA
PAGEs CHESTER H 1CNBS AFRA ROTKINs ISRAEL 1DAHD AFRA
PAI« SHIH-I 2HUMD ~ ROWE+ MARVIN H 1DNOL
PALMERs GERALD L JR 8NRNC RUARKs ARTHUR E 1XAEC
PARKER+s JOHN G 31APL RUBINe« ROBERT J 1CNBS AFRA
PARKS« ARTHUR O 1DNRL RUBIN» VERA C 2HGEU AFRA
PARSONS» C LELAND 1XNAS RUEGER»s LAUREN J 3IAPL
PARSONS*« DOUGLAS E& 4CONS AFRE RUSKIN+s ROBERT E 1DNRL
PASTA+s JOHN R BNRNC SAFFRANs HERMAN E 1DNOL
PEARSE» CABELL A 1ONRL. SALKOVITZs EDWARD I 1DNOR AFRA
PECHOUSEK»s THOMAS w 8NRNC SAMBUROFF + SERGE N 3I1APL
PEISERs H STEFFEN 1CNBS AFRA SANDER+ HERMAN J 1DFOS
PENTZER» WILBUR T 1ARMR AFRA SANDERS+ WILLIAM H 1DONRL
PERROS+ THEODORE P 2HGWU AFRA SANDERSON+ JOHN A 1IDNRL AFRA
PESELNICKs LOUIS LiGes -SANFORD+® RAYMOND L 7TRETD AFRE
PETERSEN» RICHARD G 1DNOL SANGSTER+ HAROLD L SCLUN
PETREEs MARCELLA C 1DNOL SAXTON+ HAROLD L 1DNRL
PETRITZ+e RICHARD L ~ BNRNC SCHAMP + HOMER W JR @HUMD AFRA
PHELPSe JOHN B SCLUN SCHARNHORST+s M P SCLUN
PHILBRICKs JANE V 1D-x SCHEERe MILTON D 1CNBS AFRA
268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SCHELL» EMIL D
SCHERESCHEWSKY+ PL
SCHIEFER» HERBERT F
SCHINDLER» ALBERT I
SCHLEGELMILCHs R O
SCHNAPER+ HAROLD Ww
SCHOLL + GEORGE S
SCHOOLEY*s ALLEN H
SCHOONOVER»s IRL C
SCHUBAUER+ GALEN B
SCHUBERT*+ DAVID C
SCHUBERT+ LEO
SCHULMAN+s JAMES H
SCHULZ+ ALVIN G UR
SCHUMANN>s WILLIAM A
SCHUYLER» GL
SCHWARTZ*+ ROBERT B
SCHWEDER+ WILLIAM H
SCOTT+s ARNOLD H
SeotTs — J
SEAQUIST+ EDGAR
SEEBOTHs CONRAD
SEEGER» RAYMOND
SEEMAN+ NATHAN
SELIGER»+ HOWARD H
SELLERS» RONALD E JR
SETTE»s WILLIAM J
SEVERIENS+ JOHANNES C
SHANKS+ DANIEL
SHAPIROs JAY R
SHAPIRO» MAURICE M
SHAPIRO+s PHILIP
SHELLEY» MARYANN
SHEPPARD» DONALD
SHEPPARD+ THOMAS
SHERLIN+ GROVER C
SHERWINs CHALMERS W
SHISHA+s OVED
SHNEIDEROVs ANATOL J
SHOSTAK+ ARNOLD A
SHOTLAND+ EDWIN
SHULER» KURT E
SHUMAKER* JOHN B JR
SHUPINGs+ RALPH &
SHUTE+ BARBARA &
SILBERBERGs REIN
SILSBEE+ FRANCIS B
SILVERMAN+ SHIRLEIGH
SILVERSTEIN+s ABRAHAM
SINGER» S FRED
SINGH» SOHAN
SITTERLY+ BANCROFT Ww
SITTERLY* CHARLOTTE M
SLACK» LEWIS
SLAWSKY+s ZAKA I
SLOOP. JOHN L
SMALL» JAMES B
SMART+ J SAMUEL
SMITH» FALCONER
SMITHs PAUL L
SMITH» SCOTT Ww
SMITH» STEPHEN U
SMITH» WALDO E&
SMITHs WILLIAM O
SNOWs GEORGE A
SNYDER» JANET
SOKOLOWSKI« THOMAS J
SOLEMs ANSON D
SOLLINS+ AD
SOLOWs MAX
SPECHTs HEINZ
SPINDLER» ROBERT J JR
SREBe JULES H
STANWICKs TAD
STASSINOPOULOS» E G
STEIGERs RONALD L
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STEINER»s ROBERT F
SEPTEMBER, 1964
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STEINERs WILLIAM F
STEPHENS+s ROBERT
STEPHENSON+ JOHN L
STERN+s JOSHUA
STERNE+s THEODORE £&
STETSON+ ROBERT F
STETTEN's DEWITT JR
STEVENS+ DONALD K
STIEHLERs ROBERT D
STILL» JOSEPH wW
STILLER» BERTRAM
STIMSONs+ HAROLD F
STIREWALT+s EDWARD N
STOBER+ ALFRED K
STONE+s ALBERT M
STRAND+ KAJ A
STRAUSS+ SIMON wW
SUDDETH+ JIMMIE A
SUTCLIFFE+ WALTER D
SUYDAMs BERGEN R
SVIRBELYs WILLIAM J
SWANSONs NILS
SWICKs CLARENCE H
SWINDELLSe JAMES F
TALBOTT « F EO
TALLEYs J WALLACE
TATEs DOUGLAS R
TATUMs G R
TAYLOR» JOHN K
TAYLOR» W BRUCE
TCHEN+s CHAN-—MOU
TEELE+ RAY P
TEMPLETONs DAVID F
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THEODORIDES» PHRIXOS J
TIDMANe DEREK A
TIEDEMANs JOHN A
TILFORD+s SHELBY G
TIMMS+ MARY L
TOBIAS» JEROME
TOBIN» RALPH A
TOLL» JOHN S
TOMKINS« GORDON
TOMS» M ELAINE
TORRESON+ OSCAR W
TOUSEY+s RICHARD
TOWNSENDs JAMES G
TOWNSEND+s JOHN R
TRENT+ EVA M
TRENT+ HORACE M
TREXLER+ JAMES H
TROUNSON+« EDWARD P
TRYTTENs M H
TSAI+ DONALD H
TURNERe DAVID M UR
TURNER+ JAMES E
TURNER» JCSEPH
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TYLER» GEORGE w
UYEHARA,s, GEOFFREY U
VAN DYKENe ALEXANDER R
VAN HOESEN+s RICHARD W
VAN VALKENBURGe ALVIN
VANDERSLICE+ JOSEPH T
VANDIVERE+ EDGAR F JR
VANE*s FRANCIS F
VAUGHANe WILLIAM H
VERWIEBE+ FRANK L
VIGNESS+ IRWIN
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VINTI»+ JOHN P
VISCO. EUGENE P
VON BRETZELe JAMES JR
VON BRIESENe ROY JR
WACHTMAN+ JOHN B JR
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WALLIS+« M W MRS
WALLISe« RICHARD F
WALSH» J PAUL
WALTON+s THOMAS S
WARBURTONs FRED W
WARGAs MARY E
WARNERs JACOB L
WATERMANs ALAN T
WATTSe CHESTER B
WAYe KATHARINE
WEBBe ROBERT W
WEBER+ JOSEPH
WEIDA+ FRANK M
WEIFFENBACHe GEORGE C
WEIGLE+ DAVID J
WEINSTEINe MARVIN S
WEINTRAUBs STANLEY
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WEISSBERG+ SAMUEL G
WEISSLER*e ALFRED
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WENNERSTENe DWIGHT L
WESKEs JOHN R
WESSEL+ PAUL R
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WESTs+ ESTAL D
WEXLER+ ARNOLD
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WHITTEN+ CHARLES A
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WILKIE+ JOHN B
WILLIAMS* VERNON L
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WILSON+s« RAYMOND E
WILSON+s ROBERT E
WILSON+ WILLIAM E JR
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WINSTONs CLEMENT
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WOLFe HARRY E
WOLFF e JOHN H
WOLLMAN+ SEYMOUR H
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wOOD+ LLOYD A
WOODs WILLIAM E
WOOLHISERs JE
WORF + DOUGLAS L
WRIGHT+ WILLIAM E
WYCKOFF e HAROLD O
YAGODAs HERMAN
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YOKLEY+ CHARLES R
YOST+ CHARLES F
YOUDENe WILLIAM J
YOUDENs WILLIAM W
YOUNGs JESSIE M
YOUNGs THEODORE R
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2C ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASH
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HERZFELD+» REGINA F 2HCUA AFRA
JUDD+ NEIL M TRETD AFRE
MILLERe CARL F 1XSMI AFRA
MOORE + HARVEY C 2HAMU AFRA
270
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ROBERTS+ FRANK H H
SETZLER+ FRANK M
SHIMKINe DEMITRI B
STEWART+ T DALE
STIRLINGs MATHEW W
TRAGERs GEORGE L
WEAVER+s ELMER R
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BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON
ALDRICHe JOHN W
BARSS*« HOWARD P
BEANs HOWARD S
BENJAMINs CHESTER R
BORTHWICK+s HARRY A
BOWMANe PAUL W
BOWMANs THOMAS E
BROWNe EDGAR
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CASHs EDITH K
COTTAMs CLARENCE
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GALTSOFFe PAUL S
GATES+ GE
GAZINe CHARLES L
GURNEY+ ASHLEY B
HAMBLETONe EDSON J
HANSENs IRA B
JACKSONe HARTLEY H T
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MUESEBECKe CARL F W
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PRICEs E W
RAUSCHs ROBERT
REHDERs HARALD A
RUSSELL+s LOUISE M
SCHMITTe« WALDO L
SCHREINER+ OSWALD
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ST GEORGE+ RAYMOND A
TRAUB+s ROBERT
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CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON
ABELSON+ PHILIP H
ADAMS+ LEASON H
ALEXANDER+s ALLEN L
ALEXANDER+ BENJAMIN H
ALEXANDERe LYLE T
ALLENs HARRY C JR
ALLISONe FRANKLIN E
ALTER+« HARVEY
ANDERSON+s MYRON S
ANDERSONs WENDELL L
APPEL s+ WILLIAM D
ARMSTRONGs GEORGE T
AUSLOOS+ PIERRE J
BAILEY+ WILLIAM J
BAKER+ LOUIS C w
BARKERs ROY J
BARNES+« R PERCY
BATESs ROGER G
BAVER+s HUGO
BECKERs EDWIN D
BECKETT+« CHARLES WwW
BEKKEDAHL + NORMAN
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BENNETT+ MARTIN T
BERCHe JULIAN
BERL+ WALTER G
BLOOMs MORTIMER C
BLUMs WILLIAM
~BONDs HOWARD w
BRAUER+ GERHARD M
BRENNER+ ABNER
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BRODE+ WALLACE R
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
BRODIE+ BERNARD B
BROWNe ALFRED E
BURAS+ EDMUND M JR
BURKe DEAN
CAMPBELL*+ FRANK L
CARHART+ HOMER W
CARRINGTON+ TUCKER
CARROLL + WILLIAM R
CARROWs MAXWELL K
CASSEL+ JAMES M
CAUL+« HAROLD J
CHEEKs CONRAD H
CLARKs KENNETH G
COULSONe E JACK
CREITZ+ E CARROLL
CUTTITTAs FRANK
DAFTs+ FLOYD §S
DARWENTe BASIL DE B
DAVIS« MARION M
DAVIS*+ RAYMOND
DEITZs VICTOR R
DETWILER» SAMUEL B JR
DIAMOND« JACOB J
DOUGLAS+ THOMAS B
EASTER+ DONALD
EDWARDS» H KENNETH
EGLIs PAUL H
ELLISe NED R
EMERYe« ALDEN H
FAHEYs+ JOSEPH J
FARROW+s RICHARD P
FERGUSON» LLOYD N
FERGUSONs ROBERT E&
FIELONERe ARNO C
FLETCHERe DONALD G
FLETCHERe HEWITT G JR
FLORINe ROLAND E
FORDe T F
FORZIATI+ ALPHONSE F
FORZIATI+ FLORENCE H
FOURTs+ LYMAN
FOX« MR
FOXe ROBERT B
FRAMEs ELIZABETH G
FRANKLINs PHILIP J
FREEMANe ANDREW F
FREEMANs+ MONROE &
FRIESS*« SEYMOUR L
FRUSHs HARRIET L
FULTONs ROBERT A
FURUKAWA+s GEORGE T
GIBSONe+ RALPH E
GILLMAN+ JOSEPH L JR
GINNINGS+s DEFOE C
GLASGOWs AUGUSTUS R JR
GOLUMBIC+ CALVIN
GONETs FRANK
GORDON+ CHARLES L
GRAY+ VANNIE E
HAGUE*+ JOHN L
HALL« STANLEY A
HALLER» HERBERT L
HAMER+ WALTER J
HARRIS* MILTON
HARVALIKs ZV
HAZLETON+ LLOYD Ww
HEINZE+ PETER H
HIATT» CASPAR Ww
HILBERTs GUIDO E
HILLIGs FRED
HOBBS+ ROBERT B
HOERINGs THOMAS C
HOLLIS+ NORMAN R
HOLMES FRANK H
HOOVERs THOMAS B
HOWE+s PAUL E
HUBBARD+ DONALD
IRVINGe GEORGE wW UR
SEPTEMBER, 1964
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1HNIH
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1CNBS
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ISBELL» HORACE §S
JACOBs KENNETH D
JACOBSON+s MARTIN
JOHANNESENs+ ROLF B
KANAGY+ JOSEPH R
KANEs EDWARD A
KARLEs JEROME
KARRER+ SEBASTIAN
KEEGAN+ HARRY J
KERESZTESY+ JOHN C
KING+ PETER
KLUTE+s CHARLES H
KNOBLOCKs EDWARD C
KNOWLTON+s KATHRYN
KRUGER+ JEROME
KURTZ+ FLOYD E
LANGFORDs GEORGE S
LIEBERMAN+ MORRIS
LINNENBOMs VICTOR J
LIPPINCOTT+s ELLIS R
LOCKHART+ LUTHER B JR
LOVEs S KENNETH
LYMANe JOHN
MADORSKY*+ SAMUEL L
MAGINe GEORGE B JR
MANDEL + H GEORGE
MANDEL + JOHN
MANNe DAVID E&
MARVINes ROBERT S
MARYOTT+ ARTHUR A
MASON+ EDWARD A
MATHERS+s ALEX P
MATLACK+s MARION
MAYe IRVING
MC BRIDEs GORDON wW
MC CABEs LOUIS C
MC CLUREs FRANK J
MC CLURE*s FRANK T
MC DONALD. EMMA J
MC NESBY+* JAMES R
MC PHERSON+s ARCHIBALD
MENKART+« JOHN H
MERZ+ ALBERT R
MEYROWITZ+ ROBERT
MILLER+ CLEM O
MILLER+ ROMAN R
MIZELL+ LOUIS R
MORRIS* JOSEPH B
MORRIS» KELSO B
MYERSe« ALFRED T
NAESER+s CHARLES R
NIRENBERGs MARSHALL W
OKABE+ HIDEO
PEISER:e H STEFFEN
PERROS+« THEODORE P
POMMER+ ALFRED M
PRO+ MAYNARD J
PROSEN+ EDWARD J
READ+>+ wT
REEVEs+ & WILKINS
REICHENe LAURA E
REINHART+ FRANK W
REYNOLDS+ HELEN L
RICE+ FRANCIS O
ROBERTS+ IRENA Z
ROLLER+ PAUL S
SAGERe WILLIAM F
SCHAFFER+ ROBERT
SCHALLER+ WALDEMAR T
SCHECHTERe MILTON S
SCHEER+ MILTON D
SCHOONOVERs IRL C
SCHRECKER« ANTHONY W
SCHREINERe OSWALD
SCHUBERT+ LEO
SCHWARTZ+ ANTHONY M
SCOFIELD+ FRANCIS
SCRIBNER+ BOURDON F
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271
2E-2F
SHAFRINs ELAINE G 1DNRL
SHAPIRO+s LEONARD 1IGES
SHERESHEFSKYe J LEON 2HHOU
SHMUKLER*+ LEON 8NRNC
SHULER KURT E 1CNBS
SINGLETERRYs CURTIS R- 1DNRL
SLADEK+s JAROMIL V LHFDA
SMITH» EDGAR R 7RETD
SOLLNERe KARL LHNIH
SOOKNE +s ARNOLD M SHARE
SOUDER»+ WILMER 4CONS
SPIES» JOSEPH R 1ARNI
STEINERe ROBERT F 1DNMR
STEINHARDT+ JACINTO 2HGEU
STERN+ KURT H 1CNBS
STEVENS+ HENRY 1ARNI
STIEBELINGs HAZEL K 7RETD
STIEHLER+« ROBERT D 1CNBS
SWEENEY. WILLIAM T 1CNBS
TALBERT+ PRESTON T 2HHOU
TAYLOR»s JOHN K 1CNBS
TAYLOR+ MODDIE D 2HHOU
TIPSON+e R STUART 1CNBS
TORGESENe JOHN L 1CNBS
TRYON+ MAX 1CNBS
VAN EVERAs BENJAMIN D- 2HGWU
VANDERSLICE+ JOSEPH T 2HUMD
VEITCHs FLETCHER P JR 2HUMD
WALL» LEO A 1CNBS
WALTONe WILLIAM W 1CNBS
WARD+s HENRY P 7RETD
WARGAe« MARY E 3AOSA
WASIKs STANLEY P 1CNBS
WEAVERse ELMER R 7TRETD
WEINTRAUBs ROBERT L 2HGWU
WEISSe FRANCIS J 1XLIC
WEISSBERG» SAMUEL G 1CNBS
WEISSLERe ALFRED 1DFOS
WESTENBERGe ARTHUR A 3TAPL
WHITEs CHARLES £— 2HUMD
WHITTAKERe COLIN W 1ARFR
WICHERS+e EDWARD 3INAS
WILSONs+ WILLIAM K 1CNBS
WITKOPs BERNHARD 1HNIH
WOMACKs MADELYN 1ARNI
WOOD+ LAWRENCE A 1CNBS
WOOD+ REUBEN E 2HGWU
WOODS+ G FORREST 2HUMD
YODER» HATTEN S JR 3ICIW
YOUDENs WILLIAM J 1CNBS
ZELENY+ LAWRENCE 1AMRP
ZIES* EMANUEL G TRETD
ZISMANs WILLIAM A 1DNRL
2F ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON
ADAMS+ JEAN R 1ARFR
ADLER» VICTOR E 1ARFR
ALFORD+ HAROLD G 1ARRP
ALTMANs RM 1DASG
ANDERSON* DONALD M 1ARFR
ANDERSONs WILLIAM H 1ARFR
APP+« BERNARD A 1ARFR
ARNETT+ ROSS H JR 2HCUA
AUTRY*+ HOMER V JR 1ARRP
BAKER+ EDWARD w 1ARRP
BAKER» HOWARD 7TRETD
BAKERe WL SCLUN
BARKER» ROY J 8NRNC
BARNHARTs CLYDE S 1DAX
BARRYs CORNELIUS 2HUMD
BEALs+ JAMES A 1AFOR
BENDER+ ALVA H OCLUN
BENDERs EDWARD K OCLUN
BICKLEY+ WILLIAM E 2HUMD
BILLINGS» SAMUEL C 1ARRP
BISHOPP+ FRED C . TFRETD
BIrSSERGs. Tk 2HUMD
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BLICKENSTAFFs CARL C
BODENSTEIN+ WILLIAM G
BOETTCHER+s RICHARD &
BONGBERGs JACK w
BRIGHAMs H IRVING
BULLOCK+ HOWARD R
BUNN» RALPH w
BURGESS+ EMORY D
BURKS» BARNARD D
BUSBEYs RUTH L
CALLAWAYs MINNIE
CAMPBELL +s FRANK L
CANTWELL+s GEORGE E
CARTWRIGHTs OL
CHRISTENSONe LEROY D
CLAUSEN+s CURTIS P
CONKLE+ HERBERT J
COOPER+ JAMES F
CORY+s ERNEST N
COULSON+ JACK R
CUSHMAN+s HELENE G
DAHMS» REYNOLD G
DALMAT+» HERBERT T
DAVIDSON+ JOHN A
DAVIS+ DON R
DAVIS» LOUIS G
DEWS+» SAM C
DIEKE»+ GH
DORWARDs KELVIN
DOWDEN+ PHILIP B
DRAKE» CARL J
DUCKWORTH+s W DONALD
DUTKY+s SAMSON R
EASTER» STEPHEN S
EDMUNDS+ LAFE R
EMERSONe K C
FALES»+ JOHN H
FIELDS+ RICHARD w
FLINTs OLIVER S
FLUNO+s JOHN A
FOOTEs RICHARD H
FOSTER+ JAMES R
FRACKER+ STANLEY B
FROESCHNER+ RICHARD C
GAMMONS+ JOHN G
GARRETT+ WALLACE T
GERBERGs EUGENE J
GILBERT+ ENGEL L
GODEK+ THEODORE D
GRAF» JOHN E
GURNEYs ASHLEY B
HAEUSSLER»s GILBERT J
HAINES*« KENNETH A
HALL» DAVID G
HALLER+ HERBERT L
HAMBLETON+s EDSON J
HAMBLETON» JAMES I
HARDINGs WALLACE G JR
HARNEDs R W
HARRISON» FLOYD P
HARTLEYs C F
HASKINS+ CARYL P
HAVILANDs ELIZABETH E&
HENNEBERRY+s THOMAS J
HERRINGs JON L
HIRST+* JOHN M
HODGES+ RONALD w
HOFFMANs JOHN D
HOFFMAN+ RICHARD E
HOFFMANN+ CLARENCE H
HUGHES+ JOHN H
HULL« WILLIAM B
HUNT+ HOWARD L UR
HUTTON+ GEORGE L
JAMES+ MAURICE T
JENKINSs DALE w
JOHNSON+s DR
JOHNSON+ PHYLLIS T
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
JONESe JACK C
JONES*+ SLOAN E
JOSEPHs STANLEY R
KINGSOLVER+ JOHN
KNIPLINGs EDWARD F
KNOWLESe ZELDA
KRAMER+ JAMES P
KRESTENSEN»s ELROY R
KROMBEINe KARL V
KUMAR+s S S
LANCHESTERe HORACE P
LANGFORD:+ GEORGE S
LATTAs RANDALL
LAUDANI+« HAMILTON
LEONARDe MORTIMER D
LLOYD+ GEORGE w
LUGENBILL+« PHILIP JR
MAKSYMIUKe BOHDAN
MALLACKe JERRY
MASON+ HORATIO C
MC COMBe CHARLES w
MC FADDENes MAX
MC GOVRANe EDWARD R
MC GUIRE+* JUDSON U JR
MICHAEL + ALBERT S
MITCHELL» ROBERT T
MUESEBECK, CARL F wW
MUNSONe S C
MURRAYs WILLIAM S
MURRILLe ROBERT D
NEAL+ T J
NELSONe R H
NEWSONe HAROLD D
Q NETLLe KELLIE
OMANs PAUL wW
OWENS+ HOWARD B
PARRISHe DALE wW
PELTIER+ PAUL X
PHILLIPS*e WILLIAM G
POOS»s FRED w
POPHAMe WILLIAM L
PORTERs B A
RAINWATERs CLYDE F
RAINWATER» H IVAN
REAGENs+ EUGENE P
REEDse LUCIUS B
REEDs+ WILLIAM D
ROBINSON*+ H
ROLLOWs J DOUGLAS
ROZEBOOMs LE
RUHOFF.s F A
RUSSELL. LOUISE M
SABROSKYs CURTIS w
SAILER+e REECE I
SHEPARD+ HAROLD H
SHERMAN+ RALPH w
SMALL + HAROLD E JR
SMILEY+ ROBERT L
Smilies FLOYD F
SNODGRASS» RE
SNYDERe THOMAS €E€
SOLLERS-RIEDEL+ HELEN
SPANGLER» PAUL J
SPILMAN+ THEODORE J
ST GEORGEs RAYMOND A
STARCKE+s HELLE
STEINHAVER+ ALLEN L
STEYSKAL+ GEORGE C
STONE+ ALAN
SULLIVANs WILLIAM N JR
TAYLOR+e ROBERT T
THOMPSON+ JOHN v
THURMANe ERNESTINE B
TODD» EDWARD L
TODD+ FRANK E
TRAUB+ ROBERT
TRAVIS» CLARENCE w
ULLRICHse DONALD E
SEPTEMBER, 1964
2HUMD
1ARFR
2HUMD
1XSMI
1ARFR
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1ARFR
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1ARFR
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1ARFR
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2G
VAN TASSELL+ EILEEN R
VANCE+s ARLO M
VASQUEZ+ ALBERTO w
VINCENT+ RH
VOGT+ GEORGE B
WADLEY« F M
WALKERs ROBERT L
WALKLEYs LUELLA M
WALTON» MARGARET
WARNER+ ROSE E
WEBBe JE JR
WEIGEL. C A
WEISMAN+ DONALD M
WHEELERe NANCY H
WHEELER+« RONALD E
WHITE+s RICHARD O
WIRTHs WILLIS W
WOKE+ PAUL A
WOLBARSHT + MYRON L
WOLFs VIRGINIA S
wooDe W B
YAMAMOTOs ROBERT T
YATES*s UCTELE
YOUNGs DAVID A JR
YUILL +. JOSEPH S
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NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
ABRAHAMs GEORGE
ADAMS+ LEASON H
AKERS» ROBERT P
ALLEN+ HARRY C JR
ALLISONs FRANKLIN E&
AMES« LAWRENCE M
ARMSTRONGe GEORGE T
ARSEMs COLLINS
BABERS« FRANK H
BALDES+ EDWARD J
BARKER+ ROY J
BARRETT+« MARGARET D
BEACHs LOUIS A
BEKKEDAHL « NORMAN
BELSHEIMe ROBERT O
BENJAMINe CHESTER R
BENNETTs JOHN A
BLACK+s RICHARD B
BLUMs WILLIAM
BOLTONe ELLIS T
BCRTHWICK+s+ HARRY A
BOUTWELL« JOHN M
BOWLES»s ROMALD E
BRENNER+e ABNER
BREWERe A KEITH
BROWNs ALFRED E
BROWNe JOSHUA RC
BUHRER+e EDNA M
BURINGTONse RICHARD S
BURNETT+s HARRY C
BUTLERs FRANCIS E
CALDWELL+ FRANK R
CARHART+ HOMER w
CARMICHAEL + LEONARD
CHAPINe EDWARD J
CHAPLINE*s® WR
CHRISTENSONe LEROY D
CLARK+ KENNETH G
COLE+ HOWARD I
COOLIDGE+ HAROLD J
CRAFTON+s PAUL A
CRAGOE+ CARL S
CURRAN«e HAROLD R
CURTIS* ROGER wW
CUTTITTAs FRANK
DAVIS+ MARION M
DE PUEe LELAND A
DICKSONe GEORGE
DOLECEKe RICHARD L
DOUGLAS+« CHARLES A
DRECHSLER+ CHARLES
1ONRL
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1HNIH
1CNBS
7TRETD
7TRETD
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1ONRL
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AFRA
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273
2G
DRYDENe HUGH L
DUERKSENe JACOB A
DURBINse CHARLES G
EDDYs BERNICE E
EDDYs NATHAN B
EFLLINGERs GEORGE A
ELLTOTIs CHARLOTTE
ELLISe NED R
EMERYs+ ALDEN H
ETZEL + HOWARD wW
FAHEYs JOSEPH J
FALLON+ ROBERT J
FARROWs RICHARD P
FAUSTs+ WILLIAM R
FERRELL+ RICHARD A
FIELDNER+s ARNO C
FIVAZ+s ALFRED E
FOXe MR
FOXe ROBERT B
FRANZe GERALD J
FRIEDMAN» LEO
FULLMERe IRVIN H
FURUKAWAs GEORGE T
GANT» JAMES @ JR
GARNER» CLEMENT L
GELLER» ROMAN F
GIBSON+ KASSON §S
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SEPTEMBER, 1964 277
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SEPTEMBER, 1964, 279
2N-2Q
HALL « WAYNE C
HAMERs WALTER J
HARRIS» FOREST K
HORTONs BILLY M
HUNTOONe ROBERT D
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
CURRAN+ HAROLD R
CURRIEs JULIUS A
CURTISSs PUR
CUTCHINS*» ERNEST C
DAIL*« MARTHA C
DAVIS» DORLAND J
DAVISs ROBERT J
DAWSON+s ROY C
DAWSON+ ROY C MRS
DEBORD+ GEORGE G
DENNY» CLEVE B
DOCKSTADER+ W B
DOETSCHs RAYMOND N
DOUGLAS+ GEORGE Ww
DREGUSS»+ MIKLOS N
DREYFUS+ JOSEPH C
DUNNIGANs ARTHUR P
DUTKY+ SAMSON R
EDDY+s BERNICE E
EDWARDS+ CLARK wW
ELSTINSs RUTA
EMMART+ EMILY W
EMMONS+ CHESTER W
EVANSe« ALICE C
EVANS+ TODD
FABERs JOHN E
FALGOUT+ BARNEY T
FEELEY+ JOHN C
I 11
FELSENFELD+ AMPHAN D
FELSENFELD»s OSCAR
FIFEs EARL H
FINKELSTEINs RICHARD A
FITZGERALD+s ROBERT J
FOECKLERs FRANCIS
FORMAL» SAMUEL B
FOURNELLE+ HAROLD J
FOWLERe RICHARD
FUGATEs GUY JR
FULLERe HENRY S
FULLER» VERNON J
FUSILLOs MATTHEW H
FUSON»s ROGER B
GAINES« SIDNEY
GANAWAYs JAMES R
GIBBS+ C J JR
GILMORE»s ELEANOR L
GINSBERGs DAVID M
GOHDs ROBERT S
GOLDSMITHs MARGARET T
GORDON+ FRANCIS B
GORDON+ RUTH E
GOUGHs BOBBY J
GRASSMYER+s EDDA
GREEN+ GEORGE H
GROSS» NOEL H
GUARRAIAs LEONARD J
GUTEKUNST+» RICHARD R
GUTIERREZ» JOSE
HABEL >» KARL
HAMPARs BERGE
HAMPP+s EDWARD G
HAMPTON+ CHARLES M
HANNe WILLIAM D
HANSEN» P A
HARDY+ FRANK M
HARMON+ STANLEY M
HARTLEY+s+ JANET w
HARTMAN+ ROBERTA S
HASENCLEVERs H F
HEILMANe DOROTHY H
HEIMs ALLEN H
HELPRIN» JEROME J
HERMANe LLOYD G
HERMANs YAYE
HETRICKs FRANK
HIATTs CASPAR wW
HILDEBRAND» EARL M
HOLLINSHEADs A C
‘SEPTEMBER, 1964
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HOOKs WILLIAM A
HOPPS+ HOPE E
HOPTMANs JULIAN
HOTTLEs GEORGE A
HUGHs RUDOLPH
HUNTER+ DONALD H
HUNTERs JACK A
IKARI« NORMAN S
JACKSON+s ELIZABETH B
JAMES+ L H
JANICKI»« BERNARD w
JEFFRIES*« JAMES D
JENNINGSs ANNE E
JENNINGS* ROBERT K
JONES +s ‘GYRE J
JORDANs HAROLD v
JOSEPHs S W
KASE« ALICE
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KAUFFMANNs GLADYS
KAUFMANs DONALD D
KAUTTER»s DONALD A
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KIMLER»s ALEXANDER
KIRSHBAUM.s AMIEL
KNOLL» EVERETT w
KOLBe ROBERT w
KORABs HARRY E
KRAMERs JULIAN
KRETSCHMAIERs HENRY
LABRECs EUGENE H
LAFFER»s NORMAN C
LAMANNAes CARL
LARRABEEs ALLAN R
LEAKE» JAMES P
LEE+ MARCIA R AM
LEININGERe« HAROLD V
METSEs JOSHUA.M
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MARCHs RICHARD W
MARSHALL »® JOHN D
MC CARTENs W G
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MC KINNEYe HAROLD H
MC LEANes RUTH A
MC MAHONes JOAN C
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MENCHERs JORDAN R
MENZIES« JAMES D
MILLER+s AUGUSTUS
MOLLARI« MARIO
MOORE+ GRANVILLE M
MOORE» RUTH E
MORRIS+ JA
MORRISON* THOMAS H
MUCCIONE*« VINCENT J
MUCKENFUSS+ R S
MUNCY+ GERALDINE
MURRAY+ RODERICK
NAGLE + STANLEY C JR
NEMESe JL
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TRETD
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1DNMR
1DAWR
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TRETD
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AFRA
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AFRE
AMRA
281
2Q-2R
NORMAN+ MARGARET C 1DAWR SOMERSON+ NORMAN L 1HNIH
NORTHe WILLIAM R JR T7RETD SPECKse EUGENE L 2HGWU
NOYES+ HOWARD E 1DAWR AFNA STANFIELDs+ JOHN T 3HDCG
O BARR+ THOMAS P 1ARNI STANLEYe ALFRED R 1HNIH
O CONNELL s+ ROBERT C SCLUN STAUFFERs EVA M 1DAWR
O HERNe ELIZABETH M 2HGWU AMRA STERN+ ARTHUR M SCLUN
OHLENBUSCHe ROBERT E 1DAWR STINSON» AUBREY 1HF DA
OPALSKYs CHESTER 1ARRP STONE «+ JOSEPH C 3HDCG
ORTENZIOe LOUIS F 1ARRP SUCHARD+ MINNIE R 2HGEU
OSWALDs ELIZABETH J 1HFDA SUITOR+e EARL C JR 1DNMR
OWENe LUDWELL JR 1HNIH SULZBACHERs WILLIAM L 1ARNI
OWENSe LOWELL D 1ARFR SURGENe RAYMOND C 9SCLUN
PARIKHe GOKALDAS C 5MELP TALBOTe W WADE 1HF DA
PARK+s CHOONG H 2HUMD TARRANTse CARL J 1DAWR
PARLETTs+ ROBERT C 2HGWU AFRA TAYLOR+ GLENN R 1XMDG
PARRe LELAND WwW TRETD AFRE TAYLOR+e ROBERT L 1DAWR
PELCZARe MICHAEL J JR 2HUMD AFRA TENNANT + RAYMOND W S5MIAS
PETRUCELLI+« ROSE M OCLUN THOMPSON+ RANDALL L 1HNIH
PITTMANese MARGARET 1HNIH AFRA TICKLESe JOSEPH JR 3HDCG
POELMAe PAUL L 1HF DA TINER+ JACK D SMELP
POPE.» BRUCE M 5SCPR TITTSLER»s RALPH P 1ARNI AFRA
POSSEHL»+ CARROLL D 3HDCG TRAUBe R G 1HNIH
POWELL + CALVIN J JR 1DAWR TRUEBLOOD>+ EMILY 1HNIH
PRESCOTTs LAWRENCE M 2HGWU TULLY+ JOSEPH G 1HNIH
PUGLIESEs FRANK G 1HF DA VARGOSKOe ANDREW J 1HNIH
QUANe ALICE D 1DNMR VEDROS+ N A 1DNMR
RANDALL + RAYMOND 2HUMD VERDERe ELIZABETH LHNIAH
RANSFORD:s RICHARD B 1DAWR VIVONAs STEFANO 1DAWR
REYNOLDS» HOWARD 1ARNI AFRA WALKER+ EARNEST A 1ARRP
RICHARDSONe+ EARL C 1DAWR WARDe THOMAS G SMIAS AFRA
RITTSe ROY E JR BNRNC AFNA WASHINGTON» OTHELLO 1DAWR
RIZZO+s ANTHONY A LHNIH WEBBe ALFRED M 1HNIH
ROBBINSe MARY L 2HGWU AFRA WETSS« EMILIO 1DNMR
ROBINSONe GERALDINE G 1DAWR WEISSe FRANCIS J 1XLIC AFRA
ROEGNER+s FRANK R 1HF DA P WEISSe FREEMAN A TRETD AFNE
ROGERS» LORE A TRETD AFNE WELSHe PATRICIA D 1HNIH
ROGERS« NANCY G 1HNIH WENTZ: BARRY A 1HEDA
ROGOSAe MORRISON LHNIH WESTe RICHARD K 1HNIH
ROGUL «+ MARVIN 1DAWR WHITEe« MACK 1HFDA
ROHDE+ PAUL A SBABI WILKINSe JUDD R 31ERF
ROSE+« EDYTHE T7RETD WILKOFFe LEE J 5wORE
RUSSELL »« MORTIMER 1XNSF WILSONs+ CLYDE R 1HE DA
RUST+ J H JR 1DAWR WITTLERe RUTH G 1DAWR
SALZMAN+s LOIS A 2HGEU WOHLIETER»+ JOHN A 1DAWR
SAMUELS« ROBERT M 1HFDA WOLF» KENNETH E 1IFWS
SANBORN» WARREN R 1DNMR WOODse+ GARNETT 1DAWR
SANDERS« ARVEY C 1DAX wOOD+ ROBERT C 2HGWU
SCHADE+s ARTHUR L 1HNIH WRAGGe JUNE B 1ARNI
SCHALL» THOMAS J 1HF DA YANCEYe FRANCES S 2HUMD
SCHERP« HENRY THNIH YESAIRe JOHN * 7TRETD
SCHERRe DAVID 1XMDG YOUNGs EDWARD J 2HGEU
SCHNAPER+ EDNA S LHNIH YOUNGs VIOLA M LHNIH
SCHNEIDER+ HERMAN 2HUMD ZIERDT+ CHARLES H LHNIH
SCHOENINGe HARRY W TRETD ZUFFANTE*s+ S M 1HF DA
SCHULTZEs WwW D 1ARFR
SHADOMY.s JEAN 1HNIH 2R SOCIETY OF AMER MILITARY ENGINEERS
SHADOMYs+ SMITH 1DAWR AMIRIKIANe ARSHAM 1DNBY AFRA
SHANAHANs+ ARTHUR J 1XNSF AFRA ASLAKSONe CARL I 4CONS AFRA
SHAWe EUGENE D IDAWR BRAATEN+ NORMAN F 1CCGS AFRA
SHELDON+« DONALD R 5MIAS CARDER+ DEAN S 1CCGS AFRA
SHELTONse L R JR 1HFDA CLEAVER+ OSCAR P 1DAER AFRA
SHORBse MARY S 2HUMD AFRA GARNERs+ CLEMENT L TRETD AFRE
SILVERBERG+ ROSALIE J 1HNIH GRANTe ULYSSES §S III T7RETD AFRA
SIMONTONs+ LOIS A 1DAWR HASKINS» CARYL P 3ICIW AFRA
SIMPSONs+ GEORGIE I 1DNMC HICKOXe« GEORGE H 8NRNC AFNA
SINGERe IRA 2HGEU HOUGHs+ FLOYD W 7TRETD AFNA
SISLERe FREDERICK D 4x : KAUFMANs H PAUL 4CONS AFRA
SLOCUMs GLENN G 1HF DA AFRA MEADE + BUFORD K 1CCGS AFRA
SMITHs CHAUNCEY wW 1DAWR MEYERSONe+e MELVIN R 1CNBS AFRA
SMITHs HELEN T 3HDCG RAPPLEYEs« HOWARD S 7TRETD AFRA
SMITHe JAMES L 1ARNI REEDe WILLIAM D 1DAEC AFRA
SMITHs LEE w SCLUN RICE« DONALD A 1CCGS AFRA
SMITHs NATHAN R TRETD AFNE - ROBERTS» ELLIOTT B 4CONS AFRA
SMITHe SARAH L 1DAWR RODRIGUEZs RAUL 1DAER AFRA
SMITHs THOMAS B 1D-IP * ROESERe WILLIAM F 1CNBS AFRA
SMITHe WILLIAM E 1HFDA SHALOWITZ+ AARON L 1CCGS AFRA
SNIESZKOs STANISLAS F OCLUN SMALL» JAMES B 1CCGS AFRA
SOLOWEYs« MATHILDE LHNIH SUTCLIFFEs WALTER D 7JRETD AFRE
282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
2s
rail
WEBER+ EUGENE W
WHITTENs CHARLES A
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS
AMIRIKIAN+ ARSHAM
ASLAKSONs CARL I
BIBERSTEIN+s FRANK A JR
CALDWELL + JOSEPH M
DOWNINGe LEWIS K
GARNER» CLEMENT L
GRANT+ ULYSSES S III
HICKLEY*+ THOMAS J
HICKOX+ GEORGE H
HINMAN»s .WILBUR S JR
HOUGHs FLOYD wW
HOWARD» GEORGE w
LANDIS+ PAUL E
MASONs+ MARTIN A
OSGOOD+ WILLIAM R
PARSONSs DOUGLAS E
RAPPLEYE* HOWARD S
ROBERTSe ELLIOTT B
SAVILLEe« THORNDIKE
SIMMONS+« LANSING G
SMITHs PAUL A
TREXLERs JAMES H
WALTHER» CARL H
WEBER+ EUGENE WwW
SOC EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY & MEDICINE
ALEXANDER+ AARON D
BARRETTs+ MARGARET D
BARRETT» MORRIS K
BERLINER+ ROBERT W
BOZEMANe F MARILYN
BRODIEs BERNARD B
BURK+ DEAN
BYERLYs THEODORE C
CARMICHAEL + LEONARD
CHALKLEYs HAROLD w
COULSON+ E JACK
DAFT+ FLOYD S
DAVISe R F
EODYs BERNICE E
EDDYs NATHAN B
ELLISe NED R
EMMART+s EMILY W
ENDICOTT» KENNETH M
FOX+ MR
FRAMEs ELIZABETH G
FRAPS» RICHARD M
FREEMANs MONROE E
FRIEDMANe LEO
HALSTEADs BRUCE
HAZLETONse LLOYD
HERMAN+ CARLTON
HIATTs CASPAR W
HOWEs PAUL E
HUGHe RUDOLPH
JUHNs MARY
KNOWLTON+ KATHRYN
KOPPANYIs THEODORE
LAMANNAs CARL
LOFQUISTs ETSUKO O
MANDEL « H GEORGE
MC CLUREs FRANK J
MOSTOFI« F K
NOYES» HOWARD E
PITTMANs MARGARET
PITTMAN+ MARGARET
POMMERs ALFRED M
RALL*»® DAVID R
REIDs MARY E
RITTSs ROY E UR
ROBBINS+« MARY L
ROSE« JOHN C
SHANNONe JAMES A
SHORB+ MARY §S
LM TS
SEPTEMBER, 1964
1DAEX
1CCGS
1DNBY
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2HCUA
1DAEB
2HHOU
7RETD
7TRETD
1CCGS
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4CONS
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2u
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SMITHs FALCONER
SMITHs WILLIE WwW
STEVENS+ HENRY
STEWARTs SARAH E
TELFORD+ IRA R
TIDSALL+ CHARLES S
TREADWELL + CARLETON R
VEITCHs FLETCHER P UR
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WOMACK+ MADELYN
wOODS+ MARK W
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AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR METALS
ACHTERs MEYER R
BENNETT+ JOHN A
BENNETT+ LAWRENCE H
BROWNs B F
BURNETT» HARRY C
CAUL+ HAROLD J
CHAPIN» EDWARD J
DAFTs FLOYD §S
DALZELL+s R CARSON
DE PUE+s LELAND A
DIGGES+ THOMAS G
ELLINGERs GEORGE A
GEIL« GLENN WwW
GILLMAN+s JOSEPH L JR
HERSCHMANs HARRY K
HOLMESs FRANK H
HOLSHOUSERs WILLIAM L
JENKINSe WILLIAM D
KIES+* JOSEPH A
KUSHNER+ LAWRENCE M
LOGANs+ HUGH L
LORINGs BLAKE M
MARZKE*s OSCAR T
MEYERSON*+ MELVIN R
MOORE» GEORGE A
OREMs THEODORE H
PELLINI» WILLIAM S
PENNINGTONese WILLIAM A
PITTS+« JOSEPH W
SANDOZ+s GEORGE
STAUSS+ HENRY E
SWEENEYs WILLIAM T
WEINBERGs HAROLD P
WENSCHs GLEN W
WHITMAN+s MERRILL J
WYMANs LEROY L
1ONRL
1CNBS
1CNBS
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1CNBS
1CNBS
1DNRL
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INTERNAT ASSN FOR DENTAL RESEARCH
ABRAMS+ ALBERT M
ABRAMS« ESTELLE
AREFIANs+ DANIEL
ARNOLD+ FRANCIS A JR
BAERs PAUL N
BATTISTONEs G C
BERNIER»s JOSEPH L
BHASKARe SURINDAR N
BHUSSRY+ B R
BOWENe RAEFEL L
BRAUER+ GERHARD M
BROWNs WALTER E
BURNETT+s GEORGE W
BURNS+ CLAIRE L
BURSTONE+s M S
CAMALIERs WILLARD C
CAUL+ HAROLD J
CHARTERs W V
CHURCHe LLOYD E
CORNYNe JOHN
DAWSON+ CLARENCE E
DICKSON+ GEORGE
ERIKSON+ EDWIN B
FITZGERALD+ ROBERT J
FOLK+ JOHN €E€
FORZIATI* ALPHONSE F
LD
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AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
283
2V-2X
FRECHETTEe ARTHUR R
FULLMERe HAROLD M
GAFAFERs WILLIAM M
GOODWINs WILLIAM M
GREENE» JOHN C
GRIFFITHSe NORMAN H C
HAGENs THOMAS L
HAMPP.» EDWARD G
HANSENe LOUIS S
HAYDENe IDA
HAYESe R L
HENRYs« JOSEPH L
HESS« WALTER C
HOWELL e« ARDEN J
JAMESe L H
JORDANe LUZERNE G
KAPLANe HARRY
KENNEDYs JAMES J
KEYESe PAUL H
KIGUEL+ ENRIQUE B
KRESHOVERe SEYMORE J
KROGHe HAROLD Ww
KRUGERe GUSTAV O
KUMPULAe JOHN wW
LARSENe RACHEL H
LIKINS+*s ROBERT C
LYMANe F EARLE
LYNCHs DANIEL F
LYONe HARVEY W
MARGETIS+ PETER M
MC CANNe HAROLD G
MC CLURE+ FRANK J
MEAD+ STERLING V
NELSEN+ ROBERT J
NEMESe JL
NYLENe MARIE U
OMATAs ROBERT R
OSTROM+s C Ae
PAFFENBARGER»s GEORGE C
PENNe JOAN C
PIEZ:e KARL A
POSNERe AARON S
RAULTe« CLEMENS v
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ROGOSA»s MORRISON
ROVELSTAD+ GORDON H
RUSSELLe ALBERT L
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SCOFIELD+ HENRY
SCOTTe DAVID B
SHIOTAs TETSUO
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SOUDER+s WILMER
STANFORD+ JOHN w
STEPHAN+ ROBERT M
SWANSONe HENRY A
SWEENEYs+ WILLIAM T
VAN REEN»s ROBERT
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MATSONe NORMAN A 1CWEB PAULHUS+e JOSEPH L 1CWEB
MATTHEWS* MILDRED M 1CWEB PAULUS+ WILLIAM C 1DNOD
MAYHEWs WILLIAM A JR 1DF WS PAYNE» JAMES 0 IDF WS
MAYKUTs E S 1DFE WSs PECKHAMs DEAN A 1CWEB
MC BIRNEY»s HAROLD R 1CWEB PEREZs GEORGE E 1DNOC
MC CARTER» ROY M 1CWEB PERIDIER»s PAUL H 1CWEB
MC CARTYs MIRIAM E 1CWEB PERLROTHs IRVING 1DNOD
MC CLAINe E PAUL 1CWEB PETERSEN+ GERALD A 1CWEB
MC COOKe JOHN w 1CWEB PETERSENs VERNON L 1CWEB
MC DONELL +. JAMES E£ 1CWEB PETERSON» A DELBERT 1DF WSs
MC EWENe ROBERT L 1CWEB PETERSON+ ARTHUR C 1CWEB
MC KINLEYs WILLIAM G 1CWEB PETERSON+ GEORGE WwW 1DFWS
MC NAIRY* JOHN v 10-x PETERSON+ KENDALL R 1CWEB
MC QUOWN+s JOHN R 1DFws PETERSON+ ROBERT A 1DNOC
MEANS+ LYNN L 1CWEB PFEIFFER+ EDWARD G 1D-X
MEINTEL»+ RALPH H 1CWEB PFEIFFER+ ROBERT M 1DFWSs
MILLERe AL 1D0NBW PHILLIPS+ BYRON B 1CWEB
MILLER+ HARRY A 1CWEB POLSTON+ JAMES A 1DFws
MILLER* JOHN F 1CWEB PORE+ NORMAN A 1CWEB
MILLS* RICHARD H 9CLUN PORTER+ JOHN M 1CWEB
MITCHELL» J MURRAY JR 1CWEB AFRA PORTER» STANLEY C 1DNOD
MIYAKODA+ KIKURO 1CWEB POSEY+ JULIAN W 1CWEB
MOFFATTs RONALD E LDNOD POTOCSKYs GABRIEL J 1DNOC
MOHLER+s P I 1DFWS POTTER+ THOMAS D 1DFWs
MOLANSKY+ SIDNEY 1CWEB POURNARAS+« STEPHEN W 1DF Ws
MOLO+s WILLIAM L 1DNOD PREDOEHL+ MARTIN C 1CWEB
MOORE+ DONALD F 1DFX PRESTON+ EUGENE R 1DF WSs
MORAN+ FREDERICK A 8NRNC AMNA PULLEN+ WILLIAM T JR 1CWEB
MORELAND+ M B 1DNWS PULLEY+s CHARLES T 1CWEB
MORGAN+ DEWITT N 1CWEB PURDY+ DOUGLAS C 1OF X
MORRISONe WILLIAM 1CWEB PUTNINSe PAUL H 1CWEB AFRA
SEPTEMBER, 1964. 287
2X
PYLE» ROBERT L
QUIROZ+ RODERICK S
RAGLANDs ADRIAN J
RAHMLOWs H W
RAMEY+s LEWIS H
RAMMER+s WILLIAM A
RAOs P KRISHNA
RATNER+ BENJAMIN
REEVES» CHARLES G
REICHELDERFER» F W
REIDEL+ JOHN T
REYNOLDS+ CLARENCE w
RHINE+ LLOYD R
RICHARD+ OSCAR E
RICHARDS» LEIFIELD Ww
RICHARDS» MARSHALL M
RICHTER» DONALD A
RIPPY+« HAROLD R
ROBERTS+ CHARLES F
ROBERTS+ KENNETH J
ROBINSON+ CECIL C
ROCHLIN»s BERNARD
ROCKNEY»s VAUGHN D
RODGERS» LYNDON T
ROGERS» MARVIN R
ROPEK» JOHN F
ROSENBLOOM. ABE
ROSENDAL+ HANS &
ROSSe ROBERT B
ROTHENBERG+ LEON
RUBIN» LOUIS
RUBINe»* MORTON J
RUFF +s IRWIN
RUSCITTO» PETER A
RUZECKI+« MARY A
RYALS+ JAMES E
RYMER» FRANK P JR
SADOWSKI» ALEXANDER F
SAIEDY» FUAD
SANGSTER+ LOU A
SANGSTER+ WAYNE E
SAYLOR+ HARLAN K
SCANLONe JOHN P
SCHAFER+ WOODFORD w
SCHALLERT« WILLIAM L
SCHAUSS+ CHARLES E
SCHIESL+ JOSEPH Ww
SCHLOEMER+ ROBERT w
SCHMIDT*+ REINHART C
SCHNURRe RICHARD G
SCHONER+ ROBERT W
SCHUETZ+ JOHN
SCHULE + JOHN J
SCHWALBs ARTHUR
SCHWARZ+ FRANCIS K
SCOTTs HAROLD A
SCOTTEN+s JOHN Ww
SEAMON+ LILBURN H
SEEBODE+ ALVIN F
SHANKs MITCHELL K JR
SHAWs ARCHIE
SHERRY+ EDWIN J
SHINNERS* WILLARD wW
SHOPE» JOHN 1
SHUMAN+« FREDERICK G
SIKe ALVER E
SIMMONS» RALPH C
SIMPSON+ LLOYD §S
SIMPSON» ROBERT H
SINGER» S FRED
SKILES+ FRANK L
SKILLMAN+® wc
SLEATER» JOSEPH K JR
SLOCUM+s GILES
SMAGORINSKY + JOSEPH
SMATHERS+ EARL E
SMEDLEY» DAVID
SMITHs ALVIN L UR
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AFRA
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SMITHe RAYMOND G
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SNIDERO+ MIRCO P
SNYDER* MARLIN H
SOLLERs RALPH R
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SPOWART+ D J
SPREENs WILLIAM C
SPRINGERs DONALD P
SPRINGER*e HAROLD S
SPROLES+« EDWARD S
SQUILLARO,», N
ST CLAIRe GILBERT L
STAATS+ WAYNE F
STARK«s LOYAL P
STEINs ROBERT P
STEINe WALTER L
STEINERe HAROLD
STIEWIGs NATHAN
STOFFER+ DWIGHT
STOMMEL + HERMAN
STONE*« LEON
STOWELL*+ DAVID J
STRALKAs+ RAYMOND J
STRICKLER+ ROBERT F
SUMNER+ HOWARD C
SUPPLEE+ MARGARET V
SWANNERe WILLIAM C
SWANSONs DWIGHT W
SWAYNEs WILLIAM W
SWEET+« JAMES S
TABER+s ROBERT w
TALCOTT+« MARION G
TAPAGERs JAMES R D
TAUBENSEEs ROBERT E
TAYLORe WILLIAM
TEMPLETON+s GEORGE S
TENNYSON+ GEORGE P JR
TEPPERe MORRIS
DE PY
TERWILLIGER+s+ RICHARD G
TEWELESs SIDNEY
THIEL + GORDON D
THOMs HERBERT C S
THOMAS+« ARTHUR R
THOMAS» BILLY D
THOMAS+s HARRY F
THOMASs R F
THOMPSON+s+ BERTRAND J
THOMPSON*« DONALD R
THOMPSONs EDWIN S
THOMPSON» HAROLD P
THOMPSON+s HERBERT J
THOMPSONs JACK C
THOMPSONs ROSCOE E
TIERNANes EDWARD Vv
TIMCHALKs ANDREW
TINGLE+ ADRIAN A
TREBBEs WILLIAM J
TROGOLO+ ALBERT G
TRUESDELL + DONOVAN F
TUTTELL + JOHN J
VALITSKI*« ROBERT
VAN CLEEFs» FREDERICK L
VANDERMAN+ LLOYD W
VEITHs ANTHONY J
VERNON+« EDWARD M
VIEBROCKs HERBERT J
VILLAREJOs JAMES
VORE+ CHARLES WwW
WAGGONER: MARY L
WALKERs SYLVESTER E
WALLACEs+ J ALLEN JR
WALTONe RONALD J
WARK+ DAVID @Q
WASSALL+ ROBERT B
WATERS+ WELLINGTON
WATKINS» ROGER R
1CWEB AMRA
1CWEB
1CWEB
1DNOC
1CWEB
1DF WSs
1CWEB
1DNwS
1XNAS
1CWEB
1CWEB
1CWEB
1DNX
1CWEB
1CWEB
1CWEB
1DNOD
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
2X-3C
WEAVER» LORAN A 1DFWS COOKs RICHARD K 1CNBS AFRA
WEBBs CHARLES & 1DFWS CRAVENs JOHN P 1DNSP AFRA
WEBBER+ JOHN P 1CWEB FRANZ+ GERALD J 1DNDT AMRA
WEBBER+ PAUL E 1CWEB GREENSPANs MARTIN 1CNBS AFRA
WEISS« LEONARD L 1CWEB HARRISON+ MARK 2HAMU AFRA
WELDON» ROGER B 1DFWS HARTMANN» GREGORY K 1DNOL AFRA
WELLS+ FRED E 1CWEB HENDERSON+ MALCOLM C 2HCUA AFRA
WELLSe« HOWARD J 1CWEB HICKLEYs THOMAS J 1CCGS AFRA
WESTs ALMA B LCWEB LITOVITZs THEODORE A 2HCUA AFRA
WEST+ JAMES C 1DNWS ' SNAVELYs BENJAMIN L IDNOL AFRA
WEYANTe WILLIAM S 1CWEB SNAYs HANS G 1DNOL AFRA
WEYRES» WALTER J 1CWEB STRASBERGs MURRAY 1DNDT AFRA
WHITEs BOYD P 1CWEB TRENT» HORACE M 1DNRL AFRA
WHITE» HUGH S 1D-x VIGNESS» IRWIN 1DNRL AFRA
WHITEs ROBERT M 1CWEB AFRA WEISSLER+ ALFRED 1DFOS AFRA
WHITELY* THOMAS D 1CWEB
WHITNEYs* LINWOOD F UR 1CWEB 3B AMERICAN NUCLEAR SOCIETY
WILLIAMSs JAMES T 1CWEB ABELSONs PHILIP H BIGEL AFRA
WILSONs HM 1DNX DALZELL» R CARSON 1XAEC AFRA
WILSONs WALTER T 1CWEB EDMUNDS» WADE M 31JBS AMRA
WINNER» JOHN P 1CWEB MAGINs GEORGE B JR 1XAEC AFRA
WINNINGHOFFs FRANCIS vy 1CWEB MOSTOF I+ F K 1D-IP AFRA
BANE TONS JAY <S 1CWEB MUEHLHAUSEs CARL O 1CNBS AFRA
WISEs JAMES W 1CWEB PRO» MAYNARD J 1TIRS AFRA
WITHERINGTONe JAMES D_ 1DFWS WEILs GEORGE R 4CONS AFRA
WITTMANN® WALTER I 1DNOC WETSS+ FRANCIS J IXLIC AFRA
WOFFINDEN+ CHARLES M 1CWEB WENSCHs GLEN W 1XAEC AFRA
WOLK+s MARTY 1CWEB WHITMANs MERRILL J 1XAEC AFRA
wOODe CHARLES P 1XNAS
wOODe ERNEST A 1CWEB 3C INSTITUTE OF FOOD TECHNOLOGISTS
wOODS»+ GILBERT N 1DF ws ALFORDs JOHN A 1ARNI
WOOLF +e HAROLD M 1CWEB ALLENs HAROLD B 1IFWS
WOOLLUMs CLARENCE A 1CWEB ALTIMUSs ROBERT R 3ADIS
WRIGHTs GR 1CWEB ARBUCKLE» w S 2HUMD
WYATT+ SAMUEL V 1CWEB BAILEY» ROBERT H 8NRNC
WYETT+ ROY E 1CWEB BARTLETT+ RICHARD P JR 1AMRP
YAOs AUGUSTINE Y M 1CWEB AMRA BARTRAMs M THOMAS 1HFDA
YARKINe STANLEY 1CWEB BATCHER»s OLIVE M 1ARNI
YERGENs>s WALTER F 1DNOC BEACHAMs LOWRIE M 1HF DA
YOUMANSs ARTHUR W 1CWEB BEE» GERALD R BANCA
YOUNGs MURRAY J 1DF WSs BELL» JAMES wW BANCA
YOUNKIN»s RUSSELL J 1CWEB BENDER» MAURICE 1HPHS AFRA
ZAMBORSKY+ ANDREW V 1CWEB BERMANs MORRIS D 1ARNI
ZEGEL + FERDINAND H 1CWEB BLOMQUIST+* VICTOR H LHF DA
ZIKEEVs NINA 1CWEB AMRA BOHRERs C WALLACE 3BANCA
ZOCHs RICHMOND T 7RETD AFRA BOYD+ DONALD M SREAN
BOYDs EARL N 1ACSR
2Y INSECTICIDE SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON BRANDLY»s PAUL J 1ARRP
BARKER+s ROY J BNRNC AFNA BROGDONs JENNIE L 1ARNI
BICKLEYs WILLIAM E 2HUMD AFRA BUSHs M BRUCE 2HC OU
BUNN+« RALPH WwW 3AESA AFRA BUTLERs CHARLES 11IFWS
CAMPBELL + FRANK L 7RETD AFNA CALVERTs CATHERINE R 1HPHS
CHRISTENSON+s LEROY D 1ARFR AFRA CAMPBELL*» ALFRED D 1HF DA
CORY» ERNEST N 7RETD AFRE CAREYs RICHARD T 1AMRP
FULTON+s ROBERT A LARFR AFRA CHAMBERLAYNE+s EARL C 6WOHE |
HAINES+ KENNETH A 1ARAO AFRA CHAPMANs+ VELMA J 1ARNI
HALL+« STANLEY A 1ARFR AFRA COOK+s HAROLD T 1ARMR AFRA
HALLER» HERBERT L 7RETD AFRA COOKs J WILLIAM 1HF DA
HENNEBERRY*+ THOMAS J 1ARFR AFNA CRISSs WILLIAM H 3ADIS
HOFFMANs JOHN D 1CNBS AFRA CROWTHER+ HAROLD E& 1IFWS
HOFFMANNs CLARENCE H 1ARFR AFRA DAWSON» ELSIE H 1ARNI
JACOBSONs MARTIN 1ARFR AMRA DENNYs CLEVE B BANCA
KNIPLINGs EDWARD F 1ARFR AFRA DUGGANe REO E 1HFDA
LANGFORD» GEORGE S 2HUMD AFRA DWYER+ MARY C 1DNSO
LARRIMER+ WALTER H BINAS AFRA EDMONDSONs LOCKE F 1ARNI
NELSONs R H 3AESA AFRA EHEART+ JAMES F LARNI
POOS» FRED w 7RETD AFRA EHEART+s MARY S 2HUMD
PORTERs B A 7RETD AFRA EIDUSON+ HYMAN P 1HFDA
REED+ WILLIAM D 1DAEC AFRA ELKINS+ EDGAR R JR SANCA
SARLES» MERRITT P 2HCUA AFRA ENGLAND+ C WALTER SENLA
SCHECHTER» MILTON S 1ARFR AFRA FARROWs RICHARD P 3ANCA AFRA
SHEPARD+ HAROLD H 1AASC AFRA FIELDS+e MELVIN D 1XGSA
SMITH+ CHARLES M 7RETD AFRE FISCHBACHs HENRY IHF DA
SMITH» FLOYD F 1ARFR AFRA FREAR+» SCOTT & 2HUMD
TODDs FRANK E 1ARFR AFRA FRIEND+e BERTA 1ARNI
YUILL»+ JOSEPH S 1AFOR AFRA GADDIS*+ ADAM M 1ARNI
GARNER+ RICHARD G 1ACSR
2Z ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA GILPIN+e GLADYS L 1ARNI
SEPTEMBER, 1964 289
3C-3E
GOLUMBICs CALVIN
GOODWINe JOHN T JR
GRAHAMs C E
GREENLEAF» CARLOS A
GRINNELL + CHARLES N
GUNDERSONe FRANK L
HAHNes ELISABETH H
HAMANNe JOHN A
HARRIS*« MARSHALL E
HEINZEs PETER H
HILBERT+ GUIDO E
HILLIGe FRED
HINERe RICHARD L
HIVONe KATHARINE J
HOLLINGSHEAD+ ROBERT S
HOLSTON» JOHN A
HOOVER+ SAM R
HOOVERe WILLIAM J
HORNSTEINe IRWIN
IRVINGe GEORGE W JR
IRWINs ISABEL
JAMES«e LH
JOHNSONe PAUL E
JUSTINes A CHRISTINE
KERR+e ROSE G
KINGe RAYMOND L
KLINEs ORAL L
KORABe HARRY E
KOTULA*+ ANTHONY wW
KRAMERs AMIHUD
KULWICHe ROMAN
LA BOULIEREse PAULINE £E&
LITMLEs RUBY R
LOPEZ+ ANTHONY
LOYs+ HENRY W
LUTZ+ JACOB M
LUTZ+ ROGER A JR
MACLAY+ W DAYTON
MAGNUSSON+ HARRIS W
MAHONEYe CHARLES H
MATCHETT+s JOHN R
MATTHEWS* RUTH H
MATTICKe JOSEPH F
MC BRIDE* GORDON w
MC DONALD+ EDWINA
MC KINLEYe FRANK
MC LEANe RUTH A
MC MINIMYs MARGARET
MC NALLY+ EDMUND H
MC NEILe ETHEL C
MERCURI« ARTHUR J
MILLARe ZELMA A
MILLER+e DAVID J
MORRIS+ WALTER W JR
NORRIS+s KARL H
OSBORNe« ROBERT A
PANKEYs LINDAL H
PARSONSe« PHILIP C
PATTERSONs WILBUR I
PECOT+ REBECCA
PERLMUTTER:s SAMUEL H
PISKURs FRANK
PROCHAZKAs MILLO W
REDSTROMe RUTH A
REEDe JAMES M
REYNOLDS* HOWARD
RHOADS+ AUSTIN T
ROE*s ROBERT S
ROTHSCHILD+ LOUIS JR
RUBIN» MEYER
RYALL+ A LLOYD
SALKIN+* HAROLD
SCHAFFER+ JACOB M
SCHLOSSER» GEORGIA C
SCHMITTs HERMAN P
SCOTIialE
SHANEYs JENNIE
SHELTONe L R JR
290
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6HURE
3ANCA
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1ARNI
7RETD
1IFWS
1ARNI
SVETR
1ARMR
1ARAO
1ARNI
8NRNC
3INAS
1DNSO
1IFWs
2HUMD
1HF DA
3AABC
1ARMR
2HUMD
1HNIH
1HFDA
1ARNI
8NRNC
1HFDA
1ARMR
8BNRNC
1ARNI
3INFI
3ANCA
1ARNI
1ARNI
2HUMD
5UNCA
1DNSO
1HF DA
1ARNI
2HUMD
1ARFR
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1ARMR
SHOSH
1HF DA
1HF DA
1ARMR
1HF DA
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1ARNI
1HF DA
1IFWS
1HF DA
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1HF DA
AFRA
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AFRE
AFRA
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AFRA
AFRA
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SHRIVERe REBECCA F 3ANCA
SLOCUMs GLENN G 1HFDA AFRA
SMITH*+ HORACE L JR 8NRNC
SNYDERs DONALD G 1IFWS
SOMERS+ IRA I 3ANCA
SPEERe JOHN F 3AAIC
SPENCE+ ROBERT J 2HUMD
STEELEs ERNEST K 1AMRP
STERNBERG+ RICHARD Ww 3AABC
SULZBACHER+ WILLIAM L_ 1ARNI
SUMMERS+ DONALD 1HPHS
SWEENEY+« JAMES P 1ARNI
SWIFT« CLIFTON E 1ARNI
THOMPSONe JOHN I 1ARMR
THOMSONs JAMES E 1ARMR
TITTSLER*s RALPH P 1ARNI AFRA
TOEPFERe EDWARD w 1ARNI
TOLDBYs VERNER 8NRNC
TOLLE + CHESTER D 1HFDA
TWIGGe BERNARD A 2HUMD
VAUGHN>s M wW BNRNC
WALKER+s WILLIAM C 8NRNC
WALTER+ HOMER E : 1ARNI
WEBBs BYRON H 1ARNI
WEIRe C EDITH 1ARNI
WETSS*« FRANCIS J 1XLIC AFRA
WILEY*« ROBERT C 2HUMD
WILKINSe GEORGE R SCONC
WILLIAMS+ DONALD H 3ADIS AMRA
wOOD+ CHARLES B ENRNC
wOOD+ WILLIAM H 5HOSH
YEATMAN+ JOHN N 1ARMR
YIP+ GEORGE 1HF DA
3D AMERICAN CERAMIC SOCIETY
DIAMOND+ JACOB J 1CNBS AFRA
GELLER+ ROMAN F 7TRETD AFRA
INSLEYse HERBERT 4CONS AFRA
MC MURDIE+« HOWARD F ICNBS AFRA
PEISER+ H STEFFEN 1CNBS AFRA
PITTSs JOSEPH W 1CNBS AFRA
RICHMONDs JOSEPH C 1CNBS AFRA
RITTe PAUL E SMELP AFRA
TOOL+ ARTHUR Q 1CNBS AFRA
3E ELECTROCHEMICAL SOCIETY
APELT+ ARMIN O 1XNAS
ARSEMs WILLIAM C 4CONS
BLOOMs MORTIMER C 1DNRL AFRA
BLUMe WILLIAM 4CONS AFRE
BOWERS+ FREDERIC M 1DNOL
BRADLEYe WILLIAM E 3IIDA
BRANCATOs E L 1DNRL
BRENNERe ABNER 1CNBS AFRA
BROWNs FLOYD 1ONRL
BURBANKs+ JEANNE B 1DNRL
CAMMAROTAse V ANTHONY 9CLUN
CASTELLANs GILBERT W 2HCUA
CLINGANs IRVINE C SEASS
COLE+ PHILIP B 1DNOL
CRAIGse D NORMAN 1CNBS
DE MARCOs FRANCIS D SBECO
DE WANE*e HAROLD J 1CNBS
DENHARD+ ELBERT E JR SARST
DONIHEEs JAMES B 116MI
DONNELLY* PAUL C 1XNAS
DUNCANs+ BLANTON C 1CNBS
EBDON+ DAVID W 2HUMD
EICKEs« WOODWARD G 1CNBS
ELLINGER+ GEORGE A 1CNBS AFRA
FOLEY+ ROBERT T SMELP
FORZIATI+* ALPHONSE F 1D-S AFRA
= FRYSINGER+ GALEN R 1DAER
GARDNER+s VE 9CLUN
GINTHERe ROBERT J 1DNRL AFRA
GIORDANOs WALLY 8NRNC
GULLETTs WILLIAM W SCHDE
HALPERTe GERALD 5MELP
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
—
HAMER»+ WALTER J
HEBBs EMMA L
HELLFRITZSCHs ALVIN G
HENNIGANs THOMAS J
HIGHTOWER+e C
KENAHANe CHARLES B
KRASLEYs PAUL A
KRUGER» JEROME
KRULFELD» MYER
LABRIEs ROGER J
LAMBs VERNON A
LARRICKse BENJAMIN F
LAWs CATHERINE
LINDBERG+ R
LOGAN+ HUGH L
LOWRY» LANCASTER
MARSDENs CHARLES P
MAYs VERNON B
MC CAWLEY» FRANK X
MC GINNIS* LAURENCE P
MC GRIFFs STUART G
MC WILLIAMS*s T G JR
MEUSSNER»s RA
MOORE+ GEORGE A
OGBURN+ FIELDING
OSTRANDER+«s ELINOR H
OTTOs EARL M
PIERDONs ARTHUR G
PITMAN+e ARTHUR L
REID+e WALTER E JR
RITT+ PAUL E
SANCHEZs MOISES G
SANSONETTI» S JOHN
SAVITZs MAXINE L
SCHLAIN»s DAVID
SCHRODERs ARTHUR
SCHULDINERe SIGMUND
SCHULMANs JAMES H
SHARPE +s THOMAS F
SHEPHERD» CLARENCE M
SHERFEYs JOSEPH M
SIMON» ALBERT C
SINGMAN+ DAVID
SOLLNERs KARL
STAPLES» BERT R
STERN» KURT H
TAYLORs JOHN K
TRAPP» ORLIN D
VIGLOTTI» CLEMENT F
WALES+ CHARLES P
WARBURTON+ DONALD L.
WHITE+ JOSEPH C
WOJCIKs BH
wOOD+s+ GWENDOLYN B
wOOD+s REUBEN E
WOOLLEY+ JOHN P
SEPTEMBER, 1964
1CNBS
1DAHD
1DNOL
1XNAS
9SCLUN
11BMI
LTiBEP
1CNBS
1DNRL
1ONRL
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291
Delegates to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Representing
the Local Affiliated Societies*
Pane MCAT SOGIELY, 161. W ASMINGEOM 5.377 Si eee eB cccscsesatessigbcecstendess Nevecosctie Urner LIpDEL
Pmienmpalorieal: Soclety Of Washimeton! 602... 2fccc es ticeceeeeestesenatsntseveiacenss osnbessssoseveveeds GorpoN McGrecor
Renmede ale SOCIcl ys OL WeASHIMOLOH ac. necicscc. 0c cocniaseaceacnvensainstece-Deenseatddessplbssvtesscustaenseleleen Joun L. Parapiso
(LEDGE) SCLSTCING 30 VE) 05 55 Rae Wituram A. ZIsMAN
Eniomplocical Society of Washington ....................cc0:-ssss-cssceseseonseceecbecedsctesaectencenenescuas Haroitp H. SHEPARD
Se meee A Gok AS DIT) SOCIOL Ye ooo os oa curacy cs eee cerns ptenss osevtansebensaecbscarsstedeesae. « aeareds ALEXANDER WETMORE
eaMeenae ISG CICLY EOL NGASHINICLON oes. Sale ee adn eateaa eas >. edhe vaseey -\otepes svelte osc oMaset ese. Luna LEoPpoLp
Medweal Society of the District of Columbia .......2.cc... cc... tec sseeeessstecettecssseatesests THomas M. Brown
SSL temml See: TRUS THOLET CLL SCOOT Ey 8 7a aca Oa Pe ne eee U. S. Grant, III
2 emienll Soreiny GaR AWS Cr 16a (0) 0 ae ee ee ne me ete sn Se Witpur D. McCLe.ian
aici Mee ATIVE R ICAO MONE SLCES 62.5. o 20.05: pce coeds 05d soon aibaden wnat gcanencdvpssnmnbnsoardiendcweiers Harry A. Fowetts
Washington Society of Engineers .............. SR token ich eee aoe ea ee DA eee Martin A. Mason
fnseiture ot Hlectrical and Electronics Emgineers ............06.0...065.c.ceccececeeesecceacsceeecceceaseeesees. GreorceE ABRAHAM
Panerican Society Of Mechanical Engineers ..................:..s:csss--secsesessedeessstesenesececscenteed. Witutiam G. ALLEN
Eleimintnolocical Society Of Washineten 00.2... cccc....0cecsereseceecessceseosssecceceseecsenseeseseesseseeeey- Marton M. Farr
American Society for Microbiology ...........0.00.0.00000.... See ee ee ae Pr ae inno ee FRANK HETTRICK
Paneer osmerncan WVilttary Mmgineers, .......c5.:0.1.g..ce0e-e-0--02.ccge dca loneslaseovatveseatuvsecdeaveeseeventen H. P. DemutH
Pamtaecrie SOCIeLy OF Civil: EENGINEETS vo... c.cc<cc-caseccssnceteecvenecnsceenseceaviatovbesadbeeenscssouees THORNDIKE SAVILLE, JR.
Sariemaior Expermental Biology and Medicine ...........5:-<.......ccs..sscsesscccsseseocsescsesscsneesudensesees FALCONER SMITH
OMAR MTR SOR ICL VITO GE NEC EIS 5.0. a eee eerste cae. cae cc eoevsndeseseeibecyu Uascsbenssaceseddsacseesauvarubteticaccesnelele: Hueu L. Locan
imeraaiwonal Association for Dental Research «0.2.0.0... 60. iesccceecessscc essseeesnstaseceesvaetaceers Harotp J. Caur
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astromautics............:..052..cccccccccsseseeccesssseesseeseese EuceNE EHRLICH
PREG AM NLCECOROLOZICAL SOCIELY, <.scle..c2e. 01... cccgecccccwsctecstcascsoeesnetedesdescesavnstansceteesee J. Murray MirtcHeE Lt, Jr.
ee enRCIe Ee Pe SOCICLY OL) WASHINGTON oe. 6 cp! cof os. Soew cdi sche wcnuisenueeantzacsasedWarecsovessaotenssnest Rosert A. FULTON
PeepnaS Page S OC TELY) Ol ANTNCEN CA ge ae ae Ses Sone ca ane) sees eaten oncoe ieud egenoendeslebestesnbardednndess Matcotm C. HENDERSON
SPL EYE GET INGIGISRTESS VOTE AY Coons ss ohecea cere Sobel ne ee Rene ee Georce L. WEIL
RMD OOU EC IMOLOSISES. oo. s<a2.-5.+ ca ack so <a¥s sacs a decnceessdaqnedeedhsyesouseescsscatocscsasscategetecssee RicHarD P. Farrow
Prmerican Ceramic SOCIELY ..................sccesessesesessieeeeees PRE Ne 8s de nae tai J. J. Diamonp
J SELES S mverrmiegall Stayer Seay oe ice hate a eRe Kurt H. STERN
* Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective affiliated societies.
Volume 54. SEPTEMBER 1964. No. 6
CONTENTS
1964. Directory
General Information 0. goa eee 205
Alphabetical List of Members ees he nn 213
Classification’ by Place of Employment 0.0... 238
Classification by Membership in Affiliated Societies .............. Pee... 264
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JOURNAL
of the
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ACADEMY
of
SCIENCES
NMolw54: “ee Nox 7
OCTOBER
1964:
wr
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Editor: SAamueL B. Detwiter, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Associate Editors
Rocer G. Bates, National Bureau of Standards HELEN L. ReyNotps, Food and Drug Adminis-
Harotp T. Coox, Department of Agriculture tration
RicHArRD P. FARROW, National Canners Asso- RUSSELL B. STEVENS, George Washington Uni-
ciation versity
J. Murray MiTcHet1, Jr., Weather Bureau
Contributors
FRANK A. BIBERSTEIN, JR., Catholic University Jacop Mazur, National Bureau of Standards
CHARLES A. WHITTEN, Coast & Geodetic Survey
A : :
Maryorre Hooxer, Geological Survey ALLEN L, ALEXANDER, Naval Research Laboratory
ReuBEN E. Woop, George Washington Univer-
sity Victor R. Boswett, USDA, Beltsville
JosEpH B. Morris, Howard University Harry A. Fowetts, USDA, Washington
ILEEN E. Strwart, National Science Foundation
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes historical
articles, critical reviews, and scholarly scientific articles; notices of meetings and abstract proceed-
ings of meetings of the Academy and its affiliated societies; and regional news items, including
personal news, of interest to the entire membership. The Journal appears nine times a year, in
January to May and September to December. It is included in the dues of all active members and
fellows.
Subscription rate to non-members: $7.50 per year (U.S.) or $1.00 per copy; foreign post-
age extra. Subscription orders should be sent to the Washington Academy of Sciences, 1530 P St.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. Remittances should be made payable to “Washington Academy of Sciences.”
Back issues, volumes, and sets of the Journal (Volumes 1-52, 1911-1962) can be purchased
direct from Walter J. Johnson, Inc., 111 Fifth Avenue, New York 3, N. Y. This firm also handles
the sale of the Proceedings of the Academy (Volumes 1-13, 1898-1910), the Index (to Volumes
1-13 of the Proceedings and Volumes 1-40 of the Journa!), and the Academy’s monograph, “The
Parasitic Cuckoos of Africa.”
Current issues of the Journal (past two calendar years) may still be obtained directly
from the Academy office at 1530 P Street, N.W., Washington 5, D.C.
Claims for missing numbers will not be allowed if received more than 60 days after date of
mailing plus time normally required for postal delivery and claim. No claims will be allowed
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Second class postage paid at Washington, D.C.
ACADEMY OFFICERS FOR 1964
President: FRANcots N. FRENKIEL, David Taylor Model Basin
President-Elect: Leo ScHUBERT, American University
Secretary: Grorce W. Irvine, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Treasurer: Matcotm C. HEeNnpbERSON, Catholic University
Electrochemical Society Holds
Semiannual Meeting Here
The Washington-Baltimore Section of
the Electrochemical Society will serve as
host for the 126th semiannual meeting of
the national society to be held at the
Sheraton-Park Hotel, October 11 to 15.
Some 1500 electrochemists are expected to
attend.
A full program consisting of 250 tech-
nical papers has been arranged, including
both general sessions and symposia. A brief
description of the symposia is given below.
Symposia
The Battery and Theoretical Electro-
chemistry Divisions have scheduled a Joint
Symposium on Fuel Cells, all day Monday
and Tuesday and on Wednesday morning.
All sessions are in the Cotillion Room,
South.
The Battery Division has scheduled gen-
eral sessions Wednesday afternoon and
Thursday morning, as well as a special
Wednesday evening round-table discussion
on Sealed Cells and the Mechanisms of
Their Operation, and a session on recent
developments relating to fuel cells.
The Corrosion Division has scheduled a
Symposium on Metallurgical Factors A flect-
ing the Corrosion Processes, all day Mon-
day and on Tuesday morning. A general
session is scheduled for Tuesday afternoon,
followed on Wednesday and Thursday
morning by a Symposium on Properties of
Oxide Corrosion Products. All sessions are
in the Delaware Suite.
The Electrodeposition Division has sched-
uled a Symposium on Precious Metal Plat-
ing on Tuesday morning, and a general
session on Tuesday afternoon.
The Electrodeposition and Theoretical
Electrochemistry Divisions have scheduled
a Joint Symposium on Mechanisms of
Electrodeposition for Wednesday as well as
Thursday morning, in the Maryland Suite.
OcTOBER, 1964
The Electronics Division, Semiconductor
Group, ‘has scheduled the following ses-
sions: Passivation, all day Monday; Epi-
taxy, Tuesday morning; Compound Semi-
conductors, Tuesday afternoon; Diffusion,
Wednesday morning; and Materials and
Processes, Wednesday afternoon. All ses-
sions are in the Park Ballroom.
The Electrothermics & Metallurgy and
Corrosion Divisions have scheduled a Joint
Symposium on Liquid Metal Corrosion and
Phenomena, Monday afternoon through
Wednesday afternoon. All sessions are in
the Richmond Room, Virginia Suite.
The Electrothermics & Metallurgy Divi-
sion has scheduled a Symposium on the
Electron Microprobe, Monday morning
through Thursday afternoon, in Exhibit
HallsNor
Other Features
The banquet of the Society, to be held
on Tuesday, October 13, will feature the
presentation of the Edward Goodrich Ache-
son Medal and Prize to Earl A. Gulbransen
of the Westinghouse Research Laboratories.
The award, a gold medal and $1000, is
made every two years “for conspicuous
contribution to the advancement of the |
objects, purposes, or activities of the So-
ciety.”
Dr. Gulbransen is being honored for his
contribution to the understanding of gas-
solid, and in particular gas-metal, surface
interactions, knowledge essential to a bet-
ter understanding of the corrosion of
metals and hence their protection from
corrosion. He is the author of more than
125 papers in such areas as oxidation,
surface reactions, surface films, stress-
corrosion cracking, high-temperature ther-
modynamics, and related areas of research.
In addition to the technical sessions,
laboratory and plant trips have been
arranged as follows:
293
-
€& Be i bp
OH i SAP
wsiiuiiea Ul
Trip A. Goddard Space Flight Center of
the National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
istration, Greenbelt, Md. Among the fea-
tures that will be shown are the Tiros Con-
trol Center, satellite exhibits, fabrication
facilities, and test and evaluation facilities.
Trip B. Bureau of Engraving and Print-
ing. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing
manufactures currency, bonds, and stamps.
The tour will include areas not normally
open to the public and of particular interest
to electrochemists, such as the Electrolytic
Section where hand-engraved printing plates
are replicated by electroforming.
A Ladies’ Program will provide visits to
the White House, the public and govern-
mental buildings of Washington, and an
embassy tour. The Smithsonian Institution
and the National Gallery of Art also will
be visited.
A Sunday evening reception and a Mon-
day evening mixer have been planned by
the local committee.
Arrangements
Many details of the meeting are the spe-
cial responsibility of the local committee,
under the leadership of David Schlain and
Joseph C. White as co-chairmen. Committee
members, with their responsibilities, are:
Sigmund Schuldiner, secretary; Charles B.
Kenahan, treasurer; Clarence M. Shepherd,
registration; Vernon A. Lamb, entertain-
ment; Jerome Kruger, arrangements;
Gwendolyn B. Wood, ladies’ program;
Charles P. Wales, printing; and John K.
Taylor, publicity.
A Note on Electrochemistry,
The Electrochemical Society, and
The Washington-Baltimore Section
It is as difficult to define electrochemistry
as it is to define any actively growing
science. Nevertheless, since electrochemists
as a group are among the most recent
affiliates of the Washington Academy of
Sciences, it is proper to try to indicate how
electrochemists came to be and to suggest
the bounds within which they work. A
definition will not be attempted. Rather, a
very brief historical sketch will be presented
to show the outlines of the community of
interests which electrochemists share as
electrochemists.
Looking toward antiquity, one can find
suggestive archeological evidence that cer-
tain metal workers along the Tigris and
Euphrates knew something of the art of
electrodeposition, using batteries to gener-
ate their currents. However, the evidence is
incomplete. Whatever arts those ancients
294, JOURNAL OF
practiced were lost to history and did not
figure in the development of the modern
science of electrochemistry.
The beginnings of modern electrochemis-
try can be found in the classic discoveries
of Galvani and Volta, who started their
work in the eighteenth century. The names
of both these investigators have been bor-
rowed for use in electrical and electro-
chemical terminology. Galvani was actually
a physiologist and physician; he is best
remembered for the observation that frog
muscles twitched when electric currents
were passed through them. Volta made two
contributions of more direct interest. He
accomplished the invention of the electric
battery when he observed that he could
generate quite substantial “voltages” by
assembling piles of elements in the repeat-
ing sequence: metal 1, paper soaked with
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
salt solution, metal 2, etc. This invention
was an application of the phenomenon of
the generation of an electric potential by
chemicaj action. Volta also observed the
complementary phenomenon, the induction
of a chemical reaction by the passage of
electric current. His specific observation
was the electrolysis of water to produce
gaseous products.
The development of electrochemistry in
the early nineteenth century was a part of,
and dependent upon, the development of
chemistry. In particular, the notions of
elements and definite integrally-related
combining powers or valences were becom-
ing established. Michael Faraday’s investi-
gations, reported in 1833 and 1834, are a
landmark in electrochemistry. Faraday
showed that, in a large variety of systems,
the passage of a definite amount of electric
current was associated with a definite
amount of chemical action. In addition,
he showed that the amounts of chemical
action exhibited in various systems were
directly related to the combining powers of
the substances involved. This was the be-
ginning of the systematic understanding of
electrochemical systems. By the close of the
nineteenth century, Arrhenius (1883) had
developed his theory of electrolytic dissoci-
ation. This, with van’t Hoff’s (1887) treat-
ment of the osmotic pressure of solutions,
established the concept of ionic species of
definite charge and chemical composition
as essential features of electrochemical sys-
tems.
The advances in the understanding of
electrochemical systems were paralleled by
equally valuable practical developments. A
practical application of electrochemistry, of
major importance to science and technology
in general, was the invention of the Daniell
cell (1836). This invention resulted in
what was for some time the most depend-
able source of stable electrical power in the
practical range of voltages and currents.
This was of great importance in places other
than the laboratory. For example, the rapid
spread of dependable telegraphic service
was dependent upon the availability of de-
OcTOBER, 1964.
pendable sources of electric power in all
parts of the world, during a period when
practically no other use of electricity was
made in the world at large. Its use con-
tinued into the present century. Electro-
chemistry received a dividend from the
studies of electricity and electromagnetism
that stemmed from the invention of the
dynamo. The availability of really large
amounts of electrical power permitted the
development of electrochemical process in-
dustries. The wide variety of electroplated
articles, and all the aluminum one sees, are
familiar products of these developments.
All these various developments meant
that by 1900 there had developed a com-
munity of interest which could be identified
as “electrochemistry.” The central feature
of this community of interest was an in-
terest in processes involving the transfer of
electric charge, where the mechanism of
charge transfer involved more than simply
electronic conduction in metals or in
vacuum. Conduction in the systems of
interest usually involved the movement of
chemical species and was usually accom-
panied by chemical transformations.
Late in 1901, six scientists recognized
that engineers, scientists, and industrialists
interested in electrochemistry were distrib-
uted among at least a dozen different so-
cieties and had no common medium of
communication. Replies to their invitation
to form an American Electrochemical So-
ciety turned out 337 charter members. Of
the charter members, 52 met in founding
the Society in Philadelphia on April 3,
1902. The Society grew steadily, and to
broaden its scope it was made international
in 1930. The name was changed to, simply,
The Electrochemical Society. There are
members in various parts of the world, in-
cluding a local section organization in
Canada. Experiments with a sectional or-
ganization have been carried out by mem-
bers in India.
There are today over 4000 members of
the Society. Most individual members are
affliated with one or more of the Society's
nine divisions. The following listing of
these divisions shows the breadth of inter-
ests of the membership:
299
Battery
Corrosion
Electronics (including Semi-Conductors and
Luminescence )
Electrothermics and Metallurgy
Electric Insulation
Electro-Organic
Electrodeposition
Industrial Electrolytic
Theoretical Electrochemistry
For the membership as a whole the
Society maintains media of communication.
It holds two general meetings annually, one
in the spring and one in the fall. In addi-
tion, the Society publishes two periodical
journals: the Journal of the Electrochem-
ical Society reports Society activities and
provides space for the publication of re-
ports of scientific investigations; and Elec-
trochemical Technology provides for the
publication of material on applied electro-
chemistry.
The local section organization of the So-
ciety provides contact and communication
between members in various geographical
areas. There are 18 of these local sections.
The Washington-Baltimore Section was
founded in 1949; its organizational meet-
ing was held on September 15, 1949, and
the Section was formally established on
October 12, 1949, with Paul L. Howard as
chairman, Abner Brenner as vice-chairman,
and Joseph C. White as secretary-treasurer.
The Section maintains a regular program
of monthly meetings. It attempts to encour-
age the study of electrochemistry by pre-
senting prizes for the best exhibits in elec-
trochemistry at the major area science fairs.
In addition, in alternate years it awards
the William F. Blum Award for distin-
guished publication in electrochemistry.
This endowed award was established in
1958; the recipients have been William F.
Blum, Sigmund Schuldiner, and D. Norman
Craig.
WASHINGTON-BALTIMORE SECTION,
ELECTROCHEMICAL SOCIETY
Organization for 1964-65
Chairman
First Vice Chairman
Second Vice Chairman
Secretary GALEN FRYSINGER
Treasurer Kurt H. Stern
Councilors JoserpH C. WHITE
FIELDING OGBURN
GILBERT W. CASTELLAN
CHARLES B. KENAHAN
FreEDERIC M. Bowers
Catholic University
Bureau of Mines
Naval Ordnance Laboratory
Engineering Research &
Development Laboratory
National Bureau of Standards
Naval Research Laboratory
National Bureau of Standards
Meetings
Regular meetings of the Section are held on the third Thursday of the months of October, Novem-
ber, January, February, March, April, and May. The usual meeting place is Room 252 of the Social
Center, Catholic University.
oN
296
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Standards of EKlectromotive Force
Walter J. Hamer
Electrochemistry Section, Institute of Basic Standards,
National Bureau of Standards
Figure 1 is a reproduction of the seal of
the Electrochemical Society, a society that
is featured in this issue of the Journal.
Looking at this seal you will note that the
Society was founded in Philadelphia in
1902 and was incorporated in 1930. You
will also note on the seal a sketch of a
standard cell and a symbol for an electric
arc. The first may also be considered sym-
bolic of electric batteries, electrolysis, and
electrodeposition and the second of electro-
thermics and electrometallurgy, subjects
which cover much that is electrochemistry.
It is the purpose of this article to con-
sider the first of these symbols, namely, the
standard cell, not only because the author
is associated with work on standard cells
in the Institute of Basic Standards of the
National Bureau of Standards, but also be-
cause standard cells are excellent illustra-
tions of the science of electrochemistry.
Electrochemistry is defined as that branch
of science which deals with the relation of
electricity to chemical changes and with the
interconversion of chemical and electrical
energies. Standard cells are unique chem-
ical systems having a definite and steady
electromotive force. They are used primar-
ily in the maintenance of the unit of electro-
motive force or as d-c reference voltages.
They constitute the basic standard (or ref-
erence) of electromotive force in the United
States. This standard is maintained at the
National Bureau of Standards in Wash-
ington, D. C.
In 1893 the International Electrical Con-
gress, meeting in Chicago with delegates
from Austria, Canada, France, Germany,
Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, Sweden,
Switzerland, and the United States, chose
as a standard of electromotive force
(emf), the Clark cell, a voltaic (or
OcTOBER, 1964
Ss oar
Fig. 1. The seal of the Electrochemical Society,
Inc.
galvanic) cell devised by Latimer
Clark (1) in Great Britain in 1872.
It assigned to this cell a value of 1.434 in-
ternational volts at 15°C based on the
electrical units of resistance and current
then accepted. No method was then avail-
able, nor is any to this day, for a direct |
measurement of emf in the electromagnetic
system of units. Instead, the unit was ob-
tained through Ohm’s law and the measure-
ment of the fall of potential produced in a
resistance by a current. Today the values
of the resistance and the current are both
determined in absolute measure, the first
by self or mutual inductors, and _ the
second by current balances or electro-
dynamometers. By this method the pre-
cision or uncertainty in the determination
of the volt in absolute measure is about + 7
parts per million (ppm). The unit of emf
may also be determined in electrostatic
units using absolute electrometers and thus
in electromagnetic units by multiplying the
297
former by the speed of light. However, to
date the accuracy of this method is lower
than the electromagnetic approach, the un-
certainty being of the order of 100 ppm.
The Clark cell and the above value for
its emf were legalized on July 12, 1894, as
the standard of emf for the United States
and its possessions by Public Law No. 105,
53rd Congress, which stated:
“The unit of electro-motive force shall be what
is known as the international volt, which is the
electro-motive force that, steadily applied to a
conductor whose resistance is one international
ohm, will produce a current of an international
ampere, and is practically equivalent to one
thousand fourteen hundred and thirty-fourths of
the electro-motive force between the poles or
electrodes of the voltaic cell known as Clark’s
cell, at a temperature of fifteen degrees centi-
grade, and prepared in the manner described in
the standard specifications.”
This law also specified “That it shall be
the duty of the National Academy of Sci-
ences to prescribe and publish, as soon
as possible after the passage of this Act.
such specifications of details as shall be
necessary for the practical application of
the definitions of the ampere and _ volt
hereinbefore given, and such specifications
shall be the standard specifications herein
mentioned.” A committee of seven, chaired
by Henry A. Rowland, of the National
Academy of Sciences, issued their specifi-
cation for making Clark cells on February
OP 1695:
In the years immediately following
1893, the United States, Canada, Great
Britain, and France adopted 1.434 V
for the emf of the Clark cell at 15°C as
their national standard of emf; Germany,
Austria, Belgium, and Switzerland adopted
a standard defined in terms of the cgs
(centimeter-gram-second) definitions of
the ohm and ampere. Germany at a later
date (1898) adopted 1.4328 V for the
emf of the Clark cell at 15°C while re-
taining their legal definition of the volt
in terms of the ohm and ampere. Al-
though the German value was not univer-
sally accepted, it was a more nearly correct
value as later experiments showed. Work
298
in various laboratories also showed that
Clark cells made with specially purified
mercurous sulfate had an emf 0.0003 V
lower than that specified in 1893 by the
Chicago International Electrical Congress.
The responsibility for maintaining the
unit of emf in the United States, as speci-
fied by Public Law 105, was assigned to
the Office of Standards of Weights and
Measures under the Coast Survey in the
Treasury Department (2), which then had
the responsibility for the national stand-
ards of length and mass. However, owing
to a limited staff and appropriations, prac-
tically nothing was done until July 1.
1897, and then progress was delayed by
the pressure of routine work. By 1900,
however. three dozen or more Clark cells
had been made from the purest materials
that could then be obtained commercially.
The intercomparisons of these cells showed
that they could be relied upon to 0.005
percent (today, the emf standard can be
relied upon to 0.0001 percent). Also a
number of Weston Normal cells, a new
type of standard cell which had been in-
vented in 1892 by Edward Weston (3).
were made and late in 1900 were compared
with the Clark cells. The significance of
the expression “Weston Normal cell” is
discussed later.
In 1901, the first session of the 56th
Congress by Public Law 177 created the
National Bureau of Standards stating
“. . . the Office of Standards of Weights
and Measures shall hereafter be known
as the National Bureau of Standards.”
Samuel W. Stratton, who in the previous
year had been appointed inspector of
weights and measures in the Office of
Standards of Weights and Measures, was
named director of the new National Bureau
of Standards. In his first annual report
to the Secretary of the Treasury, March
27, 1903 (NBS was transferred to the
Department of Commerce and Labor on
July 1, 1903), Dr. Stratton announced that
the Bureau was prepared to compare and
calibrate either for commercial or scien-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
tific purposes a number of standards and
measuring instruments including “Stand-
ards of emf—Clark, Weston, and other
standard cells.” Other standard cells must
have included Daniell, Leclanché, and
other types of primary cells that were then
used commercially as rough standards of
voltage.
The National Bureau of Standards was
initially housed in a modified private house
on the site of the present House Office
Building, but in 1904 three new buildings
became available at the present site on
Connecticut Avenue. A temporary stand-
ard cell laboratory was set up in one of
them, in which F. A. Wolff and H. N.
Stokes began an investigation of mercur-
ous sulfate, the oxidizing agent or “de-
polarizer” used in Clark and Weston
cells. As mentioned above, the emf of
Clark cells was found to be very sensitive
to the purity of the mercurous sulfate used
in the cell, and much research was then
being done on mercurous sulfate in the
various national laboratories. By the end
of 1906 these experimenters, with C. E.
Waters and M. P. Shoemaker who had
been added to the staff, had made 96
new Clark cells and 180 new Weston cells
using several different procedures of as-
sembly and several samples of mercurous
sulfate prepared and purified in different
ways. The cells showing the greatest sta-
bility with time were used in the main-
tenance of the unit of emf and in the
dissemination of the unit to the general
public.
In 1906 the United States standard of
emf was defined by Clark cells made with
specially purified mercurous sulfate and
by Weston Normal cells, the emf of which
was expressed in terms of the difference
in emf between Clark and Weston Normal
cells. The mean emf of the Clark cells
was assigned a value of 1.42110 V at
25°C. This value was based on the value
1.434 V at 15°C adopted by the Chicago
International Electrical Congress and _le-
galized by the U. S. Congress, less the
OcTOBER, 1964.
correction of 0.0003 V for the use of
specially purified mercurous sulfate, and
less the temperature correction calculated
from the emf-temperature coefficient de-
termined by Callendar and Barnes (4).
The mean of the Weston Normal cells
made at NBS, and then on hand, was
1.01890 .V at 25°C in terms of the Clark
standard.
The Weston Normal cell has several
advantages over the Clark cell. It has an
emf-temperature coefficient about one-
thirtieth that of the Clark cell; it tends
to gas at the anode at a much smaller
rate than the Clark cell and, therefore.
has a longer life; and it has an emf which
is closer to | V than the Clark cell, which
makes it a more convenient standard than
the latter.
The International Conference on Elec-
trical Units and Standards which met in
London in 1908 officially accepted the
Weston Normal cell because of the above
advantages, as the international standard
of emf and adopted provisionally 1.0184 V
as its emf at 20°C. The Weston cell sup-
planted the Clark cell at this time as the
standard of emf in the United States. This
Conference also recommended the emf-
temperature formula of Wolff (5) for the
Weston Normal cell. Accordingly, at 25°C
the value of the Weston Normal cell was
1.018174 V, or 0.000726 V lower than
the value then accepted in the United |
States. This discrepancy arose from the
fact that the United States had accepted
1.4337 V for the Clark cell at 15°C,
whereas the German value of 1.4328 V
at this temperature had proved to be a
more nearly correct value.
The London
that a further study be made of the prob-
lem. Following this recommendation, ad-
Conference recommended
ditional experiments were conducted at the
National Bureau of Standards in 1910 by
scientists from England, France, Germany,
and the United States. As a result of a
large number of experiments with Weston
Normal cells and silver coulometers and
209
resistance coils (resistances known in terms
of the mercury ohm), they concluded that
the emf of the Weston Normal cell at
20°C was 1.0183 V. At NBS values derived
from this were taken to be exact to the
fifth decimal (6) and later to the sixth
and then to the seventh decimal. These
delegates retained the adjective “interna-
tional” for their units. They also realized
that their measurements based on silver
coulometers and mercury ohms gave only
an approximation to the “true” or “abso-
lute” value and that still additional work
was necessary in order to attain the
theoretical cgs units. Accordingly, the
various national laboratories continued
their “absolute” experiments on the ohm,
ampere, and volt. By 1948, after interrup-
tions caused by the two World Wars and
after improvements in techniques, accurate
determinations of the electrical quantities
in cgs electromagnetic units were achieved
and on January 1, 1948, changes from
international to absolute units were offi-
cially made internationally. The legal
status of these new units in the United
States is exactly the same as that of the
older ones because the law of 1894 men-
tions both sets of units on an equivalent
basis. However, in order to remove the
ambiguities of the old act, new legislation
was passed by the Congress in 1950. In
the new law, Public Law 617, 8lst Con-
gress, 2nd Session, July 21, 1950, the unit
of emf is defined as follows:
“The unit of electromotive force and of electric
potential shall be the volt, which is the electro-
motive force that, steadily applied to a conductor
whose resistance is one ohm, will produce a cur-
rent of one ampere.”
The new law did not include a reference
to a physical standard for the unit of emf.
The mean international conversion fac-
tors for the ohm and the volt (for which
comparisons could be directly made) were:
1 mean international ohm =
1.00049 absolute ohms.
1 mean international volt =
1.00034 absolute volts.
The mean international conversion factor
300 JOURNAL OF
for the ampere was then:
1 mean international ampere=
0.99985 absolute ampere.
The mean international values were the
averages of values maintained in the na-
tional laboratories of France, Germany,
Great Britain, Japan, Russia, and the
United States, that took part in interna-
tional comparisons before the outbreak of
World War II. The units maintained in
the United States differed from the above
averages by a few parts in a million (7)
and specifically were:
1 international ohm (USA)=
1.000495 absolute ohms.
1 international volt (USA) =
1.00033 absolute volts.
1 international ampere (USA) =
0.999835 absolute ampere.
In comparisons of literature data, there-
fore, cognizance must be taken of the fact
that the unit of emf in the United States
after 1947 differs by 0.033 percent from
the unit used prior to 1948. Also for com-
parisons of data obtained in various coun-
tries, cognizance should be taken of the
fact that the unit of emf differs somewhat
between countries. These differences, how-
ever, are quite small and _ insignificant
except for work of the highest accuracy.
Although the terms “international” and
“absolute” served a useful purpose during
the historical development of the electrical
units, neither term should be used since
now there can be only one kind of volt,
ohm, or ampere. When these units are
used, it is understood that they are the
“absolute” or, as closely as possible, the
theoretically correct ones.
The above discussion gives the history
and present status of the unit of emf in
the United States, on which all emf (or
voltage) measurements in the United
States are based. Although the electro-
chemical basis for the standard of emf is
old, it is likely to persist for some time
to come. An atomic standard for the volt
would be most desirable, for it would have
a permanency not possible in a physical
electrochemical system which may be lost
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
or damaged. The Stark effect has been pro-
posed (8, 9, 10). This effect pertains to
the splitting of spectral lines when an elec-
tric field is applied to a material emitting
or absorbing the radiation. However, the
method gives relative voltages only, as it
gives only the product of the applied vol-
tage gradient and the electric dipole mo-
ment of the molecule giving rise to the
spectral line. In essence, the electric di-
pole moment can be determined from di-
electric constant measurements, but these
are of insufficient accuracy, at the present
time, to yield a voltage with the desired
accuracy. Perhaps sufficient accuracy in
the measurements will later be realized,
or another atomic method capable of
yielding an atomic standard for the volt
will be proposed. Until then, reliance must
be placed in the electrochemical method.
In this connection it should be stressed
that Weston (or cadmium sulfate) cells
have shown excellent stability in emf with
time and therefore are excellent standards.
Between “absolute”? measurements of the
emf of Weston standard cells the mean
emf of a group of cells is assumed to
remain constant. It is obvious that all of
a group of “identical” cells may increase
or decrease in emf with time without de-
partures from an originally assigned mean
emf being evident. Therefore, an alterna-
tive type of standard cell of approximately
the same emf as the Weston Normal cell
but of different composition would be
most valuable, for if changes in emf with
time in the two different systems were to
occur, they would not be likely to follow
the same pattern. Thus, studies of the ratio
of emfs of two different systems over a
period of years would give valuable in-
sight into the stability of the standard.
This matter is considered below under
Modifications in Weston Cells.
The units of emf of various nations are
now intercompared every third year at
the Bureau International des Poids et
Mesures (BIPM) at Sevres (a suburb of
Paris) which by international treaty has
authority to co-ordinate the standards of
measurement in the field of electricity as
well as of length and mass. These inter-
comparisons are effected by standard cells
maintained by the participating countries
and by BIPM and are conducted at 20°C.
As a rule each country submits four to
10 cells to BIPM for intercomparisions;
at the present time the cells are carried to
BIPM by messenger. When the intercom-
parisions are completed, BIPM reports its
results to the participating countries in
terms of the deviations from the BIPM
unit. In Table 1, comparisions between the
units of emf as maintained in the partici-
pating countries and BIPM are listed for
comparisons made since 1948 when the
“absolute units” were adopted. In 1955
TABLE 1
Relation between the units of emf as maintained by various countries and the Bureau
International des Poids et Mesures
(Data are differences in microvolts from BIPM unit)
1950 1953 1955 1957 1960
Australia _ — i — +6.3
Canada _ — 3.1 —2.4 —0.8 —3.4
France © — 0.1 —- 1.8 —1.8 —2.1 —3.2
Germany (Fast) SEZ — 2.8 +0.5 +1.1 —
Germany (West) — — 2.3 + 0.6 +0.2 —0.1
Great Britain + 2.2 += 3.2 +4.5 +52 +5.1
Japan ea 5 ne —2.0 ae 2.9
Russia + 23.0 4122.3 +93 +8.4 +6.8
United States + 0.8 — 3.3 —(.7 —1.3 —1.9
BIPM 0 0 0 0 0
OcTOBER, 1964 301
Russia made an adjustment in its unit of
13 microvolts. Otherwise. the various coun-
tries have not made adjustments and do
not do so unless their unit should deviate
by an unusually large amount from that
maintained by BIPM and the other coun-
ties.
The United States has also provided ref-
erence standards for Israel. Sweden, and
the Union of South Africa. In 1960 Italy
compared its unit with the French unit
immediately prior to the international com-
parisions at BIPM in which France but not
Italy took part. Italy, therefore, obtained
information indirectly on the relation of
its unit of emf to that maintained at
BIPM.
Early Voltaic Cells
Although Clark and Weston cells have
been selected as standards of emf, they
were not the first voltaic cells used in
electrical measurements or in electrochem-
ical investigations. The first cell, as is well
known, was devised by Alessandro Volta in
1796 and described by him in 1800 (11):
it is known today as the voltaic pile. His
cell consisted of an alternate series of tin,
(or better zinc) and copper (or better
silver) separated by discs of pasteboard
or hide soaked in water or “humeur”
which has been interpreted as meaning
vinegar or salt water. He used the sensa-
tion of pain as his chief method of meas-
urement. By moistening his fingers he
could detect the “electric fluid” from 3
or 4 couples, and as the number of couples
was increased the electric shocks became
greater. Volta studied many electrode com-
binations. Although he had no units with
which to express his observations, we now
know that his cell made with zinc and
copper had a voltage of about 1.1 V.
The name “volt” for the unit of emf was
not accepted until 1862 when Latimer
Clark and Sir Charles Bright (12) pro-
posed its use to the British Association for
the Advancement of Science. Volta’s cells
were not suitable as standards of emf for
they showed a decrease in emf with time.
302
Michael Faraday and others of his time
made extensive use of Grove and Bunsen
cells (or batteries) in their work in elec-
tricity. These cells were two-fluid cells,
designed in 1839 and 1841, and may be
represented by:
Zinc | sulfuric acid (dilute aq) ||
nitric acid (strong aq) | Pt or C
where ag = aqueous solution. Grove used
platinum whereas Bunsen used carbon. The
cell had to be reassembled each time it
was used because of serious local action
(corrosion) at the electrodes. Also provi-
sions had to be made to remove the nitro-
gen oxide formed at the platinum or car-
bon electrodes. Obviously these cells were
not convenient as standards of emf.
Faraday and others also used the cell
designed by John F. Daniell (13) in
1836. This cell, in its original form, con-
sisted of a glass jar containing a porous
cup of unglazed earthenware in which a
zinc plate or rod and a dilute solution of
sulfuric acid. zinc sulfate. or zinc sulfate
acidified with sulfuric acid were placed.
Outside and around the pot a cylindrical
sheet of copper and a concentrated solu-
tion of copper sulfate were placed. The
cell had an emf of 0.00357 to 0.00390 cgs
electrostatic units or 1.07x10® to
1.14x10® cgs electromagnetic units or
1.07 to 1.14 volts, depending on the con-
centration and acidity of the solutions used
in the cell. It did not show a long-term
stability in emf but was much more stable
than the Grove or Bunsen cell. The solu-
tions diffused into each other, causing local
action at the electrodes and a steady de-
crease in emf. Even so, for over 35 years
(from 1836 to 1872) the Daniell cell was
used as the standard of emf.
In 1872 Latimer Clark proposed the cell
which bears his name and which was dis-
cussed above in a general way. This cell
was superior to all those that had pre-
ceded it. In announcing his cell, he said.
“No material standard of electromotive force
has yet been issued. Much difficulty has, in fact,
been found in devising such a standard. Mechan-
ical means, such as the rotation of a conductor in
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
a magnetic field of known intensity, are too com-
plicated for ordinary use; thermoelectric couples
are extremely variable, and voltaic elements,
which would constitute the most convenient form
of standard, have been hitherto found singularly
inconstant, and therefore inapplicable. The Dan-
iell’s element, which has been most frequently
used for this purpose, commonly varies five per-
cent. or more without apparent cause.”
In 1874 he added,
“Practically electricians have been compelled
to define electromotive forces by comparison with
those of the GROVE’S or DANIELL’S cell, the
copper and zinc cell,
and it
or other electromotive
sources; is curious circumstance that
/ On, Ca Amalgam
ometer and a British Association resistor
he found that his cell had an emf of 1.457
Vat 15.5°C. His cell, although much
superior to its predecessors, still did not
exhibit the steadiness in emf hoped for.
The cell tended to gas at the anode and
the emf showed large variations mainly
because of the concentration gradients that
developed, during slight changes in tem-
ature, within the mercurous sulfate paste.
Rayleigh and Sidgwick (14) overcame
these weaknesses of the Clark cell 10 years
later by amalgamating the zinc and plac-
ing the anode and the cathode in separate
Fig. 2. Cross-section of saturated standard cell of National Bureau of Standards type.
among the thousand galvanic combinations known
to exist, not one has been hitherto found which
could be relied upon to give a definite electro-
motive force: however pure the materials, and
however skilful the manipulation, differences vary-
ing from four to five percent. upwards constantly
occur without any assignable cause; and different
observers using different materials of course
meet with still larger discrepancies.”
Clark’s cell was a one-fluid cell consist-
ing of a saturated solution of zinc sulfate,
a cathode of mercury covered with a paste
of mercurous sulfate, and an anode of
zinc. He constructed the cell in a single
tube with the zinc above and extending
into the mercurous sulfate paste. By using
a sine galvanometer or an electrodynam-
OcTOoBER, 1964,
compartments of an H-shaped container
(see Fig. 2; this figure is for a Weston
cell but the modified Clark cells were made
in similar containers).
Edward Weston designed a better cell
than the Clark cell by the simple expedi-
ent of replacing zinc by cadmium, i.¢., by
using a cadmium amalgam and a solution
than
amalgam and a solution of zinc sulfate.
By so doing, Weston obtained a standard
cell that had advantages, mentioned
Today, the
standard of emf is exclusively the Weston
of cadmium sulfate rather a zinc
above, over the Clark cell.
or cadmium sulfate cell.
303
Fig. 3. Racks with commercial saturated standard cells.
The Weston (Cadmium Sulfate) Cell
The Weston or cadmium sulfate cell is
made in two general types, unsaturated
and saturated, where these terms refer to
the state of the electrolyte used in the cell.
The first one is the well-known shippable
tvpe mounted in a non-transparent cop-
per-shielded case. It is also available un-
mounted for use in pyrometers, pH
meters, recording instruments, etc. It is
made shippable by placing a septum over
the surface of each electrode, whereby the
electrode materials are locked in place. It
has an emf-temperature coefficient that is
less than +4 microvolts per degree C
(the actual value depends on the age of
the cell), and the unsaturated cell is
therefore used widely in ambient room
temperatures where an emf reference of
0.005 percent accuracy suffices. However,
on the average, unsaturated standard cells
304
show a decrease in emf of 20 to 40 mi-
crovolts per year, and they are accord-
ingly unsuitable for maintaining the unit
of emf. On the other hand, the saturated
cell does not show a decrease in emf with
time and is therefore the one used to
maintain the unit. It is the precision cell.
Figure 2 shows a cross-section of a sat-
urated standard cell as made at the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards. The figure
is largely self-explanatory. Indentations
are placed near the bottom of each limb
of the cell to lock in some of the crystals
of CdSO, + 8/3 HO. Saturated cells are
not mounted in cases because they are
intended for immersion in temperature-
controlled oil or air baths where cases
would be a hindrance. Commercial satu-
rated standard cells are usually mounted
in groups of 3, 4, or 6 on special racks
for convenience in use. In Fig. 3 are
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Fig. 4. A constant-temperature controlled box for saturated standard cells.
shown two commercial racks holding com-
mercial saturated standard cells: one
rack holds 3 cells, the other one 6 cells.
Saturated standard cells must usually be
transported by hand, but some recent
types are stated to be shippable. Consid-
erable study will be required to ascertain
their long-term emf stability.
The saturated type of standard cell has
a higher emf-temperature coefficient than
the unsaturated type, and for measure-
ments of the highest precision the cell
must be maintained at a constant temper-
ature controlled to at least +0.01°C. In
practice, saturated standard
maintained at a constant temperature in
thermostatically-controlled oil baths or in
portable
boxes. The latter are generally made after
cells are
thermostatically-controlled air
OcTOBER, 1964,
a design first proposed by Mueller and
Stimson (15) The cells are housed in a
thin-walled aluminum box which rests
within a larger thick-walled aluminum
box. The temperature of the latter is con-
trolled by a mercury-in-glass thermoregu-
lator. The aluminum boxes are thermally
insulated and are enclosed in a wooden
box which also contains an a-c relay, &
transformer, and a pilot light. The box
is operated on the 110 V—60 c/s a-c line.
As a rule these boxes are designed to
operate at some temperature between 28
and 37°C. A commercial box is shown in
Fig. 4.
At the National Bureau of Standards oil
baths are used to house saturated stand-
ard cells. A picture of three of these baths
is given in Fig. 5. The two baths to the
left are used to house those cells which
305
Fig. 5. Oil baths used at the National Bureau of Standards to maintain standard cells at a constant
temperature.
maintain the national unit of emf; the
bath to the right is used for calibration
or testing purposes.
The saturated type of Weston cell con-
sists of a 2-phase cadmium amalgam anode
and a mercury-mercurous sulfate cathode
in a saturated solution of cadmium sul-
fate with crystals of CdSO, * 8/3 H2O over
the surface of both electrodes. A 10 per-
cent cadmium amalgam is now generally
used; over a temperature range of —38°C
to 51°C it consists of a liquid phase and
a solid-solution phase. The cell may be
represented by
with 1 mole of CdSO, in the saturated
solution. The saturated cell is called the
“Weston Normal cell” or the “neutral
cell” if no sulfuric acid is added to the
solution in the cell. It is called an “acid
cell” if a small amount of sulfuric acid,
sufficient to make the acid concentration
0.03 to 0.06 N, is added to the solution.
The acid is added to prevent the partial
hydrolysis of the mercurous sulfate to
form a small amount of basic mercurous
sulfate. The addition of sulfuric acid de-
creases slightly the emf of a standard cell.
Several different expressions have been
(—) Cd,Hg (2p) | CdSO,°* 8/3 H.O (c) | CdSO, (sat aq) | CdSO; - 8/3 H2O(c) | HgSO,(s) | Hg(1)
7s (CdSO.* mH:0) (sat aq) =
(CdSO,°8/3 H20)(c) + 2Hg(1) + (%—1) Cd,(yHg) (2p)
8/3
(+) (aCd),(yHg) (2p) + HesS0.(s) + ——
m—
m
m— 8/3
where x moles of Cd are associated with
y moles of Hg in the amalgam and m
is the number of moles of water associated
306
proposed relating the change in the emf to
the acid concentration, the simplest being
that proposed by the National Physical
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Laboratory (16), namely AEF(in micro-
volts) =—615x where x= the normality
of the sulfuric acid before it is saturated
with cadmium sulfate.
The emf of the “‘neutral”’ cell as a func-
tion of temperature between —20°C and
40°C is given by the equation:
E(in volts) — 1.0189860 +
mae —— (15.005 x 10-11) ¢*.
The equation for “acid” cells is the same
except for the first term, the value of
which depends on the normality of the
sulfuric acid in the cell. The changes in
Gibbs energy (free energy), enthalpy, en-
tropy, and heat capacity for the cell re-
action are given, respectively, by: AG —=
—nFE; AH =— nFE + nikT (dE/dT);
Rein (de /d?); and AC, = |[d(AH)
/dI | = nFT (d?E/dT?), where F is the
Faraday and mn is the number of equiva-
lents involved in the cell reaction; in the
present case n — 2. The value of F is
96487 coulombs per gram equivalent on
the now accepted 1!°C scale of atomic
weights (17); thus if EF is expressed in
volts AG is given in volt-coulombs per
gram equivalent or in joules per gram
equivalent.
The unit of energy in the Systéme Inter-
national d’Unites (SI) adopted in a resolu-
tion of the llth General Conference on
Weights and Measures (Paris, October
1960) is the joule. The above thermody-
namic quantities in the SI system are
given, respectively, by:
(9453x105 o)% =— «(16.595 x8 107%) 2
the mole be defined in terms of the gram
(18); thus when the term “mole” is used
it is implicit that the unit is the gram. In
Table 2 values of these quantities at 5°
intervals from O0°C to 40°C are listed.
These values represent standard data
based on the determination of the volt in
(18.606
absolute measure. If these quantities were
determined directly by heat measurements
we would have an independent check on
the internal consistency of heat and elec-
trical measurements. Giauque and his as-
sociates (19) have made these checks for
Clark cells; a similar check for the Wes-
ton cell would be most valuable.
Modifications in Weston Cells
As was pointed out above, in maintain-
ing the unit of emf it is assumed that in
the interval between “absolute determi-
nations” of the volt the mean emf of a
group of Weston cells remains constant.
It was also pointed out that emfs of “iden-
tical” cells may show an increase or de-
crease with time without departures from
an originally assigned mean being evident
and, therefore, a modified type of Weston
cell would serve a most useful purpose
in maintaining the volt. At the National
Bureau of Standards two such modifica-
tions have been made: (1) some cells
have been made slightly acidic by adding
sulfuric acid to the cell solution, and (2)
AG(in J mole~1) — —196,637.80 —1.82418¢ + 0.32024¢°
239(35.0047 91074) 8 v= (28.9557 xX 10-*) #4,
aidan J mole=*) == —-196,139.53 — 174.9471¢,-+ 2.621972
SOLAS )<e10n® i> (e6:86755 x 105° ee
AS (in J mole~! per degree = 1.82418 — 0.64048¢ --
AC» (in J mole-! per degree) == — 174.9471 + 5.24394¢ —
The mole here is the grammole. The Na-
tional Academy of Sciences-National Re-
search Council recently recommended that
OcTOBER, 1964,
GhOs 7H 4e | SG. LOT?) eA
Gh Se2ay, X » LOD he.
0.07336822 — (34.747 & 107°)¢#°.
cells have been made ‘with a solvent of
deuterium oxide-normal -water (20) in-
stead of normal water alone. In Table 3
307
TABLE 2
Thermodynamic data for the reaction in Weston saturated standard cells made with
10 percent cadmium amalgam
Changes* in
Temperature Gibbs energy Enthalpy Entropy Heat capacity
AG AG AH AS AC)
J mole—* J mole—* J mole—*deg—* J mole—* deg—*
0 = 196:63108 — 196,139.5 + 1.824 — (Ae
2.994” — 196,640.4 — 196,640.4 0 == 59:91
3 — 196,640.5 — 196,641.3 ==) 01003 — 159.88
5 — 196,639.3 — IOS ET == 175} — 150.61
10 — 196,627.3 — 197,652.0 = 3.619 — 130.19
15 — 196,603.8 — 198,260.7 = 5.750 Se Or
20 — 196,570.3 — 198,799.1 OOS — 102.20
25 — 196,528.0 — 199,290.4 = 9265 =) S5uley
30 — 196,477.8 — 199,758.8 — 10.823 — 93.04
35 — 196,419.8 — 200,229.8 — 12.364 — 96.18
40 — 196,354.0 = 2007226 = 13,903 — 104.82
“"_These may be converted to the thermochemical calorie (defined) by the relation 1 thermochemical
calorie (defined) = 4.1840 J (18).
»_Cell has a maximum emf at this temperature and a zero emf-temperature coefficient.
TABLE 3
Nominal emfs of saturated standard cells at some common temperatures
Normality of HzSQ, in cell solution
Temperature neutral ° 0.03N 0.05N 0.10N
=¢ Vv V V V
20 1.018636 1.018612 1.018596 1.018556
Z 1.018417 1.018393 1.018377 1.018337
28 1.018266 1.018242 1.018226 1.018186
30 1.018157 1.018133 1.018117 1.018077
32 1.018041 1.018017 1.018001 1.017961
35 1.017856 1.017832 1.017816 1.017776
Bil 1.017725 1.017701 1.017685 1.017645
* actually 0.00092.
the nominal emfs of “neutral” and “acid”
saturated cells are given for a number
of common temperatures. In Table 4 the
emfs of saturated cells made with deute-
rium oxide and normal water are given
for a temperature of 20°C. The ratio of
the mean emf of a group of cells made
with normal water and a group made with
heavy water (deuterium oxide) is fol-
lowed in the course of time in maintain-
ing the unit of emf. Likewise the ratio
of the mean emf of a group of “neutral”
and “acid” cells is similarily followed.
Suffice it to say here that these studies
have shown that the unit of emf, as main-
tained by the National Bureau of Stand-
ards, does not change by more than 0.1
ppm per year.
Voltage Ranges
Accurate measurements of emfs or d-c
voltages at values below approximately
2 V are made with a null-type d-c poten-
tiometer in which the ratio of emf is com-
pared with ratios of potential drops across
a uniform resistance wire, or with the
ratio of resistances in a resistance box.
One emf in this measurement is that of
308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
a standard cell. Accurate measurements
of emf or d-c voltages at values above 2 V
are nearly always made by the “volt-box”’
method. In this method use is made of
a resistive voltage divider which consists
of a high resistance, Ri, in series with a
low resistance, Ry. The voltage to be
measured is connected across the series
combination with Ry at the ground end.
The divider ratio, (R,; + Rz)/Re is
chosen to give a voltage drop across Re
which is within the range of the poten-
tiometer. If EF, and E, represent, respec-
tively, the IR drop across R; + Rez) and
Ro then Ex — Eg(R, 4- Re) /Ro. This
method may be used without difficulty to
measure voltages up to 1,500 V in terms
of a standard cell.
In extending the method to higher vol-
tages the high resistor must be designed
to keep /?R heating to a minimum, to
prevent current leakage through the vol-
ume or over the surface of the resistor
insulation, and to prevent corona dis-
charges which may appear at locations of
high gradient along the resistor as the
voltage is increased. At the National
Bureau of Standards a special high-vol-
tage resistor (100 megohms) has been
constructed in which these factors are kept
at a minimum (21). This resistor serves
as a high-voltage standard. It is made up
of a large number of individually shielded
l-megohm wire-wound resistors connected
in series and arranged to form a vertical
helix between a ground plate and a high-
voltage electrode at the top. The 1-meg-
ohm resistors are made of Karma or
Evanohm wire of low temperature coef-
ficents of opposite sign; the effect on the
resistance due to /?R heating is, there-
fore, kept at a minimum. The pitch of the
helix was chosen to prevent any possibil-
ity of corona between adjacent turns.
Polyethylene was used as insulation. The
effective resistance of this high-voltage re-
sistor remains constant to 10 ppm for
voltages up to 50 kV, and at 100 kV the
maximum error is about 40 ppm under
ordinary laboratory conditions.
A-C Voltages
Precise measurements of voltage at
power and audio frequencies are made
with so-called “‘transfer instruments”
which have the same response, or a known
difference in response, to direct and al-
ternating currents. Instruments based on
electrodynamometer principles have been
developed at the National Bureau of
TABLE 4
Emfs at 20° C of saturated standard cells made with mixed solvent of normal water
and deuterium oxide*.
Percentage of
DO in water mixture
Emf, V
1.018603
1.018567
1.018531
1.018495
1.018459
1.018423
1.018384
1.018344
1.018301
1.018255
1.018204
“normality of H»sSO. in cell solution was 0.031.
"normal water contains 0.02 percent D.O.
€ extrapolated from 98 percent.
OcTOBER, 1964
309
Standards to measure a-c voltages from
10 to 600 V at frequencies up to about
2,000 hertz (cycles per second) (22),
with an accuracy better than 0.01 percent
at power frequencies and about 0.1 percent
up to 3,000 Hz and above 50 V. Electro-
static voltmeters for the measurement of
a-c voltages from 50 to 160 V have been
used at the National Physical Laboratory
in England for many years (23). Electro-
static instruments are best suited for
measurements of voltages above 50 V.
The NPL instrument yields ac-de differ-
ences known to better than 0.01 percent
at power frequencies and to better than
0.05 percent up to 100,000 Hz.
Electrothermic instruments containing
thermal converters are now used at the
National Bureau of Standards (24) for
measurements of a-c voltages up to 750
volts at frequencies from 25 to 20,000 Hz.
A thermal converter is a device that con-
sists of one or more thermojunctions in
thermal contact with an electric heater or
integral therewith, so that the emf de-
veloped at its output terminals by ther-
moelectric action gives a measure of the
input current in its heater. For voltage
measurements, the thermal converters are
used in series with resistors having taps
to give various voltage ranges up to 750 V.
In practice, these converters may be
used either directly to measure the ac-de
difference of a voltmeter, or, with a suit-
able potentiometer, to measure an_alter-
nating voltage, as might be indicated on
a voltmeter. The first may be called an
“ac-de difference test” and the second an
“a-c test”; the accuracy of the second is
approximately half that of the first. In
the first, an instrument under test and the
transfer standard are connected to meas-
ure the same quantity (in this case, vol-
tage), first on alternating current and
then on direct current, which in each case
is adjusted to give the same deflection of
the test instrument. From the averaged
difference in the response of the transfer
standard, the ac-de difference of the test
310
instrument is computed. In the second,
the instrument under test and the transfer
standard are connected to measure the
same a-c voltage which is adjusted to pro-
duce the desired deflection of the test
instrument. The response of the transfer
standard is observed, and the standard is
then transferred to direct current. The
d-c voltage is adjusted to give the same
response of the transfer standard and
after adjustment is measured with a suit-
able d-c potentiometer, volt box, and
standard cell. By these methods ac-de
transfer may be made at voltages of 0.2
to 750 V with an accuracy of 0.01 per-
cent at frequencies of 25 to 20,000 Hz,
while “a-c voltages” may be obtained in
these voltage and frequency ranges
with an accuracy of about 0.02 percent.
Zener Diodes
In recent years solid-state devices
known as zener diodes have appeared on
the market as d-c reference voltages. They
differ fundamentally from standard cells
in that they require a source of electric
current for operation. Unlike standard
cells, which have emfs in the range of
about 1.018 to 1.019 V, the zener diodes
currently being considered as_ standards
have operating voltages ranging from 5
to 12 V. These require a current ranging
from 5 to 15 milliamperes for operation.
Zener diodes show a much wider spread
in voltage than do saturated standard
cells, z.e., their construction has not yet
been standardized.
The zener diode is a variant of the sili-
con junction diode, a solid-state semicon-
ductor formed of two types of silicon
(p and n) having different electrical
properties. Silicon junction diodes have
an extremely high ratio of forward to re-
verse resistance and therefore are usually
used as rectifiers or to block the flow of
electricity in one direction. However, if a
voltage applied to the diode in the re-
verse direction is gradually increased, the
current will remain extremely small until
a critical voltage, known as the break-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
down voltage, is reached (see Fig. 6). At
_ this voltage, a nondestructive breakdown
of the high reverse resistance will occur
and the current will increase rapidly. In
the region of breakdown, the voltage drop
across the diode will be very nearly inde-
pendent of the current, depending only
on the very small reverse resistance of
the diode.
(=)
| BREAKDOWN
AV
ee
Ax
Fig. 6. Current-voltage relationship for zener
diodes.
For a constant-voltage supply (or con-
stant-current supply) having a small vari-
ation (AV, percent), the variation in
the voltage across a zener diode, dVz
is given by:
8V 7 AV I Ry
US aa aa aaa
where / is the current, Rz is the dynamic
resistance of the diode, Vz is the zener
voltage, and Vg is the supply voltage.
For a particular diode, [Rz/Vz, is a con-
stant and, if Vg is made large compared
to Vz we have:
8Vz/Vz = AVgsk/100 —
AV 5(IRz/Vz,) /100
OcTOBER, 1964,
for the variation in zener (or output)
voltage in terms of the percentage varia-
tion in the supply (or input) voltage.
For many reference diodes k (or [Rz/Vz)
is in the range 0.001 to 0.02.
To serve as an emf standard, a zener
diode must have a low emf-temperature
coefficient. The usual procedure to
achieve this characteristic is to package a
zener diode with one or more diodes that
operate in the forward direction. The neg-
ative temperature coefficients of the added
diodes are balanced against the positive
coefficient of the zener diode. In addi-
tion, many diodes can be made to have a
zero temperature coefficient at a specific
temperature by proper selection of the
operating current. A temperature-com-
pensated zener diode is then connected
to a suitable power source in series with
a resistor to limit the current (see Fig. 7).
Several types of commercial zener di-
odes of different packaging are shown in
Fig. 8. Their small size is evident.
A basic circuit used to measure the
operating voltage of zener diodes is shown
in Fig. 7. (This circuit without the stand-
ard cells and the resistor Rg represents
a basic circuit for the use of zener diodes
as voltage references.) The method is
based on the opposition principle, in
which the unknown voltage to be meas-
ured, the zener voltage, is opposed by a
known voltage of approximately the same
magnitude provided by a group of un-
The
small voltage difference is measured with
saturated standard cells in series.
a potentiometer. At the National Bureau
of Standards an 80-V lead-acid storage
battery is used as the voltage supply. Vs.
desired
value by the rheostat shown at the top of
The current is first set to the
Fig. 7 and the magnitude of the current
is determined by measuring, with a_ po-
tentiometer, the /R drop in Ag, a stand-
ard resistor. For highly precise and accu-
rate measurements, the zener diodes and
unsaturated standard cells are housed in
a temperature-controlled oil bath. In prac-
oll
tice, several diodes are connected in se-
ries in the same circuit and their voltage
measured individually in terms of the un-
saturated standard cells. In terms of the
standard cells, the voltages of zener diodes
up to 9 V can be determined to 1 to 2
parts per million (ppm).
The National Bureau of Standards has
recently completed a three-year study of
zener diodes kept on continuous opera-
tion (25, 26, 27). Stability varies widely
among diodes of the same type. In Fig. 9,
typical stability curves are shown. These
diodes were not preconditioned or aged
as is now frequently done for diodes for
reference use. It may be noted that
three distinct behaviors are exhibited:
some diodes increase in voltage with time,
some decrease, while others remain rela-
tively constant. The reason for these dif-
E.
ne .
} V,
kK—_ aE
Ve
Fig. 7. Basic circuit used to measure the operating
312
JOURNAL OF
ferences in performance is not known, but
it is believed to be due to diffusion of
impurities across the p-n barrier of the
diodes.
These curves show three sections: a
stabilization period, a period of linear
drift, and a constant period. The latter
two periods may be considered as useful
periods. During the stabilization period
the rate of change of voltage varies with
time, while during the useful periods the
rate of change is constant or zero. The
stabilization period represents the time
required for a diode to come to a steady-
state condition, while the useful periods
represent the time during which a diode
operates under a steady-state condition.
Diode 1 stabilized in about one week and
then showed a drift in voltage of 75 ppm
per year for 400 days, after which the
E e
= Standard Cells in Series
= Standard Fesistor
Zener Diode
= F,+ AE (at Currenf=ay
voltage of zener diodes.
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Fig. 8 Zener diodes.
rate decreased sharply to about 10 ppm
per year. Diode 2 stabilized in about five
days and showed no tendency to drift with
time. It did, however, show a sensitivity
to changes in operating conditions. The
shaded areas in the curves represent
changes in voltages caused by changes in
environmental temperature. For the last
600 days of operation this diode varied
by less than 3 ppm from a mean value.
Diode 3 required about 100 days for sta-
bilization, after which it drifted in voltage
at a rate of about 75 ppm per year for
about 400 days. Its voltage then remained
relatively constant showing fluctuations of
about 10 ppm from a mean value.
For 25 diodes so far studied, the sta-
bility of voltage may be summarized as
follows:
Stabilization time
Maximum: 12 months
OcToBER, 1964
5 days
3+ months
Minimum:
Average:
Stability
(over 1 to 2 year period)
Maximum: 138 ppm
Minimum: 15 ppm
where the distribution of results is ap-
‘proximately normal and the standard de-
viation is 20 ppm. Stability is defined
as the maximum voltage less the minimum
voltage during the period in question. It
is to be expected that zener diodes will
show even greater stability and reproduci-
bility in the future as improvements are
made in design.
Although zener diodes unfortunately re-
quire a current source for operation, they
have the advantage over standard cells of
being rugged and compact and may,
therefore, be suitable for use under many
313
ale a ee ee ee
O l00 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
(2)
1000 Il00 1200 1300 1400 1500
TIME ( Days)
Fig. 9. Stability of the operating voltage of typical zener diodes of the temperature-compensated type.
(2) Frank A. Wolff, Jr. The facilities afforded
conditions where standard cells would be
unsuitable.
Emf Standard
It should be reiterated, in conclusion,
that the Weston (or cadmium sulfate)
standard cell is the standard to which all
emf or voltage measurements, whether
they be d-c or a-c, or whether they be for
low or high voltages, are referred. In
terms of the present uncertainties in the
“absolute” measurements of the ohm and
the ampere, the uncertainty in the deter-
mination of the volt in absolute measure
is +7 ppm. The unit, however, may be
maintained with a precision of better than
1 ppm.
References
(1) Latimer Clark. On a voltaic standard of
electromotive force. Proc. Roy. Soc. (Lon-
don) 20, 444 (1872).
314
(3
(4
(6
oe
—
)
)
—
by the U. S. Office of Standard Weights and
Measures for the verification of electrical
standards and electrical measuring appa-
ratus. Electrical World and Engineer 35,
361 (1900).
Edward Weston. Normal element. German
Patent 75,194 (Jan. 5, 1892). Improvements
in voltaic cells. British Patent 22,482 (Feb.
6, 1892).
H. L. Callendar and H. T. Barnes. On the
variation of the electromotive force of differ-
ent forms of the Clark standard cell with
temperature and strength of solution. Proc.
Roy. Soc. (London) 62, 117 (1897).
Frank A. Wolff. The temperature formula
of the Weston standard cell. Natl. Bur.
Standards Bull. 5, 309 (1908).
Announcement of a change in the value of
the International Volt. Bur. Standards Cir-
cular 29 (1910).
Announcement of changes in electrical and
photometric units, Natl. Bur. Standards Cir-
cular C459 (1947).
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
(8) J. W.. Trischka.
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
Electric resonance volt-
age standards. U. S. Patent No. 2,959,683
(Nov. 8, 1960).
Y. Beers and G. L. Strine. The measure-
ment of voltage by the use of the Stark
effect. IRE Trans. /-1J, Nos. 3 and 4, 171
(1962).
C. H. Townes and A. L. Schawlow. Micro-
wave spectroscopy, Chap. 10, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., Inc., New York, 1955.
Alessandro Volta. On the electricity excited
by the mere contact of conducting sub-
stances of different kinds. Phil. Trans. Roy.
Soc. 90, 403 (1800).
Latimer Clark and Sir Charles Bright. Re-
port of 1862 of the original British Associa-
tion Committee on Standards of Electrical
Resistance.
John F. Daniell. On voltaic combinations.
Phil. Mag. III, 8, 421 (1836).
Lord Rayleigh and Mrs. H. Sidgwick. On
the electro-chemical equivalent of silver,
and on the absolute electromotive force of
Clark cells. Phil. Trans. I, 175, 411 (1884).
E. F. Mueller and H. F. Stimson. A tem-
perature-control box for saturated standard
cells. J. Research NBS 13, 699 (1933) RP
739.
Report of the National Physical Laboratory,
Electrician 75, 463 (1915).
D. N. Craig, J. I. Hoffman, C. A. Law, and
W. J. Hamer. Determination of the faraday
with a silver-perchloric acid coulometer. J.
Research Natl. Bur. Standards 644, 381
(1960) .
New Values for the Physical Constants—
Recommended by NAS-NRC. Natl. Bur.
Standards Tech. News Bull. 47, No. 10, 175
(1963). Consistent Set of Physical Constants
Proposed. Chem. & Eng. News 41, No. 46,
43, (Nov. 18, 1963).
OcTOBER, 1964
(19) R. E. Barieau and W. F. Giauque. ZnSO,»
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
(27)
7H2O. ZnSO.*6H20O. Heat capacities, en-
tropies and crystal perfection at low tem-
peratures. Heats of solution and transition.
J. Am. Chem. So. 72, 5676 (1950).
W. F. Giauque, R. E. Barieau, and J. E.
Kunzler. Crystal perfection of ZnSO.*7H.O.
Partial molal heat capacity, heat content
and vapor pressure of its aqueous solutions.
Thermodynamics of Clark Cell. J. Am.
Chem. Soc. 72, 5685 (1950) ; 73, 5927 (1951).
L. H. Brickwedde and G. W. Vinal. Electro-
motive force of saturated Weston standard
cells containing deuterium oxide. J. Research
Natl. Bur. Standards 20, 599 (1938) RP1094.
Relation of electromotive force to the con-
centration of deuterium oxide in saturated
standard cells, ibid, 27, 479 (1941) RP1435.
J. H. Park. Special shielded resistor for
high-voltage d-c measurements. J. Research
Natl. Bur. Standards 66C, 19 (1962).
F. K. Harris. A suppressed zero electro-
dynamic voltmeter. J. Research Natl. Bur.
Standards 3, 445 (1929).
R. S. J. Spilsbury and A. Felton. The elec-
trostatic voltmeter as a dc/ac transfer in-
strument. J. IEE 89, 129 (1942).
F. L. Hermach. Thermal converters as ac-
dec transfer standards for current and voltage
measurements at audio frequencies. J. Re-
search Natl. Bur. Standards 48, 121 (1962)
RP2296.
W. G. Eicke, Jr. The operating character-
istics of zener reference diodes and their
measurements. ISA Trans. 3, 93 (1964).
W. G. Eicke, Jr. Making precision measure-
ments of zener diode voltages. Conference
Paper CP63-416. Presented at the Winter
Meeting of the IEEE, Jan. 28-Feb. 1, 1963,
New York, N.Y.
Zener diodes as voltage standards. Natl.
Bur. Standards Tech. News Bull. 48, 1]
(1964).
old
Academy Proceedings
482nd Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences
SPEAKER: MARSHALL H. STONE
Professor of Mathematics, University of Chicago
SUBJECT: SCIENCE AND SOCIETY
TIME: THURSDAY, OCTOBER 15, 1964
ooo PM:
PLACE: JOHN WESLEY POWELL AUDITORIUM,
COSMOS CLUB
2170 Florida Avenue, N.W.
Abstract of Address—The growth of science is working a transformation of society
with all the characteristics of a cultural revolution. Already, in the initial stages of
this revolution, we are acutely aware of the great changes it has wrought. The trends
in the different sciences, from mathematics to medicine, lead to potentialities of still
more profound changes. Many of these changes must be expected to be ambivalent.
Men must be prepared, therefore, to accept major readjustments in their ways of life
and to confront new and troublesome problems very difficult to solve. The indica-
tions are clear that we shall not be able to escape a revision of social, ethical, and
philosophical attitudes in meeting what the future thus seems to hold in store for
mankind.
The Speaker—Marshall H. Stone, educator and mathematician, was born in New
York City and grew up in Englewood, N. J. He received the A.B., M.A., and Ph.D.
(1926) degrees from Harvard University. He also did graduate work at the Univer-
sity of Paris in 1924-1925 and was Guggenheim fellow at the Institute for Advanced
Study in 1936-1937. He has received honorary degrees from Kenyon College, Am-
herst College, Colby College, the University of San Marcos, the University of Buenos
Aires, and the University of Athens. He has taught at Harvard, Columbia, Yale, and
Stanford Universities and at the University of Washington. He has served as visiting
professor at the University of Buenos Aires, the University of Brazil, the Tata Institute
of Fundamental Research, and at the Col. de France and as visiting lecturer at Jap-
anese and Australian universities. Since 1946 he has been Andrew MacLeish distin-
guished service professor of mathematics at the University of Chicago, where he was
chairman of the Department of Mathematics until 1952.
He is former vice chairman of the Division of Mathematics and Physical Sciences,
National Research Council, and former president of the International Mathematical
Union, and has been a member of the panel for elementary school mathematics, School
Mathematics Study Group, since 1960.
During World War II he served with the Office of the Vice Chief of Naval Operations,
Department of the Navy, and with the Office of the Chief of Staff, War Department, and
carried out assignments overseas in the China-Burma-India and European theatres.
Professor Stone is the author of the book, “Linear Transformations in Hilbert Space
and Their Applications to Analysis.” He has contributed a number of research papers
in the areas of general topology, the algebra of logic, and Hilbert space theory to do-
mestic and foreign scientific journals. ,
316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ACHIEVEMENT AWARD
NOMINATIONS REQUESTED
The Committee on Awards for Scien-
tific Achievement has called attention to
the Academy’s annual scientific achieve-
ment awards program. Nominations for
awards will be received at the Washington
Academy of Sciences office, 1530 P St.,
N.W., until November 2.
Each year the Academy gives awards
for outstanding achievement in each of
five areas—biological sciences, engineer-
ing sciences, physical sciences, mathemat-
ics, and teaching of science (including
mathematics). The 1964 winners of
these awards will be honored at the an-
nual dinner meeting of the Academy early
in 1965. Academy fellows and members
are invited to submit nominations for the
awards, in accordance with the following
procedures.
Eligibility. Candidates for the first
four awards must have been born in 1924
or later; there is no age limit on the
teaching of science award. All candidates
must reside within a radius of 25 miles
from the zero milestone behind the White
House. It is not necessary that a candidate
be a member of a society affiliated with
the Washington Academy of Sciences.
Recommendation. Nomination forms
can be obtained from the Academy office.
Use of these forms is not mandatory, but
the sponsor’s recommendation should in-
clude the following: (a) General biog-
raphy of candidate, including date of
birth, residence address, academic expe-
rience with degrees and dates, and post-
academic experience with particular de-
tailed reference to work for which an
award is recommended; (b) list of pub-
lications with reprints, particularly of
that work for which recognition is sug-
gested. If reprints are not available, com-
plete references to publications must be
included.
Citation. Particular attention should be
given to preparation of a citation (80
OcToBER, 1964.
typewriter spaces or less) which, in sum-
mary, states the candidate’s specific ac-
complishments and which would be used
in connection with presentation of award
to the successful candidate.
Re-nomination. Former nominees may
be re-nominated with or without addi-
tional evidence, provided sponsors make
known their desires by letter to the gen-
eral chairman of the Committee.
Early submission of biographical and
publications information will facilitate the
evaluation of nominations. Further infor-
mation can be obtained from the various
chairmen, as _ follows:
Edward A. Mason (general chairman), Univer-
sity of Maryland (WA 7-3800, Ext. 212).
Ellis T. Bolton (biological sciences), Depart-
ment of Terrestrial Magnetism (WO 6-0863).
Martin A. Mason (engineering sciences),
George Washington University (FE 8-0250, Ext.
248).
Samuel N. Foner (physical sciences), Applied
Physics Laboratory (776-7100).
Harry Polachek (mathematics), David Taylor
Model Basin (365-2600, Ext. 350).
Leo Schubert (teaching of science), American
University (244-6800, Ext. 265).
ELECTIONS TO FELLOWSHIP
The following persons were elected to
fellowship in the Academy at the Board of
Managers meeting on June 9:
Benjamin H. Alexander, chief or-
ganic chemist, Department of Immuno-
chemistry, Walter Reed Army Institute of
Research, “in recognition of his contribu-
tions to organic chemistry, and in particu-
lar his researches on the relation of chem-
ical constitution to biological activity with
special reference to pesticides. (Sponsors:
Leo Schubert, G. C. Paffenbarger, L. M.
Kushner. )
William Benesch, assistant professor,
Institute for Molecular Physics, University
of Maryland, “in recognition of his contri-
butions to molecular physics, and in par-
ticular his researches on high-resolution
molecular spectroscopy in the far infrared.”
(Sponsors: E. A. Mason, H. W. Schamp.,
Jr., J. T. Vanderslice. )
317
George A. Candela, chemical physicist,
Magnetic Measurements Section, National
Bureau of Standards, “in recognition of his
studies in magnetochemistry; in particular,
his researches on the magnetic susceptibility
of paramagnetic materials.” (Sponsors:
I. L. Cooter, A. H. Scott.)
Mark Harrison, chairman, Department
of Physics, American University, “in rec-
ognition of his contributions to acoustics
and his contributions to physics education.”
(Sponsors: Leo Schubert, R. K. Cook.)
Lester F. Hubert, chief, Synoptic
Branch, Meteorological Satellite Labora-
tory, Weather Bureau, “in recognition of
his contributions to meteorology, and in
particular his original analysis of the struc-
ture of weather systems using information
from. meteorological satellites. (Sponsors:
J. M. Mitchell, Jr., H. E. Landsberg.)
William H. Klein, chief, Development
and Testing Section, Weather Bureau, “in
recognition of his valuable contributions to
science through original research (and dis-
tinguished authorship) in the fields of ex-
tended forecasting and dynamic clima-
tology.” (Sponsors: J. M. Mitchell, Jr.,
Jerome Namias, G. P. Cressman. )
Allan J. Melmed, physicist, National
Bureau of Standards, “in recognition of his
contributions to field-emission microscopy,
particularly on metal whiskers.” (Sponsors:
L. M. Kushner, G. A. Ellinger, H. P. Fred-
erikse. )
Malcolm W. Oliphant, chairman, De-
partment of Mathematics, Georgetown Uni-
versity, “in recognition of his contributions
to higher mathematics education in the
District of Columbia and the Nation.”
(Sponsors: Jacinto Steinhardt, W. J.
Thaler. )
Donald H. Pack, chief, Environmental
Meteorological Research Project, Weather
Bureau, “in recognition of his valuable
scientific contributions in the fields of
atmospheric pollution, diffusion, and the
weather factor in safe operation of nuclear
reactors.” (Sponsors: J. M. Mitchell, Jr.,
H. E. Landsberg. )
318 JOURNAL OF
Arthur W. Ruff, Jr., physicist, Solid
State Section, National Bureau of Stand-
ards, “in recognition of his contributions
to the study of dislocations in metal crystals
by the application of electron microscopy
techniques.” (Sponsors: L. M. Kushner,
G. A. Ellinger, H. P. Frederikse.)
John A. Simmons, research physicist,
National Bureau of Standards, “in recog-
nition of his contributions to theoretical
research on plastic deformation.” (Spon-
sors: L. M. Kushner, G. A. Ellinger, H. P.
Frederikse. )
Ralph L. Streever, Jr., solid state
physicist, Magnetic Measurements Section,
National Bureau of Standards, “in recogni-
tion of his studies in nuclear magnetic
resonance; in particular, his researches on
the hyperfine fields in ferromagnetic metals,
alloys, and compounds.” (Sponsors: I. L.
Cooter, A. H. Scott.)
Sidney Teweles, chief, Stratospheric
Meteorology Research Project, Weather
Bureau, “in recognition of his major con-
tributions to knowledge concerning the
meteorology of the upper atmosphere.”
(Sponsors: J. M. Mitchell, Jr., H. E.
Landsberg. )
An earth-covered trampoline, constructed
of one-inch nylon rope woven into a net on
a 14-foot steel ring, has shown remarkable
resistance to high explosive blasts when
used as the roof sector of temporary mili-
tary shelters. The Fort Belvoir Army labora-
tories, in tests, have compared this type of
command post installation with comparable
timber structures. weighing ten times as
much and found it to be as good or better,
with the additional advantage of eliminat-
ing all supporting columns. In use, the
roof is placed over an approximately 10’
diameter excavation and covered with
earth.
MN
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Science in Washington
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
October 7—Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers
Meeting of George Washington Univer-
sity Student Branch. William W. Eaton,
Deputy Assistant Secretary of Commerce
for Science and Technology, “Engineering
Management.”
Room 200, Tompkins Hall of Engineer-
ing, GWU, 8:30 p.m.
October 8—Washington Society of
Engineers
Ralph I. Cole, management consultant,
“Engineering Manpower.”
Powell Auditorium, Cosmos Club, 8:00
p-m.
October 8—American Society of Me-
chanical Engineers
Charles E. Berberick, manager of gen-
erating engineering, PEPCO, “Pepco’s
Chalk Point Plant.”
Dinner at O’Donnell’s Restaurant, 1221
E St., N.W., 6:00 p.m. Meeting at PEPCO
Auditorium, 10th & E Sts., N.W., 8:00 p.m.
October 13-14—Bureau of Naval
Weapons
Fifth Annual Symposium on Advanced
Techniques for Aircraft Electric Systems.
Departmental Auditorium, Constitution
Avenue between 12th & 14th Sts., N.W.
October 14—American Society of
Mechanical Engineers
Field Trip to PEPCO’s Chalk Point
plant.
Buses leave PEPCO Building, 10th & E
Sts.. N.W., at 10:00 a.m. Transportation
and box lunch, $3.00 per person.
October 14—American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-
Conditioning Engineers
Otho E. Ulrich, Armstrong Machine
Works, “Humidification—Why and How?”
- OcToBER, 1964
Cameo Room of Presidential Arms, 1320
G St., N.W. Social hour at 5:15 p.m., meet-
ing at 7:30 p.m.
October 21—Society of American
Foresters
Clare W. Hemdee, deputy chief of
Forest Service, and Dwight F. Rettie, staff
coordinator of Poverty Program Task
Force, on “Conservation and the Job Corps
in the Poverty Program.”
Occidental Restaurant.
vania Ave., N.W., noon.
1411 Pennsyl-
October 21—Paleontological Society
of Washington
J. Hazel and D. Massie of the Geological
Survey, on subjects to be announced.
Room 43 Natural History Building, 10th
St. & Constitution Ave., 8:00 p.m.
SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS
Contributions to this column may be
addressed to Harold T. Cook, Associate
Editor, c/o Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service, Federal
Center Building, Hyattsville, Maryland.
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT
Herbert L. Haller,
known for his contributions to control of
agricultural pests, retired August 31 after
nearly 40 years of service with the Depart-
ment. He joined USDA in 1919 as a chem-
ist, and remained with the Department
thereafter, except for five early years with
the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Re-
search. For the past two years he had been
an assistant administrator of the Agricul-
tural Research Service, with responsibilities
in farm research. One of his most important
contributions—made in collaboration with
F. B. LaForge and L. E. Smith—was the
determination of the chemical structure of
rotenone, a naturally-occurring plant in-
secticide that leaves no toxic residue. For
this achievement he received the Hille-
internationally
Bo
brand Prize for 1932 from the Chemical
Society of Washington.
AMERICAN UNIVERSITY
Leo Schubert has been appointed to
the editorial advisory board of a new quar-
terly sponsored by AAAS, which will pro-
vide definitive and critical evaluations of
science books at about the time of publi-
cation.
ARMY ENGINEER >
R&D LABORATORIES
Osear P. Cleaver, who has received
more work performance awards than any
other employee at ERDL, recently received
a 12th outstanding performance rating cer-
tificate
COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY
B. K. Meade attended an International
Association of Geodesy Symposium on the
Readjustment of the European Triangula-
tion Networks, held in Stockholm, Sweden,
August 10-14.
John S. Rinehart, former director of the
Mining Research Laboratory, Colorado
School of Mines, has been appointed to
direct the Coast and Geodetic Survey’s
Office of Research and Development. He
replaces Christopher E. Barthel, Jr., who
has left the Survey to become executive
director of the Kansas Research Founda-
tion at Topeka.
DAVID TAYLOR MODEL BASIN
Harry Polachek, head of the Applied
Mathematics Laboratory, received the
honorary degree of Doctor of Humane
Letters at the 33rd annual commencement
exercises of Yeshiva University in New
York City on June 11. An alumnus of the
University, Dr. Polachek was one of six
distinguished leaders in the arts, sciences,
and public life to receive honorary degrees
at the ceremonies
Harvey R. Chaplin, deputy head of
the Aerodynamics Laboratory, received
the Doctor of Engineering degree on June
7 from Catholic University, as the clumina-
320 JOURNAL OF
tion of his studies under the DTMB ad-
vanced training program for engineering,
scientific, and professional personnel.
FAO
Roy C. Dawson, of the North Ameri-
can Regional Office, was assigned to FAO
headquarters in Rome in the period August
26-September 25. He expected to return
by way of Boston, in order to participate
in an International Conference on the
Wholesomeness of Irradiated Foods, Sep-
tember 27-30.
GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Jacinto Steinhardt, professor of chem-
istry and science advisor to the president,
recently received a five-year grant from
the National Institutes of Health for study
of the effects of protein interactions on
protein stability. Dr. Steinhardt presented
a paper, “Oxidation and Acid Denaturation
of Ferrohemoglobins” (with F. Moezie),
at the April meeting of the American Soci-
ety of Biological Chemists in Chicago.
HARRIS RESEARCH LABORATOR-
IES
Alfred E. Brown received the 1964
Honor Scroll of the Washington Chapter,
American Institute of Chemists, at a dinner
held here on May 5. Dr. Brown was cited
for his contributions to professional socie-
ties and science organizations in the Wash-
ington area.
NATIONAL BUREAU
ARDS
Shirleigh Silverman was recently ap-
pointed associate director for resources
planning. In this position, Dr. Silverman
will advise Director Astin on matters per-
taining to the planning and management
of the Bureau’s scientific and technical
programs, and in relating the Bureau’s
research programs to the technological
needs of industry and the requirements of
the scientific community.
John D. Hoffman has been named
chief of the Polymers Division in the NBS
Institute for Materials Research. He re-
OF STAND-
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
places Gordon M. Kline, who retired in
December 1963. Dr. Hoffman will direct
polymer research as well as polymer stand-
ards work at the Bureau, and will also
personally engage in some research.
Arnold H. Scott has been named chief
of the Dielectrics Section in the NBS In-
stitute for Basic Standards. A member of
the Dielectrics Section since 1924, Dr.
Scott’s efforts to improve the precision of
dielectric measurements have made him
internationally famous in his field.
A most enjoyable and festive luncheon
was recently given to honor Don Mittle-
man, chief of the Computation Section,
who resigned from the Bureau to accept
an appointment at the University of Notre
Dame, where he will set up a computer
center.
John Mandel will be spending the
coming academic year as a guest worker
at the Technological University of Eind-
hoven, Netherlands.
NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF
HEALTH
James A. Shannon, director of NIH,
was the recipient of an honorary M.D. de-
gree on May 29 from the famed Karolinska
Institutet in Stockholm, Sweden. In his
letter to Dr. Shannon, Dr. Sten Friberg,
rector of the Institute, said, “The degree
is a modest expression of our deeply felt
appreciation of the generous support, given
through the years, to Swedish medical re-
search.”
Kenneth M. Endicott, director of the
National Cancer Institute, received the
Distinguished Service Medal, the highest
honor awarded by the Department to a
member of the PHS Commissioned Corps,
at the 13th Annual Honor Awards Cere-
mony of HEW on April 10. Dr. Endicott
was cited “for his outstanding and dis-
tinguished leadership in medical research
administration and national cancer re-
search programs.”
Marshall W. Niremberg, chief of the
Section of Biochemical Genetics, Labora-
tory of Clinical Biochemistry, National
OcToBER, 1964,
Heart Institute, received the Superior Serv-
ice Award at the same ceremony “for the
first experimental verification of the chem-
ical basis of the genetic code.”
Koloman Laki has been appointed
chief of the newly created Laboratory of
Biophysical Chemistry of the National In-
stitute of Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases.
The new laboratory will be responsible
for conducting research on muscle and
blood proteins, the physical and enzymatic
properties of contractile muscle proteins,
and evolutionary aspects of the fibrinogen-
thrombin interaction, among other studies.
Sarah E. Stewart of the Laboratory of
Viral Oncology, National Cancer Institute,
received the Lucy Wortham James Award
on April 22 in New York City. The award
is given annually by the James Ewing Soci-
ety to an outstanding individual in cancer
research. Dr. Stewart also was named by
Georgetown University as a “Medical Man
of Georgetown.” She is the first woman
graduate to receive this honor, which is
bestowed periodically in the Georgetown
Medical Bulletin. Dr. Stewart was also the
first woman to earn an M.D. degree at the
university, in 1949.
Carl J. Witkop, Jr., chief of the
Human Genetics Branch, National Institute
of Dental Research, attended the Institute
of Nutrition for Central America and
Panama in Guatemala City, Guatemala,
June 22 to September 1, where he took a
course in public health nutrition. Dr. Wit-
kop also gave a course in human genetics,
and acted as co-instructor in a course on
nutrition diseases as they affect the oral
cavity. He conducted a study on the rela-
tionship of vitamin A absorption and cer-
tain hereditary lesions of the tongue, and
a study of possible genetic factors as they
relate to nutritional requirements and oral
disease.
NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION
Raymond J. Seeger was scheduled to
give one of the major addresses at an inter-
national symposium on the history, method-
321
ology, logic, and philosophy of science,
held in Florence, Italy, September 14-16
in honor of the quatercentenary of the
birth of Galileo. His subject was, “On Gali-
leo’s Philosophy of Science—in Retro-
spect.”
NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
On July 29, the Department of Defense
Distinguished Civilian Service Award was
presented to William A Zisman, super-
intendent of the NRL Chemistry Division.
Dr. Zisman was the only Navy employee
receiving the award at this time. The award
was presented for his contribution to sur-
face chemistry and lubrication, which has
been his particular field of interest since
he joined the Laboratory’s staff in 1939.
Last May, Herbert Friedman and
Richard Tousey received the 1964 Ed-
dington Medal of the British Royal As-
tronomical Society “for their pioneering
research in ultraviolet astronomy.” Dr. S.
Friedman and Tousey have been leaders
in rocket astronomy since the V-2 rockets
first became available at the end of World
War II.
Allen L. Alexander, associate super-
intendent of the Chemistry Division, pre-
sented a paper on “Natural Resistance of
Woods to Marine Borer and Other Biologi-
cal Deterioration in Tropical Environ-
ments” before the I° Congres International
de la Corrosion Marine et des Salissures
held at Cannes, France in June. At the con:
clusion of this conference, Dr. Alexander
visited the Institut Francais du Petrole in
Paris, the Organization for Industrial Re-
search TNO in Delft, Holland, and a num-
ber of British Admiralty laboratories in
England.
Horace M. Trent, Applied Mathema-
tics Staff, is chairman of the newest tech-
nical committee set up under the Interna-
tional Standards Organization—TC 108,
on Mechanical Vibration and Shock. This
committee held its first meeting June 1-5
in Aix-les-Bains, France, with representa-
tives from seven countries in attendance.
oa
G. R. Irwin, superintendent of the
Mechanics Division, participated in a spe-
cial conference on fracture of heavy section
steel structures held at the Royal Society
in London, on May 28.
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., director
of the Bureau of American Ethnology and
one of the founders of the Inter-Agency
Archeological Salvage Program, retired on
July 3 after 37 years and 7 months of serv-
ice. During the time that Dr. Roberts was
with the Institution, he spent many years
excavating prehistoric archeological re-
mains in the Southwestern United States
and publishing the results of these excava-
tions. He was one of the three or four
American archeologists who had the fore-
sight to see the potential destruction to
American prehistory by the large-scale pro-
gram of reservoir construction throughout
the nation, and was the leader in organizing
the River Basin Surveys to salvage these
archeological remains.
NOTES FROM OUR
OVERSEAS CORRESPONDENT
Frank L. Campbell reported from
Karlsruhe on August 15 that after at-
tendance at the Entomology Congress, he
had spent a month in London recovering
from pneumonia. Thereafter he had ac-
quired a new Volkswagen, and currently
he was being driven by Mrs. Campbell
through Germany toward Switzerland and
Italy.
DEATHS
Charles O. Appleman, emeritus pro-
fessor of botany and emeritus dean of the
University of Maryland Graduate School,
died on July 28 at the age of 85. Dr. Ap-
pleman was dean of the Graduate School
from 1918 until his retirement in 1948.
He started his career as a plant physiologist
at the Maryland Agricultural Experiment
Station in 1908 and was made professor
of plant physiology in 1910. He was dis-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
tinguished for his research on the respira-
tion of plant tissues. Dr. Appleman served
~as chairman of the graduate section of the
American Association of Land Grant Col-
leges and Universities, as president of the
Society of Plant Physiology, and as presi-
dent of the Conference of Deans of South-
ern Graduate Schools.
Peter Hidnert, 72, a physicist at the
National Bureau of Standards for more
than 40 years, died June 10 after a heart
attack. Dr. Hidnert joined the Bureau in
1916, served as a physicist until his retire-
ment in 1957, and was a consultant there
from 1957 to this year. He specialized in
the linear thermal expansion of solids, and
in the instruments and methods used to
measure such expansion. He wrote numer-
ous articles for scientific journals through-
out the world.
A native of New York, Dr. Hidnert
received the B.A. and M.S. degrees from
George Washington University, did gradu-
ate work at Columbia University, and re-
ceived the Ph.D. degree in physics from
American University. In 1952 he received
a medal of merit from the Department of
Commerce.
Ross C. MacCardle, 62, of the Na-
tional Cancer Institute, died June 23 after
a heart attack. Dr. MacCardle, a native of
Bart, Pa., was a graduate of the University
of Michigan and Brown University. Be-
fore joining NCI in 1946, he had taught at
Temple, Columbia, and Duke Universities,
and from 1938 to 1946 had been a research
assistant and assistant professor of anatomy
at Washington University in St. Louis.
During World War Il, Dr. MacCardle
worked for the Army Air Force, on re-
search that led to the development of high
altitude oxygen equipment. From 1947 to
1953 he was scientific editor of the Journal
of the National Cancer Institute; and re-
cently he had been named editor-in-chief
of the International Journal of Cancer.
Also, he was a teacher of physiology and
histology, and lectured to classes at Johns
Hopkins, George Washington, and Ameri-
OcTOBER, 1964
can Universities. He was an associate
clinical professor of anatomy at the George-
town University School of Medicine.
SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT
If one accepts the current notion, held
by some informed geologists, that the earth
first evolved as a cold body from a dust
cloud about the sun, and then for a period
of perhaps a billion years remained rela-
tively quiet while it heated up internally
as a result of radioactive decay, it sug-
gests that fragments of the original crust
may still remain in certain of the con-
tinental rocks. Robert S. Dietz, of the
Coast and Geodetic Survey, who argues for
this point of view, feels that the search
should shift from the granitic rocks, where
it has been traditionally pushed and which
have been unrewarding, to what are called
“ultramafics,” dark heavy rocks found em-
bedded in very old sedimentary rocks of
the oldest mountain ranges. He suggests
that radioactive analysis, indicating ex-
ceedingly ancient origins for these possible
fragments of the earth’s crust, which have
hitherto been discounted as unbelievable,
may actually be valid. Dr. Dietz feels it
highly unlikely that the sea floor, which
has undergone repeated renewal during
the earth’s history, will retain any of the
sought after crust fragments; he suggests
rather various continental spots such as
Manitoba, Northern Rhodesia, and the
Russo-Finnish border.
For some time the Geological Survey
has conducted studies of heat flow from
the earth’s interior in old mines, tunnels,
and wells in the West as a part of its con-
tribution to the International Upper Mantle
Project, a study of the geology of ithe
outer 400 miles of the earth. Augmenting
this, the Survey is drilling a 2,000 foot
hole in the Sierra Nevada, a young still-
building mountain range, at a point 40
325
miles northeast of Fresno, Calif. At some
later time a second boring will be made at
a point where radioactivity is much greater,
and where the crust is thicker. Compari-
sons of the heat flow at the two sites, and
with others both within and outside the
continental United States, will help in de-
termining more precisely the role of radio-
activity in the generation of the earth’s
heat. Actual calculations are made from
records of temperature changes within
the holes and measurements of thermal con-
ductivity in sample cores.
The contributions of the amateur enthu-
siast to scientific knowledge, particularly in
these days of multimillion dollar research
hardware, are too often overlooked, per-
haps. It is comforting to note, then, the
recent purchase by the Smithsonian In-
stitution of a meteorite collection from the
estate of Arthur Allen, a man with little
formal education who managed first the
family blacksmith shop, and later opened
one of the first automobile shops in his
Colorado home town. But he had a con-
suming interest in meteorites, and spent a
great deal of time in building his collection
of 45, eleven of them not represented in
the Smithsonian’s present collections, and
seven previously unknown to scientists.
And speaking of extraterrestrial ma-
terials, evidence is accumulating, according
to staff members and colleagues of the
Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge,
Mass., that the dust particles recovered
from polar ice caps, showing as they do
magnetic properties and an iron content
usually not found in terrestrial materials,
are almost certainly solidified droplets
from _ asteroids, meteors, or comets.
Analysis of volcanic deposits indicates that
the proportion of these spheroidal forms
in volcanic particles is minute, and that
most of the volcanic samples contain
aluminum while most of the polar ice
granules do not.
o24
JOURNAL OF
The more commonly encountered units
in the International System of Units re-
cently adopted by the National Bureau of
Standards would cause few of us any hesi-
tation—the meter, kilogram, second, am-
pere, degree Kelvin, and, perhaps, even
the candela (for luminous intensity). Others
are more intriguing, no doubt, but sound
strange to the ear of all but the physical
scientists. A few, chosen from a lengthy
list just released by the Bureau, show how
extensively the names of noted scientists of
the past are thus preserved to the future:
hertz—frequency
newton—force
farad—electrical capacitance
weber—magnetic flux
inductance
henry
watt-—power
coulomb—electric charge
Units designed for the Army primarily
to produce potable water from the sea have
proved, in tests, to be encouragingly ef-
fective in removing water-soluble chemical
warfare agents from contaminated sources.
In some cases it was necessary to subject
the material to additional treatments with
carbon or ion exchange resins, while in
others the water leaving the distillation
units was drinkable immediately.
Cost and convenience, among other
things, govern the utility of reader-printers
in microcopy work. The Council on Li-
brary Resources has taken one step toward
improving this situation by awarding a
contract to Documentation Incorporated,
which will attempt to build a machine
weighing about 20 pounds and selling for
perhaps $100 to $200, depending on num-
bers produced. Prototypes will be tested
in area libraries under actual conditions
before a decision is reached on final pro-
duction. Among special features are a
paper supply in pack form and a combined
developing and clearing tank used in
processing the film.
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Delegates to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Representing
the Local Affiliated Societies*
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* Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective affiliated societies.
“olbrre 54 OCTOBER 1964 No. 7
CONTENTS
Electrochemical Society Holds Semiannual Meeting Here... 293
A Note on Electrochemistry, the Electrochemical Society, and the Washington-
Baltimore. Section. «022.8 ak ed os a ees ted | 294,
Electrochemical Society: Organization fer 1964-65 296
W. J. Hamer: Standards of Electromotive Force....................5 7 297
Academy Proceedings
October: Meeting of the Academy ..2..2..4 eee 316
Achievement Award Nominations Requested... eee eee 317
Elections ‘to “Fellowship... g240..0).c60. Gino eee ond
Science in Washington 7
Calendar. of). Events. .2...0.o.05.8.c1 Davee edend date tn kee eee ale)
Seientists' in’ the’ News:...2.1.6.c200/a-ccstenge ses ee 319
Science. and: Development. <.....2...:0:8-ocee.cbe--cej-csse eee 323
Washington Academy of Sciences 2nd Class Postage
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Editor: Samuet B. DetTwiter, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Associaie Editors
Rocer G. Bates, National Bureau of Standards HELEN L. Reynotps, Food and Drug Adminis-
Harotp T. Coox, Department of Agriculture tration
RicHarp P. Farrow, National Canners Asso- RALPH G. H. Siu, Department of Defense
ciation RusseELL B. STEVENS, George Washington Uni-
J. Murray MitTcuHet1, Jr., Weather Bureau versity
Contributors
FRANK A. BIBERSTEIN, JR., Catholic University Jacop Mazur, National Bureau of Standards
Cuartes A. WHITTEN, Coast & Geodetic Survey [i EEn FE, STEWART, National Science Foundation
Maryorte Hooker, Geological Survey ALLEN L, ALEXANDER, Naval Research Laboratory
ReuseN E. Woop, George Washington Univer-
an Victor R. BosweELt, USDA, Beltsville
JosepH B. Morris, Howard University Harry A. Fowetts, USDA, Washington
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes historical
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ACADEMY OFFICERS FOR 1964
President: FraNcots N. FRENKIEL, David Taylor Model Basin
President-Elect: Leo ScHUBERT, American University
Secretary: Grorce W. Irvinc, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Treasurer: Matcotm C. HeEenpbEersoN, Catholic University
Albert Einstein, As I Remember Him*
Churchill Eisenhart
Senior Research Fellow, National Bureau of Standards
During the winter of 1933, Albert Ein-
stein joined the newly formed Institute for
Advanced Study in Princeton, N.J., and
took up residence in Princeton for the rest
of his life. Soon after he had settled in
his first house, at the corner of Mercer
Street and Bayard Lane, he and his second
wife, Frau Elsa Einstein Einstein, who was
his cousin, came to dinner at my father’s
house. I, a senior in Princeton University,
residing on the campus, went home for
the occasion. During dinner Professor
Einstein returned again and again to how
well his wife took care of him. Finally,
my mother interjected: “Professor Ein-
stein, your wife seems to do absolutely
everything for you. Just exactly what do
you do for her?” With a twinkle in his
eye he replied at once: “I give her my
understanding.”
One day not long thereafter, the tele-
phone rang in the office of the Dean of the
Graduate School, Princeton University.
The voice at the other end inquired:
“May I speak with Dean Eisenhart, please.”
Being advised that my father was not in,
the voice continued: “Perhaps then you
will tell me where Dr. Einstein lives.”” My
father’s secretary replied that this she
could not do inasmuch as Dr. Einstein
wished to have his privacy respected. The
voice on the telephone dropped to a near
whisper, and continued: “Please do not
tell anybody, but I am Dr. Einstein. I am
on my way home and I have forgotten
where my house is.”
My father has an anecdote about Dr.
Einstein that he enjoys telling because in
* Adapted from the author’s commencement ad-
dress presented on June 15, 1964, to the first
class to graduate from the Albert Einstein Senior
High School, Newport Mill Road, Kensington,
Md.
NOVEMBER, 1964
this case the joke was on my father’s
long-time friend, the late Thomas J. Wat-
son, president of the International Busi-
ness Machines Corporation, whose wife
(nee Jeannette Kittridge) my father had
known in their school days in York, Penn-
sylvania. By way of background, let me
remind you of two technological advances
of the 40’s: (1) The IBM executive type-
writer, which types such clean sharp copy
that it looks as if it were printed, was
placed on the market in 1940. (2) the
world’s first truly electronic automatic
digital calculator, the ENIAC (acronym
for Electronic Numerical Integrator And
Calculator), designed and built for the
Ballistic Research Laboratories, Aberdeen
Proving Ground, was dedicated at the
Moore School of Electrical Engineering of
the University of Pennsylvania in Feb-
ruary, 1946, and was moved to Aberdeen
Proving Ground in October of the same
year.
In 1948, the IBM Corporation sent out
letters to all of the big names in mathe-
matics, science, and industry, inviting them
to the forthcoming unveiling of IBM’s
great new Selective Sequence Electronic
Computer at IBM world headquarters on
Madison Avenue, New York. One of these
invitations went to Dr. Einstein. Several
weeks elapsed and they received no reply.
A second invitation was sent. Again no
reply. My father was reached by telephone
from New York and asked to inquire
whether Dr. Einstein had received an in-
vitation and whether he would be able to
attend. He explained that something must
be amiss, because Dr. Einstein was scru-
pulous about replying to all such invita-
tions. He walked over to Dr. Einstein’s
house and explained the situation. Dr.
Einstein dumped the contents of a very
325
large wastebasket on the floor and ex-
amined an item here and there. Finally
his face lighted up. He handed one of the
invitational letters to my father, saying,
“It looks as if it were printed. I never
read printed circulars.” Unfortunately, by
then Dr. Einstein had already committed
himself to another engagement and was un-
able to attend the unveiling.
In the book review section of the current
(June 1964) issue of the Scientific Ameri-
can, J. Bronowski remarks:
From time to time a new branch of science
catches the imagination of scientists and public
together, so that it comes to express the spirit of
a whole generation. The theory of evolution by
natural selection did this 100 years ago; it was
an idea that laymen as well as naturalists could
seize, with the result that they could see its im-
plications and feel themselves personally engaged
in them. In our own century the theory of re-
lativity took the same hold on the generation of
World War I.
But with this difference in the case of
the theory of relativity: laymen lacking the
advanced physics and higher mathematics
necessary for its appreciation, did not, and
could not be expected to comprehend Ein-
stein’s theory. In consequence, the lay pub-
lic seems to have seized upon one particu-
lar non-original feature, namely, formula-
tion of the theory in terms of fowr-dimen-
sional geometry, as constituting the new,
revolutionary, and far-reaching contribu-
tion of the entire theory. And worse, having
a misconception of what a mathematician
or a mathematical-physicist means by a
‘four-dimensional space,” the public ac-
cepted this feature of the theory as the basis
of its incomprehensibility to them. This in
turn gave rise to the commonly held belief
that Einstein’s theory was so difficult that
only a handful, or at most a dozen men
in the entire world were capable of com-
prehending it; and, finally, to mystical
and even fanatical reverence and adulation
of Einstein himself. Einstein, notable to
all who knew him personally for his ex-
treme shyness and his honest and forth-
right humility, is said to have commented
on all of this with characteristic modesty:
326
“It is an irony of fate that I myself have
been the recipient of excessive admiration
and reverence from my fellow beings,
through no fault and no merit of my
OMI ey
Einstein was deeply disturbed by the
popular belief that he had invented the
concept of a “four-dimensional space,” and
took pains in his Autobiographical Notes
(see below) to correct the “widespread
error that the special theory of relativity
is supposed to have, to a certain extent,
first discovered, or at any rate, newly
introduced, the four-dimensionality of the
physical continuum.” He was particularly
impatient with the commonly held belief
that his theory was so difficult that only
six, ten, or at most a dozen people in
the entire world were able to compre:
hend it, and especially with the fact that
such estimates were often attributed to
Einstein himself. Consequently, he was
very receptive to a manuscript by Joseph B.
Nichols entitled, ““You have one chance in a
hundred to understand Einstein” that I
brought to him on behalf of the Scientific
American late in 1933. (In those days I
was a so-called “contributing editor” of
the Scientific American, my “contribu-
tion” consisting principally of replying to
correspondence received on mathematical
and physical topics.)
In this article Mr. Nichols emphasized
that in order to answer the question of how
many people can understand Einstein “we
must first define just what we mean by
‘understanding Einstein.’ ”
If, by an understanding of relativity, we mean
such a complete knowledge of the subject that
all its implications and effect are explicitly in
mind, [then] we may anticipate the answer to
be—none. I am sure that Professor Einstein
would be the first to agree with this conclusion.
Professor Einstein concurred. Mr. Nichols
continued :
Suppose we... estimate, if we can, how many
may perhaps understand almost as much of rela-
*William Cahn, Einstein: A Pictorial Biog-
raphy, The Citadel Press, New York, 1955; paper-
back reprint, 1960, page 40.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
tivity as Einstein himself. The number of men
included in this group would be very small; per-
haps, at the lowest, the mighty six, or at the
most liberal estimate not more than two or three
dozen. They would be men of surpassing ability,
who have given a lifetime to the study of mathe-
matical physics ... Though an illuminating idea
may wait for generations for some genius to
discover it; after that genius has once announced
it, it appears to those who are prepared as very
understandable.
Mr. Nichols then went on to expound
his general thesis that at birth one child in
a hundred has the mental capacity to under-
stand Einstein, provided that he receives
sufficient training in mathematics and
physics; and that in the case of any par-
ticular child his chances improve steadily
as he grows older, if he embarks upon the
necessary program of training in mathe-
matics and physics, or decrease steadily if
he shuns these subjects and pursues a
course of study leading to some other pro-
fession. In other words, in the senior
class here tonight there are very likely
a dozen or so whose chances of under-
standing Einstein’s theory of relativity are
very good, and many many more whose
chances are very slim—they are already
headed in other directions.
Professor Einstein enthusiastically en-
dorsed the proposed publication of this
article, and wrote to Mr. Nicsols: “What
you say against the legend of the unattain-
ableness of the theory of relativity is as
correct as it is useful. I believe that your
figures give a good idea and contribute
towards removing that detrimental and
false faith in authority against which [|
have always fought to the best of my
ability.” Needless to say, the article was
published, in the February 1934 issue of
the Scientific American.
My fear of the great man being reduced
to manageable proportions by this experi-
ence, I took to him a term paper on “The
Ether” as viewed through the “spectacles”
of the special and the general theories of
relativity, a paper that I had written a year
or so earlier in a course on relativity.
(Actually, as I was to learn, Professor Ein-
NOVEMBER, 1964.
stein was ever ready, and even eager, to
give time and attention to those who really
needed it, especially to young people. To
these, who would sometimes hesitate to
bother Einstein with their problems, he
would say: “I shall always be able to
receive you. If you have a problem, come
to me with it. You will never disturb me,
since I can interrupt my own work at any
moment.” * And so it came to pass that
Professor Einstein obligingly helped me
fix up my manuscript, saying to me chari-
tably that its publication might save him
the necessity of answering so many in-
quiries on the subject. It appeared in the
November 1934 issue of the Scientific
American, with a flashy title devised by the
editors, “The Ether: Riddle of the Ages.”
During the brief two-year period (1933-
1935) before I left Princeton for the Uni-
versity of London in August 1935, I heard
Dr. Einstein present only one scientific
paper. It was a memorable occasion. I do
not recall the subject of his talk at this
great distance. I do recall that he spoke
slowly and gave an exceptionally clear
account of what he had to say. When he
had finished, one of the other mathema-
ticians present proceeded to deduce Pro-
fessor Einstein’s principal result in short
order from certain results of other authors
in the then available scientific literature.
The audience waited breathlessly for Pro-
fessor Einstein’s response. He rose, thanked
his colleague for this very concise and ele-
gant derivation of his own principal result,
reminded all present that the assumptions
underlying the results upon which the dis-
cussant’s short proof had been based were
somewhat different from those from which
he himself had started, and concluded by
thanking his colleague for thus revealing
that his result had a somewhat broader
base of validity than he himself had ap-
preciated. The approving buzz of the audi-
ence testified to the fact that Albert Ein-
stein had clearly not lost but gained from
*Ibid., p. 76.
ay A
the intended criticism.
From Albert Einstein’s pen came over
300 articles, books, essays, etc., on scientific
topics. His non-scientific publications came
to nearly 150; and almost as many inter-
views, letters, and speeches by Einstein
were quoted in the New York Times, not
counting items published more completely
elsewhere.* One of the letters quoted in
the Times, dated February 10, 1929, was
addressed “to a 13-year Los Angeles boy
who had written on relativity for a Los
Angeles paper’; another, dated July 26,
1934, praised Phillip H. Phenix, my class-
mate at Princeton, for his senior thesis on
“The absolute significance of rotation.”
Professor A. M. Low, president of the
British Institute of Engineering Technol-
* Annotated lists of all of these various publica-
tions of Dr. Einstein through 1949 may be found
in Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, edited
by Paul Arthur Schilpp, The Library of Living
Philosophers, Inc., Evanston, Illinois, 1949;
which also contains Einstein’s “Autobiographical
Notes” in his original German and in English
translation, on facing pages (pp. 2-95).
328
ogy, said on learning of Einstein’s death:
“No tribute can be adequate. His death is
a great loss to science, and a greater loss
to the world of a good and kindly man.”*
Although Professor Einstein found it neces-
sary to escape from publicity seekers, he
never shut the door to those who needed
his advice and counsel. As I have already
said, he was especially found of helping
children. The stories on this score are
legion in Princeton. I wish that I could
tell some of these here, plus more anecdotes
based on my own or my family’s experi-
ence. But the time alloted to my “appe-
tizer” has run out, and I had best sit down
soon and let you turn to the “main course.”
You, the first class to graduate from
Albert Einstein Senior High School have
an unusual opportunity to keep alive by
your words and deeds the living memory of
“a good and kindly man” whom Senator
Herbert Lehman termed “a great citizen of
the world and one of the greats of our
age.” x
*Ibid., p. 122.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Academy Proceedings
433rd Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences
SPEAKER: CHRISTOPHER TIETZE
Director of Research, National Committee on
Maternal Health, Inc., New York City
SUBJECT: EFFECTIVENESS OF METHODS OF POPU-
LATION CONTROL
TIME: THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 19, 1964
oo Pee
PLACE: JOHN WESLEY POWELL AUDITORIUM,
COSMOS CLUB
2170 Florida Avenue, N.W.
Abstract of Address—Adoption of official policies of population control aimed at
achieving a balance between rate of population growth and socio-economic development
in many countries of Asia and Africa is a truly twentieth-century phenomenon. National
programs underway or under serious discussion have the primary objective of reducing
birth rates, which have remained high while death rates have been dramatically re-
duced by modern medical achievements. To appraise these policies realistically in terms
of attainment of objectives, we must understand the relationship between contraceptive
methods and birth rates.
The following specific methods and techniques of birth control are compared for their
effectiveness and suitability under the conditions prevailing in the emerging areas of the
world: (1) “Traditional” methods—diaphragm, condom, jellies, etc.; (2) “modern
techniques’ —the oral “pill” and intro-uterine devices; and (3) surgical sterilization
and induced abortion.
Levels of contraceptive effectiveness of different methods of birth control, in terms of
pregnancy rates during periods of contraceptive practice, are compared with crude birth
rates per 1,000 population. The objectives of population control programs require both
highly effective contraceptive methods and their adoption at an early stage of the reproduc-
tive cycle by all couples exposed to the risk of pregnancy.
The Speaker—Born in Vienna, Christopher Tietze graduated from the University of
Vienna Medical School in 1932. He served his medical internship at Municipal Hos-
pital, Vienna, and before coming to the United States in 1938, had a general medical
practice in his native city. From 1938 to 1943 he was research associate at the Johns
Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health and he also served as medi-
cal statistician of the Mental Hygiene Study of the Eastern Health District in Balti-
more. From 1943 to 1949 he was research associate of the National Committee on Ma-
ternal Health. Dr. Tietze became a United States citizen in 1944. For 19 months, from
1944 to 1946, he served as battalion surgeon with combat engineers in New Guinea,
the Philippines, and Japan. He was director of Italian Statistical Studies at the Johns
Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health, 1947 and 1948. From 1949
to 1957 he served with the Division of Functional Intelligence, Department of State, as
intelligence research specialist (demography) and as chief of the Population and Labor
Staff. Since 1958 he has been director of research for the National Committee on Ma-
ternal Health. |
NOVEMBER, 1964. 329
SMITHSONIA,.
institution NOV12 1964
Dr. Tietze has been advisor to the U.S. delegation to the 8th and 9th sessions of the
United Nations Population Commission (1955 and 1957) ; advisor to the U.S. delegation
to the 4th session of the Committee on the Improvement of National Statistics of the
Inter-American Statistical Institute (1956); statistician for family planning, United
Nations Technical Assistance Administration, in Barbados, W. I. (1956 and 1958) ;
and U.S. delegate to the Conference on Demographic Problems of the Area Served by
the Caribbean Commission, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad (1957).
DIRECTORY CORRECTIONS
Foresters
In preparations for the September 1964
directory, one sheet of the master list
for the Washington Section, Society of
American Foresters (Code 2L) was over-
looked; hence over three dozen foresters
of the Washington area were not included.
Your editor shares responsibility for this
oversight by failing to realize that when
Page 3 of a list follows Page 1, something
must be wrong.
The following persons should be added
to the list of foresters on pages 277-279
of the directory:
330
ALEXANDER, PETER P 4CONS
CASTLES, JOHN R 1AFOR
CHANDLER, CRAIG C 1AFOR
CHESTER, CHARLES E 1IBIA
CHURCHILL, E DICK 4CONS
CHURCHILL, GILBERT B 9CLUN
CLAPP, CECIbE 1AFOR
CLAPP, Woll T7RETD
CLARKE, E H 1LAFOR
CLAUSEN, MELVIN D ONRNC
CLAYTON, JOSEPH E 1DAX
CLEMENTS, PAUL H 9CLUN
CLEPPER, ALBERT dz 4CONS
CLEPPER, HENRY E 3ASAF
CLIFF, EDWARD P 1AFOR
CLIFF, OLIVER 1AFOR
CLOCKER, EVERETT H 1AFOR
. CLONINGER, RUSSELL T LAFOR
CONNOLLY, FRANK A 9CLUN
COOK, LAWRENCE F 1INPS
COSTLEY, RICHARD J LAFOR
COWGER, ROLAND D
CRAFT, ARCHIE D
CRAFTS, EDWARD C
CRAIG, JAMES B
CRAVENS, JAY
CUMMINGS, LAURENCE J
CUMMINGS, WILLIAM H
CURTIS, ROBERT L
DAHLEN, WADE A
DAVIS, ARTHUR A
DAVIS, CLINTON L
DEAN, ANTHONY P
DE GROAT, RUSSELL E
DE NIO, REGINALD M
DIEHL, JAMES N
DILLER, JESSE D
DIMMICK, ROBERT $S
DONALDSON, HAROLD B
HORNADAY, FRED E
HORSMAN, LEWILL E
HOWARD, HARRY E
HUCKENPAHLER, B J
HUPPUCH, MATTHIAS C
HUSMAN, DONALD L
INCE, GORDON A
JACKSON, SETH
JACQUEMIN, FRANCIS P
JANZEN, DANIEL H
JAY, JAMES W
STEINHOFF, ROBERT G
NRL
1CBPR*
1IBLM
1IBOR
SAAFA
1AFOR
1SAID
1ACSR
IDNBY
1AFOR
9CLUN
1AFOR
TRETD
1DFX
1AFOR
TRETD
TRETD
LAFOR
1LAFOR
9CLUN
1DAEC
1AFOR
1AFOR
1IDAEC
1DAX
1AFOR
1AFOR
1IBLM
IIFWS
1AFOR
1AFOR
On page 250, under 1DNRL, Naval Re-
search Laboratory, B. F. Brown and Floyd
Brown are the same person.
*1CBPR—Bur. Public Roads
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OCEANOGRAPHERS
Under the agency classification, the Na-
tional Oceanographic Data Center appears
twice—on page 249 as 1DNOD, and on
page 254 as IXNOD. The first of these is
the correct code.
ELECTIONS TO FELLOWSHIP
The following persons were elected to
fellowship in the Academy at the Board of
Managers meeting on October 13:
Alden B. Bestul, physicist, Inorganic
Materials Division, National Bureau of
Standards, “in recognition of his contribu-
tions to the understanding of the rheology
of concentrated high polymer solutions es-
pecially in the non-Newtonian regime and
at critical energy inputs; and of the vitre-
ous conditions of matter, especially as it
occurs in diverse types of substances.”
(Sponsors: C. M. Tchen, G. B. Schubauer,
R. E. Ferguson. )
Stanley Block, crystallographer, Crys-
tallography Section, National Bureau of
Standards, “in recognition of his contribu-
tions in crystallography, particularly in de-
termination of structure of borates, phos-
phates, and glasses, and in the application
of modern computer methods to such stud-
ies.” (Sponsors: H. F. McMurdie, H. C.
Allen, Jr., J. J. Diamond.)
George B. Chapman, professor and
chairman of Department of Biology,
Georgetown University, “in recognition of
his researches conducted with the electron
microscope in the field of cytology, ranging
from bacteria to man.” (Sponsors: J. Stein-
hardt, W. J. Thaler.)
Thomas D. Coyle, chief, Inorganic
Chemistry Section, National Bureau of
Standards, “in recognition of his contribu-
tions to inorganic chemistry and in par-
ticular his researches on the synthesis and
characterization of new compounds.”
(Sponsors: H. C. Allen, Jr., J. J. Diamond,
H. F. McMurdie. )
NOVEMBER, 1964
Richard D. Deslattes, Jr., physicist,
Crystal Chemistry Section, National Bureau
of Standards, “in recognition of his con-
tributions to soft X-ray spectroscopy and
crystal defect studies by X-ray diffraction
microscopy.” (Sponsors: H. S. Peiser, J. L.
Torgesen, J. J. Diamond.)
Eduard Farber, research professor of
chemistry, American University, “in recog-
nition of his pioneer and prolific work in
the history of chemistry and his laboratory
work in wood chemistry.” (Sponsors: L.
Schubert, B. W. Sitterly.)
Wolfgang Haller, physical chemist,
Glass Section, National Bureau of Stand-
ards, “in recognition of his contributions
to physical chemistry, and in particular his
researches on the structure of glass.”
(Sponsors: J. J. Diamond, H. C. Allen,
Jr., H. F. McMurdie. )
Louis S. Hansen, head, Officer Educa-
tion Department, Naval Dental School, Na-
tional Naval Medical Center, “in recogni-
tion of his extensive investigations of the
pathological conditions in the mouth and
of diagnostic problems in oral pathology as
well as distinguished administration of re-
search in the field of oral pathology.”
Sponsors: G. M. Brauer, G. Dickson, W. T.
Sweeney. )
Martin Jacobson, chemist, Agricul-
tural Research Service, “in recognition of
his contributions to our knowledge of the
chemistry of natural products and in par-
ticular for his leading role in the elucida-
tion of the chemistry of sex attractants iso-
lated from insects and in the synthesis of
new compounds useful in attracting injuri-
ous insects.” (Sponsors: F. L. Campbell. G.
W. Irving, Jr., S. B. Detwiler, Jr.)
Philip S. Klebanoff, physicist. Fluid
Mechanics Section, National Bureau of
Standards, “in recognition of his contribu-
tions to fluid dynamics, particularly his
researches on the transition from a laminar
to a turbulent flow and the hydrodynamic
stability of waves developed in a boundary
layer.” (Sponsors: C..M. Tchen, GB.
Schubauer, R. E. Ferguson. )
331
Ernest M. Levin, physical chemist, Na-
tional Bureau of Standards, “in recognition
of his contributions to the study of the
phase relations of inorganic oxides, and for
his service in the compilation of data on
such solids.” (Sponsors: H. F. McMurdie,
H. C. Allen, Jr., J. J. Diamond.)
Robert J. List, chief, Atmospheric Ra-
dioactivity Research Project, Weather Bu-
reau, “in recognition of his contributions to
meteorology and the public welfare, and in
particular of his researches on atmospheric
radioactive fallout.” (Sponsors: J. M.
Mitchell, Jr., H. E. Landsberg, H. C. S.
Thom. )
William M. MacDonald, professor of
physics, University of Maryland, “in recog-
nition of his contributions to the field of
nuclear physics, particularly to the theory
of nuclear reactions and to Coulomb cor-
rections of the isotopic spin approxima-
tions.” (Sponsors: J. S. Toll, R. D. Myers,
H. D. Holmgren.)
Gertrude D. Maengwyn-Davies, pro-
fessor of pharmacology, Georgetown Uni-
versity, “in recognition of her contribution
to pharmacology, and in particular of her
researches on enzyme kinetics and on the
effects of atropine, including its reaction
with amino acids.” (Sponsors: M. L. Rob-
bins, T. Koppanyi, B. R. Bhussry.)
Millard Maienthal, chemist, Bureau
of Scientific Research, Food and Drug Ad-
ministration, “in recognition of his contri-
butions to organic chemistry, and in partic-
ular his researches on amines and nitriles.”
(Sponsors: J. K. Taylor, R. S. Tipson, R.
Schaffer. )
Terrell L. Noffsinger, agricultural
program leader, Weather Bureau, “in rec-
ognition of his contribution to biometeor-
ology, and in particular of his wide-ranging
and significant research on the relation of
weather to crops and farm animals.”
(Sponsors: J. M. Mitchell, Jr., H. E. Lands-
*herg, (HaGesmihomy)
Vincent J. Oliver, chief, Requirement
and Application Branch, National Weather
Satellite Center, Weather Bureau, “in rec-
doz
ognition of his broad contributions to me-
teorology, including valuable research in
weather forecasting, and of his valuable
and effective leadership in meteorological
training and education.” (Sponsors: J. M.
Mitchell, Jr., H. E. Landsberg, H. S. C.
Thom. )
Fred D. Ordway, Jr., consultant, Inor-
ganic Materials Division, National Bureau
of Standards, “in recognition of his contri-
butions to crystal chemistry, particularly in
determinations of crystal structures, the
phase problem, and studies on the nature
of glass.” (Sponsors: H. F. McMurdie, J.
J. Diamond, J. B. Wachtman, Jr.)
Elizabeth J. Oswald, research micro-
biologist, Bureau of Scientific Research,
Food and Drug Administration, “in recog-
nition of her contributions to microbiology
and in particular her research on antibi-
otic-resistant staphylococci, including stud-
ies on the effects of combinations of anti-
biotic drugs.” (Sponsors: M. L. Robbins,
H. Reynolds, R. C. Dawson.)
William T. Pecora, geologist, U.S. Ge-
ological Survey, “in recognition of his mer-
itorious original contributions on the geo-
chemical mineralogy of nickel and
phosphate minerals, on the petrology of
alkalic igneous rocks, and on the petro-
genesis of carbonatites.” (Sponsors: J. J.
Fahey, S. B. Detwiler, Jr., C. R. Naeser.)
Frederick A. H. Rice, professor of
chemistry, American University, “in recog-
nition of his outstanding work in the isola-
tion and characterization of compounds of
biological importance and his systematic
study of the acid degradation products of
monosaccharides.” (Sponsors: L. Schubert,
B. W. Sitterly.)
Ralph G. H. Siu, director, Research
Division, U.S. Army Materiel Command,
“in recognition of his contributions to ter-
pene chemistry, embryo growth factors,
cellulolytic enzymes, tropical deterioration
of material, radiation preservation of
foods, melt-spinning of ultrafine filaments,
and especially research management.”
(Sponsors: F. L. Campbell, G. W. Irving,
Jr., S. B. Detwiler, Jr.)
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
EEE
Lendell E. Steele, head, Radiation Op-
erations Section, Naval Research Labora-
tory, “in recognition of his scientific
achievements in the study of radiation ef-
fects on the properties of reactor pressure
vessel materials.” (Sponsors: A. L. Alexan-
der, L. B. Lockhart, Jr., W. A. Zisman.)
Dean I. Walter, head, Analytical
Chemistry Branch, Naval Research Labor-
atory, “in recognition of his contributions
to analytical chemistry, and in particular
his original research on analysis of gases
in refractory and conventional metals and
alloys, and his development of vacuum fu-
sion analytical methods, and equipment.
(Sponsors: L. A. DePue, B. F. Brown, C:
Sandoz.)
ELECTIONS TO MEMBERSHIP
John A. Waring, consultant, qualified
as a member on March 15, but was inad-
vertently omitted from previous member-
ship announcements.
The following persons were elected to
membership in the Academy by action of
the Committee on Membership at its meet-
ing on April 27:
Collins Arsem, research electronic en-
gineer, Harry Diamond Laboratories.
Francis E. Butler, project engineer,
Naval Ordnance Laboratory.
Edwin Dyke, director of communica-
tions engineering, Howard Research Cor-
poration.
Donald P. Easter, staff scientist, Na-
tional Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion.
Matthew H. Fusillo, research micro-
biologist, Mt. Alto Veterans Administration
Hospital.
James L. Gargus, research manager,
Toxicology Department, Hazleton Labora-
tories.
Clifford A. Hewitt, analytical chemist,
National Cancer Institute.
Fritz G. Hochwald, patent agent.
W. Haward Hunt, grain technologist,
Agricultural Marketing Service.
NOVEMBER, 1964
Martin Jacobson, chemist, Agricultural
Research Service.
William D. Jenkins, research metal-
lurgist, National Bureau of Standards.
J. A. Morris, chief, Section on Respira-
tory Viruses, National Institutes of Health.
Arthur J. Pallotta, director of re-
search, Bionetics Research Laboratories.
Irena Z. Roberts, associate professor
of chemistry, Trinity College.
Elaine G. Shafrin, physical chemist,
Naval Research Laboratory.
Leon Shmukler, M.D., on staff of New
England Medical Center and City Hospital,
Boston, Mass.
Daniel A. Sullivan, Jr., mathematics
teacher, McKinley Senior High School.
Robert W. Van Evera, editor, Mining
Congress Journal.
Mario G. Vangeli (captain, USN Ret.).
research associate and assistant to the di-
rector of the Engineering Experiment Sta-
tion, Ohio State University.
Stanley P. Wasik, research chemist,
National Bureau of Standards.
DeForrest E. Weaver, chemist, Geo-
logical Survey.
The following persons were elected to
membership in the Academy by action of
the Committee on Membership at its meet-
ing on May 25:
Don R. Boyle, electronic computer en-
gineer, National Bureau of Standards.
Andrew F. Freeman, physical science
administrator, Agricultural Research Serv-
ice.
Peter H. Haas, chief, Nuclear Vulner-
ability Branch, Harry Diamond Labora-
tories.
Grady T. Hicks, physicist, Naval Re-
search Laboratory.
Robert H. Martin, meteorologist, Navy
Yard Annex.
Elizabeth M. O’Hern, assistant pro-
fessor of microbiology, George Washington
University.
Kenneth J. Vigue, manager of special
projects and director, Export Licensing and
Control Office, ITT Corporation.
333
The following persons were elected to
membership in the Academy by action of
the Committee on Membership at its meet-
ing on September 21:
Lewis F. Affronti, assistant professor
of microbiology, George Washington Uni-
versity.
Eugene Ehrlich, program manager,
National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
istration.
Oscar Felsenfeld, research pathologist,
Walter Reed Army Institute of Research.
Earl M. Hildebrand, plant pathologist,
Agricultural Research Service.
William J. McCabe, supervising geol-
ogist, Federal Power Commission.
Lewis T. Milliken, chemist, National
Bureau of Standards.
Louis R. Perkins, science instructor,
School of Nursing, D.C. General Hospital.
Warren A. Robinson, veterinarian,
Food and Drug Administration.
Lloyd L. Salisbury, physicist, Harry
Diamond Laboratories.
James P. San Antonio, plant pathol-
ogist, Agricultural Research Service.
Grover C. Sherlin, hydraulic engineer,
National Bureau of Standards.
Harvey G. Talmadge, Jr., electronics
engineer, Naval Research Laboratory.
William L. West, associate professor,
Department of Pharmacology, Howard Uni-
versity.
Warren F. Witzig, senior vice presi-
dent and technical director, Nuclear Utility
Services, Inc.
BOARD OF MANAGERS
MEETING NOTES
March Meeting
The Board of Managers held its 563rd
meeting on March 19, 1964 at the Cosmos
Club, with President Frenkiel presiding.
The minutes of the 562nd meeting were
approved as previously distributed, with
minor corrections.
Announcements. Dr. Frenkiel advised the
Board that the order of business prescribed
334
in the revised Standing Rules (approved
in principle at the 562nd meeting on Febru-
ary 28) would henceforth be followed.
Dr. Frenkiel announced the following
committee appointments: To the Executive
Committee, Allen L. Alexander and Francis
Reichelderfer; to the Committee on Public
Information, Francis E. Carey and Thomas
R. Henry. He pointed out the desirability
of having full committee rosters on the
record, and asked all committee chairmen
to provide him with complete lists of mem-
bers at or before the next Board meeting.
Dean Van Evera announced that he had
just come from Georgetown University’s
175th Anniversary Convocation, at which
Rev. Francis J. Heyden, S.J., Academy
member and chairman of the Committee
on Encouragement of Science Talent, had
received an honorary Doctor of Science
degree.
Treasurer. Dr. Henderson presented the
following budget for 1964:
Estimated Receipts — Dues, $10,000;
Journal subscriptions and sales, $3,000;
dividends and interest, $2,300; commit-
tees, dinners, etc., $750; services to Joint
Board on Science Education, $200; publi-
cation sales by Johnson Reprint Corp.,
$50; total, $16,300.
Estimated expenditures—Journal (9 is-
sues), $8,000; grants, $1,000; meetings
and committees, $3,500; secretary, $700;
treasurer and headquarters expenses,
$1,000; headquarters salaries and taxes,
$3,750; miscellaneous, including Joint
Board salaries, $1,500; total, $19,450.
Deficit—$3,150.
This budget had been examined by the
Executive Committee as a preliminary to
consideration at the present meeting. It
evoked considerable discussion, centering
largely around the question of capital gains
and whether they should be converted into
cash or new stocks, treasury notes, etc.
Editor Detwiler pointed out that the
budget item for the Journal—$8,000—was
the same in 1964 as in 1963, although over
several months past he had had discussions
with Dr. Frenkiel concerning the desira-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
bility of expanding the content of the
magazine; that pursuant to these discus-
sions he had already expanded the March
issue of the Journal; that he had made
definite commitments for even further ex-
pansion in the April and May issues; and
that the year’s expenses could well come
closer to $10,000 than to $8,000. The
costs of the April and May issues would
be further increased by plans to provide
free sample copies to members of certain
affiliated societies.
Mr. Detwiler further indicated that he
had no immediate need for an allotment
of more than $8,000. He proposed there-
fore that the Journal item should stand
pro tem. at that figure; and that after the
May bills were in, he would cast up ac-
counts, extrapolate the results to the end
of the year, and discuss with the Board
whether to retrench or to request a supple-
mental allotment. These stipulations were
agreeable to the Board, and the budget was
approved as presented by Dr. Henderson.
Membership. Chairman Cook reminded
the Board that on March 5 he had mailed
out the nominations of the following three
persons proposed for fellowship in the
Academy: Norman H. C. Griffiths of How-
ard University, Louis C. W. Baker of
Georgetown University, and Gale W. Cle-
ven of the Department of Defense; and
that such prior notification met the re-
quirements of Article II, Section 5 of the
Bylaws. On his motion, Messrs. Griffiths,
Baker, and Cleven were elected to fellow-
ship.
Dr. Cook announced that on February
24 the Committee on Membership had
elected two persons to membership in the
Academy, as follows: Gerald J. Franz of
the David Taylor Model Basin, and Wil-
liam T. Kabisch of the AAAS.
Policy Planning. Chairman Van Evera
reported that the Committee had begun
discussions concerning ways in which the
Academy could make its imprint on the
Washington scientific scene. He also an-
nounced that, as retiring president of the
Academy, he had sent letters to 240 mem-
NOVEMBER, 1964
bers of the Joint Board, thanking them for
their services during his tenure, and pro-
viding each one with a membership appli-
cation form.
Meetings. Chairman Robbins discussed
final arrangements for the “Conversazione”
to be held at the general meeting of the
Academy, after the Board meeting. Re-
sponses to the invitation to attend the
“Conversazione” had been enthusiastic,
over 180 acceptances having been received:
and many who could not accept wrote to
commend the idea. Twelve tables had been
provided—six with 10 seats and six with
20 seats. Each table would have a provo-
cateur and a suggested topic of conversa-
tion. Among the topics were such subjects
as, “Can scientific ability be tested?” “Are
Government in-house laboratories effec-
tive?” and “Are we being computerized
into automata?”
Dr. Robbins reminded the Board that at
the meeting of April 16, Alvin M. Liber-
man, professor of psychology at the Uni-
versity of Connecticut, would give a lecture
demonstration on “The Perception of
Speech”; this would be a joint meeting
with the Washington Junior Academy of
Sciences.
Dr. Robbins also announced that the
meeting of May 21, to be held at the How-
ard County building of the Applied Physics
Laboratory, would in part commemorate
the 400th anniversary of the birth of
Galileo. APL Director Ralph E. Gibson
was scheduled to give a pre-dinner talk,
“What Has Become of Galileo’s Ideas To-
day?” The principal event would be a
lecture demonstration on “Satellite Navi-
gation” by R. B. Kerschner.
Grants-in-Aid. On motion of Chairman
McPherson, the Board approved grants-in-
aid to two high school students, as follows:
(1) To Robyn King of Fairmont High
School (Prince Georges County), $100 for
purchase of electronic components for use
in a research project, “Digital Computer
Using Neon Bulb Flip-Flop Circuits.”
(2) To Robert S. Brown of Bethesda-
Chevy Chase High School, $30 for purchase
339
of biological material for use in a research
project, “Enzymatic Correction of Heredi-
tary Diseases in Drosophila melanogaster
and Mormoniella vitripennis.”
Bylaws and Standing Rules. Chairman
Wood discussed sundry minor changes
proposed for its Bylaws by the Junior
Academy. On his recommendation, they
were accepted by the Board.
Dr. Wood also discussed the matter of
editing the revised version of the Standing
Rules, which had been approved in prin-
ciple by the Board at its previous meeting.
He distributed a final draft of Section 6,
concerning the Committee on Membership,
which evoked considerable discussion.
Noting that Membership Panels were to
consist of only five members each, Dr.
Schubert indicated that he was in favor
of enlarging the size of committees so as to
give more Academy members an oppor-
tunity for service. Dr. Wood responded
that while the number of Membership
Panels is flexible (there are currently nine
of them), he favored limiting each panel
to five members; in this connection, he felt
that the panels properly have a judicial
function and should not become concerned
with the stimulation of membership.
Dr. Wood recommended that the Board
consider the revised draft of Section 6 at
the present time, without waiting to act on
the complete Standing Rules at a later
time. The Board thereupon approved the
new language for Section 6.
Science Education. In the absence of
Chairman Taylor, Dr. Frenkiel distributed
a printed six-page circular constituting a
“Summary Report 1963” of the Joint Board
on Science Education.
Editor. The editor having reported dur-
ing consideration of the budget, he made
no further comments.
April Meeting
_ The Board of Managers held its 564th
meeting on April 16, 1964 at the Cosmos
Club, with President Frenkiel presiding.
The minutes of the 563rd meeting were
approved as previously distributed.
336
Announcements. Dr. Frenkiel intro-
duced Jacinto Steinhardt as incoming
chairman of the Committee on Meetings,
effective July 1.
Dr. Frenkiel announced tentative ap-
pointments to the Committee on Grants-
in-Aid for Research, as follows: through
1964, Don R. Boyle; through 1965,
Ralph I. Cole and Elizabeth D. Peacock;
through 1966, Ashley B. Gurney and
Clifford Hewitt. This roster was in ac-
cordance with Chairman McPherson’s
recommendation that in future the com-
mittee should consist of six persons in-
cluding the chairman, with two persons
appointed each year for a three-year term.
Chairman Cook of the Membership
Committee distributed a tentative roster
of the eight panels of the Membership
Committee (see organization page, Sep-
tember Journal). Chairmen of the panels
are as follows: agricultural sciences, va-
cancy; chemistry, Robert B. Hobbs; earth
sciences, Raymond L. Nace; general biol-
ogy, Harold E. Finley; mathematical sci-
ences, vacancy; medical sciences, Bernice
Ek. Eddy; physics and astronomy, R. K.
Cook (acting); engineering, William G.
Allen.
Dr. Frenkiel announced that Eugene
Ehrlich was the new delegate to the Acad-
emy from the American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics; that Ray-
mond J. Seeger had written to suggest
that the Chesapeake Section of the Amer-
ican Association of Physics Teachers
should be affiliated with the Academy;
and that Eduard Farber had _ similarly
written to suggest affiliation of the Wash-
ington History of Science Club.
Treasurer. Dr. Henderson reported the
following balances: Academy checking ac-
count, $1,053.45; Junior Academy check-
ing account, $237.37; Junior Academy
savings account, $2,704.00; Joint Board
checking account, $6,500.00. He also indi-
cated that the Academy had contributed
$300 to the summer program for training
high school science students; and that the
Junior Academy had contributed $300 to
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the same fund as well as $1,000 to the
- Joint Board.
Membership. Chairman Cook reminded
the Board that on April 9 he had mailed
out nominations of the following nine
persons proposed for fellowship in the
Academy: Albert J. Herz of the Naval
Research Laboratory, Irvin E. Wallen of
the Smithsonian Institution, Freeman H.
Quimby of NASA, David C. Rife of the
National Institute of General Medical Sci-
ence, Gregory K. Hartmann of the Naval
Ordnance Laboratory, Charles S. Tidball
of George Washington University, George
Abraham of the Naval Research Labora-
tory, Irving Gray of Georgetown Univer-
sity, and Aaron Seamster of NASA. On
his motion, these nine candidates were
elected to fellowship.
Dr. Cook announced that on March 23
the Committee on Membership had elected
13 persons to membership in the Academy
as follows: Suzanne F. Bershad, William
H. Myers, and Sidney O. Marcus, Jr., all
of the National Oceanographic Data Cen-
ter; Vannie E. Gray of the National Bu-
reau of Standards; Frank Hetrick of the
University of Maryland; Frank D. Allan
and John C. Bartone, both of George
Washington University; Wade M. Ed-
munds of the Joint Board on Science Edu-
cation; George W. Cry, Torrence H.
MacDonald, Augustine Y. M. Yao, and
Nina S. Zikeev, all of the Weather Bu-
reau; and Frederick A. Moran of the
Valley Forge Space Technology Center.
Dr. Cook stated that new membership
application forms had been issued and
were available at the Academy office.
Policy Planning. In the absence of
Chairman Van Evera, Dr. Frenkiel an-
nounced that the previously-mentioned
letters from the Chesapeake Section of
the American Association of Physics
Teachers and the Washington History of
Science Club had been referred to the
Policy Planning Committee for consider-
ation and appropriate action.
Ways and Means. In the absence of
NOVEMBER, 1964.
Chairman Scribner, Dr. Frenkiel briefly
mentioned that the committee had met on
March 26 to consider its objectives and
proposed activities for 1964, and that the
discussions had been summarized in Mr.
Scribner’s memorandum of April 13 (see
Secretary's file). For lack of time, the
memorandum was not discussed by the
Board.
Meetings. Referring to her report at
the previous Board meeting, Dr. Robbins
again reminded the Board that at the
general meeting later on April 16, Alvin
M. Liberman, professor of psychology
at the University of Connecticut, would
give a lecture demonstration on “The Per-
ception of Speech”; and that at the gen-
eral meeting of May 21 (to be held at
the Howard County building of the Ap-
plied Physics Laboratory), R. B. Kersch-
ner would give a lecture demonstration
on “Satellite Navigation,” while APL Di-
rector Ralph E. Gibson would give a pre-
dinner talk on, ““What Has Become of
Galileo’s Ideas Today?”
Grants-in-Aid. Dr. McPherson dis-
cussed a committee recommendation of
long standing, to the effect that the Board
should encourage grants in aid of family-
style research projects, as exemplified by
the survey of the Dismal Swamp con-
ducted several years ago by Ashley B.
Gurney and his son. (See Journal for
March 1963, pages 57-63). He indicated
that the committee is on the lookout for
other projects of this nature, which the
Academy might subsidize with modest
grants.
Encouragement of Science Talent. In
the absence of Chairman Heyden, Dr.
Frenkiel announced that since the April
16 general meeting was being held jointly
with the Washington Junior Academy of
Sciences, the officers of the Junior Acad-
emy would be guests at the dinner just
following the Board meeting.
Bylaws and Standing Rules. Chairman
Wood reminded the Board that at the
behest of the Internal Revenue Service.
337
the American Chemical Society desires
the Academy to carry a “protective”
clause in its Bylaws, to protect the inter-
ests of Academy affiliates, particularly the
Chemical Society of Washington (the lo-
cal section of ACS). Dr. Wood moved
that the Board approve the following
amendment to the Bylaws (as a new sec-
tion in Article VIII) and have it sub-
mitted to the membership for ratification
by mail ballot:
“No afhliated society shall be commit-
ted by the Academy to any action in con-
flict with the charter, constitution, or by-
laws of said society, or of its parent so-
ciety.”
The motion was passed.
Mr. Detwiler raised the question as to
whether the Academy should have a “dis-
solution” clause in its Bylaws. (A “dis-
solution” clause stipulates that if the or-
ganization is ever disbanded, its remain-
ing assets should be used to further the
cause of science, and not for the benefit
of individuals.) Dr. Henderson recom-
mended that the question be left in abey-
ance pending clarification of the Acad-
emy’s pending request to IRS for tax-
exempt status.
Special Events. Dr.. Forziati discussed
the “Conversazione” held at the general
meeting on March 19, and indicated that
he had received many enthusiastic com-
ments on the affair. He reported that
similar “conversaziones”’ might be held
at future Academy meetings.
Journal. Dr. Detwiler reported that he
was about to begin work on the May is-
sue of the Journal, which would be an
expanded issue addressed primarily to the
geologists of Washington.
Archivist. Dr. Frenkiel reported that
an archivist had not yet been appointed,
although he was hopeful that a suitable
candidate would soon he found.
Joint Board. Dr. Schubert reported
that Board President Churchill Eisenhart
was in course of developing a new organ-
izational and financial structure for the
Board.
New Business. Dr. Mitchell advised
that while stimulating interest in Academy
membership among Weather Bureau staff
members, he had had occasion to review
the Bylaws as they concern the privileges
of members (as distinguished from fel-
lows). He suggested that while the By-
laws imply that members have the fran-
chise in the election of officers, they
might better say so explicitly. Dr. Frenk-
iel commended the suggestion and re-
ferred it to the Committee on Bylaws and
Standing Rules for study.
Dr. Frenkiel mentioned that he was
considering the feasibility of holding an
annual meeting of the Academy that
would be concerned with matters of na-
tional policy.
Dr. Diamond suggested that the Mem-
bership Committee consider means of ad-
vising the scientific public as to how one
becomes a member of the Academy. Mr.
Detwiler responded that he had anticipa-
ted the suggestion in part by publishing
in the April Journal (of which some 400
free copies were sent to local members
of the American Society for Microbiol-
ogy) a page discussing the Academy’s ob-
jectives and activities, the classes of mem-
bership, and how one applies for mem-
bership; and that he expected to publish
the same page in the May issue, of which
some 650 copies were to be distributed
free to local members of the Geological
Society of Washington. Dr. Cook men-
tioned his suggestion at a previous Board
meeting, that a special committee be ap-
pointed to bring the desirability of Acad-
emy membership to the attention of
members of affiliated societies. After
some further discussion, it was left that
the Board would further explore the idea
of setting up either a special committee,
or a special unit of the Membership Com-
mittee, especially charged with soliciting
new members of the Academy.
June Meeting
The Board of Managers held its 565th
meeting on June 9, 1964 at the AAAS
338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
——a at
|
Building, with President Frenkiel pre-
siding.
The minutes of the 564th meeting were
approved as previously distributed.
Announcements. Dr. Frenkiel an-
nounced that Margaret Pittman had re-
signed as chairman of the Committee on
Awards for Scientific Achievement, be-
cause of the press of other duties, and
would be succeeded by Edward A. Mason
of the University of Maryland. The fol-
lowing subcommittee chairmen have been
appointed: biological science, Ellis T.
Bolton; engineering science, Martin Ma-
son; physical science, Samuel Foner;
mathematics, Harry Polachek; teaching of
science, Leo Schubert.
Executive Committee. Dr. Frenkiel and
Secretary Irving summarized the Commit-
tee’s discussions at its meeting of June 9,
when it was proposed to amend the Acad-
emys Act of Incorporation (November
1963 Journal, page 212) as follows:
(1) Amend Article 3 to read: “3. That
the Society is organized and shall be op-
erated exclusively for charitable, educa-
tional, and scientific purposes, and in fur-
therance of these and no other purposes
shall have power:” (continue with Para-
graphs (a) through (g), without change).
(2) Add new Paragraph 3(h) as fol-
lows: “To maintain an office and staff
to aid in the carrying out of the purposes
of the society. Notwithstanding the enu-
merated powers, the society shall not en-
gage in activities, other than as an insub-
stantial part thereof, which are not in
themselves in furtherance of the charita-
ble, educational and scientific purposes
of the society.”
(3) Add a new Article 5: “In the event
of dissolution of the corporation, all as-
sets remaining after payment of all debts
and obligations shall be distributed for
charitable, educational, and/or scientific
purposes.”
The foregoing changes were approved
by the Board. It was concluded that in-
clusion of the “dissolution clause” in the
NOVEMBER, 1964
Act of Incorporation would obviate the
need for including it in the Bylaws.
The Committee recommended, and the
Board approved, the following changes
in the 1964 budget as previously approved
on March 19 (see also May 1964 Journal,
page 197): (1) Take capital gains in
1964 as cash, thus adding about $1,000
to “receipts.” (2) Increase expenditures
by $2,000, including $1,000 additional for
Journal; $500 as a special contribution
to the Academy directory (September
Journal) ; $150 additional for secretary;
$250 for a new Membership Promotion
Committee; and $100 for a new Inter-
disciplinary Activities Committee.
The revised budget follows:
Estimated Receipts — Dues, $10,000;
Journal subscriptions and sales, $3,000;
dividends and interest, $3,300; commit-
tees, dinners, etc., $750; services to Joint
Board, $200; publication sales by John-
son Reprint Corp., $50; total, $17,300.
Estimated expenditures — Journal (9
issues), $9,500 including the $500 special
contribution to directory; grants, $1,000;
meetings and committees, $3,500; secre-
tary, $850; treasurer and headquarters
expenses, $1,000; headquarters salaries
and taxes, $3,750; miscellaneous, includ-
ing Joint Board subvention, $1,500; mem-
bership promotion, $250; _ interdisci-
plinary activities, $100; total, $21,450.
Deficit — $4,150.
In discussion of the revised budget, it
was pointed out that estimated receipts
for 1964 do not include increased income
expected from dues; that application will
be made to the National Science Founda-
tion by an ad hoc committee to be ap-
pointed, for support of the directory,
which may obviate the need for the “spe-
cial contribution” included in the budget
above; and that J. M. Mitchell, Jr., has
been appointed chairman of the
Membership Promotion Committee.
Membership. Chairman Cook reminded
the Board that on May 27 he had mailed
out nominations of the following 13 per-
new
339
sons proposed for fellowship in the Acad-
emy: Mark Harrison, Benjamin H. Al-
exander, Malcolm W. Oliphant, William
Benesch, Ralph L. Streever, Jr., George
A. Candela, John A. Simmons, Allan J.
Melmed, Arthur W. Ruff Jr., Lester F.
Hubert, William H. Klein, Donald H.
Pack, and Sidney Teweles. On motion of
Dr. Robbins, these 13 candidates were
elected to fellowship.
Dr. Cook announced that the Committee
had elected 21 persons to membership in
the Academy on April 27, and an addi-
tional seven persons to membership on
May 25, as follows: DeForrest E. Weaver,
Collins Arsem, Irena Z. Roberts, Clifford
A. Hewitt, Robert W. Van Evera, Marion
G. Vangeli, Fritz G. Hochwald, Leon
Schmukler, Daniel A. Sullivan, Jr., Fran-
cis E. Butler, Matthew H. Fusillo, Elaine
G. Shafrin, Arthur J. Pallotta, Donald
P. Easter, W. Haward Hunt, Stanley P.
Wasik, Martin Jacobson, James L. Gar-
gus, J. A. Morris, William D. Jenkins,
Edwin Dyke, Grady T. Hicks, Elizabeth
M. O’Hern, Don R. Boyle, Peter H. Haas.
Robert H. Martin, Andrew F. Freeman,
Kenneth J. Vigue.
Policy Planning. Chairman Van Evera
moved that the application of the Wash-
ington History of Science Club for affilia-
tion with the Academy be approved by
the Board and referred to the Academy
membership for ratification. The motion
was_ passed.
Affiliation of the Chesapeake Section
of the American Association of Physics
Teachers was tentatively approved pend-
ing successful outcome of negotiations be-
tween the Policy Planning Committee and
the Association, and subject to ratifica-
tion by the Academy membership.
Ways and Means. Chairman Scribner
reported that while the Committee had
not yet held a formal meeting, informal
consideration had been given to the ques-
tion of how the Academy could grow
and assume its proper place in the science
activities of the Capital area. The Com-
340
mittee has available records of the delib-
erations of the Committee for the past
several years, and will make appropriate
use of them in formulating recommenda-
tions for the Board. In discussion, Dr.
Eisenhart suggested consideration of es-
tablishing “‘institutional’” memberships
with free journals distributed to young
staff members of institutional members;
Mr. Detwiler suggested that the Cosmos
Club’s Endowment Fund might wish to
contribute to the welfare of the Academy;
and Dr. Schubert suggested that Academy
awards might be underwritten by area
companies, with the award being identi-
fied with the donor company.
Meetings. Dr. Robbins announced that
this meeting represented her last appear-
ance as chairman of the Committee, since
Dr. Steinhardt would assume the chair-
manship on July 1. The Board extended a
vote of thanks to Dr. Robbins for the
stimulating series of meetings that she
had arranged for the Academy during her
incumbency.
Awards for Scientific Achievement.
Chairman Mason reported that the Com-
mittee had prepared a letter which would
be mailed in the near future to university,
government, and industry administrators,
to solicit nominations for Academy
awards. It was expected that solicitation
of the Academy membership would be
made later, probably in September, also,
that notices would appear in the Journal
and publications of the affiliates.
Encouragement of Science Talent. In
the absence of Chairman Heyden, Dr. Tay-
lor reported that a very successful awards
dinner program had been held at George-
town University, to present certificates of
merit in science to 40 high school seniors.
Bylaws iand Standing Rules. After an
explanation by Chairman Wood of several
proposed changes in the Standing Rules,
the Board took the following actions:
(1)..Approved a revision of Section 17,
to increase the Academy contingent of
the Joint Board on Science Education
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
from six to nine, on condition that similar
_ action be taken by the D. C. Council of
Engineering and Architectural Societies.
(Concurrently, the Board approved
changes in the bylaws of the Joint Board,
to conform with the foregoing action.)
(2) Approved revision of Rule 4, Sec-
tion C, to permit members of the Academy
to serve on the committees, and to in-
crease the membership of the Committee
on Grants-in-Aid to six members or fel-
lows—two to be appointed each year for
three-year terms.
(3) Approved revision of Rule 9 to
delete the number limitation on the size
of the Committee.
(4) Approved revision of Rule 18(a),
on interdisciplinary panels, to read “no
more than nine fellows or members.”
(5) Approved revision of Rule 4 to
indicate that membership on only three
committees—Policy Planning, Member-
ship, and Awards—should be limited to
fellows of the Academy.
Dr. Wood reviewed language changes
in other Standing Rules, previously ap-
proved in principle by the Board. The
Board approved the wording of the
changes.
Journal. Editor Detwiler reported in
detail on the size and cost of the five
Journal issues from January through
May, 1964. The augmented April issue
(76 pages) and May issue (52 pages)
cost $2200 and $1300 respectively, com-
pared to $600-800 each for previous is-
sues this year. Mr. Detwiler estimated
that the total Journal cost for 1964 might
well approximate $11,000. He indicated
that rosters for the following affiliates,
not covered in last year’s directory,
would probably be included in the forth-
coming directory: Philosophical Society,
American Society for Microbiologists,
American Meteorological Society, Electro-
chemical Society, and Society of Ameri-
can Foresters.
Joint Board. Dr. Taylor reported that
the National Science Foundation grant,
formerly made to the Academy, would
this year be made direct to the Joint
Board. He reported that the first Col-
legiate Science Conference was held in
May at Georgetown University, when 26
papers were presented by undergraduates
in a very successful all-day meeting. Dr.
Taylor announced that a proposal is being
discussed, to have collegiate sections of
the Academy.
BYLAWS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
(Last Revised in September 1963)
ARTICLE [—PURPOSES
Section 1.
The purposes of the Washington Academy of Sciences shall be: (a) to stimulate
interest in the sciences, both pure and applied, and (b) to promote their advancement and the
development of their philosophical aspects by the Academy membership and through cooperative
action by the affiliated societies.
Section 2. These objectives may be attained by, but are not limited to:
(a) Publication of a periodical and of occasional scientific monographs and such other pub-
lications as may be deemed desirable.
(b) Public lectures of broad scope and interest in the fields of science.
(c) Sponsoring a Washington Junior Academy of Sciences.
(d) Promoting science education and a professional interest in science among people of high
school and college age.
(e) Accepting or making grants of funds to aid special research projects.
(f{) Symposia, both formal and small informal, on any aspects of science.
(g) Scientific conferences.
(h) Organization of, or assistance in, scientific expeditions.
NOVEMBER, 1964
341
(i) Cooperation with other Academies and scientific organizations.
(j) Awards of prizes and citations for special merit in science.
(k) Maintaining an office and staff to aid in carrying out the purposes of the Academy,
ArticLeE JJ—MEMBERSHIP
Section 1. The membership shall consist of three general classes: members, fellows and patrons.
Section 2. Members shall be persons who are interested in and will support the objectives of
the Academy and who are otherwise acceptable to at least two thirds of the Committee on Member-
ship. A letter or application form requesting membership and signed by the applicant may suffice
for action by the Committee; approval by the Committee constitutes election to membership.
Section 3. Fellows shall be persons who by reason of original research or other outstanding
service to the sciences, mathematics, or engineering are deemed worthy of the honor of election to
Academy fellowship, which may be attained only through nomination as provided in Section 4.
Section 4. Nominations of fellows shall be presented to the Committee on Membership on a
form approved by the Committee. The form shall be signed by the sponsor, a fellow who has know]-
edge of the nominee’s field, and shall be endorsed by at least one other fellow. An explanatory
letter from the sponsor and a bibliography of the nominee’s publications shall accompany the
completed nomination form.
Section 5. Election to fellowship shall be by vote of the Board of Managers upon recommenda-
tion of the Committee on Membership. Final action on nominations shall be deferred at least one
week after presentation to the Board, and two-thirds of the vote cast shall be necessary to elect.
Section 6. Persons who have given to the Academy not less than one thousand (1,000) dollars
or its equivalent in property shall be eligible for election by the Board of Managers as patrons (for
life) of the Academy.
Section 7. Life members or fellows shall be those individuals who have made a single payment
in accordance with Article III, Section 2, in lieu of annual dues.
Section 8. Members or fellows in good standing who have attained the age of 65 and are re-
tired, or are retired before the age of 65 because of disability, may become emeritus. Upon request
to the treasurer for transfer to this status, they shall be relieved of the further payment of dues,
beginning with the following January first; shall receive notices of meetings without charge; and,
at their request, shall be entitled to receive the Academy periodical at cost.
Section 9. Members or fellows living more than 50 miles from the White House, Washington,
D. C., shall be classed as nonresident members or fellows.
Section 10. An election to any dues-paying class of membership shall be void if the candidate
does not within three months thereafter pay his dues or satisfactorily explain his failure to do so.
Section 11. Former members or fellows who resigned in good standing may be reinstated upon
application to the Secretary and approval by the Board of Managers. No reconsideration of the
applicant’s qualifications need be made by the Membership Committee in these cases.
ArtTIcLeE II[I—DueEs
Section 1. The annual dues of resident fellows shall be $10.00 per year. The annual dues of
members and of nonresident fellows shall be $7.50 per year. Dues for fractional parts of the year
shall be at the monthly rate of one-twelfth the annual rate. No dues shall be paid by emeritus mem-
bers and fellows, life members and fellows, and patrons.
Section 2. Members and fellows in good standing may be relieved of further payment of dues
by making a single payment to provide an annuity equal to their annual dues. (See Article II, Sec-
tion 7). The amount of the single payment shall be computed on the basis of an interest rate to be
determined by the Board of Managers. |
Section 3. Members or fellows whose dues are in arrears for one year shall not be entitled to :
receive Academy publications.
Section 4. Members or fellows whose dues are in arrears for more than two years shall be
dropped from the rolls of the Academy, upon notice to the Board of Managers, unless the Board
shall otherwise direct. Persons who have been dropped from membership for nonpayment of dues
may be reinstated upon approval of the Board and upon payment of back dues for two years
together with dues for the year of reinstatement.
ARTICLE _[V—OFFICERS
Section 1. The officers of the Academy shall be a President, a President-elect, a Secretary, and
a Treasurer. All shall be chosen from resident fellows of the Academy.
Section 2. The President shall appoint all committees and such non-elective officers as are
needed unless otherwise directed by the Board of Managers or provided in the Bylaws. He (or his
342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
substitute—the President-elect, the Secretary, or the Treasurer, in that order) shall preside at all
meetings of the Academy and of the Board of Managers.
Section 3. The Secretary shall act as secretary to the Board of Managers and to the Academy
at large. He shall conduct all correspondence relating thereto, except as otherwise provided, and
shall be the custodian of the corporate seal of the Academy. He shall arrange for the publication
in the Academy periodical of the names and professional connections of new members, and also
of such proceedings of the Academy, including meetings of the Board of Managers, as may appro-
priately be of interest to the membership He shall be responsible for keeping a register of the
membership, showing such information as qualifications, elections, acceptances, changes of resi-
dence, lapses of membership, resignations and deaths, and for informing the Treasurer of changes
affecting the status of members. He shall act as secretary to the Nominating Committee (see Art.
Mieesect. 2).
Section 4. The Treasurer shall be responsible for keeping an accurate account of all receipts
and disbursements, shall select a suitable depository for current funds which shall be approved by
the Executive Committee, and shall invest the permanent funds of the Academy as directed by that
Committee. He shall prepare a budget at the beginning of each year which shall be reviewed by the
Executive Committee for presentation to and acceptance by the Board of Managers. He shall notify
the Secretary of the date when each new member qualifies by payment of dues. He shall act as
business adviser to the Editor and shall keep necessary records pertaining to the subscription list.
In view of his position as Treasurer, however, he shall not be required to sign contracts. He
shall pay no bill until it has been approved in writing by the chairman of the committee or other
persons authorized to incur it. The fiscal year of the Academy shall be the same as the calendar
year.
Section 5. The President and the Treasurer, as directed by the Board of Managers, shall jointly
assign securities belonging to the Academy and indorse financial and legal papers necessary for
the uses of the Academy, except those relating to current expenditures authorized by the Board.
In case of disability or absence of the President or Treasurer, the Board of Managers may designate
the President-elect or a qualified Delegate as Acting President or an officer of the Academy as
Acting Treasurer, who shall perform the duties of these officers during such disability or absence.
Section 6. An Editor shall be in charge of all activities connected with the Academy’s publica-
tions. He shall be nominated by the Executive Committee and appointed by the President for an
indefinite term subject to annual review by the Board of Managers. The Editor shall serve as a
member of the Board.
Section 7. An Archivist may be appointed by the President. If appointed, he shall maintain
the permanent records of the Academy, including important records which are no longer in current
use by the Secretary, Treasurer, or other officer, and such other documents and material as the
Board of Managers may direct.
Section 8. All officers and chairmen of standing committees shall submit annual reports at
the January meeting of the Board of Managers.
Section 9. Prior to November 1 of each year the Nominating Committee (Art. VI, Sect. 2),
having been notified by the Secretary, shall meet and nominate by preferential ballot, in the
manner prescribed by the Board of Managers, one person for each of the offices of President-elect,
of Secretary and of Treasurer, and four persons for the two Managers-at-large whose terms expire
each year. It shall, at the same time and in like manner, make nominations to fill any vacancy in
the foregoing. Not later than November 15, the Secretary shall forward to each Academy member
a printed notice of these nominations, with a list of incumbents. Independent nominations may
be made in writing by any ten active members. In order to be considered, such nominations must
be received by the Secretary before December 1.
Section 10. Not later than December 15, the Secretary shall prepare and mail ballots to mem-
bers and fellows. Independent nominations shall be included on the ballot, and the names of the
nominees shall be arranged in alphabetical order. When more than two candidates are nominated
for the same office the voting shall be by preferential ballot in the manner prescribed by the Board
of Managers. The ballot shall contain also a notice to the effect that votes not received by the
Secretary before the first Thursday of January, and votes of individuals whose dues are in arrears
for one year or more, will not be counted. The Committee of Tellers shall count the yotes and
report the results at the annual meeting of the Academy.
Section 11. The newly elected officers shall take office at the close of the annual meeting, the
President-elect of the previous year automatically becoming President.
NOvEMBER, 1964. 343
ARTICLE V—BoarpD oF MANAGERS
Section 1. The activities of the Academy shall be guided by the Board of Managers, consisting
of the President, the President-elect, one Delegate from each of the affiliated societies, the Secretary,
the Treasurer, six elected Managers-at-large, and the Editor. The elected officers of the Academy
shall hold like offices on the Board of Managers.
Section 2. One Delegate shall be selected by each affiliated society (see Art. VIII, Sect. 3). He
shall serve until replaced by his society. Each Delegate is expected to participate in the meetings
of the Board of Managers and vote on behalf of his society.
Section 3. The Board of Managers shall transact all business of the Academy not otherwise
provided for. A quorum of the Board shall be nine of its members.
Section 4. The Board of Managers may provide for such standing and special committees as
it deems necessary.
Section 5. The Board shall have power to fill vacancies in its own membership until the next
annual election. This does not apply to the offices of President and Treasurer (see Art. IV, Sect.
5), nor to Delegates (see Art. V, Sect. 2).
ARTICLE VI—COMMITTEES
Section 1. An Executive Committee shall have general supervision of Academy finances,
approve the selection of a depository for the current funds, and direct the investment of the per-
manent funds. At the beginning of the year it shall present to the Board of Managers an itemized
statement of receipts and expenditures of the preceding year and a budget based on the estimated
receipts and disbursements of the coming year, with such recommendations as may seem desirable.
It shall be charged with the duty of considering all activities of the Academy which may tend
to maintain and promote relations with the affiliated societies, and with any other business which
may be assigned to it by the Board. The Executive Committee shall consist of the President, the
President-elect, the Secretary and the Treasurer (or Acting Treasurer) ex officio, as well as two
members appointed annually by the President from the membership of the Board.
Section 2. The Delegates shall constitute a Nominating Committee (see Art. IV, Sect. 9). The
Delegate from the Philosophical Society shall be chairman of the Committee, or, in his absence,
the Delegate from another society in the order of seniority as given in Article VIII, Section 1.
Section 3. The President shall appoint in advance of the annual meeting an Auditing Com-
mittee consisting of three persons, none of whom is an officer, to audit the accounts of the Treasurer
(Art. VII, Sect. 1).
Section 4. On or before the last Thursday of each year the President shall appoint a committee
of three Tellers whose duty it shall be to canvass the ballots (Art. IV, Sect. 10, Art. VII, Sect. 1).
Section 5. The President shall appoint from the Academy membership such committees as
are authorized by the Board of Managers and such special committees as necessary to carry out
his functions. Committee appointments shall be staggered as to term whenever it is determined
by the Board to be in the interest of continuity of committee affairs.
ArTICLE VIJI—MEETINGS
Section 1. The annual meeting shall be held each year in January. It shall be held on the
third Thursday of the month unless otherwise directed by the Board of Managers. At this meet-
ing the reports of the Secretary, Treasurer, Auditing Committee (see Art. VI, Sect. 3), and
Committee of Tellers shall be presented.
Section 2. Other metings may be held at such time and place as the Board of Managers may
determine.
Section 3. The rules contained in “Robert’s Rules of Order Revised” shall govern the Academy
in all cases to which they are applicable, and in which they are not inconsistent with the bylaws
or the special rules of order of the Academy.
ARTICLE VIIJ—CoorerATIon
Section 1. The term “affliated societies” in their order of seniority (see Art. VI, Sect. 2) shall
be held to cover the:
Philosophical Society of Washington
Anthropological Society of Washington
Biological Society of Washington
Chemical Society of Washington
Entomological Society of Washington
344. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
National Geographic Society
Geological Society of Washington
Medical Society of the District of Columbia
Columbia Historical Society
Botanical Society of Washington
Washington Section of Society of American Foresters
Washington Society of Engineers
Washington Section of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Washington Section of American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Helminthological Society of Washington
Washington Branch of American Society for Microbiology
Washington Post of Society of American Military Engineers
National Capital Section of American Society of Civil Engineers
District of Columbia Section of Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine
Washington Chapter of American Society for Metals
Washington Section of the International Association for Dental Research
Washington Section of American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
D. C. Branch of American Meteorological Society
Insecticide Society of Washington
Washington Chapter of the Acoustical Society of America
Washington Section of the American Nuclear Society
Washington Section of Institute of Food Technologists
Baltimore-Washington Section of the American Ceramic Society
Washington-Baltimore Section of the Electrochemical Society
and such others as may be hereafter recommended by the Board and elected by two-thirds of the
members of the Academy voting, the vote being taken by correspondence. A society may be
released from affiliation on recommendation of the Board of Managers, and the concurrence of
two-thirds of the members of the Academy voting.
Section 2. The Academy may assist the affiliated scientific societies of Washington in any
matter of common interest, as in joint meetings, or the publication of a joint directory: Provided,
it shall not have power to incur for or in the name of one or more of these societies any expense
or liability not previously authorized by said society or societies, nor shall it without action of
the Board of Managers be responsible for any expenses incurred by one or more of the affiliated
societies.
Section 3. Each affiliated society shall select one of its members as Delegate to the Academy
who is a resident member or fellow of the Academy.
Section 4. The Academy may establish and assist a Washington Junior Academy of Sciences
for the encouragement of interest in science among students in the Washington area of high
school and college age.
ARTICLE [X—AWARDS AND GRANTS-IN-AID
Section 1. The Academy may award medals and prizes, or otherwise express its recognition
and commendation of scientific work of high merit and distinction in the Washington area. Such
recognition shall be given only on approval by the Board of Managers of a recommendation by a
committee on awards for scientific achievement.
Section 2. The Academy may receive or make grants to aid scientific research in the Washing-
ton area. Grants shall be received or made only on approval by the Board of Managers of a
recommendation by a committee on grants-in-aid for scientific research.
ARTICLE X—-AMENDMENTS
Section 1. Amendments to these bylaws shall be proposed by the Board of Managers and
submitted to the members of the Academy in the form of a mail ballot acompanied by a statement
of the reasons for the proposed amendment. A two-thirds majority of those members voting is
required for adoption. At least two weeks shall be allowed for the ballots to be returned.
Section 2. Any affiliated society or any group of ten or more members may propose an
amendment to the Board of Managers in writing. The action of the Board in accepting or rejecting
this proposal to amend the bylaws shall be by a vote on roll call, and the complete roll call shall
be entered in the minutes of the meeting.
NOVEMBER, 1964, 345
Science in Washington
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
November 11—Zoology Colloquium,
University of Maryland
Larry S. Roberts, University of Massa-
chusetts, “Growth Physiology of Castodes.”
Room L-405, General Library, Univer-
sity of Maryland, 3:45. p.m.
November 12—Chemical Society of
Washington
Main speaker: Herbert A. Laitinen, Uni-
versity of Illinois, ““Electroanalytical Chem-
istry in Molten Salts.”
NEA Auditorium, 16th & M Sts., N.W.,
8:15 p.m.
Topical groups:
Ernest Freese, National Institutes of
Health, “Lethal and Mutagenic Effects of
Transforming DNA.”
Ralph Wilkins, State University of New
York, “Rapid Reactions of Metal Complexes
in Aqueous Solution.”
Percy L. Julian, Julian Institute of Re-
search, “Some Observations on the Rela-
tionship Between Structure and Physiolog-
ical Action in Steroids.”
C. G. Overberger, Polytechnic Institute
of Brooklyn, “Catalytic Action of Polymers
with Imidazole Side Chains.”
NEA Building, 5:00 p.m. Social hour
and dinner, NEA Cafeteria, 6:00 p.m.
November 12—Washington Opera-
tions Research Council
Panel: Stuart Rice, Surveys & Research
(Chairman) ; J. Moshman, CEIR; R. Scam-
mon, Census Bureau; “Models of Voter
Behavior.”
Red Cross Auditorium, 2025 E St., N.W.,
OS: La) p.m.
November 17-18—Office of Naval Re-
search
Symposia: Microelectronics and Large
Systems.
Department of Interior Auditorium.
November 19—American Society of
Mechanical Engineers
D. G. Adler, Babcock & Wilcox Co.,
“The Nuclear Fuel Cost Problem.”
346
PEPCO Auditorium, 10th & E Sts., N.W.,
8:00 p.m. Pre-meeting dinner at O’Don-
nell’s Restaurant, 6:30 p.m.
SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS
Contributions to this column may be ad-
dressed to Harold T. Cook, Associate Edi-
tor, c/o Department of Agriculture, Agri-
cultural Research Service, Federal Center
Building, Hyattsville, Md.
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT
James H. Turner, formerly a principal
research parasitologist at the Beltsville
Parasitological Laboratory, has accepted
the position of executive secretary of the
Allergy and Immunology Study Section,
Division of Research Grants, National In-
stitutes of Health. This change was made
in October after 16 years with USDA.
Edward H. Graham has retired from
government service and is now a consulting
ecologist. He has established his profession-
al headquarters and office in his residence
at Vienna, Va.
Joseph R. Spies, Allergens Laboratory,
Agricultural Research Service, gave a lec-
ture entitled “Oilseed Allergens” at the
Gordon Research Conference on Food and
Nutrition at Colby Junior College, New
London, N. H., August 14.
W. T. Pentzer, ARS, received the
Distinguished Service Award from the
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air Conditioning Engineers at the
June meeting of the Society in Cleveland,
Ohio.
Ashley B. Gurney, Entomology Re-
search Division, ARS, has returned from a
one-month trip to California where he col-
lected grasshopper specimens and studied
grasshopper habitats. He worked in north-
ern California and made his headquarters
in Sacramento. A highlight of the trip was
a week of camping and collecting in the
Trinity Alps north of Weaverville, in asso-
ciation with entomologists of the California
Department of Agriculture and the Plant
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
—__ =
Pest Control Division, USDA. His trip was
- supported in part by a grant from the Amer-
ican Philosophical Society. Grasshoppers
and other orthopterous insects of localized
distribution are richly represented in Cali-
fornia.
R. A. Fulton, entomologist, retired
from USDA on August 29. He now resides
at 530 Merrie Drive, Corvallis, Ore.
Stanley A. Hall gave a talk on current
developments in the Pesticide Chemicals
Research Branch, ARS, at the Conference
of Military Entomologists, Walter Reed
Army Medical Center, October 5-9.
Victor R. Boswell has been appointed
program chairman of the Vegetable Sec-
tion, XVII International Horticultural Con-
gress, to be held at the University of Mary-
land in August 1966. Dr. Boswell will
welcome proposals regarding symposia and
papers for that section of the Congress.
Kenneth G. Clark retired from goyv-
ernment service on August 9, after 40 years
of productive service. Author of some 60
publications, he contributed substantially
to developments in fertilizer technology,
especially in the nitrogen and potassium
industries. Dr. Clark has been a member
of American Chemical Society, American
Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence, American Society of Agronomy, the
Fertilizer Society (London), Washington
Academy of Sciences, and Association of
Official Agricultural Chemists.
Paul R. Miller, Crops Research Divi-
sion, Plant Industry Station, is presently in
Castelar, Argentina, where he is partici-
pating in a 5-week international course in
plant pathology, sponsored by the National
Institute of Agricultural Technology
(INTA). Dr. Miller is giving a series of
lectures on the epidemiology of plant dis-
eases, plant disease forecasting, and the
appraisal of plant disease losses to post-
graduate students in plant pathology from
Argentina and Chile.
A. M. Pommer has been promoted to
clinical assistant professor of pediatrics
(nutrition) by Georgetown University. He
attended the Gordon Research Conference
NOVEMBER, 1964
on Dissolution and Crystallization of Cal-
cium Phosphates, Meriden, N. H., August
10-14, and presented a paper entitled “Cal-
cium Electrodes”; he also attended the
Gordon Research Conference on _ Ionic
Movements and Interactions in Biological,
Chemical, and Physical Phenomena, Tilton.
N. H., August 31-September 4. Dr. Pommer
has been appointed program chairman of
the Washington Section, Instrument So-
ciety of America.
C. R. Benjamin was elected vice-pres-
ident of the Mycological Society of Amer-
ica at its recent annual meeting in Boulder,
Colo. Dr. Benjamin also was elected to the
Committee for Fungi by the Nomenclature
Section of the X International Botanical
Congress held at Edinburgh, Scotland, and
also was recently appointed chairman of
the U.S. panel on toxic microorganisms of
the Joint U.S.-Japan Cooperation on Devel-
opment of Natural Resources.
Warren L. Butler resigned from the
Agricultural Research Service at the end
of August to accept a position with the
Johnson Research Foundation, University
of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
R. A. St. George retired from govern-
ment service on September 30, after 46
years with USDA. Dr. St. George’s entire
career has been devoted to problems asso-
ciated with forest insects. He is a recog-
nized national and international authority
on insects attacking woods and wood prod-
ucts.
C. H. Hoffman, assistant director of
the Entomology Research Division, was
guest speaker at the 13th Annual Health
Conference, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, August 19. He spoke on
“Insecticides and Other Approaches to
Control Agricultural and Forest Insects.”
Dr. Hoffman also was guest speaker at the
Awards Dinner of the 19th American
Horticultural Congress, held October 1
in New York. He spoke on Biological
Control of Garden Insect Pests.
E. L. Little is serving as consultant and
teaching a course in dendrology for FAO
at the Interamerican Institute of Agricul-
347
tural Sciences, Turrialba, Costa Rica. Dr.
Little’s appointment began September 27
and will last 5 months. He will also do
research on the forest trees of Costa Rica.
HARRIS RESEARCH
LABORATORIES
Anthony M. Schwartz attended the
Fourth International Congress on Deter-
gency in Brussels, September 7-12, and
presented a paper, co-authored by Charles
A. Rader, entitled ‘“Micro-scale Surface
Energy Measurements of Repellent Fin-
ishes on Fibers.”
Lyman Fourt gave a talk on “Textile
Evaluation: Aesthetics and Instruments”
before the Washington Section of the In-
strument Society of America on September
28.
Harris Research Laboratories again was
host to ten high school science teachers
under the National Science Foundation
program for six weeks during the summer.
NATIONAL BUREAU
OF STANDARDS
The Science and Technology Fellow-
ship Program, a unique plan for the ex-
change of scientists within the technical
bureaus of the Department of Commerce,
became effective on September 9. Secretary
of Commerce Luther H. Hodges announced
the program and named 17 senior Com-
merce Department scientists as first par-
ticipants. Eight of the 17 are staff mem-
bers of the National Bureau of Standards,
including the following members and fel-
lows of WAS: Ralph Klein, chief, Surface
Chemistry Section, assigned to Weather
Bureau as meteorologist concerned with
research and development planning and
establishment of a Weather Bureau atmo-
spheric chemistry laboratory; and Law-
rence M. Kushner, chief, Metallurgy Di-
vision, assigned to Office of Assistant Sec-
retary for Science and Technology as a
technical assistant. Dr. Kushner will under-
take special studies for the Assistant Secre-
tary relating to scientific and technical
activities of the Department.
John K. Taylor received an award for
30 years of service, as well as an incentive
award for superior accomplishment.
National Bureau of Standards personnel
participated in recent overseas meetings as
follows: G. M. Kline at the European Plas-
tics Congress, Milano, Italy, September
20-23; D. P. Johnson at the Centre Na-
tional de la Recherche Scientific de Belle-
vue, France, October 9; K. H. Stern, at
the Academy of the Rumanian People’s Re-
public, Bucharest, Rumania, September 14;
W. A. Wildhack at the Third Internation-
al Measurement Conference, Stockholm,
Sweden, September 14; J. Mandel at a
meeting of the International Association
of Statistics in Physical Sciences, Berne,
Switzerland, September 17.
Papers were presented at other meetings
as follows: H. L. Logan at Baltimore-
Washington Section, National Association
of Corrosion Engineers, Baltimore, Sep-
tember 22; T. W. Lashof at TAPPI
Testing Conference, Boston, October 1;
H. J. Kostkowski and R. Stair at the
Optical Society of America, New York; A.
T. McPherson, Dairy and Food Industries
Supply Association, Chicago, October 8-9;
G. C. Paffenbarger at the University of
Pittsburgh School of Dentistry, Pittsburgh,
October 7; R. Zwanzig, Chemistry Depart-
ment, Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
ogy, Cambridge, September 29.
NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
Kenneth Dunning, head of the Van
de Graaff Branch of the Nucleonics Divi-
sion, is undertaking a one-year study pro-
gram at Catholic University under the
newly established Sabbatical Study Pro-
gram at NRL. Eligius A. Wolicki has been
appointed acting head of the Van de Graaff
Branch during Mr. Dunning’s absence.
MN
348
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
———————— ——
Delegates to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Representing
the Local Affiliated Societies*
imlosoplicals Society, of Weashimg tom g.ciocc.cfceccccc-ctecererenssossieviesoosndeseservessensecaecedsccssersesseecconss. Urner Lipper
MmOaaloeteall SOcleLy Of WW asl GLOM) <6. ccc. cc.cevereassceatecsncessvesassasessessedensscsssnesedessoseseve, Gordon McGrecor
Biolovical Society of Washington ................c.ccccccscsccsessesesseeets Re Me Ah eA Ne Joun L. Parapiso
hemes Society Of WaSWINGtOM oven. cecceccs sce ccecseacceseceessenneensuseatecesetevssansounvussdavetucvavassese Witiiam A. ZIsMAN
Hnitomolocical Society ‘Of Washington ....................0.00scs-cseisesecssssscesesusessosssnsssssecceresenss Haroitp H. SHEPARD
MMEAIATGMEMIMMGCOOCTAMNIC! SOCLELY? 1.0. ..ich.-...00-.ccssnsdeuenecioseudsentersoescwensseecescesteasssensesntoatas seeaees ALEXANDER WETMORE
COAG ASOCIELY Of WiaSMIMSTON: |. :ckb.cseteccsce-occovesesensedeesactusednese danspsseovenssuresesteenesssicsacsescneely Luna LrEopoip
Meditealasoeiety oF the District of Columbia .....0....2.-..cc.c.ccosececsseesliecsessssasssoeiescoresseseens THomas M. Brown
SO ina iM SL OTIC Alle SOCIOLY, 6. o.5 5 o oeied alo asdecs.cudeecne ns doseracelSndced duos caveseeezessouesseveveiesideessnascecterd. U. S. Grant, III
Oe MOO CLELYE OF) WWASMING LOM, ats c.5..23.coences-a0e-shcse0styjaeneacbpnnasenonssuedvosseedebcesechellevecsces Wirsvur D. McCLeLian
SOmicmMmOMM NMeKICAN ~HORESECTS! 46 1500. dy.c.cccascendiwsoetsovddg, sesso. lacedaezvsstsfedacspunsolbsvasdaveccsJaeessec. Harry A. Fowetts
RLAGMMMOTOMMSOCIELY, Of HMPINEETS ....2..c.220-¢c ject vseo0ss.ncvesecevseevessrverncvsdesdvedectanecvsasovescbascteneens Martin A. Mason
Inctiimteor electrical and Electronics Hmgineers ...............c..scccsecssessedeccscsseecseecsocereececesees. GrorcE ABRAHAM
American Society of Mechanical Engineers ................ccccccscescesesscesseccsssscssseseseesteseesescaees Wittiam G. ALLEN
Helmmnthologieall Society of Washington ..........).......0....ccccccsccsscsssesssssoensocsesssteceevaceseeesseases Marion M. Farr
Ammiemeanmoociety, L0G Microbiology ......2:ccc:ccc..--.ceteessescecsessecboessvsessvvsvugeveesevsestersssntsnaviuncvesees FRANK HETTRICK
Socmenmomeamerican Malitary ET PINECLS f..........s0ccesceceseeeecshs-seeecte0saedeessececenntaaeunchneeadenteoresseess H. P. DEmMuTH
Atnemcamme society Of Civil’ EnGINeEeTS <20......2..c2..sccetsntecessoeeonesonedenenesseeeteneeeoeseeocecensece: THORNDIKE SAVILLE, JR.
Sociciysior Mixperimental Biology and Medicine ............:..1...s:scscsssscscseeesstseeessiestseeeenenenssececeeee. FALCONER SMITH
- American SCTE I ymeLO IME VEC U Alc pmeitynr ie eerie Ct Pia ie ee ScnebelseiCi wracdadbongwnss’ vesunauedeans sates eadurdaceeeet deci Hucu L. Locan
iintenaanonal Association for Dental Research: ..............csccccssiccilssssessosseseseersseeneeenessuoncececesns Haroip J. Caur
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. ..........0..000cccccccceeceeteeeneeeee: EucENE EHRLICH
Armentcam eWeteorological SOCety .......:........c..cccsecccecusesssecessessecstescecseveessesgeseeseseeads MURRAY MITCHELL, Jr.
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ACOUSTIC AMS OCIELY Ol ON IMGTUCA 0 .cieues sos o/cdncereeesasudhasnseses acess toursveupnteccarelesseseertoee Martcotm C. HENDERSON
PMGVE CC AIIM NING] Cam SO CLL Vs terete ees Ue os ci casts neaidbcsaedennastivaves.sadbesuhestdererseregeesrmpe staan sddenenaedece: Greorce L. WEIL
MASTEMILE MOLe HOO NECMMOLOBISES .....4.02:iocnsc.Sescaccscensecsoaoonseedecedivesousoeveonsbeonsatstudeasonsstessicoseses RicHArD P. Farrow
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* Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective affiliated societies.
Volume 54: NOVEMBER 1964
CONTENTS
C. Eisenhart: Albert Einstein, As I Remember Him ...................
Academy Proceedings:
November i Viecctine of thee Ncad emiy (ee oe
Directory (Corrections: 47.98 wenn eset a OU An 5 rete eae
icchitonsiatom lellowship y= <.500 ans 6 ee ae
Bilections: to Menmiberslaip: face et eee ee
Board of Managers Meeting Notes (March, April, June) .....
Bylaws wot the Academy on. (24. ee @ eens ere ee
Science in Washington
Calendanrot vu vemts...- 6 24 ee ee ul net ae
Scientists cm thes NGWSisn te ee es haere See ae
Washington Academy of Sciences
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Vol. 54 ¢ No.9
DECEMBER
1964
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Editor: SAmueL B. DEtwiter, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Associate Editors
Rocer G. Bates, National Bureau of Standards HELEN L. ReyNoLps, Food and Drug Adminis-
Harotp T. Coox, Department of Agriculture tration
RicHarp P. Farrow, National Canners Asso- RALPH G. H. Siu, Department of Defense
ciation RussELL B. STEVENS, George Washington Uni-
J. Murray MircHe1, Jr., Weather Bureau versity
Contributors
FRANK A. BIBERSTEIN, JR., Catholic University Jacop Mazur, National Bureau of Standards
Cuartes A. WHITTEN, Coast & Geodetic Survey [yEeEn FE, STEWART, National Science Foundation
Maryorie Hooxer, Geological Surve
? = S y ALLEN L, ALEXANDER, Naval Research Laboratory
ReusBen E. Woop, George Washington Univer-
Sty Victor R. Boswett, USDA, Beltsville
JosEpH B. Morris, Howard University Harry A. Fowetits, USDA, Washington
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ACADEMY OFFICERS FOR 1964
President: FRANcoIs N. FRENKIEL, David Taylor Model Basin
President-Elect: LEO SCHUBERT, American University
Secretary: Grorce W. Irvine, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Treasurer: Matcotm C. HENDERSON, Catholic University
—-
Theories of ‘Types in the
History of Science
Eduard Farber
Research Professor, Department of Chemistry, American University
The time from about 1760 to 1660 can
be called the period of type theories in the
history of several sciences. Such theories
are not entirely limited to this period; pred-
ecessors extend far back of it, and succes-
sors appear decades later. Yet, the ac-
cumulation of independently developed
theories of types in sciences and their pre-
dominance are particularly characteristic
during this period. Almost every branch
of science went through this phase. An-
thropology was first, and chemistry was
—preliminarily—last. To review these sev-
eral developments together will bring out
what they had in common and what dis-
tinguished their separate origins and appli-
cations. Perhaps we can thus contribute
to a future comparative history of the
sciences while providing some stimulation
for the methods of teaching science. These
are the practical aims of the following
study; they are supported by the general
importance of the concept, which is here
described by its fruitful use rather than by
its philosophical implications.
Anthropology
In 1775 Kant published his book “On
the various races of man.” Ten years later,
he followed it with a “Definition of the
concept of a human race.” Kant defined
four typical races as follows:
1. Very blond North-European climate damp-cold
2. Copper-red America dry-cold
3. Black Segambia damp-hot
4. Olive-yellow India dry-hot
DECEMBER, 1964
This selection of four races, and their
connection with four complex qualities to
characterize their climates, raises the sus-
picion that they were derived from the four
elements of Aristotle and their definition
by four qualities. This suspicion should
not go so far as to reject the whole
scheme for being that of a mere phi-
losopher. We have to remember that
Aristotle has stimulated many a scientist,
even in the late 18th century. And be-
sides, Kant was not only and exclusively
a philosopher. His first publication, in
1754, was concerned with “The Question,
whether the Earth ages, considered from the
standpoint of physics” (“Die Frage, ob die
Erde veralte, physikalisch erwogen”). In
his affirmative answer he referred to “a
volatile acid that is expanded everywhere
in the air,” a “subtile, but universally act-
ing matter,’ as being more suitable, ma-
terialistic explanations than “products of a
bold imagination” (“Geschopfe der kiihnen
Einbildungskraft”). In, the same year,
Kant gave his “Natural history and theory
of the skies,” made famous by LaPlace in
1796. He also developed a theory of wind
directions (1756) which Buys Ballot later
(1850) extended.
The idea of “types” persisted in anthro-
pology long after Kant. Jean Louis
Rodolphe Agassiz (born 1807 in Switzer-
land, professor at Harvard from 1846 on,
died 1873) was not satisfied with the three
principal types of Cuvier: European, Mon-
golian, Negro. Agassiz postulated first
SWITHSONIA, nea qes 340
INSNITUTION, == =. S64
(1850) six, then (1853) eight geographical
types. In their book on “Types of Man-
kind” (Philadelphia, 1854), Mott and Glid-
don quoted these types with approval. An-
dreas Adolf Retzius (1796, Lund—1860,
Stockholm) distinguished four “gentes”
which he characterized as follows:
(1) dolichocephalae orthognatae,
(2) brachycephalae orthognatae,
(3) dolichocephalae prognatae,
(4) brachycephalae prognatae.
Thus, in 1855, we find another modifica-
tion of the Aristotelian scheme, the pairing
of two pairs of opposites to characterize
four classes.
In his ‘“‘Kritik der Urteilskraft’’ (1790)
Kant spoke of a primordial image (Urbild)
of all organic forms in a philosophical way,
which, in all its caution, bordered on the
mystical:
This analogy of forms, insofar as they seem to
be created according to a common Urbild—in
spite of all the difference between them—
strengthens the supposition of their real relation-
ship as emerging from a common maternal origin
(Urmutter) (p. 364 f. of the first edition).
The idea of an Urbild was present al-
ready in his book of 1775, and he expected
its real definition from the further ad-
vance of science.
Botany and Zoology
This idea found more specific expres-
sions in the work of another man whose
fame as a poet often overshadows his scien-
tific endeavors, Goethe. He had been
deeply interested in trends towards a com-
parative anatomy, such as Johann Fried-
rich Blumenbach’s Handbuch der ver-
gleichenden Anatomie (Handbook of Com-
parative Anatomy) and Petrus Camper’s
lecture before the Amsterdam Academy of
Design on the analogy in structure between
man and other vertebrate animals (1778).
Thus, when Goethe chanced on a broken
ram’s head in 1790, he found in it only a
confirmation of his theory that the cranium
is a modified vertebra. Five years later,
Goethe published his essay in comparative
anatomy (“Erster Entwurf einer allge-
meinen Einleitung in die vergleichende
Anatomie”, 1795) in which he developed
a program, a “proposal” as he called it:
Because they (the plants) can be summarized
under a concept, it gradually became clear and
clearer to me that perception (Anschauung)
might be enlivened in a still higher manner—a
requirement which, at that time, hovered before
my mind under the physical form of a meta-
physical primordial plant (“Urpflanze”). There-
fore, I here present a proposal for an anatomical
type, a general picture, in which the shapes of
all animals would be contained potentially, and
according to which every animal would be de-
scribed in a certain order. This type would have
to be constructed, as far as possible, in physio-
logical respect. From the mere general idea of
a type it follows that, here, none of the specific
single animals could be postulated as such a
rule for comparisons; no one singular item can
be pattern of the whole entity.
Goethe elaborated these thoughts, in his
“Lectures” of 1796, with analogies taken
from mineralogy, with references to Cam-
per and Buffon, and with specific examples
from the metamorphosis of insects. Al-
though this remained fragmentary, the
theory of types was always close to his
heart. We can see that in an amusing
story told by his faithful assistant, Ecker-
mann. He visited Goethe on Monday,
August 2, 1830, when the news of the July
revolution in France had just reached
Weimar.
“Well,” he exclaimed, “what do you think of
this great event? The volcano has started to
erupt; everything is in flames, and it is no
longer a negotiation behind closed doors!”
“A terrible story,’ I replied. “However, under
the known circumstances, and with such a goy-
ernment, what else was to be expected than that
it would end with the expulsion of the present
royal family?”
“We don’t seem to understand each other, my
dearest fellow,” replied Goethe. “I am not talk-
ing about those people at all; I am concerned
with entirely different things. I am_ talking
about the scientifically most important con-
troversy between Cuvier and Geoffroy de Saint-
Hilaire which has publicly erupted in the Acad-
émie!” (Johann Peter Eckermann’s Gesprdche
mit Goethe. Dritter Teil, 1847.)
He saw in Saint-Hilaire his ally, because
he went much further than Cuvier. The
difference between the two French anat-
350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
——
omists was more in the application than
in the basic concept of types. Cuvier di-
vided the animals into four types: verte-
brata, mollusca, articulata, and radiata.
All the different classes of animals within
these four groups follow the ground-plar
of their group of which they are char-
acteristically modified realizations. Saint-
Hilaire had to retract some of the wild
analogies which he had constructed. His
main viewpoint, however, emerged the
more clearly. He saw in all animals one
general animality, “an abstract entity which
yet is tangible to our senses in diverse
forms.” This is what attracted Goethe,
who, decades before, had seen his Urp-
flanze not only in his imagination, but had
discovered it in a real plant.
Plan and type were foremost in the
thought of botanists and zoologists of this
time. To Carl Linné, Pyrame de Candolle,
or Ernst von Baer, the concept of type was
not something tentatively abstracted from
observations, but an active reality. Thus,
Linné wrote: “It is not the character (the
marks used to characterize the genus)
which makes the genus, but the genus
which makes the character.” The par-
enthesis was added by Julius von Sachs
when he quoted this passage in his History
of Botany of 1875.* And further on, Julius
von Sachs describes Linné’s position ac-
cording to the 6th edition of the “Genera
Plantarum,” 1764, as follows:
At the creation of plants (in ipse creatione)
one species was made as the representative of
each natural order, and these plants so corre-
sponding to the natural orders were distinct from
one another in habit and fructification, that is,
absolutely distinct.
In the communication of 1764, the fol-
lowing words occur:
1. Creator O. T. in primordio vestiit vegetabile
medullare principiis constitutivis diversi corti-
culis, nude tot difformis individua, quod ordines
naturales, prognata” (P. 105/6).
*Translated by E. F. Garnsey, revised by I. B.
Balfour, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 2nd ed., 1906,
m9,
DECEMBER, 1964
Where Linnaeus had spoken of a class-plant or
genetic plant, the expression: plan of symmetry,
or type, was used, meaning an ideal original
form, from which numerous related forms might
be derived. It was left undecided, whether the
ideal form ever really existed, or whether it was
merely the result of intellectual abstraction; and
thus the forms of thought of the old philosophy
began to'reappear ... (p. 111)
In his Théorie élémentaire de la Botani-
que (1813), Augustin Pyrame de Candolle
“gave to the science of comparative mor-
phology its first principles in his theory
of symmetry, . . . . the doctrine that the
nature of an organism is expressed in the
plan by which the positional relations of
all its parts is manifested. The uncover-
ing of this plan from beneath the effects of
abortion, degeneration, and adhesion which
obscure it, he conceived to be the rule for
the determination of true affinities.” *
Karl Ernst von Baer said in his Scholion
V of Entwicklungsgeschichte der Tiere
(1828) “on the relationship of the forms
through which the individual goes in the
several stages of its development:”
I call type the positional relationship of the
organic elements and the organs. This positional
relationship is the expression of certain funda-
mental relationships in the direction of the single
interconnections of life, e.g. the absorbing and
the excreting poles. The type is entirely different
from the stage of development, so that the same
type can persist in several stages of the develop-
ment, and vice versa, the same stage of develop-
ment is reached in several types (p. 208).
I believe that 4 principal types are clearly to
be proved: the peripheric or radial type, the ar-
ticulated or length-type, the massive or mollusk
type, and the type of the vertebrates (p. 209).
Similarly, although perhaps more meta-
physically, Carl Gustav Carus spoke of
fundamental forms and schemes in_ his
Grundztige der vergleichenden Anatomie
of 1828. Richard Owen relied heavily on
Oken and Carus when he wrote On the
Archetype and homologies of the verte-
brate skeleton in 1848.
*R. C. McLean and W. R. Ivimcy-Cook, Text-
book of theoretical botany, vol. 2, p. 2159. Long-
mans Green and Co., London, 1956.
351
I have indicated above that the number
four in Kant’s scheme was selected under
the influence of Aristotle. Richard Owen
refers to the “Platonic idea” underlying his
construction of an archetype.
The Platonic idea, or specific organizing prin-
ciple or force, would seem to be in antagonism
with the general polarizing force, and to subdue
and mould it in subserviency to the exigencies
of the resulting specific forms (p. 172).
Mineralogy
It was a little late to develop such ideas
in 1648. They had been quite fruitful,
with all their vagueness and vastness, about
half a century earlier. Due to such general
concepts and feelings for the unity of na-
ture, Linné’s work on the classification of
plants, animals, and minerals enlightened
René Juste Hatiy and Romé de L’Isle in
a new approach to mineralogy, particularly
crystallography. They discovered types
and fundamental plans of crystal forms.
Haty’s “integrant molecule” was the min-
eralogical corollary to Goethe’s Urpflanze
and Cuvier’s types. Deodat G. S. T. Gratet
de Dolomieu confirmed Haty’s statement
that “the integrant molecule is one by com-
position as well as form.” * Claude Louis
Berthollet objected:
“In order to establish that the integrant
molecule is the type of a group and that this
group is constant in its composition, Hatiy has
to consider as heterogeneous substances all the
differences which our analysis finds in the min-
erals that nevertheless have one and the same
form (Essai de Statique chimique, vol. 1, p. 438).
Berthollet was justified later by Mitscher-
lich’s discoveries.
A relationship between crystal form and
chemical composition became recognized
(Hatiy, 1809). It had to be modified in
later studies, but that is the usual fate of
our general theories, particularly those of
such an origin in philosophy. The “inte-
grant molecule” recurred in Avogadro’s
work of 1814 and was not understood by
contemporary chemists.
*Sur la philosophie minéralogique et sur l’es-
péce minéralogique, 1801.
Meteorology
A rather unphilosophical system of types
was developed by Luke Howard for de-
scribing clouds, and we still use it today.
It was published in 1830 under the title:
“On the modifications of clouds and the
principles of their production, suspension,
and destruction, being the substance of an
Essay read before the Askesian Society in
the Session of 1802-3” (London, Printed
by I. Taylor). Howard did not use the
word type, he spoke of modifications. “The
simple modifications” were thus named and
defined:
1. Cirrus. Definition—Nubes cirrata, tenuis-
sima, qua undique crescat. Parallel, flexuous, or
diverging fibers, extensible in all directions.
2. Cumulus. Definition—Nubes cumulata, densa,
sursum crescens. Cones, or conical heaps, in-
creasing upward from a horizontal base.
3. Stratus. Definition—Nubes strata, aquae
modo expansa, deosum crascens. A widely ex-
tended, continuous, horizontal sheet, increasing
from below.
To these three, he added “the intermediate
modifications”
4. Cirro-cumulus and
o. Cirro-stratus,
and “the compound modifications”
6. Cumulo-stratus and
7. Cumulo-cirro-stratus vel Nimbus, the rain
cloud.
He devised a simple system of signs, de-
rived from a feather for cirrus, a convex
half-circle for cumulus, and a horizontal
line for stratus. These signs could be
combined in order to represent the “com-
pound” forms.
The first sharp distinction between three
typical forms had to be softened by inter-
mediaries and compounds. A philosopher
taking a comparative view of type theories
would have recognized a process that is
not restricted to the study of clouds. How-
ever, philosophy at the beginning of the
19th century was concerned only with its
own history and did not realize how much
material was to be found in the history of
science. Chemistry would have offered
many splendid subjects for philosophical
352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
evaluation, first in the developments which
started from the early theories of the eie-
ments, and later in the specific formulation
of type theories.
Chemistry
Although the Aristotelian elements as-
sumed the character of types in the long
development of this concept, actual and out-
spoken chemical theories of types came
relatively late. They originated from spe-
cific new experiments, not from a search
for broad analogies. Nevertheless, these
experiments did not speak for themselves,
they had to be interpreted, and that re-
quired decisions which left room for con-
troversy. In 1839, G. B. André Dumas
interpreted the action of chlorine on acetic
acid as occurring by substitution. He con-
sidered the properties of the chlorinated
acids to be fundamentally the same as those
of the parent acid. Therefore, he saw a
common “type chimique” maintained in
this chemical change of composition. Sub-
stances which contain the same “number
of equivalents,’ yet differ in fundamental
properties, are combinations on the basis
of the same “type méchanique.”
After much debate, the theory of types
was enlarged by Adolphe Wurtz when he
found simple “organic alkalies,” and by
A. W. Hofmann, whose discoveries of
diethylamine and triethylamine completed
the first series of the type, ammonia.
H C2H;
NH NH
H H
ammonia ethylamine
CoH; CoH;
NC3H; NC3H;
H C2H;
diethylamine triethylamine
In 1851, Alexander William Williamson
added the water-type to explain his findings
about ethers, esters, and anhydrides of
acids:
*A. Baeyer, Liebig’s Ann. 130, 129 (1864).
DECEMBER, 1964
H C2H26
O O
H H
water acetic acid
C,H:0
O
C,H3,0
“anhydrous acetic acid”
Gerhardt, who had predicted the water-
type in 1842, added “double types” of
water, furthermore Hs and HCl, so that
the number of types was now four (1853).
Edward Frankland found it very conven-
ient to derive the constitution of his new
metal-organic compounds from inorganic
types:
5 CsH;
As As cacodyl
5 CH;
O CoH;
AsO As cacodyl oxide
O C,H;
O
Neither Gerhardt nor Williams Odling
considered the types as “real”; they are
“only formal—based upon illusions” (Ger-
hardt), only relative, not really constitu-
tive (Odling). For Dumas, they had ap-
peared real enough, at least, to argue
against Lavoisier’s dualism, and _ they
guided Wurtz in his work on glycols
(1856). Kekulé accepted the “idea of
types” in 1857, a year before he developed
the concept of tetravalency for carbon
which reduced the type theory to a his-
torical stage in the development of organic
chemistry. However, Kekulé himself con-
tinued to use type formulas. Adolf Baeyer
represented the relationship of malonic
and mesoxalic acids to their urea com-
pounds by formulas based on the types of
doubled water and ammonia:*
C302H2 CO
Oz No C302H»
Ho He
malonic acid barbituric acid
399
C303 CO
Oz Ne C302
Hp He
mesoxalic acid alloxan
August Wilhelm Hofmann proposed a triple
ammonia type in the new formulas for ani-
line red, blue, and violet in 1864 (Ann.
152. 2a
These formulas provided a good orien-
tation in the maze of newly separated
substances. The theory of types became an
order of arrangement for symbols, and
both possessed the same degree of reality
or abstractness.
The first chemical types were rejected as
ridiculous by Berzelius, Liebig, and
Wohler. They maintained the dualistic
conception of chemical affinity, and they
emphasized the differences between acetic
acid and the product produced from it by
chlorine. If it was a bold view that saw
the “typical” equality between these acids,
it was shortsighted to consider only what
happened to the acetic acid. When this is
chlorinated, part of the chlorine com-
bines with hydrogen out of the methyl
group of acetic acid, and if this had been
emphasized as the “driving” reaction, the
old dualism would have been saved. Act-
ually, Dumas himself had talked of the
“dehydrogenating action” of chlorine and
the other halogens:
Chlorine possesses the specific power (le pou-
voir singulier) to take hold of the hydrogen in
certain substances and to replace it atom for
atom (13 January, 1834).
Two years later, Laurent added nitric acid
to the dehydrogenating agents. Adolphe
Wurtz considered these views so important
that he cited them in the historical intro-
duction of his Dictionnaire dz Chimie (vol.
1, Paris, 1869, p. XXXLL). Nevertheless,
the emphasis was on the resulting organic
product, the inorganic hydrogen com-
pound was neglected. To discover the same
“type” in water and acetic anhydride re-
quired something of this kind of thinking
that prevailed in the unifying concepts of
o!d alchemistic times!
jo4
Use and Abuse of Type Theories
This ended the period in which type
theories were prominent in the history of
the sciences. Nevertheless, theories of types
remained fruitful. We use them success-
fully in teaching chemistry. Textbooks on
zoology, like that by Claude E. Villee ez al,
(Philadelphia, 1958) relate the multitude
of animals to representative types. The
same is true in psychology and anthropol-
ogy. For such use, we do not have to
consider types as real in nature, but we
cannot deny that they have their reality
in “thought.” This kind of reality should
not be discounted.
In the foreword of his book on Greek
Cultural History (1898-1902), Jacob
Burkhardt pleaded the cause of typical
presentations in history:
The singularity of the source, the so-called
single event may be heard only as a witness for
the generality, not for its own sake; the reason is
that the facts we seek are the modes of thinking
which themselves naturally also are facts. Even
if an event did not actually take place, or not
precisely so, the thought about it would retain
its value through the typical presentation .. .
Perhaps the really true content of ancient history
is the constant which emerges from such a typ-
ical presentation. We come to know the eternal
Greek, a general type instead of a single factor.
. . The typical gives us a picture of history
which is, as a whole, always true and yet was
never true at any single time. . . . Philosophers
of history consider the past as contradiction and
preliminary to us in our further development.
We consider that which repeats itself, that which
is constant and typical, as something similar and
understandable to ourselves.
With this translation I have tried to be
true to the text, and yet I have not quite
reproduced the “spirit” of Burkhardt’s
words. Some of the ambiguities of his
abstract nouns disappear when transformed
into English verbs.
In history, “the so-called single event”
corresponds to the single example in sci-
ence as being “a witness for the general-
ity.” When an observed fact is proclaimed
to be an example, it becomes a representa-
tive for more than itself and gains in im-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
portance. The gain is achieved by depriv-
ing the fact of its individuality. We have
to pay for the gain by a loss. Though only
an interpretation, not an exchange of
energy is involved, the law of conservation
is valid here. For itself, the fact retains its
individuality and remains more than a
mere example. We are not only willing to
pay for the gain, we make special efforts
in this direction, because it leads us to a
view of unity in diversity. In all these re-
spects, examples are like types. When we
read Burkhardt’s words about the eternal
Greek, we remember the typical English-
man we knew, the exemplary Italian we
met, with some surprise that what he had
in mind really exists, and with the convic-
tion that, in order to exist, they also have
to be individuals.
Types are constructions from ideas, ab-
stractions from experiences. They are “on
the one hand intellectual, on the other
hand sensual,” a “monogram of the pure
intuition a priori,” to use the words of the
great thinker with whom [I started this
survey. In his “Critique of pure reason,”’*
Kant introduced this monogram, this
schema, as the “mediator” between mind
and nature. This mediator took on differ-
ent forms in anthropology, botany, zoology,
meteorology, mineralogy and chemistry.
They are as real, and not more so, as the
“lines of force” which Faraday, as Max-
well put it, saw “in his mind’s eyes.”
What the mind sees depends on the ac-
cumulation of experiences. Kant derived
his four anthropological types from the
same simple and direct impressions as
Aristotle; Retzius used measurements on
skulls in formulating his four basic char-
acteristics which he then combined accord-
ing to the Aristotelian pattern. In other
fields, the development consisted in multi-
plying the number of types, from Goethe’s
single Urpflanze to a number of plant types,
and from the one typical “animality” of
Saint-Hilaire to many types of animals.
* | 182 ff. in the first edition, 1781.
DECEMBER, 1964
More recently, and on a stronger experi-
mental foundation, we have seen the origi-
nal (1901) first three, later four blood-
types of Landsteiner increased by subdivi-
sions and additions of main types.
Type theories have been powerful tools
for the advancement of science. They were
created with enthusiasm, and they needed
it to withstand severe criticism.
So deeply rooted are theories of types
that sometimes eveg complete nonsense
has been accepted uncer their name. Dur-
ing the period of type-theories in science,
Joh. Gottfried Rademacher (1772-1850)
developed a new system for the healing
arts. All maladies, according to him, can
be reduced to three types, depending upon
whether they can be healed by iron, by
copper, or by saltpeter. A reference to this
great example can be found in a book pub-
lished in 1868 by the somewhat neglected
chemist Friedrich Mohr under the title:
“Mechanische Theorie der chemischen
Affinitat und die Neuere Chemie” (Me-
chanical Theory of Chemical Affinity and
the New Chemistry, p. 168). And Mohr
stated that this type-theory found many
strong believers.
Type and Time
Considered as a complex of construction
from ideas and abstraction from experi-
ences, types represent the general process
by which we build science. Therefore, it
is not surprising that type theories were
elaborated in so many sciences. What
causes surprise is that type theories flour-
ished almost together at a specific period
in the development of science, so that the
question arises whether this was due to di-
rect influences. Some influences of this
kind are known. Romé de L’Isle and Hatiy
had been inspired by Linné, biological
typologists followed Carl Gustav Carus.
Other questions are still open. Did Ger-
hardt study Cuvier’s types of animals and
then expand them to chemistry? Did
Burckhardt purposely or subconsciously
transfer types in chemistry to types in
political history?
399
These questions are directed to the proc-
ess by which theories of types were
created in time. Another problem is con-
cerned with the product of this process.
Does the concept of type mean an entity
that is essentially constant, or can it com-
prise change and evolution? For mineral-
ogy or chemistry, the questions do not
arise. Here, types meant forms that are
either fundamental or convenient, struct-
ural or exploratory, but in no way evolu-
tionary. In the life sciences, types have a
distinguishing additional feature. “Urp-
flanze” can mean the oldest in time and
the most invariable in history. Biological
type as the constant reality corresponding
to eternal idea has no room for evolution.
“Many of the basic concepts of the synthe-
tic theory, such as that of natural selection
and that of population, are meaningless for
the typologist.”’*
For types as “the mediators between
mind and experience’ (Kant) there is no
danger of becoming petrified, although it
is the danger common to all our general
concepts. This is true in science as well
as in other human activities, it has been
noticed in art and architecture, and it can
become ominous in the form of rigid polli-
cies to the detriment of sound administra-
tion in business and research.
*Ernst Mayr, Animal species and evolution,
Cambridge, 1963, p. 6.
PS
Dating on the Banks of the Potomac’
Meyer Rubin
U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.
One would think that the combination
of a long-established radiocarbon labora-
tory in Washington and the large concen-
tration of working and picnicking geolo-
gists here (largest in the world, I’m told)
would produce a great number of radio-
carbon-dated samples from the Washington
area. However, the geologic history of the
region has determined otherwise. Actually,
except for some Coastal Plain sediments
of Cretaceous, Eocene, and Miocene age,
the area is essentially dominated by the
geologically ancient (Precambrian) schists
and gneisses, as at Great Falls, overlaid
by the partly eroded Pliocene blanket of
* Publication authorized by the Director, U. S.
Geological Survey.
306
Brandywine Gravel seen in the Ward Cir-
cle and Washington Cathedral areas.
Not only have few carbon-14 samples
been analyzed (eight published analyses,
to my knowledge), but also most of them
have been outside the range of the dating
method. Carbon dating has an effective
maximum limit of about 40,000-50,000
years, depending on the optimism of the
laboratory operator. This limit is quite
good, considering that it is about eight
half-lives of a practically nonexistent com-
modity (10-1? concentration compared to
normal C1”) to begin with. (To avoid con-
fusion, the new half-life of carbon-14, 5730
years instead of 5568 years, is not used in
age computations, although it is considered
to be a better approximation.) No wood
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
has ever been found in the Brandywine
Gravel, and it would have had little chance
of preservation in the iron-stained, oxi-
dized, coarse phase anyway; but even if
it were found in the silts, it would prob-
ably be too old to date.
The younger terraces of the Potomac
were therefore the natural choice for a
dating project. But the pleasant prospect
of canoeing down the river, collecting sam-
ples idyllically, was quickly dispelled by
the dates we obtained on two samples from
the lowest level terrace (i.e., the youngest)
on the Potomac River. These samples, W-
252* (shells) and W-253 (wood), came
from a well-known fossil-collecting locality
at Wailes Bluff, Md., near Cornfield Har-
bor, about three miles above the river
mouth. They were given a minimum date
of greater than 35,000 years. Another wood
sample (W-1389) from the lowermost ter-
race, obtained from an excavation at the
eastern approach of the Roosevelt Island
Bridge near Virginia Avenue, again proved
the futility of dating the terraces by this
method: its age was greater than 38,000
years.
Buried cypress swamps on top of many
of the terrace gravels here have been
known for a long time, and wood from one
of them, from the original excavation for
the Mayflower Hotel, was described years
ago. The age of this peaty deposit is be-
lieved to be Pleistocene, but exactly when
in the Pleistocene age is not known. When
the site for the new annex to the May-
flower was excavated in 1955, a sample of
cypress (W-302) was collected and dated
as older than 38,000 years. Many of the
new excavations in that part of town turn
up peat of the same or similar deposits.
* Laboratories denote their samples by the
prefix to the laboratory number: W indicates the
U.S. Geological Survey laboratory, Washington,
D.C., and SI indicates the new Smithsonian In-
stitution laboratory on the Mall.
A piece of wood from another peat deposit
(W-817) was collected from an excavation
for the relocation of Wheeler Road, near
the southeast boundary line of the District
of Columbia. This also proved disappoint-
ing, in that it was more than 38,000 years
old.
The only sample that gave a finite age
was an archeological one—charcoal dug
from a firepit near the mouth of Seneca
Creek, where the Creek enters the Poto-
mac. Hundreds of points, scrapers, and
pieces of pottery have been unearthed by
the Southwestern Chapter of the Arche-
ology Society of Maryland, the excavators
of the site. The sample (W-798) showed
that woodland Indians inhabited what was
then an island in the Seneca Creek delta,
about 1,960 years ago. I was told that an
older culture lies beneath these layers but
that no datable material was found. If
some day some carbon is found with which
to date these earliest of suburban Washing-
tonians, the sample would most probably
be dated by the radiocarbon laboratory of
the Smithsonian Institution, a recent and
excellent facility specializing in arche-
ological samples.
A few years ago, samples of peat (W-
1064) and of wood (W-1065) were col-
lected from the flood plain silt and the
underlying gravel in Watts Branch near
Rockville, Md., to determine whether the
gravel was deposited much earlier than the
silt. Here again, the method was not suit-
able because the ages determined for both
were less than 250 years.
In spite of the great interest in local
geologic samples, and in spite of our will-
ingness to analyze them, very few carbon
samples from the Washington area are
likely to be analyzed—unless, of course,
we want to know the source of river and
atmospheric organic pollution, a task for
which C** is admirably suited. But that’s
another story.
MN
DECEMBER, 1964
Academy Proceedings
484th Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences
SPEAKER: RICHARD BROOKE ROBERTS
Carnegie Institution of Washington,
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism
SUBJECT: PROSPECTS FOR ACTION IN ARMS
| CONTROL
SPEAKER: EDWARD N. PARKER
USN (Ret.)
SUBJECT: TO CONTROL THE THREAT
TIME: THURSDAY, DECEMBER 17, 1964
8:15 P.M.
PLACE: JOHN WESLEY POWELL AUDITORIUM,
COSMOS CLUB
2170 Florida Avenue, N. W.
Abstract of Dr. Roberts’ Talk—tThe recent election gave strong support to President
Johnson’s policies for dealing with the USSR and China. Further action toward arms
control measures should therefore be expected. The Chinese nuclear test emphasizes the
need for measures to prevent proliferation of nuclear weapons. Proposals already made
by the United States and USSR are likely to become the subject of serious negotia-
tions. The status of the multilateral forces (MLF) will require re-examination. These
proposals and other possible action will be discussed in the contexts of the military
needs of the United States and USSR.
The Speaker—Richard Brooke Roberts was born in Titusville, Pa. He received the
A.B. degree from Princeton in 1932, the A.M. degree in 1933, and the Ph.D. degree
in physics in 1937. He was a fellow with the Carnegie Institution from 1937 to 1939,
an associate physicist there from 1939 to 1943, and a physicist with the Johns Hopkins
Applied Physics Laboratory from 1943 to 1946. In 1947 he joined the staff of the De-
partment of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution, and became chairman of the
Biophysics Section in 1953. He served as consultant to the Weapons Systems Evalua-
tion Group in 1950, and was a member of the Committee on Biological Warfare Re-
-search and Development Board from 1948 to 1951. He was awarded the Medal for
Merit in 1947, :
Dr. Roberts is a member of the Physics Society, the Biophysics Society, the Bac-
teriology Society, the Biochemistry Society of Great Britain, and the British Society for
3 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
General Microbiology. His field is nuclear physics, with special emphasis on reactions.
scattering, fission, weapons developement, the proximity fuse, fire control, guided mis-
siles, biosynthesis of small and large molecules, and microbiology.
Abstract of Vice Admiral Parker’s Talk—The current emphasis on arms control and
disarmament is strongly motivated by the threat of total destruction to whole societies
in a general nuclear war. In this world of violence,. hatreds, and open aggression, the
goal of general and complete disarmament is but a dream. To remove the “Sword of
Damocles” from above our heads, while maintaining our national objective of remain-
ing a nation of free men, there are two possible courses:
(1) To establish some measure of control over nuclear armaments, either to reduce
the direct threat or to limit the situations in which we are threatened;
(2) To develop and install the capability to limit the damage which nuclear weapons
can inflict on our people should deterrence—or arms control—fail.
These two possible courses are not mutually exclusive; both aim to control the threat;
they can be pursued in parallel and are mutually supporting. Some measure of arms
control will assist the defense; some defense—rather than none—should promote agree-
ment on arms control.
Among the many contributions which science can make toward controlling the nu-
clear threat, two are considered of special importance:
(1) To develop means of proving that an arms control agreement (of whatever kind)
is, in fact, being carried out. To be useful, the means must cause the least possible
disruption of the societies and maintain the freedom of the individual normal in the
society.
(2) To assist the development of the capability to limit the damage to our society
and the casualties to our population, should we be attacked by nuclear weapons, by
these means: (a) stop saying defense is impossible; (b) start helping to make it pos-
sible and effective, so that our people cease being hostages to the capability and in-
tentions of those who have promised to bury us and those who are working hard to
develop that capability.
The Speaker—Edward N. Parker, vice admiral, U. S. Navy (Retired) was born in
Avalon, Pa. He graduated from the United States Naval Academy in June 1925,
served with Ordnance Engineering from 1932 to 1935, and became assistant director
of the Research Division of the Bureau of Ordnance in 1945. He was associated with
Fleet Training and Readiness, Naval Operations, 1948-1950: with the Armed Forces
Special Weapons Project, 1952-1954; with Plans and Policy, Naval Operations, 1956—
1957; and with Chief Defense Atomic Support Agency, 1957-1960. He was deputy
director of Joint Strategic Target Planning Staff, 1960-1962, and assistant director
of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, 1962 and 1963.
Admiral Parker retired from active duty with the U. S. Navy in November 1963.
He is now a consultant to several firms, aid makes his home in Annapolis, Md.
DECEMBER, 1964 359
STANDING RULES OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS
Approved June 9, 1964
l(a). MEETINGS of the Board of Managers shall be held as called by the President, or in
his absence by the Secretary, or within one week after written request of three members of the
Board. Generally, regular meetings are scheduled to be held on the third Thursday immediately
before the Regular Meeting each month except July, August, and September.
1(b). A Delegate of an Affiliated Society may, in an emergency, be represented by a
substitute from his society who shall also be a Resident Fellow or Resident Member of the
Academy except that the authority to vote cannot be delegated to the substitute. Because of the
latter restriction a delegate cannot be represented on the NOMINATING COMMITTEE by
another person. One week before the October meeting of the Board of Managers, the Secretary
shall inform each member of the Nominating Committee of the date and place of the Committee
meeting to be held before November 1. In the case of an Affiliated Society that has not been
represented at a substantial number of the Board meetings, the Secretary shall also inquire
whether the scheduled dates of the Board meetings or any other causes are responsible for the
inability of the Society to be represented and shall report his findings to the Executive Committee
for possible consideration of a remedial action.
2. The regular ORDER OF BUSINESS shall be:
(a) Approval of the minutes of the last meeting.
(b) Announcements, such as committee appointments.
(c) Report of the Secretary.
(d) Report of the Treasurer.
(e) Reports of standing committees as follows:
i. Executive Committee
ii. Committee on Membership
ili. Committee on Policy Planning
iv. Committee on Ways and Means
v. Committee on Meetings
vi. Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement
vii. Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research
viii. Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent
ix. Committee on Public Information
({) Reports of special committees.
(g) Report of the Editor.
(h) Report of the Archivist.
(i) Report from the Joint Board on Science Education.
(j) Unfinished business.
(k) New business.
(1) Adjournment.
3. MOTIONS should be presented to the Board in written form when possible. Committee
Reports should be presented in written form with copies for distribution if possible.
4(a). There shall be ten STANDING COMMITTEES: nine as listed in Rule 2 and the
Academy members of the Joint Board on Science Education referred to in Rule 17.
4(b). Appointment to standing committees should be announced at the first Board Meeting
following the Annual Meeting of the Academy, unless another time is prescribed for that purpose.
4(c). The Committees on Policy Planning, on Encouragement of Science Talent, the Academy
members of the Joint Board on Science Education, Committee on Grants-in-Aid For Research,
and the Subcommittees on Awards shall each consist of six Resident Fellows appointed for three-
year terms at the rate of two members each year. Each Membership Committee Panel shall
consist of 5 Resident Fellows, serving staggered 3-year terms (See Standing Rule 6). Appoint-
ment to noncompleted terms shall be made whenever necessary. Members of other standing
committees shall be Fellows or Members of the Academy and their term of office, as well as the
terms of the chairmen of all standing committees, panels and subcommittees, shall be one year.
The terms of members of the Committees on Meetings, on Public Information, of the Joint
Board on Science Education, and of the Membership Panels shall terminate at the end of June.
The terms of members of other standing committees shall end at the conclusion of an Annual
Meeting. Chairmen of all standing committees shall receive from the secretary all communications
360 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
addressed to the Board of Managers and shall be expected to attend all meetings of the Board.
When unable to attend a meeting, a Chairman shall either designate a member of his Committee
to replace him or submit in advance a written report to the Secretary, whenever the proper
conduct of the Committee’s activity requires it.
4(d). The incoming President may appoint an AD HOC COMMITTEE ON COMMITTEES
or use any other appropriate assistance to select candidates for membership on committees,
panels, and for other appointments.
5(a). The EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE shall consist of the President, the President-Elect, the
Secretary, and the Treasurer (or Acting Treasurer) ex officio, as well as two members appointed
annually by the President from the membership of the Board. It shall have general supervision
of the finances of the Academy, approve the selection of a depository for the current funds,
direct the investment of the permanent funds, and shall prepare for the Board at the beginning
of each year an itemized statement of the receipts and expenditures of the preceding year (or
review such a statement already prepared by the Treasurer) and a budget based on the estimated
receipts and disbursements of the coming year, with such recommendations as may seem desirable.
It shall be charged with the duty of considering all of those activities of the Academy
that may tend to maintain and promote the relations with the affiliated societies, and with
any other business which may be assigned to it by the Board.
5(b). The office of the Academy shall be under the general supervision of the Executive
Committee. The functions of the office are as follows: to be the repository for files of the officers,
especially those of the Secretary, and of the Treasurer; to relieve these officers of routine book-
keeping and filing activities; to receive subscriptions and be a sales office for Academy publica-
tions; to provide office assistance in the preparation of material for publication; and to function
as a center for such other activities of the Academy as can be appropriately accommodated there.
6(a). The Committee on Membership shall consist of its Chairman and the Chairmen of
the Membership Panels. The normal terms of appointment to each Panel shall be three years.
Shorter-term appointments may be made when necessary to maintain a staggered system. Only
Resident Fellows of the Academy shall be eligible for appointment to the Committee and _ its
Panels, and no person shall be appointed to more than two consecutive terms.
6(b). The Committee shall recommend to the Board of Managers the scope of the Member-
ship Panels. Each Panel shall consist of five members, not more than two of whom have the
same institutional affiliation.
6(c). Nominations for Fellowship shall be referred to the Committee on Membership, which
shall carefully examine the qualifications of each nominee and within a reasonable time report
its findings to the Board. No rejected candidate shall be eligible for renomination within one
year from the date of rejection.
6(d). The names of those approved for Membership by the Committee on Membership shall
be reported to the Board. The Committee shall review at least once a year the current list of
Members to consider their eligibility for elevation to Fllowship.
7(a). The COMMITTEE ON POLICY PLANNING shall periodically assess the status of the
Academy from the viewpoint of long-term objectives. It shall recommend to the Board of Mana-
gers any new policy or changes in policy designed to make the Academy more effective in the
scientific life of the Washington area.
7(b). All requests or consideration for AFFILIATION of a Society will be examined by the
Committee on Policy Planning which will make its recommendations to the Executive Committee
after giving proper consideration to the scholarly nature and purposes of the Society, the number
of fellows of the Academy who are members of the Society, the extent to which its membership
overlaps with the membership of Affiliated Societies, and the Society’s affiliations with other bodies.
Consideration of requests for release from affiliation shall be examined by the Committee on Policy
Planning which will make its recommendations to the Executive Committee.
8. The COMMITTEE ON WAYS AND MEANS shall consider and advise the Board of Man-
agers on the maintenance of a sound financial structure and such other matters as are intended
to strengthen the Academy.
9. The COMMITTEE ON MEETINGS shall make all arrangements for the Regular Meetings
of the Academy and such Special Meetings as may be of interest to the members of the Academy,
the Affiliated Societies, and the general public interested in science. The Committee may also be
DECEMBER, 1964.
361
requested to participate with other committees of the Academy in making appropriate arrange-
ments for specialized symposia and scientific conferences.
The retiring Chairman shall serve ex officio. Appointments should be made annually before
the end of April for a one-year term starting in July and terminating when a new Committee on
Meetings is appointed. If unable to attend a regular meeting of the Board, the Chairman of the
Committee shall designate a member of his Committee as a substitute.
10(a). The COMMITTEE ON AWARDS FOR SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENT shall recom-
mend one or more candidates for each of the following awards: Biological Sciences, the Engineer-
ing Sciences, the Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and the Teaching of Science. A candidate must
reside within 25 miles of the White House, Washington, D. C., and, except for an award for the
Teaching of Science, shall not have passed the 40th anniversary of his birth by the end of the
calendar year for which the award is made. Recommendations by the Committee must reach the
Board of Managers not later than the meeting immediately preceding the annual meeting of the
Academy in January. Each recommendation to the Board must be accompanied by a written sup-
porting statement concerning the candidate, together with a citation covering not over 80 spaces,
as ... “In recognition of his distinguished service. . . .”
10(b). The Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement shall examine from time to time
the procedures used for the selection of awardees and recommend such changes as it deems appro-
priate; the Committee may also consider the desirability of establishing such other awards, prizes,
or medals as may help in expressing the recognition and commendation of work of high merit and
distinction in science, mathematics, engineering, and teaching in the Washington area, and may
make appropriate recommendations to the Board.
10(c). The Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement shall be responsible for obtaining
a sponsor and verifying the presentation to the Membership Committee of the nomination for Fel-
lowship of each recipient of an Academy Award for Scientific Achievement who is not already a
Fellow.
11. The COMMITTEE ON GRANTS-IN-AID FOR RESEARCH shall review applications for
grants from such funds as may be at the disposal of the Board of Managers for this purpose.
12. THE COMMITTEE ON ENCOURAGEMENT OF SCIENCE TALENT shall consider and
arrange for participation of the Academy in activities promoting a professional interest in science
among people of high school and college age. A member of this committee shall be designated by
the President each year to serve as Chairman of the Governing Council of the Washington Junior
Academy of Sciences.
13. THE COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC INFORMATION shall be concerned with publicizing the
activities and functions of the Academy and shall maintain appropriate liaison with information
services or organizations of special interest to the Academy.
14. SPECIAL COMMITTEES shall continue until the assigned duties are accomplished, unless
sooner discharged.
15(a). The JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES shall consist of
two parts published under separate or same cover: Part A will be of scholarly nature and may
include: review papers, surveys devoted to interdisciplinary research, articles on the history of sci-
ence, other scholarly articles and abstracted proceedings of the meetings of the Board of Managers.
The selection of papers accepted for publication will be made by the Editor after appropriate
review. Part B will be of the nature of a newsletter and may include: notices of major activities
of the Academy, the Joint Board on Science Education, the Affiliated Societies, and the Junior
Academy of Sciences; regional news items of scientific interest; personal news of changes in
affiliations and major appointments and awards received by Academy members; reports on the
activities of the Interdisciplinary Panels of the Academy; and such other items as may be of gen-
eral interest to the members of the Academy and of the Affiliated Societies, to science teachers,
science administrators, and to executives and legislators concerned with scientific research and its
interrelation with public policy. News items and personal news submitted for publication shall be
edited to retain an appropriate standard and eliminate news of lesser significance to the readers.
15(b). The editorial activities of the Academy aha be directed by the EDITOR with the
assistance of such ASSOCIATE EDITORS as may be needed and the advice of an ADVISORY
EDITORIAL BOARD. The Associate Editors will be elected annually by the Board of Managers
362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
on nomination by the Editor, and vacancies may be filled in a like manner. The Advisory Editorial
Board shall include the Editor, the Chairmen of the Committees on Meetings, and of the Com-
mittee on Interdisciplinary Cooperation, and no more than fifteen fellows appointed by the Presi-
dent after consultation with the Editor. The Advisory Editorial Board shall meet at least twice a
year under the President’s chairmanship to examine the editorial policies of the Academy and to
make appropriate recommendations.
16. An ARCHIVIST shall be appointed for a one-year term starting in July and shall continue
to serve until his successor is appointed. In case of disability or absence of the Archivist his
duties will be performed by the Secretary.
17. The JOINT BOARD ON SCIENCE EDUCATION of the Washington Academy of Sciences
and the D. C. Council of Engineering and Architectural Societies consists of nine members
appointed by each of the two bodies and the President of the Academy and the Chairman of the
D. C. Council serving ex officio. The members representing the Academy shall be selected in a
manner to provide (on the Joint Board) a good representation in the sciences, mathematics, and
engineering and to insure a good contact with the local school systems. One of these members
shall be appointed as Chairman of the Academy contingent on the Joint Board, and report on the
activities of the Joint Board to the Board of Managers.
The Academy members of the Joint Board shall be ex officio members of the INTER-
DISCIPLINARY PANEL ON SCIENCE EDUCATION.
18(a). With the view to stimulating interest in the sciences, to promoting their advancement,
and to developing their philosophical aspects, he Board may institute INTERDISCIPLINARY
PANELS which shall explore, discuss, and review such interdisciplinary fields as may best be
advanced through direct cooperation between individual scientists. Following upon the authoriza-
tion by the Board of a panel with a defined scope of activities, the President shall appoint no
more than nine Resident Fellows or Members including a convener and no more than two members
of the Board who shall be ex officio members of the Panel. By a majority vote of at least five
votes, the Panel may coopt six additional members who must be Fellows or Members of the Acad-
emy. Each panel shall review its activities and its scope and report to the Board before the end of
November, including recommendations in regard to the continuance of the Panel. Unless renewed,
the Board’s authorization shall expire at the end of the Annual Meeting following the initiation of
the panel. If continued, the membership of the panel shall elect a Chairman and a Secretary for
the ensuing year.
The result of the deliberations of these panels shall from time to time be brought to the atten-
tion of the general membership of the Academy through formal symposia or meeting sessions
arranged by the Academy, publication of reports or review articles regarding the interdisciplinary
fields under study or such other means as may be appropriate, provided that the Academy respon-
sibility or approval of the conclusion shall not be engaged except when specifically approved by the
Board of Managers.
18(b). AN ADVISORY BOARD ON INTERDISCIPLINARY COOPERATION may be created
to assist the Executive Committee in the coordination of the activities of the Interdisciplinary
Panels, and in such other matters related to interdisciplinary cooperation as may be assigned to
this Board.
19. Each Officer and each Chairman of a standing committee will be entrusted by the Archivist
with the REGISTER of his office which shall include the following documents to be inserted by
each holder of the office:
I. Name of the Officer or names of Committee members.
II. Annual reports.
III. Information concerning the location of other reports and files.
IV. Outline of procedures used in the conduct of the office.
V. Short statement prepared at the end of the Officer’s (or Chairman’s) term with
recommendations to be noted by his successors.
The Registers will be maintained by the Archivist who will retain in his files a copy of each docu-
ment inserted in each Register.
20. All routine ALLOTMENTS (including allotments for expenses of the Secretary, Treasurer,
Committee on Meetings, and the Academy periodical) are considered to be renewed pro rata for
the period from December 31 until a budget for the following year has been adopted by the Board.
DECEMBER, 1964 363
21. DEFICITS or liabilities in excess of any allotment shall not be incurred in the name of
the Academy without first obtaining authority from the Board. All requests for such authority,
with reasons therefor, shall first be referred to the Executive Committee for consideration, in the
same manner as items of the regular budget.
22. PUBLICATIONS shall be sent to Members, Fellows, and Patrons for the year for
which their dues are paid. Sending of publications to members whose dues have not been paid
shall be discontinued after six months.
23. NEW MEMBERS may receive the complete volume of the Academy periodical for
the year of acceptance of membership upon payment of dues for the entire year.
24. Dues for the fractional part of a year for an ACTIVE MEMBER RESIGNING from
the Academy shall be at the monthly rate of one-twelfth the annual rate. For the purpose of
this rule, the first of the month which falls nearest the intended date indicated in the letter of
resignation shall be considered the date of resignation. Sending of publications shall be discon-
tinued upon resignation.
25. Amendments to the constitution and bylaws of the WASHINGTON JUNIOR ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES and the expenditure of funds by the Junior Academy must have the approval
of the Board of Managers of the senior Academy.
26. SUSPENSION OF RULES. By unanimous consent of the Board members present any
standing rule of the Board may be temporarily suspended.
27. AMENDMENTS. These standing rules may be added to or amended by a majority of
the members of the Board present, provided one week’s notice of a proposed new rule or amend-
ment has been given and provided such new rule or amendment is not in conflict with the Bylaws.
BOARD OF MANAGERS
MEETING NOTES
October Meeting
The Board of Managers held its 566th
meeting on October 13 in the Conference
Room of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, with President
Frenkiel presiding.
The minutes of the 565th meeting were
approved as corrected to indicate the date
of the meeting.
Announcements. Dr. Frenkiel announced
that the new committees of the Board are
listed in the Directory (September) issue
of the Journal.
Treasurer. Dr. Henderson reported as
follows: The Academy is a tax exempt or-
ganization. In support of this position, an
amendment to the Academy’s certificate of
incorporation has been executed and filed
with the District of Columbia. It is likely
that the Internal Revenue Service will ulti-
mately certify the Academy’s tax exempt
status.
Three statements were distributed for
the information of the Board: (a) list of
membership changes during 1964; (b)
364,
roster of the Board of Managers and com-
mittee chairmen, 1964; (c) list of Acade-
my members whose dues have been delin-
quent since 1962.
By January 1, 1965, it is estimated, the
Academy will have a cash operating deficit
of about $2700. Investments of the Acad-
emy have appreciated in the past year by
approximately $16,000. The Treasurer was
authorized and directed to sell 67 shares
of State Street Investment Trust stock
and deposit the proceeds (approximately
$2900) in the Academy’s operating ac-
count.
The treasurer expects to establish a cate-
gory of members who receive the Journal
but do not receive Secretary’s notices, to
increase the efficiency of the business office.
Raymond Morgan, University of Mary-
land, was approved by the Board as fellow
emeritus. John S. Coleman, NAS-NRC,
was reinstated as a fellow of the Academy.
Membership. On motion of Chairman
Cook, the following 24 persons were elected
to fellowship in the Academy: A: B. Bestul,
S. Block, G.-B.- Chapman, T. D. Coyle,
R. D. Deslattes, Jr., E. Farber, W. Haller,
L. S. Hansen, M. Jacobson, P. S. Kleba-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
noff, E. M. Levin, R. J. List, W. M. Mac-
Donald, G. D. Maengwyn-Davis, M. Maien-
thal, U. Lk: Nofisinser, V. J. Oliver, F. D-
Ordway, Jr., E. J. Oswald, W. T. Pecora,
F. A. H. Rice, R. G. H. Siu, L. E. Steele,
D. L. Walter. President Frenkiel announced
the appointment of Fellow Eduard Farber,
American University, as Archivist of the
Academy.
Dr. Cook reported that the following 14
persons had been elected to membership
by the Committee: L. F. Affronti, L. R.
Perkins, L. T. Milliken, G. C. Sherlin, Os-
car Felsenfeld, Eugene Ehrlich, L. L. Salis-
bury, E. M. Hildebrand, H. G. Talmadge,
Jr.. W. A. Robinson, J. P. San Antonio,
W. J. McCabe, W. F. Witzig, W. L. West.
Meetings. Chairman Steinhardt reported
on programs for the year’s meetings:
October, Dr. Marshall Stone, University of
Chicago, “Science and Society”; Novem-
ber, Dr. Christopher Tietze, National Com-
mittee on Maternal Health, Inc., New York
Academy of Sciences, “Effectiveness of
Methods of Population Control”; Decem-
ber, discussion between Dr. Richard
Roberts, Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism, Carnegie Institution of Washing-
ton, and Vice Admiral Edwin N. Parker,
USN (Ret.), “Contribution of Science to
Arms Control”; January, a subject con-
cerned with the history of science (speaker
to be selected); February, address of the
retiring president; April, “Conversazione.”
Dr. Steinhardt expressed the view that
better means should be sought for publi-
cizing Academy meetings.
Awards for Scientific Achievement. In
the absence of Chairman Mason, Dr. Fren-
kiel outlined the steps that have been taken
to request nominations from industry, uni-
versities, and government agencies for the
Academy’s awards for 1964.
Grants-in-Aid. In the absence of Chair-
man McPherson, Dr. Boyle presented a
recommendation of the Committee that
Clayton Curtis, Jr., who had been granted
$200 in 1962 to construct a digital com-
putor, be granted an additional $100 to
liquidate indebtedness incurred in com-
DECEMBER, 1964
pleting the project. The case was deferred,
pending review by the Committee.
Editor. Editor Detwiler reported that
the September issue of the Journal (Direc-
tory) and the October issue were both in
the mail. The directory lists 1200 Acad-
emy members and the complete rosters of
nine of the Academy affiliates. Eight of
these affiliates are contributing to the cost
of the Directory, of which 3900 copies
were printed. The October issue is devoted
to the interests of the electrochemists, who
will be meeting in Washington. The No-
vember and December issues will be small.
Joint Board on Science Education.
Chairman Taylor reported that two publi-
cations are available at the Academy office:
“Summary Report, Washington Academy
of Sciences to the National Science Foun-
dation, 1963-64,” and “Directory of the
Joint Board on Science Information for
the Greater Washington Area, 1964-65.”
A fair in 1970 has been proposed to
display the unique science features of the
Greater Washington area. The President
was authorized to inform Mr. Cole that the
Academy endorses the proposal.
Another science conference for college
students is being organized for the spring
of 1965. Members of the Academy are
urged to attend.
Unfinished Business. The Secretary re-
minded the chairman of the Nominating
Committee (Dr. Liddel, delegate of the
Philosophical Society) that the Commit-
tee’s list of nominees must be available in
time to reach the membership by mail on
November 15. The Committee will meet
November 9, 8 p.m., at the Cosmos Club.
New Business. Dr. Boyle of the Grants-
in-Aid Committee asked for guidance on
the merit. of proposals to the Committee
and inquired whether science teachers
might. be considered eligible for grants.
President Frenkiel requested the Commit-
tee to bring its own recommendations to
the Board for consideration.
DIRECTORY CORRECTION
On page 221, Peter H. Haas should be
coded 1DAHD instead of 9CLUN.
365
Science in Washington
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
December 7—Instrument Society of
America
C. Edward Chapman, Bureau of Inter-
national Commerce, “Foreign Demand for
American Instruments.”
Lecture Room, Materials Testing Labo-
ratory, National Bureau of Standards,
8:00 p.m. Pre-meeting dinner at Burgundy
Cafe, 6:00 p.m.
December 10—Chemical Society of
Washington
Donald F. Hornig, Science Advisor to
the President, “Scientific Progress and the
Federal Government.”
Knights of Columbus Activity Hall, Ar-
lington, Va., 8:15 p.m. Dinner at 6:00 p.m.
December 10—American Society of
Mechanical Engineers
Phillip A. Stender, Goddard Space
Flight Center, “Drive Systems for Space
Application.” Edward J. Devine, Goddard
Space Flight Center, “Rolling Element
Contacts in Vacuum.”
PEPCO Auditorium, 10th & E Sts.,
N.W., 8:00 p.m. Pre-meeting dinner at
O’Donnell’s Restaurant, 6:30 p.m.
December 10—Entomological Society
of Washington
John C. Downey, Southern Illinois Uni-
versity, “Talking Pupae—A Study in the
Biology of Lycaenidae.”
Symons Hall, Agriculture Auditorium,
University of Maryland, 8:00 p.m.
December 11—Science Bureau Lec-
ture Series
G. Bentley Glass, Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, “Human Heredity, Today and To-
morrow. William R. Menyhert, Drug De-
tection & Development Organization, Inc.,
response.
Glover Hall, American University, 8:00
p.m.
366
December 1J)—Howard University,
Department of Architecture Lec-
ture Series
Carl _ Feiss; F.A.I.A., A.I.P., Planning
and Urban Renewal Consultant, Washing-
ton, D.C.
Auditorium, School of Engineering and
Architecture, Howard University, 4:00 p.m.
December 11—Computer Science
Center, University of Maryland
David Fox, Johns Hopkins Applied
Physics Laboratory, “Comparison Opera-
tors Constructions Based on Truncations
1h ee
Room 315, Mathematics Building (on
Campus Drive), University of Maryland,
11:00 a.m. Open to the scientific public.
December 15—George Washington
University Lecture Series on Re-
gional and Urban Development
Martin Anderson, Columbia University,
and Edmund N. Bacon, executive director
of the Philadelphia City Planning Commis-
sion, “Examination of Past Regional and
Urban Development Approaches, Not to
Uncover Community or Regional Arche-
ology But to Identify the Nature and Po-
tential of Such Approaches.”
Lisner Auditorium, 730 21st St., N.W.,
8:30 p.m.
January &—Georgetown
Seminar
Lt. Col. Kenneth R. Dirks, MC, U.S.
Army Medical Unit, Walter Reed Army
Medical Center, Frederick, Md., “Medical
Aspects of Biological Warfare.”
Room 103, Reiss Science Building,
Georgetown University, 4:00 p.m.
University
January 15—Georgetown University
Seminar
D. J. Kushner, National Research Coun-
cil, Ottawa, Canada, “Life in Salt: The
Physiology of the Halophilic Bacteria.”
Room 103, Reiss Science Building,
Georgetown University, 4:00 p.m.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS
Contributions to this column may be ad-
dressed to Harold T. Cook, Associate Edi-
tor c/o Department of Agriculture, Agri-
cultural Research Service, Federal Center
Building, Hyattsville, Md.
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT
The 1964 Distinguished Achievement
Award of the Instrument Society of Amer-
ica was awarded to Dorothy Nickerson
on October 13, in recognition of her con-
tribution to the advancement of optical
and color instrumentation for agricultural
applications. This award, consisting of a
plaque, framed certificate, and $500 hono-
rarium, is offered annually to an individ-
ual in recognition of an _ outstanding
technical, educational, or philosophical
contribution to the science and technology
of instrumentation. Miss Nickerson, an
active member of several national and in-
ternational technical and scientific groups
dealing with color and illumination, is
leader of the Color Research Laboratory,
Agricultural Research Service.
Justus C. Ward served on a panel on
pesticides at the American Public Health
Association meeting in New York, October
5, and on a similar panel in the Public
Health Service’s Training Course on Safe
Use of Pesticides, held October 30 in At-
lanta. On October 22 Mr. Ward gave a
talk, “Residues of Pesticides in Milk,
Meat, and Eggs,” before the U.S. Livestock
Sanitary Association at Memphis, Tenn.
George W. Irving, Jr., became asso-
ciate administrator of the Agricultural Re-
search Service in July, upon the retirement
of M. R. Clarkson. Dr. Irving addressed
the 100th anniversary celebration of the
discovery of white burley tobacco, at Rip-
ley, Ohio, in August; and in November
he addressed the 19th annual meeting of
the Armed Forces Chemical Association,
held in Washington, on “Agricultural Pre-
paredness for the Future.”
Marion M. Farr attended the First In-
ternational Congress of Parasitology, held
DECEMBER, 1964
in Rome September 20-26. She presented
a paper entitled, “Survival of Oocysts of
Chicken and Turkey Coccidia Under Vari-
ous Conditions.”
N. R. Ellis, associate director of the
Animal Husbandry Research Division,
Agricultural Research Service, retired on
August 30. Mr. Ellis completed 44 years
of service in animal husbandry research
in the Department at Beltsville, Md.
Alfred H. Yeomans was appointed
head of investigations on aerosols in the
Pesticide Chemicals Research Branch,
ARS, following the retirement of Robert
A. Fulton on August 29. This unit is re-
sponsible for research on liquefied gas and
other aerosols, as well as for testing respir-
atory devices for pesticides. It is the only
laboratory which issues lists of respirators
suitable for pesticides.
AMERICAN UNIVERSITY
Eduard Farber, research professor in
the Department of Chemistry, was awarded
the Dexter Award in the History of Chem-
istry at the American Chemical Society
convention held in early September. This
is one of the important national awards of
ACS.
Leo Schubert has accepted a one-year
appointment to the advisory board of
Chemistry, published by the American
Chemical Society. The term, beginning
January 1, 1965, is Dr. Schubert’s second
appointment. Dr. Schubert has been ad-
vised that the National Science Foundation
has granted American University the sum
of $49,610 for support of the seventh con-
secutive Summer Institute in the History
and Philosophy of Science and Mathe-
matics. Dr. Schubert is director of the
program.
GEORGE WASHINGTON
UNIVERSITY
William F. Sager, professor of chem-
istry, has resigned from the University,
effective at the end of the current semester.
367
to assume the chairmanship of the De-
partment of Chemistry at the new Chicago
campus of the University of Illinois, which
is scheduled to be completed by 1970. The
undergraduate and graduate student body
is expected to reach 20,000 by that date.
HARRIS RESEARCH
LABORATORIES
Arnold Sookne, Norman Hollies,
and John Krasny attended the Fiber So-
ciety meeting in Montreal, October 20-23,
where Dr. Hollies presented a talk, “The
Nature of a Fabric Surface: Interaction of
the Surface Fibers.”
Lyman Fourt attended the ASTM
Committee D-13 meeting in New York,
October 12-15. He presided over Subcom-
mittee B-1 on Chemical and Performance
Tests of Textiles.
Alfred E. Brown attended the recent
19th annual meeting of the Armed Forces
Chemical Association at the Mayflower
Hotel. He spoke on “R & D Preparedness
Through Encouragement of Creativity.”
HOWARD UNIVERSITY
Lloyd N. Ferguson served as a visiting
lecturer for the week of July 6 in the Na-
tional Science Foundation summer insti-
tute for high school teachers of the second
year and advanced placement chemistry,
held at Hope College, Mich.
Moddie D. Taylor is listed as one of
the consulting editors of Introductory
Physical Science, a recent publication of
Educational Services, Inc. Dr. Taylor
served full-time with ESI at Watertown,
Mass., during the past summer.
James W. Wheeler, Jr., has been ap-
pointed assistant professor of chemistry.
He has done postdoctoral research under
Professor Vladimir Prelog at the Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich,
Switzerland, and Professor Jerrold Mein-
_ wald at Cornell University.
368
NATIONAL BUREAU OF
STANDARDS
In recent foreign presentations, D. R.
Boyle presented a paper, “Incremental
Magnetic Tape Data Logger,” at Alder-
maston, England; S. Silverman presented
a talk entitled, “Some Aspects of Federal
Support of Science in the United States,”
before the Canadian Association of Physi-
cists, meeting in Ottawa; and J. C. Smith
addressed the Fiber Society at Montreal
on “The Strain Distribution in a Textile
Yarn Subject to Rifle Bullet Impact.”
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
John C. Ewers, one of the Nation’s
leading ethnologists and historians, has
been appointed director of the new Museum
of History and Technology. Mr. Ewers
began his service with the Smithsonian in
1946, and for the past six years has been
assistant director of the Museum of History
and Technology. He is an authority on
the American Indian and history of the
American West.
WEATHER BUREAU
Milton L. Blane, research climatolo-
logist at Tempe, Ariz., traveled to Italy and
Israel during September. In Italy he
visited the Rome headquarters of FAO
to discuss current studies in northern
Africa on arid zone climatology. In Israel
he conferred with the directors of the
Israel Meteorological Service and the Na-
tional and University Institute of Agricul-
ture, concerning the establishment of a soil
moisture study at the Desert Experimental
Station near Gilat. He also visited other
points of interest in arid zone research
near Gilat, Avdat, and Eilat.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Delegates to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Representing
the Local Affiliated Societies*
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Hnitomolosieal Society Of Washington ...........cc0:0:0c00- coecceeseesaseesessevecsaceccescsssasesecssseseceee Harotp H. SHEPARD
MESON COST AMI! SOCIELY sccecc.c.soclescsscigsiovsasssusesuesacoe-ssvectectsosctscseeraseseecsutesees sodeso ALEXANDER WETMORE
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Miedicalesoctety of the: District Of Columba. o.........00.ccceecses)ecccccscneccsecesesseseseosdececaceecess, THomas M. Brown
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ousted OOCIELY (Ol> WiaSMAM ETON: .....52..s00..cSeseoeueoeeecaesveesesodl svotecchecteatsioséesessesevaseesossseces Witpur D. McCLe.ian
S Ome MMOMMUATMEEICAT —FOTESECES 000.20) ccc4cleccelo.csu..aeseeyauecasJecsasdnenoceeseseerisosvessotsaccaseessleececceces. Harry A. FoweE ts
WS MeTOM SOCIELY Of PMPINEETS: ..........20.0<cccleccecscscsscecsncectescescssesssaccacessvovecvevesestevovesecvesens Martin A. Mason
inictimtenor sb lectrical and Klectromics Emgimeers, .......0.::.--<..0:0s00<.00c00ccdecceeesesaceesecesuseececseees. GreorcE ABRAHAM
American Society of Mechanical Engimeers ......0..........0..:cccccccccsscscescesescesssceseacescescesseces Wittiam G. ALLEN
Helmimthological Society of Washimgten ........0....0..0..ccccccsssssescscecssseoscascesvecsncecsaccesvevescseee, Marion M. Farr
Amenicannsociety for Microbiology ...).........0..c...ccceccccsssessjerssssssesessecnoesseenesacsosessereseecsocasecees FRANK HETTRICK
Socicmmomeamertcam Mibitary FGWOIMECTS .s..0.cs...0..scccsc<de-s-ccscdaceevoteacdocessecesovensSecsuvsteusnsesvyroonseers H. P. Demutu
Amentcanmoociety, of Civil Engineers) ........2.........ss.s..ercessencsersoveeeoedeneetecseeveeesveneeseecees THORNDIKE SAVILLE, JR.
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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics...........0.0.0.000ccccce. ei RO Sen's EuceNE EHRLICH
MMEGICATIMEVICLEOKOLOSICAL SOCIETY .....0.:.5...2..tssnccceececenesstceaecenlecesssonedansentsaessnasasesonens J. Murray MircHeE Lt, Jr.
Mec MICH eMOOCIELY LOW WY ASIIMOEOM 2.c.0:.c..4-1.0scerooadvereseonoeseesecnsveourstosssessaactecvtndenednevenees Delegate not appointed
NG OMGTAC AMS OIE Ol WANIMETA CA: oo. c5 cic. caceni eng. scuashue ete cncvk ivonsensdarsstsoeeacoedeueneddecumuheans Matcotm C. HENDERSON
PAIN IG UMMM NINE CAT BS OCICLY Moroes ce suiss SucscdncnssnrsesErusenrnadsinonenveavssdleabienstanobednedestevauqutensderseudDeostoeesy Georce L. WEIL
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ANIMA EEN CANIN OCEANIC RO OCIOLY bo. esssecececo esse see ssscsdioidisiusesseacvostanensaebapenessddncdsenavsdnuedeuapaeeddedniensgenapvese’ J. J. DrAmonp
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* Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective affiliated societies.
Volume 54: DECEMBER 1964
CONTENTS
No. 9
K. Farber: Theories of Types im the History of Science |... ee 349
M. Rubin: Dating on the Banks of the Potomac ..........0..9) 2 306
Academy Proceedings
December’ Meeting of the Academy. .......:5...402:4..005 4880000 308
Standing Rules of the Board’ of Managers’ (.......0....:2....2. 360
Board ‘of Managers Meeting Notes (October) .............. 364
Science in Washington
Calendar of Events: ..:......00....¢5:c:0 ae a eee 366
Scientists im,the News .0.2....40.00 Se eee 367
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Entomological Axiomatization—From
Abbott’s Formula to Zawarzin’s Network’
William E. Bickley
Department of Entomology, University of Maryland
Axiomatization means establishment or
creation of an axiom. An axiom is defined
as an established principle in some art or
science, which, though not a necessary
truth, is universally received. There are at
least 12 synonyms for axiom, viz: adage,
aphorism, apothegm, dictum, epigram,
maxim, motto, precept, principle, proverb,
rule, and saying.
I contend that sometimes the expression
of an idea may transcend the idea itself.
The manner in which the fact is stated may
be a most valuable contribution to science
—even a more valuable contribution than
the actual discovery of the fact.
There is the well-known story of a young
lady who became thoroughly disenchanted
with Shakespeare when she saw a live pro-
duction of “Hamlet” for the first time. She
said that there was really nothing to “Ham-
let.” It was just a lot of quotations.
I invite you now to consider a number
of quotations. Not all of them are purely
entomological, but each one of them can
certainly be used by entomologists in some
way.
Here is Abbott’s Formula:
34 —
Z < 100 = percent control
Where x = percent living in check
y = percent living in treated plot
This formula was set forth by W. S.
Abbott (1925) and has been widely used
to compute “percent control,” taking into
consideration mortality in the check plot
* Condensation and modification of the address
of the retiring president, Entomological Society
of Washington, presented February 6, 1964. Mis-
cellaneous Article No. 525, Contribution No. 3599
of the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station.
JANUARY, 1965
or untreated group of insects. It is a means
of ascertaining the proportion of insects
actually affected by a treatment without re-
gard to deaths in the check (untreated)
group which cannot be explained. For ex-
ample, if 40 percent of a group of insects
survive a treatment and all untreated in-
sects survive, 60 percent control would
result:
100 — 40
100
But if there were a mortality of 20 percent
in the check, only 50 percent control could
be claimed:
80 — 40
80
Next I give you Abelson’s Apothegm.
< 100 = 60 percent (control)
< 100 = 50 percent
A man of any stature, according to the current
vogue, must have at least one nonprofessional
assistant and, if he is a person of real conse-
quence, a battery of assorted flunkeys.
Philip H. Abelson, the distinguished edi-
tor of Science and a past president of the
Washington Academy of Sciences, in one of
his penetrating editorials argues that those
who are doing fundamental research, if
they are not old-fashioned, must spend a
disproportionate amount of their time serv-
ing as straw bosses directing the work of
their flunkeys, with the result that they
exist in a sterile atmosphere. Without the
nonprofessional aides the environment is
intellectually stimulating and more condu-
cive to creativity.
The next author is Anonymous.
Question: Are you working on the solution—or
are you part of the problem?
Answer: Perversity is the mother of strife.
For your delectation | now present my
definition of education.
SMITHSONIAN JAN 22 1969
(NSTITUTION
Education is training the mind and the will and
the body to do the thing that has to be done
whether you want to do it or not.
This has been referred to as regressive edu-
cation.
We come now to Carey’s Law.
Scientists can bring pressure on their political
representatives in their behalf.
This law was proposed by Jerome B. Wies-
ner. W. B. Carey is a high official in the
Budget Bureau.
Being a frustrated taxonomist, I am
doing things systematically, and you may
have noticed that [ am working my way
down the alphabet. We are still in the C’s.
Rachel Carson, who was a pro with prose,
was quoted by the Baltimore Sun as fol-
lows:
My vocation and my ayocation coincide.
I have termed this little gem “Carson’s
Precept.” Margaret Mead expressed the
same idea in a Washington Post interview
—Mead’s Maxim:
Luckily I do not distinguish between work and
pleasure, and I seldom have to do anything I
don’t want to do.
We come now to something a little more
germane, Dyar’s Law:
An observational rule which shows that among
lepidopterous larvae the increase in the width of
the head shows a regular geometrical progression
in successive instars.
Dyar (1890) gave measurements of the
width of the head of the different instars
of 28 species. The number of stages varied
from four through 10. Dyar’s Law has
been used to calculate the total number of
instars as well as to identify various in-
stars by comparison of measurements.
A. B. Gahan (1923), in his address as
retiring president of the Entomological
Society of Washington, discussed problems
of taxonomists. Forty-one years later, taxo-
nomists are confronted with the same prob-
lems, the major one being a burden of
routine identification which reduces the
time available for research. One of Gahan’s
statements has often been quoted and used
by taxonomists to console each other:
Objects without names cannot well be talked
of or written about; without descriptions they
cannot be identified, and such knowledge as may
have accumulated regarding them is sealed; un-
classified their relationships are unknown and the
possibilities of deduction are destroyed.
Let us examine next Gause’s Competi-
tive Exclusion Principle (1934), also re-
ferred to as Gause’s Contention or Gause’s
Hypothesis.
Two species with similar ecology cannot live
together in the same place.
or
Complete competitors cannot coexist.
or
Ecological differentiation is the necessary con-
dition for coexistence. .
This was_ recently discussed by Garrett
Hardin (1960), who reported that Gause
did not actually set forth the idea, but
that the ornithologist Lock, in his book
“Darwin’s Finches,” made the proposal.
Hardin said that the “principle” is ad-
mittedly unclear and that it can be proved
only by theory. To prove it empirically
one would have to be certain that two
sympatric, non-interbreeding populations
were present in the same niche. This is.an
impossibility. When species A multiplies a
little faster than species B, then B will be
displaced.
Graham’s Law of Natural Compensa-
tions (1956) is a sort of corollary of the
Competitive Exclusion Principle.
If any species . . . tends to dominate the lo-
cality in which it lives . . . environmental forces
will ultimately reduce it to a lower position . . .
Compensating forces tend to keep each species in
its appropriate proportion to others.
It seems to me that here we have a state-
ment that is very difficult to analyze. I
call your attention to the word appropriate.
Do the ecologists feel qualified to decide
just what is the appropriate proportion for
each species? Graham describes cases in
which insects have reduced populations of
trees to a more appropriate position relative
to associated species. It would appear that
the insects are helping the ecologists in
their decision-making. At any rate, we
must agree with Graham that complexity
contributes to stability.
One of the best examples of entomologi-
yy JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
cal axiomatization is Hopkins’ Bioclimatic
Law (1919):
Other conditions being equal, the variation in
time of occurrence of a given periodic event in
life activity in temperate North America is at
the general average rate of 4 days to each degree
of latitude, 5 degrees longitude, and 400 feet
altitude; later northward, eastward, and upward
in spring and the reverse in autumn.
This is familiar to most entomologists, and
we can be proud that an entomologist has
been credited by other biologists with pro-
viding us with a useful axiom. Students
frequently have difficulty in understanding
the reasons why 5 degrees longitude east-
ward has an effect on bark beetles and other
forms of life. This is explained by the
Japan current.
Another significant statement by Hop-
kins was the Host Selection Principle
(Craighead, 1921):
The female of an insect breeding on two or
more hosts will prefer to lay eggs on the host on
which such female was reared.
Here we are dealing with behavior pat-
terns. There are many opportunities in re-
search on host selection activities of insects
and the applicability of Hopkins’ Host Se-
lection Principle.
Huff’s Classification of Arthropod Trans-
mission (1931) is a most convenient dic-
tum, especially for teachers of medical en-
tomology and parasitology:
1. Cyclopropagative
2. Cyclodevelopmental
3. Propagative
4. Mechanical
I am sure that one of the most overworked
examination questions is one calling for
illustrations or examples of the different
types of transmission. Heredity transmis-
sion ought to be included.
The Lincoln Index can be stated as fol-
lows:
Mark: Release: Recapture
Marked spms in sample Total marked spms
Unmarked spms in sample Total spms in area
E.g.: 500 marked flies are released; 10 percent
of those captured later are marked; then the total
number of flies is 5,000.
The Lincoln Index was discovered inde-
pendently by F. C. Lincoln (1930), who
JANUARY, 1965
was studying ducks in North America, and
by C. H. N. Jackson (1933), who was
studying tsetse flies in Africa. Buxton
(1955) has commented that there is an
advantage in working on tsetse; one may
recover a marked fly, give it a second
mark, release it, and perhaps capture it
again. Any information about the recovery
of ducks comes from those which are
shot.
The mark-release-recapture technique
does furnish an index of the absolute popu-
lation. This has had far-reaching effects
on ecologists and others concerned with
population density. It has been used ef-
fectively in studies of migrations of insects
and in evaluating control measures.
Incidentally, ecology has been defined
as that phase of biology primarily aban-
doned to terminology.
Here is Nuttal and Shipley’s Epigram:
The salivary duct of Anopheles has played a
large part in human history, for along it has
passed the cause of disease and death that has
ruined cities, devastated countries, con-
quered armies, and brought about the downfall
of nations.
This dramatic statement was quoted by
Snodgrass (1944) in a paper on the feed-
ing apparatus of biting and sucking insects
affecting man and animals. Next we have
one of the witticisms of our late honorary
president from the same paper:
The bed bug appears to be specially adapted by
its flat form for getting into the crevices of beds,
but of course it existed long before beds were
invented, and it might as well be said that beds
were made to accommodate the bugs.
This always gives a teacher a chance to ask
students if they have ever heard of Darwin.
And what is Lamarckianism?
Leaving entomology momentarily, I pre-
sent Parkinson’s Law (1957) to make us
all feel glad that we are entomologists and
not social scientists.
Work expands so as to fill the time available
for its completion.
The thing to be done swells in importance and
complexity in a direct ratio with the time to be
spent.
The number of the officials and the quantity of
the work are not related to each other at all.
Roubaud proposed a number of descrip-
tive terms. One that is frequently attributed
to him is “anophelism. without malaria.”
Roubaud’s Theory of Anopheline Zootropy
(1920) is briefly as follows:
In northern Europe there is a biological race
of Anopheles maculipennis which prefers cattle
and other domestic animals rather than man.
He deserves much credit for suggesting the
idea of biological differentiation among
populations of malaria mosquitoes in Eu-
rope. Wesenberg-Lund (1921) proposed
the Stabular Deviation Theory concern-
ing Anopheles maculipennis populations in
Denmark:
A change in agricultural practices in Denmark
led to the construction of cow stables and pig-
sties which provided attractive resting places for
malaria mosquitoes. The mosquitoes became
stable-haunting rather than house-haunting, and
the transmission cycle was broken.
A good many years later the maculi-
pennis complex became thoroughly under-
stood. My point is that the forthright pres-
entation of these ideas and perhaps the
labeling of the ideas as theories was an
important step in bringing about the solu-
tion of a problem.
My last example of an entomological
axiom is Uvarov’s Phase Theory.
Phases are temporary conditions of a_poly-
morphic species. The swarming and _ solitary
phases can be characterized, but there are inter-
mediate forms. The swarming or migratory
phase develops in response to crowding.
Uvarov (1928) further stated:
The problem of the causes which induce hop-
pers of gregarious species to undertake mass
wanderings has been much more discussed in the
literature than it has been actually studied.
Uvarov himself studied and discussed ex-
tensively. He has said:
Simple observations reveal that to explain the
migrations on the basis of hunger is absurd
. Acrididae react to a rise in temperature
by making movements. And there is a mutua!
excitation . . . Dark pigmentation causes an in-
crease in absorption of heat rays . . . The swarm-
ing phase develops as a result of crowding of a
large number of individuals in a limited space.
This follows favorable breeding conditions.
It is possible that the appearance of the
black pigment may be due to movement;
the pigment may be an oxidation product.
The black color increases susceptibility to
temperature, and this results in more move-
ment. As emigrating swarms reach new
places the populations are reduced by
parasites and predators. Evolution into the
solitary phase proceeds rapidly.
This brings us to Zarwarzin’s Network
(1912). Zawarzin’s Network consists of
large and small nerve branches distributed
over the entire inner surface of the insect
body wall. This of course has nothing to
do with axioms or axiomatization, but it
makes it possible for me to go from A to
Z. Zawarzin was a German who traced out
the fine sensory nerves in the larva of
Melolontha. He demonstrated great pa-
tience, such as that demonstrated by read-
ers of this article.
Literature Cited
Abbott, W. S. A method of computing the
effectiveness of an insecticide. J. Econ. Ent. 18,
265-267 (1925).
Buxton, P. A. The natural history of tsetse
flies. London School of Hyg. and Trop. Med.
Mem. J0, 1-816 (1955).
Craighead, F. C. Hopkins’ host-selection prin-
ciple as related to certain cerambycid beetles.
J. Agric. Res. 30, 541-555 (1921).
Dyar, H. G. The number of molts of lepidop-
terous larvae. Psyche 5, 420-422 (1890).
Gahan, A. B. The role of the taxonomist in
present day entomology. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash.
25, 68-78 (1923).
Gause, G. F. The struggle for existence. Bal-
timore: Williams and Wilkins, pp. 1-163 (1934).
Graham, S. L. Forest insects and the law of
natural compensations. Canad. Ent. 78. 45-55
(1956).
Hardin, Garrett. The competitive exclusion
principle. Science 131, 1292-1297 (1960).
Hopkins, A. D. The bioclimatic law as ap-
plied to entomological research and farm prac-
tice. Sci. Monthly, 496-513 (1919).
Huff, C. G. A proposed classification of dis-
ease transmission by arthropods. Science 74,
456-457 (1931).
Jackson, C. H. N. On the true density of
tsetse . flies. J. Animal Ecology 2, 204-209
(1933) (Original not seen).
Lincoln, F. C. Calculating wildfowl abundance
on the bases of banding returns. U. S. Dept.
Agric. Cire. 118 (1930) (Original not seen).
Parkinson, C. N. Parkinson’s Jaw and other
4, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
studies in administration. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, pp. 1-112 (1957).
Roubaud, E. Les conditions de nutrition des
Anopheles en France et le rule de betail dans la
prophylaxie du poludisme. Ann. Inst. Pasteur
34, 181-228 (1920).
Snodgrass, R. E. The feeding apparatus of
biting and sucking insects affecting man and ani-
mals. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 104 (7), 1-115
(1944).
Uvarov, B. P. Locusts and grasshoppers. Lon-
don: Imperial Bureau of Entomology, pp. 1-352
(1928).
Wesenberg-Lund, C. Contribution to the bi-
ology of the Danish Culicidae. Mem. Acad. Roy.
Sci. and Letters (Copenhagen), Sec. Sci. 8th
Ser. 7(1), 1-210 (1921) (Original not seen).
Zawarzin, A. Uber das sensible Nervensystem
der Larven von Melolontha vulgaris. Zeit. Wiss.
Zool. 100, 447-458 (1912).
A Unique Year in Baghdad
Daniel B. Lloyd
Professor of Mathematics, D. C. Teachers College
During the academic year 1962-63 the
author had the unusual experience of teach-
ing mathematics at the Al-Hikma Univer-
sity in Baghdad, as one of three fahrende
Scholaren under the exchange program of
the Department of State. The observations
described herein were made during his vis-
its en route and during this round-the-world
journey. If mathematics were conceived
of as a “mountain,” the author’s contribu-
tion in teaching the young Arabs might
be considered a modern (and modest) ful-
fillment of that ancient directive of “carry-
ing the mountain to Mohammed.” In view
of the scientific and mathematical gifts
from. this area from primeval history, it
may well be claimed that such tardy re-
payment after 6,000 years is somewhat
overdue.
Having taught the history of mathema-
tics in this country for many years, one
of the author’s intentions in traveling to
the Middle East was to visit personally
some of the sites where archaeological
field work is currently being pursued. The
Mediterranean route traveled on the way
to Baghdad also provided an opportunity
to stop at the Universities of Paris, Bou-
logne, Pisa, Geneva, Milan, Rome, and
Florence, the latter the site of the famous
Museo di Storia Della Scienza, directed by
Curator Dottissa Maria Luisa Bonelli.
Other stopovers included the University of
JANUARY, 1965
Athens, University of Ankara, and the
American University at Beirut, the latter
probably the best school of the history of
mathematics outside of the United States.
It is directed by Professor E. S. Kennedy.
Once settled in Baghdad for the aca-
demic year, it became feasible to visit a
number of famous sites where diggings
were currently in progress. A British party
was working at Nimrud in northern Iraq; an
American party at Nippur, some 100 miles
southeast of Baghdad; and a German party
at Babylon 70 miles south. The numerous
Moslem holidays to which one falls heir
over there permitted frequent visits to these
archaeological sites. “Telling” trips of a
day or so to some of the tells allowed
amateurs to become unofficial participants
in the diggings and informal collectors of
many ancient though useless fragments—
items more interesting than valuable.
At Nippur, center of Sumerian culture
3,000 years ago, one can stand on the
ruins of 22 successive civiliations that have
risen and fallen upon that very spot. The
many strata which have been excavated
bear mute evidence of the societies that
prospered and crumbled amidst the onrush
of the intervening years, centuries and mil-
lenia.
The scientist’s interest in Baghdad is
further heightened by a visit to the Museum
of Antiquities. This is now being moved to
a new plant across the Tigris in the out-
lying Mansour section of the city. In the
past, a succession of able archaeologists
have directed this institution, the present
incumbent being Dr. Taha Bakir. Follow-
ing the Iragi revolution in February 1963,
Bakir was suspended and put under arrest
for investigation. This is in line with
Iraqi custom—just a routine check, noth-
ing personal! Possible Communist con-
nections were to be investigated and it was
expected that he would be reinstated in due
time. He is an able Sumerologist of long
experience and considerable training and
ability. It may be recalled that Dr. Ger-
trude Bell, a visiting English scientist, was
a former prominent director of the work
there and is credited with much of the early
scientific success of the Department of
Antiquities.
Some 30,000 tablets have been found and
examined in Mesopotamia (land between
the rivers) in the last 30 years. They
have revealed the remarkable variety of
craftsmanship and scientific knowledge in
the civilizations of Sumerians, Babyloni-
ans, and their successors some 2,000 years
before the Christian era. The reader can
consult the scientific magazine Sumer for
primary sources of this information. Part
of this journal is written in English and
part in Arabic.
A few of these tablets have been help-
ful in tracing the earliest history of scien-
tific endeavor. For instance, in 1958 a
tablet was found at Tel Harmal, five miles
east of Baghdad, which portrayed a prob-
lern in Euclidean geometry using principles
of similar right triangles. As recently as
1962 a tablet was found at Tel D’hibayi
near Baghdad showing an unusual prob-
lem relating the diagonal of-a rectangle to
its area. Within the last 20 years it has
been learned that these primeval peoples,
as early as 2000 B.C., had knowledge of
the famous right-triangle theorem which
has been erroneously credited to Pythag-
~ oras who lived 1500 years later.
In spite of an increasing emphasis on
“nationalism” among many of the emerg-
ing nations of Africa, the Middle East,
and the Far East, the traditional imprint
of western patterns of education is still
widely evident. In the universities at Bagh-
dad, Istanbul, Ankara, Beirut, and else-
where throughout Africa and Southern
Asia, class-room instruction is in English.
Exceptions are Teheran University, where
Farsi, the national Pakistan tongue, is
used; in Cairo, where Arabic is used in
the first two undergraduate years only:
and in various smaller institutions where
the enrollment is mainly intra-national.
Whereas English is now recognized as a
“second language” in most of these emerg-
ing countries, the time may soon come
when their own native tongue will be their
“only language.” Such is the decision of
India, beginning in 1975, and other coun-
tries are likely to follow suit.
For the Bachelor of Science degree in
science, 90 to 100 semester hours are
commonly required in pure and applied
sciences. The areas covered are similar to
those of the English universities and are
somewhat traditional. The Master’s de-
gree may require 20 additional hours plus
a thesis, as, for example, in the universities
at Baghdad and Teheran. One foreign
language is required, usually not Russian.
Much reference material from Russian
sources is available but generally in Eng-
lish translations only. The textbooks are
usually those used in British universities
or other Western institutions. Typical
of Asian universities (Calcutta, Rangoon,
Delhi, Lahore) is the requirement of four-
hour final examinations in the major
branches of science for the Master of Sci-
ence degree.
Many of the best staff members have had
training in Western universities in Eng-
land, or on the Continent, or occasionally
in the United States. A typical professor
would be pursuing research and would
teach only six hours; a reader would teach
9 to 12 hours, and a lecturer 12 to 15
hours. A university might have only one
6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
or two professors on its staff in each
branch of science.
Admission of students to college is
highly selective, with a rigid entrance ex-
amination including mathematics and sci-
ence. Less than one-fourth of those apply-
ing are accepted. There is some variation
among institutions, each reflecting the
predilections of the local staff, as is true
elsewhere.
When one recalls that mathematics and
science claim these lands as their birth-
place, and grew and prospered for thous-
ands of years while Western man was still
roaming the forests and fields, there is little
wonder that the modern descendants of the
Babylonian, Hindoo, and Egyptian pioneers
are presently striving with determination
to maintain and advance the achievements
of their famous forebears.
D.C. Chapter of Sigma Xi
Marks 50th Anniversary
The District of Columbia chapter of the within the Society to extinguish the sole
Society of the Sigma Xi recognized its 50th
anniversary with a special meeting held at
the Freer Gallery auditorium of the Smith-
sonian Institution on Monday evening,
October 26. The meeting was opened by
the chapter president, Harriet Frush of the
National Bureau of Standards. Wallace R.
Brode, member of the chapter and past
president of the national society, discussed
briefly the historical background of the
District of Columbia chapter and _ recent
changes in the society which have con-
firmed the judgment made 50 years ago in
the creation of this chapter.
The District of Columbia chapter is the
only one which is not directly associated
with an academic, degree-granting institu-
tion. When the chapter was founded in
1914, graduate research at nearby academic
institutions had not reached the level that
Sigma Xi usually requires for chapter
status, whereas the research work of Gov-
ernment agencies such as the Smithsonian
Institution, the Geological Survey, the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards, the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and others was of a
recognized academic quality. The creation
of a chapter without an academic sponsor
was not easily effected. Over the past 50
years, there have been repeated efforts
JANUARY, 1965
example of this type of chapter. Much of
the success of the District of Columbia
chapter and its resistance to attack has been
due to its recognition of a special situa-
tion and the fact that it has not abused its
special privilege. Its elections to member-
ship have been limited to three or four a
year, and each person elected has been
carefully chosen for outstanding scientific
achievement. Within the Government and
research institutions in Washington there
are always distinguished contributors to
scientific knowledge who, because of for-
eign education, graduation from schools
without Sigma Xi chapters, or other good
reasons have not been elected to Sigma Xi.
It is from this group that the District of
Columbia chapter elects its members.
In recent years, members of Sigma Xi
have shown an increasing interest in the
welfare of science and a need to keep in
touch with new developments. The national
society has met this need in several ways.
In an annual lecture series, each of eight
distinguished scientists gives about 20
broad scientific lectures to Sigma Xi and
RESA groups in one of eight geographical
regions. The establishment and conduct
of the Grants-in-Aid of Research program.
in which nearly $100,000 is awarded an-
nually in small grants averaging about
$200, has captured the interest of many
alumni. The RESA organization (Scien-
tific Research Society of America), created
in 1947, has also attracted and held the
interest of Sigma Xi members in industry
and research. The official magazine of the
Society, American Scientist, is sent to all
members in good standing. This journal is
recognized as one of the nation’s leading
platforms for the presentation of major
reviews of new developments in science.
All of these activities have promoted the
interest of members-at-large who were not
associated with an active chapter. Effective
this year, there has been initiated a chap-
ter-at-large concept, to do for those out-
side the academic area (and outside the
District of Columbia) that which the Dis-
trict of Columbia chapter has been doing
for scientists within the District. This
move by the national society to establish
a chapter-at-large essentially confirms the
good judgment of the executive committee
and the founding group at the time the
District of Columbia charter was granted
90 years ago.
Among those present at the 50th anni-
versary celebration was C. G. Abbot,
emeritus secretary of the Smithsonian In-
stitution and one of the first three persons
to be initiated by the District of Columbia
chapter.
The speaker of the evening was the newly
appointed secretary of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, S. Dillon Ripley II, whose address
marked his first appearance before a Wash-
ington scientific group since he assumed
his new duties at the Smithsonian. He
was introduced by John A. Pope, director
of the Freer Gallery and a distinguished
Sinologist.
Dr. Ripley noted that “one of the charter
members of the District of Columbia chap-
ter was Edmund Heller, a naturalist and
explorer who accompanied President Theo-
dore Roosevelt in 1909 on his expedition
ea)
~~
for the Smithsonian to study and collect
mammals in East Africa, the expedition
which evoked that succinct and descriptive
phrase from the former president as he
took the train from Mombasa to Nairobi
riding on the cow-catcher of the engine,
‘on a railroad through the Pleistocene Age.’
Fifty years later, scientists concerned with
the great animals of our planet are highly
pessimistic about the unique Pleistocene
fauna of Africa, much of it reduced to
remnants in a semi-zoo status.”
In his presentation, Dr. Ripley men-
tioned that an organizing committee for
the District of Columbia chapter in 1914
included ten government scientists and
Professor Marcus Lyon of George Wash-
ington University. Among this group, sci-
entists from the Smithsonian Institutior
played a prominent role, particularly Mar-
cus Benjamin. The first officers of the
chapter and their scientific institutions
were: Dr. Benjamin, president (U.S. Na-
tional Museum of the Smithsonian), Isaac
K. Phelps, vice president (Bureau of
Chemistry), Marcus W. Lyon, secretary
(George Washington University), and
Daniel R. Harper, treasurer (Bureau of
Standards).
Much of Dr. Ripley’s address dealt with
the role of the Smithsonian Institution in
the nation’s efforts to record and promote
the advancement of science. Because of its
broad interest and close ties with the So-
ciety of the Sigma Xi, his talk is being
printed in the current (Spring 1965) issue
of the American Scientist.
Following the paper by Dr. Ripley, there
was a social hour which included refresh-
ments and a special tour of the Freer Gal-
lery for chapter members and their guests.
It was most fitting that the Smithsonian
Institution should be host on this occasion
in view of the leading role which Smith-
sonian Institution members played in the
founding of the chapter and its mainte-
nance over the first 50 years.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Academy Proceedings
485th Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences
SPEAKER: REV. WILLIAM A. WALLACE, O.P.
Catholic University of America
SUBJECT: SOME MORAL AND RELIGIOUS IMPLICA-
TIONS OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
TIME: THURSDAY, JANUARY 21, 1965
6215.2 MM:
PLACE: JOHN WESLEY POWELL AUDITORIUM,
COSMOS CLUB
2170 Florida Avenue, N. W.
Abstract of Address—An interdisciplinary conference on radiation and social ethics,
held at the University of Chicago in 1963, was atiended by some 20 scientists and
theologians from different parts of the world. The scientists represented chiefly the
fields of radiation and nuclear medicine, the theologians the major Judaeo-Christian
religions. A marked divergence of opinion developed among the participating theologians
as to the morality of further developments in nuclear technology. An attempt is made in
the talk (1) to analyze the reasons for this divergence, (2) to propose a solution that
may justify the continued expansion of nuclear industry in accordance with accepted
principles of morality and religion, and (3) to make a further proposal concerning the
way in which ‘science and religion may be led into closer cooperation as a result of de-
velopments in technology, particularly cybernetics and nuclear energy.
The Speaker—Born in New York City, Father Wallace received the B.E.E. degree at
Manhattan College in 1940, and the M.Sc. degree in physics at Catholic University in
1952. He was awarded the S.T.L. and S.T.Lr. degrees in 1954 by the Dominican House
of Studies, Washington, D.C., and earned the Ph.D. degree in 1959 and S.T.D. in 1961
at the University of Fribourg, Switzerland.
A naval officer in the Pacific during World War II, Father Wallace became interested
in the priesthood through contact with Father Walter Farrell, O.P., while aboard the
USS Yorktown. Stationed later on Tinian with the aircraft that dropped the first atom
bombs, he became convinced that science and technology alone were powerless to solve
the problems of man in the 20th century. Since ordination he has continued his interest
in philosophical and theological problems of the atomic age. His specialties are science
in the Middle Ages and Thomism as related to modern science.
Father Wallace has taught at the Dominican House of Philosophy, Springfield, Ky..
1954-1956; the Dominican House of Philosophy, Dover, Mass.. 1959-1962: Catholic
University of America, 1963 to date; and at various summer institutes at St. Xavier
College, Chicago; American University; Catholic University; and Asheville, N.C. He has
lectured extensively on the philosophy of science and on science and religion at many
leading universities and colleges.
His publications include The Scientific Methodology of Theodoric of Freiberg; The
Role of Demonstration in Moral Theology; Einstein, Galileo, and Aquinas; From Phys-
ics to God (in preparation) ; articles in The Thomist, New Scholasticism, Homiletic and
Pastoral Review, America; staff editor (philosophy), The New Catholic Encyclopedia,
1962 to date; associate editor, The Thomist, 1962 to date.
January, 1965 9
Father Wallace is also a member of Sigma Xi, History of Science Society, Philos-
ophy of Science Association, American Catholic Philosophical Association (Executive
Council, 1962-1964), Washington Colloquium on Science and Society (Executive Com-
mittee), and Albertus Magnus Lyceum.
COLLEGIATE SCIENCE
CONFERENCE SCHEDULED
The Joint Board on Science Education
will sponsor a collegiate science conference
on March 6 at Trinity College. Like the
first collegiate scientific conference held in
May 1964, the second conference will re-
ceive the support of the National Science
Foundation. The program will consist of
papers by undergraduate students describ-
ing research they have performed. The
areas to which the conference will be de-
voted include astronomy, biological sci-
ences, chemistry, engineering, physics, and
psychology. Further information can be
obtained from Leopold May of the De-
partment of Chemistry, Catholic Univer-
sity, Washington, D. C. 20017.
The proceedings of the first conference
have been published, and copies are obtain-
able from the Academy office. The booklet
contains abstracts of 27 papers presented
by youthful scientists from local universi-
ties.
ACADEMY ANNOUNCES
AWARD WINNERS
Recipients of the 1964 Awards for Scien-
tific Achievement, sponsored annually by
the Academy, have been announced. They
are as follows:
Biological Sciences: Bruce N. Ames, Na-
tional Institutes of Health, “for outstand-
ing contributions to molecular genetics.”
Engineering Sciences: Thorndike Saville,
Jr., Army Coastal Engineering Research
Center, “for research in coastal engineer-
ing, particularly studies of wave run-up
and overtopping.”
Physical Sciences: James W. Butler,
Naval Research Laboratory, “for contribu-
tions to our knowledge of energy levels
and properties of atomic nuclei.”
Mathematics: David W. Fox, Johns Hop-
kins University Applied Physics Labora-
tory, “for research in estimating lower
bounds to eigenvalues and related studies.”
Teaching of Science: A joint award will
be made, to Donald F. Brandewie, Swan-
son Junior High School of Arlington, Va.,
“for generating contagious enthusiasm for
science through inspirational teaching,”
and to Herman R. Branson, Department of
Physics, Howard University, “for contribu-
tion to science education and an outstand-
ing role as physics teacher.”
The selections were made by the Acad-
emy s Committee on Awards for Scientific
Achievement and were approved by the
Board of Managers on December 17. The
awards will be presented at the meeting of
the Academy to be held on January 21.
ELECTIONS TO FELLOWSHIP
The following persons were elected to
fellowship in the Academy at the Board
of Managers meeting on December 17:
STEPHEN D. BRUCK, senior scientist,
Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics
Laboratory, “in recognition of his contri-
butions to the field of chemical cross-link-
ing of synthetic fibers, his invention of the
chemical crimping of nylon-6 fibers, and
his development of polyoxamidation cata-
lysts.” (Sponsors: F. T. McClure, M. E.
Berl, L. Monchick, J. C. Smith.)
FRANCIS B. GORDON, director, De-
partment of Microbiology, Naval Medical
Research Institute, “in recognition of his
contributions to microbiology and in par-
ticular (1) his researches on neurotrophic
viruses and on drug susceptibilities of the
10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
trachoma agent and related microorgan-
isms, and (2) his 22 years of editorial
service for microbiological publications.”
(Sponsors: M. L. Robbins, B. E. Eddy,
fey Cs Parlett:)
RUDOLPH HUGH, associate professor
of microbiology, George Washington Uni-
versity School of Medicine, “in recognition
of his contributions to microbiology, in
particular his studies of bacterial taxon-
omy with special emphasis on the Pseu-
domonadales.” (Sponsors: M. L. Robbins,
R. C. Parlett, C. R. Treadwell. )
HERMAN A..RODENHISER, deputy
administrator, Agricultural Research Serv-
ice, Department of Agriculture, “in recog-
nition of his contributions to an under-
standing of diseases in cereal crops and
the control of such diseases through the
development of resistant varieties of crops,
and of his effective administration of agri-
cultural research.” (Sponsors: R. B.
Stevens, S. B. Detwiler, Jr., H. L. Haller.)
WILLIAM L. SULZBACHER, chief,
Meat Laboratory, Agricultural Research
Service, “in recognition of his furtherance
of agriculture through the application of
scientific principles to the improvement of
meat processing and technology, and his
research in the microbiology of meat and
meat products.” (Sponsors: G. W. Irving,
Jr., H. Reynolds, M. L. Robbins. )
ELECTIONS TO MEMBERSHIP
The following persons were elected to
membership in the Academy by action of
the Committee on Membership at its meet-
ing on November 24:
WILLIAM E. BRADLEY, assistant vice
president, Institute for Defense Analyses.
STEPHEN S. DAVIS, dean, School of
Engineering and Architecture, and profes-
sor of mechanical engineering, Howard
University.
JOHN E. duPONT, director, Delaware
Museum of Natural History, Newtown
Square, Pa.
EMIL E. FOWLER, acting director, Di-
vision of Isotope Development, Atomic
Energy Commission.
January, 1965
MARSHALL C. HARRINGTON, physi-
cist, Air Force Office of Scientific Research.
DAGMAR HENNEY, instructor in
mathematics, University of Maryland.
GEORGE M. KOEHL, professor of
physics and associate dean, Columbian
College, George Washington University.
DANIEL 6B. LLOYD, professor of
mathematics and director of in-service
teaching, D.C. Teachers College.
J. DAVID LOCKARD, associate profes-
sor of botany and science education, Uni-
versity of Maryland.
URA M. MEANS, soil bacteriologist,
Department of Agriculture.
JOHN D. MORTON, senior scientist,
Melpar, Inc.
CMDR. BOBBY L. POTTS, weapons
analyst, Department of the Navy.
LUIS A. VEGUILLA-BERDECIA, assist-
ant professor of chemistry, American Uni-
versity.
TRANSFERS TO EMERITUS
W. G. Brombacher
R. A. Fulton
L. C. Graton
G. F. Gravatt
A. L. Shalowitz
H. R. Snoke
E. C. Stakman
Olga Taussky
W. G. Workman
RESIGNATIONS
R. J. Barker
Julian Eisenstein
Alice C. Evans
Sidney Geltman
George Hottle
T. J. Killian
Ce hapa
H. M. O’Bryan
Page Truesdell
DIRECTORY CORRECTION
On page 216, Andrew R. Chi should be
coded 1XNAS instead of O9CLUN, with
affiliations 2B and 2N.
1}
BOARD OF MANAGERS
MEETING NOTES
November Meeting
The Board of Managers held its 567th
meeting on November 19 at the Cosmos
Club, with President Frenkiel presiding.
The minutes of the 566th meeting were
approved as previously distributed.
Announcements. Secretary Irving an-
nounced the following nominees for
office in 1965: John K. Taylor for presi-
dent-elect; Alphonse F. Forziati for secre-
tary; Roman R. Miller for treasurer; and
Malcolm C. Henderson, George W. Irving,
Jr., W. D. McClellan, and Harold H. Shep-
ard for managers (two to be elected for
full 3-year terms and one to fill the remain-
ing year of Dr. Taylor’s term).
Treasurer. Treasurer Henderson re-
ported that the Academy is operating in
the black, and that H. Cecil Spicer and
L. C. Graton have been granted emeritus
status.
Executive Committee. President Fren-
kiel reported that the Executive Committee
took the following actions at its No-
vember 17 meeting: (1) Reviewed and ap-
proved the nominations for officers, 1965;
(2) reviewed and approved the suggestion
of the Philosophical Society that the Acad-
emy sponsor the annual Christman lectures
beginning in 1965. A standing committee
will be established to plan and execute this
annual affair.
Policy Planning. In the absence of
Chairman Van Evera, Dr. Frenkiel an-
nounced that the applications for afhliation
of the Washington History of Science Club
and the Chesapeake Section of the Ameri-
can Association of Physics Teachers with
the Academy will be presented to the mem-
bership on the December ballot. He also
announced that an inquiry about afhlia-
tion had been received from the National
Capital Section of the Optical Society of
America and referred to the Committee for
~ recommendation to the Board.
Meetings. Chairman Steinhardt an-
nounced the following plans: January, an-
nual awards dinner; Father William Wal-
lace, Catholic University, will speak.
February, address of the retiring presi-
dent. March, unscheduled. April, Conver-
sazione headed by Wallace Brode on the
subject, “What is a Scientist?” May. Henry
Fagin, Department of Urban and Regional
Planning, University of Wisconsin, “Prob-
lems of Mass Transportation.”
Awards for Scientific Achievement.
Chairman Mason gave a preliminary re-
port on the selections of the Committee to
date, as follows: Engineering, Thorndike
Saville; Teaching of science (high school),
Don F. Brandewie, Swanson Junior High
School, Arlington; Teaching of science
(college), Herman R. Branson, Howard
University; Mathematics, David Fox, Ap-
plied Physics Laboratory.
Grants-in-Aid. Chairman McPherson
and Committee member Don R. Boyle
again presented the request for grant by
Clayton Curtis, Jr., tabled at the last
Board meeting. About $3,000 including a
$200 grant from the Academy and parts
given by industry, has been invested so
far in Mr. Curtis’s computer project, and
a smal] additional fund is needed to com-
plete it. The Committee recommended that
the Academy make the grant, and the
Board voted an additional grant of $75.00,
provided the Committee is assured that
the equipment will be used in an appro-
priate and responsible way when the proj-
ect is completed.
Membership Promotion. Chairman
Mitchell reported formation of his com-
mittee. It will meet soon to develop a
plan of operation and to consider such
possibilities as letters to prominent scien-
tists, an information “kit,” and an appro-
priate Journal insert.
Editor. In the absence of Editor Det-
wiler, the Secretary reported that the No-
vember issue of the Journal was mailed on
November 12, and copy for the December
issue had been sent to the printer. Both
issues will be small.
Archivist. President Frenkiel introduced
12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Eduard Farber,
Archivist.
the newly appointed
December Meeting
The Board of Managers held its 568th
meeting on December 17 at the Cosmos
Club, with President Frenkiel presiding.
The minutes of the 567th meeting were
approved with a minor correction.
Treasurer. Dr. Henderson presented the
treasurer’s annual report, as follows: Ordi-
nary receipts, $18,539.46; receipts by sale
of stock, $2,908.10; expenditures, $25,902.-
95; deficit, $4,495.39. Assets: $725.73 cash
in bank; market value of stock, $85,481.75;
total assets, $86,207.48.
The books for the Junior Academy (for
checking and savings accounts combined )
showed: Brought forward from 1963,
$2,344.72; received, $5,748.97; spent, $7,-
662.45; carried forward to 1965, $431.24.
Dr. Henderson announced that the Dis-
trict of Columbia had granted the Acad-
emys request for exemption from. income
taxes.
On Dr. Henderson’s recommendation,
the Board approved the following changes
in status: Transfer from active to emeritus,
W. G. Workman, H. R. Snoke, G. F.
Gravatt, R. A. Fulton, A. L. Shalowitz,
L. C. Graton, W. G. Brombacher, Olga
Taussky, and E. C. Stakman; resignations,
T. J. Killian, R. B. Barker, J. Eisenstein,
C. J. Lapp, H. M. O’Bryan, Alice C. Evans,
S. Geltman, P. Truesdell, and G. Hottle.
Membership. On the motion of Chair-
man Cook, the following persons were
elected to fellowship in the Academy:
Stephen D. Bruck, Rudolph Hugh, Francis
B. Gordon, Herman A. Rodenhiser, and
William L. Sulzbacher.
Dr. Cook reported that the following
13 persons had been elected to member-
ship by the Committee on November 24:
Ura M. Means, John E. duPont, J. David
Lockard, Marshall C. Harrington, Daniel
B. Lloyd, Emil E. Fowler, Stephen S.
Davis, William E. Bradley, Cmdr. Bobby
L. Potts, George M. Koehl, Luis A.
Veguilla-Berdecia, Dagmar Henney, and
JANUARY, 1965
John D. Morton.
Meetings. Chairman Steinhardt an-
nounced that the speaker at the March
meeting would be Kenneth Boulding, Uni-
versity of Michigan, on “Social and Eco-
nomic Dislocations Incident to Increasing
Life Expectancy.” This completes the
schedule of meetings for the spring se-
mester.
Awards for Scientific Achievement.
Chairman Mason nominated the following
persons to receive the Academy’s 1964
awards of merit, in addition to those re-
ported at the November Board meeting:
Biological Sciences, Bruce N. Ames;
Physical Sciences, James W. Butler.
Encouragment of Science Talent. Pres-
ident Glenn Smoak and Treasurer Fred
Leonberger of the Washington Junior
Academy of Sciences appeared before the
Board to present a detailed account of
WJAS finances. The Junior Academy is
currently in straitened circumstances, pri-
marily because (a) a rebate from the
Pennsylvania Railroad, pursuant to the
last science trip sponsored by the group,
will not be received until mid-January;
and (b) bills have been presented for
several non-routine obligations incurred
during the previous fiscal year. The Board
approved a loan of $500 to the Junior
Academy, to tide it over the emergency.
Membership Promotion. Chairman
Mitchell discussed the possibility of Acad-
emy sponsorship of a science radio pro-
gram, such as the successful program
sponsored in Baltimore by the Maryland
Academy. Dr. Frenkiel recommended that
the idea be discussed with the Commit-
tee on Public Information. Dr. Schubert
mentioned the possibility of presenting a
program on American University’s Sta-
tion WAMU.
Editor. Editor Detwiler announced that
the December Journal had been mailed,
and that work on the January Journal
would begin shortly. He mentioned that
the printer’s bills for the October, No-
vember, and December issues had not been
13
received yet and were thus not carried in
the treasurers annual report, but re-
minded the Board that they would need
to be considered when the 1965 budget
was prepared.
Archivist. Dr. Farber announced that
he was sorting and evaluating several boxes
of material. He expressed the need for a
centralized location where records of the
Academy and other local scientific bodies
could be made available.
Joint Board on Science Education. Dr.
Taylor reported that the Board had planned
to hold several science education confer-
ences during the spring semester, on
physics, biology, and chemistry, with out-
standing speakers; that a career guidance
conference would be held at Catholic
University in January; and that the sec-
ond annual Collegiate Science Conference
would be held at Trinity College March 6.
Dr. Frenkiel announced that he planned
to write to the Academy’s affiliated societies
to solicit financial support for the Joint
Board in 1965.
Unfinished Business. Dr. Frenkiel an-
nounced that the executive board of the
Philosophical Society had approved the
idea of transferring sponsorship of its an-
nual Christmas Lectures to the Academy
beginning in 1965. The matter will be
presented to the Society for ratification at
its forthcoming annual meeting.
New Business. Dr. Stevens asked whether
persons elected to membership were peri-
odically evaluated to determine their suit-
ability for election to fellowship. Dr.
Cook replied affirmatively, and discussed
the current procedures.
Dr. Schubert briefly discussed a plan
being considered by the Chemical Society
of Washington to obtain from the Govern-
ment a building to serve as a headquarters
for the scientific societies of Washington.
Preferably this building would be one of
those located on the present campus of the
National Bureau of Standards.
Dr. Schubert moved that the Academy
make its customary annual $300 contribu-
tion to the program for summer training
of high school students in local scientific
institutions. The matter was tabled pend-
ing consideration of the 1965 budget at a
subsequent Board meeting.
Science in Washington
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
January 9—National Capital
Astronomers
Marjorie Gardner, University of Mary-
land, “Progress Report on a Major Plane-
tarium for Washington, D.C.”
Department of Commerce Auditorium,
8:15 p.m. Open to the public.
January 12—George Washington
University
Robert C. Weaver, administrator, House
& Home Finance Agency, and advisor to
-the President of the United States on
Urban Planning; Bernard Hillenbrand,
executive director, National Association of
Counties; and Senator Harrison A. Wil-
liams, Jr. (New Jersey), “Examination of
Technical and Political Opportunities and
Capacities for Action That Exist or Might
Be Developed in the Future.”
January 12-14—Office of Naval
Research
12th National Infrared Information Sym-
posium.
Army Engineer Research and Develop-
ment Laboratory, Ft. Belvoir, Va.
January 14—Chemical Society of
Washington |
Main Speaker: George A. Jeffry, Uni-
versity of Pittsburgh, “Applications of X-
14, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Ray Structure Analysis to the Study of
Hydrated Crystals.”
Georgetown University, 8:15 p.m.
Topical groups:
David M. Mercules, Massachusetts In-
stitute of Technology, “Luminescence Tech-
niques for Trace Analysis.”
Earl Stadtman, National Institutes of
Health, “The End Product Regulation of
Divergent Biosynthetic Pathways.”
Dieter Gruen, Argonne National Lab-
oratory, “Spectra of Molten Salts.”
Robert E. Lyle, University of New
Hampshire, “The Chemistry of the Py-
ridium Ion.”
Science Center, Georgetown University,
9:00 p.m. Social hour and dinner, 6:00 p.m.
January 18—Washington Operations
Research Council
Martin Ernst, past president, Operations
Research Society of America, “Simulations
of Large Scale Operations as Aids to
Policy Decisions in Business.”
Charcoal Hearth Restaurant, 2001 Wis-
consin Ave., N.W., 8:00 p.m. Social hour,
6:00 p.m.; dinner, 7:00 p.m.
January 19—Anthropological
Society of Washington
Conrad Arensberg, Columbia Univer-
sity, “Metropolitan Culture and Classes.”
Room 43 (ground floor), Natural His-
tory Building, Smithsonian Institution.
0:15 p.m.
January 21—American Society of
Mechanical Engineers
Charles P. Howard, Bureau of Ships.
John J. Ford, Jr., Solar Division, Inter-
national Harvester Co., and James Zimmer-
man, Air-Research Corp., “Gas Turbine
Total Energy Concepts.”
PEPCO Auditorium, 10th & E Sts., N.W.,
8:00 p.m. Pre-meeting dinner at O’Don.
nell’s Restaurant, 6:30 p.m.
January 26—Washington Colloquium
on Science and Society
David Hawkins, University of Colorado,
JANUARY, 1965
“Epistemology of Prediction.”
Connecting Lounge, Hughes & McDowell
Halls, American University, 8:00 p.m.
January 27—Georgetown University
Paul M. Frye, director, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution, “Oceano-
graphy.”
Gaston Hall, 8:00 p.m.
SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS
Contributions to this column may be
addressed to Harold T. Cook, Associate
Editor, c/o Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service, Federal
Center Building, Hyattsville, Md.
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT
KENNETH A. HAINES, Agricultural
Research Service, was U. S. representative
to the Seventh FAO Regional Conference
for Asia and the Far East, held November
7-21 in Manila. The United States is a
member of this conference because of its
trust island responsibilities. All countries
of the region except Cambodia were rep-
resented at the meeting.
JOHN T. PRESLEY presented an in-
vited paper at the Second International
Kenaf Conference, held December 8-12 in
Palm Beach. He spoke on “The An-
thracnose Disease of Kenaf from Outbreak
to Control.”
FRANK P. CULLINAN, associate di-
rector of the Crops Research Division,
Agricultural Research Service, retired on
December 30 after 47 years of service.
ERWIN L. LeCLERG, director of Bio-
metrical Services, ARS, retired on De-
cember 30 after 36 years of service.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
VS Te SERINGPIELD wand Hook. ~ Ee
GRAND presented a paper on limestone
rock formations in the southeastern states
at the annual meeting of the Geological
Society of America, on November 20 at
Miami Beach, Fla. At the same meeting,
EDWIN ROEDDER and R. L. SMITH
described a new method of geological dat-
15
ing applicable to time spans up to 10
million years, by study of tiny water
bubbles trapped in pumice.
HARRIS RESEARCH
LABORATORIES
JOHN MENKART gave a talk on “Ca-
reers in Chemistry” at Bethesda-Chevy
Chase High School on November 17.
EDMUND M. BURAS, JR., was elected
chairman of the Washington Section,
American Association of Textile Chemists
and Colorists, at its meeting of December
4. JOHN MENKART was elected secre-
tary, and LOUIS R. MIZELL was re-
elected to another term as councilor.
LYMAN FOURT presented a_ paper,
“Making Subjective Judgment Quantita-
tive in the Textile Field,” at the December
4 meeting of the AATCC Washington Sec-
tion, which was held at Harris Research
Laboratories.
ALFRED E. BROWN spoke on “The
Washington Scientific Community” at the
scientific staff meeting of the National
Bureau of Standards on December 11.
NATIONAL BUREAU OF
STANDARDS
LAURISTON S. TAYLOR, associate di-
rector for technical support, retired from
the Bureau on December 18. A dinner
was held in his honor at the Sheraton
Park Hotel.
An international radiation measurements
laboratory was dedicated September 29 on
the outskirts of Paris, France. The new
facility, one of the finest of its kind in
the world, is a significant addition to the
International Bureau of Weights and Meas-
ures. NBS Director ALLEN V. ASTIN
participated in the dedication. Dr. Astin
had been instrumental in both the plan-
ning and realization of the new laboratory.
He is the U. S. representative on the inter-
national committee that governs the Inter-
national Bureau. He also headed the
original Consultative Committee for the
Measurement of Ionizing Radiations, which
had the responsibility for international con-
trol of radiation standards and measure-
ment.
Also present at the dedication were
LAURISTON S. TAYLOR, NBS associate
director for technical support and chair-
man of the International Commission on
Radiological Units and Measurements, and
HAROLD O. WYCKOFF, who was chair-
man of the original Consultative Commit-
tee’s working group on X-ray standards,
and made major contributions to the
establishment of the laboratory. Another
NBS scientist who made contributions is
WILFRID MANN, a member of the Com-
mitiee’s working group on radionuclide
standards.
NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF
HEALTH
MARSHALL W. NIRENBERG, head of
the Section on Biochemical Genetics of
the National Heart Institute, received the
Harrison Howe Award from the Rochester
Section of the American Chemical Society
on November 9. Recently, also, Dr.
Nirenberg was named by President John-
son as one of 11 winners of the 1964 Medals
of Science, for his contributions to analysis
of the genetic code.
EVERETTE L. MAY, chief of the Sec-
tion on Medicinal Chemistry of the Labora-
tory of Chemistry, National Institute of
Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases, has been
appointed to the World Health Organiza-
tion’s Expert Advisory Panel on Addiction-
Producing Drugs.
ELIZABETH G. FRAME has been ap-
pointed assistant chief of the Research
Fellowship Branch, National Institute of
General Medical Sciences.
JAMES A. SHANNON, director of NIH,
was one of five Federal career officers
named to receive a Rockefeller Public
Service Award for 1964.
NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
BERTRAM STILLER, Nucleonics Di-
vision, is serving as scientific coordinator
of a projected Cosmic Ray Balloon Expe-
dition. to Hyderabad, India, during the
16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
International Quiet Sun Year (IQSY).
The expedition is a joint Indian and Amer-
ican IQSY activity, with U.S. support fi-
nanced by the National Science Founda-
tion. Sixteen balloons, designed to float at
an altitude above 120,000 feet for at least
eight hours, will be launched during March
and April, 1965. The objectives are to
obtain cosmic ray data near the earth’s
geomagnetic equator at higher altitudes
than had been reached previously. Such
data can be used to study astro-physical
problems related to the origin of cosmic
rays and stellar evolution.
ROBERT G. GLASSER, NATHAN SEE.-
MAN, and BERTRAM STILLER, Nucle-
onics Division, received the Meritorious
Civilian Service Award on November 30
for outstanding achievement in the meas-
urement of the lifetime of the neutral pi
meson.
Effective November 1, JAMES UH.
SCHULMAN, head of the Dielectrics
Branch, was appointed to the first Chair
of Science position—that of Chair of Ma-
terials Sciences. Chair of Science posi-
tions have been established to confer
special recognition on the incumbent as a
distinguished scientist of exceptional ac-
complishment.
GEORGE T. RADO, head of the Mag-
netism Branch, presented an invited paper
on “Magnetoelectric Effects in a Ferro-
magnet” at the International Conference
on Magnetism held in Nottingham, Eng-
land, last September. Following this con-
ferece, Dr. Rado visited several laboratories
coducting magnetism research in England
and France.
SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT
Georgetown University has announced
the founding of an annual Louis Pasteur
science lectureship, designed to bring to
the Washington academic community out-
standing, timely expositions of broadly sig-
nificant work at the frontiers of science.
The new series, named in honor of the
chemist whose work laid the foundations
January, 1965
of bacteriology, will consist of several lec-
tures each spring on a topic of funda-
mental scientific importance. The lectures
will appear annually in expanded form,
as a book.
The 1965 Pasteur lecturer will be Tracy
M. Sonneborn, distinguished service pro-
fessor of zoology at Indiana University.
His subject, “Cell Differentiation,” has
broad significance in the development of
biological, chemical, and philosophical con-
cepts. The lectures will be given at George-
town University in April; the public is
invited.
It will surprise few, but is none the less
gratifying, to read the figures on attend-
ance at the various museums of the Smith-
sonian during its first month of evening
hours’ visiting. In July, for example, more
than 10,000 persons, tourists from out of
town and local visitors, enjoyed the new
privilege of access to the exhibits after
normal closing hours. Indeed, so success-
ful has the venture proven that it will be
reinstituted on April | of next year.
That the Alaskan earthquake of last
March was of major proportions, all are
well aware. When one translates this into
specific instances, and hears of “12,000
square miles uplifted,” of “strips of sea
floor as much as 1,350 feet wide exposed,”
or of “Alaskan island uplifted 30 feet,”
it becomes far more vivid. One of the in-
triguing highlights of this event and its
subsequent study by geologists of the Geo-
logical Survey is the plan to use existing
lakes, some 18 of them in Southern Alaska,
as a sort of gigantic spirit level to de-
termine the amount of tilt which has taken
place. Just as with the carpenter’s and
brick mason’s level, these lakes can, by
periodic checks on the distance between
special markers and the water surface.
clearly indicate changes which have taken
place or which are in progress.
How to tell whether the polar ice on the
Antarctic continent is moving, and if so,
which way and at what rate? The Geo-
logical Survey’s attempt to answer this
question relies on the erection of a 60-
mile “fence” consisting of two parallel
rows of 16-foot, 4 x 4 wooden posts,
spaced nearly two miles apart on the two-
mile-thick ice sheet of Marie Byrd Land.
During the next Antarctic summer, an
additional 60 miles of posts is planned, to
extend to a divide where ihe ice cap flows
west to the Ross Ice Shelf and east to the
Filchner Shelf. Measurements would then
be made, in about four years, to determine
quantitatively both direction and rate of
flow. Progress in mapping the geology
of this huge continent, one and one-half
times the combined area of the 50 United
States, goes on apace as an impressive ex-
ample of international cooperative effort.
Anyone interested in the ecology of
natural communities, who has seen first-
hand the result of strip mining removal of
coal or other mineral resource, does not
need to be told of the devastations that
occur. But studies, published a month or
so ago by the Geological Survey, of the
situation in eastern Kentucky, make ex-
cellent ammunition for persuading others,
and puts the problem in tangible terms.
A five-year study of the effects on water,
soils, forest, and aquatic life of the Cane
Branch Basin in Kentucky’s McCreary
County produces such striking quotations
as these:
“Amounts of sediments carried in the
streams due to breakdown of rock frag-
ments in a two-year test period averaged
approximately 40 tons per square mile in
parts of the basin unaffected by mining,
and 380 tons per square mile in parts af-
fected.”
“Materials in solution averaged less than
_ 30 ppm in unaffected areas as contrasted
to 310 in mining areas.”
“Stream acidity, caused by runoff from
spoil banks, eliminated fish life and de-
stroyed much of the stream bottom flora
and fauna.”
“Large areas of land were denuded and
left with toxic materials that impede re-
forestation.”
Formation of a National Academy of
Engineering was announced on December
ll. The National Academy of Sciences
has approved articles of organization
which bring the new group into being as
part of its own structure, operating on an
autonomous and parallel, but coordinated,
basis. The new Academy will share in the
responsibility given the National Academy
of Sciences under its enabling act to ad-
vise the Federal Government, upon request,
in all areas of science and engineering.
Development of practical electronic
“image tubes” capable of materially ex-
tending the range and usefulness of astro-
nomical telescopes, giving a gain in the
rate of recording “information” by a fac-
tor of 10 over the best photographic emul-
sions, has been announced by Merle T.
Tuve, chairman of the Carnegie Image
Tube Committee and director of the Car-
negie Institution’s Department of Terres-
trial Magnetism.
Use of these image tubes can triple the
effective light-recording power of a photo-
graphic telescope, making it the equivalent
of an unaided telescope of three times the
diameter. A 60-inch reflector would thus
be capable of photographing star images
or recording the spectra of faint objects
now obtainable only with telescopes of 180
inches diameter.
At present the world’s largest telescope
is the 200-inch-diameter reflector at Palo-
mar Observatory, but a number of excel-
lent smaller ones are in operation at vari-
ous observatories in both the northern and
southern hemispheres. Aided by image
tubes, these smaller telescopes could rival
the unaided capability of the world’s larg-
est instruments, giving astronomers mark-
18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
edly increased power to explore the uni-
verse, from numerous vantage points all
~ over the world.
Some unexpected results of the largest
and most elaborate research project to
date in the current world-wide study of
the upper mantle of the earth were dis-
closed recently in a paper given before the
Seismological Society of America by John
S. Steinhart of the Carnegie Institution’s
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.
Lake Superior was chosen as the site
for this intensive international project be-
cause it lies in the Canadian Shield, an
ancient geological area thought to be of
rather uniform age and composition. One
purpose of the project was to compare the
seismic methods of different institutions
and national groups, and evaluate results
as a means of establishing better overall
methods of interpreting seismic studies.
Another was to make a detailed calibration
of a relatively uniform section of the
earth’s crust for later use as a standard of
comparison in analyzing data from other
places.
Beneath Lake Superior was found a
large section of extremely dense rock that
proved very different from the more or
less uniform Shield areas of Wisconsin,
Minnesota, and southern Canada adjacent
to the lake. This unanticipated discovery
has led to further intensive explorations
by the University of Wisconsin and the
Geological Survey.
The earth waves sent out by a series of
one-ton explosions in the bottom of Lake
Superior were detected by sensitive instru-
ments in Arizona, Oregon, and other loca-
tions at very long distances—some as
great as 1600 miles—indicating that un-
derwater explosions above some types of
rock formations can be detected at aston-
ishing distances. Such waves in other
types of terrain are known to be damped
out more quickly, and do not carry nearly
as far.
JANUARY, 1965
The Army Engineers are using an orbit-
ing artificial satellite to pinpoint exact
locations of land bodies separated by large
expanses of ocean. Use of the satellite and
overseas ground stations is enabling them
for the first time to get data with an all-
weather electronic system that measures
distances of up to a thousand miles to an
accuracy within 30 meters. The system,
known as SECOR (Sequential Collation of
Range), is contributing to the scientific
knowledge and military capabilities of the
United States and is helping also to deter-
mine the exact size and shape of the earth.
Operations are being conducted at three
ground stations at precisely known points
in Japan and the Ryukyus and at one un-
known site on Iwo Jima, whose geodetic
location is being determined. Two other
stations are being located at other points
in the Pacific. Plans call for leap-frogging
from island to island; nine unknown
points are expected to be located in the
Pacific during the first year of operations.
By a contiguous series of measurements,
the Army Map Service will be able to
create a network on which to establish a
common base for locating points on the
earth’s surface.
An atomic definition of the second was
authorized October 8 by the Twelfth
General Conference of Weights and Meas-
ures, meeting in Paris. The International
Committee on Weights and Measures, act-
ing for the Conference, temporarily based
the definition on an invariant transition of
the cesium atom in expectation of a more
exact definition in future. The new defini-
tion replaces the definition of a second
based on the annual orbit of the earth
around the sun.
This action was recommended by the
American delegation to the Conference,
Director A. V. Astin and A. G. McNish of
the National Bureau of Standards. It in-
creases the accuracy of time measurements
to a part in 100 billion, an accuracy 200
times greater than that formerly achieved
19
by astronomical means. More, the measure-
ments can be accurately determined in a
few minutes, as compared to the many
years required to achieve an accuracy only
a hundredth as good by astronomical
means.
A 70-mm micromap camera, the basis of
a system designed to eliminate problems in
printing, storing, and displaying military
maps, is being developed by the Army En-
gineers at Fort Belvoir. Designed for
transport and use in standard Army mo-
bile map reproduction vans, the extremely
rigid and precise camera produces 70-mm
micromaps from standard military maps.
Two thousand of these micromaps can be
stored in the target map locator, the sys-
tem’s second major component, and pro-
jected at will for individual viewing. Those
maps required in quantity can then be
reproduced from micromap color sepa-
rations by the electrostatic printer which
rounds out the system. In this way maps
can be printed, stored, and displayed at
the point of demand, thus eliminating the
reproduction and storage of large quan-
tities of maps made in advance in an-
ticipation of requirement.
American University has been granted
$64,190 by the National Science Founda-
tion for support of a “Summer Institute in
Recent Advances in Chemistry and Physics
for Secondary School Teachers” during
1965. This program, conducted by Leo
Schubert, the Academy’s president-elect.
is in its tenth year of operation. It is
one of the oldest institutes for high school
teachers in the country, and is unique in
that the teachers are involved not only in
lecture and laboratory work on campus,
but also in research both on and off
campus.
The Army Engineers have awarded a
contract for production of image intensifier
_ tubes to be used in night viewing systems
developed by their laboratories at Ft.
Belvoir. The special tubes intensify the
natural low level of night illumination to
present a bright image, thus providing the
soldier with firepower and mobility at
night comparable to daylight activities.
Measurement of length with a laser has
been successfully accomplished by the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards. Using a laser
beam as an interferometric light source,
K. D. Mielenz, H. D. Cook, K. E. Gillilland,
and R. B. Stephens measured the length of
a meter bar with an accuracy better than
a part in 10 million. This accomplish-
ment means that the laser—which up to
now has had only limited practical appli-
cation—has become a scientific tool for
achieving dimensional accuracy of a high
order.
The Weather Bureau has ordered a
Control Data 6600 computer to speed the
processing of large volumes of data on
weather conditions around the world.
When installed at the Bureau’s facilities
in Suitland, Md., the new computer, said
to be the world’s largest, fastest, and most
powerful, will be used by the National
Weather Satellite Center to process meteor-
ological satellite data; by the National
Meteorological Center in day-to-day fore-
casting; and by the Geophysical Fluid
Dynamics Laboratory for atmospheric re-
search studies.
Initial tests of a prototype Airscrew
Swamp Vehicle have been begun by the
Army Engineers at Fort Belvoir. Designed
to further the Army’s mobility in swamp
areas, the swamp vehicle skims water sur-
faces having heavy swamp vegetation; it
would be used as a troop carrier and to
move heavy loads through marshy areas.
Although similar to the sports vehicles
used in the Florida Everglades, it will be
the largest and most powerful boat ever
built especially for swamp work. It will
be powered by a 400-hp aircraft engine
with a specially designed four-blade pro-
pellor mounted on a 20-foot hull.
20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
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LISRARY
US NATIONAL MUSEUM
WASHINGTON 25 pe J
VOLUME SS NUMBER 2
ournal
é
of the
VASHINGTON
CADEMY OF
;CIENCES
AiHN'T
‘
rrr yl aq
FEBRUARY 1965
~Harow T.. Cook, Department of Agriculture
st Ree eeae nae ; ; tration ;
RicHarp P. Farrow, National Canners BO Gaul ae geen:
ciation . RusseLt B. Srevens, George Ww.
Harry A. Fowex.s, Department of Agriculture versity : ;
Gontributees
Frank A. Brserstein, Jr., Catholic University Josepx B. Morris, Howard Ur
Cuartes A. WHITTEN, Coast & Geodetic Survey facas °Mazun. National. Boteaum
MaryorreE Hooker, Geological Survey
ReusBen E. Woop, George Washington Univer- Auten L. ALEXANDER, Naval Resene
sity Victor R. Boswett, USDA, ei ee
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, piablaeaien
articles, critical reviews, and scholarly scientific articles: notices of meetings and abstrac
ings of meetings of the Academy and its affiliated societies; and regional news items,
personal news, of interest to the entire membership. The Journal appears nine times
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ACADEMY OFFICERS FOR 1965
President: Lto ScHupert, American University
President-Elect: Joun K. Taytor, National Bureau of Standards —
Secretary: AueHonse F. Forzrati, Advanced Research Projects Agency
Treasurer: Roman R. MILLER, Naval Research Laboratory
Six Scientists Receive
Academy’s Annual Awards
Awards for outstanding _ scientific
achievement were conferred upon four re-
search scientists and two science teachers
at the Washington Academy’s 67th Annual
Dinner Meeting on January 21 at the
Cosmos Club.
The research investigators honored were
Bruce N. Ames of the National Institutes
of Health, in the biological sciences; James
W. Butler of the Naval Research Labora-
tory, in the physical sciences; Thorndike
Saville, Jr., of the Army Coastal Engineer-
ing Research Center, in the engineering
sciences; and David W. Fox of the Johns
Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab-
oratory, in mathematics.
The science teachers were Donald F.
Brandewie of Claude A. Swanson Junior
High School in Arlington, and Herman R.
Branson of Howard University.
Award winners were introduced by Mar-
shall W. Nirenberg of the National Insti-
tutes of Health; H. William Koch of the
National Bureau of Standards; J. M. Cald-
well of the Coastal Engineering Research
Center; R. E. Gibson, director of the Ap-
plied Physics Laboratory; Phoebe H.
Knipling, science supervisor of Arlington
County Schools; and James M. Nabritt,
president of Howard University.
The Academy’s awards program was
initiated in 1939 to recognize young scien-
tists of the area for “noteworthy discovery,
accomplishment, or publication” in the
biological, physical, and engineering
sciences. An award for outstanding teach-
ing was added in 1955 and another for
mathematics in 1959. Except in teaching,
where no age limit is set, candidates for
awards must not be over 40.
FEBRUARY, 1965
Biological Sciences
Cited “for outstanding contributions to
molecular genetics” was Bruce N. Ames,
of the National Institutes of Health. He
has been studying the pathway of histidine
and has discovered the enzymes and inter-
mediates in the synthesis of this amino
acid. While this work in its own right rep-
resents a major accomplishment in_bio-
chemistry, Dr. Ames has further devel-
oped the histidine enzyme complex into a
genetic tool as well. The enzymes in this
complex or “operon” have been mapped
by transduction of their genes in over a
thousand different histidine-deficient mu-
tants. Many areas of biology have been
enriched by his studies, which relate to
mechanisms of protein synthesis, genetic
mapping, enzyme regulation and regula-
tory functioning, and amino acid synthe-
sis.
Born December 16, 1928, in New York
City, Dr. Ames received the B.A. degree
from Cornell in 1950 and the Ph.D. degree
from California Institute of Technology in
1953. He has been at NIH since then, first
as a Public Health Service postdoctoral
fellow, and later as a staff member. Since
1962 he has been chief of the Section of
Microbial Genetics.
Physical Sciences
James W. Butler of the Naval Research
Laboratory was cited “for contributions to
our knowledge of energy levels and prop-
erties of atomic nuclei.” He initiated and
actively participated in a long series of
experiments with the 2-million and 5-mil-
lion volt Van de Graaff accelerators at
21
SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION
FEB 16 1965
Award Winners at Annual Academy Meeting
B. N. AMEs J. W. BuTLER
D. F. BRANDEWIE
NRL to measure various properties of
energy levels of atomic nuclei. Just as the
study of optical spectra of atoms some
decades ago led to the Bohr model of the
atom and modern quantum mechanics, so
today the study of nuclear spectra (.e.,
nuclear energy levels) is laying the ground-
work for the theory of nuclear structure
and nuclear forces.
Dr. Butler was born on November 5,
1924, in Dublin, Ga., and received the B.S.
degree from Georgia Institute of Tech-
nology in 1944 and the M.S. and Ph.D.
degrees from Rice Institute in 1949 and
1951, respectively. He was at NRL from
1951 to 1961, when he became professor
of physics at Michigan State University.
He returned to NRL in 1964 on a full-time
basis.
Engineering Sciences
Chief of the Research Division of the
Army Coastal Engineering Research Cen-
i SAVANE Re D. W. Fox
H. R. Branson
ter, Thorndike Saville, Jr., was recognized
“for research in coastal engineering, par-
ticularly studies of wave run-up and over-
topping.” Before he entered this field of
research, there were essentially no under-
standing of these phenomena and no guides
for the practicing engineer. Yet all work
on protective shore structures such as sea-
walls, bulkheads, breakwaters, and dunes
requires information on the height to which
wave action will run up on the shore struc-
ture, or a reliable estimate of the quantity
of water which passes over the top of the
structure in case it is overtopped by the
wave. His work has provided a sound and
useful basis for making the needed compu-
tations.
Born in Baltimore on August 1, 1925,
Mr. Saville received the A.B. degree from
Harvard in 1947 and the M.S. degree from
California (Berkeley) in 1949. He has been
at the Coastal Engineering Research Center
since then, and chief of the Research Divi-
sion since 1964.
22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Mathematies
Cited “for research in estimating lower
bounds to eigenvalues and related studies”
was David W. Fox of the Applied Physics
Laboratory. Various eigenvalues of mathe-
matical operators in Hilbert space are
of great importance in mathematical phys-
ics. The classical method of Rayleigh and
Ritz provides a convenient means for set-
ting upper bounds to such eigenvalues, but
methods for lower bounds have required
auxiliary analyses that were often as in-
accessible as the exact solution of the origi-
nal problem. One of the major uses of eig-
envalue bounds is to furnish guides for
numerical computations. The techniques
developed by Dr. Fox and his collaborators
have provided the mathematical foundation
for machine computation programs that
have been successfully applied to a vari-
ety of problems in quantum mechanics.
Born November 21, 1928, in Dubuque,
Iowa, Dr. Fox received the A.B. and M.S.
degrees from the University of Michigan in
1951 and 1952, respectively, and the Ph.D.
degree from the University of Maryland in
1958. He was a member of the Institute
for Fluid Dynamics and Applied Mathe-
matics of the University of Maryland in
1958-1960, and has been a project leader
at APL since 1960.
Teaching of Science
Recognized “for generating contagious
enthusiasm for science through inspira-
tional teaching” was Donald F. Brandewie
FEBRUARY, 1965
of Claude A. Swanson Junior High School
in Arlington, whose major training has
been in geology. Praised by students, col-
leagues, and administrators alike for his
teaching, Mr. Brandewie came to Swanson
Junior igh School in 1962, after receiving
the M.A. degree from the University of
West Virginia. Prior to that he was a sci-
ence teacher at New Bremen, Ohio, High
School in 1958-1961. He was born on Sep-
tember 24, 1934, in Fort Laramie, Ohio,
and received the B.S. degree from the Uni-
versity of Dayton in 1959.
A member of the Howard University fac-
ulty since 1941, Herman R. Branson was
cited “for contribution to science education
and an outstanding role as physics teach-
er.” Born on August 14, 1914, in Poca-
hontas, Va., he received the B.S. degree in
1936 from Virginia State College, and the
Ph.D. degree in 1939 from the University
of Cincinnati. He has been head of the De-
partment of Physics at Howard since 1955,
and a member of the Commission on Col-
lege Physics since 1964. He spent 1948-
1949 at California Institute of Technology
as a senior fellow of the National Research
Council, and 1962-1963 at the University of
Hamburg (Germany) and the French
Atomic Energy Commission establishment
at Saclay, as a faculty fellow of the Nation-
al Science Foundation. In addition to his
teaching, for which he has been particu-
larly recognized by this award, Dr. Bran-
son has published a number of research
papers in biophysics and chemical physics.
23
The Society of American Foresters
And Its Washington Section
Arthur B. Meyer
Editor, Journal of Forestry
The Washington Section of the Society
of American Foresters, as of June 1964, had
a membership of 343 professional foresters.
It is one of 23 geographical sections of the
15,000-member Society, spread from Maine
to Hawaii.
The Washington Section is unique in the
SAF. The average age of its members is
probably 10 years greater than the national
average of the organization. Many of the
members are in high administrative posi-
tions in Federal service and have a back-
ground of extensive field experience. Be-
cause of its location in the Nation’s Capital
and its frequent meetings during the winter
months, the Section draws many “visiting
firemen” from across the country, and in-
deed from foreign posts, who are in Wash-
ington on business. As one visiting speaker
put it, “You foresters in this Section have
been everywhere and seen everything.”
But beyond the cosmopolitan atmosphere
and the professional maturity of its mem-
bership, the Section is unique in the de-
gree to which its history is that of early
American forestry. In fact, in the sense
that people make history, the Section helped
write a lot of history.
American literature from earliest Colo-
nial times contains evidence of sporadic
concern with various isolated aspects of the
importance of forest resources. Yet there
is little evidence of any concept of the uni-
versal importance of forest resources. The
first may well be found in the writings of
George P. Marsh in his Man and Nature,
published in 1864. Marsh dealt with man’s
actions as detrimental to his own environ-
ment, and gave considerable attention to
forest influences. In 1873, Franklin B.
Hough wrote in the proceedings of the
American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science “On the Duty of Govern-
ments in the Preservation of Forests.” By
the latter part of the 19th century, public
interest in forestry had been awakened
to a considerable degree, as demonstrated
by the creation of the forest reserves out
of the public domain and the work of the
small Division of Forestry under Bernhard
E. Fernow in the U.S. Department of Agri-
culture.
A Profession Emerges
The scene was set by 1900 for the emer-
gence of a new profession in America. Gif-
ford Pinchot, the first American-born for-
ester, who was trained in Europe, had just
become the new head of the Division of For-
estry. In this country, professional educa-
tion in forestry had just started. The Col-
lege of Forestry at Cornell was in its third
year and the Yale Forest School, estab-
lished under endowment from the Pinchot
family, had opened its doors that autumn.
In the words of Ralph S. Hosmer, writing
in the Journal of Forestry on the golden
anniversary of the Society of American
Foresters in 1950, “The problem was how
to bring to pass what a few men saw needed
to be done. As a member of the commit-
tee of the National Academy of Sciences
set up to study the forest lands of the pub-
lic domain, Mr. Pinchot had seen clearly
the necessity of a broad national program
of forestry. ... He realized that to carry
24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
such a program forward successfully, men
trained in forestry were required. Enthusi-
asm and teamwork were essential. Even
more so were high standards and the es-
tablishment of forestry on a firm founda-
tion, on a level of dignity equal to that of
the other professions. It was from Mr.
Pinchot’s concept of what forestry should
be and how its work should be adminis-
tered that the Society of American Forest-
ers sprang. His associates were actuated by
his zeal and inspired by his dynamic per-
sonality.”
On November 30, 1900, Mr. Pinchot
called a meeting in his office in the De-
partment of Agriculture to discuss the
feasibility of organizing a Society of
American Foresters. Present, in addition
to Pinchot, were Henry S. Graves, Overton
W. Price, Edward T. Allen, William L.
Hall, Ralph S. Hosmer, and Thomas H.
Sherrard. Thus the SAF came into exist-
ence with Pinchot as its first chairman.
At a later meeting in December, eight
more foresters, some not residents of Wash-
ington, were elected to membership under
the rules of the newly adopted Constitution
that “Active members shall be professional
foresters of achievement.”
The purpose of the Society was summed
up in its Constitution: “The object of this
Society shall be to further the cause of for-
estry in America by fostering a spirit of
comradeship among foresters; by creating
opportunities for a free interchange of
views upon forestry and allied subjects:
and by disseminating a knowledge of the
purpose and achievements of forestry.” Al-
though expressed in broader terms, these
objectives stand today as guiding princi-
ples.
In a final action for the year 1900, the
Society elected 13 associate members whose
names represented most of the leaders
of the forestry movement in the country.
Among them were Secretary of Agricul-
ture James Wilson and the Governor of
New York, Theodore Roosevelt.
FEBRUARY, 1965
“The Baked Apple Club”
The activities of the Society in its first
years centered around weekly meetings
from autumn to spring. Most men entitled
to be called foresters were in the employ
of the Federal government and for the most
part headquartered in Washington. During
the winter months there was also a consid-
erable group of young college men working
for the Division of Forestry who the previ-
ous summer had been student assistants on
field surveys. Although not eligible for
membership, these men were always wel-
come at the weekly open meetings. Many
of them subsequently graduated from for-
estry schools.
Mr. Pinchot opened his home at 1615
Rhode Island Avenue to these meetings and
thus inaugurated what came to be known
as “The Baked Apple Club.” Following
the presentation of carefully prepared pa-
pers on such subjects as “The Disposal
of Public Lands” and “Why Prairies Are
Treeless,” the group would retire from the
spacious Pinchot library to the walnut pan-
eled dining room for baked apples, ginger-
bread, and milk. (One can hardly question
that these foresters must have been hungry
people, considering the amount of activity
in which they engaged on and off the job.)
Many people of prominence in the scien-
tific and other branches of government
were guests and speakers at the meetings.
High-ranking officials from the Biological
Survey, the Geological Survey, and the De-
partment of Agriculture were on the list.
Naturally in these early years the Soci-
ety was closely bound up with the Division
and then Bureau of Forestry—after 1905
the Forest Service.
A Visitor of Note
On the evening of March 26, 1903, Theo-
dore Roosevelt broke a tradition that the
President of the United States does not
speak in private homes and visited the
house on Rhode Island Avenue. He said in
part: “I have felt that the meeting this eve-
20
ning was of such a character as not merely
to warrant but to require that I should
break through my custom of not going out
to make speeches of this sort, for I believe
that there is no body of men who have it
in their power today to do a greater service
to the country than those engaged in the
scientific study of, and practical application
of approved methods of forestry for the
preservation of the woods of the United
States.” His address to the group of for-
esters and guests is the initial article in
Volume 1, Number 1, of the Proceedings
of the Society published in May 1905.
Once the Society became firmly estab-
lished, it was natural to assume that the
knowledge and ideas expressed at the meet-
ings should be preserved, starting with the
Proceedings in 1905. In 1902 the forestry
students at Cornell had begun to publish
the Forestry Quarterly, later carried on
under private auspices. These two publi-
cations were combined in 1917 as the Jour-
nal of Forestry, now the most widely dis-
tributed professional forestry publication
in the world.
Foresters Move
In 1905 the Bureau of Forestry became
the Forest Service in the Department of
Agriculture. It was fast emerging as a full-
fledged Government agency responsible for
56 million acres of national forest, carved
from the public domain as forest reserves.
To carry on its work the Forest Service em-
ployed at least 90 percent of the profession-
al foresters in the country, so developments
in the Service affected the structure of
the Society. Until 1908 the center of Fed-
eral government forestry activity was in
Washington, but it had become apparent
that decentralization of the work was nec-
essary. Headquarters were set up in places
far from the Potomac, in Montana, Cali-
fornia, Oregon, and even Alaska. As fores-
ters spread to the far corners of the coun-
try, some came to question the value of a
professional organization located in Wash-
ington, D. C. In 191] the Society had 213
active members. To solve the problem of
the profession, it was suggested that local
sections be established. This would allow
foresters far afield to maintain their pro-
fessional ties.
An amendment to the Constitution of the
Society in 1912 provided for the establish-
ment of regional sections. The first was
formed that year in Missoula, Mont., the
second in 1913 in St. Paul, Minn., and the
third in 1915 at Portland, Ore.
Washington Section Formed
In the autumn of 1916, apparently but
not surely on November 6, 26 members of
the Society residing in the District of
Columbia petitioned for the formation of
the Washington Section. The Bylaws pro-
vided that eligible foresters residing out-
side the District could become actively
affliated upon written application.
Allen S. Peck was the first chairman of
the Section, with Francis Kiefer as sec-
retary, and W. W. Ashe as third member
(of the executive committee) .
Although gatherings of the Washington
foresters could no longer be considered
meetings of the “parent” Society, section
“status” seems to have had little or no
effect on the activities of the group. Meet-
ing programs continued to be of a high
scientific caliber, with members and out-
side guests discussing a wide array of sub-
jects pertinent to forestry and the profes-
sion. The frequency with which the Baked
Apple Club met, however, had given way
to bimonthly and monthly meetings held at
the homes of members, including occasional
invitations from Mr. Pinchot, or at the Uni-
versity Club, the New National Museum,
and later the Cosmos Club.
By 1917 Washington was immersed in
the problems of war. In February the Sec-
tion appointed a committee to investigate
ways and means whereby foresters could
assist in national defense. The principle of
universal military training was endorsed
26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
and it was suggested that all professional
foresters be classified as to their skill for
meeting military needs.
During the war period, meetings con-
centrated on subjects relating forestry to
defense of the nation and to the post-war
future. The agenda for open meetings to
be held during 1918 included the follow-
ing:
February 14: “With the Forest Regi-
ments in France’—Lt. Col. Henry S.
Graves.
February 28: “Forestry and the Fuel
Problem”—A. F. Hawes.
March 14: “Forest Products and the
War’—E. H. Clapp, H. S. Betts, and Rolf
Thelen.
The Section became affiliated with the
Washington Academy of Sciences in 1904.
(See seventh annual report of the Acace-
mys secretary, covering the period Janu-
ary 21, 1904 to January 19, 1905, as re-
corded in the Academy’s Proceedings 6,
450-2 (1904).) In the Academy’s roster
of officers for 1904 (ibid., page viii), Gif-
ford Pinchot is listed as representative of
the Society of American Foresters; addi-
tionally, he is named as one of nine man-
agers of the Academy. (Since he was of
the “class of 1907,” and the managers
served for three-year terms, he presumably
began his duties in January 1905.)
Following World War I, developments
in forestry were rapid. The Washington
Section, not so much as a section of the So-
ciety, but as the home grounds of forestry
leaders and the seat of government, con-
tinued to form the backdrop of history.
From 1905 until the war, the main job of
the Forest Service had been to establish
and maintain the national forest system.
War’s demand for timber made the time
ripe to start giving attention to private
timberlands. Regulation by the Govern-
ment was proposed as a solution and for
two years arguments pro and con filled
forestry publications and lumber trade
journals. Society President Frederick E.
Olmsted appointed a Committee for the
FEBRUARY, 1965
Application of Forestry early in 1919;
Gifford Pinchot was chairman. The report
of “The Pinchot Committee,” as it became
known, was submitted at the annual meet-
ing of the Society held in New York City
in January 1920. The gist of the recom-
mendations was that ‘“‘the national timber
supply must be secured (a) by forbidding
the devastation of private forest lands, and
(b) by the production of forest crops on
public forests.” The report outlined sug-
gested legislation to be enacted by Con-
gress to provide strict mandatory regula-
tions to be enforced by the Federal govern-
ment through the Forest Service.
Heated discussion ensued. A large group
in the Society opposed this method of ap-
proach. While acknowledging that some
regulation was probably desirable, they
urged that it be obtained through coopera-
tion, preferably with individual States.
Opposing groups were formed among for-
esters, led respectively by Mr. Pinchot and
William B. Greeley, who had become chief
of the Forest Service in April 1920. The
Capper Bill and the Snell Bill were intro-
duced in Congress, representing respec-
tively the proposals and ideas of the two
sroups. Twice during 1920, Society mem-
bers were polled by letter ballots on the
subject of Federal regulation, but many re-
frained from voting and the results were
inconclusive.
Then in 1920 came the appointment of the
Senate Committee on Reforestation to
study the whole matter. Hearings were
held around the country and much testi-
mony was submitted. The final recom-
mendation of the Committee left out con-
troversial issues and stressed other matters
on which practically all foresters were in
agreement. The result was passage of the
Clarke-McNary Act of 1924 which, through
cooperative Federal.
State, and private groups, has been re-
sponsible for much of the progress made in
this country in State and private forestry
measures among
work.
But not all was controversy in the turbu-
lent twenties. A lecture given by William
B. Greeley in 1924 resulted in the National
Academy of Sciences’ setting up a special
committee to make “a critical inquiry into
the status and needs of research in the sci-
ences basic to Forestry.” A grant from
the General Education Board made pos-
sible a survey of forest research organiza-
tions, by I. W. Bailey and H. A. Spoehr.
Their report, “The Role of Research in the
Development of Forestry in North Ameri-
ca,” was published by the Academy in 1929.
Thus was launched a continuing emphasis
on the role of research (and education) in
forestry.
The Section and the Society
As the Society grew in numbers—982 in
December 1923—its annual meetings grew
in importance. From 1921 to 1924 they
were held in affiliation with the American
Association for the Advancement of Science
in Toronto, Boston, Baltimore, and Wash-
ington, and again in 1927 at San Francisco.
The success of the latter meeting started
the custom now in effect of distributing
annual meetings of the Society about the
country. They return once each decade to
Washington, D. C., however, on the anni-
versary of the 1900 gathering in Gifford
Pinchot’s office.
The Society has maintained its ties with
AAAS since 1913 and currently has two
representatives on its council. It is also
affliated in cooperative undertakings with
numerous other professional and_ techni-
cal organizations, including the National
Research Council, the Natural Resources
Council of America, and the American In-
stitute of Biological Sciences.
Since its founding 64 years ago, the So-
ciety of American Foresters has achieved
general recognition as the national body
which represents the profession of forestry
in the United States, and as such is ac-
knowledged as its spokesman.
Its 23 sections meet at least once each
year, but usually more often. Field trips
are taken, technical reports are made,
and current issues are discussed. Sections
frequently undertake special projects such
as studies of forestry operations, special
forest resource uses, the compilation of lo-
cal forest practice rules, forest products
marketing, and the publication of bulletins.
Eleven subject-matter divisions are con-
cerned with technical fields of speciali-
zation: silviculture; recreation; forest
fire; economics; watershed, wildlife,
range, and forest management; mensura-
tion; forest products; and education. They
conduct special studies and develop techni-
cal programs for the national annual meet-
ings.
In 1948 the Society adopted a Code of
Ethics, now recognized as a standard for
professional conduct.
Committees of the Society function in
such varied activities as international rela-
tions, research, and civil service. Other
committees of the divisions operate in fields
of primary interest to them. Standing com-
mittees on ethics and the advancement of
forestry education ensure the maintenance
of professional standards.
Forestry has become an accepted part
of American life. It is doubtful that it
would have done so to the extent it has
were it not for the Society of American For-
esters, which has adhered to its original
objectives—‘‘the advancement of the sci-
ence, practice and standards of forestry in
America.” The members of the Washing-
ton Section of the Society, present and past,
in their daily labors, in their professional
afhliation, in the wealth of experience they
bring with them, have done much to make
this possible.
WASHINGTON SECTION, SOCIETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS
During the fall and winter, the Washington Section of the Society of American
Foresters has three luncheon meetings, one evening meeting (ladies’ night), and one
all-day meeting.
28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
At the luncheon meetings, held the third Wednesday of the month at the Occidental
Restaurant, the Program Committee usually obtains as the speaker a member of Con-
gress, visiting dignitary, or other important person from industry, education, or
government.
The evening meeting, with a social hour, dinner, and dancing, features a prominent
woman as a dinner speaker.
Ai the all-day meeting, held at the Presidential Arms, nationally-known speakers
discuss a controversial topic. Normally the meeting concludes with a luncheon
speech, for which the Program Committee has been especially successful in obtaining
an eminent speaker.
The current issue of The Journal is devoted to the Washington Section of SAF,
and provides a background for the annual all-day meeting of the Section to be held
on March 17 next.
ANNUAL ALL-DAY MEETING
THEME: Pests, Pesticides, and People
PLACE: Presidential Arms, 1320 G Street, N.W.
DATE: Wednesday, March 17, 1965
TIME: Registration—9:00 A.M. (a 50-cent charge)
Luncheon—12:55 P.M.
Adjournment—About 2:30 P.M.
SPEAKERS: Hon. Jamie L. Whitten, Member of Congress, Charleston, Miss. >
Chairman, House Subcommittee for Agricultural Appropriations.
Austin H. Wilkins, President, National Association of State
Foresters, Augusta, Maine
Carl W. Buchheister, President, National Audubon Society, New
York City
Parke C. Brinkley, Executive Director, National Agricultural Chem-.
icals Association, Washington, D. C.
(Luncheon speaker and another prominent speaker to be announced!
later )
Program Chairman: Milton M. Bryan, Forest Service, U.S.D.A.
Arrangements Chairman: Robert A. Smart, Forest Service, U.S.D.A.
For luncheon reservations (price probably $3.50) call 296-7820, Society of Ameri-
can Foresters
Officers of the Washington Section, Society of American Foresters
Chairman: Edwin Zaidlicz, Bureau of Land Management, USDI
Vice-Chairman: Wilson B. Sayers, American Forest Products Industries, Inc.
Treasurer: Dennis A. Rapp, Bureau of the Budget
Secretary: Mark M. Johannesen, Forest Service, USDA
FEBRUARY, 1965 29
The Control of Pests in Our Forests
W. V. Benedict
Director, Division of Forest Pest Control, Forest Service,
Department of Agriculture
Of the total land area of the United
States, about one third, or 758 million acres,
is forest land. The job of protecting these
forests from a host of insect and disease
pests requires all the skills of foresters,
entomologists, pathologists, and other sci-
entists. In recent years with the availabil-
ity of effective pesticides, we believe we
have been successful in containing or
controlling most major insect epidemics
that might have destroyed billions of board
feet of timber. But in our use of pesticides,
we have incurred some public criticism.
Thus we think it appropriate to outline our
method of determining how, or if, an
epidemic might be prevented or controlled.
Forest fires—always dramatic—are con-
sidered by many to be the forest’s most
damaging enemy. This is not true. Dis-
eases and insects take a far greater toll.
For example, in an average year they kill
an estimated 7.3 billion board feet of valu-
able sawtimber. Growth impact, or losses
in growth of surviving trees, is estimated
at 21.2 billion board feet. These enormous
losses occur despite efforts made each year
to check damage by action programs in
prevention and suppression. The chestnut
blight has virtually eliminated American
chestnut trees. Dutch elm disease has a
fair chance of doing the same to the Amer-
ican elm as a forest species. Another dis-
ease potentially serious to our hardwood
forests is oak wilt. Control is being prac-
ticed in some areas, and much research is
-in progress to determine the real signifi-
cance of the oak wilt threat and to im-
prove our methods of control.
Among the softwoods, the prized white
pines can be grown only on selected sites—
and at considerable cost—because of blister
rust and the white pine weevil. An attempt
is being made to control blister rust on
about 11 million acres of white pines. The
balsam woolly aphid hangs like a threat-
ening dark cloud over our extensive stands
of fir. Bark beetles destroy about 5.5 bil-
lion board feet of pine, fir, and spruce tim-
ber annually; they are our worst insect
pest. We spray about one million acres a
year to control various defoliators, which
have the power to lay waste entire drain-
ages of susceptible forests.
Dwarf mistletoe, another serious disease,
is generally prevalent in our western and
northern coniferous forests. We attempt
to control it primarily during timber harv-
est or in timber stand improvement work.
We practice some direct control by cut-
ting out heavily infected trees and remov-
ing infected branches from lightly infected
trees.
Over the past five-year period, average
annual Federal expenditures for forest in-
sect and disease control have been $8.2
million and non-Federal expenditures
are estimated at $1.3 million annually.
During this same period, nearly 500 mil-
lion acres of commercial forest lands have
been surveyed annually to detect insect
outbreaks and disease infections. Annu-
ally, 1.4 million infested trees and
stumps have been treated to control bark
beetles; 700,000 acres have been aerially
treated for control of defoliating insects;
and 291,000 acres have been treated to
control diseases.
30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Combatting Forest Pests
The steps for controlling forest pests are
prevention, detection, evaluation, suppres-
sion, and eradication. Each is important
and all are closely interwoven. |
Prevention. Prevention is the first line
of defense against damaging diseases and
insects. The objective is to incorporate
into the management of the National For-
ests those practices we know to be effec-
tive in minimizing pest damage, and to
urge other forest landowners to do like-
wise. Where possible, diseased or insect-
infested stands are harvested. Also, high-
risk trees and high-hazard stands likely to
be attacked are harvested. But some
susceptible stands are not now accessible.
Some are w*thout current market value.
Others are set aside for recreation or
single-use where timber cutting is prohib-
ited or limited. And, of course, many pest
problems cannot be solved by timber har-
vest or cultural measures. When preven-
tive measures are inadequate or cannot be
used, direct action against a destructive
pest must be taken. First however, a
troublesome pest must be detected and
identified.
Detection. Prompt and thorough detec-
tion is the key to quick and effective
action in dealing with pests. We now in-
spect all forest lands in the United States
for evidence of abnormal pest activity.
We do this in two ways: (1) by utilizing
the observations of the foresters in the
woods, and (2) by planned and system-
atic inspections of forest lands from the
air or on the ground by trained pest con-
trol officers. Not all abnormal disease or
insect activity in the forest requires con-
trol action. Many diseases and insects are
harmless. Some are beneficial, and even
the potentially harmful ones often subside
without causing serious economic damage.
The significance of each pest situation
must be evaluated to determine whether
control should be undertaken.
Evaluation. There are two steps to our
evaluations. The first is an assessment
FEBRUARY, 1965
of the biological factors to determine pos-
sible losses with and without control, the
measures available for control, and their
costs. The second is an estimate of the re-
sources threatened, to estimate the cost-
benefit relationships to be expected from
control. This second step is taken only
after the biological assessment indicates
that a pest will persist and seriously dam-
age the forest. This analysis shows the im-
pact of the pest upon each forest value—
timber, wildlife, recreation, water, forage,
scenery—and upon the forest environment
as a whole. The objective is to weigh all
costs and losses to determine whether the
control can be justified.
Suppression. When suppression is con-
sidered necessary, direct action must be
taken against a pest. The aim here is to
reduce its abundance to sufficiently low lev-
els that natural controls can hold the pest
at low endemic levels. There are several
ways of doing this.
To the extent possible, parasites, pred-
ators, and pathogens are relied on to keep:
pests in check and, in a few cases, are
used to suppress an epidemic. Unfortun-.
ately, biological controls often fail to pre--
vent pests from becoming epidemic and
only in rare instances have effective bio-
logical controls been developed to aid im
checking an epidemic. Where other meth-
ods are not adequate, or where there are |
no other methods, pesticides are used.
Generally, pesticides have been used more:
widely against defoliating insects. Such
defoliators as the spruce budworm, the:
loopers, tussock moths, and sawflies are ef-
fectively and economically controlled by
aerial sprays with modern insecticides.
Unfortunately, some of the most effective
insecticides are those which, because of
their persistence, also have the most im-
pact on fish and game animals. For ex-
ample, one pound of DDT per acre has re-
duced the population of spruce budworm
by as much as 99 percent. This intensity of
control usually puts an end to an epidemic.
But DDT is long-lived and it accumu-
31
lates in the fatty tissue of animals, with
unknown consequences. The short-lived
malathion reduced the budworm population
by 85 percent when sprayed at the rate of
3/4 pound per acre. It was estimated, how-
ever, that control would be effective for
only 2-3 years.
Eradication. On _ occasion, a_ forest
pest must be eradicated. Usually we are
concerned with native diseases or insects,
or firmly established foreign pests, and we
make no effort to do more than suppress
them to harmless levels. Eradication of
the last disease spore or insect specimen
is considered highly desirable in situations
where an introduced pest is still confined
to a small area, and still in its incipient
stages of development.
Prompt detection of incipient infestations
of newly-invading pests, and rigid Federal
and State quarantines to prevent spread
while eradication programs are underway.
are prerequisites for the success of eradica-
tion.
Guidelines in Conducting Forest Pest
Control
Before suppression against a pest out-
break is undertaken, we make certain that
control action is essential and will be ef-
fectively applied with minimal disruption
to people, wildlife, and the forest commu-
nity in general. We determine that
1. The pest in question poses a serious
threat to important forest values.
2. Effective measures are available for
direct or indirect control.
3. The cost-benefit relationship is fa-
vorable.
4. Effective safeguards will be used.
do. Control measures will be thorough
and complete.
6. The public is adequately informed.
In conclusion, the rate at which losses
from destructive forest diseases and in-
sects in the United States will be reduced
in the coming years will depend upon these
factors: (1) progress in research; (2)
extent to which old-growth timber is har-
vested; (3) new developments in utilizing
pest-infested and infected material; (4)
rate of conversion of the wild forest to
managed forests; and (5) the success in
coordinating cooperative controls among
Federal, State, and private forest land-
owners. Of these five actions, the most im-
portant is rate of progress in research.
Control can advance only as fast as re-
search provides the means for control to
move forward.
BO JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Wildlife and Chemical Pesticides
Lansing A. Parker
Associate Director, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Fish and
Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior _
In my opinion, very few subjects have
stirred up such long and, at times, acri-
monious discussions as the problem of
pesticide-wildlife relations. Those who favor
chemical control have centered much of
their fire on Rachel Carson’s presentation
on the subject in her book, “Silent Spring.”
The anti-chemical group points to reports
of fish kills in the Mississippi River and
elsewhere with an “I told you so.”
Usually the debates discuss pesticides in
general without a scientific basis for the
extrapolations offered either pro or con.
A vast amount of research must be con-
ducted before we will have the hard facts
from which to make final judgments. In
the meantime, we must recognize that prob-
lems can and do result from the applica-
tion of large-scale chemical control meas-
ures.
Most of the early organic pesticides were
broad spectrum, nonselective, persistent
chemicals. DDT, the great-grandfather of
the clan, has been used for only about
20 years in agricultural and forest insect
control. The background of early tests to
determine the effects of DDT serves as a
splendid example of cooperation between
research entomologists and wildlife biol-
ogists. Their joint efforts resulted in set-
ting maximum levels that were considered
safe for fish and wildlife. The only hitch,
unforeseen at the time, was the long life
of DDT in the environment; the half-life is
roughly 10 years. That characteristic, to-
gether with its tendency to concentrate in
the food chain and thereby cause sub-
lethal chronic effects on fish and wildlife
such as lowered reproduction, reduced
numbers of normal offspring, and sudden
FEBRUARY, 1965
death of the organism under stress, has
caused the biologists to reassess this com-
monly used insecticide (6).
Unfortunately, many of the earlier dis-
agreements on the subject were concerned
with how much, if any, fish and wildlife
were immediately destroyed following a
spray operation. There have been sufficient
surveys documented which have proved
losses, even drastic at times (3, 4, 8, 9, 10).
Much of the difficulty results from the fact
that too often the subject is discussed in the
broad context of all pesticidal chemicals
without consideration of their individual
characteristics. Then the attempted con-
clusions are stated in terms of “black or
white,” while actually they are more likely
to be “some shade of gray.”
Much debate centers around relative val-
ues of the wild animal resources versus
the need to control some agricultural pest
or potential health hazard. What are some
of the fish and wildlife values that should
be weighed?
Let’s consider some of the dollar values
of the fish and wildlife resources. In 1960
a national economic survey of hunting and
fishing revealed that 50 million of the then
130 million people over 12 years of age in
the United States went fishing, hunting, or
both that year (5). Of each five persons,
approximately two participated in these
sports. How many more people were
out-of-doors, motivated wholly or in part
by interest in these resources, is not known.
Bird watching, nature study, and photog-
raphy no doubt attract many more millions.
The survey also indicated over 650 million
recreation days and expenditures of $3.9
billion annually for hunting and fishing. In
ee)
eS)
many states tourism ranks among the top
three or four dollar businesses. Much of
the tourist industry’s foundation rests on
the fish and wildlife resources,
Also, we must take into account the com-
mercial value of fish and _ shellfish, for
these resources are in potentially grave
danger, especially those species that use
the large rivers and estuaries. In practice,
too many rivers are sewers that deliver
many kinds of chemical runoff to the
oceans.
Estuaries and coastal waters are of great
importance to salt water fish and shellfish.
They serve as the production areas for
many species and as the permanent habi-
tat of such important commercial resources
as clams, oysters, and crabs. Menhaden
and shrimp, which are the two most valu-
able commercial species, spend a large
part of their life cycle in the estuaries.
These two species, plus the oysters and
clams, account for about 50 percent of the
total United States fishery landings and
for about one-third of the value.
At one time or another most of us have
probably read of the prodigious numbers
of insects and weed seeds consumed by
birds. In a sense birds probably are the
chief insect control in an undisturbed en-
vironment. Even in the monotype habitat
of modern agriculture they serve as im-
portant biological checks against nuisance
insects and weeds.
Another set of values, although impossi-
ble to evaluate economically, is recognized
by most people: the aesthetic worth of these
resources. What is the dollar value of one
whooping crane? Judging by the news
interest of the 42 wild remnants of this
species, many million people must derive
satisfaction in just knowing they still exist
and in learning of the birds’ welfare.
Then, too, we have just begun to under-
stand the significance of each component
part of an ectosystem. The violence of sud-
denly removing a segment of the life of a
community has hardly been appraised. Ac-
tually, fish and wildlife may serve as the
“miner’s canary” for interpreting the ef-
fects of chemical pesticides on man. The
President’s Science Advisory Committee
in its report on “Use of Pesticides” (14)
noted: “The study of wildlife presents a
unique opportunity to discover the effects
on the food chain of which each animal
is a part, and to determine possible path-
ways through which accumulated and, in
some cases, magnified pesticide residues
can find their way directly or indirectly to
wildlife and to man.”
But the arguments advanced thus far beg
the question of relative values of a resource
belonging to all of the people compared to
potential economic loss to the individual or
to a public health hazard, or to the destruc-
tion of sizable areas of forests which, in
themselves, are essential to many forms of
fish and wildlife. Obviously each pest situ-
ation must be appraised individually.
Frequently the question is raised con-
cerning how many or what part of a fish
or wildlife population can be sacrificed in
order to protect other values. Some people
say “none,” which is easy for one who has
no responsibility for the results. I would
not view with great alarm the sometimes
drastic immediate losses of fish, birds, or
mammals if I could be sure that these
were the total impact. Obviously there are
instances every year where because of
storms, droughts, or other natural calami-
ties, segments of fish and wildlife are
wiped out or annual production fails. Most
organisms have the ability to bounce back
when favorable conditions return.
The immediate losses due to chemical
control programs are often indicators of
something more insidious and serious. This
is particularly true with several of the per-
sistent chlorinated hydrocarbon insecti-
cides. Many of the misunderstandings
have developed about this point. The for-
esters point to insect control programs
which - require chemical treatment once
every 3 to 5 years. The most commonly
used material is DDT which, as already
stated persists in the environment for long
periods. Theoretically, that habitat is never
completely free of DDT under those cir-
34. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
cumstances. Then consider some of the
agricultural croplands where as many as
3 to 8 applications of one or more pounds
per acre of persistent chemicals are ap-
plied each year. It is not unusual for large
quantities to accumulate in the soil as the
years pass. A recent survey revealed ac-
cumulations from 1.5 to 176 pounds per
acre in heavily treated areas, most of it in
the top few inches of soil. Investigators
have reported that DDT is the most per-
sistent of these followed, in order of de-
creasing persistency, by toxaphene, lindane,
chlordane, heptachlor, dieldrin, and aldrin
(7).
The chlorinated hydrocarbons also are
the most toxic to salt water fish and shell-
fish. Aldrin, dieldrin, and endrin cause the
most severe reactions. Shrimp, a close
relative of the insects, can be killed by con-
centrations as low as 0.6 parts per billion
within 24 hours. Mullet die at 2.6 parts
per billion. Growth of oysters is retarded
at 25 parts ber billion. (To illustrate what
small amounts these are, someone has de-
fined 1 part per billion as equivalent to 1
ounce of vermouth in 1,000 tank cars of
gin.) Also, there is the indirect effect on
the metabolism of phytoplankton, the base
of the food chain of the oceans.
Another aspect that evades recognition
is the characteristic of drift during appli-
cations, particularly from aerial spraying.
Available figures indicate that only a
small fraction of the land area is treated
with the bulk of the chemicals that are
used (11). This leads to the assumption
that the rest of the country goes “‘scot-free.”
Studies have shown that some of these
chemicals drift widely and probably occur
over the entire country. Even under care-
fully controlled spraying conditions, a test
with radioactive DDT showed that only
one-fourth landed on the intended target
area (13).
Scientists of the Bureau of Sport Fisher-
ies and Wildlife have recovered DDT and
its degradation products from water, soils,
eggs, and ducklings taken in the North-
FEBRUARY, 1965
west Territory of Canada, hundreds of
miles from any known application. Traces
were even recovered from air samples col-
lected in the Far North. Except for iso-
lated instances, no one knows the magni-
tude of the present pesticide load or whether
it is increasing or decreasing. However,
the extent of contamination of fish and
wildlife can be judged by the fact that ap-
proximately three-fourths of the specimens
analyzed at our laboratories in recent
years contained detectable amounts of pes-
ticides.
There are other characteristics of this
new element of the environment. Speci-
mens of fish and wildlife have been anal-
yzed which contained residue levels well
above those considered lethal under lab-
oratory tests. Presumably by ingesting
only sublethal amounts for long periods,
they were able to store the chemicals in
their body fat. During periods of stress,
as the fat is rapidly converted, they may
succumb. But what of their ability to pro-
duce normal offspring? Laboratory experi-
ments have shown that certain sublethal
dosages result in fewer eggs and few sur-
viving young. It has been well estab-
lished that some of the pesticides are trans-
mitted from the hen to the egg.
In this connection, ornithologists the
world over are much concerned by the de-
cline of all of the raptors. Strong circum-
stantial evidence points to pesticides as the
probable cause of low hatchability of the
eggs of osprey (1) and the bald eagle of
the East Coast.
Another cause for concern is biological
magnification in the food chain. Earth-
worms feeding on material contaminated
with DDT as a result of spraying against
Dutch elm disease in Michigan were able
to concentrate the chemical in their bodies.
Subsequently the demise of birds was
caused by the combined load of many
earthworms they fed upon. Brain tissue of
robins contained as much as 120 p.p.m. (2).
A very clear example (12) is the DDD
spraying for gnat control that passed from
a0
the plankton to the fishes to the fish-eating
birds, with disastrous consequences to the
latter.
The problems of migratory birds that
twice annually encounter the results of
several pesticide control programs along
their migration routes are obvious, and
could very well account for the decline of
some of the formerly common species,
including the eastern bluebird, house wren,
and purple martin. But an additional hazard
has been detected, that is, the synergistic
effects of some of these compounds when
they are applied together. Laboratory
tests have shown that DDT combined with
2, 4—D had a much more lethal effect on
mallard ducks than when each compound
was fed separately.
What are the solutions or alternatives
to resolve the problem?
Generally it is accepted that pesticidal
chemicals are essential to the modern
production of food and fiber and to public
health. It is a matter of taking into ac-
count all facets of interest in seeking a solu-
tion. Then, as is so frequently the case,
a final hard decision must be made.
Some members of the chemical industry
offer a simple, direct solution. They sug-
gest a definition of what constitutes wild-
life habitat. They would not urge spraying
lakes, streams, marshes, and woodlands,
which they class as wildlife habitat. They
propose that environments such as culti-
vated lands, pastures, haylands, suburbs,
and arteries of transportation should be
considered as “man habitat” where wild-
life does not belong and is not welcome.
While this may offer a direct solution to the
problem, ecologists cannot endorse this
idea and even the agricultural pesticide
users generally would not agree with it.
Most farmers welcome the presence of the
robin, the cottontail rabbit, a covey of bob-
white quail, and other wildlife. Obviously
the hunting fraternity would oppose such a
classification, for about three-fourths of
the game is produced on farmland.
Biological control has been urged as the
answer. The entomologists have done re-
markable work in the control and, in some
cases, the eradication of some serious in-
sect pests. All will agree that the princi-
ple holds considerable additional promise,
but much research remains to be done and,
in many situations, this approach is not
likely to be the answer.
Thus, most fish and wildlife scientists
recognize chemical control as the best an-
swer to the majority of man’s pest prob-
lems, particularly because the environ-
ment has been so altered that planned
monotypes of agricultural crops and for-
ests often do and will prevail. We also
believe that better safeguards are needed
to protect the fish and wildlife resources
and to minimize the effects of chemical
control programs on them. A number of
steps have been taken during the past few
years to accomplish this. They include both
administrative and legislative action.
Within the Federal government there is
general recognition of the problems and
the need for cooperative efforts to solve
them. By administrative action, the Sec-
retaries of Agriculture, Defense, Interior,
and Health, Education, and Welfare signed
an agreement which reconstituted the Fed-
eral Pest Control Review Board into the
Federal Committee on Pest Control. The
Committee’s functions have been broadened
to include not only its earlier task of re-
viewing operational control programs of
the Federal Government, but also review
and coordination of the research, monitor-
ing, and public information programs deal-
ing with this subject.
By agreement between the Secretaries
of Agriculture, Interior, and Health, Edu-
cation, and Welfare, a system of review of
the applications for registration of pesti-
cides has been initiated. The final decisions
remain those of the Department of Agricul-
ture, but the other two Departments study
the background data supporting the regis-
tration application and recommend ac-
tions to protect the resources for which
they are responsible.
Insofar as the Department of the Interi-
or’s chemical control programs are con-
36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
a a a a gf
cerned, Secretary Udall has issued a clear
directive. It provides that all bureaus
must have their programs reviewed by a
team composed of representatives from the
Geological Survey, the Bureau of Commer-
cial Fisheries, and the Bureau of Sport
Fisheries and Wildlife prior to submission
to the Federal Committee on Pest Control.
The Secretary of the Interior wants this De-
partment to serve as a model in carrying
out its programs to control noxious weeds,
insects, and other pests.
Cooperative efforts with the chemical
industry have resulted in the preparation of
a guide for testing new compounds on rep-
resentative species of fish and wildlife.
This will enable the manufacturers and
formulators to conduct fish and wildlife
screening tests prior to presenting their
applications for registration. The results
of these tests should give good indications
of the effects of their chemicals on fish,
shellfish, and wildlife.
The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wild-
life is cooperating with the Forest Service’s
insecticide laboratory at Berkeley, Cali-
fornia, to assist in the appraisal of poten-
tial pesticides for the control of forest in-
sects by testing them on _ representative
forms in the laboratory and by surveillance
of field tests.
The heated debates of the past, plus the
large die-off of fishes in the Lower Missis-
sippi, have caused Congress to look at the
problem too. Committees in both the Sen-
ate and the House have held extensive hear-
ings. Some revisions in the laws governing
registration of chemicals have been enacted
by Congress in recent sessions.
Within the past few years many of the
states and Canadian provinces have, by
executive direction or legislative act, estab-
lished state boards or committees which
have responsibilities to regulate or control
the use of pesticides within their borders.
Fish and wildlife representatives usually
are members of these boards or serve on
technical advisory committees.
In spite of the actions of all governments,
FEBRUARY, 1965
the final determination will be that of the
users, who have the responsibility of using
these tools wisely.
As shown above, the persistent chemicals
are of most concern because of their rel-
atively long life and subsequent accumula-
tion if applied frequently. The others,
while rapidly degrading, do have some seri-
ous consequences. Therefore, all applica-
tions of pesticides should be at the mini-
mum rates to control the target organism.
The most selective chemical should be
used. If the time of the year is of no great
consequence, treatments should be avoided
during periods of bird migrations and time
of nestlings. Large blocks of land should
not be sprayed at one time. Direct spray-
ing of lakes, streams, or other waters should
be avoided. Thought should go into the
planning of a control program to recognize
and prevent adverse side effects. Biol-
ogists of Federal and state fish and wild-
life agencies are available for consultation
concerning locations of important fish and
wildlife habitats.
In other words, it is not a proposition
of “either or,” but rather one of modera-
tion so that control can be achieved with
minimum damage to fish and wildlife val-
ues.
References
(1) Ames, Peter L., and Mersereau, G. S.
Some factors in the decline of the osprey in
Connecticut. Auk 81 (2), 173-185 (1964).
(2) Bernard, Richard F. Studies on the effects
of DDT on birds. Publications of the Museum,
Michigan State University, Biological Series 2
(3), 155-192 (1963).
(3) Bundick; Gaps Harris; Ba J.3 Dean, Hes
Walker, T. M., Skea, J., and Colby, D. The ac-
cumulation of DDT in lake trout and the effects
on reproduction. Trans. Am. Fish Soc. 93 (2),
127-136 (1964).
(4) Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife.
Pesticide-Wildlife Review, 1959, Bur. of Sport
Fish. and Wildl. Cir. 84, 1960, 36 pp.
(5) Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife.
1960 National Survey of Fishing and Hunting.
Bur. of Sport Fish. and Wildl. Cir. 120, 1961,
73 pp.
(6) Dewitt, James B. Chronic toxicity to quail
oS)
~~]
and pheasants of some chlorinated insecticides.
J. Agr. Food Chem. 4, 863-866 (1956) .
(7) Edwards, C. A. Persistence of insecticides
in the soil. New Scientist 19, 351 (August 1963).
(8) Fish and Wildlife Service. Effects of
pesticides on fish and wildlife, 1960. U. S. Fish
and Wildl. Ser. Cir. 143, 1962, 52 pp.
(9) Fish and Wildlife Service. Pesticide-Wild-
life Studies, 1961 and 1962. U.S. Fish and Wildl.
Ser. Cir. 167, 1963, 109 pp.
(10) Fish and Wildlife Service. Pesticide-
Wildlife Studies, 1963. U.S. Fish and Wildl.
Ser. Cir. 199, 1964, 130 pp.
(11) Hall, D. G. Use of insecticides in the
United States. Entomol. Soc. Am. release, May
20, 1962, pp. 5-11.
(12) Hunt, E. G., and Biscoff, A. I. Inimical
effects on wildlife of periodic DDD applications
to Clear Lake. Calif. Fish and Game 46, 91-106
(1960).
(13) Peterle, Tony J., and Giles, Robert -H.,
Jr. New tracer techniques for evaluating the
effects of an insecticide on the ecology of a forest
fauna. RF Project 1207, Report 3, The Ohio
State University, 1964.
(14) President’s Science Advisory Committee.
Use of Pesticides. The White House Report,
1963, 22 pp.
Forest Insect Control
By Biological Methods
James A. Beal
Director, Forest Insect Research, Forest Service, Department of Agriculture
Concern with some of the undesirable
aspects of controlling insect pests by
chemical means has focused interest on
other methods of insect control. Biological
control is one of the most popular of these
other methods. Not only is it safe, but it
has shown spectacular success in some
cases. The term “biological control’ is
sometimes used very broadly to cover all
methods of encouraging the action of biotic
factors, but in this paper it refers specific-
ally to the use of parasites, pathogens, and
predators. These biological control fac-
tors are active at all times, to some de-
gree, among the populations of native for-
est insect pests. Without them and other
natural controls, the forests we know to-
day probably would not exist.
The basis of biological control depends
on the existence of a natural enemy or com-
plex of enemies that are more or less
host specific; that have good searching
capacity, adequate rates of increase, and
dispersal; that react to environmental con-
ditions favoring the host; and whose ef-
fectiveness increases with host density,
with little or no time lag. With these at-
tributes, the introduced natural enemy by
itself or in conjunction with other mortality
factors is expected to prevent outbreaks of
the pest species, or at least to hold down
major population fluctuations (Prebble,
1960).
The objective, then, in biological control
of forest insects is to manipulate predators,
parasites, and diseases so that they will
exert an even greater influence in keep-
ing pest insects below economic damage
levels. The goal is prevention, rather than
direct control of outbreaks. When popula-
tions of a pest species become epidemic
and damage is severe and widespread, it
is usually necessary to resort to more di-
rect methods such as chemical control.
Biological control methods have not ad-
vanced to the stage where they can be
used as rapid and direct measures for sup-
pression of epidemics. One possible ex-
38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ception is the aerial application of a dis-
ease organism to control an outbreak of a
forest pest such as a defoliator.
Although many are enthusiastic about the
possibilities of biological control of insect
pests, others do not share this enthusiasm.
For example, Taylor (1955) believes that
the prospective use of the method on a con-
tinental basis is not encouraging. Also,
Milne (1957) is not convinced that the
available evidence supports belief that an
enemy species by itself, or indeed, several
kinds of enemies acting in concert, can con-
trol a pest species at an economic or any
other stated level; and Elton (1958) notes
that proof that parasites and predators
have done the job without assistance from
unknown causes or events is usually inade-
quate or totally lacking.
Regardless of opposing views, we should
not overlook the fact that the forest offers
special opportunity for biological control.
For example, certain characteristics of the
forest environment, a high degree of tol-
erance of some kinds of trees, and a wil-
lingness to accept something less than
eradication or 100 percent control increase
the possibilities of biological control of
some forest insects. The forest is ecologic-
ally diverse in flora and fauna and occupies
varied topographic sites. It is free from
annual upheavals in the form of cultivating
and cropping practices, and the long time
required to grow a timber crop provides
security for continuous prolonged efforts.
Its tolerance of repeated defoliation pro-
vides sound biological grounds for with-
holding chemical control in many _in-
stances. This tolerance of moderate injury
also provides a basis for less exacting
standards in biological control than would
be acceptable to producers of many annual
crops (Prebble, 1960).
In short, biological control of many for-
est insects might well be judged successful,
if through the use of counterpests the inten-
sity or duration of outbreaks is reduced to
less than tree-killing proportions.
In the past, most efforts toward biologi-
FEBRUARY, 1965
cal control in North America have been
aimed at the introduction and colonization
of parasites and predators of introduced
pests. Control has been attempted against
some 15 or 16 important introduced forest
and shade tree pests. Worthwhile results
are judged to have been produced against
10 of them. Only a few of these more suc-
cessful introductions are discussed here.
The larch casebearer has been success-
fully held in check in the East and Lake
States by the introduction of its native
European parasites. Attempts are now
being made to colonize one of the more
important of these in the western United
States, where the casebearer has recently
become established.
The European spruce sawfly in Canada
and northeastern United States is being
effectively controlled during low popula-
tions by introduced parasites. At higher
populations, an introduced virus disease
takes over and becomes equally effective.
Together, these biological controls have
prevented epidemics of this once very de-
structive pest of spruce.
The European pine sawfly in both Can-
ada and the United States is being controlled
in infested plantations largely by the aerial
application of a host-specific virus. This
disease organism has been quite persistent
in some areas where it was applied only
once.
Biological control of native forest insects
has received relatively little attention in
the past because it has been reasoned that
indigenous pests already have their full
complement of native enemies that are ex-
erting their influence against their re-
spective host species. It has also been
reasoned that the introduction of foreign
parasites and predators into an ecosystem
where they would be in competition with
native species would be ecologically un-
sound. In addition, there has been a gen-
eral feeling in the past that little could be
done to increase the effectiveness of par-
asites, predators, and diseases against
native pests. Under favorable conditions,
39
they would be reasonably effective, and
under adverse conditions, efforts to in-
crease their effectiveness were likely to
be futile.
Fortunately, this generally negative at-
titude toward the natural biotic control
agents is now less widely accepted than
formerly. Today many able scientists are
confident that research can provide the
knowledge that will enable us to make more
effective use of parasites, predators, and
diseases in preventing outbreaks of na-
tive forest insect pests. This is reflected in
the forest insect research program of the
Forest Service.
Observations of outbreaks of many na-
tive forest pests have often revealed sud-
den drastic population reductions that have
effectively terminated the outbreak. Some-
times it has not been possible to explain
these population declines, but at other times
the evidence has pointed strongly to para-
sites, predators, or disease as the primary
controlling factor. For example, a recent
sudden termination of the elm spanworm
epidemic in the Southeast was attributed
to the effects of an egg parasite. Also
the pine tortoise scale in the Lake States
and the East is often controlled by pre-
daceous ladybird beetles and parasites.
Nematodes were largely responsible for
bringing to an end a recent fir engraver
beetle outbreak in New Mexico, and mites
and parasites played a major role in stop-
ping an outbreak of the southern pine beetle
in Texas. Native viruses and _ bacterial
diseases have also terminated outbreaks
of some defoliators, such as the Douglas-
fir tussock moth, the pandora moth, the
gypsy moth, and certain sawflies. These
are only a few examples of biological
control in action.
Although we recognize the importance of
biological control factors as well as some-
thing of their impact on pest populations
under natural conditions, we have not pro-
gressed very far in our ability to manipu-
late them to our advantage. We can, of
course, transport parasites and predators
into areas where they do not occur na-
turally, but we cannot force them to do the
job we have in mind. Neither can we
mass-produce them in numbers great
enough to overwhelm an outbreak. A few
pathogens, principally viruses and_bac-
teria, have been identified and reproduced
as aerial sprays for control of a small num-
ber of defoliating insects. Since these are
for the most part highly specific, z.e., ef-
fective against a single species, and since
they are living organisms dependent for
their survival, multiplication, and spread on
a restrictive range of climatic and biolog-
ical conditions, literally hundreds of differ-
ent pathogens are required to replace a
single broad-spectrum insecticide. Their
identification, isolation, mode of action,
culture, and formulation for field use offer
both challenges and opportunities for in-
sect pathologists.
In view of all these problems, it appears
quite unlikely that biological methods will,
in the near future, play a major role in the
direct control of forest insect outbreaks.
This is not to imply that research will not
find ways and means to use parasites,
pathogens, and predators more effectively
against forest insects. This, however, will
require greatly increased research effort.
It is encouraging to note that the country-
wide trend is already toward more research
on biological control as well as toward
more basic research.
However, there is little likelihood that we
can suppress insect epidemics quickly by
direct application of biological methods.
Eventually, enough can be learned about
the manipulation of biological control fac-
tors that they can be made to exert a
stronger influence toward prevention of out-
breaks. It seems reasonable to expect that
one day it may be possible to dampen the
effects of outbreaks, to lengthen the time be-
tween epidemic peaks, and even to decrease
the magnitude of those peaks through the
application of biological control methods.
Biological control alone probably will
not give our forests the full protection
AO JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
a
needed. It should be used with silvicultural
and chemical control, all of which need
much more research aimed at their inte-
grated use.
References
Elton, C. S. The ecology of invasions by
animals and plants. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1958.
Biological Control
Taylor, T. H. C. Biological control of insects.
Ann. Appl. Biol. 42 (1955).
Milne, A. Theories of natural control of insect
populations. Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on
Quantitative Biology 22 (1957).
Prebble, M. L. Biological control in forest
entomology. Bull. Entomol. Soc. Am. (March
1960).
Of Forest Tree Diseases
J. R. Hansbrough
Director, Forest Disease Research, Forest Service,
Department of Agriculture
America’s forests are one of her greatest
renewable natural resources. Unlike min-
eral resources, forests can be utilized, and
then, under good management and with
adequate protection, they can be regener-
ated again and again on the same site. Dur-
ing this cycle, they provide lumber and
other products, protect the soil from ero-
sion, contribute to water conservation, offer
food and cover for wild and domestic ani-
mals, and are an important element in
human enjoyment of outdoor recreational
activities. Maximum use of forests for the
greatest public benefit requires constant
vigilance to reduce preventable losses
from destructive agencies, of which dis-
eases are currently highest on the list.
The several hundred species of trees com-
prising American forests are vulnerable to
the attack of innumerable diseases. Some
are caused by pathogens such as fungi, bac-
teria, nematodes, viruses, and _ parasitic
flowering plants; others by unfavorable en-
vironmental influences such as moisture and
FEBRUARY, 1965
temperature extremes, nutritional imbal-
ances, and noxious fumes in the atmos-
phere. Reduction of disease losses is sought
through many and diverse measures: (1)
quarantines to exclude dangerous foreign
pathogens from this continent, (2) special
fungicidal, sanitation, or eradication ap-
plications to reduce inoculum or to prevent
infection, (3) selection and breeding for
genetic host resistance, (4) timely applica-
tion of beneficial silvicultural practices,
and (5) stimulation of biotic factors in the
forest environment that prevent infection,
retard disease spread and _ intensification,
or increase tree vigor.
Quarantines are the first line of defense.
Plants and plant parts capable of introduc-
ing known potentially damaging forest
pathogens are excluded, and incoming ship-
ments of other plant materials are care-
fully inspected to insure freedom from
disease. Quarantine efficiency is steadily
improving through research on all conti-
nents to identify and characterize forest
41
pathogens and to keep inspection tech-
niques up to date through a continuing
training program.
Special direct disease control measures
are seldom employed unless all other meth-
ods of reducing losses to a tolerable level
have failed. Examples of such measures
now in practice are fungicidal seedling
sprays and soil fumigation in forest nurser-
ies, destruction of currants and gooseber-
ries (the alternative hosts) to protect white
pines from blister rust infections and
antibiotic applications to cure those already
infected, chemical stump treatments to
prevent the establishment of root rot in-
fections in forest soils, and sanitation prun-
ing of western conifers to remove dwarf
mistletoe infections.
The development of genetically resistant
stock for planting in areas of high disease
hazard is one of the most promising ap-
proaches to permanent reduction of losses
from specific diseases. Outstanding prog-
ress has been made in producing white
pines resistant to the introduced blister
rust fungus, elms resistant to the phloem
necrosis virus and the Dutch elm disease.
shortleaf pines resistant to the littleleaf
disease, longleaf pines resistant to brown
spot needle blight, and southern pines
resistant to fusiform rust.
Biological control of forest diseases, the
major theme of this paper, may be defined
in two ways. In the broad sense it includes
all biotic measures that favor tree growth
and health or are unfavorable to pathogens;
in a much more restricted sense, it includes
only the action of parasitic or predaceous
organisms on the pathogens that cause for-
est diseases. Each of these concepts will
be examined separately, beginning with the
application of beneficial silvicultural prac-
tices.
Many forest pathogens, including most
of those native to this continent, depend
upon reduced tree vigor or upon injuries to
provide an opportunity for successful at-
tack. Losses from all such diseases may
be reduced by applying measures to main-
tain or increase tree vigor or to prevent in-
juries. In essence, this amounts to growing
the right tree on the right site, providing
it with adequate growing room, and pro-
tecting it from natural and man-made
injuries. Practice of this kind of forest.
management involves consideration of site
selection, species mixtures, stocking, rota-
tion age, stand regeneration, cultural
treatments, and prevention of wounds that
serve as infection courts for pathogens.
Trees growing on good sites for the
species are more vigorous and in general
are less susceptible to disease attacks than
those on poor sites, indicating the need for
better appreciation of the site requirements
of important species. For example, re-
search has shown that the littleleaf disease
of shortleaf pine occurs only on heavy
soils with poor internal drainage, a situa-
tion favorable to the causal fungus. This
disease may be controlled by convert-
ing to other species on high hazard sites.
particularly to hardwoods that are known
for their soil building capacity.
In most instances, trees growing in mix-
tures are more vigorous than those in
pure stands, indicating the need for more-
information on the effects of stand compo-
sition on disease incidence. A good rule
of thumb is to follow nature. If a tree spe-
cies occurs naturally in mixture with other
species, the same mixtures should be en-
couraged under management. If it occurs
naturally in pure stands (1.e., Douglas fir),
it may be assumed that disease hazards
are not emphasized by stand purity alone.
Trees growing under ideal stocking ac-
cording to age and size are more vigorous
than those in over-dense or wide open
stands, indicating the need for research on
the relationships between spacing and
disease attacks. For example, Hypoxylon
canker of aspen is more abundant in open
stands and on exposed trees at the edges of
stands than in the interior of closed stands.
Proper spacing affords some biological
control of this disease. at
Trees from sapling to physiological ma-
42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ee ———————————————————————Eee
I IS
turity are more vigorous than those that
are overmature, indicating the need for
recognition of the age at which different
species reach maturity. In all species that
have been studied, the incidence of heart
rot is directly related to age. The rotation
age should not exceed that age at which
heart rot losses become excessive.
Naturally regenerated stands are usually
more thrifty than planted ones, presumably
for two reasons: they are better suited to
the sites and root formation, and distribu-
tion in the soil is not adversely affected by
planting techniques. If planting must
be resorted to, great care should be exer-
cised to assure that the species and the
provenance of seed are appropriate for the
site. Incidentally, native species are al-
most universally more vigorous than exot-
ics, indicating the need for caution in es-
tablishing tree species in areas or on sites
where they do not occur naturally. For
example, Scots pine plantations in North
America have seldom reached maturity
without excessive pest attacks, often result-
ing in complete loss. Even more striking
is the fact that Tympanis canker of red
pine occurs almost entirely in plantations
south of the natural range of the species;
it has never been observed in naturally
regenerated stands and is of no consequence
in plantations in areas where red pine oc-
curs naturally.
Cultural treatments such as thinning to
optimium spacing, pruning lower or dis-
eased branches, reducing sprout clump,
harvesting without site degradation, or
even correcting nutritional imbalances by
artificial fertilization can be carried out so
as to reduce disease incidence or to pre-
vent new infections. All cultural measures
should be considered in relation to dis-
ease occurrence and should be properly
timed for maximum utility in disease sup-
pression. For example, dwarf mistletoe in
western conifers can be controlled by sani-
tation to remove infected trees or parts of
trees, thereby preventing infection of under-
story reproduction, which is the nucleus of
FEBRUARY, 1965
the next generation. In all cultural opera-
tions, diseased trees should be removed to
leave the residual stand in the best possi-
ble condition.
Uninjured trees are more vigorous than
those that have had to undergo or with-
stand any deteriorating or injurious influ-
ence. Fire and logging scars are the most
frequent kinds of wounds that provide entry
for heart rot fungi and other pathogens.
Fire prevention and careful logging to avoid
injuries to residual trees are effective
means of reducing disease losses.
It is obvious that many biological factors
contribute to disease incidence in forest
trees; it is equally obvious that through
the use of good management practices they
can be made more or less innocuous. Many
diseases have erupted to epidemic pro-
portions not because the pathogen has
suddenly become more virulent, but rather
because forest management, or misman-
agement, has created an environment fa-
vorable to the pathogen. The real chal-
lenged, therefore, is to determine how to
reverse this trend: how to establish a
balance between trees and pathogens that
will prevent catastrophic disease epidemics.
The possibility of preventing or control-
ling forest diseases through the action of
organisms parasitic to or predaceous on
pathogens has a strong appeal to the imag-
ination but little basis in fact. There are
many examples of fungi parasitic on forest
pathogens and a few examples of insect
predators, but there are no known instances
of the reduction of a forest disease out-
break to tolerable levels through the action
of such organisms. Conversely, there is
ample evidence that parasites and preda-
tors of forest pathogens really thrive only
when and after the pathogen is widespread
and damaging. Under such circumstances
they undoubtedly do reduce inoculum pro-
duction but not sufficiently to suppress the
epidemic. Most important of all, however,
they failed to prevent the epidemic in the
first place.
A few case histories illustrate the situa-
43
tion. There are several native fungi par-
asitic on the stem rusts of American co-
nifers, of which the most widely distributed
is the purple mold, Tuberculina maxima.
When the white pine blister rust fungus
was introduced into this continent about
60 years ago, this mold found it a more
congenial host than any of our native rusts.
In spite of this, it has been incapable of
preventing the spread and intensification of
blister rust throughout the range of the
white pine species in the United States and
Canada. Currently, there is evidence that
it may be reducing damage from the rust
on western white pine in the northern Rocky
Mountain region but it most certainly has
not controlled the disease there or else-
where.
American beech in eastern Canada and
northeastern United States has been se-
verely damaged during the past 35 years
by successive attacks of an introduced scale
insect and a native but secondary fungus.
After the pathogen is well established in the
bark of trees previously infested by the
insect, it in turn is commonly parasitized
by a brown mold, Gonatorhodiella highlei,
which eventually kills the pathogen, but not
before it has spread to many more trees
and, in most cases, has killed the tree on
which it was established.
Dwarf mistletoes are parasitic flowering
plants that attack, deform, and kill many
western and northern conifers. There are
numerous fungi parasitic on the dwarf
mistletoes and several insects that feed on
them, but in no instance is such action
early and common enough to prevent fur-
ther spread of the parasites. Artificial at-
tempts to increase their effectiveness have
failed to date.
In the case of Fomes annosus root rot of
pines, particularly common and damaging
in eastern and southern United States, the
outlook for biological control is more prom-
ising. The action, however, will be through
antagonism rather than parasitism. The
causal fungus is native and widespread but
is incapable of causing severe losses of
naturally regenerated pines on undisturbed
forest soil. On the other hand, it spreads
rapidly and causes catastrophic losses in
pine plantations on land previously under
agricultural cultivation. It is thought that
the use of land for the production of agri-
cultural crops changes the soil flora and
fauna and thereby eliminates those or-
ganisms that exert an antibiotic influence
on the pathogen in forest soils. Research
is underway to determine what microor-
ganisms have been eliminated from forest
soils by agricultural practices (cultivation,
rotation, nutrient depletion, soil erosion,
etc.), which of them are antagonistic to the
root pathogen, and how to reintroduce
them to land reverting to forest production.
It is hoped that this may be accomplished
by inoculation of nursery soil in which seed-
lings are grown before outplanting, there-
by providing each seedling with its full
complement of protective organisms.
In conclusion, there are tremendous op-
portunities to improve forest disease con-
trol by applying biotic measures of all
kinds that favor tree growth or are detri-
mental to the spread and intensification of
pathogens. In most cases, these will not be
special measures over and above what is
required for maximum tree growth, but they
must be applied consistently and at ap-
propriate times in the life of the forest to
be fully effective. Biological disease con-
trol must be practiced from stand regen-
eration to maturity and harvest, must be
preventive rather than palliative, and must
be based on sound ecological concepts of
the forest as a community of plants rather
than as simply a stand of trees.
cM
4A, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Breeding Forest ‘Trees
For Pest Resistance
H. A. Fowells
Chief, Branch of Silviculture, Division of Timber Management Research,
Forest Service, Department of Agriculture
Success in the development of pest re-
sistant forest trees holds out promise that
tree breeding may alleviate at least part
of the pressures from disease organisms
and insects. Forest tree breeding is a re-
latively new art. The first formalized re-
search in this country took place only
about 40 years ago. In the past 10 years,
research in forest genetics has increased
many-fold and breeding for pest resist-
ance is a major objective in many pro-
grams.
Tree-Breeding Procedures
The development of improved forest trees
is a difficult, often frustrating, and time-
consuming undertaking. The selection of
resistant trees requires extensive examina-
tion of forests to search for the rare tree
which may carry the genetic tendency for
resistance. Then only by controlled breed-
ing and progeny testing can it be estab-
lished that the resistance is in fact in-
herited, and that the healthy tree had not
escaped attack.
The process of creating hybrids, in coni-
fers, requires many trips up and down
trees to protect the immature female stro-
bili from stray pollen, to collect the desired
pollen, to pollinate the female strobili, to
remove the pollination bags, and finally
to collect the cones (Cumming and Righter,
1948) .
In the pines, in which most research is
being conducted, this procedure lasts for
about a year and a half. The female stro-
bili mature during the period from Febru-
FEBRUARY, 1965
ary or March until May, depending on the
latitude, altitude, and species, and are
receptive for pollination for only a few
days. Fertilization occurs after 12 to 14
months, in the year following pollination,
and cones and seeds mature several months
later.
Seeds are usually sown in the nursery
in spring, and seedlings emerge in a few
weeks. Seedlings can be tested for resist-
ance to fungi or insects in one to several
years under artificial or natural conditions,
although it may take many years to test
for some pests. Ten to twenty years or
more must pass before a second generation
can be produced in some species. But these
difficulties have been overcome and _ pest-
resistant trees have been developed.
Breeding for Disease Resistance
Many of the disastrous diseases of forest
trees in the United States resulted from or-
ganisms brought in from other continents.
Our native species had no opportunity to
evolve to this new part of the environ-
ment by natural selection. Thus the organ-
isms causing white pine blister rust, chest-
nut blight, and Dutch elm disease found
highly susceptible hosts here. Other native
diseases, endemic normally, flair up un-
der changed environmental conditions of
intensive management for wood production
or when a favored host is moved out of its
natural range.
Forest geneticists are developing resist-
ant trees by two procedures. Selecting
AS
the rare individual which, through some
genetic change, is resistant to the disease
organism has been most productive. Pro-
ducing interspecific hybrids between the
susceptible native species and immune
or resistant exotic or native species has
also shown promise.
Western white pine (Pinus monticola)
is extremely susceptible to the organism
causing white pine blister rust (Cronartium
ribicola). In the millions of acres of in-
fected trees in Idaho, a few hundred scat-
tered trees were found in epidemic areas
which bore no disease cankers (Bingham,
Squillace, and Duffield, 1953). Controlled
breeding among these resistant candidates
has shown that about one quarter of the
selections are able to transmit their resist-
ance to their offspring. Narrow-sense heri-
tability was found to be high, and the
genetic gain in survival was estimated to
be about 20 percent per breeding genera-
tion (Bingham, 1960). The results of this
research are so encouraging that seed
orchards are being established to produce
seed for trees with substantially greater
resistance to the blister rust fungi. Similar
research is underway for sugar pine (P.
lambertiana) and eastern white pine (P.
strobus), the two other important native
white pines.
Some exotic white pines are highly re-
sistant to the blister rust fungus. They
have been used in interspecific hybridiza-
tion in an attempt to incorporate resistance
factors in the hybrid. Himalayan white
pine (P. griffithii), has been crossed with
eastern white pine and the progeny are
more resistant than the American parental
species (Callaham, 1962).
Even better prospects exist for develop-
ing trees resistant to a native rust, Cron-
artium fusiforme, which severely attacks
two important southern pines—loblolly (P.
taeda) and slash (P. elliottit). Rust-free
trees have been located in heavily infected
stands. Progeny of rust-free parents had
markedly fewer infections under heavy
artificial inoculation with the fungus than
did progeny from infected parents (Jewell,
1961).
Also, the possibility exists for mass pro-
duction of interspecific hybrids between
these two susceptible pines and the resist-
ant shortleaf pine (P. echinata). Short-
leaf pine x loblolly pine hybrids showed no
rust cankers after five years in an area
of heavy infection on slash pine (Henry and
Bercaw, 1956). In subsequent trials under
forced inoculation, cankers did develop on
both this hybrid and the hybrid between
shortleaf and slash pines (Jewell, 1961).
But infection was not nearly as severe as
on the slash or loblolly pine seedlings.
Progress is being made in breeding for-
est trees which are resistant to Endothia
parasitica, the causal agent of chestnut
blight. This imported disease has prac-
tically destroyed the American chestnut
(Castanea dentata). A few trees apparent-
ly have survived attack and may constitute
the basis for developing a resistant strain
(Anderson, 1960). Some hybrids between
the American chestnut and the Japanese
chestnut (C. crenata) and the Chinese
A forest geneticist squirts pollen
over the female strobili, which are protected from
stray pollen.
Figure 1.
46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Figure 2. A western white pine tree which has
been control-pollinated to produce _blister-rust-
resistant trees.
chestnut (C. mollissima), the most resist-
ant species, are resistant to the fungus.
However, most of these hybrids have rel-
atively poor form for timber trees and need
a better site than did the native chestnut
(Gravatt et al., 1953).
Although the poplars are not particularly
important now as timber trees in this coun-
try, they have great potential for rapid
growth. They also are beset by many dis-
eases. In Europe, poplar culture is often
very intensive and breeding for disease
resistance has long been a part of growing
poplar. As a result, a number of clonal
lines have been developed to resist many
of the disease organisms (Schreiner, 1959).
Poplars are easily propagated by cuttings
and perpetuation of resistant strains is
easy.
Less progress has been made in breeding
other trees to withstand disease organisms.
For example, little progress todate has been
made in breeding against the organisms
causing Dutch elm disease (Ceratocistis
ulmt) or oak wilt (Ceratocystis fagacea-
FEBRUARY, 1965
rum). Breeding against any of the multi-
tude of heart rots, which cause damage in
the billions of board feet annually, has not
yet started. But these endeavors are not
impossible even though success may be a
long time off.
Breeding for Insect Resistance
Natural variation exists within many tree
species with respect to susceptibility to in-
sect attack. Immunity of some tree spe-
cies to attack by a given insect also pro-
vides the basis for developing strains of
hybrids resistant to insect pests. In the
Northeastern and Lake States, eastern
white pine is so severely damaged by
the white pine weevil (Pissodes strobi)
that profitable management of white pine
is uncertain. This insect repeatedly attacks
the terminal of saplings, causing trees
of very poor form. Enough trees have re-
sisted attack to justify a breeding program
(Wright and Gabriel, 1959).
In California, plantations of ponderosa
pine (Pinus ponderosa) and Jeffrey pine
(P. jeffreyi) have suffered severely from
killing by the pine reproduction weevil
(Cylindrocopturus eatonii). Coulter pine
(P. coulteri), native to California, is im-
mune to the insect. Hybrids between Jef-
frey pine and Coulter pine were attacked
by the insect but not killed under conditions
in which all Jeffrey pine trees were killed
(Miller, 1950; Callaham, 1960). Planting
results with these hybrids in California
have been successful enough that the
Forest Service has started a program to
produce hybrid seed.
The valuable red pine (P. resinosa) of
the Lake States is considered to be ex-
tremely susceptible to the European shoot
moth (Rhyacionia buoliana). A closely re-
lated species, Austrian pine (P. nigra var
austriaca) is the least susceptible (Holst,
1963). All attempts to hybridize red pine
with other pines in its group (Lariciones)
failed until recently. In 1962 the red pine
x Austrian pine was created (Critchfield,
1962). One might expect that these hybrids
47
will be intermediate between the parents in
their susceptibility to the shoot moth.
In the South, loblolly and shortleaf pines
are attacked by the Nantucket tip moth
(Rhyacionia frustrana), but longleaf and
slash pines are quite resistant species.
Interspecific hybridization provides oppor-
tunities for improvement.
Recent research shows that we should be
able to produce pines which are resistant
to the very destructive bark beetles. The
susceptibility of pines to bark beetles varies
greatly among species and even within a
host species. Because bark beetles attack
relatively mature trees, the determination
of resistance could be a longtime procedure.
To shorten this testing period, forestry sci-
entists looked for the causes of resistance.
They now believe that resistance is due
to the composition of the terpenes of the
gum which exudes into the gallery made
by the attacking beetles. Terpenes vary in
kind and relative amounts in the pines.
Some bark beetles are very sensitive to
certain terpenes but can tolerate large
amounts of others (Smith, 1961). With the
toxic terpenes known, resistant young trees
or even seedlings can be identified quickly
by gas chromotography from even a drop
of gum.
Literature Cited
Anderson, G. W. The search for resistance to
chestnut blight in the Lake States. U. S. Forest
Service, Lake States For. Expt. Sta., Tech. Note
No. 578. 1 p. (1960).
Bingham, R. T., Squillace, A. E., and Duffield,
J. W. Breeding blister-rust-resistant western white
pine. Jour. of Forestry 5], 163-168. (1953).
Bingham, R. T., Squillace, A. E., and Wright,
J. W. Breeding blister-rust-resistant western white
pine. II. First results of progeny tests including
preliminary estimates of heritability and rate of
improvement. Silvae Genetica 9, 33-41 (1960).
Callaham, R. Z. Observations on pine suscepti-
bility to weevils. U. S. Forest Service, Pac.
Southwest Forest and Range Expt. Sta., Tech.
Paper 151, 12 p. (1960).
Callaham, R. Z. Resistance of three inter-
specific white pine hybrids to blister rust. Jour.
of Forestry 60, 409-410 (1962).
Critchfield, W. B. The Austrian x red pine
hybrid. Silvae Genetica 12, 187-192. (1963).
Cumming, W. C., and Righter, F. I. Methods
used to control pollination of pines in the Sierra
Nevada of California. U. S. Dept. Agr. Circ. 792.
18 p. (1948).
Gravatt, G. F., Diller, J. Di, Bermyeiee re
Graves, A. H., and Nienstaedt, H. Breeding
timber chestnuts for blight resistance. Proc.
First Northeastern Forest Tree Improvement Con-
ference, 70-75 (1953).
Henry, B. W., and Bercaw, T. E. Shortleaf-
loblolly hybrid pines free from fusiform rust
after five years’ exposure. Jour. of Forestry 54,
779 (1956).
Holst, Mark. Breeding resistance in pines to
Rhyacionia moths. Proc. World Consultation on
Forest Genetics and Tree Improvement, Vol. II,
Obys. 15 ops ACLIos)e
Jewell, F. F. Infection of artificially inoculated
shortleaf pine hybrids with fusiform rust. Plant
Disease Rptr. 45, (639-640 (1961).
Miller, J. M. Resistance of pine hybrids to the
pine reproduction weevil. U.S. Forest Service,
Calif. Range and For. Expt. Sta. Research
Note 68, 17 p. (1950).
Schreiner, E. J. Production of poplar timber in
Europe and its significance and application in
the U. S. U.S. Dept. Agr. Handbook 150, 124 p.
(1959).
Smith, R. H. The fumigant toxicity of three
pine resins to Dendroctonus brevicomus and D.
jeffreyi. Jour. Econ. Ent. 54, 365-369 (1961).
oN
48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
——— eee ————————eeeee
Academy Proceedings
486th Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences
(Address of the Retiring President)
SPEAKER: FRANCOIS N. FRENKIEL
David Taylor Model Basin
SUBJECT: HIGH SPEED COMPUTER ANALYSES OF
RANDOM PROCESSES
DATE: THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 18, 1965
8:15 P.M.
PLACE: JOHN WESLEY POWELL AUDITORIUM,
COSMOS CLUB
2170 Florida Avenue, N.W.
Abstract of Address—Random processes of physical origin are being considered in
many fields of science, both physical and biological, as well as in games and elections.
In problems of communications, the random noise obscures the transmitted signal and
thus is a hindrance. In many other processes the random fluctuations are of particular
interest and the signal is of secondary importance. The characteristics of such processes
as accoustic noise, fluid dynamic turbulence, hydrospheric fluctuations, and randomness
of sea waves and encephalographs and many geophysical, biological, and astrophysical
processes are now the subject of extensive studies.
High speed computer techniques are being applied to the analysis of such random
processes and to the determination of their statistical description. The results of these
studies provide information on high order correlations, probability distributions, spectra,
and many other characteristics of such processes which should lead to the interpretation
of their physical significance. Some of the results and the methods used to study such
processes will be presented.
The difference between such processes and the outcome of an idealized game of chance
also is discussed.
The Speaker—Dr. Frenkiel received a degree in mechanical engineering at the Royal
University of Ghent, Belgium, in 1933, and a degree in aeronautics at the same insti-
tution in 1937; he received the Ph.D. degree in physics at the University of Lille,
France, in 1946. He was a research engineer at the Technical Service of Aeronautics
in Belgium in 1938, and a research associate at the Institute of Fluid Mechanics of
the University of Lille, 1939-40. From 1940 to 1943 he was with the French Group
of Aeronautical Research in Toulouse; and after the War he returned to the Aero-
dynamics Research Center in the same city.
In 1947 Dr. Frenkiel joined the research staff of the Graduate School of Aeronau-
tical Engineering at Cornell University; and from 1948 to 1950 he was a senior research
associate at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory. From 1950 to 1960 he was employed
at the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University; and since 1960 he
has been a consultant at the David Taylor Model Basin.
Dr. Frenkiel was associated on a part-time basis, in 1962-63, with the Courant Insti-
tute of Mathematical Sciences at New York University. More recently he held a pro-
fessorship at the University of Minnesota, where he gave a course on turbulence and
atmospheric fluid dynamics.
FEBRUARY, 1965 49
He is a fellow of the American Physics Society, American Geophysical Union, and
the American Association for the Advancement of Science. He is also a member of
the AAAS Air Conservation Commission. He has served several times as chairman of
the American Physics Society’s Division of Fluid Dynamics; and he is editor of the
journal, The Physics of Fluids. He was president of the Philosophical Society of
Washington in 1963; and he was recently elected chairman of the U. S. National Com-
mittee on Theoretical and Applied Mechanics.
Science in Washington
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
February 5—Catholic University of
America
Sigurdur Helgason, Institute for Ad-
vanced Study, Princeton University, “Ap-
plications of the Radon Transform on Sym-
metric Spaces.”
Auditorium A, Caldwell Hall, Catholic
University, 3:30 p.m.
February 6—National Capital
Astronomers
Mrs. Winifred S. Cameron, National
Aeronautics and Space Administration,
“Interpretation of the Moon Photos.”
(Slides of Ranger photos of the moon
will be shown. )
Department of Commerce Auditorium,
8:15 p.m.
February 9—American Institute of
Industrial Engineers
Donald Schon, director, Institute of Ap-
plied Technology, National Bureau of
Standards, “The Engineer’s Response to
Technological Change.”
Howard Johnson Restaurant, 2601 Vir-
ginia Ave., N.W., 8:00 p.m. Cocktails at
6 o'clock, dinner at 7 o'clock.
February 16—Anthropological
Society of Washington
Jean Bock, University of Maryland, “Eth-
nic Minorities in American Schools.”
Room 43 Natural History Building, 10th
St. and Constitution Ave., N.W., 8:15 p.m.
February 17—Howard University
Science Bureau Lecture Series. Nicholas
M. Smith, Jr., chief, Advanced Research
Division, Research Analysis Corp., “Foun-
dations of the Prescriptive Sciences.”
Biology Auditorium, Howard University,
8:00 p.m.
February 18—American Society of
Mechanical Engineers
Tour of National Geographic Society
Building. Tour begins at NGS, 17th and M
Sts., N.W., at 11:00 a.m. Luncheon at noon,
University Club, 1135 16th St., N.W.
February 138—Electrochemical
Society
J. P. Carter and Walter Ackerman, Bu-
reau of Mines, “Chemical and Galvanic
Corrosion Properties of Vanadium.”
Room 252 Social Center, Catholic Uni-
versity, 8:00 p.m.
February 19—Howard University
Albert Mayer, F.A.I.A., A.I-P., archi-
tect and planner. Topic to be announced.
Auditorium, School of Engineering and
Architecture, 2300 6th St., N.W., 4:00 p.m.
March 1—Instrument Society of
America
Marie U. Nylen, D.D.S., “Electron Micro-
scopy Today.” (A talk for non-electron
microscopists, discussing powers and limi-
tations of the method, what to do with sam-
50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ples to preserve their structure, what not
to do to avoid artifacts, and the kind of
samples suitable for selection. )
Conference Room 3, Building 31, Na-
tional Institutes of Health, 8:00 p.m. Din-
ner at 6 o'clock at O’Donnell’s in Bethesda.
SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS
Contributions to this column may be ad-
dressed to Harold T. Cook, Associate Edi-
tor c/o Department of Agriculture, Agri-
cultural Research Service, Federal Center
Building, Hyattsville, Md.
COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY
AARON L. SHALOWITZ, special assist-
ant to the director, recently retired after
48 years of continuous service with C&GS.
He is the author of a two-volume treatise
on the legal and engineering aspects of wa-
ter boundaries, Volume Two of which was
recently released by the Government Print-
ing Office. He was technical adviser to the
Department of Justice on the boundary as-
pects of the Supreme Court’s “tidelands”
decision. In 1952 he was awarded the De-
partment of Commerce Exceptional Service
Gold Medal for “outstanding contributions
to science and technology in the fields of
hydrographic and cartographic engineer-
= 99
ing.
HARRIS RESEARCH
LABORATORIES
MILTON HARRIS has been appointed
by the president of Yale University to the
Board. Dr. Harris, who received the Ph.D.
degree at Yale in 1929, also has been elected
to the Yale University Council for a term
of five years, and re-elected president of
the Yale Chemists Association for four
years. .
NATIONAL BUREAU OF
STANDARDS
EMMA J. MacDONALD retired on July
FEBRUARY, 1965
31 after 35 years of service with the Bu-
reau.
I. C. SCHOONOVER, deputy director,
has been named acting associate director
for technical support.
C. EISENHART spoke on “The Rise
and Fall of the Principle of Arithmetic
Means,” at the annual meeting of the Amer-
ican Association for the Advancement of
Science, held last December in Montreal.
IRVIN H. FULLMER and ARCHIBALD
T. McPHERSON have received the Edward
Bennett Rosa award, consisting of a plaque
and $1500 cash to each recipient. Dr. Full-
mer’s plaque was inscribed, “in recognition
of leadership in the development and pro-
mulgation of screw thread standards, both
nationally and internationally.” Dr. Mc-
Pherson’s plaque was inscribed, “in recog-
nition of significant educational and or-
ganizational achievement in _ standardiza-
tion, both nationally and internationally.”
NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF
HEALTH
BERNICE E. EDDY participated in a
Conference on Antiviral Substances, spon-
sored by the New York Academy of Sci-
ences December 9-11.
CARL R. BREWER, chief of the Research
Grants Branch of the National Institute of
General Medical Sciences, has accepted
an associate deanship at the University of
Texas Graduate School of Biomedical Sci-
ences at Houston.
KOLOMAN LAKI has been appointed
head of the Section on Physical Biochem-
istry of the Laboratory of Biophysical
Chemistry, National Institute of Arthritis
and Metabolic Diseases.
EDWIN D. BECKER, chief of the Section
on Molecular Biophysics, Laboratory of
Physical Biology, NIAMD, spoke on “Re-
cent Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Studies
of Hydrogen Bonding” at the Montreal
ol
meeting of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science in December.
MARGARET PITTMAN, chief of the La-
boratory of Bacterial Products, Division of
Biologics Standards, attended a Symposium
on Cholera Research held in Honolulu,
January 24-29, and presented a paper, “‘Po-
tency Assay of Cholera Vaccine.” After the
symposium, in her capacity as consultant
to the Pakistan-SEATO Cholera Research
Laboratory, she expected to visit labora-
tories in Dacca (East Pakistan) and other
Far Eastern countries.
WEATHER BUREAU
L. F. HUBERT, V. Oliver and L. Whit-
ney, of the National Weather Satellite Cen-
ter, presented a workshop for the use of
weather satellite data to meteorologists
from Japan, Eastern Asia, India, New Zea-
land, and Australia, meeting in Tokyo. The
workshop, which ended the first week of
December, was sponsored by the World
Meteorological Organization.
ELECTION RESULTS
ANNOUNCED
Returns from the annual mail ballot of
the membership, sent out in mid-December,
were tallied by a Committee of Tellers on
January 8 and reported at the Academy’s
annual meeting on January 21.
This year’s balloting covered the election
of officers and managers, affiliation of two
new local scientific groups, and a Bylaws
change. About 440 ballots were cast, as
compared with 340 returns in January
1964, 278 returns in 1963, and 468 returns
in 1962.
The voters chose John K. Taylor of the
National Bureau of Standards to be presi-
dent-elect; Alphonse F. Forziati of the Ad-
vanced Research Projects Agency to be
secretary; and Roman R. Miller of the
Naval Research Laboratory to be treas-
urer. For managers-at-large, Malcolm C.
Henderson of Catholic University and
George W. Irving, Jr., of USDA were
elected for the three-year term 1965-1967,
while W. D. McClellan of USDA was
elected to fill the final year (1965) of the
position vacated by Dr. Taylor.
The Washington History of Science Club
and the Chesapeake Section of the Ameri-
can Association of Physics Teachers were
approved as afhliated societies. The mem-
bership also voted to amend Article VIII
of the Bylaws by adding a new Section 3,
as follows: “No affiliated society shall be
committed by the Academy to any action
in conflict with the charter, constitution,
or bylaws of said society, or of its parent
society.”
These new officers were installed at the
close of the annual meeting on January 21.
At the same time, Leo Schubert, last
year’s president-elect, automatically as-
sumed the presidency.
A complete roster of officers, managers,
and committee chairmen will be pub-
lished in an early issue of the Journal.
By JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
a the Washington 2, of Sciences, Representing
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VOLUME 55 NUMBER 83
Journal of the
WASHINGTON
ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES
MARCH 1965
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Editor: SAmMueEt B. DeETwiLer, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Associate Editors
Harotp T. Cook, Department of Agriculture HELEN L. REyNoLps, Food and Drug Adminis-
: tration
RicHarp P. Farrow, National Canners Asso- Rarra G. H. Siu, Department af Hefenne
ciation RussELL B. STEVENS, George Washington Uni-
Harry A. Fowe ts, Department of Agriculture versity
Contributors
FRANK A. BIBERSTEIN, JR., Catholic University JoserpH. B. Morris, Howard University
CHARLES A. WHITTEN, Coast & Geodetic Survey
MarjyorieE Hooxer, Geological Survey
Reusen E. Woop, George Washington Univer-
sity Victor R. Boswe.it, USDA, Beltsville
Jacop Mazur, National Bureau of Standards
ALLEN L. ALEXANDER, Naval Research Laboratory
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes historical
articles, critical reviews, and scholarly scientific articles; notices of meetings and abstract proceed-
ings of meetings of the Academy and its affiliated societies; and regional news items, including
personal news, of interest to the entire membership. The Journal appears nine times a year, in
January to May and September to December. It is included in the dues of all active members and
fellows.
Subscription rate to non-members: $7.50 per year (U.S.) or $1.00 per copy; foreign post-
age extra. Subscription orders should be sent to the Washington Academy of Sciences, 1530 P St.,
N.W., Washington, D.C., 20005. Remittances should be made payable to “Washington Academy
of Sciences.”
Back issues, volumes, and sets of the Journal (Volumes 1-52, 1911-1962) can be purchased
direct from Walter J. Johnson, Inc., 111 Fifth Avenue, New York 3, N. Y. This firm also handles
the sale of the Proceedings of the Academy (Volumes 1-13, 1898-1910), the Index (to Volumes
1-13 of the Proceedings and Volumes 1-40 of the Journal), and the Academy’s monograph, “The
Parasitic Cuckoos of Africa.”
Current issues of the Journal (past two calendar years) may still be obtained directly
from the Academy office at 1530 P Street, N.W., Washington, D.C., 20005.
Claims for missing numbers will not be allowed if received more than 60 days after date of
mailing plus time normally required for postal delivery and claim. No claims will be allowed
because of failure to notify the Academy of a change of address.
Changes of address should be sent promptly to the Academy Office, 1530 P St., N.W.,
Washington, D.C., 20005. Such notification should include both old and new addresses and postal
zone number, if any.
Second class postage paid at Washington, D.C.
Postmasters: Send Form 3579 to Washington Academy of Sciences, 1530 P St., N.W.,
Washington, D.C., 20005.
ACADEMY OFFICERS FOR 1965
President: LEo SCHUBERT, American University
President-Elect: JoHn K. Taytor, National Bureau of Standards
Secretary: ALPHONSE F. Forziati, Advanced Research Projects Agency
Treasurer: ROMAN R. Mituer, Naval Research Laboratory
on
er ¥
a
Poisonous Animals and Their Venoms
Bernhard Witkop
National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md.
The etymologists tell us that the word
for venom is derived from the Latin
venenum, t.e., drug, poison, magic charm
(related to venus, love), and use of this
word should be restricted to poisonous
matter secreted by animals, such as snakes,
scorpions, and bees. While venom denotes
origin, poison refers to effect and includes
any substance that on entering living
organisms in small quantities has harmful
or fatal properties. The term toxin,* as we
use it nowadays, refers to poisonous pro-
teins elaborated during metabolism of liv-
ing organisms, especially of bacteria. As a
defense against toxins, living organisms
prepare antitoxins. Venoms are sometimes
referred to as biotoxins, a term which
should be reserved for proteinaceous
venoms (1). Some of these active agents
are listed in Table I, which gives approxi-
mate minimal lethal doses per microgram
(0.000001 g.) of compound for a few
representatives from plants and animals
(2-7).
While the cobra (Crotalus terrificus)
makes active use of its neurotoxin, the
puffer fish (Spheroides rubripes), the
Colombian poison arrow frog (Phyllobates
bicolor), toad, and salamander contain
passive venoms which act only when these
animals are eaten or their extracts enter
the blood stream. Interestingly enough,
* Taxus = yew, probably furnished wood for
toxon = bow, which gave rise to toxicon (phar-
makon) = (arrow) poison; the Greek word for
arrow is la, which in tatros = physician, German:
Arzt, entered into the therapeutic application of
poisons in medicine.
MarcnH, 1965
salamanders will die of their own venom
when, as a result of some lesion, it pene-
trates from the skin glands into the blood.
Since antiquity the ingredients of plants
and animals have been used as arrow poi-
sons for hunting. In Guam the natives
poison the pools among the coral reefs
with the juices pressed from sea cucumber
(Holothuria argus) as an aid in catching
fish for food. The active principles in the
Bahamian sea cucumber (Actinopyga agas-
siz) are concentrated in the Cuvierian
tubules, which are reddish, branching fila-
ments containing granules and which are
attached to the common stem of the res-
piratory organs near the region where the
intestinal tract enters the cloaca. When the
sea cucumber is disturbed, it may react by
a vigorous contraction of the body wall,
followed by a slow extension of the
Cuvierian tubules through a rupture in the
cloacal wall, and finally by an explosive
expulsion of the intestinal tract and genital
glands out through the anus. Autotomy
occurs when these organs break off from
the rest of the body. The structures re-
maining within the animal are remnants
of mesenteric tissue, the cloaca respiratory
organs, the anterior tentacles, and all parts
of the water vascular system. As time
progresses, the eviscerated and _ auto-
tomized parts are regenerated(8).
The exact relationship of the poison-
laden Cuvierian tubules to the phenomenon
of evisceration is not definitely known,
although the available facts intimate a
close association. Injection of holothurin
solutions made from fresh tubules will
induce evisceration as will the introduction
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o4,
of this solution or of the tubules into the
- water in which intact animals are kept.
The higher the dose of the venom, the
quicker is the reaction.
Crude holothurin has cancerostatic prop-
erties. Even 0.1 mg. of such a preparation,
injected intraperitoneally into ascites-
bearing mice, leads to a remarkable in-
crease in survival time. 7
Holothurin consists of two fractions:
the A-fraction resembles the plant sapo-
genin digitonin, and forms an_ insoluble
O
pcose CHs CHs
GLUCOSE
900 persons died in Japan during 1956-
1958 as a result of poisoning from eating
shashimi (raw portions) of fugu, i.e.,
puffer fish (Spheroides rubripes and por-
phyreus). Ichthyosarcotoxism is the high-
sounding term for this syndrome which
also punishes eaters of other fish, such as
certain morays (Gymnothorax), mackerels
(Scombroidei), and Ciguatera. Only
licensed operators in Japan are allowed to
serve the dangerous delicacy to gourmet
customers. The venom is localized in the
H
CHa | ole
2 C—CHp-CH=U~ 3
OH CH3
OH
CH;
ls
I: HOLOTHURIN (working hypothesis
j for one of several congeners which so far.
3-OMe-GLUCOSE
QUINOVOSE
complex with cholesterol. The aglycon is
the sulfuric ester of a steroid lactone I to
which is attached the following sequence of
four monosaccharides: quinovosyl (3-0-
methyl-glucosyl)-glucosylxylose. This is
the first instance of the isolation of a
steroidal sapogenin from animals (9).
Only plants have been known to contain this
class of compounds. Even more excep-
tional is the triterpenoid sapogenin which
recently was reported to occur in Holo-
thuria vagabunda (10).
Whereas utilitarian principles led to the
discovery of venoms and arrow poisons for
hunting purposes, gourmandism detected
the most dreaded marine venom. Nearly
Marcu, 1965
have not been given individual designations).
livers and ovaries of the puffer fish, whose
excision is mandatory for the purpose of
consumption. The venom was_ isolated,
crystallized, and named tetrodotoxin in
1950. Tsuda determined its toxicity as
0.01 y/g. in mice. It required the most
modern methods for two Japanese teams
(Tsuda and Hirata) and one group at
Harvard (R. B. Woodward) to arrive at
the correct empirical formula and _ three-
dimensional structure of textrodotoxin.
The difficulty of this elucidation is easily
seen from the formula, C,,H,-N.Os. in
which the number of hetero-atoms matches
the number of carbon atoms, nine of which
are asymmetric. The free tetrodotoxin base
D9
is a zwitterion II which on protonation be-
comes the hemilactal III, which is in equi-
librium with the hydroxylactone IV (11).
The dimeric ether structure V, a serious
alternative suggestion for I, could only
be ruled out on the basis of a careful
determination of the unit cell and the
molecular weight of tetrodotoxin by X-ray
crystallography (12).
If we now turn our attention from
marine to amphibian venoms, we notice
in the environs of Freiburg (Black Forest)
netted a quarry of 33,000 toads (Bufo
bufo bufo) which were “milked” by
placing under an inverted bowl and ex-
pressing the venom out of the parotid
glands (located behind the eyes) with flat
forceps. The stream of milky fluid is
caught on the walls of the bowl and in
cotton. The animal is set free at the place
of capture with no injurious consequence.
From 33,000 toads, 36 g. of crystalline
II. Hemilactal (salt)
some interesting relationships. The classi-
cal work in this area begins with the toad
venoms (H. Weiland, 1920-1943 (13)),
continues with the salamander (C. Schopf,
1930-1961 (14) ), and leads to crystalliza-
tion of the frog venom, the most potent
venom known, in 1964 (15) (Table II).
As the toxicity of these venoms goes up,
their quantity goes down. Several hundred
grams of crystalline starting material were
available for structural work on the toad
venoms and samandarin.
A comparison of the collection pro-
cedure is instructive: A ten-day collection
56 JOURNAL OF
IZ. Hydroxylactone (salt)
bufotalin VI and 29 g. of companion
venoms were obtained.
By contrast, the first expedition into the
Choco jungle of Western Colombia (an-
nual rainfall over 11 yards), under the
courageous leadership of Mrs. Marte
Latham, within 8 weeks yielded only 330
of the tiny and elusive poison arrow frogs,
whose capture is infinitely more difficult
than that of the clumsy and heavy Eu-
ropean toad. Our Indian helpers used a
little trick: they skillfully imitated the
frog’s peeping which sounds like fiu-fiu-fiu,
by whistling and at the same time tapping
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Comparative Tabulation of Venoms from Amphibians:
Toads, Salamanders, and Frogs
Table II.
Average Weight
of
Amphibian Single Animal
Bufo alvarius 284 ¢
(North America)
Bufo marinus 230 g
(South America)
Bufo bufo bufo Zl e
(Europe)
Salamandra maculosa taeniata 14-18 ¢
(Fire salamander,
Belgium, Spain)
Salamandra maculosa maculosa 18-24 ¢
(Balcan subspecies)
Salamandra atra 6.2 g
(Alpine salamander,
Tyrol)
Phyllobates bicolor lg
(Poison arrow frog
of Western Colombia)
their cheek with their fingers. Their imita-
tion is so perfect that a frog not too far
away usually answers the call and thus
can be located. Trying to find these small
frogs which live well-hidden under the
Marcu, 1965
Amount of
Venom Individual Components
per Animal of Venom
0.44 ¢ Bufotalin
Bufotalinin
0.58 g Marinobufagin
Telocinobufagin
0.016- Bufotoxin
0.027 ¢g
0.042 ¢ Samandarine
Samandarone
Samandaridine
Cycloneosamandione
0.05 ¢ O-Acetylsamandarine
Samandarone
Samandaridine
Cycloneosamandione
0.032- Samandarine
0.035 ¢ Samandarone
Samandaridine
0.001 ¢g Batrachotoxin
Batrachotoxinin A
Batrachotoxinin B
Batrachotoxinin C
tropical ground cover, by any other means,
would seem hopeless.
The kokoi frog, as the Cholo Indians
call it, is 2-3 cm. long and averages only
one gram in weight. Frogs have no paro-
tid glands and the venom is located in the
skins, from which it is extracted by
aqueous methanol. The skin is black, with
either two small yellow stripes along the
back or two broad bands of a deep reddish
yellow, with dots of the same _ color
sprinkled in between these bands. This
bicolorism reminds one of the similar but
much stronger black-yellow skin pattern
of the fire salamander, where the yellow
color, a warning signal to other animals,
consists of riboflavin which may be either
bound to protein, or form an occlusion
complex with guanin in the guanophorous
cells of the epiderm (16).
Salamanders (15-18 g.) contain up to
40 mg. of crystalline alkaloids. [If one
extrapolates these figures to human condi-
od
tions, a man of 80 kg. body weight would
carry in his skin 150-180 g. of samandarin
and congeners, i.e., a poison with one-third
the toxicity of strychnine. Although nor-
mally salamanders make no active use of
their venom, they may force the venom out
of their skin glands at the last extremity.
Although there was no dearth of sala-
mander alkaloids and a wealth of chemical
information, the interesting and _ novel
steroidal systems of samandarine (VII)
and cycloneosamandione (VIII) had to be
established by roentgenographic analysis.
VI. BUFOTALIN
Like bufotalin (VI), samandarin (VII)
has an oxygen function in the Cj¢-position,
and in the venom of Salamandra maculosa
maculosa this hydroxyl is also acetylated
(17). The related ketone, samandarone.
shows a rotatory dispersion curve with a
negative Cotton effect, whose interpretation
leads to the relative and absolute config-
urational assignments as expressed in VII.
Cycloneosamandione (VIII) contains the
unusual a-aldehyde group at C-10, which
becomes free on reaction with methyl
iodide to form N-methyl-neosamanonol
methiodide (IX) whose Cotton effect is
opposite to that of carotoxigenin (5a,
108); VIII is the first natural steroid with
the anomalous a-C-10 configuration (18).
The empirical formula of batracho-
toxin was first established with 50
micrograms of amorphous material. The
advent of the double-focusing mass spec-
trophotometer made possible this more-
than-hundredfold increase in analytical
9 |
Q
8 JOURNAL OF
sensitivity. Without this advance, struc-
tural elucidations on a microgram scale
would not be possible. All chemical re-
actions were carried out with less than 50 y
of batrachotoxin. The products of these
reactions were purified by thin-layer
chromatography and then injected into
the mass spectrometer. To judge from the
available “cracking patterns” and the new
method of “element mapping”, batracho-
toxin should possess a steroid-type carbon
skeleton X, to one terminus of which (ring
A or D) is attached the C,Hs_,,.NO group-
ing which in turn should have another
oxygen atom within three additional carbon
atoms. Although the steroidal skeleton is
common to the venoms of sea cucumber,
toad, salamander, and kokoi frog, there
are unique and novel chemical features in
each structure. Batrachotoxin does not
have the unusual 3-aza-A-homo-5f-andros-
tan structure of samandarin. Its most
unusual feature is the weakly basic nitro-
gen and its particular environment which
are currently the subject of detailed inves-
tigation on the microgram level. In that
respect a new dimension has been added
to the structural elucidation of natural
products (19).
However, structural elucidation per se
is no longer a primary aim, but only a
prerequisite for entering into the dynamic
aspects of cell components. Poisonous
‘animals have given us the first clues on
the occurrence, biosynthesis, and interrela-
tionships of endogenous amines, such as
serotonin, octopamine etc., which were later
discovered in human metabolism. Converse-
ly, enzymes involved in the biosynthesis
and breakdown of catechol- and indole-
alkyl-amines in mammalian organisms
have later been located and identified in
the toad (20).
Literature Cited
(1) van Heyningen, W. E., in The Proteins,
edited by H. Neurath and K. Bailey: Toxic Pro-
teins, Academic Press, New York, 1954, pp. 345-
387.
(2) Phisalix, M. Animaux venimieux et venins.
Masson, Paris, 1922.
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VIT. SAMANDARINE
ik
0 Nv _CH3
H
oH
H—C—OH
EE _ etl
—_—_—_—$—
ee
Gina s
O<
(3) Pawlowsky, E. M. Gifttiere und ihre Gif-
tigkeit. G. Fischer, Jena, 1927.
(4) Kaiser, E., and Michl, H. Die Biochemie
der tierischen Gifte. F. Deuticke, Wien, 1958.
(5) Halstead, V. W., in E. E. Buckley and N.
Porges: Venoms. American Assoc. for the Ad-
vancement of Science, Washington, 1956.
(6) Crescitelli, F., and Geissman, J. A. An-
nual Rev. Pharmacol. 2, 143 (1962).
(7) Ghiretti, F. Biochemie der Giftstoffe von
Meerestieren. Angewandte Chemie 76, 982
(1964).
(8) Mosher, C. Observations on evisceration
and visceral regeneration of the sea cucumber,
Actinopyga agassizi Selenka. Zoologica 41, 17
(1956) .
(2) Chanley,. J. D., Ledeen, R., Wax, J.,
Nigrelli, R. F., and Sobotka, H. Holothurin. I.
Marcu, 1965
VIIT. CYCLONEOSAMANDIONE
2 CH3I
The isolation, properties and sugar components
of holothurin A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 81, 5180
(1959) ; Sobotka, H., Friess, S. L., and Chanley,
J. D. Comparative neuro-chemistry; Proceedings
of the 5th International Neurochemical Sympo-
sium, Austria, 10-15 June, 1962; Chanley, J. D..
personal communication.
(10) Matsuno, T., and Yamonouchi, T. A new
triterpenoid sapogenin of animal origin
cucumber). Nature 191, 75 (1961).
(11) Woodward, R. B. The structure of tetro-
dotoxin. Third International Symposium on the
Chemistry of Natural Products, April 12-18,
1964, Kyoto. Butterworths, London, 1964, pp. 49-
74.
(12) Woodward, R. B., and Gougoutas, J. Z. J.
Am. Chem. Soc. 86, 5030 (1964).
(13) Cf. Behringer, H. Angew. Chem. 56, 83,
105 (1943).
(sea
59
(14) Schopf, C. Die Konstitution der Salaman-
der-Alkaloide. Experienta 17, 285 (1961).
(15) Marki, F., and Witkop, B. Experientia
19, 329 (1963).
(16) Kaufmann, Th., and Vogt, Karl. Isolie-
rung von D-Lactoflavin und Isoxanthopterin aus
der Haut des Feuersalamanders (Salamandra
maculosa Laur.). Chem. Ber. 92, 2855 (1959).
(17) Habermehl, G. O-Acetylsamandarin im
Gift von Salamandra maculosa. Ann. 679, 164
(1964).
(18) Habermehl, G., and Gottlicher, S. Kon-
stitution and Konfiguration des Cycloneosaman-
dions, Angew, Chemie 76, 790 (1964); Chem.
Berichte 98, 1 (1965).
(19) Biemann, K. High resolution mass spec-
trometry of natural products. Third International
Symposium on the Chemistry of Natural Products,
Kyoto, April 12-18, 1964, Kyoto. Butterworths,
London, 1964, pp. 95-118.
(20) Marki, F., Axelrod, J., and Witkop, B.
Biochem. Biophys. Acta 58, 367 (1962).
A CONTRIBUTION
FROM THE ARCHIVIST
A Forester’s Thoughts in the
Journal of 1915
Forestry, to which the February issue
of the Journal was dedicated, was discussed
in a previous issue 50 years ago, in a long
article, “The Place of Forestry Among the
Natural Sciences” (Journal 5, 41-57
(1915)). It was the text of an address
delivered before the Academy on Decem-
ber 3, 1914, by Henry Solon Graves (May
3, 1871-March 7, 1951), chief of the U. S.
Forest Service from 1910 to 1920. His
main objective was to define forestry as
‘tree sociology” into which anatomy and
physiology enter “only as one of the essen-
tial parts without which it is impossible to
grasp the processes that take place in the
forest.” He used this opportunity to men-
tion proudly that the Forest Service “is
now spending nearly $300,000 annually for
research work.” In the Annual Report of
the Department of Agriculture for the year
ended June 30, 1915, Graves gave some
results of this research (page 187), which
led to improvements in hardwood distilla-
tion, turpentining, and the utilization of
sawdust by hydrolysis and subsequent
alcoholic fermentation.
60 JOURNAL OF
Graves was a lieutenant colonel in the
Corps of Engineers, 1917-19, and Sterling
professor of forestry at Yale, 1922-39. In
1947 he was decorated by the French
government with the Cross of Officier du
Meérite Agricole. His book on forest men-
suration first appeared in 1906.
Here is the heart of his story from the
1915 Journal, pages 44-5:
Forestry as a natural science, therefore, deals
with the forest as a community in which the
individual trees influence one another and also
influence the character and life of the community
itself. As a community the forest has individual
character and form. It has a definite life history;
it grows, develops, matures, and propagates itself.
Its form, development and final total product may
be modified by external influences. By abuse it
may be greatly injured and the forest as a living
entity may even be destroyed. It responds equally
to care and may be so molded by skillful treat-
ment as to produce a high quality of product,
and in greater amount and in a shorter time than
if left to nature. The life history of this forest
community varies according to the species com-
posing it, the density of the stand, the manner in
which the trees of different ages are grouped, the
climatic and soil factors which affect the vigor
and growth of the individual trees. The simplest
form of a forest community is that composed of
trees of one species and all of the same age.
When several species and trees of different ages
occupy the same ground, the form is more com-
plex, the crowns overlapping and the roots occu-
pying different layers of the soil. Thus, for in-
stance, when the ground is occupied with a mixed
stand of Douglas fir and hemlock, the former
requiring more light, occupies the upper story,
and because of its deeper root system extends
to the lower lying strata of the soil. The hem-
lock, on the other hand, which is capable of
growing under shade, occupies the under story,
and having shallow roots utilizes largely the top
soil.
These are forest communities, such for instance
as those typical of northwestern Idaho, where
western larch, Douglas fir, western white pine.
white fir, western red cedar, and hemlock all
grow together. Such a forest is evidently a very
complex organism, the stability of which is based
on a very nice adjustment between the different
classes and groups occupying the same ground.
Any change in one of these classes or groups
must necessarily affect the other. If, for instance,
in the Douglas fir-hemlock forest, the Douglas
fir is cut out, the remaining hemlock trees are
likely to die out because their shallow roots are
left exposed to the drying effect of the sun and
wind. It is only by a thorough understanding of
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
such mutual adjustments that the forester is
capable of intelligently handling the forest. With
the great number of species that are found in this
country, with the great variety in climatic and
other physical factors which influence the form
of the forest, it is self-evident that there are many
forest communities, each with distinctive biolog-
ical characteristics, which offer a wide field for
scientific inquiry. Amid the great volume of
administrative phases of the work in the Forest
Service this main objective has never been lost
sight of in handling the National Forests. The
Forest Service is now spending nearly $300,000
annually for research work; it maintains eight
forest experiment stations and one thoroughly
equipped forest products laboratory, and is doing
this work solely to study the fundamental laws
governing the life of the forest and their effect
| Marcu, 1965
upon the final product—wood.
Forestry may be called tree sociology and occu-
pies among natural sciences the same position as
sociology among humanistic sciences. Sociology
may be based upon the physiological functions of
man as a biological individual. A physician, how-
ever, is not a sociologist, and social phenomena
can be understood and interpreted only in the
light of sociological knowledge. So also with
forestry. Forestry depends upon the anatomy and
physiology of plants, but it is not applied anat-
omy and physiology of plants. With foresters,
anatomy and physiology of plants is not the im-
mediate end but enters only as one of the essen-
tial parts without which it is impossible to grasp
the processes that take place in the forest.
—Eduard Farber
61
Academy Proceedings
March Meeting
487th Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences
SPEAKER: KENNETH E. BOULDING
Professor of Economics, University of Michigan
SUBJECT: THE MENACE OF METHUSELAH! POSSIBLE CON-
SEQUENCES OF INCREASED LIFE EXPECTANCY
DATE: THURSDAY, MARCH 18, 1965
8:15 p.m.
PLACE: JOHN WESLEY POWELL AUDITORIUM,
COSMOS CLUB
2170 Florida Avenue, N.W.
Abstract of Address—lIs the Fountain of Youth just around the corner? Aging
is one of the major unsolved problems in biology; with the present explosion in
biological knowledge it is at least conceivable that this problem will be solved in the
next few decades. This would open up the prospect of substantial, perhaps indefinite,
increase in the human life span. No human institution would emerge unscathed from
such a development.
The essential problem is that society has an age-specific role structure, and if the
age distribution does not correspond to the role structure serious tensions arise. We
see this even in the dislocations due to net birth changes, such as are shaking the
whole tropical world now, and threaten major disaster in the next ten years. This
age-role structure has developed through history to accommodate a definite age distri-
bution; even the increasing number of old people today create disproportion between
the traditional age-role structure, adapted to early mortality, and the present age
structure. Ages in the hundreds even (100-200) would create wholly unprecedented
problems, not only for the old but for the young, for it is the relative age structure
which matters.
Among these may be listed: (1) impact on organizations in general (absence of
promotion) ; (2) impact on the family (long years of childlessness) ; (3) impact on
education; (4) impact on insurance, both social and private; (5) impact on pension
plans; (6) political impact (who gets the longevity, if this is costly); (7) impact on
the level of human wisdom and adaptability (is Bernard Shaw right, or Swift, with
his Struldbrugs? ).
The Speaker: Kenneth Ewart Boulding was born in Liverpool and was educated at
New College at Oxford, where he received the B.A. degree with first class honors, in
1931, and later the M.A. degree. He first visited the United States in 1932, when he
was a Commonwealth fellow at the University of Chicago. Afterwards he returned to
the United Kingdom as a fellow at the University of Edinburgh. Then followed years
of teaching in the United States and Canada—at Colgate, lowa State, and McGill,
and since 1949 at the University of Michigan, where he is professor of economics.
He became an American citizen in 1948.
62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
He has been awarded the John B. Clark Medal by the Economic Association, and
a prize by the American Council of Learned Societies. He has been an advisor to
the League of Nations, and has worked with a group doing advanced studies in the
behavioural sciences at Palo Alto.
He is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the International
Institute of Arts and Letters, and the American Philosophical Society.
In addition to contributions to the literature of economics and the arts, he is the
author of Economic Analysis, The Economics of Peace, A Reconstruction of Eco-
nomics, The Organizational Revolution, Principles of Economic Policy, Disarmament
and the Economy, The Meaning of the 20th Century, and, jointly, of Conflict and
Defense and Linear Programming and the Theory of the Firm.
ae
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ORGANIZATION FOR 1965
Officers
President Lro SCHUBERT American University
President-Elect JoHNn K. Taytor National Bureau of Standards
Secretary ALPHONSE F. Forziati Department of Defense
Treasurer Roman R. MILLER Naval Research Laboratory
Managers-at-Large
1963-65 Mary Louise Rossins George Washington University
1963-65 Wirtspur D. McCLeLLan Department of Agriculture
1964-66 ALLEN L. ALEXANDER Naval Research Laboratory
1964-66 Francis W. REICHELDERFER Weather Bureau (retired)
1965-67 Matcotm HENDERSON Catholic University of America
1965-67 GeorcE W. Irvine, Jr. epartment of Agriculture
Standing Committees
Executive Leo ScHUBERT, Chairman American University
Committee Joun K. Taytor National Bureau of Standards
ALPHONSE F. ForziatTi Advanced Research Projects Agency
RomaAN R. MILLER Naval Research Laboratory
Matcotm HENDERSON Catholic University of America
Georce W. Irvine, Jr. Department of Agriculture
Committee on Ricuarp K. Cook, Chairman National Bureau of Standards
Membership Witiiam G. ALLEN Maritime Administration
BERNICE E. Eppy National Institutes of Health
Harowp E. FINLEY Howard University
Rosert B. Hosss National Bureau of Standards
SOLOMON KULLBACK George Washington University
Harvey C. Moore American University
THomas JT. THAYER Geological Survey
Marcu, 1965 63
(1) Agricultural
Sciences
(2) Behavioral
Sciences
(3) Chemistry
(4) Earth Sciences
(5) General Biology
(6) Mathematical
Sciences
(7) Medical Sciences.
(8) Physics and
Astronomy
(9) Engineering
Committee on
Policy Planning
Committee on
Ways and Means
Committee on
Meetings
Committee on Awards
for Scientific
Achievement
Biological Sciences
Engineering Sciences
Physical Sciences
Mathematical Sciences
Teaching of Science
Committee on Grants-
in-Aid For Research
64
Chairmen of Membership Committee Panels
Witiiam E. BIick.ey (acting)
Harvey C. Moore
Rosert B. Hoses
Tuomas T. THAYER
Harotp E. FINLEY
SoLoMoN KULLBACK
BERNICE E. Eppy
RicHarD K. Cook (acting)
WitirAm G. ALLEN
Dean Cowie, Chairman
(to Jan. ’66)
Raymonp J. SEEGER (to Jan. 66)
B. D. Van Evera (to Jan. 67)
Mary Warca (to Jan. ’67)
GorDON TOMPKINS
Eviis BoLton
Francois N. FRENKIEL, Chairman
JAcINTO STEINHARDT, Chairman
Joun S. CoLEMAN
Ernest P. Gray
Mary L. Rospsins
Epwin ROoEDDER
Davip ROSENBLATT
SHIRLEIGH SILVERMAN
ARNOLD M. SooKNE
Epwarp A. Mason, Chairman
University of Maryland
American University
National Bureau of Standards
Geological Survey
Howard University
George Washington University
National Institutes of Health
National Bureau of Standards
Maritime Administration
Department of Terrestial Magnetism
National Science Foundation
George Washington University
Optical Society of America
National Institutes of Health
Department of Terrestial Magnetism
David Taylor Model Basin
Georgetown University
NAS-NRC
Applied Physics Laboratory
George Washington University
Geological Survey
National Bureau of Standards
National Bureau of Standards
Harris Research Laboratories
University of Maryland
Subcommittees of Awards Committee
GeorcE B. CHAPMAN
Maurice APSTEIN
Joun D. HorrMAN
Franz L. Aut
J. Davi LocKarp
Ratpeu I. Cote, Chairman
(to Jan. 66) é
AsHLEY B. Gurney (to Jan. ’67)
CLirForD HEwItTT (to Jan. 67)
A. T. McPHERSON
Georgetown University
Harry Diamond Laboratory
National Bureau of Standards
National Bureau of Standards
University of Maryland
American University
Department of Agriculture
National Institutes of Health
National Bureau of Standards
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Committee on Z. V. HARVALIK, Chairman Engineer Research and Development
Encouragement of (to Jan. ’68) Laboratories
Science Talent Lioyp N. Fercuson Howard University
(to Jan. 66)
Howarp B. Owens (to Jan. ’66) Prince Georges County Schools
Rev. Francis J. HEybEN, S. J. Georgetown University
(to Jan. 67)
ELAINE SHAFRIN (to Jan. 67) _ Naval Research Laboratory
PHOEBE KNIPLING (to Jan. 68) Arlington County Schools
BERENICE LAMBERTON Georgetown Visitation
Executive Secretary (to Jan. 68) Preparatory School
Committee on Public CHARLES DeVore, Chairman Office of Naval Research
Information
Committee on Science Joun K. Taytor, Chairman National Bureau of Standards
Education* (to July, ’65)
Harotp E. FINLey (to July 66) Howard University
EpwarD HacsKAYLo (to July 67) Department of Agriculture
KeitH C. JoHNsoN (to July ’67) D. C. Public Schools
J. Davin Lockarp (to July 67) University of Maryland
Matcoitm W. OLIPHANT (to July 65) Georgetown University
THEODORE P. PErRos (to July 68) George Washington University
Leo ScHUBERT (to July ’66) American University
ZAKA I. SLAwsky (to Jan. 68) Naval Ordnance Laboratory
* The Academy contingent of the Joint Board on Science Education, which is sponsored by the
Academy and the D. C. Council of Engineering and Architectural Societies.
Special Committees
Committee on Bylaws LawrENcE A. Woop, Chairman National Bureau of Standards
and Standing Rules
Committee on Special Jacos J. DiAMonp, Chairman National Bureau of Standards
Events
Committee on Member-J. Murray Mi1rcHeELL, Jr. Chairman Weather Bureau
ship Promotion
Committee on Meetings Joun H. MENKArRT, Chairman Harris Research Laboratories
Arrangements
Committee on Archives Epuarp FARBER, Chairman American University
Committee on History of Morris LErKinp, Chairman National Institutes of Health
Science in Washington EpUARD FARBER American University
PauL OEHSER Smithsonian Institution
RAYMOND SEEGER National Science Foundation
The Journal
Editor SAMUEL B. DETWILER, JR. Department of Agriculture
Associate Editors Harotp T. Cook Department of Agriculture
Ricuarp P. Farrow National Canners Association
Harry A. FoweELLs Department of Agriculture
HeLen L. REYNOLDS Food & Drug Adm.
Racpu G. H. Siu Department of Defense
Russe. B. STEVENS George Washington University
Delegates of Affiliated Societies
See inside rear cover.
Marcu, 1965
65
Summary Annual Report of Secretary for 1964
The following brief statement summa-
rizes activities, more extensively reported
by the committee chairmen of the Acad-
emy, during 1964.
Membership. During calendar year
1964, the Committee on Membership
(Richard K. Cook, chairman) approved
the applications of 73 men and women for
membership in the Academy and recom-
mended to the Board, which approved
them, 67 men and women for fellowship
in the Academy. The Committee also has
developed a procedure for periodically
evaluating those elected to membership, to
determine their eligibility for election to
fellowship. Several members have already
been elevated under the procedure.
The Academy’s rolls now number 94
members, 970 fellows, and 134 emeriti,
for a total of 198.
The Board approved the resignations,
for various reasons, of 57 persons and
authorized a change from active to emer-
itus status of 31 persons.
The following deaths were reported to
the Academy in 1964: H. A. Allard,
Charles C. Applebaum, E. B. Behrend, E.
S. Belote, H. B. Brooks, Agnes Chase, F.
M. Defandorf, H. Dorn, Graham DuShane,
J. Franck, H. Fuller, W. A. Geyger, Peter
Hidnert, J. I. Hoffman, F. L. Howard, B.
Johnson, (Re C;, MacCardie tf. i Mec
Ilwraith, H. Morrison, H. C. Oberholser,
W. J. V. Osterout, W. F. Roeser, L. H.
Rumbaugh.
Meetings. Eight monthly meetings were
developed by the Committee on Meetings
(Mary L. Robbins, chairman for spring
semester; Jacinto Steinhardt, chairman for
fall semester). With one exception, meet-
ings were held in the John Wesley Powell
Auditorium of the Cosmos Club.
The 478th meeting of the Academy was
held on February 20. The speaker of the
evening was B. D. Van Evera, retiring
after two years as president of the Acad-
emy. He spoke of some of the pressures
now confronting science teachers.
As a departure from the usual lecture-
type meetings of the Academy, a “Conver-
sazione” was arranged for the 479th meet-
ing, on March 19. Tables were arranged
in the auditorium, about which small
groups could gather to discuss subjects of
mutual interest. Participants were free to
go from table to table, and snacks, coffee,
soft drinks, and cocktails were provided.
Reaction to this type of meeting was very
favorable, and the Meetings Committee is
making plans for a similar informal meet-
ing in the spring of 1965.
The 480th meeting of the Academy, on
April 16, was sponsored jointly with the
Junior Academy. The speaker on this oc-
casion was A. M. Liberman of the Univer-
sity of Connecticut, whose subject, “The
Perception of Speech,” dealt with the work
of the Haskins Laboratory directed at find-
ing why the sounds of speech are so highly
efficient in the transmission of information.
The 481st meeting on May 21, com-
memorating the 400th anniversary of
Galileo’s birth, was held at the Howard
County building of the Johns Hopkins
Applied Physics Laboratory, with both
before- and after-dinner programs. Ralph
E. Gibson, director of the Laboratory,
spoke before dinner on the subject, “What
Has Become of Galileo’s Ideas Today?”
After dinner, R. B. Kershner, also of the
Laboratory, talked about “Navigation by
Satellites.”
Following the summer recess, the Acad-
emy returned to the John Wesley Powell
Auditorium for its 482nd meeting on
October 15. Marshall H. Stone of the
University of Chicago spoke to the mem-
bers and their guests on the subject, “Sci-
ence and Society,” reminding his audience
that the growth of science is effecting a
transformation of society with all the char-
acteristics of.a cultural revolution.
Christopher Tietze of the National
Committee on Maternal Health, New York
66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
City, addressed the Academy at its 483rd
meeting, November 19, on the subject,
“Effectiveness of Methods of Population
Control.” His address concerned the adop-
tion of official policies of population con-
trol aimed at achieving a balance between
rate of population growth and socio-eco-
nomic development, particularly in Asia
and Africa.
In view of the ever-present threat of nu-
clear war, the 484th meeting of the
Academy, on December 17, consisted of a
discussion of the pros and cons of arms
control. R. B. Roberts of Carnegie Insti-
tution’s Department of Terrestrial Magne-
tism discussed “Prospects for Action in
Arms Control,” while Vice Admiral E. N.
Parker (Retd.) spoke on the subject, “To
Control the Threat.”
At the 67th annual dinner meeting, on
January 21, 1965, winners of the Acad-
emy’s 1964 awards for scientific achieve-
ment were honored. They are: Bruce
Ames, National Institutes of Health (bio-
logical sciences); Thorndike Saville, Jr.,
Army Coastal Engineering Research Center
(engineering sciences); James W. Butler,
Naval Research Laboratory (physical sci-
ences) ; David W. Fox, John Hopkins Ap-
plied Physics Laboratory (mathematics) ;
Donald F. Brandewie, Swanson Junior
High School (teaching of science) ;
Herman R. Branson, Howard University
(teaching of science).
Miscellany. The Academy’s annual
student awards dinner meeting was held at
Georgetown University on May 13 under
the auspices of the Committee on Encour-
agement of Science Talent (Father F. J.
Heyden, chairman), aided by the Special
Events Committee (Alphonse Forziati,
chairman). Gale Cleven of the Advanced
Research Projects Agency (now with
Hughes Aircraft at Los Angeles, in charge
of the data reduction center) was guest
speaker, with Academy President-elect Leo
Shubert presiding at the head table. Dr.
Cleven spoke generally on the desirability
of obtaining a good academic education.
Thirty-three awards were actually pre-
Marcu, 1965
sented at this meeting, since it was dis-
covered that seven of the 40 award winners
approved were high school juniors.
The Board of Managers approved the re-
quests submitted by the Committee on
Policy Planning (B. D. Van Evera, chair-
man) for affiliation of the Washington
History of Science Club and the Chesa-
peake Section of the American Association
of Physics Teachers. These actions were
ratified by the necessary two-thirds of the
Academy’s membership by mail ballots
in December.
During 1964, the Standing Rules of the
Board of Managers were completely revised
by the Committee on Bylaws and Standing
Rules (Lawrence A. Wood, chairman) and
approved by the Board of Managers. The
new Standing Rules were published in the
Journal for December 1964. The Commit-
tee also presented an amendment to Article
8, Section 3, of the Bylaws, to protect the
interests of the affiliated societies. This
amendment was approved by the Board
and ratified by the Academy membership
in December.
Four grants-in-aid to young scientists of
the Washington area, totaling $237.50,
were recommended by the Committee on
Grants-in-Aid of Research (A. T. McPher-
son, chairman) and approved by the Board.
The recipients were John Fournelle ($32.-
50 for supplies for biology investigations) :
Robyn King ($100 for parts for building
a computer); Robert Brown ($30 to pur-
chase biological specimens); and Clayton
Curtis ($75 for electronic components to
complete a computer. These grants were
made from a balance of the 1963 allot-
ment of $400.68; a sum of $163.18 re-
verted to the American Association for the
Advancement of Science. Available for
grants in 1965 is an allotment for 1964 of
$457.00 and an allotment for 1965 of
$457.00, or a total of $914.00. There were
fewer demands for funds during the year,
since schools now have more money for
science projects . The Committee has _ be-
fore it requests for three grants, totaling
$210.00.
67
Volume 54 of the Academy’s Journal
(S. B. Detwiler, Jr., editor), was published
in 1964 with a total of 368 pages. Eight of
the issues contained a variety of articles
by leading area scientists, reviewing the
status of research in a number of important
fields; special reports of science education
and other major Academy programs; and
news concerning the Academy’s organiza-
tion, plans, and accomplishments. The
April, May, and October issues were ad-
dressed to the special interests of particular
affliated groups—the microbiologists,
geologists, and electrochemists, respec-
tively; free copies of these issues were
distributed to members of the affiliates
concerned. The September issue contained
a directory of the membership, classified
alphabetically, by place of employment,
and by membership in affiliated societies.
It included also the complete rosters of
nine of the Academy’s affiliates—Philo-
sophical Society, Entomological Society,
Botanical Society, Society of American
Foresters, American Society for Micro-
biology, International Association for
Dental Research, American Meteorological
Society, Institute of Food Technologists,
and Electrochemical Society.
A new Special Committee on Member-
ship Promotion (J. Murray Mitchell, Jr.,
chairman) is actively pursuing means for
stimulating new memberships—both fel-
lows and members—in the Academy.
Other active committees include: Public
Information (Watson Davis, chairman) ;
Ways and Means (Bourdon F. Scribner,
chairman); Awards for Scientific Achieve-
men (Edward A. Mason, chairman) ;
Auditing (Bourdon F. Scribner, chair-
man); and Tellers (Harry A. Fowells,
chairman).
—George W. Irving, Jr., Secretary
Annual Report of the Treasurer for 1964
Washington Academy of Sciences
Statement of Income and Expenses
Receipts
|B Yet ipam ni ea Aone oe RUDE MS RI aT ALA PSION Reg. et TT Ao nonencne: $10,159.50
Journal income—
Subisermptioms — ss b es hc Pe a ie IE ae eR 1,855.66
Sale sof: reprints: 235.94 oas.ch Sel alee tas eahaw ae eid ee ees alin alc casas ateeon eae 635.40
Saleof tsSimelé COPIES s.cccsch. 9: 3ee suns Russet coke scehecas huss sxe a hs Cosas GN hee 121.23
Afiiliate; contributions: to 1963 GinectOny ise c.cetcsteseecne c-cecessaeee ecco seen eet 139.25
Athiiate “contributions to 1964 dinectOny, icc. ccsrsccscsssces seeesecetestossterec a street 297.00
Certificates’ of amemibersthip’ 3 ..5c.0..5siectsck seedes oc keldan jancbedoat bossa oaks andeo ne 15.00
Committed TEceipts $55.0 eee es Eh eae ee ane ee 778.30
Dividends—
Loy 20 sce a Re ne CR oP PE OA 8, AN Me NEES ARNE RPUR Eee I Ate IE Te Ce snseoncuce 2,301.69
Capital joann’ Ais. ties hvhecdectiies cost eke Reco Waders ness Oe Resse eee kc dae aac ec 43.53
Tiber st sacs ceedceeua eat tel saat hat auc cdootees cae ceabeea el ere eae ens scat REI Na cE VEL a, a 42.97
Joint Board —
Reimbursement for taxes), Cbs .-.Ssdeisiceoasidasaceoass2eeoes scdeashtogsenceseevensectonsesee cGneesaeeeel seeaee aa eee 1,678.06
Reimbursement for: office .€xpemSesy ./.2es A occceee ccc osscecccssecesste-sesshsnecscutiees- cas oes ae eee 210.67
Reimbursement for eramts-im-aid Of GESECALCH o.scccc-sccseccscesccscses-csergtesseee-cecseersaonce ooeeceeeee eee 162.50
Miscellaneous: refunds. cc:..s0sesesceesseessteuecesccbdcctonssttoettoccssactets secdatea castes eared Re 62.39
Miscellaneous (Gneludine-Scerence (@alendar)) sicsc.c..ccccesccee-.ccevs-ckerseccesecoeseeccesssactee sees eeeeeeene 36.31
Sale of stocks (67 shareés.;State Street). ae ace eee 2,908.10
; $21,447.56
Total receipts
PR meme e meee treme eee ease eee sean s ese HEED HEHE EHO EEEA SEES ESSE HE EEEESEHES ESOS EEE SEES ESSE EHH EOE SHEE EET OSE ERESE EEO EE HESS OEEES
" All responsibility for Joint Board operations ceased on July 1, 1964.
68
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Disbursements
SCRE RISE ona ace halo ceca Se ISIN ime en eine i na $ 490.17
Oo) BRS ITE ha ah or haat me 2 0 ec 294.73
Headquarters expenses—
Se SETS ahah aptsedt cc tls ALE Pte POS tee, Se Or en ce 2,610.30
2 TEUDIBINGS., GIGS atest set ee aelaceA ScreE 1,281.86
iaxessand MICA wathheldvand paid? ...2:.:.....0..00:0.s0c..c000--2- Dot PRIMI ve ace aes ety oe AR Ne 2,524.57
2 cieenge - Craibern leg cafe gee A 90 T Rsee l 0a ee e 269.91
Committees—
CLARET ITS aaconsi se canbe caf etic HaECice eSER IE Ee ne aie SE nO eo We Ne ORR aE 3,807.78
“CAUEBIE “cezedendad gage acl tne coe lec eoe te 2 ll el UI a nr nn 743.10
Journal—
Ermtineg, mailing, postage, etc. (9 issues of 1963 and 1964) ...........ccccccocseteccecsecsoeceeese- 11,126.61
LSVETOIMIDUS whe setce eae ian lace een cE GAO av OU RAD a AS a 0.00
Grants—
|B Eby OUTER SE STEP sce aed eS a a UR eR 130.00
cc ULPIMIEIDE —syelecds eae ote eo ae wee a SC can aE net a 1,332.50
amen Sets SMU CAE CLE: [MEAS ITLGI NT OG) eta 0 tee Pn oe ness sche aa cma ceo Rasa dls Weuhan os sdetvollech ccdvoasidlaouasld 18.00
Maccellamcous, tacludme Joint Board Salary >: «..22.cc::<.cs.cccscccscbcccedsecaccseecoevatsssesessesessvasacctcizecese 1,273.42
AGUS QUST OUUSAS ETAT SIn ngs eer a ce i Maa CeO Ue $25,902.95
* The Academy has no liability for corporate income tax.
Cash Account Reconciled With Bank
Bank balance 12/15/63) ..:.....cc2.:.... $ 5,181.42 LB TET oy Scarce les ee Ee oor 8 726.03
Esliserecetpts 10 V9G4 ...........cs0.00c-020c0503 Dea oe wolbess petty cash at hand)... 9.2 se.- 0.30
“TDi a as ae a a a 26,628.98 Balances to eee le ae eee eae a 725.93
Less disbursements in 1964 ........0...0... 2902-050 bank balance 12/1/04 2.52. cee. $1253
Capital Assets
(Market values as of 12/7/64)
AU Mesiares \Viassachusetts Investors: Prust.@: V7.0 0 <...c.c.0ccscccsscsvevesscesstovansascenoccvavceeutcescersenses $50,373.57
(58 shares capital gain dividend in 1964 + $12.33)
iZ0Zeshares Investment Conmpany of America @ TS 2 ..0.....6c2..iissccsseseccsncesesadensdceateoncetcstoveece 13,847.04
(53 shares capital gain dividend in 1964 + $5.40)
1811 shares Washington Mutual Investment.Co. @ 11.74 0.0... cccessssescescesetecesnsssesessessseeass 21,261.14
(66 shares capital gain dividend in 1964 + $10.20)
Gu chakese State otree investment Co. (sold tm 1964): 2.0.26... escceccccsepovascctescococevteeceenecesahccersoecee 0.00
(3 shares capital gain dividend in 1964 + $15.60)
Wes trettmn Mlaicte Pav IT ER OEE GEOC Ric) 6 oo = fo ooh vgacsentenkcncud Bede vads on tewancndtedebedhsapdvupesscaedesysicwesabadccesee $85,481.75
ehh th lpeeme. PAP Gae fen Rae Ohis SIh JSR SR et Oe ORO Va ee 725.73
Sriram ere ree ree Ma es gcd cee Noh cs Ce Gescinlsh ce cacbeesacn acts sudeasdon<avaaeiaagndiiorusadaesen $86,207.48
Income from Investments
Dinteends-. ViassaGMMSetis LMVEStOTS — LTUSE ...<..<..cdesccececcssceencossecnsvseasesesceonssvessaveuacebecuevensetersesve $1,291.48
Satie HAMS Eee CG OS TAIT ETT VL te TA CMCC et oe Pa coo oe os gece oc ooile act sos nasidh cas siccehivadmeased convavanendouneasuouaeveedecpeass 295.89
slice Gio UV IEM CTE CELVE CES VALE acvssccescentoecsseneathasess'Sacovoocssdsernuibansvancucececnenseteuceauatsnmieengeguvana 68.94
IY cis MRO WATT IID a VESETIENID CO; §.5.c--cs-ce2--scecelsek sacescuecounsesess-secenstensetwadeasansscvessucctuenncnseearauae 605.18
SURE: SHEA? MTR aT ie 0 A Oe ee Ree eee Se 40.20
MEMES e SME IE IIEC OM Hl LCCGSURE VINO LES! anccstss acess soba dsanesenesceses canes dovuactshe SieesndotsnestotdacsseusetuvendGandasacuenens 42.97
SU a eco ae EE NS Be caaisdcnatdaaevsh incscodvansbdgasuns te teinventbedabes ead udabcmucuneees $2,344.66
Marcu, 1965 69
Comparison
12/31/63 12/7/64
Stocks atcmiarket Valine: ccccech. coo od Sree es aR Gn ne Rt $78,079.44 $85,481.75
(CEE! « RON nse cae tn On ren RIS ge LORI aR hed eon es nee OO eR 5,182.42 (P18)
INGE SAO TSE DD shoe os 25cc ccs cose eS ce Re he RE le ce $83,261.86 $86,207.48
Membership
(as of 12/7/64)
Active fellows—
Good standine (includes 6 life sand’ 3\ homoraty) 22 .2....c...cccccceeseeseeeeee sie 928
Delimauwent for L9G: i856 .ccscevess -ac hake. iettote hace cas Ue jvate ge es Seaeechexassc cease cach satenesect ec ee sr 30
Delinquent for 1963" amd) U9G4 xca.c5ccxn. cece. ce snes snste cveecssenaeateeceossentetsn cena e eset 12
Active members—
Good Stam iee sci Seon er aioe nose ees Sena ca enc ooh on SEP nat cesned recente cope Ci 93
Delinquent tot Wl964~..3 23k oe EO A ee 1
Emeriti receiving notices, bulletins, and Journal—
Paid subscription to Jourmal ‘throwehy 1964 cece ccccek occseec cere ee ectss ees eeeics ee 40
Oya | fOr” EQOA. oso ore. cescacyaeteSekeec cae cans g.cs yuesetes vou se see Seesnee cM eRe te ee cererA eae Se een jie 2
“Retired of long ‘standing, NO PayMENts .2......2.cscc-oe cess es heeds ce cesecds eee 22,
Emeriti receiving only notices and bulletins: (2022.00.20 5 io. ec ee 70
Total. smvemails ergs tno < Sse heeds ooh ccd Reese oe aS ee an oma oe ara aca ae 1,198
Changes in 1964
INS PEST gp ns 0 0101 21 Coane eS amt ei RO ry eRe et UG Wel ea eet RRR RN A Cre eR RI ccc gcmnora cats aw. +89
New fellows. 2:.cvsa sa bilecccnte ee ee EE ee) | oe +60
Changed ‘from: active to. emeritus Stabs ....seseccccesctiecclss.gescscsnecgesdc aeetoeseessadeone ee 15
Fvestemed’ - ci ccc: cost tenes ee ee ee eee sadesenaes smdoseslosssebcRicolvess (voscosscbencheet tt —37
Reported ‘decease de i. crcccccodenacs. dees atocsseaeavaasrstbtsn oe ousee see ne eco See eae — 20
Dropped , (delinquent or: “lost)) Ae ee ee ee ee — 20
Net: Chiatiigie 5. sicsaieeekeccalh choc ea liN Ge ear eS sc +72
Washington Junior Academy of Sciences
Checking Account Savings Account
Balances My Gao eer cesniensssess seen ecere $.- 791:20 "Balance: 71/1/6400. 2... 6 $1,593.52
Plus-receipts; ame1OG4) an ner 4,054.01 Plus receipts in 1964.00... 1,694.96
Plus transfer from savings account .... 3,150.00 Total’ 2.3. chk Oe ee 3,288.48
cl B's 2 1 Hae ame or oy tare ea 8 RS Soe 7,955.21 Less transfer to checking account ...... 3,150.00
Less disbursements in 1964 ................ 7,662.45 Balance, 12/7/64... = $ 138.48
Balances 2H, Gh eetas. ees eee asset $ 292.76
70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
JOINT BOARD ON
SCIENCE EDUCATION
The National Science Foundation has
awarded the Joint Board on Science Educa-
tion a $17,000 grant to support a second
summer program for area high school
biology teachers at Montgomery Junior
College. Robert B. Nicodemus is_ the
organizer and director of the program.
The month-long program, beginning
June 21, will consist of intensive laboratory
work and lectures by 12 area scientists
relating to new developments in biology
and teaching techniques. Speakers will in-
clude Ellis T. Bolton, Carnegie Institution
of Washington; Howard E. Finley, Howard
University; William O. Negherbon, Hazle-
ton Laboratories; and Charles S. Tidball,
George Washington University School of
Medicine. Topics to be covered include
cell ultra-structure and organelles, diffusion
and active transport, radioisotope tracers
and techniques, cell biochemistry, micro-
biology, population dynamics, plant growth
and regulation, dichotomous keys, embry-
ology, genetics, and ecology.
The 24 teachers selected to participate
will receive stipends provided by the grant.
Last year 26 local teachers attended the
first summer program; of these, 18 were
from three Maryland counties, four from
two Virginia counties, one from Washing-
ton public schools, and three from private
schools. An informal academic year fol-
low-up program is presently being con-
ducted for this group. So far, three meet-
ings have been held, at which talks were
given by Charles A. Hufnagel, Georgetown
University research surgeon, and Vera
Remsburg, Virginia state consultant for
BSCS. For the February meeting, a lecture
by A. J. Tousimis, professor of biophysics
at George Washington University, is
scheduled.
The summer course is part of a coopera-
tive effort by local school systems, scien-
tists, and educators supporting what is
called “a revolution in science teaching.”
In the past five years, new curricula have
Marcu, 1965
been produced in mathematics, physics,
chemistry, and biology for grades K to 12.
They share the philosophy that science is
effectively taught through investigation by
the student in a laboratory situation. One
of the most successful of the new curricula
is the high school biology course produced
by the Biological Sciences Curriculum
Study. It is rapidly gaining acceptance in
the Metropolitan area, with adoptions
ranging from 50 to over 90 percent in the
local school systems. Acceptance is being
encouraged by local teacher in-service pro-
grams, college courses that emphasize
BSCS methods, and the cooperative pro-
gram sponsored by the Joint Board on
Science Education.
Interested persons should contact John
K. Taylor, director of science projects for
the Joint Board on Science Education, or
Robert B. Nicodemus, director of the CCSS
Program, Department of Biology, Mont.
gomery Junior College.
COMMITTEE REPORTS
The following summary statements of
activity in 1964 have been prepared from
committee reports presented at the Board
of Managers meeting on January 21.
Committee on Membership
During 1964 the Committee consisted of
Richard K. Cook, chairman (physics and
astronomy); William E. Bickley (agricul-
tural sciences); Robert B. Hobbs (chem-
istry) ; Raymond L. Nace (earth sciences) ;
Harold E. Finley (general biology) ; Solo-
mon Kullback (mathematical sciences) :
Bernice E. Eddy (medical sciences) ; and
William G. Allen (engineering).
The nominations of 67 persons for fel-
lowship in the Academy were studied by
the Committee. All of the persons nomi-
nated were recommended for fellowship,
and were subsequently elected by the Board
of Managers. Most of the new fellows work
in the area of the physical sciences.
The Committee received the applications
of 73 persons for membership in the
Academy. All who applied were elected to
membership. The Committee took note of
the fact that many of those so applying
apparently qualify for fellowship as well.
The question of how to find sponsors and
endorsers for such potential fellows in cur-
rently being worked out in cooperation
with the Committee on Membership Pro-
motion.
The work of evaluating nominations for
fellowship is carried on by means of panels
established in the scientific areas mentioned
above. The evaluation is done with respect
to criteria set forth in the Bylaws, as
interpreted by the Committee over the last
several years.
—Richard K. Cook, Chairman
Committee on Policy Planning
The Committee presents the following
four recommendations:
1. The Committee strongly recommends
a review of the publishing policy of the
Academy’s Journal. From listening to a
number of comments, and from its own
reactions, the Committee: feels that some-
thing valuable was lost when the Journal
ceased being a journal of scientific record.
Accordingly, a review of present policies
is recommended.
It is also suggested that articles on the
history of science and more particularly
the history of science in Washington is a
currently neglected field into which it
might be profitable to move.
2. Another field of activity into which
the Academy may move with profit to all
is the sponsoring of symposia covering
multi-disciplinary approaches to timely
scientific topics. Publishing the proceed-
ings of such symposia, either as mono-
graphs or as special issues of the Journal,
would be a real service to the scientific
community.
3. In an effort to promote the interna-
tional aspects of science, it is suggested
that the Academy start a program of in-
viting distinguished foreign visitors to
address the Academy, either at regular
meetings or at special meetings. Coopera-
tion with the science attaches of the various
embassies should enable us to get a priority
on the time of these individuals.
4. In view of the growing concern about
the humanities and arts, the Committee
recommends that the Academy consider in
what ways it can contribute to the under-
standing of the humanistic and cultural
aspects of science.
The chairman has not discussed one last
point with the Committee, and makes the
recommendation on his own. This is to
suggest that the Academy consider whether
the procedure by which societies affiliate
with the Academy cannot be simplified.
—B. D.Van Evera, Chairman
Committee on Meetings
The Meetings Committee as presently
constituted did not come into existence
until the spring of 1964. Its membership
comprises Paul H. Oehser, Arnold M.
Sookne, David Rosenblatt, Edwin Roedder,
Mary L. Robbins, Ernest Gray, John M.
Coleman, Shirleigh Silverman, and Jacinto
Steinhardt (chairman).
The Committee held two informal dinner
meetings, one just before the beginning of
the summer and the other in late Septem-
ber, to formulate the program speakers and
other events at the monthly meetings com-
mencing in October. There has been a fine
division of labor among the members of
the Committee in initiating and following
through topics and speakers for each of
the meetings.
One more meeting will be held, at the
end of January 1965, to formulate pro-
posals for the meetings next fall, in order
that the new Committee, which will take
over before summer, will have a backlog
to start with.
The programs scheduled by the present
committee are as follows:
October 1964: Marshall Stone, Univer-
sity of Chicago, “Science and Society.”
November 1964: Christopher Tietze, Na-
tional Committee on Maternal Health,
72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
“Effectiveness of Methods of Population
Control.”
December 1964: Richard B. Roberts,
Carnegie Institution, “Prospects for Action
in Arms Control,” and Vice Admiral
Edward N. Parker (USN Retd.), ““To Con-
trol the Threat.”
January 1965: Awards dinner: Rev.
William A. Wallace, Catholic University,
“Some Moral and Religious Implications
of Nuclear Technology.”
February 1965: Francois N. Frenkiel,
David Taylor Model Basin, “High Speed
Computor Analyses of Random Processes”
(address of retiring president of the
Academy).
March 1965: Kenneth Boulding, Univer-
sity of Michigan, “Social and Economic
Dislocations Incident to Increased Life
Expectancy.”
April 1965: “Conversazione” on topic,
“What Is a Scientist?”
May 1965: Henry Fagin, University of
Wisconsin, “Mass Transportation.”
Attendance at the first three meetings of
the current Academy year has been some-
what above the average of preceding years,
but is still far smaller than the quality of
the speakers merits.
An informal dinner, sometimes combined
with the Board of Managers dinner, has
preceded each of the first three occasions.
I have invited a small number of people
from outside the Academy, who were
known to me to be interested in the topic
at each of these dinners. About half of
them have accepted.
—Jacinto Steinhardt, Chairman
Committee on Grants-in-Aid
of Research
Funds Available for Calendar
Year 1964
Carryover from 1968 .............. $400.68
Allotted by AAAS for 1964..... 457.00
plicatcalp Reree reh wckeedss east sotese a aeassc% 897.68
Marcu, 1965
Grants Approved by the Board
in 1964
January 16. John Fournelle.
Supplies for project production
of ultraviolet-induced pigment
mutants im Chilorellays..23,--2.: 22...
March 19, Robyn King. Elec-
tronic components for project on
digital computer using neon bulb
flaps tops CAnCMAES, wa -eese eee eee
March 19. Robert S. Brown.
Biological material project on
enzymatic correction of heredi-
tary diseases in Drosophila mela-
nogaster and Mormoniella vitra-
pennis
November 19. Clayton Curtis.
Power supply to complete com-
puter
32.90
100.00
30.00
SSCS SHS OTHE SETS T SEE OSES HEHE SEES EEEEEEES
75.00
237.50
POPS OSHS ESHEETS EEE EH HEHE EES ESEEEE ESE EEEESE
SHPO SHH ETE SE EEE SEEHE SHS SESEHEEHEEEEEES
Funds Canceled by AAAS
Unobligated funds allotted for
LOG fk ER tha SM aN Om koh Le
Funds Available for Calendar
Year 1965
Unobligated allotment for
DTG eee Seer nsioriane ace ileal ts aa 457.00
163.18
Total
PRP eee TOP HSH S SESE SESE SHEETS ES EEE EEEEEE
Applications Pending
Since January 1, 1965, two applications
have been filed and a third is in prepara-
tion. The total amount requested is about
$210.
Applications Not Approved
One application for a grant for travel to
Europe was turned down by the Committee.
Two applications recommended by the
committee were approved only in part by
the Board.
Alternative Sources of Support for
Research Projects
The Grants-in-Aid Program of the
Academy is only one source of support for
73
original investigations in the Washington
area. Other sources are as follows:
Schools. Many schools in the area are
receiving support for their science pro-
grams that enable them to provide supplies
and equipment for many original projects.
Research laboratories. Summer _ pro-
srams now under way afford many students
the opportunity to work in government and
institutional laboratories. Some _ students
continue to work in these laboratories out-
side of school hours during the year.
Others secure the loan of equipment for
use in laboratories at school or at home.
Industry. Local representatives of manu-
facturers of electronic and other equipment
have been generous in securing gifts of
obsolescent but usable items needed for
specific investigations.
Publicity about Grants
A statement on grants-in-aid of research
which was approved by the Policy Planning
Committee in 1962 has been distributed to
members of the Board and given other
circulation as opportunities arose. Science
supervisors have also been alerted to the
availability of grants.
—A.T, McPherson, Chairman
Committee on Encouragement
of Science Talent
The Committee has had no formal meet-
ing during the year because of pressures
from various agenda that began in Septem-
ber 1964.
The Committee members are John K.
Taylor (1962), Alfred Weissler (1962),
Lloyd Ferguson (1963), Howard Owens
(1963), Nate Haseltine (1964), and
Francis Heyden (1964) (chairman). The
date after the names indicates the year in
which the member joined the Committee.
Some preliminary discussions with Acad-
emy President Frenkiel indicated a prefer-
ence for a term of three years, but no final
decision has been made.
Activities
Science Awards Dinner
This dinner was held May 13, 1964 at
Georgetown University, with Gale Cleven
of the Advanced Research Projects Agency
as guest speaker and Leo Schubert as repre-
sentative of the senior Academy. Awards
were presented to 33 high school students
of the Washington area, comprising 25
students who had competed in the Westing-
house Science Talent Search, four students
who had competed in area Science Fairs,
and four students selected by the Washing-
ton Junior Academy of Sciences. The
prizewinners were:
Westinghouse Talent Search entrants: Joseph
W. Bell, Jr., Margaret P. Brook, Marcia C.
Cleveland, David B. Coomber, Richard E. Cou-
kouma, Leona M. Dryden, Mare S. Durand,
Robert L. Epstein, Gerald W. Ferguson, Jeffrey
E. Fookson, Mark A. Goldstein, William F.
Hermach, Henry M. Jaffin, Peter M. Kogge,
Douglas A. Lind, Tessa D. Orellana, Arnold L.
Polinger, Thomas L. Rothstein, Madeleine S.
Reines, Stanley J. Shapiro, James D. Steakley,
Natalie A. Weiss, Stephen M. Winters, Douglas
L. Will, Randall C. Zisler.
Science Fair entrants: David L. Abel, Marshall
Curtis, Ingrid Hougland, David Matthews.
Junior Academy selections: Patricia Evans,
Virginia Fano, John Jelen, Robert Sproull.
Science Fairs
Most of the Committee members served
as judges in Science Fairs of the Washing-
ton area. The District of Columbia Fair
was held in Hangar No. 2 at Bolling Air
Force Base, through arrangements made by
Gale Cleven. The hangar proved to be very
satisfactory for display of science projects
and parking, and in convenience was con-
sidered second only to the Georgetown Uni-
versity gymnasium. The D.C. Fair was
better attended in 1964 than in 1963.
Junior Science and Humanities Symposia
Several members of the Committee as-
sisted in organizing two symposia, spon-
sored by the Army Office of Research and
held November 27-28, 1964 at Georgetown
University. Co-sponsors of the event were
the Harry Diamond Laboratories, the
74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Washington Post, and the Washington
Junior Academy of Sciences. The 60 papers
submitted were judged by a group com-
prising the Committee, Phoebe Knipling of
the Arlington County Schools, B. Lamber-
ton of Visitation High School, and Israel
Rotkin of the Harry Diamond Labora-
tories. The six best papers were selected
for presentation at the symposium, as fol-
lows:
Howard Ozer, Jr., Fairfax High School, “Pesti-
cide Cross Resistance in Bluegill Sunfish.”
Clayton Curtis, Bethesda-Chevy Chase High
School, “The Development of a Solid-State Auto-
matic Digital Computer.”
Steven Hadler, Walt Whitman High School,
“Division by Zero.”
William Pala, Jr., George Marshall High
School, “The Nature and Cause of Lunar
Luminescence.”
Richard Fitch, Albert Einstein High School,
“An Experiment in Suspended Animation of
Leopard Frogs.”
These six students will be rewarded by
membership in the Junior Academy, by
selection for the forthcoming awards
dinner, if seniors, and by a three-day trip
to West Point next spring, as guests of
the Army.
More than 400 students and teachers
from 78 local high schools attended the
two-day sessions. Alfred Friendly, business
editor of the Washington Post, was the
guest speaker. The entire symposium was
tape-recorded for future reference.
Junior Academy
This affiliate of the senior Academy was
established in 1951 under the Committee
for the Encouragement of Science Talent.
Funds for the Junior Academy at that time
were derived from a benefit showing of
the Kon Tiki travelogue in a Washington
theater. Mrs. Truman was one of the spon-
sors, together with the presidents of the
Washington area universities.
The Junior Academy has continued suc-
cessfully for the past 14 years, with help
and guidance from adult advisors of the
senior Academy. It has contributed gen-
erously to the Joint Board on Science Edu-
cation to help defray the cost of sending
Marcu, 1965
Science Fair winners to the National
Science Fair. The funds have been raised
by the Junior Academy by sponsoring trips
for high school students to New York and
Philadelphia, on the Pennsylvania Rail-
road. Howard Owens has given generously
of his time in organizing these trips.
The governing council of the Junior
Academy meets monthly at the cottage near
Georgetown University to discuss matters
of business and policy. These meetings,
which continue through the summer
months, have been attended regularly by
the chairman of the Committee for En-
couragement of Science Talent.
The third volume of the Proceedings of
the Junior Academy has been published
and is being sold to members for $1.00.
Previous issues of the Proceedings were
given away, at a serious loss to the Junior
Academy.
The Junior Academy’s annual convention
was held December 29 at Georgetown Uni-
versity, with an unusually large attendance.
Glenn Seaborg of the Atomic Energy Com-
mission delivered the invited lecture.
“Transuranium Elements.” to more than
300 academy members.
The only expenses for this convention
were $350 for the luncheon. The lecture
and meeting rooms at Georgetown were
made available without charge to the Acad-
emy. The use of such facilities instead of
hotel meeting rooms has reduced the cost
of the annual convention by more than 50
percent.
Contributed Efforts of Individual Members
The Committee seldom acts as a unit:
but all the individual members have con-
tributed their time to the goal to which the
Committee is dedicated. Most of them serve
as judges of local Science Fairs, and
several are volunteer lecturers for schools.
The chairman gave more than 50 lectures
to schools and other groups during the
academic year 1963-64.
—Francis J]. Heyden, S.J., Chairman
ris
ELECTIONS TO FELLOWSHIP
The following persons were elected to
fellowship in the Academy at the Board of
Managers meeting on February 18:
MORTON BEROZA, investigations
leader in charge of synthesis investigations,
Department of Agriculture, “in recognition
of his work on insect control agents,
especially for synthesis of insect attract-
ants.” (Sponsors: B. D. Van Evera, C. R.
Naeser, T. Perros. )
GLENN W. BRIER, head, Meteorologi-
cal Statistics, Weather Bureau, “in recogni-
tion of his pioneering contributions to
meteorological statistics, and his design of
statistical methods leading to important
discoveries of lunar and solar relationships
to weather.” (Sponsors: J. M. Mitchell,
Jr., H. E. Landsberg, H. C. S. Thom.)
JAMES W. BUTLER, consultant, Van de
Graaff Branch, Naval Research Laboratory,
‘in recognition of his contributions to our
knowledge of energy levels and other prop-
erties of atomic nuclei.” (Sponsors: E. A.
Mason, 5. N. Foner.)
DAVID W. FOX, project leader, Aero-
elasticity Project, Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity Applied Physics Laboratory, “in
recognition of his research in estimating
lower bounds to eigenvalues and related
studies.” (Sponsors: E. A. Mason, Harry
Polachek. )
MAX A. KOHLER, chief hydrologist,
Weather Bureau, “in recognition of his
wide-ranging contributions to research and
education in the field of hydrology, many
having been of exceptional value to water
conservation programs in the U.S.A. and
abroad.” (Sponsors: H. E. Landsberg,
J. M. Mitchell, Jr.)
ROBERT LADO, dean, Institute of
Languages and Linguistics, Georgetown
University, “in recognition of his outstand-
ing contributions to the scientific study of
linguistics, and to the establishment of ad-
vanced education in the science of linguis-
tics.” (Sponsors: J. Steinhardt, W. J.
Thaler, F. Heyden, S.J.)
76 JOURNAL OF
LESTER MACHTA, research meteorolo-
gist, Weather Bureau, “in recognition of
his highly significant contributions to, and
direction of, broad research programs in
meteorology, most especially in the area of
atmospheric radioactivity and atomic fall-
out.” (Sponsors: M. J. Rubin, R. H.
Simpson, J. M. Mitchell, Jr.)
CLIFFORD J. MALONEY, chief, Bio-
metrics Section, National Institutes of
Health, “in recognition of his application
of statistical and computer techniques to
biology and to Army research and develop-
ment problems.” (Sponsors: Margaret
Pittman, Jerome Cornfield, C. W. Hiatt.)
ALBERT V. H. MASKET, research
physicist, Naval Research Laboratory, “in
recognition of his pioneering studies of
penetration ballistics, his valuable contribu-
tions to data analysis in nuclear radiation
measurements, and his clarifying treat-
ments of interior-value problems of mathe-
matical physics.” (Sponsors: G. R. Irwin,
W. C. Hall, R. L. Dolecek.)
ELIO PASSAGLIA, chief, Polymer
Physics Section, National Bureau of Stand-
ards, “in recognition of his contributions
to the physics of high polymers and in
particular his researches on the thermo-
dynamic and mechanical properties of
semi-crystalline hydrocarbon polymers.”
(Sponsors: L. A. Wood, J. D. Hoffman,
N. Bekkedahl. )
JOHN S. RINEHART, assistant director
for research and development, Coast and
Geodetic Survey, “in recognition of his
work in the field of ballistics and astro-
physics, particularly dynamics of explo-
sions, fragmentation, and NPE
flight and impact.” (Sponsors: D.
Carder, C. A. White, J. B. Small.)
RICHARD C, ROBERTS, chief, Mathe-
matics Department, Naval Ordnance Lab-
oratory, “in recognition of his outstanding
leadership in devising, advancing, and di-
recting his laboratory’s mathematics effort
in support of Navy research and engineer-
ing programs.” (Sponsors: H. Polachek,
E. A. Mason.)
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
RYSZARD SYSKI, associate protessor,
Department of Mathematics, University of
Maryland, “in recognition of his contribu-
tions in the field of probability theory and
stochastic processes and in particular for
applications to congestion theory and
queueing theory as evidenced in his book,
‘Introduction to Congestion Theory in
Telephone Systems’.” (Sponsors: H. Pola-
chek, E. A. Mason. ) |
ELECTIONS TO
MEMBERSHIP
The following persons were elected to
membership in the Academy by action of
the Committee on Membership at its meet-
ing on February 2:
ELVIRA A. EULER, teacher of physics
and earth-space science, George Mason
High School, Falls Church.
JOHN H. HONIG, chief, Naval Warfare
Technology, Honeywell, Inc.
GARY B. JORDAN, member of the tech-
nical staff, Bunker-Ramo Corporation,
Canoga Park, Calif.
ERNEST E. SAULMON, associate di-
rector, Animal Disease Eradication Divi-
sion, Department of Agriculture.
BOARD OF MANAGERS
MEETING NOTES
January Meeting
The Board of Managers held its 569th
meeting on January 21 at the Cosmos Club,
with President Frenkiel presiding.
The minutes of the 568th meeting were
approved as previously distributed.
Announcements. Dr. Frenkiel announced
the appointment of an Auditing Committee
consisting of Bourdon F. Scribner (chair-
man), John L. Torgesen, and Michael Gold-
berg. He also reported that the Philosophi-
cal Society had decided to continue its
sponsorship of the annual Christmas
Lectures, and that it would therefore be un-
Marcu, 1965
necessary for the Academy to assume such
sponsorship.
Secretary and Treasurer. The annual re-
ports of secretary and treasurer were de-
ferred for presentation at the general meet-
ing of the Academy, following the Board
meeting. (They appear elsewhere in this
issue. )
Executive Committee. President-elect
Schubert reported that the Committee has
approved payment of $10 annual dues to
the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, for the Academy repre-
sentative on the AAAS Council; also, that
Dr. Schubert had been appointed Academy
representative to the Council for 1965.
Annual Committee Reports. Annual re-
ports were submitted for the Committees
on Membership, Policy Planning, Meetings,
Grants-in-Aid of Research, Encouragement
of Science Talent, and Awards for Scien-
tific Achievement. (Summaries of the first
five of these reports appear elsewhere in
this issue. The activities of the Committee
on Awards for Scientific Achievement are
summarized in the article, “Six Scientists
Receive Academy’s Annual Awards,” ap-
pearing on page 21 of the February issue. )
Membership. No new applications were
presented to the Board at this meeting.
Chairman Cook reported that the problem
of finding sponsors for members qualified
for fellowship status is being worked out
in cooperation with the Committee on
Membership Promotion.
Awards for Scientific Achievement.
Chairman Mason indicated that the Com-
mittee was screening the runners-up in the
recent selection of the Academy’s annual
award winners, to determine their eligi-
bility for fellowship in the Academy.
Grants-in-Aid of Research. On motion of
Chairman McPherson, the Board approved
a grant of $80 to Howard Katz of Spring-
brook High School, for the completion of
a complete television station for use in the
school’s program; and a grant of $65 to
Glen Urquhart as part of a three-year pro-
cram in the field of optics.
~]
~!
Special Events. Chairman Forziati re-
ported that he had received 113 reserva-
tions for the annual dinner just following
the Board meeting.
Editor. Editor Detwiler reported that the
February issue of the Journal, currently in
press, was directed primarily to the in-
terests of the foresters of Washington. In
response to a _ suggestion from _ Dr.
Schubert, he agreed that additional Journal
articles on the history of science in Wash-
ington would be desirable.
Archivist. Archivist Farber reported that
he had had little opportunity to come to
grips with the Academy files, but had been
perusing old issues of the Journal. He was
impressed with some of the older material,
particularly illustrations, and suggested
that it might be worth while to republish
some of them. The editor was agreeable
to the idea.
Joint Board. In the absence of Dr.
Taylor, Dr. Schubert reminded the Board
of the annual Architects, Engineers, and
Scientists Day, to be held this year on
February 16 at the Presidential Arms.
78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Science in Washington
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
March 9—Weather Bureau
Charles E. Anderson, manager, Support-
ing Research Division, Office of Federal
Coordinator for Meteorological Services
and Supporting Research, “Numerical Sim-
ulation of the Growth of Cumulus
Towers.”
Room B-04, 615 Pennsylvania Ave.,
N.W., 2:15 p.m.
March 10 — American
Heating, Refrigeration,
Conditioning Engineers
Society of
and Air
William P. Chapman, Johnson Service
Company, “Management by Exception.”
Cameo Room, Presidential Arms, 1320
Ces NWe, 7:50° p.m. Social hour at
9:15, dinner at 6:15.
March 11 — Chemical
Washington
Hillebrand Award dinner. Award of
1964 prize to Ellis R. Lippincott, Univer-
sity of Maryland.
Knights of Columbus Activities Hall,
5115 Little Falls Rd., Arlington, Va. Social
period at 7:00 p.m., dinner at 7:30. (For
reservations call Guido Cammisa, KI 9-
1622.)
Society of
March 16—Anthropological Society
of Washington
William Madsen,
*““Mexican-American
Anxiety and Witchcraft.”
Rm. 43, Natural History Building, 10th
& Constitution Ave., N.W., 8:15 p.m.
Purdue University,
Acculturation—
Marcu, 1965
March 17 — Society of American
Foresters
Annual all-day meeting, on topic, “Pests,
Pesticides, and People.” Speakers: Hon.
Stewart L. Udall, Secretary of the Interior:
Hon. Jamie L. Whitten, Congressman from
Mississippi; Austin H. Wilkins, president.
National Association of State Foresters:
Carl W. Buchheister, president, National
Audubon Society; Parke C. Brinkley, pres-
ident, National Agricultural Chemicals
Association; Robert J. Anderson, assistant
surgeon general, Public Health Service.
Presidential Arms, 1320 G St., N.W.
Registration at 9:00 a.m.; luncheon at
12:50 p.m.; adjournment about 2:30 p.m.
(Reservations needed before noon on
March 15; call SAF office, 296-7820. )
March 19—Howard University Archi-
tecture Department
John C. Warecke, F.A.A., on topic
to be announced.
Auditorium, School of Engineering and
Architecture, 2300 6th St., N.W., 4:00 p.m.
SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS
Contributions to this column may be ad-
dressed to Harold T. Cook, Associate
Editor, c/o Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service, Federal
Center Building, Hyattsville, Md.
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT
W. B. ENNIS, JR., participated in a
panel on pesticides at the annual meeting
of the Range Society of America in Las
Vegas, Nev., on February 11. He discussed
“The New Research in Pesticides.”
KENNETH W. PARKER attended the
Ninth International Grassland Congress at
Sao Paulo, Brazil, January 7-20, and gave
a paper, “Progress in Range Management
in the United States.” From January 21 to
29 he made a tour of range research work
in Argentina.
ELBERT L. LITTLE, JR., Forest Service
dendrologist, spent five months recently on
an FAO assignment as consultant in den-
drology at the Interamerican Institute of
Agricultural Sciences at Turrialba, Costa
Rica. He returned to Washington March 1.
NATIONAL BUREAU OF
STANDARDS
H. J. KOSTKOWSKI participated in a
panel discussion on Terminology, Defini-
tions, and Units of Solar Simulation at the
First International Symposium on Solar
and Planet Radiation Simulation, Los
Angeles, Calif.
J. K. TAYLOR presented a paper on
“High-Precision Coulometric Analysis with
Special Reference to the Determination of
Uranium,” at the Euratom, Bureau Central
de Measures Nuclaires, Brussels, Belgium.
NORMAN BEKKEDAHL, formerly chief
of the Polymer Characterization Section,
has been designated deputy chief of the
Polymers Division.
JOHN R. MANNING was named chief
of the Metal Physics Section on January 1.
G. K. TEAL, vice president and inter-
national technical director for Texas In-
struments, Inc., has accepted appointment
as director of the Institute for Materials
Research for a period of approximately two
years. Dr. Teal is internationally known in
connection with the physics and chemistry
of materials, and for his work on the de-
velopment of transistors.
FRANK R. CALDWELL, supervisory
physicist, retired on December 30 after 45
years of government service.
CHARLES L. GORDON, analytical
chemist, retired on January 4 after 36
years of government service.
NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
RICHARD TOUSEY, head of the Rocket
Spectroscopy Branch of the Atmosphere
and Astrophysics Division, has accepted an
invitation to serve as a member of the
Board of Visitors to the Department of
Chemistry at Tufts University.
HOMER W.CARHART was presented
the Navy Superior Civilian Award by Ad-
miral J. K. Leydon, chief of naval research,
on January 26. This award was presented
in recognition of Dr. Carhart’s contribu-
tions in the field of fuels. His studies have
led to a more lucid understanding of com-
bustion mechanisms, and these in turn have
been used to eliminate hazards associated
with fuel handling. Dr. Carhart has been
associated with fuels and related programs
at NRL for 22 years
DEATHS
HORACE M. TRENT, head of the Naval
Research Laboratory’s Applied Mathe-
matics Staff, died December 16 following
an illness complicated by pneumonia. He
would have been 57 years old on December
20. Dr. Trent was a nationally recognized
authority in the field of graph theory. He
attracted world-wide attention in 1958 by
a paper in the Journal of the American
Acoustical Society, in which he showed that
the loud report when a bull whip is cracked
is produced because the tip exceeds the
speed of sound. He demonstrated this by
means of a theatrical whip-cracking team
and high speed photography.
BERNARD FRANK, visiting professor
of watershed management at Colorado
State University, died November 15, 1964
at Fort Collins, Colo. He had been elected
to the Academy on January 13, 1959.
Cm
30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT
In 1928 George Ellery Hale, first director
of the Mount Wilson Observatory, wrote
an article entitled “The Possibilities of
Large Telescopes.” Now, 15 years after the
installation of the 200-inch instrument
which bears his name, his predictions have
been more than fulfilled. The observable
universe is now known to be many times
larger than hitherto estimated, and the
“nearby” Andromeda nebula is now set at
the order of 2 billion light years. Ira
Bowen, present director of the Mount Wil-
son and Palomar Observatories, goes so far
as to suggest that the observation of so
large a fraction of the radius of the uni-
verse as is permitted by the 200-inch Hale
instrument, makes possible observational
differentiation between the various cosmo-
logical models: the exploding universe, the
pulsating universe, and the steady-state
universe. Add to the data from the giant
telescope the information now being derived
from radio astronomy, and one moves into
a whole new realm of understanding and
inquiry. It now appears, for example, that
a substantial fraction of the several thou-
sands of known radio sources are galaxies
exploding with a force causing energy emis-
sions as much as 100 times the normal
radiation from all the stars of a large
galaxy like Anromeda. When one considers
that the lifetime of the explosion is perhaps
a few million years only, the events cannot
be regarded as rare and must play a major
role in the evolution of many galaxies. Dr.
Bowen summarizes one theory of the de-
velopment of stars as follows:
“The gas clouds from which the star
condenses are made up chiefly of hydrogen.
As the mass of hydrogen condenses into the
star the core is heated to a temperature of
the order of 10 million degrees centigrade.
At this temperature hydrogen is slowly
transformed into helium, each pound pro-
ducing an amount of energy equivalent to
the combustion of about 10,000 tons of the
best coal.
“When the hydrogen fuel in the core
MarcwH, 1965
approaches exhaustion, the core heats to
some hundred million degrees, at which
temperature the helium atoms, now the
chief constituent of the core, can react to
form carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and neon.
These reactions liberate a number of
neutrons which can combine with the
atoms presnt to form the heavier elements,
such as iron.
“As the reactions continue, the core
temperature may eventually increase to a
few billion degrees, and in the more mas-
sive stars the reaction may eventually pro-
ceed explosively. This is presumably the
cause of the supernovae, in which for a
few weeks after the explosion the star emits
as much light as all the normal stars in a
whole galaxy. During the explosion a con-
siderable fraction of the mass of the star
is thrown off into space with a velocity of
thousands of miles per second.”
War and preparations for possible war
continue. The Army laboratories at Fort
Belvoir are now testing an extremely light-
weight and compact glide angle light for
night landings in remote areas. Weighing
about 25 pounds, it can be dropped by
parachute, assembled, and put into opera-
tion by one man in five minutes; it pro-
vides a high intensity three-colored beam.
Aircraft coming in on the green can be
assured of a good approach; on the red
they will be warned that they are too low,
and on the yellow that they are too high.
The projected beams are separated by two
minutes of arc, eliminating blind spots at
three miles. The unit operates either on its
own nickel cadmium battery or from the
jeep DC power supply.
And most veterans of World War II will
be wryly amused at the development of a
one-pound cylindrical device which enables
the combat soldier to dig a foxhole in much
less time than formerly necessary. It con-
sists of two delay-type fuses, a spike or
stability rod, and a cratering charge. The
container itself detonates. to produce a pilot
hole, and the cratering charge loosens the
earth for the foxhole proper. The final
ol
effort devolves upon the soldier and his
intrenching tool.
The Ames Research Center, NASA, hopes
to provide moon dust for subsequent analy-
sis by sweeping the outer atmosphere with
a sounding rocket launched from the White
Sands, New Mexico, site. Michael Carr of
the Geological Survey points out that when
meteoritic material strikes the surface of
the moon, it causes a spray ejection of
extremely fine dust, much of which escapes
the moon’s gravity. Some, in turn, enters
the earth’s atmosphere within 75 miles of
the earth’s surface, and it is this that the
Aerobee rocket is to pick up for subsequent
study by electron probe and electron mi-
croscopy.
Water cannot longer be taken for granted
in most of the industrialized portions of
the United States, as indicated by a recent
city-by-city inventory of “Public Water
Supplies of the 100 Largest Cities in the
United States,” published by the Geological
Survey. This survey provides information
on the ownership of the systems, popula-
tion, daily use, treatment methods, and
storage. Some 34 percent of our popula-
tion are served by these supplies. As for
sources, 66 of the cities tap surface sup-
plies, 20 use ground water, and 14 a com-
bination of the two. Ten pump water from
the Great Lakes.
Nor can its quality be ignored. Of the
total population noted above, 56 percent
receive filtered water, 98 percent water that
has been chlorinated. Twenty seven cities
soften the water, and 34 add fluorine. As
for properties of hardness, dissolved solids.
and other chemical characteristics, the Sur-
vey has just released an atlas of the public
water supplies of the United States, includ-
ing Puerto Rico, based on 1,596 supplies
serving 103 million people.
To those of us who marvel that far-flung
points on the earth’s surface are locatable
at all, it comes as a reassuring surprise to
learn that the Bermuda Islands have, by
use of the two Echo satellites, been pin-
pointed on the map with an accuracy
greater than ever before possible. The pre-
cision of this effort by the Coast and
Geodetic Survey, which used the satellites
as space targets against star backgrounds
and employed the most advanced camera
designs, is underscored by the results,
which showed that the islands are 220 feet
further north and 105 feet further west
than had been previously recorded. For
those who plan to travel in that direction,
the news release points out that the islands
are thus nearer to New York than ever
before.
The islands were first visited by the
Spanish about 450 years ago, their loca-
tion charted in the late 1800’s and again
in 1937 by the British Admiralty. During
the last war, a still more accurate survey
was made in order to establish military
and naval bases. Submarine gravity and
astronomic surveys resulted in a still dif-
ferent determination in 1957. In 1959,
simultaneous observation of high-altitude
flares in Massachusetts, Virginia, and Ber-
muda permitted a two-dimensional triangu-
lation. This remained until the present
three-dimensional effort just reported.
In the wake of the well-known “IGY” or
International Geophysical Year has come
an increasing succession of somewhat com-
parable international scientific efforts. Each
seems to strive for its own identity, and
each must of course have its unique prob-
lems and its distinct approach. And so we
see the “International Years of the Quiet
Sun,” the “International Hydrological Dec-
ade,” and the “International Biological
Programme.” Raymond L. Nace of the
Geological Survey heads the U.S. National
Committee for the IHD, and Roger Revelle.
of Harvard University, the comparable
committee for the IBP. Inherent in the
enormous efforts necessary to establish and
prosecute the great international undertak-
ings are two basic needs: to bring into
focus the diverse and often unplanned re-
82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
search undertakings of the several coun-
tries involved, and to accomplish by inter-
national effort what no single country can
possibly manage alone. There is almost
certainly an ancillary dividend of interna-
tional goodwill among scientists involved
to be had from the programs.
By means of controlled chemical explo-
sions, geophysicists of the Geological Sur-
vey have probed further into the nature of
the earth’s crust and upper mantle. With
the assistance of the Coast Guard cutter
Woodrush and Navy demolition teams,
explosives were placed at depths of several
hundred feet in Lake Superior, and the
resulting shock waves studied in a series of
three listening lines radiating out to the
south and west. The Lake Superior area
seems to be particularly efficient in trans-
ferring shockwaves and thus is a better-
than-average research site. At the depths
selected, damage to fish is negligible.
The slow process of trying to uncover
the mystery of the “biological clock”
mechanisms in living things goes on. Re-
cently, Solomon H. Snyder, Mark Zweig,
and Julius Axelrod of the National Insti-
tutes of Health have reported that one of
the more striking 24-hour rhythms, the
serotinin content of the rat pineal gland,
is mediated by a central nervous system
clock from which the information is re-
layed to the gland itself through the sym-
pathetic nervous system. Blinded rats con-
tinue to show the rhythm, whereas those
with certain sympathetic nerve fibers re-
moved do not, indicating the pathway of
transmission. The most vexing question,
however, is not yet solved, i.e., whether the
basic mechanism is endogenous or exogen-
ous, for there still remains the possibility
that there are photoreceptors of the ex-
ternal light stimuli other than the eyes.
Although silver production continues to
rise, a trend expected to last at least until
1970, the consumption increase far out-
distances it. One of the interesting side-
Marcu, 1965
lights on this issue is the fact that the bulk
of the metal is recovered not from mines
that produce silver alone, but from work-
ings which include lead, zinc, copper, or
gold. This situation is true also of mines
in Canada, Mexico, and Peru, from which
we normally import silver; and in all such
cases the overproduction of the other
metals engenders complex market situa-
tions. One likely outcome is intensified
prospecting throughout the U.S. West,
using the modern gadgetry of the geologist,
in the hope of finding additional sources of
straight silver ores and, possibly, the ex-
ploitation of low-grade sandstone deposits
which have hitherto received scant atten-
tion.
The atomic age has its atomic garbage
disposal problem, and the search for a
satisfactory solution is many-sided. It now
appears that the crystalline rock some 1500
feet beneath the surface of the Savannah
River plant near Aikin, South Carolina,
would be an extraordinarily safe repository
for some hundreds of years. In the first
place, water movement would be at a maxi-
mum of perhaps 7 feet per year, depend-
ing on degree of fracturing. Secondly, a
virtually impermeable layer of clay lies be-
tween the rock and the unconsolidated
materials above; and thirdly, chemical re-
actions can be depended upon to tie up the:
strontium and cesium components of any
seepage that might develop. Any one of
these barriers, according to Wendell Ma-
rine of the Geological Survey, would con-
fine the wastes to the plant area for a time
much greater than the 600 years necessary
to render them innocuous.
Systematics, the oldest and too often the
most maligned discipline in the biological
sciences, refuses to die. Rather, it reap-
pears again and again in a new context,
the classic example of the old saw to the
effect that “if you can’t beat ’em, join ’em.”
The Biophysics Group of the Carnegie In-
stitution’s Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism, for example, has turned this most
33
fashionable kind of biology into a new
approach to the basic taxonomic relation-
ships in vertebrate. For this they utilize
a technique whereby fragments of single-
stranded DNA from one species are
allowed to attach themselves to homologous
segments of single-stranded DNA from
other species. The extent of this recom-
bination is taken to indicate the degree of
homology in the species compared, on the
now almost universally held assumption
that the polynucleotide sequences held in
common between species are indicative of
similar genes.
Such is the complexity of the natural
environment that man’s activities too often
bring on undesired results. Where as in
the East, removal of vegetation often leads
to increased erosion and loss of water from
surface runoff, in the more arid West it is
becoming necessary to remove plants from
as much as 16 million acres of land as a
water conservation measure. The so-called
saltcedar (Tamarix), introduced from the
Mediterranean about 100 years ago, is a
prime example of an undesirable phreato-
phyte, or water-stealing species. Water
moving into these plants from the soil is
lost at a rate much greater than that from
uncovered soil, and may amount in the
ageregate to 25-30 million acre-feet per
year. Studies are now underway to deter-
mine the best method, or combination of
methods, to remove the unwanted vegeta-
tion and thus save the water for irrigation
or to support the growth of desirable for-
age grasses sown in the cleared areas.
The Sudbury Basin in Ontario, Canada,
may well be at once one of the most deso-
late looking sites and the location of the
richest ore deposits in this continent, its
nickel supply being valued at a half billion
dollars annually. It now appears to Robert
S. Dietz that it is the equivalent of a lunar
mare, or sea-like depression on the moon.
In his opinion, an asteriod or large meteor-
ite impacted about 1.7 billion years ago,
resulting in what was probably the greatest
explosion in the earth’s existence, produc-
ing energy comparable to the explosion of
seven million megatons of TNT (the
largest H-bomb exploded with energy of
less than 100 megatons). Unlike other such
depressions studied in a ten-year program
of research and exploration, the Sudbury
basin impact was so great as to melt the
underlying rocks, creating a lava which
welled up into the crater and congealed
into a saucer-shaped body. Earth move-
ment and erosion produced the present
contours. Lesser impacts on the earth have
produced the Lonar Crater in India, the
Ashanti Crater in Ghana, the Vredefort
Ring Structure in South Africa, the
Crooked Creek Structure in Missouri, and
the Wells Creek Basin in Tennessee. These,
like the craters on the moon, did not pro-
duce a subsequent lava flow.
A recent exhibit in the Smithsonian’s
Museum of History and Technology has
once more underscored the critical impor-
tance to the historian and archeologist of
primary evidence, this time in the form of
the Reifenberg collection of coins. Far
more than just an assembly of coins, this
collection has been gathered over many
years to document the history of Israel,
starting with two exceedingly rare copper
pieces struck in Judaea under Persian rule,
and including the first coins of the Mac-
cabean rulers, those of the Herodian dyn-
asty, and so on. It reflects not only the
political changes that repeatedly swept the
Jewish peoples, but also their military con-
flicts with Roman legionnaires.
—Russell B. Stevens
SN
84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Delegates to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Representing
the Local Affiliated Societies*
RRMeTPENPG AN OCICEY OL (WV ASIMEMCLON ooo oa iocs conse dccesduesenssscechvacalsnecsecsudecsoosessfecesteccccs, Urner LippEt
mumemrmaiogical society Of Washington: «0... ccs:ccsscssssesseccsssccssacdessscscersvecoueceeces. Gorpon McGrecor
Biological Society of Washington 200...0.0..0.cccccccccccccccccesceccesees SPB TORR 3 1 GTR at see Joun L. Parapiso
EE OPTERY OL WY ASIII LON 05.502 os nsacseces sasecuvootsnees eseveccstadecoessoosecdeousseeveseccosscceces FLORENCE H. Forziat)
Serra SGCICI® OL WASHANETON o.oo. -. 1) ..o-c. 2 c2nncscssssnroseedscocecdsdeecassssncsosccescssosedec, Haroitp H. SHEPARD
IE EPIETANINVED SOCIETY oo ccc occ scencaccovossissocsicnsloncoctsteccsesecshstnsasesaseessscussioass ALEXANDER WETMORE
ETE SRClCEN OL WY BEMINIDEOM oo. 0- 60005 ceeec.csscsecndersceavechcssusesadstcantpassvssaceic tives bec. Luna Leopoip
Meecaieal Society of the District of Columbia ....................ccc.cccscccsssecossccocececcceseccecececceccenes THomas M. Brown
NINN RONEN SOUCY 0 ooo occ. os sen cet ccs ooaklncshesesebctoapelvevescasonsalbacssoebecesae.ceen Shee. U. S. Grant, II
UE SES ESI TE 107 Nina le Peter H. HEINZE
RRS ATI UCANN) EO LESEONS 5.55 icc 25 ock caso cence ch holdcascsansuscessedesdivesidecs Mancdascveoscsesavsnetsusiees Harry A. Fowe.ts
MEMEREETSSICICEY OF LOM GITICENS oo... sco cscs scsi cc ss ecescicensactosnseeseoescnsnconcenesaceasecasasenconteneses Martin A. MAson
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ...0........0..0..cccccccccccsesceccescesseseeseeseessesseseeees Greorce ABRAHAM
American Society of Mechanical Engineers .o.0..0..0...0.. ..ccccscccsescesescscceesceececeecsceeescaceeeeesn Wittiam G. ALLEN
Pememinalorical Society of Washington ..............2........ccccccsccsccssceccscesecsccscsesssscsessecossesseseee Marion M. Farr
ITI OCICLY TOT WICTODIOIO LY. ...........<5.0...c0s0.00s0u,00h-seessevsaesssuticesscsdeasncnsbacnnuen sab lacbccsse FrANK HETTRICK
Society of American Military Engineers ................... kEN ie Pa ie MANY Mien KSEE EA eed Sy H. P. DEMUTH
Beemer Severe GFOCIViL EM@imeers’ o.oo... flocs. cccsedesscoseeconsdsceesecesseronsconetecreanes THORNDIKE SAVILLE, JR.
Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine ...................cesccecsessesssseseeeseeeseeescseeeeeseseseseses FALCONER SMITH
EINE ERE NPR et tg 88 2a) 82 ca ch anand cascendnerensheLdnanaiarnduiublacsnnutnovnnenswsusaseceneos Hucu L. Locan
International Association for Dental Research .......0.0......0.0ccccccccccscssssesessesestcacscecseesaceeescaeees Haroip J. Caur
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astromautics..............0...ccccccccccceeseteeteeeeteeneeees EuGENE EHRLICH ©
Mamerica Meteorological Society .........-.......c0..:cccccccssselscsscsscsessessssessesneasssnessess J. Murray MitTcHELt, Jr.
INE ECTEET OL WASHINGTON a).c-ccnec.cssccssnqerssosonsavncssssenesneosscseienessuscensestaseceosenandae Delegate not appointed
IMT SORIE EY (OE ATMETICE o.c5..cci.0ccciesccvesdtuissacnscssocsntessecacssessecnvae stasis vvsucbesdeccanes Matcotm C. HENDERSON
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errr Lavctory) OF PSCreMCe CleDy eo conccce occ sosaecscesecuseacghtvsnohedinsbccasceseensess Delegate not appointed
American Association of Beer Ete Ss OM IEE ES» cehh ic? cand kes cc dictucv RG. ak ales Delegate not appointed
* Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective affiliated societies.
Volante o5 MARCH 1965 No. 3°
CONTENTS
Bernhard Witkop: Poisonous Animals and Their Venoms .............:0cccscsseseeeen 53
Contribution from the Archivist ..0.c0...cccccpsec eee cites ssercenr eee 60
Academy Proceedings
March Meeting’ of the Academy ............cscc:csiietisccestesesredieees ons on er 62
WAS Organization for 1965. ....c.ccccciscyckcesnnsshedsoatensedee duel aeslty ote. clear 63
Annual Report of Secretary for 1964. .00..::.. 000d ea 66
Annual Report of Treasurer for 19640 00.00.00. sc0cchche ccc cu caste ere 68
Joint Board on Science Education |....:.0..)..6....ceisrcesesesccstestesss1se0 sea 71
Committee Reports for 1964 |
Membership | .........ccic-csstecuedesnpesesuikeqnten en eteauccnelen eed: ihe igiiees na 71
Policy Planning: ...062/. 5.0030 sessed oid lense ene epee rr oo
Meetings. oo... eh Cselel ch casual 72 -
Grants-in-Aid of Research ....00.000..255c.ccccsseeseetbncsensy tousder esa 73
Encouragement of Science Talent. ....:...../...:.:.:0l:ccc:c0scessse-00 74
Elections to Fellowship. .....5...05..0.c0.cedsscocissevdetons ovens enesda Juanes omega eer 76
Elections to Membership ...00005./00 we ee BA re
Board of Managers Meeting Notes (January) ............cc:ccscccscscsesedonseerseneneueueneen mi
Science in Washington
Calendar of Events 22.0050. .00. 8 Re are 79
Scientists “in the News ..j0.¢....c:jesc-distsschecssotoessseustotsh cass cou ued 79
Science and Development (1.0...0.000.0)...0.cssssecsosths sores teeth tga er 81
Washington Academy of Sciences 2nd Class Postage
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Return Requested with Form 3579
LIBRARY
U S NATIONAL wus
. WASHINGTON 25 5 peta J
WAS
DHQW25
VOLUME 55 NUMBER 4
Journal of the
WASHINGTON
ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES
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APRIL 1965
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Editor: SamuE.t B. Detwiter, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Associate Editors
Harotp T. Coox, Department of Agriculture HeLen L. Reynotps, Food and Drug Adminis-
: tration
piers P. Farrow, National Canners Asso- Raven G. H. Sw, Dep ent of He
ciation RussELt B. StEvENs, George Washington Uni-
Harry A. Fowe ts, Department of Agriculture versity
Contributors
FRANK A. BIBERSTEIN, JR., Catholic University JosepH B. Morris, Howard University
CHARLES A. WHITTEN, Coast & Geodetic Survey Jacon Mazon, National Bureau essen
Marjorie HooKker, Geological Survey ;
ReuBen E. Woop, George Washington Univer- ALLEN L. ALEXANDER, Naval Research Laboratory
sity Victor R. Boswett, USDA, Beltsville
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes historical
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ACADEMY OFFICERS FOR 1965
President: Leo Scuusert, American University
President-Elect: JoHnN K. Taytor, National Bureau of Standards
Secretary: ALPHONSE F. Forziati, Advanced Research Projects Agency
Treasurer: RomMAN R. Mrtter, Naval Research Laboratory
Some Moral and Religious
Implications Of Nuclear Technology”
William A. Wallace, O.P.
Catholic University of America
As a basis for discussing the actual state
of relations between science and religion
in the 1960’s, I should like to report briefly
on an interdisciplinary conference held at
the University of Chicago two years ago
(1). Its purpose was to discuss social
ethics in the context of problems raised by
radiation effects of nuclear technology. The
conference was attended by some 20 sci-
entists and theologians from different parts
of the world. The scientists were mainly
physicists and specialists in nuclear medi-
cine, and the theologians represented the
major Judeo-Christian religions. A marked
divergence of opinion developed among the
participating theologians as to the morality
of further developments in nuclear tech-
nology. I shall sketch this divergence for
you by first summarizing some remarks
of those who were against this develop-
ment, and then presenting a more abbre-
viated conspectus of the opinions in its
favor.
Arguments Pro And Con
One of the most articulate spokesmen
against nuclear technology was the Ortho-
dox Jewish spokesman, Rabbi Abraham
Heschel, of the Jewish Theological Semi-
nary of America. His main emphasis was
on a proper hierarchy of values; for him,
man and life are far superior to any
material needs. Life, he observed, is
sacred, and must be treated with reverence
by the scientist; he wondered whether this
was the case. In his view, material bene-
* An address before the Washington Academy
of Sciences on January 21, 1965.
Aprit, 1965
fits of nuclear energy must always remain
secondary to the preservation of life.
Modern man must sacrifice many of his
conveniences if he is to work out his divine
destiny.
Along similar lines was the criticism of
a Greek Orthodox spokesman for the
World Council of Churches, Nicos Nis-
siotis. He saw the materialism associated
with science and the pragmatism of its
technology as anti-theistic movements that
base their philosophy on man’s possibili-
ties alone. The radiation problem, in his
view, highlights the dilemma in which
modern man finds himself because he is
trying to create an anthropocentric para-
dise. As he put it, nuclear energy is the
culminating achievement of an age of sci-
ence that can now lead Almighty Man to
suicide, with the accompanying destruction
of his self-centered universe. He castigated
religious leaders for having permitted this
materialistic attitude to dominate our cul-
ture, for being afraid to point out that
man is a divine creature. The churches,
in his view, must give up their present lux-
uries, abandon their secular methods and
their cooperation with governments, and
wholly preach the message of God to a
world enslaved by science.
Less castigating in his attitude, but none-
theless concerned over the development of
technology, was the Indian theologian,
Joshua Chandran of the United Theologi-
cal College in Bangalore. In the abstract.
as he saw it, man finds liberation and free-
dom by subduing nature and exploiting
her resources. But he was definitely con-
cerned over the effects of nuclear and other
SMITHS! 1AN ay , ry r R
INSTITU rIGQN ai IN Lo 190
modern technologies on the dignity of
the human person, which he felt was not
always safeguarded in each nation’s con-
cern for its own security and well-being.
The French spokesmen, George Casalis
of the Protestant Theological Faculty of
Paris and Dominic Dubarle of the Catholic
Institute of Paris, while not opposed to
the development of nuclear technology,
expressed concern over its tendency to
increase still further the gap between the
advanced and the backward nations. One
of the basic causes for group tensions and
wars seems to be the unjust and unequal
distribution of wealth and resources among
the peoples of the world. If nuclear tech-
nology is part of God’s gift to man, the
wealth it develops cannot be merely for the
benefit of one particular group or nation,
but must be used for the good of all. They
expressed grave doubts whether such an
equitable policy will govern the growth
and application of nuclear technology.
Father Dubarle also brought up the case
of the malformed infants born because of
a too hasty use of thalidomide, and called
for very great prudence in evaluating the
potential risks society will face from in-
creased radiation hazard.
As opposed to these somewhat negative
attitudes, more favorable evaluations of
nuclear technology were forthcoming from
a number of representatives. Among these
was the foremost theologian present, Paul
Tillich. In reflecting on the “philosophy
of risk’ proposed by a number of the
scientists present, Dr. Tillich developed the
point that faith itself involves risk. While
conceding that risk is basically human, he
was willing to argue that it is found even
in the divine. When God created man, he
said, God took a risk Himself. The very
existence in Paradise of the tree of knowl-
edge of good and evil introduced an ele-
ment of risk into man’s eternal destiny.
He felt that the notion of risk is intimately
connected with man’s freedom and_ his
efforts to realize his God-given potentiali-
ties. And he stressed, in opposition to
other spokesmen, that any attempt on the
part of religious leaders to suppress scien-
tific research and technology would be a
sin against truth and against freedom.
More rational in their approach to the
moral and religious problems raised by
nuclear technology were a number of theo-
logians who had previous backgrounds in
the physical sciences. Among these were
the Catholic theologians, both Anglican
and Roman: myself, who had previously
been an electrical engineer and physicist;
Father Dubarle, who had done work in
cosmic radiation; William Pollard, the
Episcopalian minister in charge of the nu-
clear institute at Oak Ridge; and Robert
Cecil Mortimer, Lord Bishop of Exeter,
England, who had worked with the British
scientists at Harwell. Their efforts were
directed toward investigating the propor-
tionality between the good done to man-
kind through the use of nuclear energy and
the evil concomitantly or subsequently
produced. They distinguished between
physical and moral evils, and questioned
whether radiation is completely different
from other physical evils to which man is
exposed, whether it produces unique harm,
and whether the genetic and carcinogenic
effects can bring the human race to a
catastrophic end.
Another sympathetic analysis was that
provided by Joseph Sittler of the Chicago
Divinity School, who used the concept of
nature to good effect in his arguments. He
stated that man is not opposed to nature.
but is a part of it himself, and must learn
to live in and control its environment by
every technological means possible.
The remaining theologians present were
more neutral than pro or con; much of
their indecision seemed to come from a
lack of knowledge of the present state of
the nuclear art. They represented all
denominations: Rabbi Ralph Simon of
Chicago; Father Felix Morlion, the Papal
representative from Vatican City; a Jap-
anese theologian, Masao Takenaka; and
others: They wished to reserve judgment.
but urged serious study of the moral and
religious problems facing mankind col-
86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
lectively in the 20th century. Foremost in
their minds was the development of social,
legal, and political instruments that will
make it extremely difficult (if not impos-
sible) for one group or nation to kill off
other groups or nations by their tech-
nological advance. In this way, they felt,
it might be possible for all men to realize
material and spiritaul freedom through the
medium of technology.
Reasons for the Divergent Opinions
Although some basic unanimity mani-
fested itself, the theologians present, even
those of the same denomination and back-
ground, were divided on the moral and
religious issues raised by nuclear technol-
ogy. The reasons for this divergence of
opinion are difficult to analyze. I shall at-
tempt now to give some thoughts of my
own on the subject, while incorporating
some explanations that have been proposed
by others in discussions of the conference
2).
First, and most obvious, was the differ-
ence of opinion that could be traced to
the degree of technical information or
scientific background possessed by the
theologians present. Those who had a sci-
entific formation prior to their entrance
into the ministry seemed more open to,
and more favorably disposed toward, pro-
posals for technological advance. Perhaps
one could generalize and say that theo-
logians, like everyone else, have a fear
and distrust of the unknown. Their reac-
tion is liable to be negative toward any ad-
vance that they do not fully understand.
By the same token, however, the ignorance
of mankind in general, including scientists,
concerning the long-range effects of radia-
tion prompts everyone to have a sober
attitude when evaluating its potential
hazards.
Second, somewhat related to differences
in background, a difference of attitude
could be discerned in theologians recog-
nized as “liberal” and others recognized
as “conservative.” The liberal group, more
open to change and adjustment and prag-
APRIL, 1965
matic solutions, were not noticeably dis-
turbed by the problems of nuclear technol-
ogy. The conservative group, on the other
hand, more attached to tradition and per-
haps more aware of the wide gulf between
God’s way of thought and man’s way of
thought, were not so willing to rationalize
the problems away. It should be observed,
however, that all agreed that radiation pre-
sented a problem in social ethics of a
different order of magnitude from that pre-
sented by other noxious effects of tech-
nology. The theologians, as a group, were
certainly more concerned over the sacred-
ness of life and man’s unique personal
dignity in creation than were members of
other professions who attended the Confer-
ence.
Third, related to this concern for the
sacredness of life, there seemed to be a
resistance on the part of a number of theo-
logians present to any attempt to quantify
life as a value, and subject it to the same
type of minimax calculation as other vari-
ables. Those more acquainted with mathe-
matical techniques were amenable to the
extension of these methods in the social
sciences, but wondered whether such sci-
ences should or could be normative, and
how the problem of value, particularly
where questions of life are concerned,
could ever be solved to everyone’s satisfac-
tion.
Fourth, the influence of political and
socioeconomic pressures clearly manifested
itself in the thinking of theologians. The
opposition of the French theologians, both
Protestant and Catholic, to the extension
of nuclear technology seemed to be rooted
in their concern over a continued im-
balance in political and economic power
among the nations of the earth. The same
type of concern was voiced by the Indian
and Japanese representatives. In the
Catholic tradition (and here I include both
Anglicans and Romans), the continental
view (ie., French and Italian) was nega-
tively influenced by political and economic
considerations, whereas the Anglo-Ameri-
can view was optimistic, based at least
oF
partly on the confidence of the participants
in the ability of Anglo-Saxon methods and
technology ultimately to solve man’s press-
ing problems.
Fifth, part of the diversity seemed trace-
able to a difference in doctrinal commit-
ments on the part of the theologians pres-
ent. In the thinking of some, there was an
implicit affirmation of a complete dichot-
omy between the divine and the human, be-
tween the order of grace or supernature
and that of nature itself. Those committed
to this view felt that man could achieve
his supernatural destiny only by rejecting
the things of this world and, along with
them, the products of an enlightened tech-
nology. They viewed nuclear develop-
ments negatively, but would probably have
viewed similarly any advance along tech-
nological lines. Theologians, on the other
hand, who felt that the order of nature
could be subsumed under that of super-
nature, or that material progress need not
be incompatible with spiritual progress, or
that material goods are necessary for
spiritual life, were more disposed to see
good, rather than evil, in the promise of
nuclear technology.
Although not immediately relevant to
divergence of theological opinion, I should
note that there was also a difference of
opinion, or perhaps I should say concern,
manifested by the scientists who were pres-
ent at the Conference. In general, those
who professed no religious commitment
themselves were patently annoyed by the
adverse criticism of theologians; appar-
ently, they had regarded their own work as
eminently reasonable and had expected the
theologians merely to rubberstamp their
conclusions with approval. Scientists who
professed a religious commitment, on the
other hand, seemed to have a deeper appre-
ciation of the values at stake, and sought
more energetically to define the areas of
controversy and come to some type of com-
patible understanding.
A Proposed Solution
From the foregoing, it may perhaps be
clear that it will be difficult ever to attain
©
ee)
complete agreement on the moral and reli-
gious aspects of nuclear technology. Some
measure of agreement, however, appears to
me possible, particularly if scientists and
theologians can be encouraged to cooper-
ate, in interdisciplinary discussion, with
the aim of clarifying issues and exploring
the alternative solutions that are open to
us. For such discussions to initiate, the
desideratum would seem to be a nucleus of
theologians with previous training in sci-
ence and of scientists who themselves are
sympathetic to the religious commitments
that characterize our Judeo-Christian cul-
ture. Exploratory attempts, moreover,
should be initiated with those who are
liberal-minded, i.e., more open to discus-
sion and to a consideration of alternative
hypotheses; only then should the enterprise
be opened to the more conservative and
hidebound variety of thinker. Again, since
the problem is a “reasonable” one, I think
that a rational and objective approach
should be attempted, granted that many
religious values are highly subjective and
not open to the universal consensus given
to scientific data. This would entail a view
of the supernatural as distinct from the
natural, as in some way above it, but as
not being irrevocably opposed to the order
of nature. Even within the order of nature,
moreover, an implicit recognition of a
hierarchy of values would seem to be a
necessary prerequisite to the type of discus-
sion | have in mind. Regardless of how
men feel toward God and their obligations
to Him, there must be some type of recog-
nition of man’s primacy in the universe,
and in general of the superiority of the
living to the nonliving. Again, it seems to
me that this problem can be discussed only
in the context of man’s situation on earth,
which seems to have necessarily associated
with its evils as well as good. In other
words, without a frank recognition of the
inevitability of evil and suffering in the
world, it may never be possible to come to
a solution to this problem—at least one
that proposes a course of action designed
to yield the lesser of two evils (3).
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The evils that result from increased
nuclear technology seem to be associated,
in one way or another, with the deleterious
genetic effects associated with increased
radiation. My personal evaluation is that
present knowledge of such genetic effects
does not substantiate the almost hysterical
fears that have been voiced by some. Gen-
eral studies of gene mutations show that
these can be divided into two classes: (1)
those that proceed spontaneously, and (2)
those produced by known external agents
such as artificial activity and chemicals.
Present data reveal that only 10 percent
of so-called “spontaneous” mutations are
produced by the cosmic and solar radia-
tion to which terrestrial organisms are sub-
jected. The remaining 90 percent must be
attributed to unknown causes, possibly due
to chemical influences localized within in-
dividual cells(4). If this information is
correct, then radiation due to nuclear
energy sources causes no effects that are
absolutely unique in human experience.
Present indications are that chemicals
found in aspirin and caffein can produce
genetic mutations comparable to those of
radioactive sources. Because radiation is
so easily measured, it is true that we now
have clearer knowledge of the extent of
genetic damage produced by this source.
But future scientific research will make
comparable data available on other factors,
and there is no reason to suspect that those
due to radiation will be found to be greater
than ordinary.
Some thinkers will object to such a solu-
tion because they regard all radiation to
which man is subjected as evil. They
defend such a position on the ground that
no detectable threshold exists below which
man is free from the danger of increased
genetic mutations. This presents an inter-
esting problem for the theologian, because,
according to this view, even the natural
radiation in which man lives is an evil.
The theologian who regards nature as
God’s handiwork, and therefore as a good
that can be elevated to the order of super-
nature by God’s grace, will disagree with
APRIL, 1965
this. He regards natural radiation as part
of man’s God-given environment. For him,
man’s natural habitat was intended by God
and as such is good. His approach consists
rather in accepting the order of nature and
then ascertaining how much man can justi-
fiably disturb that order, in this case by
adding to, or filtering out, radiation.
If the normal background of radiation
is not an evil, it should follow as a corol-
lary that any background of radiation
comparable to the natural background can-
not itself be regarded as seriously evil. If
this be accepted, it becomes possible to
apply quantification techniques that can
yield results acceptable to scientists and
theologians alike. For example, if the
normal background owing to natural
causes in a particular area is 0.19 rem per
year, an increase of this background to
0.11 rem per year through nuclear tech-
nology, i.e., an increase of 10 percent,
could hardly be regarded as seriously evil.
Again, if the area where a nuclear power
plant is built has a lower natural back-
ground than another area, it would seem
permissible to increase the background by
industrial radiation provided the _back-
ground in the area of the plant remains
lower than the natural background in an-
other locality. This type of analysis would
give considerable freedom to nuclear tech-
nologists, it might be noted, since natural
backgrounds vary widely over the face of
the earth. In some localities of India, for
instance, the normal background is ten
times the mean value for other parts of
the world. A permissible increase of ten
times the mean background would give nu-
clear engineers ample room not only for
power-plant development but for a host of
other industrial devices. And even though
this might increase danger to the human
race, it might also be morally justifiable
from the good effects to be expected from
the peaceful use of nuclear energy, par-
ticularly by way of equalizing the fuel
resources of the nations of the world (5).
89
Science, Religion, and the Future
A solution along lines such as these may
suggest how one can justify the continued
expansion of nuclear industry in accord-
ance with the accepted principles of moral-
ity and religion. I propose this only as
exploratory and tentative and welcome your
discussion and criticism of any of the
points mentioned. In conclusion, I should
like to suggest that a closer cooperation
between scientists and theologians may
well be in the offing as technology becomes
more and more sophisticated. Apart from
the uses of nuclear energy, the most strik-
ing innovation in our time is that of auto-
mation, or, to use the newer term, cyber-
nation—the replacement of the working
man by the machine. Sociologists tell us
that we are only at the beginning of the
cybernation process. Only one percent of
the heavy industry that can be automated
in the United States has thus far been
adapted to the new equipment. We have
yet to see what a fully automated business
office or a fully automated bank will look
like, but we have every reason to expect
that they will be far more efficient than our
present facilities and that they will be run
by only a small fraction of the people they
now employ.
If this process works—and it seems only
a matter of time that it will—we are faced
with the prospect of cybernation’s putting
a major portion of our work force out of
work permanently. This could result in a
breakdown of the economic system as
we now know it. Now some have proposed,
somewhat unrealistically, that we should
put a stop to automation right now, just as
others have urged that we abandon the use
of nuclear energy. In my mind, the argu-
ment against the one is just as ineffective
as that against the other. We cannot pre-
vent men from thinking or from using
their ingenuity to get the most work done
with the least effort. We cannot place
arbitrary limitations on free enterprise and
still exist as the democratic nation we now
are.
There is one other possibility, one sug-
90 JOURNAL OF
gested to me by Donald M. Michaels(6)
and others who have participated in the
Washington Colloquium on Science and
Society (7). In this possibility, religious
values and motivation might assume a
transcendent importance. It could hap-
pen that machines would not put most
people out of “work” permanently, because
“work” may begin to take on a new aspect
in the twenty-first century. Machines will
take over the work people have been doing
up to now—yes, that is true—but they will
leave men free to do types of work they
have never attempted before on a large
scale. What kind of work could this be?
Creative and intellectual work would be
one answer, and this as opposed to manual
labor, what man does “by the sweat of his
brow.” But a more significant answer,
from the viewpoint of religious values,
would be a type of work that all could do,
regardless of their intellectual ability. We
might characterize it as work in the service
of others—the Peace Corps illustrates the
concept very well. Not all work need be
in production, in competition with a ma-
chine. The rendering of personal service is
something that a machine can never do,
but oddly enough we have not yet scratched
the surface on the ways in which service to
others can assume a prominent role in our
society.
If ever we have to come to the guaran-
teed annual income for everyone—and |
enjoy it right now, it seems—if we wish
to avoid a decadent society, we must gen-
erate motives in society for doing things
apart from making money or attaining the
conventional status symbols. Such work
(and it can be work, I assure you) will
not follow the present economic pattern. It
will not be profit motivated; it will not be
advertising oriented; it will not be compet-
itive; it need not be efficiently oriented.
To educate people for this work will re-
quire a complete change of educational
concepts. It will mean the abandonment of
training—and that is what most of our
“education” now is—and a substitution of
values that I would characterize as pre-
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
dominantly religious and spiritual. In a
word, it will open the way for the closest
possible cooperation between science, tech-
nology, and religion. And it will put a
greater emphasis and a greater burden on
religious institutions than has ever been
experienced in human culture, at least
since the close of the thirteenth century.
Jacques Maritain once remarked that
spirit never seems to keep pace with the
rate of development of matter. This may
have been the story of civilization to the
present. To see that it does not remain the
story is the challenge facing every reli-
gious-minded scientist as he looks forward
to the beginning of the twenty-first century.
Notes
(1) The conference was held at the Univer-
sitys Center for Continuing Education from
January 16 to 18, 1963. It was convoked jointly
by Jerald Brauer, dean of the Divinity School,
and by John H. Rust, head of the Section of
Nuclear Medicine, and was supported by a grant
from the Rockefeller Foundation.
(2) A rough draft of this paper was presented
at a meeting of the Washington Colloquium on
Science and Society at American University on
APRIL, 1965
December 17, 1963. The author wishes to thank
the discussants for the many helpful comments
he has been able to incorporate into the paper
as it now appears.
(3) As a further point, because so much of
our technological civilization is bound up with
the socio-economic structure of Western society,
it would seem well to prescind from immediate
problems of a political and economic nature
when discussing the absolute morality of nuclear
technology.
(4) These figures, admittedly rough estimates,
were furnished to the conference by Dr. Buzzati-
Traverso, director of the International Laboratory
of Genetics at the University of Naples.
(5) For a fuller explanation of the arguments
that could justify increased nuclear technology
through an application of the “principle of the
double effect,” see the author’s article, “Radiation
and Social Ethics,” in America, Vol. 108, No. 25
(June 22, 1963), pp. 880-883.
(6) Institute of Policy Research, Washington,
D.C. See Dr. Michael’s paper, “Cybernation and
Social Change,’ condensed transcript of a
Seminar on Manpower Policy and Program, U. S.
Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., April
23, 1964.
(7) Particularly E. G. Mesthene, executive di-
rector of the Program on Technology and Soci-
ety, Harvard University, and W. H. Ferry, vice
president, The Fund for the Republic, Inc., Cen-
ter for the Study of Democratic Institutions.
9]
A Role for Science
In Controlling the Nuclear Threat +
Edward N. Parker
Vice Admiral, U. S. Navy (Retired)
In approaching the subject of possible
contributions of science to arms control, I
believe it worthwhile to quickly survey the
essential desires of the people of the United
States. What do we want and what are the
problems involved in satisfying these
wants ?
Two desires of overriding importance can
be identified:
To remain free; and
To survive.
These two are interdependent; we do not
want either to be free but dead, or to sur-
vive as puppets of Russian or Chinese
masters.
Two others also are important:
To live in a peaceful world; and
To improve our lot—and, as an almost
revolutionary concept on a national scale,
to improve the lot of others.
These fundamental wants of ours are
simple and seem reasonable, but as we look
around the real world in which we live, it
is obvious that the actions necessary to
satisfy them are far from simple, and at this
time, it is not reasonable to expect to satisfy
them simultaneously.
To remain free, we must keep the Com-
munists from expanding their system over
the rest of the world and eventually over
ourselves.
To survive, we must put an end to the
threat of total destruction of our people
and society posed by the modern weapons
of mass destruction in the hands of those
hostile to our interests.
Today these imperatives require that we
* An address before the Washington Academy
of Sciences on December 17, 1964. $R
maintain strong and costly military forces
equipped with the most powerful weapons
available to us, even though we recognize
that the security gained is by no means
complete.
However, to live in a peaceful world
requires more than just the absence of
active war. Three hundred years ago,
Spinoza said: “Peace .. . is a virtue, a
state of mind, a disposition for benevolence,
confidence, justice.” It is obvious that we
humans have not yet arrived at that point
in our development and that, for the time
being, we will have to settle for the ab-
sence of war which impinges actively on
us. Again, this requires that we remain
militarily strong.
To improve our lot and the lot of those
around us, we would like to be able to use
more of our resources for the programs im-
portant for these purposes. A most at-
tractive method would be to reduce the
requirements for the military forces needed
to satisfy the first three wants. Yet our
commitments and involvement, and their
costs, are increasing.
Thus we face a dilemma:
We need to be militarily strong all over
the world, but we would like to reduce
military expenditures; we want to live in
peace, but we need to prepare for war.
We do not want to be threatened by
weapons of mass destruction, but we
threaten others to deter the possibility that
they will use such weapons against us.
In this situation it is only natural that
people turn their thoughts to arms control
and disarmament as offering hope for a
solution.
92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Ideas for arms control and disarmament
are not new, but the current emphasis is
strongly motivated by the threat of total
destruction to whole nations and people
posed by modern weapons, particularly the
ballistic missile with its thermonuclear
warhead.
The term “disarmament” covers a spec-
trum of possible actions, but serious, real-
istic consideration of it has been hindered
by the fact that the discussion between the
United States and the Soviet Union has
been principally in terms of general and
complete disarmament, either Russian style
—“under strict international control”—or
U.S. style—“in a peaceful world.” Yet
Communists will not permit strict inter-
national control of any kind, and therefore
the discussion has become little more than
propaganda. Too often ideas that are
within the realm of possibility are dis-
missed as inconsistent with our general and
complete position on disarmament.
However, arms control has possibilities,
as events have proved. Some arms control
measures and possibly some minor reduc-
tions in armaments would be mutually ac-
ceptable and beneficial.
Unfortunately, the recent entry of Red
China into the “nuclear club” and its sub-
sequent increase in hostility to the United
States and to peaceful co-existence with the
West present threats to both the Soviet Un-
ion and ourselves. Therefore the prospects
are quite long-term, and currently we are
in a period where further agreements are
unlikely to be reached soon. This period
provides an opportunity to develop a mod-
est program for arms control and disarma-
ment.
I have supported this course, which |
call “the gradual approach,” and I believe
that meaningful progress can be made only
by such methods.
A different kind of arms control involves
establishing a defense against the threat to
our people and society that is capable of
reducing the damage below that which
would occur under present conditions,
APRIL, 1965
should our deterrence fail for any reason.
The Pentagon calls this a “damage limiting
posture.”
Secretary of Defense McNamara, in his
speech at Ann Arbor in June 1962, des-
cribed a counterforce strategy as an option
which might possibly coerce an adversary
into adopting counterforce himself, thus
avoiding the mutual holocaust of a “cities
only” strategy.
In his annual statement to the Congress
on the 1965 defense budget, Mr. McNamara
sought to clarify “the basic fundamentals
of the strategic problem confronting our
nation in the nuclear age.” He described in
considerable detail his concept of military
strategy and introduced the term “damage
limiting strategy.”
Mr. McNamara described and com-
mented on two other theories or strategies.
One he termed the “overkill theory”’—a
“deterrence only” strategy—namely, that
the U.S. already has enough nuclear wea-
pons to destroy all the major cities of the
Soviet Union several times over and thus
needs no more. The second he termed the
“full first strike theory,” which he described
as the belief “that we should build a stra-
tegic force that would enable us, if we
struck first, to so reduce Soviet retaliatory
power that the damage it could then do to
the U.S. population and industry would be
brought down to an ‘acceptable level,’ what- —
ever that might be.”
He concluded that “while a ‘cities only’
strategic retaliatory force would, in our
judgment, be dangerously inadequate, a
‘full first strike’ force, as I defined it ear-
lier, is, on the basis of our estimates of the
Soviet nuclear strike forces in the fiscal
year 1967-69 period, simply unattainable.
Moreover, I know of no responsible Penta-
gon official, certainly none of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff, who proposes such a force
... Thus, a ‘damaging limiting’ strategy
appears to be the most practical and effec-
tive course for us to follow. Such a strategy
requires a force considerably larger than
would be needed for a limited ‘cities only’
93
strategy. While there are still some differ-
ences of judgment on just how large such a
force should be, there is general agreement
that it should be large enough to ensure the
destruction, singly or in combination, of
the Soviet Union, Communist China, and
the Communist satellites as national socie-
ties, under the worst possible circumstances
of war outbreak that can reasonably be
postulated, and, in addition, to destroy their
war-making capability so as to limit, to the
extent practicable, damage to this country
and to our allies” (italics added) .
Thus in January 1964 the damage limit-
ing strategy was essentially a survivable
counterforce capability composed of pro-
tected Minutemen and Polaris missiles, pre-
sumably (and this is my presumption) be-
cause a reasonably effective defense against
Soviet intercontinental systems was not
available.
Study of the problems of a counterforce
strategy, over the range of possible situa-
tions in which our strategic capabilities
might have to be employed, makes it ob-
vious that a damage limiting capability
based solely on counterforce places a high
premium on a U.S. first strike, a course of
action that our leadership has abjured.
Therefore, if a damage limiting strategy
is to be adopted and implemented, we must
provide damage limiting measures other
than counterforce. However, a full damage
limiting posture makes a great deal of
sense, and study of its possible effectiveness
indicates immense potential strategic sig-
nificance.
The elements of a damage limiting pos-
ture depend, of course, on how our survival
is directly threatened, and in the short term
would consist of coordinated programs for
shelters, air defense, ballistic missile de-
fense, national recuperation, and, possibly,
anti-submarine warfare.
These, added to our strategic offensive
capability, could to a large extent remove
our population from their present positions
as complete hostages to the intentions and
actions of our avowed enemies and would
greatly improve the chances that our nation
94, JOURNAL OF
would both survive and remain free.
The establishment of a reasonably effec-
tive defense to thermonuclear attack on our
cities and people offers us a number of
other advantages:
1. It could reduce the concern over acci-
dental or inadvertent launch of missiles
against us.
2. It might permit a somewhat lower
level of readiness on the part of our na-
tional civilian and military leaders and
thus reduce the tensions inherent in the
present situation.
3. It would reduce the threat inherent in
the proliferation of nuclear weapons now
underway, and make the catalytic action of
foreign flareups of lesser import.
Moreover, should deterrence fail, the loss
of people, industry, services, and recovery
capability could be greatly decreased, prob-
ably to the point where the nation, though
grievously hurt, would still survive.
Arms control and defense as an arms
control measure are not mutually exclusive.
Some measures of arms control and disarm-
ament could assist the defense; some de-
fense could promote the possibility of
agreements on arms control measures and
reduce some of the hazards. Pursued in
parallel and mutually supporting, they both
aim to control the threat to us as a people
and a nation and make it more likely that
war, if it could not be prevented, would not
be a complete holocaust.
Adding a damage limiting posture to our
current capabilities will not reduce military
expenditures—it will increase them. How-
ever, a combination of a reasonable arms
control and disarmament program and a
damage limiting posture can provide us
with a relatively sound basis on which to
face the future.
What contributions can science and sci-
entists make to arms control and to defense
as an arms control measure?
The gradual approach—a program of
small actions or measures of arms control
and disarmament consistently followed—
provides some possibility of advancing to-
ward the goal. Furthermore, such a pro-
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
gram would, in time, test the sincerity of
those involved and serve as a trial of the
procedures that must precede meaningful
actions or agreements.
One of the major obstacles in all discus-
sions with the Communists is that of “veri-
fication,” as we call it, or “control,” as they
label it. With the “closed society,” it is
meaningless for us to enter into an agree-
ment unless we can determine whether the
agreement is, in fact, being carried out. The
question is not whether the Communists
will abrogate an agreement that has ceased
to be in their interest; of course they will.
What we need to know is whether, and
when, they will take action contrary to the
agreement. Each step of a gradual ap-
proach depends on the previous steps—on
the experience gained and the faithful dis-
charge of the commitments made.
Verification of arms control agreements
involves many problems, and they are by
no means one-sided. Effective inspection in
the closed societies would, under almost
any circumstances, provide a greater ex-
change of information than the Commu-
nists will agree to at this time. But effec-
tive inspection of a substantial disarma-
ment agreement would also pose very
considerable problems in a Western society.
This is an additional and important reason
for the small beginnings of the gradual ap-
proach.
To summarize the position:
1. We cannot expect rapid progress.
2. Large measures are unrealistic, and
concentration on them is positively harm-
ful.
3. A program of small beginnings makes
sense.
4. An ability to verify is an element of
all actions.
5. Procedures for verification must be
tried and found to be satisfactory before we
depend on them.
6. At this time the Communists refuse
inspection that provides the exchange of
substantial amounts of information.
Therefore the arms control and disarm-
ament measures that we pursue are those
APRIL, 1965
which lay the foundation for future pro-
gress which will come about when the con-
flict that causes the arms race declines in
intensity and moves to the point where ma-
jor changes are possible without jeopardiz-
ing the essential desires of our people.
In consequence, one of the more import-
ant contributions that science can make to
arms control is to assist in the development
of the types of arms control actions or
agreements, and their tested means of veri-
fication, which can lay the foundation for
future progress. To be useful, the means of
verification must cause a minimum of dis-
ruption of the respective societies and per-
mit the maintenance of that freedom of the
individual normal in the society.
Science, scientists, and engineers can
make major contributions to the goal of
controlling the threat by limiting the prob-
able damage to our people and society,
should we be attacked.
Members of the scientific community
seem to be leaders in the cry that defense
against ballistic missiles is impossible, too
expensive, or whatever is the popular ar-
gument of the moment.
What are some of the arguments used
against a ballistic missile defense?
1. The offense is always ahead of the de-
fense. This is not strictly true, but it cer-
tainly approaches being true if all resources
are concentrated on offense.
2. It’s a “Fortress America” concept. On
the contrary, it would permit us greater
freedom in the use of our national power
and capabilities in support of our world-
wide objectives and commitments by reduc-
ing the value of “rocket rattling.”
3. It’s too expensive. Careful study
should show that the cost exchange ratio is
not nearly as one-sided as has been sup-
posed.
4. It would de-stabilize the present “bal-
ence of terror,” so called. Nothing in the
present world situation would provide
greater stability of the type we want than a
reasonably effective defense for a large part
of the people and industry of the U.S.
5. A completely effective defense is um-
95
possible and a less than completely effective
one is of little value. President Johnson
and others have stated that, with no de-
fense, our casualties in nuclear war would
exceed half our population. The defense
provided by a damage limiting posture will
reduce casualties and save some of the
industry and services which support our
people.
How much will a defense save? It de-
pends on how much we put into it of scien-
tific and engineering skill and of our re-
sources.
A defense adds another deterrence to
nuclear attack. At present the planning
factors in the enemy’s calculations of his
offensive effectiveness are known to him.
The existence of a defense would add an
unkown factor to complicate his planning
and to limit the assurance of political de-
cision makers when they consider general
war as a possible course of action.
This is a really major contribution that
science and scientists can make to fulfill the
fundamental desires of our people to con-
trol the threat which confronts both our
freedom and our survival: by thinking of
ways to defend us against this threat, ra-
ther than of why it is impossible or why
we shouldn’t do it.
During the last war, when I was in the
Navy’s Bureau of Ordnance, a letter came
in from the head of one of the Maritime
Academies, enclosing a suggestion by one
of his faculty for improving the terrible
ordnance equipment we were providing the
armed guards in merchant ships. The letter
went something like this:
“As a longtime engineer I am doubtful
of the value of the enclosed suggestion, but
I have lived long enough to know that I am
not capable of saying there is absolutely no
merit in another man’s idea; therefore I
forward the suggestion to you.”
I have lived long enough in this wonder-
ful period of scientific and technical pro-
gress to believe that just about any problem
in engineering or technology can be solved
if we put our minds to it.
There are major contributions which sci-
ence and scientists can make, but the big-
est one I can see is to work positively to
satisfy the essential wants of our people
and those of like mind.
96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Academy Proceedings
April Meeting
(488th Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences)
SUBJECT: CONVERSAZIONE
DATE: THURSDAY, APRIL 15, 1965
Beginning at 8:15 p.m.
PLACE: JOHN WESLEY POWELL AUDITORIUM,
COSMOS CLUB
2170 Florida Avenue, N.W.
Fellows and members of the Washington Academy of Sciences are invited to an in-
formal interdisciplinary Conversazione, a social evening for discussion of ideas and
problems with cup or glass in hand. A few special guests also have been invited.
Participants may move from table to table to discuss any subjects of mutual interest.
Some of the suggested subjects are:
What is a scientist? Who speaks for science?
How to achieve excellence in government in-house scientific institutions?
What limits should be set to federal support of scientific education and research?
Is science significantly lengthening the life of persons already past 20?
How should the Civil Service select scientists?
How to balance support of research in the most competent institutions with the im-
provement of other institutions on a basis of geographic distribution?
Is automation destroying or increasing the good life? Is privacy obsolete?
What is the impact of federal research grants on teaching?
How to develop at least one great university in the capital of the United States?
Should the Washington Academy of Sciences continue the type of lectures it has spon-
sored since last October?
Is the Citation Index sufficiently useful to scientists to justify its cost?
Cocktails, coffee, soft drinks, and snacks will be complimentary. Advance reservations are required.
Reservation cards have been mailed to Academy members.
APRIL, 1965 97
BOARD OF MANAGERS
MEETING NOTES
February Meeting
The Board of Managers held its 570th
meeting on February 18, 1965 at the Cos-
mos Club, with incoming President Leo
Schubert in the chair.
The minutes of the 569th meeting, pre-
viously distributed, were approved with a
minor correction.
Announcements. Dr. Schubert distrib-
uted a list of current officers, managers,
delegates, and committee chairmen. He
noted that since incoming Treasurer Miller
had a broken ankle, Dr. Henderson would
continue to function as treasurer until Mr.
Miller had recovered.
Dr. Schubert asked for comments on the
desirability of establishing a new panel in
the Committee on Membership, to be con-
cerned with the behavioral sciences. There
was considerable discussion as to which
social sciences qualified for membership in
the Academy. Jt was left that a trial panel
in the behavioral science area would be
considered.
Secretary. Secretary Forziati reported
that the annual dinner on January 21 had
cost the Academy $357.26, of which
$132.00 was for complimentary dinners
and $88.50 was due to a 75-cent subsidy on
118 paid dinners; also, that the Cosmos
Club had a 10 percent surcharge on din-
ners and beverages and a charge for extra
help, amounting to $88.56. He suggested
that, in planning future dinners, the Acad-
emy should consider raising the price or
finding another meeting place.
Membership. On the motion of Chair-
man Cook, the following persons were
elected to fellowship in the Academy: Mor-
ton Beroza, Max A. Kohler, Lester Machta,
David W. Fox, Ryszard Syski, Clifford J.
Maloney, Elio Passaglia, John S. Rinehart,
James W. Butler, Glenn W. Brier, Albert
V. H. Masket, Richard C. Roberts, and
Robert Lado. Dr. Cook reminded the Sec-
retary to inform those new fellows who
had received Academy awards, that they
would not be required to pay dues for the
first year of fellowship.
Dr. Cook reported that at its meeting of
February 2, the Committee had elected the
following persons to membership: Elvira
A. Euler, John G. Honig, Gary B. Jordan,
and Ernest E. Saulmon.
There followed a discussion on proce-
dures for promoting members to fellows,
and for submitting the names of Academy
award winners to the Board for election to
fellowship. It was pointed out that it is the
responsibility of the Awards Committee to
assure that award winners are elected to
fellowship, but that the nominations must
go through the Membership Committee;
further, that the Membership Committee
should review the member list for potential
fellow candidates. Dr. Cook suggested that
the Committee on Membership Promotion
should flag the names of candidates for
membership, who might be eligible for fel-
lowship status in a year or two.
Meetings. In the absence of Chairman
Steinhardt, Dr. Schubert reported that the
Committee had firmed up the 1965 meetings
through June, and was working on the
program for next fall and winter.
Awards. Chairman Mason asked the del-
egates of the affiliated societies to publicize
WAS award winners in their society jour-
nals so as to generate greater interest in
the awards and thereby increase the number
of nominees.
Grants-in-Aid. On recommendation of
Dr. McPherson, the Board approved a grant
of $80 to Alan Gillespie, a student at Mc-
Lean High School, to aid in his spectro-
scopic studies of the Martian atmosphere.
It was noted that the recommendation had
been endorsed by Father Hayden of George-
town Observatory, under whose guidance
the work was being done, and by Charlotte
Sitterly of NBS.
Encouragement of Science Talent. Out-
going Chairman Heyden reviewed the Com-
mittee’s activities over the previous year.
As advisor to the Washington Junior Aca-
emy of Sciences, he had attended all meet-
ings of the WJAS governing council, held
98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
at Georgetown Observatory. One recurring
activity of WJAS is an annual convention
during the Christmas holidays. The 1964
convention was addressed by Glenn Sea-
borg on the subject, “Post-uranium Atoms.”
Four hundred students attended, and many
student papers were presented. Abstracts of
these papers have been printed, and are
included in the proceedings of the Junior
Academy, which are available at a dollar
per copy. The convention was held at
Georgetown University, with dinner at the
Georgetown cafeteria and showed a profit
of $175; by contrast, the conventions of
previous years, held at hotels, resulted in
deficits.
The Junior Academy also made a profit
of $2,000 on its field trips to New York
and Philadelphia. Father Heyden wondered
whether the customary annual WJAS dona-
tion to the Joint Board of Science Educa-
tion should be discontinued; he felt that
this donation, used to finance teachers and
student science fair winners attending na-
tional science fairs, benefitted relatively few
people, whereas a donation of, say, $500,
contributed to the summer school program,
would secure jobs for many students. Dr.
Schubert felt that a decision in this matter
should be made by the Junior Academy
itself, rather than by the senior Academy.
In response to a question from Dr. Leikind,
Father Heyden stated that membership in
the Junior Academy was based on a system
of credit points, earned by recommenda-
tion of a science teacher, by giving a paper
at a WJAS convention, or by winning a
science fair prize. Ten points are required
for membership; there is no age limit.
Public Information. Outgoing Chairman
Davis reminded the Board that there would
be a display of science fair projects on
February 27; about 40 displays were ex-
pected to be exhibited.
Archivist. Dr. Farber noted that the
Academy was no longer exchanging jour-
nals with other scientific organizations.
However, a large amount of diverse litera-
ture had accumulated from previous ex-
changes; he planned to tabulate this mate-
APRIL, 1965
rial in some orderly manner.
Journal. Editor Detwiler reported that
the February issue of the Journal had been
put in the mails a week previously, in time
to publicize the general meeting of Febru-
ary 18, and that copy for the March issue
had just gone to the printer.
New Business. Dr. Schubert announced
that some time previously, Academy mem-
bers A. T. McPherson and Ralph Siu had
addressed a convention of the Dairy and
Food Industries Supply Association; that
they had been offered, and had declined,
honoraria amounting to $300; that the As-
sociation had therefore offered a $300 check
to the Academy, to be used for objectives
of the Committee on Grants-in-Aid of Re-
search; and that the check would be pre-
sented by Messrs. Cunningham and Wil-
liams, on behalf of the Association, at the
general meeting on February 18.
BOARD OF MANAGERS
MEETING NOTES INDEX
Condensed minutes of the Academy’s
Board of Managers meetings have been
published in the Journal for 1960 and sub-
sequent years, as follows:
Meeting Journal
No. Date Issue Page
Frank L. Campbell, President
524 12/15/59 Jan 60 26
525 1/19/60 Mar 60 vk as
Lawrence A. Wood, President
526 2/16/60 Mar 60 22
52 3/ to 60 Apr 60 17
528 4/19/60 May 60 20
529 5/17/60 Oct 60 12
530 6/21/60 Nov 60 15
531 10/18/60 Nov 60 i6
52/5/60 Dec 60 4
55D 12/20/60 Feb. 61 24
534 1/17/61 Mar 61 Al
Philip H. Abelson, President
535 2/21/61 Apr 61 64
Sep, vor (76k Apr. 61 65
537 4/4/61 May 61 87
Soo 5/2/01 Oct 61 105
5939 6/6/61 Oct 61 106
540 10/3/61 Dec 61 145
541 11/7/61 Jan 62 21
542 12/5/61 Feb 62 51
543° 1/2/62 Mar 62 re
99
Benjamin D. Van Evera, President (Term 1)
544 2/6/62 Apr 62 98
545 3/7/62 Oct 62 174
546 4/5/62 Ocii62 175
547 5/3/62 Oct 62 176
548 6/4/62 Oct-62> 178
549 10/2/62 Nov 62 207
550 11/7/62 Jan 63 ye
551 12/6/62 Jan 63 18
hoz 8/65 Feb 63 49
Benjamin D. Van Evera, President (Term 2)
553), 2/12/63 Mar 63 83
554; 3/712763 May 63 126
555 4/9/63 May 63 127
556 5/15/63 Oct 63 184
55% (6/11/63 Oct 63 185
558 10/8/63 Nov 63 213
559 11/21/63 Jan 64 11
560 12/19/63 Feb 64 40
961 1/16/64 Mar 64 73
Francois N. Frenkiel, President
562 2/20, 28/64 Apr 64 145
563 3/19/64 Nov 64 334
564 4/16/64 Nov 64 336
565 6/9/64 Nov 64 338
566 10/13/64 Dec 64 364
567 11/19/64 Jan 65 12
568 12/17/64 Jan 65 13
569 1/21/65 Mar 65 Ll
Leo Schubert, President
570 2/18/65 Apr 65 98
Science in Washington
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
April 12-13—Georgetown University,
First Annual Louis Pasteur Sci-
ence Lectures
Tracy M. Sonneborn, Distinguished Serv-
ice professor of zoology, Indiana Univers-
ity, “Cell Differentiation.” (Second and
third lectures in a series; the first was de-
livered on April 9.)
Gaston Hall, Healy Building, George-
town, University, 4:00 p.m.
April 14—American Society of Heat-
ing, Refrigeration & Air Condi-
tioning Engineers
Nash M. Love, consulting engineer,
Washington, D.C., “Economic Study Justi-
fies All-Electric Heating.”
Presidential Arms, 1320 G St., N.W. So-
cial hour, o:lo p.m; diner 6:5 pms
meeting, 7:30 p.m.
April 20—Anthropological Society of
Washington
Walter Miller, Boston University, “Cul-
ture of Lower-class Americans.”
Room 43 (ground floor), Natural His-
100
tory Building, 10th St. and Constitution
Ave., N.W., 8:15 p.m.
April 28—tTrinity College, Science
Bureau Lecture Series
Mary I. Bunting, commissioner, Atomic
Energy Commission, “The Education of
Women in Science, Let’s Experiment.” Re-
sponse by Michael Markels, Jr., Atlantic
Research Corp.
Notre Dame Auditorium, Trinity Col-
lege, 8:00 p.m.
April 30—Howard University, Depart-
ment of Architecture
Karel Yasko, assistant commissioner for
design and construction, General Services
Administration, Washington, D.C. Topic
to be announced.
Auditorium, School of Engineering and
Architecture, 2300 Sixth St., N.W., 4:00
p-m.
May 7—Chemical Society of Washing-
ton and Maryland Section, ACS
Meeting-in-miniature
Maryland University, 2:00 to 10:00 p.m.
For details of the program, call Calvin F.
Stuntz, 927-3800, Ext. 535.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS
Contributions to this column may be ad-
dressed to Harold T. Cook, Associate Edi-
tor, c/o Department of Agriculture, Agri-
cultural Research Service, Federal Center
Building, Hyattsville, Maryland.
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT
C. H. HOFFMANN, associate director of
the Entomology Research Division, pre-
sented the keynote address on “New Hori-
zons in Insect Control” at the 16th Annual
Western Forest Insect Work Conference
and Central International Forest Insect and
Disease Work Conference, held March 1 at
Denver.
AMERICAN UNIVERSITY
FREDERICK A. H. RICE, Chemistry
Department, has been awarded an Army
research contract concerned with the distri-
bution of water-soluble pyrogenic metabo-
lites between the mycelium and medium of
a species of Penicillium.
LEO SCHUBERT has accepted appoint-
ment to the Teaching Aids Panel of the
Advisory Council on College Chemistry. He
has also been asked to serve on a study
funded by the U.S. Office of Education,
through the Board of Education of the City
of New York, whose objective is to prepare
a science course of study at the junior high
school level, for culturally-deprived chil-
dren.
COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY
DEAN S. CARDER participated in the
Third World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering at Auckland and Wellington,
New Zealand, January 23-30.
DEFENSE DEPARTMENT
CARL LAMANNA, Army Research Of-
fice, recently returned from a trip to Japan
and the Philippines, where he reviewed
Army-supported research. On November 16
he lectured before the Japan Bacteriology
Society, meeting at Keio University, Tokyo.
APRIL, 1965
GEORGE WASHINGTON
UNIVERSITY
RUDULPH HUGH, associate professor
of microbiology, School of Medicine, at-
tended a Symposium on Cholera Research
held in Honolulu January 24-29, and pre-
sented a paper, “Nomenclature and Tax-
onomy of Vibrio comma, Pancini 1854 and
Vibrio eltor Pribram 1933.”
ROBERT C. PARLETT, chairman and
professor of the Department of Microbiol-
ogy, School of Medicine, has returned from
an inspection of laboratory facilities of
Vargas Hospital, Caracas, Venezuela, for
the National Institutes of Health.
NATIONAL BUREAU OF
STANDARDS
Three members of the Academy were
awarded the Gold Medal of the Department
of Commerce on February 15, and four
others were awarded the Silver Medal. The
Department of Commerce Gold Medal
Award, the highest given by the Depart-
ment, is granted for rare and outstanding
contributions of major significance to the
Department, such as major contributions to
science, technology, or administration. The
Silver Medal Award, the second highest
given by the Department, is granted for
contributions of unusual value to the De-
partment, such as very valuable contribu- |
tions to science, technology, or administra-
tion.
Gold Medal winners were:
MELVILLE S. GREEN, chief of the Sta-
tistical Physics Section, Heat Division, “for
outstanding contributions to the develop-
ment of physical theory in the quantum
mechanical treatment of cooperative pheno-
mena, and in studies on transport proper-
ties of gases at high temperature.”
WALTER J. HAMER, chief of the Elec-
trochemistry Section, Metrology Division,
“for continued distinguished service to gov-
ernment and industry, exemplified by au-
thorship and leadership in the field of elec-
trochemistry.”
JOHN D. HOFFMAN, chief of the Poly-
101
mers Division, “for distinguished contribu-
tions to polymer research and for vigorous
leadership of research groups conducting
significant and fundamental programs of
research in dielectrics and macromole-
cules.”
Silver Medal winners were:
ROLAND E. FLORIN, chemist, Polymer
Chemistry Section, Polymers Division, “for
distinguished contributions in elucidating
the mechanisms whereby structural changes
occur in polymers upon exposure to high
energy radiations.”
DAVID R. LIDE, JR., chief of the In-
frared and Microwave Spectroscopy Sec-
tion, Atomic Physics Division, “for pio-
neering research on the determination of
the structure of complex molecules by mic-
rowave spectroscopy.”
H. STEFFEN PEISER, chief of the Crys-
tal Chemistry Section, Inorganic Materials
Division, “for actively developing a pro-
gram in crystal chemistry and for forward
looking leadership on general crystallo-
graphic problems.”
ROBERT W. ZWANZIG, chemist, The-
oretical Chemistry Section, Physical Chem-
istry Division, “for meritorious authorship,
in particular for a very distinguished series
of contributions to science in the field of
statistical physics.”
ARCHIBALD T. McPHERSON retired
on February 28 after 43 years of govern-
ment service.
NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF
HEALTH
HOWARD L. ANDREWS, radiation
safety officer and chief of the Clinical Cen-
ter’s Department of Radiation Safety has
been awarded the Public Health Service
Medal and Certificate for Meritorious Serv-
ice in recognition of “his belief in, and
untiring efforts toward the advancement of
the mission of the Public Health Service.”
HEINZ SPECHT, who has been chief of
the Pacific Area Office of the NIH Office of
International Research, with headquarters
in Tokyo, will return to the United States
in May.
102
JOURNAL OF
SARAH E. STEWART, head of the Hu-
man Virus Studies Section, Laboratory of
Viral Carcinogenesis, National Cancer In-
stitute, was one of six women in Govern-
ment service selected to receive the 1965
Federal Woman’s Award. Dr. Stewart was
cited for her “extraordinary accomplish-
ments and discoveries in virology which
have changed the course of cancer virus
research.”
NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
L. S. BIRKS, head of the X-Ray Optics
Branch, received the Spectroscopy Society
Award at the Analytical Chemistry and Ap-
plied Spectroscopy meeting held in Pitts-
burgh, on March 2. The award was made
for his work in X-ray spectrochemical anal-
ysis and electron probe microanalysis. His
award address was entitled, “X-ray Spec-
trochemical Analysis—Where Do We Go
From Here?”
WEATHER BUREAU
Two Academy members were among five
Weather Bureau employees who received
the Commerce Department’s Gold Medal
for Exceptional Service on February 15.
They are JEROME NAMIAS, assistant di-
rector for extended forecasting at the Na-
tional Meteorological Center, “for major
contributions to science through original
research, highly distinguished authorship,
and expert direction of programs in the
field of extended weather forecasting”; and
HERBERT C. S. THOM, meteorologist in
the Office of Climatology, “for outstanding
scientific contributions to statistical clima-
tology, their industrial and agricultural ap-
plications, and highly distinguished author-
ship.”
SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT
One of the more interesting stories in the
development of man’s civilization is the way
in which he has returned, time and again,
to the natural products of plant and animal
species for substances of medical or indus-
trial importance, but each time at a mark-
edly higher level of sophistication. Witness
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the current interest of the pharmaceutical
companies, for example, in the concoctions
of the primitive witch doctors as possible
sources of information leading to import-
ant steroids of botanical origin. Our atten-
tion is directed, in a recent news item from
the National Institutes of Health, to work
being done on the chemical structure of the
most potent known venom, that of the kokoi
frogs of the Colombian jungles, work which
shows the material to be related to steroid
hormones and structurally similar to the
secretions of the adrenal gland. This
venom, derived from the skin of the frog,
has been used as an arrow poison for cen-
turies by the Cholo Indians of Colombia,
and produces in the victim a number of
effects, including an irreversible block of
motor nerve transmission, causing death
within minutes. Skin extracts from 2,400
animals yielded a total of 30 milligrams of
a crystalline active ingredient, which is
being examined with the aid of modern
analytic techniques to determine its compo-
sition and structure. Obviously, the investi-
gators hope thereby to make possible syn-
thesis and, with larger amounts available,
to study pharmaceutical effects which may
be turned to the benefit of man.
Anyone old or impecunious enough to
have experienced a non-air-conditioned ex-
istence in Washington will have nothing but
sympathy for the situation in England,
where summer temperatures do not usually
warrant these modern comforts and where
conferences, lectures, and just plain living
are repeatedly bothered by the noise of
passing aircraft. It is therefore interesting
to note a trial, in the Building Research
Station of the DSIR, near London, of a
motorized window which can be opened or
shut in about three seconds and which is
controlled by the outside noise level. Sheer
noise has been by some considered a major
hazard of our modern society, and we can-
not but rejoice any move to combat it.
What will be the fate of a motorized win-
dow confronted by the sonic boom is an-
other matter.
APRIL, 1965
We are seldom more poignantly re-
minded of the ineffectiveness of man to
cope with the hazards of the natural envir-
onment than when the headlines scream the
news of a mine disaster, and carry us day
by day through the too often unsuccessful
attempts to recover the victims of that ac-
cident while they still live. It will come as
some comfort, then, to learn that careful
monitoring of seismic activity, over a pe-
riod of years, has made it possible in con-
siderable measure to forecast the spontan-
eous rock bursts and falls in mine work-
ings. Most impressive, probably, were
forecasts in early fall of last year, in cer-
tain Utah coal mines, where a series of
violent “bumps” were correctly foreseen.
Safety precautions applied as a result of
these warnings were such as to avoid any
injuries to personnel, despite considerable
structural damage.
As our industrialized society presses ever
harder on the natural resources upon which
it depends, the problems of how best to
manage and conserve those resources be-
come more acute. Two releases from the
Geological Survey point up, again, the cru-
cial role of water in the welfare of man.
and the need to act only on the basis of
dependable data. On Long Island, for ex-
ample, we find one of many instances where
depletion of the fresh water supplies has
endangered the safety and convenience of
some two millions of people in Nassua and
Suffolk Counties alone, as salty water from
the Atlantic moves into the groundwater
system. In other areas of the Island. for
that matter, aquifers are now completely
permeated with salt water and the water
entirely unusable. Present plans call for an
experimental effort to operate an injection
well and several observation wells at Bay
Park, where 400 gallons per minute will be
pumped info the ground. Eventually, by
using purified waste waters for this pur-
pose, it is hoped that the salt can be flushed
out and the balance of discharge and re-
charge reestablished.
Meanwhile, aerial airborne photodetec-
103
tion, with infrared equipment, is being
carried out in Puerto Rico and the Virgin
Islands, areas where fresh water is among
the more precious commodities, to detect
major points of leakage from underground
sources into the oceans. Slight differences
in temperature are sufficient to register on
the film and pinpoint these points of out-
flow, possibly down to discharges as little as
one million gallons a day. A point thus
located would indicate where additional
fresh water could be pumped from the
ground without danger of salt water con-
tamination of the aquifers.
The recovery of drinking water from
engine exhaust gases is being studied by the
Engineer Research & Development Labora-
tories at Fort Belvoir. The combustion of
one pound of gasoline releases about a
pound of water, which normally would be
lost to the atmosphere in a gaseous state.
If it can be reclaimed and purified, this
water would provide a limited emergency
supply in arid or other water shortage
areas. The laboratory study, to date, has
included the investigation of heat transfer
or gas condensing characteristics for ob-
taining water from engine exhaust gases,
the physical and chemical properties of the
water produced, and the treatment pro-
cesses required to render the water potable.
For some years now, our scientific jour-
nals have repeatedly talked of the Mohole
Project, that intriguing effort to drill
through to the earth’s mantle, initiated by
104
that society with the equally intriguing
name, the American Miscellaneous Society.
Perhaps, after all, it will not be necessary
to work that hard at it, if measurements
currently being made at the Carnegie Insti-
tution’s Department of Terrestrial Magnet-
ism turn out favorably. More specifically,
samples taken from St. Paul’s Rocks, a tiny
group of mid-Atlantic islands near the
equator, seem quite possibly to be of direct
mantle origin, presumably forced up
through the ocean floor at that point. The
crux of the matter lies in the correspond-
ence between the age of these samples and
that of meteorites, long considered to have
been formed at the same time as the earth,
perhaps 4.7 billion years ago. Age, in this
particular context, is determined by meas-
uring the ratio of strontium 66 and stron-
tium, the latter having been formed by
radioactive decay of rubidium 87.
Frederick Seitz, president of the National
Academy of Sciences since 1962, has been
re-elected for a six-year term beginning
July 1. Dr. Seitz’s re-election took place
under bylaws recently adopted by the Acad-
emy, that provide henceforth for a full-time,
salaried president. Although previous pres-
idents have devoted large portions of their
time to Academy affairs, they have custom-
arily maintained a_ primary affiliation
elsewhere. Dr. Seitz, who had been named
as vice-president for research and dean of
the graduate college at the University of
Illinois, has resigned those positions, effec-
tive July 1.
—Russell B. Stevens
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Delegates to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Representing
the Local Affiliated Societies*
EN eS eds TTT 0 aa Urner Lippew
Anthropological Society of Washington ........0..00000000000000..... PASS NS en Sate ee eet ot Gorpon McGrecor
URI MMPNEMI AT) OM CEBUANO ooo oo sods, coc icdecanecccenbicosevvssecdeothcsscctsccceccccclec,.. JoHn L. Parapiso
UE RNIRECRECR SUPE WY SSRIS DEON 205.0... secnenscsescsecs devsalescosecesonesosceessnessceeckschege: FLORENCE H. Forziati
Mepomamiorieal Society of Washingtom ooo... cece ccccccccccsesssecssseseseecehecsecscscc, Haroitp H. SHEPARD
I REAM EN cae ssat sc eantandembocmscsaccocotseacte 6 ddes, ALEXANDER WETMORE
SS Ci TTP 11) lg Luna LEeopotp
memicae society of the District of Columbia .......................................... THomas M. Brown
IR PRIA Ti a tN De U. S. Grant, II]
EE PPS 1 Re Peter H. HEINZE
REE NPRMIBEE TO ATS POTCSECTS ooo oo occ oo. oec snc scscscuesceccouescuscsosonrchvcccossccccseseceseseccceses Harry A. FoweE ts
MIINIBRENEMMEECE (OL POMDENICETS, | 5 .o2 0.5... ceo ccc ceoocecnoccovacesscocctecsvscsasucculeavocoovecececueerec.evns Martin A. Mason
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 2. ..0....0....0.00.0c0ccccccccceccecscsecseseeseseeseeeveveees GreorcE ABRAHAM
American Society of Mechanical Engineers ................ FLUE, Sue? Ot eee ena ee tS Wittiam G. ALLEN
nnnLGemrer Soctety Gf Washington ......................ccscecccccosscseccoceccccssssesessoccerscoocescecces Marion M. Farr
RPE EGAE’ / WARCTONIOVOP Yoon on. c seen seeces ooo co scccesccoscussevtassdesoutessscesessigeesasevtec, FRANK HETTRICK
meer ornmerican Military Engineers ....................-.-:..0..2cccccesceceseccaseessesccseseceeseseneesesecbenees H. P. DemutH
mre ommricty GF Civil ENGineers 5.2... -...............-.ccc.cc.ceccessscesercasssssereccossneceesers THORNDIKE SAVILLE, JR.
Society for Experimental Biology and Medicime ..2...0.0.......0...0.cccccceeecsccseesetsessessseseseseeteseneees FALCONER SMITH
EIN NER TREN ao Soon 5a sang uns Ness ser Les savescausnssuavsvseanvsvecvosscsdonanseiooce Hucu L. Locan
International Association for Dental Research o.....02..0.0.0.0.cecccccceseeesescsesesescnesetseeeeseseeees Haroip J. Caut
American Institute of Aeronautics nad rer AICS 2! Sek ea oe EucENE EHRLICH
American Meteorological Society ...000.0.0000.00.0.00.00.cccccccccesecesesseseseseescseeseseesesesteseeees J. Murray MitTcHELL, Jr.
RM Rm RE GE” WY ASTITTESTON: <02...00c0cscensacesctssasseedescaseacorsnstidcencotnasscvasnssacssnsnnsnssees Delegate not appointed
UI RETAIL PIECE AC 2000. saeco ececect one sannsecdeonsnbeshcseseneocsevendocotatecsss Matcotm C. HENDERSON
NTE i aC sa toe hdiwvedgabagdadaceetnuntocns Georce L. WEIL
PNM SPE AMG ROCUINGIO MEMES i.e caicccevecucececcncs cetnctooencnacsntacncnsuescneatessesenbedonzassnanseeges RicHarp P. Farrow
American Ceramic Society .................0.0..00cccccccceses en Deen ura: Lc NUR eal toneoL tan Wen J. J. Diamonp
URN NEM co os iss ik vodnbayacuanavatvedclasstuewtieesseets Kurt H. STERN
Washington CL So I) aR Sep et nee Delegate not appointed
American Association of Physics Teachers 20.0000... .000....ccccccccccssecsescseeveveveveees .......Delegate not appointed
* Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective affiliated societies.
Volume 55 APRIL 1965 No. 4
CONTENTS
W. A. Wallace: Some Moral and Religious Implications of
Nuclear Technology ..0.0.06)6..6. okies cceceetesieresecises cinediaene essen uae er 85
E. N. Parker: A Role for Science in Controlling the Nuclear Threat .................. 92
Academy Proceedings
April ‘Meeting: acisj co 2ieyeh aussie deseo iestce ns HOMIE eS a oT
Board of Managers Meeting Notes (February) .......0..0....ccccccccceeeeteteee 98
Meeting Notes [mde ® .2)0.)c... calc bs econ sence vessel gaence ene uate ae 99
Science in Washington
Calendar of. Events 2.02.00) 5. .5cc:ssisceseds secs soevet detessds-o tahoe) a rr 100
Scientists in: the News ........:.:..:c.scsserstssesevethereses cre ssnseseusdementn <i eds rr 101
Science and Development ............00.0..ccieceeetcestenssestevs serves deere 12):
‘ 18R A RY
S NATIONAL MUSEUM
_ WASHINGTON 25 0 4g J
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VOLUME 55 NUMBER 5
Journal of the
WASHINGTON
ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES
MAY 1965
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Editor: SAmuEL B. DETwILer, Jr., Departmeni of Agriculture
Associate Editors
Harotp T. Coox, Department of Agriculture HELEN L. REyNotps, Food and Drug Adminis-
: tration
. FARROW n -
RicHARD P. Farrow, National Canners Asso Ratru G. H, Srv, Department ef Meee
ciation ; RussELL B. STEVENS, George Washington Uni-
Harry A. Fowe ts, Department of Agriculture versity
Contributors
FRANK A. BIBERSTEIN, JR., Catholic University JoserpH B. Morris, Howard University
CHARLES A. WHITTEN, Coast & Geodetic Survey Jacosp Mazur, National Bureau of Standards
MaryoriE HooKer, Geological Survey ALLEN L. ALEXANDER, Naval Research Laboratory
ReuBEN E. Woop, George Washington Univer- Victor R. Boswett, USDA, Beltsville
sity ANDREW F. FREEMAN, USDA, Washington
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ACADEMY OFFICERS FOR 1965
President: Leo ScHUBERT, American University
President-Elect: Joun K. Taytor, National Bureau of Standards
Secretary: ALPHONSE F. Forziatt, Advanced Research Projects Agency
Treasurer: RomAN R. Mitier, Naval Research Laboratory
ae ‘ee Pr g5---.,
An Exercise in Probability*
E. R. Weaver
Washington, D. C.
There is a familiar story to the effect that
the invention of the game of chess so
pleased an oriental ruler that the inventor
was offered any reward he might choose.
He chose one grain of wheat for the first
square of the chess board, two for the sec-
ond, four for the third, and so on, doubling
the number each time to the 64th square.
This modest-seeming demand delighted the
king until he undertook to fill the order.
I never heard what happened after that,
but I suspect that the inventor was shot
with a poisoned arrow at the next sunrise.
The amount of wheat is easily calculated
if you know how plump the grains were. I
counted some rather small wheat grains
in a measured volume, and came up with
a total volume, for the chess board, of 150
cubic miles, probably more wheat than
has ever grown and about seven thousand
times as much as is now stored in this
country.
The subject I shall discuss in this paper
similarly involves a power series. Some
* Author’s note: This paper was prepared for
the entertainment of and discussion by a small
group of retired scientists—self-called “Fossils’—
on April 5, 1963. It was not intended for pub-
lication, and would not have been submitted to
the Journal except for the kind interest of a
friendly chemist and an eminent biologist. It
does not contain any new information. None of
the scientific facts stated or implied originated
with the author by discovery or invention. Their
sources can be covered by a single reference:
“They say.” They are not necessarily accurate,
and small errors, such as underestimating by a
factor of a hundred the size of the universe or
the duration of geologic time, can probably be
ignored. If the reader has more accurate data,
he is invited to substitute them and see what
difference they make.
May, 1965
years ago someone remarked that if a
monkey should punch the keys of a type-
writer at random for a long enough time he
would eventually, by sheer chance, type out
the works of Shakespeare. This striking
and easily understandable figure of speech
seems to have appealed to popular imagi-
nation, for it has been repeated so often
that it has come to resemble an anonymous
proverb. It is generally used as a back-
ground for a partial attempt to explain
nature, and particularly organic life, as the
result of physical and chemical action with-
out guidance other than pure chance. The
reasoning connecting Shakespeare and nat-
ural history seems to be that, since the
sequence of events that results in the acci-
dental edition of Shakespeare is readily
imagined, there is no reason to suppose
that the sequence of unguided events neces-
sary to produce and evolve life to its present
stage of development should be any less
understandable. Usually it is asserted that —
the two or three billion years believed to
have elapsed since the first appearance of
life on earth is “ample time” for the oper-
ation of chance to accomplish everything.
Oddly enough, it is always Shakespeare
that is compared to nature, not Charles
Dickens or Erle Stanley Gardner.
The Shakespeare side of the picture is
easily drawn. After that, it will remain
to compare the significant order and the
complexity of the works of Shakespeare
with those of organic nature.
Suppose we strike at random one of the
letters of the typewriter. There is one
chance in 26 that the letter will be A. If
we strike two letters there is the same
chance that the second letter will be B
105
DOT son s
semmunon’ MAY 2 1 s9¢h
and one chance in 26 times 26 that the com-
bination will be AB. The chance that the
first three letters will be ABC is one in 26
times 26 times 26, which is 10,816. And
SO On.
A typewriter usually has 40 keys or a
few more for letters, numerals, punctu-
ation marks, etc., but I am willing to settle
for the 26 letter keys and the space bar. [|
insist on the space bar because Shakespeare
will be so much easier to read if there are
spaces between the words.
I counted the letters and spaces on what
I decided, from inspection, to be a nearly
average page of a certain edition of Shakes-
peare and multiplied by the number of
pages. The product was about five million,
of which something less than a million were
spaces. For brevity, from now on [I shall
refer to both letters and spaces as letters;
in this sense, punching any of the 27 keys
results in a letter, and all the letters must
be in correct sequence to accomplish the job
assigned to the monkey.
We now have to deal with a probability
represented by 27 with the exponent 5 mil-
lion instead of two to the 64th power
minus one, the number of grains on the
checker board. In more familiar terms, the
larger number is equal to ten with the ex-
ponent 7,150,000.
It is common practice to refer to a small
probability as a chance in a million. To
make it emphatic, we are likely to say a
chance in a million million. To express
the probability that the first random typing
of five million letters will produce a per-
fect copy of Shakespeare, we will have to
say a chance in a million and repeat the
last word 1,150,000 times. This would be
monotonous.
I will try a different aid to the imagi-
nation. Suppose we could mark for identi-
fication a single molecule, then mix up all
of the molecules there are and choose one
at random like a ticket in a lottery. Ac-
cording to the astronomers, there are some-
thing like one billion galaxies and some-
thing like a billion stars per average galaxy.
Our sun is believed to be a nearly average
106
star. Its weight, plus that of its attendant
planetary system, is about 10?° grams;
and one gram of hydrogen, the lightest
and most abundant element, contains 10?
molecules. These factors multiplied to-
gether give 10 to the 74th power. We
then have one chance in 10%* of drawing
the marked molecule in a well-conducted
lottery. For comparison, we have one
chance in 10‘? that an electric typewriter
in a hail storm will immediately type the
couplet,
Mary had a little lamb
Its fleece was white as snow,
and one in 10** that it will write,
All that glitters is not gold
Often have you heard that told.
The chance of drawing a designated mole-
cule three times in succession is the same
as the chance that if one hundred type-
writers are exposed to the pelting hail one
of them will write,
The time has come the Walrus said
To talk of many things,
Of shoes and ships and sealing wax
And cabbages and kings,
And why the sea is boiling hot
And whether pigs have wings.
As for a complete Shakespeare, the chances
that it will be produced the first time a
typewriter is exposed to a monkey or a
hailstorm is equal to the chance of drawing
the same molecule from the universe every
day for 250 years.
The next-to-last user of the Shakespeare
analogy whose work I read remarked that
“several” nearly perfect copies of Shakes-
peare would probably be produced before
one that was entirely errorless. In fact,
it was this statement that goaded me to this
discussion. How many is several?
Assuming that a perfect copy of Shakes-
peare has been produced up to but not in-
cluding the last letter, there is one chance
in 27 that the next stroke will be the right
one and 26 that it will not. But there is as
much chance of an error in each of the
five million strokes that precede it as in the
last stroke, hence we can expect 26 times
five million or 130 million copies with a
mistake of only one letter for every correct
copy, roughly three copies for every Amer-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ican family. There is the same chance that
one billion copies will be perfect except for
the last word, which in my edition happens
to be “prayer.”
As my son Bob immediately pointed out,
by the time we get a perfect Shakespeare
we should have vast numbers of almost
every possible combination of much less
than five million letters, and these might be
expected to include not only everything of
minor length that was ever published, but
also many creations that might be as much
superior to Shakespeare as Shakespeare is
to Mother Goose.
Now let us turn to the biological side
of the picture. Living organisms are made
up of tissues of many more kinds than
there are letters in the alphabet, all arranged
in certain definite relation to one another.
There are tissues that form bones, muscles,
blood vessels, skin, hair, toenails, and an
impressive variety of glands and other spe-
cialized organs each with a different or
several different kinds of cells. There are
light-sensitive cells in the eye but nowhere
else. Outside the mammals, in the firefly
and hundreds of deep-sea species there are
cells that emit light under conditions that
we have never been able to duplicate or
even to understand. In the electric eel
there are the components of a generator of
static electricity and a powerful condenser,
the discharges of which are under voluntary
control although everything has been made
in, and is used while immersed in, a highly
conducting solution.
Each tissue is built of cells of the right
kind in the right place. Every cell is made
up of chemical structures, the extreme com-
plexity of which will be discussed later.
How are these chemical structures pro-
duced? An ordinary building is con-
structed of bricks, boards, nails, etc., made
for the purpose in separate and special
factories in the outside world and merely
fitted together. In a living organism, not
one cell—and it is probably not much of
an exaggeration to say not one substance—
is obtained ready-made in a physical form
or a chemical combination that is directly
May, 1965
usable. Everything has to be made on the
job from a miscellaneous and ever-varying
mixture of raw materials most of which are
useless or worse. A small fraction of use-
ful material must be extracted, incorporated
into a single fluid, and transported in true
or colloidal solution to every point at which
a particular material is required; and there
the wanted chemical is synthesized from
the common supply to meet the need.
Every cell in the complex structure is
alive; and to remain alive it must be con-
tinuously supplied with structural and
energy-producing material by a fluid in con-
tact with at least a portion of the cell wall.
If the cell is not located directly on a main,
its supplies must be received and its garb-
age emptied through a neighbor’s back
yard.
How would you like to be an engineer
charged with building a system to supply
water or other liquid to, and remove waste
from, several thousand times as many cus-
tomers as there are people on earth under
the following conditions? The system is to
start with a supply for one customer (one
cell). The conduits are to be made on the
job from substances carried by the fluid to
be confined. Unwanted materials in the
fluid are to be separated and flushed away
together with wastes added by the cus-
tomers themselves. New customers are to
be served without delay. While the com-
munity is developing at its maximum rate,
you must be prepared to connect a million
new customers per second. During the
building and connecting of conduits the
system is never to be opened, no part of its
operation is to be interrupted, it must re-
main in continuous use without leakage,
and it must be completed in nine months.
Thereafter it must be self-expanding and
self-repairing, with all structural materials
replaced every few years.
The electrician who would build and in-
stall the communication (nervous) system
has almost as complex a job. A recent arti-
cle in one of the official journals of the
American Medical Association stated in ef-
fect that there are “several trillion” nerve
107
connections in the human brain alone.
There are only several billion people in the
world. Approximately, then, the discrete
channels of communication in one brain
would, with a change in size, location, and
material, provide every person in the world
with a thousand telephone lines. Several
thousand of what may be regarded as long-
distance lines are to be run through a
thread-sized cable called the optic nerve
without cross leakage, and the whole job is
to be done without getting a wrong number.
As a former chemist, I am as much im-
pressed with the chemical operation of this
self-built chemical factory as with its con-
struction. Its products include not only the
structural materials of cells and tissues, but
also a vast category of such things as hor-
mones, enzymes, milk, vaccines, and anti-
biotics. When the organism is attacked by
any one of many diseases, something within
its diagnoses the attack, prescribes a specific
chemical remedy, and promptly begins its
manufacture from whatever raw materials
happen to be available.
The remedy is usually extremely com-
plicated; it may even be itself a living
organism such as a white blood corpuscle;
and it is different for almost every disease.
According to a recent article, it may be dif-
ferent for more than 30 varieties of colds
and influenza, the effects of which cannot
be consciously distinguished by ourselves
or our physicians until the manufacture of
the appropriate antigen has been auto-
matically begun by our alert diagnostic
apparatus. Some of these complex chemi-
cal remedies have been isolated after years
of careful work by skilled scientists using
elaborate equipment, but very few if any
of them have been synthesized. They are
obtained for study or for use in one orga-
nism only by taking them from another
that has previously made them for itself.
There are several million known varieties
_ of living organisms, plants and animals, and
each is complex in its structure and per-
fect in its functioning beyond anything that
I can more than vaguely suggest. As a
108
whole, their development seems to me much
more nearly analagous to the writing of
the Library of Congress than to the works
of Shakespeare only.
Professor Edwin Conklin expressed sub-
stantially the same thought more briefly:
“The probability of life originating from
accident is comparable to the probability of
the unabridged dictionary resulting from
an explosion in a printing shop.”
To get even the most inadequate idea of
this comparison we should start with the
completely sterile world that undoubtedly
once existed. Prof. Francis O. Rice has
described a possible process by which cer-
tain essential combinations of matter that
are usually found only in living cells could
be synthesized from primordial constituents
that might have occurred in sufficient con-
centration in the path of a lightning flash or
a volcanic eruption.
That anything with the properties of liv-
ing matter, properties required for growth
and reproduction for example, would result
if the chemical composition of a living cell
could be exactly duplicated, must be as-
sumed if we are to discuss the problem at
all. It has not thus far been demonstrated
that this is true.
In any case, the formation of the first bit
of living matter is an event of such high
improbability that it is commonly assumed
to have occurred only once in geologic
time. What would be the chance of survival
of the first tiny blob of living matter? A
seemingly insurmountable difficulty appears
in the lack of a food supply. Additions to
its carbon chain could not be made from
elementary carbon or from carbon dioxide
or the methane possibly present under any
conditions we now recognize until an elabo-
rate system of operating chemical machin-
ery had already come into existence, either
as a protein with powers of both photo-
synthesis and reproduction, or as chloro-
phyl.
When the first chlorophyl molecule hap-
pened to put itself together in association
with the protein complexes as necessary to
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
its functioning as it was to theirs, it was
quite an event. It provided possibly the
only means, certainly the only common
means, by which carbon is made available
in a combination that can be used by terres-
trial organisms or by most of those in the
oceans.
Professor Rice, a leader in trying to make
credible the spontaneous occurences of the
chemicals indispensable to any life, has
called the chlorophy! molecule “incredibly”
complicated. It is hardy more so than the
equally necessary protein. The accidental
occurence together of the first molecule of
each type seems vastly less probable than
the spontaneous appearance on a typewriter
in a hail storm of “Mary had a little lamb,
its fleece was white as snow.” It may or
may not be less probable than the appear-
ance of Shakespeare’s works under similar
circumstances; but several generations of
chemists have devoted their best efforts and
best equipment to making a chlorophyl
molecule, until very recently without suc-
cess. It still does not appear why the com-
pound should be so hard to prepare in the
laboratory and so easy to produce outside.
Don’t let me suggest that life has any-
thing to do with it, for that would be vital-
ism, and vitalism is a bad word that has
been deleted from the vocabulary of all
good biologists. Life is understood to be
merely a term popularly applied to certain
chemical phenomena not yet fully investi-
gated.
If this appears to be sarcasm, I hope you
will not misunderstand my attitude. [ ad-
mire, even envy, the accomplishments of
scientists who look at life in substantially
this way, and I admit that their point of
view may have contributed to their suc-
cess. One form of vitalism certainly re-
tarded the development of chemistry until
about a hundred years ago, when the idea
that “organic” compounds could not be
produced except through the operation of a
life process had to be abandoned.
We will now assume that we have life,
in the form of a living cell, and a food
May, 1965
supply to make growth and reproduction
possible. The cells begin to divide, main-
taining linkages among themselves to form
vast complex structures called tissues. As
we should expect, the cells of a tissue are
very much alike up to a certain point. Then
suddenly they are different and a different
kind of tissue develops. In another direc-
tion other tissues grow.
Amazingly, the point at which one tissue
stops growing and another begins is just
right to produce a structure, of the com-
plexity previously suggested rather than
described, that will function successfully
in a usually difficult environment. Any
wrongly placed junction among millions
will be disastrous. Suppose, for example,
that the bony tissue of a vertebra should
expand across the spinal canal or that light-
sensitive cells should develop behind the
bone of an eye socket instead of behind
a beautifully transparent lens. Or even sup-
pose that all red-sensitive cells should occur
on one side of the retina and all blue
sensitive cells on the other instead of being
uniformly distributed over the area.
But this is only the beginning of mystery.
Surprising as are the aspects of structure
and chemical functioning of living crea-
tures, far more amazing to me are their in-
stincts. Every little mammal, if he is not
of the genus homo, knows without being
told at which end of his mother the com-
missary is located and how to make prac-
tical use of the knowledge.
Countless examples of instinct could be
given that would be completely incredible
without direct evidence that they exist. [
shall confine myself to one case.
As winter approaches, a certain species
of wasp constructs a two-room apartment.
She then seeks out a certain species of
spider which she stings. The stinging act
is not a crude assault like a blow from a
lion’s paw, but a skillful injection of just
the right amount of a prepared anesthetic
into a certain nerve center of the spider to
immobilize it. Too much would kill it, and
random placing would be ineffective. The
109
act is closely comparable in several respects
to the application of spinal anesthesia by a
surgeon. The anesthetized spider is put into
one compartment of the prepared struc-
ture. I have read divergent accounts of
what happens at this point. According to
one source, only one spider is placed in one
cell and eventually serves as food for a
single young wasp. If this is correct, each
wasp must repeat the building and foraging
process several times, for the race of wasps
could not survive if there were only a single
off-spring from each mother. According to
another source other spiders, as many as a
hundred, are put into one storage cell. Per-
haps different species of wasp have different
practices. In any case, when the supply
of anesthetized spiders is thought adequate,
their cell is sealed. In the other compart-
ment the wasp lays an egg or a clutch of
eggs and seals them up too strongly for the
seal to be broken open by the wasp larvae
when the eggs hatch. The baby wasps have
to get out by breaking the relatively frail
paper septum into the food warehouse
where they eat the helpless but still living
spiders until they are strong enough to
break out and make their own way in the
world.
The act of capturing the spiders was
described to me by W. H. Bradley who has
watched it closely. The wasp approaches a
spider’s web, carefully avoiding entangle-
ment, reaches out, grasps a radial thread of
the web and shakes it to simulate a strug-
gling captive insect. The spider hurries out
to investigate and is lost.
Consider what would be an analagous
action by a woman. She would have to
acquire somehow a knowledge of the arts
of masonry and paper making and select
and transport a fairly large bulk, in propor-
tion to her size, of raw materials. If pro-
portionality is to be maintained in both
weights and distances, it will be necessary
for the woman to carry as much as two or
three tons to the top of the Empire State
building. There she must build a_ well-
designed structure exactly suited to its fu-
110
ture use. She would have to acquire a
knowledge of natural history in order to
recognize among thousands of species of
animals of appropriate size the one suit-
able for her purpose. She would have to
be a hunter of considerable skill to find and
secure a sufficient number of unwilling vic-
tims. In accomplishing this she must not
only recognize the homes of her prey but
understand their structural arrangement
and mechanical properties and appreciate
and avoid their built-in hazards. She must
even understand what, for lack of a better
term, I must call the psychology of the
prospective items of living baby food.
She must be supplied in advance with an
injecting needle and a suitable chemical
anesthetic. She would need some of the
training of an anesthesiologist includ-
ing an accurate knowledge of the anatomy
of her subject. She would have to store the
prepared meat supply, recognize when it
was adequate in amount, and seal it up,
not to be seen again in her lifetime. She
would then go to the right delivery room to
give birth to her progeny and follow up
that event by making certain provisions that
her babies would not enter a hostile world
except through the cookie jar. She would
have to be clairvoyant, for each step of her
extended sequence of operations is meaning-
less except as preparation for future events
that she will not witness, and each step has
to be taken at just the right time. No
mother or neighborhood gossip has told her
that she is about to become a mother her-
self. She must have a strong motivation to
perform her labors, yet for thousands of
generations her ancestors have been doing
the same things and not one of them has
lived to see a desirable result. From a
human viewpoint, motivation is the strang-
est thing of all.
Of course, no one believes that the growth
of an organism from germ cell to adulthood
is a random process. It takes place accord-
ing to a detailed pattern of chemical and
physical structure, sequence, and time. The
same pattern is followed with only slight
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
variation in endless reptition. Some orga-
nisms now living are almost identical with
fossilized ancestors after many millions of
generations.
I sometimes amuse myself by trying to
imagine what an intelligent being, well in-
formed with respect to most natural phe-
nomena, would think of something that we
take for granted if he should encounter it
for the first time. In this case, suppose that
someone from outer space should become
acquainted with everything human beings
have ever known of physics, chemistry, and
even of anatomy and physiology; suppose,
however, that his knowledge was confined
to one individual of each organic species
and then suddenly he should encounter the
facts of heredity. If he was at all intelligent
I feel sure that he would be as incredulous
as the boy that saw his first giraffe and
declared “There ain’t no such animal.”
What is the pattern that determines the
development of similar organisms genera-
tion after generation? Its study is, of
course, the science of genetics on which a
vast amount of work has been and is being
done with amazing success. The science has
its own language, and to avoid misusing
such terms as chromosomes, genes, codons,
and deoxyribonucleic acid or even giving
the impression that I know what they mean,
I am going to call the pattern a blueprint,
meaning anything that determines in detail
the procedure and final result of a building
process.
It seems now to be generally accepted
that the blueprint of not only structure and
physiology but also of instinct is embodied
in long material structures, frequently re-
ferred to as molecules and sometimes de-
scribed as coded tapes. The tapes appear
to be infinitely varied arrangements of vast
numbers of simpler but still highly com-
plicated chemical groups, of about as many
recognized kinds as there are letters in the
alphabet. If this is correct, our heredity is
spelled out with about the same number of
basic symbols that Shakespeare used.
Let me explain, in just a few words, a
theory of encyclopedic complexity that |
May, 1965
do not understand. Suppose we want to
transmit Shakespeare’s works by telegraph.
We will use the Morse code of three sym-
bols, dot, dash and space. The arrange-
ment of these symbols will determine the
appearance of 26, or 27 if we include
Spaces,, more complex symbols called
letters. The arrangement of the letters gives
us another series of aggregates called
words, and an arrangement of words con-
veys the thoughts of the author. They might
transmit, clumsily, the information needed
to make a blueprint; and eventually a build-
ing would arise that would be determined
by the blueprint and ultimately by a se-
quence of dots, dashes and spaces, them-
selves produced by the intermittent flow of
electrons in a wire.
Heredity seems to correspond to this pat-
tern of successive arrangements surpris-
ingly. Instead of the three symbols of the
Morse code there are said to be four kinds
of DNA groups whose arrangements in
some way determine the development of a
number of amino acids nearly equal to the
number of letters in the alphabet; and the
arrangement of amino acids determines the
structure of cells that may be considered
to play a part in the creation of a work
of nature roughly analagous to the part
words play in a literary work.
If my vague picture of prevalent theory
is correct, the coded tapes are coiled into
microscopic bundles in the nuclei of cells,
and each tape in a fully developed cell has
bilateral symmetry or at least two conform-
ing parts that can be separated. When the
cell divides, each part forms half the nu-
cleus of a new cell, and growth soon re-
stores the other half and reproduces the
original cell accurately before division
again takes place. Something of the sort
has long been suspected as the simplest
explanation of heredity, but until recently
the blueprint, or most of it, was thought to
be confined to the germ cell. Now is it al-
leged that every cell of the organism except
a few special types has a copy of the blue-
print.
When two germ cells combine in fertiliza-
Lill
tion, a new blueprint is formed embodying
the parts that are identical in the parent
prints, but discarding one or another of the
parts that do not match. The new individ-
ual thus started has some minor features
that seem peculiar to himself, but almost
all important characteristics accurately copy
one or the other of his immediate ancestors.
Significant differences between the blue-
print of the new individual and those from
which it is copied are called mutations, and
are ascribed to displacements or substitu-
tions among the atoms comprising it.
When we graft the axiom that the in-
dividual that survives is the only one that
leaves progeny onto the observed fact that
descendants closely resemble their parents
except when accidental mutations interfere,
we have a complete explanation for every-
thing—or do we?
A vast amount of work has been given to
the study of mutations in a few species, such
as the fruit fly and the Jimson weed. Al-
though a large number of mutations such
as the shape and coloring of leaves have
been produced under controlled conditions,
and although the combinations of “DNA
molecules” of nearly all organisms super-
ficially resemble one another as closely as
do two rolls of an architect’s blueprints, the
results of single mutations seldom amount
to more than minor corrections. The blue-
prints for the Empire State building are
not likely to be accidentally converted into
blueprints for an airplane carrier, and it
has not been reported that a fruit fly has
given birth to a Jimson weed.
I believe that the popular concept of
evolution from the first living cell to men
or oak trees has been simplified out of any
close resemblance to reality by easily ac-
cepted and often repeated analogies and ex-
amples such as the monkey typing Shakes-
peare and the lengthening legs and neck of
the giraffe, which enable a taller individual
to survive by eating leaves out of reach of
a short one. I have the greatest difficulty
in fitting into such a simple picture the fact
that the first lightning-generated molecule
2
of some derivative of deoxyribonucleic acid
must have accidentally discovered and
transmitted to some of its descendants as a
family secret the most important industrial
process of all time, how to make chloro-
phyll. Here we have something hidden from
the most prudent members of the species
that is called by the Latin words for wise
man, and revealed unto every miscroscopic
flake of algae in a pond scum.
I have equal difficulty in fitting into a
sequence of small changes by mutation the
genesis of the combination of structural,
chemical, and physical phenomena, recog-
nitions, skills, motives, and apparent extra-
sensory perceptions involved in the instinc-
tive actions of a wasp that stores spider
meat for its young. It is almost incon-
ceivable that such a group of phenomena,
all exquisitely related to accomplish a single
purpose, could have occurred as the result
of a single accidental rearrangement or sub-
stitution of an atom or any group of atoms
in a molecule, by an impact of a fast neu-
tron or other unusual circumstances; and
because one change would have been use-
less without all the others, it is equally hard
to believe that all of the seemingly necessary
changes could have occurred one at a time.
Certainly the accidental writing of “The
Walrus and the Carpenter” seems probable
by comparison. If this were the only case
of highly involved phenomena by instinct,
it would be relatively easy to accept it as a
coincidence; but almost equally improbable
instinctive behavior can be found in all
sorts of species from ants to elephants.
We are about ready for the question of
time, usually dismissed so easily by the as-
sertion that geologic ages have provided
ample opportunity for everything. But first,
the most important point in this whole
discussion must be made clear.
No blueprint can provide directions for
a greater number of details than are repre-
sented by the significant details of the
print. -If Shakespeare is translated into
code or microfilmed, or spoken into an
audio recorder, the number of things—
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
whether we call them letters, symbols,
sounds, or events—that must be recorded
in sequence is not appreciably, if at all, re-
duced. And if we have in a giant chemical
molecule complete directions for the con-
struction, physiology, and instinctive be-
havoir of an organism, there must be in
that molecule at least as many possibly vari-
able details of chemical composition and
structure as there are directions to be fol-
lowed. The fact that it is all contained in a
microscopic speck of what we used to call
protoplasm, and the fact that billions of
faithful copies have been made of it, do not
alter the fact that each detail had to be put
into the record at some time. They only
add to the wonder of it all.
If all life has evolved from the first living
molecule through a succession of accidental
mutations, then each mutation bears the
same relation to a genetic blueprint that the
typing of a single letter does to a manu-
script. Each is an event that makes some-
thing that did not exist before. We should
like to know how the number of events,
of the kind needed to convert a sheaf of
blank paper into Shakespeare’s works, com-
pares with the number of events of the kind
needed to evolve, from a single cell, the
most advanced beings that have lived. It
would be helpful if we had the answers to
some of the simpler questions into which
the problem as a whole might be divided.
For example, a hair is made by an organ
called a follicle, that is similar in complex-
ity and in the chemical nature and physical
form of its product to a nylon factory. A
feather is chemically about like a hair and
is produced by a similar organ. The most
primitive beings did not have hairs. There
must have come a time when the first hair
factory appeared. How many mutations did
it take to produce a follicle where none
existed before? How many were involved
in causing the differences between a cat’s
whisker and a peacock’s tail feather? After
we have one nylon factory the building of
an additional one is a separate event re-
quiring either accident or intelligent action
May, 1965
relating to construction, product, and loca-
tion. Does each new hair similarly require
a new act or a new mutation? This is a
question to which the activities of the ge-
neticists have supplied an answer of a sort.
Coloration of both plants and animals has
been a principal guide in the development
of evolutionary theory, and next to the
length of the giraffe’s neck, protective color-
ing and the use of color for sex appeal are
among the most familiar items in the popu-
lar understanding of evolution. Protective
coloring, in the zebra for example, involves
only the placement of the machines that
turn out hairs of different colors; but if
the placement of some hairs depends on
mutations and survival, why not the place-
ment of all hairs? Then how many muta-
tions did it take to properly clothe a sheep?
When we consider time, it doesn’t matter
how fast our monkey typist works, or how
many other monkeys he might have to help
him. If he strikes keys, night and day, at
the rate for projecting moving picture
frames (16 per second) at which flicker
begins to fade, his manuscript in one year
will equal in length a hundred Shakes-
peares.
It is generally stated that the origin of
life occurred between two and four billion
years ago. Several lines of evidence, includ-
ing the time since, on the theory of the
expanding universe, everything existed in
the form of a single blob of 10‘* molecules,
point to the life of the universe as about ten
billion years. I shall use only the larger
figure and call it geologic time. It would
take one monkey, typing one hundred
manuscripts per year, 10‘ 149-58 geologic
times to have an even chance of producing
a perfect copy of Shakespeare. If a million
monkeys worked on the job, we can sub-
tract six from this exponent and leave it a
mere 7,149,982.
With many dropped stitches, I believe I
have followed to completion the pattern
proposed in the original analogy to Shakes-
peare. It is doubtful that this is the pattern
the proponent actually had in mind, for he
had, no doubt, studied high school algebra
113
“up to logarithms” and could have figured
out the situation essentially in five minutes
had it occurred to him to do so. But the
pattern was simple and simply plausible to
those who are accustomed to think in terms
only of the decimal system and the odds of
the local bingo game, and that includes
most of us. We know about an exponential
system but do not use it much. The king
who promised the inventor of chess what he
probably believed to be only a few bushels
of wheat made the same mistake, and this
is the reason I started with the old story.
We need not complicate the pattern of the
monkey typist much to make a more plau-
sible one. We will add to one monkey a
duplicating machine and a proof-reader.
Each time the monkey strikes a key the
proof-reader looks at the result, and if it
does not make sense, the paper is thrown
away, and the monkey is allowed to try
again on an available duplicate. This is
repeated as often as necessary to get some-
thing that will pass the proof-reader, and
when he is satisfied a new lot of duplicates
is made with which to continue operations.
This system will result in a copy of
Shakespeare in a relatively short time and,
if manuscripts with promising deviations
are assigned to other monkeys, it will ac-
count for the rest of the Library of Con-
gress as well. It will also represent the
course of nature somewhat better than the
first pattern. Each letter typed by the
monkey is a mutation, there are lots of du-
plicates, and the name of the proof-reader
is “natural selection.”
Two difficulties apear to me to be in-
volved in explaining nature by this pattern.
The first again involves time. The number
of mutations needed to develop an advanced
form of life from a single cell must be so
enormous that the adequacy of a minor cor-
rection per generation to accomplish it even
in several billion years might well be ques-
- tioned. How many hairs has a sheep? The
second and more fundamental difficulty
does not seem to involve time particularly;
it does involve the probability of the acci-
dental occurrence and perpetuation of such
114
things as chlorophyl, DNA, and protein
structures, and a wasp’s instincts.
A third pattern that might also be worth
considering would result if not all events are
accidental, but, like the spots of paint on so
many recent works or art, only appear to
be so.
I began this exercise with a very old
story. I am going to end it with one so new
that it does not occur until a billion years
after all terrestrial life was destroyed by an
atomic explosion, in which marine life was
almost unaffected. Among the survivors was
the dolphin which, according to the investi-
gators who knew it best before the explo-
sion, had a mental development nearly equal
to that of the most advanced land animal,
called human. From the dolphin a new
race had evolved which again peopled the
land and whose intellectual attainments had
developed at an ever increasing rate.
At the time this story opens, the Profes-
sor of Ultimate Knowledge was just com-
pleting his explanation of the last remain-
ing mystery of the universe when somebody
broke open the three shells of a remarkable
geode and disclosed a perfectly preserved
typewritten copy of Shakespeare. This was
brought to the professor who identified it at
once as a remarkable fossil of the foliage
of the pre-explosion vegetable known as a
paper plant. It was unfortunate that the
beautiful fossil was badly marred by stains,
identified as fly speck left by a diminutive
and very remote ancestor of the flying fish.
Because of the form and distribution of
these stains, one of the students questioned
this identification, but the professor pointed
out that in the purely accidental distribu-
tion of small spots of stain one arrangement
was as probable as any other and should
cause no surprise. The student had to ad-
mit the truth of this: but still he was not
entirely satisfied and, to tell the truth,
neither was the professor.
Then they found the typewriter, and a
little observation of its operation explained
everything except one minor point, certain
to be cleared up soon. What accident pro-
duced the typewriter?
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Scholarship and Civilization®
Raymond J. Seeger
National Science Foundation
In “A Grammarian’s Funeral” (1855)
Robert Browning made an apotheosis of a
scholar. The students at the funeral are not
weeping, but singing, “This is our master,
famous, calm and dead, borne on our
shoulders.” It is a poem of paradox. The
hero is not a noble character, not even a
splendid scoundrel like Milton’s Satan; he
is merely a pedant, a bookworm. His field,
moreover, is not an exciting one like liter-
ature or science; it is simply Greek gram-
mar. And yet, he himself, has been an in-
spiration to all humanity. He could have
done anything he liked. “He was a man
born with thy face and throat, Lyric Apol-
lo.” He died like a true hero. Just as a
dying officer might not take precious time
to commend his soul to God, nor even to
send his love to his wife, but rather pants
hopefully, “Did we win?” so, too ,this dedi-
cated grammarian gasping his last breath
dictates Greek grammar. Gazing upon
this man, we ponder, “Of what use is the
apparently useless work of a scholar?”
This question is old! In Plato’s “Repub-
lic,” actually the first treatise on education,
Glaucon, his youthful brother, when asked
about the study of astronomy, admits that
it is “as essential to the general as it is to
the farmer or sailor.”’ Socrates counters, “I
am amused at your fear of the world, which
makes you guard against the appearance of
insisting upon useless studies.” In “A
Mathematician’s Apology” (1940) G. H.
Hardy of Cambridge University sounds a
challenging echo; he boasts, “The ‘real’
mathematics of the ‘real’ mathematician is
*Scholarship Achievement Banquet Address,
Northern Illinois University, April 24, 1963.
May, 1965
almost wholly useless . . . I have never
done anything useful.”
The persistent, perennial question is:
“To what extent has scholarship ever con-
tributed to civilization?” May I pose my
own answer: If a scholar reviews the cur-
rent scene from the perspective of the past,
with relevancy to the present, toward uni-
versality in the future, then I believe the
useless may become useful. As evidence of
this thesis, I would like to cite some ex-
amples from philosophy and theology, from
history and literature, from art and science.
In each case we shall see how a particular
scholar has determined to a large extent the
direction of civilization.
First of all, let us consider philosophy,
undoubtedly the greatest intellectual con-
tribution of the Greeks. In his “Protrep-
ticus’’ (the persuader), addressed to Them-
ison a prince of Cyprus, Aristotle (4th cen-
tury B.C.) ponders the choice of pleasure
and gain, of action, and of studies for the
pursuit of happiness. He is attracted by ©
studies, which seemingly enable man to
fulfill his higher nature. You may recall
the well-known statement in his “Metaphys-
ics,” “All men by nature desire to know.”
In his later Nicomachean “Ethics” he con-
cedes that the average man may have to be
content with practical wisdom as a sort of
golden mean, but he still regards happiness
as the goal of a higher theoretical life. In
this connection, we find the word theorett-
cal defined in Webster’s Dictionary as fol-
lows: “not expected to produce a practical
result, as an academic discussion.” The
practical, the mere doing, however, will
necessarily be blind without uplifted view-
ing. The theoretical, the mere viewing. in
turn, will inevitably be empty without any
b15
associated doing. The practical and the
theoretical are intrinsically complementary,
as the left hand and the right hand jointly
enable one to make a single grasp. I wish
to call your attention particularly to Aris-
totle’s “Organon” (instrument). Here he
proposes logic as an instrument of investi-
gation. The resulting abstraction can well
be regarded as the beginning of analytical
science. Out of such considerations Aris-
totle himself later organized the Lyceum
which was a research center, devoted es-
pecially to historical matters. Out of Aris-
totle’s thinking we find forged a chain of
thought extending across the ages: Boethius
(Sth century), Abelard (12th), Roger Ba-
con (13th), William of Ockham (14th),
and even Francis Bacon (17th). Although
the latter stresses a “Novum Organum,” he
relies still upon the same Aristotelian
causes. If Aristotle’s followers had only
been as progressive as their master, Aris-
totelianism would probably not have be-
come a drag on civilization.
More recently, Ludwig Wittgenstein
(1889-1951), trained in science and in the
British empirical tradition, taught at Cam-
bridge University and exerted a great in-
fluence on current philosophy. He became
one of the outstanding leaders of the En-
glish school of linguistic analysis, which
concentrates upon the meaning of words as
ascertainable from everyday experience.
Using logic with respect to context and in-
tentions of words, one soon becomes in-
volved in major philosophical issues.
Words in themselves are not quite mean-
ingful except with reference to their usage.
Sentences, indeed may be more important
than terms, and propositions, i.e., the mean-
ing of sentences, more significant even than
concepts. Otherwise, one is embarrassed by
such puzzling questions as, “What kind of
a chisel is a screw driver?” The rearrang-
ing of analytical units (propositions) in an
imaginative way like a tinker toy enables
one to understand why something works
with respect to the nature of the world both
as it is, or as it could be. This approach
116
has led to a modern revolution in philoso-
phy.
Let us look now at theology. Thomas
Aquinas (13th) was familiarly called the
“dumb ox” at Padua. His teacher, Alber-
tus Magnus, once remarked, “I tell you this
‘dumb ox’ shall bellow so loud that his
bellowings will fill the world.” We still hear
the echoes of scholasticism. In his age men
were enamored with Plato, who believed
the real to be literally out of this world.
Even as late 1523, Paolo Veronese was
criticized by the Inquisition for portraying
the actual world in a sacred picture. Aqui-
nas, however, preferred to re-view life from
the standpoint of Aristotle. He urged the
application of reason to the empirical.
Thus, from the five sense windows, one
would seek reasonably a natural theology,
involving possible proofs (5 ways) of the
very existence of God. Faith then becomes
the handmaid to revealed theology. Thus
light from within complements light from
without and makes contradiction theoreti-
cally impossible. Neo-Thomism is prima
facie evidence of current interest in the
ideas of Aquinas, primarily from the view-
point of Roman Catholics, as in the papal
encyclicals of Leo XIII (1879) and of
Benedict XV (1921), but also from some
Protestant outlooks. Neo-Thomism seems
to be the middle of the road between un-
bounded rationalism and extreme anti-in-
tellectualism!
A more recent scholar, Karl Barth (b.
1886), professor of theology at Basle since
1935, who began his impact upon modern
theological thinking with the publication of
a “Commentary of Romans” (1919), has
insisted upon a return to the ideas of the
Reformation. He is not content with the
natural theology of Roman Catholicism,
nor, on the other hand, with the Protestant
experientialism of a Schleiermacher. He
prefers the tradition of the Reformers: rev-
elation (for example, Biblical prophecy),
judgment, and grace. Neo-orthodoxy, as it
is called, is not just reactionary; it is very
much concerned with present relevancy.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Accepting science for a human description
of this life, such theologians look beyond
it toward God through symbolic interpreta-
tions of the Scriptures, creeds and the
Church; furthermore, they insist upon so-
cial relevance. The Neo-orthodox move-
ment (not a school) has influenced almost
every contemporary theologian.
Turning to the history of history, we
meet the pioneer Augustine (5th), the Pla-
tonic Bishop of Hippo. He was much exer-
cised when after eleven hundred years the
eternal city Rome was captured in 410 by
the Visigoth Alaric. Why did God permit
the established center of Christendom to be
seized by the heathens? Perhaps, as some
pagans claimed, the indigenous religions
had been wrongfully displaced by foreign
Christianity! Augustine’s own answer was
the “City of God” (twenty-two books)
which he wrote in the thirteen years from
413 to 426. He visualized actually two cit-
ies existing side by side, an earthly Rome
with its worldly principles and selfish citi-
zens, and a heavenly city comprised of the
righteous, following God’s will and ever
looking toward the future life. Of particu-
lar importance was Augustine’s use of the
perspective of Christian faith to produce a
common history involving both sacred and
secular aspects, the first philosophy of his-
tory. Its theology, to be sure, was not al-
together insignificant. As someone once
remarked, many later theologians merely
added footnotes to Augustine’s writings:
for instance, Anselm (11th) and Aquinas
(13th) in Roman Catholicism, and in Prot-
estantism Luther (16th) and Calvin
(16th), as well as Tillich (20th). The
“City of God” has had tremendous influ-
ence; from 1467-1500 alone it went through
twenty editions. It virtually molded medi-
eval civilization; it was read, for example,
at dinner to Charlemagne (8th). Its peren-
nial interest is due in part to its concern
with continuing problems, such as a mixed
society consisting of Church and State.
Even today it is widely studied by those
who are troubled about the potential shat-
May, 1965
tering of Western Civilization by the ever-
threatening explosions of atomic bombs or
of Communistic ideas.
The thinking historian has always
watched current events from the vantage
point of the past, as well as vice versa. Thus
Frederick Jackson Turner (1861-1932),
professor of history at Harvard, noting in
the 1890 census the increasing unavailabil-
ity of free land, perceived the significance
of the rapidly disappearing frontier in the
development of U.S.A. In his address,
“The Significance of the Frontier in Amer-
ican History,” at the American Historical
Association meeting in Chicago (1893), he
emphasized the primary importance of the
frontier, not merely its secondary influ-
ences. The frontier, indeed, could be said
in a large degree to have molded American
character by shaping its concern for mater-
ial things and its energy for the practical
and the inventive, by cultivating individual-
ism growing out of freedom. The influence
of the frontier is still with us. We still have
new frontiers, only they now take less tan-
gible forms, such as science, which has
been called the “endless frontier,” and so-
cial relations with their international, in-
terracial, and interreligious connections.
We need to review continually present
problems with our eyes upon the frontier
horizons about us.
For a literary outlook let us focus our.
attention upon Dante Alighieri (13th).
Last summer I visited his sadly neglected
tomb in Ravenna, where he finally found
rest after having been a Florence exile
from the age of forty-six. The “Divine
Comedy” has a message for each of us still
today. Dante begins, “Midway on the road
of our life I found myself in a dark wood
whose direct way was blurred,” i.e., lost.
He recalls his personal experience begin-
ning with his exile, which was practically
an inferno, in which the damned are neither
submissively stupified nor happily re-
formed, but are merely bound by their
earthly desires without any personal satis-
faction. His own studies, including phi-
LL?
losophy, loom up as a veritable Purgatory,
in which the spirit is cleansed and hope
shines ahead. All-embracing love becomes
an eternal Paradise, a state in which “His
will is our own.” In reading Dante, how-
ever, one must regard the whole pattern,
which for the first time affords a subjec-
tive scale of human emotions, from the
superficially sensuous to the intellectually
mystical, all in a philosophical objective
framework that reveals more clearly the
emotions themselves. The permeating in-
fluence of this literary endeavor through-
out the ages has been largely owing to its
universality. The allegory still speaks inti-
mately to our own condition, as Quakers
are wont to say. Whether it is an individ-
ual or a civilization, each must choose
basically a similar plan for salvation. Ful-
fillment will be made possible only through
faith and hope. People can no longer be
content with the illusory adage, “Better to
travel hopefully than to arrive.”
The need for such a general overall
viewpoint is clearly outlined in the kaleido-
scopic reflections from our own intense
specialization. The modern poet Thomas
Stearns Eliot (b. 1888) follows Dante; he
prefers living exhibits to dead analyses for
interpreting the present scene. “The Love
Song of Alfred J. Proofrock” (1917) has an
epigraph about the eternal symbolism of the
poem itself. Eliot looks upon the decadence
associated with our modern sterile society.
All about A. J. Proofrock is passion, but
he himself cannot even be roused to it. This
is truly hell! In the “Ash Wednesday”
(1927) Eliot, disclosing his new royalist and
Anglo-Catholic yearnings, confronts us now
with repentance as an inherent hope—like a
purgatory experience. This poem closes
significantly with a vision of earthly para-
dise. Throughout his works Eliot seeks the
understanding of history from the meaning
of life—not vice versa.
In meditating next upon art, we are
fascinated by Leonardo da Vinci (15th),
who becoming an apprentice to Andrea
Verocchio (15th) at the age of 15 de-
veloped into “the fullest man of the Ren-
11s
aissance.” Being naturally curious, he
studied life and light diligently; adept at
detailed observation, he concentrated upon
anatomy and_ perspective. Leonardo
searched far and wide for suggestive models
for Jesus and Judas in his celebrated Last
Supper. He is said to have occasionally
spent hours merely contemplating this pic-
ture without making a single stroke. In
this way he learned to represent success-
fully movements and attitudes. The “Virgin
of the Rocks,” which required the longest
period of gestation and which illustrates
well the human figure as part of its en-
vironment, exhibits his other primary in-
terest, namely, unity. Leonardo, indeed,
was the first artist to sketch completely be-
fore actually painting. In no mean sense,
he was a genius linking science and art.
In the latter, he was fascinated by the
transiency of the real, by the glimpse of the
ideal. Nature, particularly nature at sun-
set, evoked in him a sensitivity that was
more significant than reason alone, an
insight as to spiritual grace, superior to
physical beauty. Accordingly, taking light
and shade as prime values he experimented
with nuances of shadows. By the use of the
remoteness latent in a hazy atmosphere he
added an additional factor to perspective
(not color, however, which was to be the
domain of Il Tintoretto). No wonder that
he was able to simulate strange sensations
by his nebulous images; for example, the
melancholy that becomes accentuated with
the smile of a woman like Mona Lisa. The
expression of the universal created his
masterpieces.
There is no present counterpart to Leo-
nardo. Perhaps the abstractness of modern
art is not unrelated to the abstractness of
modern science.
Let us finally examine science itself. We
consider first Nicholas Copernicus (16th),
educated at Cracow, Bologna, and Rome,
later a canon at Frauenburg. In the 2nd
century Ptolemy had cleverly utilized a
model of 80 rotating celestial spheres to
fit the planetary data of Hipparchus (2nd
century B.C.). On the basis of the infor-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
mation available in his day, he reasonably
rejected the heliocentric hypothesis. Over
the centuries, however, an increasing dis-
crepancy evolved between the theoretical
predictions of Ptolemy and the observa-
tional data, the perennial problem being
still “to save the appearances” both theoret-
ically and practically. What Copernicus
succeeded later in doing was not to make
a new discovery, nor even to create a new
idea, but rather to select a different point
of view, which resulted in a wholly new
view. His reduced model of thirty-four
spheres checked the observational data as
well as that of the Ptolemaic theory. That
such an equivalent theory was possible be-
came increasingly significant. It upset all
medieval philosophy involving planets,
which were associated with metals, astrol-
ogy, theology, ef al. A commentary of his
work appeared in 1540, but final publica-
tion did not occur until 1543. This date,
therefore, marked a whole new outlook of
man, the consequence of a changed view-
point.
In 1905, Albert Einstein (1879-1955),
while working for a living in the govern-
ment patent office at Zurich, meditated on
the relativity of mechanics, which had been
first glimpsed by Galileo, namely, the equiv-
alence of descriptions of mechanical phe-
nomena for systems moving with constant
velocity with respect to each other. The
velocity of light had been observed to be
constant independent of the observer. No
longer was the earth a unique or even ade-
quate reference point; invariance had to be
sought in the phenomena themselves. Ein-
stein conceived a new relativity principle—
for all electromagnetic phenomena, includ-
ing light. The new outlook revealed an inti-
mate relationship between experimental
space and time. The foundation of me-
chanics was shaken by a different associa-
tion of mass and force; the relativistic mass
of a body with its velocity was found to
be proportional to energy (m= E/c?).
Thus was unveiled the unseen universe of
atomic energy.
May, 1965
Another inspiring scientist was Michael
Faraday (19th), whose basic training con-
sisted of only the four R’s—readin’ ’ritin’,
‘rithmetic, and religion. Motivated by a
relentless urge to understand phenomena,
he kept searching for the unity of the uni-
verse through experimentation. As Hans C.
Oersted had observed the magnetic effect
produced by electricity, so Faraday dis-
covered that magnetic effects can recipro-
cally produce electricity. He detected also
a relationship between magnetism and light.
The mathematical formulation of his ideas,
however, was due to Clerk Maxwell, who
was thus able to predict the existence of an
electromagnetic wave, observed twenty
years later by Heinrich Hertz. It so hap-
pens that any electrically charged body,
when accelerated, will produce an electro-
magnetic disturbance that travels with the
speed of light. This discovery was the
cumulative climax of evidence for the elec-
tromagnetic nature of matter.
In order to explain microcosmic elec-
trical phenomena, Ernest Rutherford (1871-
1937) subsequently conceived an atomic
model (1911) in which eijectrons revolved
about a nucleus, somewhat like a planetary
system. Such accelerated motion of elec-
trically charged particles would necessarily
be unstable because of the energy radiated.
Niels Bohr (1885-1963), therefore, postu-
lated selective orbits for which no radiation |
would be emitted. Certain conditions were
set down for their existence; these turned
out later to be interpretable on the uncer-
tainty principle (1927) of Werner Heisen-
(bh LOO.
accosted for the first time by a limit to the
berg Here physicists were
usability of a causality principle in describ-
ing nature, and hence an _ unexpected
barrier to ever-increasing scientific knowl-
edge. The whole development of civiliza-
tion became suddenly confronted by a not
quite knowable universe.
Thus scholars in all fields of learning, of
philosophy and theology, of history and
literature, of art and science, by re-view-
ing the current scene with past perspective,
119
present relevancy, and future universality,
continually have redirected the course of
civilization.
There is a current problem that I should
like to discuss in its relationship to scholar-
ship. Werner Jaeger (1888-1961), the Har-
vard classicist, wrote in the preface to the
first edition of “Paideia” (1933), “Even
today it is impossible to have any educa-
tional purpose or knowledge without a
thorough and comprehensive knowledge of
Greek culture.” He discerns two distinct
features of the Greeks. The first is their
devotion to culture itself, the “paideia.”
The Greeks considered it not simply an
anthropological characteristic of all groups,
but rather a peculiar trait inherent only in
the pursuit of a social ideal. In their case,
the ideal was communal humanism—not
individualism except as persons are them-
selves members of a community. The Greek
mind was thus rooted in a common life.
Cultural education, to them, meant the
molding of character with a respect to a
community ideal. Individuals, however,
were always elements of the living whole,
every one of whom had to be related and
subordinate to the group. The Greeks, in
short, had an organic outlook. These two
aspects have given them a unique position
in the history of education. We, who are
interested in American education with the
objective of an American ideal, an Amer-
ican way ot life, can profit by looking back
at the Greek example. If there are nowadays
two essentially distinctive intellectual cul-
tures in many places in the world, is it not
because our man-made academic blinders
force us to study in the artificial light of
subject-tight compartments?
Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961), the
Nobel physicist at the Dublin Institute for
Advanced Studies, stresses that we moderns
all think the “Greek way.” As Theodore
Gomperz emphasized long ago (1911),
most intellectual education of today is de-
rived from the Greeks. John Burnet, in-
deed, reminds us that modern science has
developed only with people who have been
under Greek influence. Do we think the
“Greek way” even in science? If we look
at current scientific crises, like the wave-
like and corpuscle-like characteristics of
particles, we recognize at once that the
very foundations of particles have been
shaken. Modern physics foundations, how-
ever, are themselves based on older ones of
philosophy and of mathematics. Are there
any extant ruins of those early materials,
any preconceived Greek ideas, any unwar-
ranted classical assumptions implicit in to-
day’s thinking? Schrodinger emphasizes
that the detection of such residues is much
easier in their primitive, ingenuous forms,
where present bias is less likely. For ex-
ample, although most of us accept Euclid’s
fifth (parallel) postulate, in our everyday
lives, we become more aware of its postu-
lational character by examining it geo-
metrically at the time of Euclid. Schrodin-
ger, therefore, urges that we return to the
Greeks to liberate human thought from the
present bondage due to the past and to
apply our newly-found freedom to current
crises—not just for general knowledge,
but, indeed, for scientific progress.
In summary, we note that the relation-
ship of scholarship to civilization is not
purely an academic matter. Over and over
again, yesterday and today, we find that
the viewing of the theoretical combined
with the doing of the practical inevitably
makes unexpected progress—the same op-
timism of cumulative experience. We are
better able to solve our problems by grasp-
ing them with the left hand of theory and
the right hand of practice simultaneously.
In many instances, the apparently useless
has thus become significantly useful.
MN
120
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Geological Society of Washington:
Proceedings for 1964
854th Meeting
The 845th meeting of the Society was
held in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium
on January 8 with President William T. Pe-
cora presiding. The president announced
the deaths of Paul B. Bunton and J. T.
Singewald, Jr.
Informal Communication. Brian Skinner
reported on the finding of a new mineral,
composition FesS4, in a bore hole near
Kramer, San Bernardino County, Calif.,
that he has named Greigite. Thomas
Wright reported on a technique for the
X-ray identification of minute amounts of
K feldspars in perthites.
Program
F. E. Senftle: “Magnetic Properties of
Tectites.” Discussed by Lindsley, Roedder,
Skinner, and Pecora.
Robert Reeves: Film: “‘Geology Educa-
tion in Brazil.” Discussed by Gabelman,
Skinner, Doerr, and Pecora.
Edward Chao: “Petrographic Evidence
of Impact Metamorphism.” Discussed by
Gabelman, Neuman, Dietz, Roedder,
Senftle, Toulmin, and Pecora.
855th Meeting |
The 855th meeting of the Society was
held in the John Wesley Powell Audi-
torium on January 22 with President Wil-
liam T. Pecora presiding.
Informal Communication. Rudy Steiger
reported on “K-feldspars I have known.”
Program
Thomas P. Thayer: “The Ophiolite Con-
cept vs. the Alpine Mafic Magma Stem.”
Discussed by Jackson, Hopson, and Pecora.
Robert O. Fournier: “The Effect of Super-
saturated Silica Solutions During the
Hydrothermal Alteration of Feldspars.”
Discussed by White, Stewart, Zen, Wones,
and Altschuler.
May, 1965
Jack E. Schoellhamer: “The Los Angeles
Basin, its Basement Floor and Sedimentary
Fill.” Discussed by Pecora, Cohee, Ander-
son, Conant, Stewart, Davis, Zen, and Neu-
man.
856th Meeting
The 856th meeting of the Society was held
in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium on
February 12 with President William T. Pe-
cora presiding.
Program
Isidore Zietz: “Mid-continent Gravity
High—a Geophysical Study.” Discussed by
Hearn, Pavlides, Hadley, Altschuler, and
Lill.
Gerald M. Richmond: “Status of Quater-
nary Glacial Chronology in the Rocky
Mountains.” Discussed by Rubin, Allt-
schuler, McKelvey, Denny, and Krinsley.
Charles R. Warren: “Dusty Ice Moon?”
Discussed by Rubin, Sohn, and Toulmin.
357th Meeting
The 857th meeting of the Society was held
in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium on
February 26 with President William T.
Pecora presiding.
Informal Communication. Charles Mil-
ton reported on “Martini Stones.” Dis-
cussed by White and Pecora.
Program
Mackenzie Gordon, Jr.: “Goniatite Evolu-
tion Applied to Carboniferous Problems.”
Discussed by Barton, Cohee, and Pecora.
Robert Dietz: “The Sudbury Complex—
An Astrobleme?” Discussed by Rubin, Mc-
Kelvey, Barton, Goldich, Hubbert, Stewart,
Brown, Dietz, Lindsley, Guild, Jones and
Zen.
Brian J. Skinner: “Sulfides of the Niland
Well, a Modern Ore Deposit? ” Discussed
by Rubin, McKelvey, Barton, Goldich, Hub-
21
Dietz, Lindsley,
bert, Stewart, Brown,
Guild, Jones, and Zen.
$58th Meeting
The 858th meeting of the Society was held
in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium on
March 11 with President William T. Pecora
presiding. The president announced the
death of Samuel Lasky.
Informal Communication. Ken Lohman
reported on the solubility of Ca2Mg5SigO22
(OH). in C.H;O0H. Paul Jones reported
on the maximum rate of sedimentation on
the Gulf Coast and suggested a rate of about
70 years per foot.
Program
Gordon Davis: “Effect of Contact Meta-
morphism on Zircon Ages.” Discussed by
Godfried, Hadley, Roedder, Milton, Harri-
son, White, Zartmann, and Anderson.
W. J. Schneider: “Variability of Low
Flows in an Area of Diverse Geologic
Units.” Discussed by LeGrand, McKelvey,
and Denny.
Abraham Lerman: “Paleoecological
Problems of Mg and Sr in Biogenic Cal-
cites in Light of Recent Thermodynamic
Data.” Discussed by Blair Jones, Henbest,
Altschuler, and Hanshaw.
859th Meeting
The 859th meeting of the Society was held
in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium on
March 25 with President William T. Pecora
presiding.
Informal Communication. Douglas Ran-
kin reported on optically positive potassic
feldspar. Discussed by Pecora and Milton.
Program
Michael B. Duke: “The Basaltic Meteo-
rites, just Breaking the Skin of a Meteoric
Parent Body.” Discussed by Warren, Pe-
cora, Stewart, Skinner, and Zartmann.
Steacy M. Hicks: “Secular Sea Levei
Variations along U.S. Coasts.” Discussed
by Pecora, Zen, McKelvey, Rasmussen,
Rucker, Hanshaw, Fournier, and Ericson.
Frank C. Frischknecht: “Mapping Con-
ductive Strata by Electromagnetic Meth-
ods.” Discussed by Wright, Stewart, Mar-
tin, Neuman, and Leo.
122,
S60th Meeting
The 860th meeting of the Society was held
in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium on
April 8 with President William T. Pecora
presiding.
Informal Communication. Frank Forres-
ter reported on the Survey’s exhibit at
the World’s Fair in New York, and on the
Fair in general. William Leo reported on
chromium-bearing mica from Brazil; dis-
cussed by Guild, Milton, Pecora, Kinkle,
and Fleischer. George Gates reported on
the Alaskan Earthquake. James Clark re-
ported on his new hypothesis “that evolu-
tion is accelerated during periods of re-
versal of the earth’s magnetic field”; dis-
cussed by Yochelson, Pakieser, Lerman, and
Shoemaker.
Program
Edwin Roedder: “Great Swan Island
Glass Bubbles—An Enigma.” Discussed by
Pecora, Tracey, and Taulman Bayley.
Erle G. Kauffman: “Biostratigraphic Re-
vision of the Lower Colorado Group, West-
ern Kansas and Eastern Colorado.” Dis-
cussed by Cohee, Kinney, Gordon, Tweto
and Pecora.
Y. K. Bentor: “The African Rift Valley
System.”
S6lst Meeting
The 861st meeting of the Society was held
in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium on
October 14 with President William T. Pe-
cora presiding. The president announced
the deaths of Andrew Brown and N. H.
Hawkins.
Informal Communication. The Ameri-
can Institute of Professional Geologists held
a meeting prior to the regular meeting of
the GSW.
Program
W. P. Woodring: “A First Field Season
with the U.S. Geological Survey.” Dis-
cussed by Duncan.
I. W. Marine: “Technical Feasibility of
Storing Radioactive Waste in Bedrock at
the Savannah River Plant near Aiken, S.C.”
Discussed by Roedder, Proctor, Hanshaw,
Sohn, Pecora, and Fary.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Charles Milton, Blanche Ingram, Joan
R. Clark, and Edward J. Dwornik: “Mc-
Kelveyite, a New Hydrous Sodium Barium
Rare-earth Uranium Carbonate Mineral
from the Green River Formation, Wyo-
ming.”
662nd Meeting
The 862nd meeting of the Society was
held in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium
on October 28 with President William T.
Pecora presiding.
Informal Communication. Cornelia C.
Cameron, U.S.G.S. reported on an environ-
mental approach to mapping continental
glacial drifts. Discussed by Warren and
Woodring.
Program
K. O. Emery: “Marine Geology of the
Atlantic Continental Shelf—a Progress Re-
port.” Discussed by Cohee, Newman, Zen,
Rhodehamel, and Rupkin.
Lloyd G. Henbest: “Diagenetic Phe-
nomena in Colitic Limestones of Morrow
Series, Pennsylvanian, Northwest Arkansas
and Northeast Oklahoma.” Discussed by
Lowman, McKnight, Pecora, and Hanshaw.
B. C. Hearn, Jr.: ““Diatremes Southeast
of the Bearpaw Mountains, Montana.” Dis-
cussed by Ericson, Roedder, Milton, Pecora,
Killsgaard, McKnight, and Martin.
$63rd Meeting
The 863rd meeting of the Society was
held in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium
on November 25 with President William T.
Pecora presiding.
Program
A. R. Kinkel, Jr., U.S.G.S.: “Metamor-
phism of a Massive Sulfide Ore.” Discussed
by Wones, Toulmin, Barton, Burns, Skin-
ner, Hertz, and Pecora.
B. F. Grossling, U.S.G.S.: “Mathematical
Formulation of Geologic Concepts.” Dis-
cussed by McKelvey and Pecora.
May. 1965
Thomas E. Krogh: “Carnegie Institution
—Geologic History of Greenville Province
Rocks in Ontario: a Geochronology Ap-
proach.”
864th Meeting
The 864th meeting of the Society was held
in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium on
December 9 with President William T. Pe-
cora presiding.
Program
Presidential address by William T. Pe-
cora: “Dual Concept of Time in Geologic
Sciences.”
72nd Annual Meeting
The 72nd Annual Meeting was held im-
mediately following the 864th regular meet-
ing- The reports of the secretaries, treas-
urer, and Auditing Committee were read
and approved. The award for the best paper
of the year went to Carter Hearn for his
paper, “Diatremes Southeast of the Bear-
paw Mountains, Montana.” Robert Four-
nier was awarded second prize; honorable
mention went to Arthur Kinkel, Thomas
Thayer, and Edwin Roedder. The Great
Dane Award for the best informal com-
munication was presented to Thomas
Wright for his note on “X-ray Identifica-
tion of Alkali Feldspar and Perthites.” The
Sleeping Bear Award was presented to
Thomas Thayer. Officers for the year 1965
were then elected as follows:
epGe SICLe Hibs ser 2PR een cee aha George V. Cohee
First Vice-President ............... Philip W. Guild
Second Vice-President ............ Douglas M. Kinney
Secretary (two year term) ...... C. Erwin Brown
neaciireny 5) 5 6. te ee Jane H. Wallace
Council (two year term) ........ Emmett Finley
Earle Kauffman
John Snyder
The Society nominated Wiliam T. Pecora
to be delegate to the Washington Academy
of Sciences for the year 1965.
—Bruce B. Hanshaw, Secretary
123
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON
Officers for 1965
President GEORGE V. COHEE
First Vice-President Puitie W. GuILp
Second Vice-President Douctas M. KINNEY
Secretaries Bruce B. HANSHAW
C. Erwin Brown
Treasurer JANE H. WALLACE
Members-at-large WENONAH E. BERGQUIST
of the Council GrEorRGE E. ERICKSEN
Donatp H. LINDSLEY
EMMETT FINLEY
EARLE KAUFFMAN
JoHN SNYDER
Committee on Communications
Puitie M. BetHKe, Chairman JAmes R. RANDOLPH
Harry E. LEGRAND EpWIN RoEDDER
Jerry MEYER Tuomas P. THAYER
GEORGE PHAIR FRANK C. WHITMORE, JR.
ISADORE ZEITZ
Committee on Finance
PREISTLEY TouLMIN, Chairman Puitie M. BETHKE
CARLE H. DANE Matcotm: Ross
Litoyp G. HENBERST JANE H. WALLACE
CHARLES L. McGuINNEss
Committee on Awards
W. S. Wuire, Chairman
Meetings
Meetings of the Society are held on the second and fourth Wednesdays of each month, October
through April, from 8 to 10 p.m. in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium.
124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Irving Named to Head
Agricultural Research Service
George W. Irving,
Jr., was named ad-
minstrator of USDA’s
Agricultural Research
Service in an announce-
ment on March 19 by
Secretary of Agricul-
ture Orville L. Free-
man. He_ succeeded
Byron T. Shaw, administrator since 1952,
who was transferred to a research position
in ARS at his own request.
Concurrently with this action, Marion W.
Parker, a USDA career scientist and re-
search administrator, was appointed asso-
ciate administrator of ARS.
Dr. Irving is a native of Caribou, Maine,
although a long-time resident of the Wash-
ington area. He began his professional
career in 1927 as a laboratory assistant at
the National Bureau of Standards, but
transferred in 1928 to a similar post in
USDA’s Bureau of Chemistry, under
Chanes) Thom. In 1935 he became a
junior chemist in the Bureau of Entomol-
ogy and Plant Quarantine.
Also in 1927, Dr. Irving became a part-
time student in George Washington Uni-
versity’s night school. After receiving the
B.S. degree in chemistry in 1933, he took
up graduate studies in the GWU School of
Medicine, and received the M.S. degree in
biochemistry in 1935. At that time he left
the Department of Agriculture to under-
take full-time doctoral studies under Vin-
cent duVigneaud, then head of the GWU
Biochemistry Department. He continued
his research with duVigneaud in 1938-39 at
Cornell University College of Medicine, in
New York City; and in the latter year
GWU ‘awarded him the Ph.D. degree in
biochemistry. In 1939-42 he served as an
assistant in chemistry under Bergmann at
the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Re-
search.
Dr. Irving returned to the Department of
Agriculture in 1942, as head of oilseed pro-
May, 1965
tein research at the Southern Utilization
Research Laboratory, New Orleans. In
194.5 he was transferred to Beltsville, to do
research on biologically-active plant con-
stituents. In 1947 he became an assistant
chief of the Bureau of Agricultural and In-
dustrial Chemistry.
In January 1954, Dr. Irving became
chief of the Biological Sciences Branch of
the Agricultural Marketing Service. The
following October he was named a deputy
administrator of the Agricultural Research
Service; in this post he was primarily con-
cerned with administration of the four Utili-
zation Research & Development Divisions
and related activities in the Nutrition, Con-
sumer, and Industrial Use Research group.
On July 19, 1964, Dr. Irving became asso-
ciate administrator of ARS following the
retirement of M. R. Clarkson.
Dr. Irving has been active in affairs of
the Washington Academy of Sciences, hav-
ing served as its secretary in 1962-64. He
is currently an elected member of the Acad-
emy’s Board of Managers.
Dr. Parker, a native of Salisbury, Md.,
received the B.S. degree from Hampton-
Sidney College in 1928. He received the
M.S. and PhD. degrees in plant physiology
from the University of Maryland, in 1930
and 1932, respectively. He remained with
the University as assistant professor of
plant physiology until June 1936.
He joined USDA in 1936 as associate
plant physiologist in the Bureau of Plant
Industry; with H. A. Borthwick, he made
several basic discoveries concerned with
photoperiodism and controlled environment
of plants.
After holding several administrative posi-
tions in the Bureau of Plant Industry, Dr.
Parker in 1957 was appointed director of
the Crops Research Division of ARS. Since
October 1964 he has headed a Research De-
velopment and Evaluation Staff reporting to
Nyle C. Brady, the Department’s Director
of Science and Education. He is a member
of many national and international scien-
tific societies and the author or co-author
of some 50 scientific publications.
125
A CONTRIBUTION
FROM THE ARCHIVIST
Report on a Stony Meteorite
The Proceedings of the Washington
Academy of Sciences for 1900 contained a
brochure entitled, “A New Stony Meteorite
from Allegan, Michigan, and a New Iron
Meteorite from Mart, Texas,” by George P.
Merrill and H. N. Stokes.
George Perkins Merrill (d. 1929) of the
National Museum was an original member
of the Academy; he was president of the
Geological Society of Washington in 1906
and again in 1915. Our files do not state
whether he was related to Maj. J. C. Merrill
(d. 1902) of the Army Medical Museum,
who had been elected to membership in
May 1898; or to Oscar Charles Merrill
(b. 1874), forester in the Department of
Agriculture, a member from April 1916 to
1938; or to Elmer Drew Merrill (b. 1876,
d. 1956), director of the New York Botani-
cal Garden, a member from June 1931; or
to Melvin Clarence Merrill (b. 1884, d.
1952) of the Department of Agriculture, a
member from May 1938. George Merrill’s
book, ““The First One Hundred Years of
American Geology,” first published in 1924,
has recently been reprinted.
Merrill’s report on the Allegan meteorite
opens as follows:
“A little after eight o’clock on the morn-
ing of July 10, 1899, there fell on what is
locally known as Thomas Hill, on the Sau-
gatuck Road, in Allegan, Michigan, a stony
meteorite, the total weight of which cannot
have been far from seventy pounds, al-
though, unfortunately, it was badly shat-
tered in striking the ground, and its exact
weight can never be known.” The 16 pages
of text are followed by six plates, of which
the first is reproduced here. According to a
footnote, “the general and petrographic
description are by G. P. Merrill, and the
-chemical examination is by Dr. H. N.
Stokes.”
Interest in the meteorite has continued to
be active in the Geological Survey. I am
126
grateful to Michael B. Duke for the fol-
lowing comments:
“The Allegan (Michigan) Meteorite, an
olivine-bronzite chondrite (Mason, 1962)
. was observed to fall and is remarkably
free of terrestrial oxidation. It is one of the
most friable chondritic meteorites, the in-
dividual chondrules being easily broken
free and separated from the fine-grained
matrix.
“As in other chondritic meteorites, the
principal silicate minerals are olivine, py-
roxene, and plagioclase feldspar, mixed
with metallic iron, troilite (FeS), and other
minor minerals. The numerous varieties of
chondrule textures were described in sey-
eral later works by Merrill (1920, 1921,
1930).
“Recently much attention has been fo-
cused on chemical analyses of meteorites,
especially those parameters that appear to
be significant in the problems of the origin
of the solar system and the Earth. A very
careful study of the concentrations of rare
earth elements in the Allegan Meteorite has
been made by neutron activation analysis
by Schmitt and his coworkers (Schmitt et
al., 1960). The concentrations of rare earth
elements in this meteorite were found to be
similar to other chondrites, but different
from terrestrial rocks derived from the
upper mantle. Further analytical work on
meteorites of this type will help decide the
question of the chondritic composition of
the Earth’s mantle.”
References
Mason, Brian. Meteorites. John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1962. 274 pp.
Merrill, George P. On chondrules and chon-
dritic strucure in meteorites. Proc. Nat. Acad.
Sci. 6, 449-472 (1920).
Merrill, George P. On metamorphism in
meteorites. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 32, 395-416
(1921).
Merrill, George P. Composition and structure
of meteorites. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 149, 1930,
62 pp.
Schmitt, R. A., Mosen, A. W., Suffrendini,
C. S., Lasch, J. E., Sharp, R. A., and-Olehyi-A.
Abundances of the rare earth elements, lanthanum
to lutetium, in chondritic meteorites. Nature 186,
863-866 (1960).
—Eduard Farber
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
THe ALLEGAN METEORITE.
May, 1965 12%
Academy Proceedings
439th Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences
SPEAKER: HENRY FAGIN
Professor of Urban and Regional Planning
University of Wisconsin
PANELISTS: C. DARWIN STOLZENBACH
Administrator, National Capital Transporta-
tion Agency
E. H. HOLMES
Director of Planning, Bureau of Public Roads,
Department of Commerce
SUBJECT: MASS TRANSPORTATION
DATE: THURSDAY, MAY 20, 1965
ool a> PME
PLACE: LECTURE ROOM, NATIONAL ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
Abstract of Address—The urban-suburban transportation problem is a national prob-
lem for which there are two extreme solutions—that is, the solution of Los Angeles,
which involves a freeway system that is very expensive, and the solution of New York,
which involves a subway system, a train system, and a freeway system, all very
expensive. The solution of the problem in Washington, which up to the present has
a freeway system, depends on whether the authorities choose to expand this system,
or supplement it with a subway system. Both of these solutions present certain
difficulties of execution, partly because of the several distinct political entities in-
volved. The speaker will refer to a study made for the State of New Jersey, and the
panelists will attempt to relate the conclusion to the Washington context.
The Speaker—Henry Fagin is professor of planning in the Department of Urban and
Regional Planning, University of Wisconsin, and an architectural and planning con-
sultant. From its launching in June 1959 through August 1962, he was executive director
of the Penn Jersey Transportation Study, Prior to this, for seven years he served as plan-
ning director and then as executive director of New York’s Regional Plan Association,
Inc. In 1958 he was Ford rotating research professor in governmental affairs in the
Department of Political Science, University of California at Berkeley. Earlier, he had
practiced as an architect and planner in association with several architectural and plan-
ning consultant firms, after graduating from Coumbia University (B. Arch. 1937 and
M.S. Planning 1938). |
128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
JOINT BOARD
ON SCIENCE EDUCATION
The Joint Board sponsored the Second
Collegiate Science Conference for the
Greater Washington Area on March 6, with
the support of the National Science Founda-
tion. Undergraduate students from the
Washington area presented 21 papers, cov-
ering topics in astronomy, biology, chemis-
try, engineering, and physics. Representa-
tive George P. Miller spoke to the students
on the relationship between scientists and
Congress.
District Education Association
Honors JBSE and J. K. Taylor
The District Education Association pre-
sented School Bell Awards to the Joint
Board on Education for Science, Engineer-
ing and Technology of the Greater Wash-
ington Area, and to John K. Taylor, at its
annual Spring Conference held at the May-
flower Hotel on March 20. The annual
award, consisting of an appropriate scroll,
is made to organizations and individuals in
recognition of their contributions to public
education in the District of Columbia.
The Joint Board was cited for its pro-
grams of assistance to science education in
the area. The school contacts program,
teacher-recognition awards, sponsorship of
science fairs, and the program in which
scientists substitute for classroom teachers
to permit their attendance at professional
meetings, were singled out for particular
praise. Lowell E. Campbell, chairman of
the Joint Board, accepted the award for his
organization.
Dr. Taylor was cited for his individual
activities in advancing science education.
His long and untiring efforts were noted
both as an individual participant and as
director of science projects for the Joint
Board under grants from the National Sci-
ence Foundation. These include the series
of annual curriculum conferences for teach-
ers, and the Visiting Scientists and Engi-
neers Program which provides the assist-
ance of scientists and engineers to students,
teachers, and science clubs.
Science in Washington
SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS
Contributions to this column may be ad-
dressed to Harold T. Cook, Associate Edi-
tor, c/o Department of Agriculture, Agri-
culture Research Service, Federal Center
Building, Hyattsville, Maryland.
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT
JUSTUS C. WARD was appointed one
of the United States delegates to a U.S.-
Japan research planning conference on pest-
icides at the East-West Center, University
of Hawaii, Honolulu, April 7-9. His part
of the program was to inform the Japanese
research directors about pesticide tests re-
quired to obtain registration and commer-
cial distribution under U.S. law.
May, 1965
K. A. HAINES attended the Board of
Directors Meeting of the Inter-American
Institute of Agricultural Sciences held at
Antigua, Guatemala, March 1-6.
ROBERT W. WEBB, research cotton
technologist in the Market Quality Research
Division, Agricultural Research Service, re-
tired on March 31 after 44 years of service.
Dr. Webb’s first 6 years of work had to do
with research on certain fungus and virus
diseases of winter wheat; his last 38 years
were devoted to research, testing, and eval-
uation with respect to cotton quality. Dr.
Webb plans to continue living at the Cos-
mos Club, where he will be glad to see his
friends and former professional associates
at any time.
129
CHINGIZ KADYROVP of the Institute of
Chemistry of Plant Substances at Tashkent,
U.S.S.R., is visiting scientists at Plant In-
dustry Station, and working in the Plant
Hormone and Regulator Pioneering Re-
search Laboratory under the direction of
JOHN W. MITCHELL. Dr. Kadyrov will
spend some of his time traveling in this
country to become acquainted with scien-
tific effort in the U.S.A.
LAWRENCE ZELENY, as the official
United States delegate, attended the second
meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Codex
Alimentarius Commission Expert Commit-
tee on Oils and Fats in London, April 6-8.
The purpose of the committee is to establish
international standards for vegetable and
animal oils and fats used for food purposes.
EDWARD H. GRAHAM has retired from
the Soil Conservation Service and is now a
consulting ecologist with professional head-
quarters and residence at Box 233, Route 2,
Vienna, Va.
DEFENSE DEPARTMENT
GEORGE W. HOWARD of the Engineer
R&D Laboratories, Army Materiel Com-
mand, has been cited for outstanding per-
formance as technical director of the labora-
tories.
FOOD AND DRUG
ADMINISTRATION
CLEM O. MILLER, coordinator of scien-
tific committees in the Office of the Com-
missioner, will be awarded the honor scroll
of the Washington Chapter, American In-
stitute of Chemists, at its annual dinner
meeting on May 18.
HELEN L. REYNOLDS, technical editor
in the Bureau of Scientific Research, has
been named a recipient of the FDA Merit
Award for 1965.
HOWARD UNVERSITY
LLOYD N. FERGUSON was guest speak-
er at ceremonies dedicating the Louis N.
Cassett Lecture Auditorium in the newly-
completed chemistry building, Beury Hall,
of Temple University, Philadelphia, on
130
March 2. Dr. Ferguson was a member of
the team of visiting scientists for the Di-
vision of Chemical Education of the Amer-
ican Chemicai Society, that spent March
25-26 on the campus of Fort Hays Kansas
Siate College, Hays, Kansas. At that time
he held organic chemistry classes, gave a
banquet address, and discussed chemical
education and research with the faculty
and students.
MODDIE D. TAYLOR has been reap-
pointed to the Education Advisory Board
of Chemistry for 1964-65. He served as
visiting scientist for students of Lima High
School, Shawnee High School, Elida High
School, and Ohio Extension University at
Lima, Ohio, on January 25-27. Dr. Taylor
also lectured to the Graduate Colloquium
at the City Colleges of New York on Feb-
ruary 26, served as visiting scientist at
Simmons College, Boston, Mass., March 15
and 16, and served as visiting scientist at
Winona College, Winona, Minn., April 12
and 13. He has been invited by Columbia
University and the Indian Government to
serve as a consultant in teacher education
this summer in New Delhi, India.
KELSO Bb. MORRIS, professor of chem-
istry, gave three lectures recently before the
participants of the NSF-sponsored Aca-
demic Year Institute at Atlanta University,
Atlanta, Ga.
NATIONAL BUREAU
OF STANDARDS
ABNER BRENNER, chief of the Electrol-
ysis and Metal Deposition Section, has re-
ceived the William Blum Award of the
Electrochemical Society for outstanding
contributions to the field of electrodeposi-
tion.
NATIONAL INSTITUTES
OF HEALTH
JEROME CORNFIELD has been ap-
pointed chief of the Biometrics Research
Branch of the National Heart Institutes.
NAVAL OCEANOGRAPHIC OFFICE
PAUL D. THOMAS, scientific staff as-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
sistant in the Marine Sciences Department,
attended the Seventh Conference of Senior
Navy Mathematicians at the Naval Post-
graduate School, Monterey, Calif., on Feb-
ruary 24-26. He presented a paper, ““The
Second Order Term in the Andoyer-Lam-
bert Approximation to Geodesics on the
Reference Ellipsoid.”
NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
By arrangement through the Office of
Naval Research office in London, G. R.
IRWIN, superintendent of the Mechanics
Division, will spend approximately three
months, beginning in May, in Freiburg,
Germany, at the Ernst Mach Institut in
collaboration with Frank Kerkhof on prob-
lems of fracture mechanics. Dr. Irwin will
give a Physics Colloquium lecture at the
University of Freiburg, and a series of semi-
nar lectures to students and members of
the Institut. Following this tour of duty,
Dr. Kerkhof will be at NRL during 1966
for a similar three-month stay.
JAMES H. SCHULMAN was presented
the Superior Civilian Service Award on
February 19. This is the second highest
recognition available to a civilian employee
of the Navy. It was awarded to Dr. Schul-
man for his “brilliant insight, originality,
and intellectual scientific acumen” as evi-
denced by his work in solid state physics.
CURTIS R. SINGLETERRY and WIL-
LIAM A. ZISMAN recently shared, with
two other chemists, a $5,000 award for
their development of a technique to salvage
damaged electronic equipment. It is esti-
mated that the development may save up
to $20 million worth of water-damaged
equipment.
OFFICE OF NAVAL RESEARCH
I. ESTERMANN has retired from ONR
and accepted a position as Lidow profes-
sor of solid state physics at Israel Institute
of Technology (Technion), Haifa.
UNCLASSIFIED
FREDERICK D. ROSSINI, dean of the
College of Science at the University of
May, 1965
Notre Dame, has been given the Univer-
sity’s highest honor, the Laetare Medal,
conferred annually on an_ outstanding
American Catholic layman; he is the sec-
ond scientist to receive the award. Dr.
Rossini was with the National Bureau of
Standards from 1928 to 1950.
SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT
The 175th anniversary of the United
States patent system was commemorated on
April 8 by an all-day meeting at the Shera-
ton-Park Hotel. In addition to a plenary
session on overall aspects of the patent
system, seven seminars were conducted on
mechanical, electrical, chemical, pharma-
ceutical, and metallurgical invention; inde-
pendent and small-business inventors; and
employee inventors. The meeting was cli-
maxed by a dinner at which Commissioner
of Patents Edward S. Brenner presided, and
Secretary of Commerce John T. Connor
spoke on “The Challenges to the Patent
System.”
More than 700 prominent scholars, sci-
entists, and representatives of universities,
museums, and learned societies from at
least 90 countries are expected to join in a
two-day celebration on September 17 and
18, marking the 200th anniversary of the
birth of James Smithson, founder of the
Smithsonian Institution. Smithson, an Eng-
lish scholar and scientist, at one time a
prominent member of the Royal Society of
London, left his entire estate to the United
States “to found at Washington, under the
name of the Smithsonian Institution, an
establishment for the increase and diffusion
of knowledge among men.” He died in
Genoa, Italy, in 1829 at the age of 64.
Fortunately, to the trained radiologist,
X-rays are not the bits of blurred confu-
sion they appear to the uninitiated. Even
so, for clear pictures of deep lying tissues,
it has been necessary in the past to employ
very expensive and elaborate instrumen-
tation. New technology, developed by J.
M. Morel and others at the Clinical Center
131
of the National Institutes of Health, per-
mits very considerable savings in cost and
effort. In principle, the X-ray emission
tube and film remain fixed, and the patient
is rotated during actual exposure in such
a position that the axis of rotation is pre-
cisely at the point where the desired pic-
ture is to be taken. As a result, that por-
tion of the tissues produce a clear image,
while masses either in front or behind the
plane of the area of interest are continually
displaced on the film and thereby blurred.
Moving the film simultaneously and paral-
lel to the patient’s body results in a straight
plane, and the width of the cross-section
pictured can be controlled by the amount
of turning done by the body. Among other
advantages, the time of exposure is con-
siderably shorter than with conventional
equipment for achieving the same general
result. A final note on cost: estimates
suggest the device could be produced and
sold at perhaps $1,500—about as much as
to move conventional equipment for “to-
mography” from one room to another!
A science news reporting these days is
hardly complete without an item on nucleic
acids. In this vein we note the determi-
nation, by a team of USDA and Cornell
University biochemists, of the molecular
structure of alanine transfer RNA, one of
the smallest of the known biologically ac-
tive nucleic acids. By two sets of enzymatic
splitting series, by determining the struc-
tures of the pieces derived therefrom, and
by comparing these pieces with each other,
and by manipulating temperature and time
of contact so as to control enzyme action,
the full structure was eventually unravelled,
132
and a total ef 77 nucleotides identified and
located. This is the first instance where
this has been accomplished. It remains
now by discover just which of these 77
form the three crucial elements of the
“anticodon,” the genetic code word deter-
mining the sequence of alignment at the
protein-building site.
The southern visitor to a city such as
Minneapolis is at first greatly puzzled by
the deplorable condition of even relatively
new model automobiles, until he asks the
first year-round resident. The answer?
“Salt!” And by this, of course, is meant
the practice of putting calcium and sodium
chloride on city streets and rural highways
as a snow removal measure in northern
winters. R. G. Petersen, of the Geological
Survey, notes that in the winter of 1965,
more than 100,000 tons of salt were dumped
on Massachuetts highways. So much, in
fact, that concern is mounting over the
possible effect on ground water. Prelimi-
nary analysis at the water table in several
points of eastern Massachusetts show a cur-
rent chloride content of nearly 250 ppm,
the limit recommended by the Public Health
Service for public water supplies. Further
studies will be made to determine vertical
and lateral movement, the differences attri-
butable to different kinds of soils, and so
on. Like so very many of man’s activities,
the answers are neither white nor black;
one must balance the good of increased
safety against the destructive effects on
automobiles and the contamination of the
drinking water.
—Russell B. Stevens
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Delegates to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Representing
the Local Affiliated Societies*
Philosophical Society of Washington ....0000.00000 0000 I Ne 1 Oth eA GS hr aie Urner Lipper
mmeropontical Society Of Washington oo... 0c ecccecsccccccccuseecsenssissesccsscscdecostseseevess. Gorpon McGrecor
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PUNE GICUY OL) W ASDINSCON 5 ooops. ieceaesacesc cesses cu evesuesonscopsaccbil copecuessiesuuesessent FLORENCE H. ForziAt1
Entomological Society of Washington ........... ee Ae nd: Mees te poet Haroitp H. SHEPARD
PaO E AINE SICECLY 9560 ooo cpp sncssleskeeee co elassess Lebedadesstdalocatsusbancosiled sbdew ALEXANDER WETMORE
PE EPMIETELY Ot WW ASHITICLON ooo ceo cc th sadsily vee ecak basse svteescanctectseslasccegedslalesces Luna LEopoip
Mieaseal Society of the District of Columbia ....................60..ccccccccccscccccsecesecseceeccececccceeese., THomas M. Brown
DE RS UE RS OOS (PS gl ee eo U. S. Grant, III
PELE STG TUS ST gai eg Te Peter H. HEINzE
Pemmereretee rr mieticam MGresters oc... 6-26. ccc ccccsscss ce devessdesustinveseseccvvsessosecievsavicscuneeamnees’ Harry A. FoweEtts
emrnm ir SOPICtY OF FNGINECES ooo loco csc ales ceccsevetgevecssassecocnssssecsacessacecbunencunes Martin A. MAson
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers .................... Ns i aR IE i SUE GrorcE ABRAHAM
American Society of Mechanical Engineers ................ See Tee Se Se Ait A sa Wittiam G. ALLEN
Helminthological Society of Washington ... IS) EAS aS RN 2 HOE OMIM AMT Marion M. Farr
MeN NORTEL YS TOL VITCTODIOLOR Yoo... 2c no eco aloe ccvese sunedse es ceesuiasnaeduvvstecesassovsbtless FRANK HETTRICK
See seineriosn Nilttary HmgimGers .................0..-.--.-0+c-n-s-ccsseteeeseeeseneeedsevseuatensessensnstenencensen H. P. DEemutH
meen Somtety ot Caval Eneimeers 2.22.6...) coc cse ieee esses tescaseeneetcacoetensenst hones THORNDIKE SAVILLE, JR.
Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine |..................0..cccceeeeeeeees cane ae UN FALCONER SMITH
URI RENNES TOE NEE BE 9a eo og ads caged coven euvaannetcdebupancscongncibogapedevovedslunaeiiinsageetis Hueu L. Locan
Intemational Association for Dental Research .............................cccceceecteceeseeeeeeetteagecteeneeees Harowp J. Caut
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics..........0...0.0..0.: ccc eeeeteeenteees EUGENE EHRLICH
pm aE CIE ECOUEIOPICH] SOGICLY fico... leon cee cn sensi snepsennaveenetoecedeeousbuvnnsnents J. Murray MitcHeE tt, Jr.
RREEUEME SOCIELY OL WASHINGTON 2.600658-1-c0cccceceoto-ceccareasavecanssencsensntnaasnsanesieansestsoscnate Delegate not appointed
MRAP BUHL “CT NGMENECE ooo co panes conn cna scabs sien duns cctecegen<vssessvvedenosesuenntnnestonsnsene Matcotm C. HENDERSON
MN CS a i Mires lasted nvennnseep eds vammnsy ta cboawnnve' cama ntsees cabpaneapanien Georce L. WEIL
PRR IER sh) VECHMGIORISDS 65.2... )5 cc). ei oie- cecesene sencet dantnensvinscuehs oueeats eucdasteunsnnensenemene RicHarp P, Farrow
SUI AN YS Te TEE ce a ie nde 5 chen des odd anuestivnnedcvabunepanndsariarurtenvanichtandntnsdh J. J. DrAMonp
Ia NNR MMPI TNS TDD CARMAN 08 ea) arg ea scp cc te sale wy Vy bw\ his sn av yeng Sah on -«Uae de dant pelesantaasaorlnr eel on Kurt H. Stern
amemumerom ebtistory Bl erence CHD ois .oj.cccsc: cicescecesctecvenesdtedsdsdbvedsassensndiestusnens Delegate not appointed
pmemcan Association of Physics Teachers «.......... ......0.........dcccsenscnseeee ........Delegate not appointed
* Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective affiliated societies.
Volume 55 MAY 1965 No. 5
CONTENTS
E. R. Weaver: An Exercise in Probability ©...) .....00....0.....4. 105
R. J. Seeger: Scholarship and Civilization ........00...0...0.... 3. 115
Geological Society of Washington 3
Proceedings’ for T0642.) eee ones ee Oe 121
Organization........00)340. a ee ee 124
Irving Heads Agricultural Research Service ................00.000..0-)- 125
Contribution from: the “Archivist. ..00....0000).:0004000. 22 ee
Academy Proceedings
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LIBRARY
U S NATIONAL MUSEUM
_ WASHINGTON 25 Dc 4g
aA ee ek ee WAS
Washington Academy of Sciences 2nd Class Postage
| Paid at
1530—P St., N.W. ;
Washington, D.C., 20005 Washington, D.C.
Return Requested with Form 3579
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Bp 2W2:
VOLUME 55 NUMBER 6
Journal of the
WASHINGTON
ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES
Directory Issue
SEPTEMBER 1965
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
Editor: SAmuet B. Detwiter, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Associate Editors
Harotp T. Cook, Department of Agriculture Heten L. ReyNoips, Food and Drug Adminis-
RicHarp P. Farrow, Nationa nner o- tration
ry ee Ratpu G. H. Siu, Department of Defense
RussELt B. STEvENs, George Washington Uni-
Harry A. Fowetts, Department of Agriculture versity
ciation
Contributors
FRANK A. BIBERSTEIN, JR., Catholic University JosepH B. Morris, Howard University
CHARLES A. WHITTEN, Coast & Geodetic Survey Jacos Mazur, National Bureau of Standards
Marsorie Hooker, Geological Survey ALLEN L. ALEXANDER, Naval Research Laboratory
prnoet E. Woop, George Washington Univer- Yowarp W. Bonp, Public Health Service
si :
etal M. Buras, Jr., Harris Research Labo- Victor R. Boswett, USDA, Beltsville
ratories ANDREW F. FREEMAN, USDA, Washington
This Journal, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes historical]
articles, critical reviews, and scholarly scientific articles; notices of meetings and abstract proceed-
ings of meetings of the Academy and its affiliated societies; and regional news items, including
personal news, of interest to the entire membership. The Journal appears nine times a year, in
January to May and September to December. It is included in the dues of all active members and
fellows.
Subscription rate to non-members: $7.50 per year (U.S.) or $1.00 per copy; foreign post-
age extra. Subscription orders should be sent to the Washington Academy of Sciences, 1530 P St.,
N.W., Washington, D.C., 20005. Remittances should be made payable to “Washington Academy
of Sciences.”
Back issues, volumes, and sets of the Journal (Volumes 1-52, 1911-1962) can be purchased
direct from Walter J. Johnson, Inc., 111 Fifth Avenue, New York 3, N. Y. This firm also handles
the sale of the Proceedings of the Academy (Volumes 1-13, 1898-1910), the Index (to Volumes
1-13 of the Proceedings and Volumes 1-40 of the Journal), aud the Academy’s monograph, “The
Parasitic Cuckoos of Africa.”
Current issues of the Journal (past two calendar years) may still be obtained directly
from the Academy office at 1530 P Street, N.W., Washington, D.C., 20005.
Claims for missing numbers will not be allowed if received more than 60 days after date of
mailing plus time normally required for postal delivery and claim. No claims will be allowed
because of failure to notify the Academy of a change of address.
Changes of address should be sent promptly to the Academy Office, 1530 P St., N.W.,
Washington, D.C., 20005. Such notification should include both old and new addresses and postal
zone number, if any.
Second class postage paid at Washington, D.C.
Postmasters: Send Form 3579 to Washington Academy of Sciences, 1530 P St., N.W.,
Washington, D.C., 20005.
ACADEMY OFFICERS FOR 1965
President: Lro ScHUuBERT, American University
President-Elect: Joun K. TAytor, National Bureau of Standards
Secretary: ALPHONSE F. Forziati, Advanced Research Projects Agency
Treasurer: Roman R. Miter, Naval Research Laboratory
Washington Academp of Sciences
1965 Directory
Foreword
The present, 40th issue of the Academy’s
directory is again this year issued as the
September issue of the Journal.
As_ was the case last year, we have at-
tempted to produce an up-to-date listing
of the membership at minimum cost to the
Academy. Between the classified listing
and the Washington area telephone books,
there should be little difficulty in getting
in touch with local members; hence we
have not given the addresses of members.
Also, the Academy office at 1530 P Street
N.W. (AD 4-5323) is in a position to
supply addresses for all members, whether
local or nonresident, upon request.
Again this year, members are classi-
fied by three listings—alphabetically, by
place of employment, and by membership
in local societies affiliated with the Acad-
emy. Thus, the directory attempts to an-
swer the basic questions that arise when
the name of a scientist is mentioned:
Where does he work? and What does he
do? The knowledge that John Jones works
in the Agricultural Research Service and
that he belongs to the Entomological So-
ciety is the key to whether we have any-
thing in Common with him, and if so,
how to seek him out.
With a few exceptions, we have
not indicated places of employment for
nonresident members, since this would
lead to a very complex coding system;
SEPTEMBER, 1965
and such codes would scarcely be a re-
liable guide for written contacts. Nor,
generally, have we classified emeritus mem-
bers by place of employment, since most
of them, presumably, have retired from
gainful employment.
Assignment of codes for place of em-
ployment and membership in affiliated so-
cieties is based upon results of a postcard
questionnaire sent to the Academy mem-
bership. Where the questionnaire was not
answered, the coding was made on the
basis of other available information. Cor-
rections should be called to the attention
of the Academy office. .
In 1963, as an innovation, the directory
included complete membership rosters for
four of the Academy’s affiliated societies,
whether or not the persons listed were
members of the Academy; in return for
their cooperation, the four affiliates were
provided with a supply of copies of the
directory at nominal cost. In 1964, the
practice was extended to nine of the
affiliates.
After consideration of comparative
costs, the Academy’s Board of Managers
has concluded that whatever the merits of
joint directories, they are presently be-
yond the Academy’s means and should be
discontinued. Accordingly, the 1965 di-
rectory has been confined to Academy
members only.
133
Explanation
The alphabetical listing purports to in-
clude all fellows and members on the
Academy rolls as of July 1, 1965, whether
resident or nonresident (i.e., living more
than 50 miles from the White House),
and whether active (dues-paying) or
emeritus (retired).
Employment.—The first column of
code symbols after the name is a semi-
mnemonic cross-reference to place of em-
ployment, as shown in the first classified
listing. In the employment code, 1 refers
to Government agencies (and 1A _ to
Agriculture, 1C to Commerce, etc.; and
ICNBS refers to the National Bureau of
Standards in the Department of Com-
merce); 2 refers to educational institu-
tions, both higher (2H) and secondary
(25) (2HUMD is the University of Mary-
land) ; 3A refers to associations and 31 to
private institutions; 4 refers to consul-
tants, physicians, and other self-employed
persons; 5 refers to business concerns
(SHARE is the Harris Research Labora-
tories, for example); 6 refers to foreign
and international groups (embassies, UN
organizations, etc.); 7 refers to retired
persons; and 8 and 9 refer to persons
whose places of employment, if any, are
not known or not coded.
Places of employment are given pri-
marily for resident active fellows and
members, with few exceptions.
Affiliation—The second column of
code symbols refers to the person’s mem-
bership in one or more of the societies
affiliated with the academy, as given in
the following list, which includes also the
year of the societies’ affiliation with the
Academy:
2B_ Philosophical Society of Washington (1898)
2C Anthropological Society of Washington
(1898)
2D Biological Society of Washington (1898)
2E Chemical Society of Washington (1898)
2F Entomological Society of Washington
(1898)
2G National Geographic Society (1898)
2H Geological Society of Washington (1898)
of Listings
21 Medical Society of the District of Colum-
bia (1898)
2J Columbia Historical Society (1899)
2K Botanical Society of Washington (1902)
2L Society of American Foresters, Washington
Section (1904)
2M Washington Society of Engineers (1907)
2N Institute of Electrical and Electronics En-
gineers, Washington Section (1912)*
20 American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers, Washington Section (1923)
2P Helminthological Society of Washington
(1923)
2Q American Society for Microbiology, Wash-
ington Branch (1923)
2R_ Society of American Military Engineers,
Washington Post (1927)
2S American Society of Civil Engineers, Na-
tional Capital Section (1942)
2T Society for Experimental Biology and Medi-
cine, D. C. Section (1952)
2U American Society for Metals, Washington
Chapter (1953)
2V_ International Association for Dental Re-
search, Washington Section (1953)
American Institute of Aeronautics and As-
tronautics, Washington Section (1953)?
2X American Meteorological Society, D. C.
Branch (1954)
2Y Insecticide Society of Washington (1959)
2Z Acoustical Society of America, Washington
Chapter (1959)
3B American Nuclear Society, Washington Sec-
tion (1960)
3C_ Institute of Food Technologists, Washing-
ton Section (1961)
3D American Ceramic Society, Baltimore-Wash-
ington Section (1962)
3E_ Electrochemical Society, Washington-Balti-
more Section (1963)
3F Washington History of Science Club (1965)
3G American Association of Physics Teachers,
Chesapeake Section (1965)
Academy Status.—The third column of
symbols refers to membership status in
*In 1963 the American Institute of Electrical
Engineers (affiliated 1912) was merged with the
Institute of Radio Engineers (affiliated 1933) to
become the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers. IEEE has been assigned the same
seniority as the elder of the two merged societies.
? In 1963 the Institute of the Aerospace Sciences
(affiliated 1953) absorbed the American Rocket
Society and assumed the new name, American
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
the Academy. AF refers to a fellow of the
Academy, and AM to an Academy mem-
ber. RA refers to a resident active fellow
or member; NA refers to a nonresident
active fellow or member (living more
than 50 miles from the White House) ;
and RE and NE refer respectively to
resident and nonresident emeritus fellows.
Organization, Objectives, and Activities
The Washington Academy of Sciences
had its origin in the Philosophical Society
of Washington. The latter, organized in
1871, was for a few years the only scien-
tific society of Washington. As other more
specialized local scientific societies were
formed, need was felt for federation of
all such societies under an academy of
sciences. Therefore 14 local scientific
leaders moved to establish the Washing-
ton Academy of Sciences, which was in-
corporated on February 18, 1898. In that
year the first eight societies listed above
became affiliated with the Academy. The
Philosophical Society heads the list be-
cause of its key position in the establish-
ment of the Academy; the other seven are
listed in alphabetical order, and the re-
maining 23 in chronological order of
affiliation. Some of these 31 societies are
local, without other affiliation; most are
local sections or branches of national
societies; one, the National Geographic
Society, became a popular national so-
ciety, whose present affiliation with the
Academy is only of historical significance.
It should be noted that the Academy
has had a total of 32 affiliations, but that
two societies—the electrical engineers and
the radio engineers—were merged in 1963
as mentioned above.
The primary purpose of the Academy is
the promotion of science in various ways
through cooperation among natural scien-
tists and engineers of the Washington
metropolitan area. Except during the sum-
mer, the Academy holds monthly meet-
ings, stressing subjects of general scien-
tific interest. It publishes a monthly
SEPTEMBER, 1965
journal, which is intended to facilitate and
report the organized scientific activity of
the Washington area. It may sponsor con-
ferences or symposia and publish their
proceedings, or it may publish suitable
scientific monographs. In many ways, the
Academy encourages excellence in scien-
tific research and education, e.g., by
sponsoring the Washington Junior Acad-
emy of Sciences; by sponsoring through
the Joint Board on Science Education,
experiments in and services to secondary
scientific education in the public and
private schools of the area; by making
annual awards to promising high school
students and to a few outstanding young
professional scientists for their achieve-
ments in research or teaching; and by
making small grants-in-aid for support
of research. The Academy also may aid
public understanding of important scien-
tific developments through sponsored con-
ferences and teacher training. It may
make recommendations on public policy
involving scientific matters.
The Academy acts as the federal head
of its affiliated societies, each of which is
represented on the Board of Managers by
a delegate appointed by his society. An-
nual elections are by mail ballot.
The membership consists of three gen-
eral classes: members, fellows, and pa-
trons. At present the membership is
composed principally of resident active
fellows who by reason of scientific attain-
ment are deemed eligible. Nominations
for fellowship, endorsed by at least two
fellows of the Academy, and changes in
the status of members, are acted upon by
135
SMITHSONIAN pny o
INSTITUTION NOUV 2)
the Board of Managers upon recommen-
dation of the Committee on Memberhip.
The new category, “member,” is open,
upon application, to any interested person
who is approved by the Committee on
Membership.
President
President-Elect
Secretary
Treasurer
1963-65
1963-65
1964-66
1964-66
1965-67
1965-67
Executive
Membership
Policy Planning
Ways and Means
Meetings
Awards for Scientific
Achievement
Grants-in-Aid for Research
Encouragement of Science
Talent
Public Information
Science Education*
Further information on membership in
the Academy is given in a statement else-
where in this issue.
As of July 1, 1965, the Academy had
a membership of 1263, including 1146
fellows and 117 members.
Organization for 1965
Officers
LEO SCHUBERT
JoHN K. TAYLOR
ALPHONSE F. ForziatI
Roman R. MILLER
Managers-at-Large
Mary LoutsE RossBins
Witsur D. McCLeLLan
ALLEN L, ALEXANDER
FrANcIs W. REICHELDERFER
Matcoitm C. HENDERSON
GrorcE W. IrvING, Jr.
Standing Committees
LEo ScHUBERT, Chairman
MatcoLm W. OLIPHANT, Chairman
DEAN CowlE, Chairman
Francois N. FRENKIEL, Chairman
JACINTO STEINHARDT, Chairman
Epwarp A. Mason, Chairman
RALPH I. CoLe, Chairman
Z. V. HarvaLik, Chairman
CHARLES DEVORE, Chairman
Joun K. Taytor, Chairman
American University
National Bureau of Standards
Department of Defense
Naval Research Laboratory
George Washington University
Department of Agriculture
Naval Research Laboratory
Retired
Catholic University of America
Department of Agriculture
American University
Georgetown University
Department of Terrestrial Magnet-
ism, CIW
David Taylor Model Basin
Georgetown University
University of Maryland
American University
Engineer Research & Development
Laboratories
Office of Naval Research
National Bureau of Standards
* The Academy contingent of the Joint Board on Science Education, which is sponsored by
the Academy and the D.C. Council of Engineering and Architectural Societies.
136
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Special Committees
Bylaws and Standing LAWRENCE A. Woop, Chairman National Bureau of Standards
Rules
Membership Promotion Jacos J. DiAmonp, Chairman National Bureau of Standards
Meetings Arrangements JoHn H. Menxkart, Chairman . Harris Research Laboratories
Archives EDUARD FARBER, Chairman American University
History of Science in Morris C. LEIKIND, Chairman National Institutes of Health
Washington
The Journal
Editor SAMUEL B. DETWILER, JR. Department of Agriculture
Associate Editors Haroitp T. Cook Department of Agriculture
RicHarD P. FARROW National Canners Association
Harry A. FoOweELLs Department of Agriculture
HELEN L. REYNOLDS Food & Drug Adm.
Ratpu G. H. Siu Department of Defense
RussELL B. STEVENS George Washington University
Delegates of Affiliated Societies
See inside rear cover.
Past Presidents
1898 John R. Eastman 1927 Alexander Wetmore 1946 Hugh L. Dryden
1899- 1928 Robert B. Sosman 1947 Waldo L. Schmitt
1910 Charles D. Walcott 1929 Ales Hrdlicka 1948 Frederick D. Rossini
1911 Frank W. Clarke 1930 William Bowie 1949 FF. H. H. Roberts, Jr.
1912. Frederick V. Coville 1931 Nathan Cobb 1950 Francis B. Silsbee
1913 Otto H. Tittmann 1932 Leason H. Adams 1951 Nathan R. Smith
1914 David White 1933. Robert F. Griggs 1952 Walter Ramberg
1915 Robert S. Woodward 1934 Louis B. Tuckerman 1953. ~=~-Frank M. Setzler
1916 Leland O. Howard 1935 George W. McCoy 1954 Francis M. Defandorf
1917 William H. Holmes 1936 Oscar E. Meinzer 1955 Margaret Pittman
1918 Lyman J. Briggs 1937 Charles Thom 1956 Ralph E. Gibson
1919 Frederick L. Ransome 1938 Paul E. Howe 1957 William M. Rubey
1920 Carl L. Alsberg 1939 Charles. E. Chambliss 1958 Archibald T. McPherson
1921 Alfred H. Brooks 1940 Eugene C. Crittenden 1959 Frank L. Campbell
1922 William J. Humphreys 1941 Austin H. Clark 1960 Lawrence A. Wood
1923 Thomas W. Vaughan 1942 Harvey L. Curtis 1961 Philip H. Abelson
1924 Arthur L. Day 1943 Leland W. Parr 1962 Benjamin D. Van Evera
1925 Vernon Kellogg 1944 Clement L. Garner 1963 Benjamin D. Van Evera
1926 George K. Burgess 1945 John E. Graf 1964 Francois N. Frenkiel
Bylaws and Standing Rules
The Bylaws of the Academy, as last near future.
amended in Sepiember 1963, appear in the The Standing Rules of the Board of
November 1964 issue of the Journal, pages Managers appear in the December 1964
341-345. They will be reprinted in the issue of the Journal, pages 360-364.
SEPTEMBER, 1965 137
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Objectives
The objectives of the Washington Academy of Sciences are (a) to stimulate interest
in the sciences, both pure and applied, and (b) to promote their advancement and the
development of their philosophical aspects by the Academy membership and through
cooperative action by the affiliated societies.
Activities
The Academy pursues its objectives through such activities as (a) publication of
a periodical and of occasional Scientific monographs; (b) holding of public lectures
on scientific subjects; (c) sponsorship of a Washington Junior Academy of Sciences;
(d) promotion of science education and a professional interest in science among
people of high school and college age; (e) accepting or making grants of funds to
aid special research projects; ({) sponsorship of scientific symposia and conferences;
(g) assistance in scientific expeditions; (h) cooperation with other academies and
scientific organizations; and (i) award of prizes and citations for special merit in
science.
Membership
The membership consists of two major classes—members and fellows.
Members are persons who are interested in science and are willing to support
the Academy’s objectives as described above. A letter or form initiated by the appli-
cant and requesting membership may suffice for action by the Academy’s Committee
on Membership; approval by the Committee constitutes election to membership.
Dues for members are $7.50 a year.
Fellows are persons who have performed original research or have made other
outstanding contributions to the sciences, mathematics, or engineering. Candidates
for fellowship must be nominated by at least two fellows, recommended by the Com-
mittee on Membership, and elected by the Board of Managers.
Dues are $10.00 a year for resident fellows (living within 50 miles of the White
House) and $7.50 a year for nonresident fellows.
Persons who join the Academy as members may later be considered for fellowship.
Application forms for membership may be obtained from the office of the
Washington Academy of Sciences, 1530 P St., N.W., Washington, D. C.
138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
ABBOT» CHARLES G
ABELSON» PHILIP H
ABRAHAMs GEORGE
ACHTERs MEYER R
ADAMSe CAROLINE L
ADAMSe ELLIOT Q
ADAMS*s LEASON H
ADELMANe® DAVIO M
AFFRONTI« LEWIS
AKERS« ROBERT P
ALDRICHs JOHN WwW
ALEXANDER» AARON D
ALEXANDER» ALLEN L
ALEXANDERs BENJAMIN H
ALEXANDERe LYLE T
ALEXANDERs SAMUEL N
ALLAN» FRANK D
ALLENe HARRY C JR
ALLEN»o WILLIAM G
ALLISONe FRANKLIN E
ALTe FRANZ L
ALTER» HARVEY
AMBS® WILLIAM J
AMES¢ BRUCE N
AMESe LAWRENCE M
AMIRIKIANs ARSHAM
AMRINEs MICHAEL
ANDERSON» MYRON S
ANDERSON® WENDELL L
ANDREWS« HOWARD L
ANDREWSe JOHN S
ANDREWSe T G
APPEL« WILLIAM D
APSTEINe MAURICE
ARMSTRONGs CHARLES
ARMSTRONGe GEORGE T
ARSEMe COLLINS
ASLAKSONs CARL I
ASTIN®e® ALLEN V
AUSLOOS« PIERRE J
AXILRODe BENJAMIN M
BABERSe FRANK H
BAILEYe WILLIAM J
BAKERe ARTHUR A
BAKERe LOUIS C W
BALDES« EDWARD J
BAMFORD + RONALD
BARBEAUs MARIUS
BARBROWe LOUIS E
BARNESe R PERCY
BARNHARTs CLYDE S
BARONe LOUIS S
BARRETT+« MARGARET D
BARRETTe MORRIS K
BARSS¢« HOWARD P
BARTONEs« JOHN C
BASSe ARNOLD M
BATEMANe ALAN M
BATES«:-PHAON H
BATESe ROGER G
BAVER»s HUGO
BEACHe LOUIS A
BEACHse PRISCILLA A
BEANs HOWARD S
BEARCEs HENRY wW
BECKER» EDWIN D
BECKETTe CHARLES W
BECKMANNe ROBERT B
BEIJe K HILDING
SEPTEMBER, 1965
Alphabetical List of Members
TRETD
31GEL
1DNRL
1DNRL
2HGWU
8BNRNC
4CONS
2SMO0C
2HGWU
1HNIH
11tFws
1DAWR
1DNRL
1DAWR
1ASCS
1CNBS
2HGWU
1CNBS
1CMAA
TRETD
1CNBS
SHARE
BNRNC
1ANTH
2ZHAMU
1 DNBY
ONCOC
TRETD
1DONRL
LHNIH
1ARFR
2HUMD
7TRETD
1 DAHD
7TRETD
1CNBS
1 DAHD
4CONS
1CNBS
1CNBS
4x
1DAX
2HUMD
1IGES
2HGEU
1DARO
2HUMD
8NRNC
1CNBS
2HHOU
1DAX
1DAWR
LHNIH
7TRETD
TRETD
2HGwWU
1CNBS
4CONS
TRETD
1CNBS
7RETD
1ONRL
4CONS
4CONS
TRETD
1HNIH
1CNBS
2HUMD
TRETD
2B
2B2E2H2Q3B
2B2G2N3B
2U
2K
2B2E2G2H
2Q02T
2G
2D
2G2T
2e
2E
2E
2B2N
2B2E2G
20
2E2G620
2E
2P
2E
2B2N
2T
2B2E2G6
2G2N
282M
2B2N2W
2E
2B
2B263G
2620
2B
2E
2B2E
ce
2B
AFRE
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AMRA
AFNE
AFNE
AMRA
AMRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AMRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRE
AFRA
AFRA
AFNA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AMRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRE
AFRA
AMRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFNA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFNA
AFRA
AFRA
AFNA
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFNE
AMRA
AFRA
AFNE
AFNE
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AMRA
AFRA
AFNE
AFRA
AFRA
AFRA
AFNA
BEKKEDAHL » NORMAN
BELKINe MORRIS
BELSHE'M,s ROBERT O
BENDER» MAURICE
BENEDICTse WILLIAM S
BENESCHe WILLIAM
BENJAMIN«e CHESTER R
BENNETTs« JOHN A
BENNETT e LAWRENCE H
BENNETTe MARTIN T
BENNETTe ROBERT R
BENNETTs WILLARD H
BERCHe JULIAN
BERKNERe L V
BERL+ WALTER G
BERLINERe ROBERT W
BERNTONe HARRY S
BEROZAe MORTON S
BESTULs ALDEN B
BIBERSTEIN¢S
BICKLEYs WILLIAM E
BIRCKNERe VICTOR
BIRDe HR
BIRKS«e LAVERNE S
BISHOPPe FRED C
BLACKe RICHARD B
BLAKEse DORIS H
BLANCe MILTON L
BLOCKe STANLEY
BLOOMs MORTIMER C
BLUMse WILLIAM
BLUNTse ROBERT F
BOGLE+« ROBERT W
BOLTONs ELLIS T
BOND« HOWARD wW
BONDELID»s ROLLON O
BORTHWICKe HARRY A
BOSWELLe VICTOR R
BOUTWELL» JOHN
BOWERe VINCENT
BOWLESs ROMALD
BOWMANs PAUL W
BOWMANe THOMAS E
BOYLE« DON R
BOZEMANs F MARILYN
BRAATENe NORMAN F
BRADLEYe WILLIAM E
BRANSONe HERMAN
BRAVER« GERHARD M™
BRECKENRIDGE¢ F C
BRECKENRIDGE®s
BREEDLOVEs« C H JR
BREITe GREGORY
BRENNERe ABNER
BREWERe A KEITH
BREWER«e CARL R
BRICKWEDDE+¢ F G
BRIERe GLENN W
BRODIEs« BERNARD B
BROMBACHER«e W G
BROWNe ALFRED E
BROWNe B F
BROWNe EDGAR
BROWNs¢ JOSHUA R C
BROWNe RUSSELL G
BROWNe THOMAS M
BRUCKe STEPHEN D
BUHRERe EDNA M
BUNNe RALPH Ww
BURASe EDMUND M JR
BURGERSe JM
mms
FRANK A JR
ROBERT G
1CNRS
1HNIH
1DNRL
8BNRNC
2HIHU
2HUMD
1ARFR
1CNBS
1CNBS
4CONS
11IGES
8BNRNC
SHARE
BNRNC
3I1APL
1HNIH
4PHYS
1ARFR
1CNBS
2HCUA
2HUMD
T7TRETD
8NRNC
1DNRL
T7RETD
1ONOR
1XSMI
1CwEB
1CNBS
1ONRL
4CONS
1CNBS
5DERE
3ICIW
1HPHS
1DNRL
1ARFR
1ARFR
4CONS
1CNBS
SBOEN
1HNIH
1XSMI
1CNBS
1DAWwR
1ccGS
BIIDA
2HHOU
1CNBS
4CONS
8NRNC
2HMIC
8BNRNC
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139
BURINGTONs RICHARD §S 1DNBW 2B82G AFRA CRANE « LANGDON T JR 1XNSF 28 AFRA
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COOLIDGEs HAROLD J 3INAS 2G AFRA DUNCANe HELEN M 1IGES 2H AFRA
COOLIDGEs WILLIAM D TRETD AFNA DUNNING» KENNETH L 1DNRL 2B AFRA
COONSe GEORGE H T7RETD 2k AFRE DUPONTs JEAN R BNRNC AFNA
COOPERs G ARTHUR 1XSMI 2H AFRA DURBINé CHARLES G 1HFDA 2G2P AFRA
COOPERs STEWART R TRETD AFRE DUTILLYe ARTHEME 2HCUA 2K AFRA
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CORNFIELDsé JEROME 1HNIH AFRA :
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COSTRELLs LOUIS 1CNBS 2B2N AFRA EASTERe DONALD 1XNAS 2E AMRA
COTTAMs CLARENCE BNRNC 2D AFNA ECKERTs W J BNRNC AFNA
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140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
EGLI¢ PAUL H
EGOLF + DONALD R
EISENHARTs CHURCHILL
ELBOURN+ ROBERT D
ELLINGERs GEORGE A
ELLIOTTs CHARLOTTE
ELLIOTTs FRANCIS E&
ELLISe NED R
EMERSONs w B
EMERYs ALDEN H
EMMARTs EMILY w
EMSWELLERs SAMUEL L
ENDICOTTs KENNETH M
ENNIS*¢ WILLIAM B UR
ESTERMANNe IMMANUEL
ETZEL + HOWARD w
EULER ELVIRA A
EVANS+ W DUANE
FWERS* JOHN C
FABERs JOHN &
FAHEYs JOSEPH J
FALLONs ROBERT J
FARBERs EDUARD
FARR» MARION M
FARROWs RICHARD P
FAULKNER* JOSEPH A
FAUST+ GEORGE T
FAUSTs WILLIAM R
FELSENFELDs OSCAR
FERGUSONe HENRY G
FERGUSONe LLOYD N
FERGUSONe ROBERT E
FERRELL» RICHARD A
FIELD» WILLIAM D
FIELDNERs ARNO C
FINANe JOHN L
FINLEYe HAROLD &
FISKs BERT
FIVAZs ALFRED &
FLETCHERs DONALD G
FLETCHERs HEWITT G UR
FLORINe ROLAND &
FONER+ SAMUEL N
FOOTE*s PAUL D
FORDe T FOSTER
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FORZIATI9 FLORENCE H
FOSTER» AUREL 0
FOURNIERs ROBERT 0
FOURTs LYMAN
FOWELLSe HARRY A
FOWLERe EMIL E
FOXe DAVID Ww
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FRAMEs ELIZABETH G
FRANKe KARL
FRANKLINe PHILIP J
FRANKLINe TEMPIE R
FRANZes GERALD J
FRAPS¢ RICHARD M
FREDERIKSEs H P R
FREEMANe ANDREW F
FREEMANs MONROE E&
FRENKIEL*s FRANCOIS N
FRIEDMANe LEO
FRIESSe SEYMOUR L
FRUSHs HARRIET L
FULLMER+ IRVIN H
FULTONs ROBERT A
FURUKAWAs GEORGE T
FUSILLO*« MATTHEW H
GABRIELSONe IRA N
GAFAFERe WILLIAM M
SEPTEMBER, 1965
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HAMERe WALTER J
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HAMMONDse H DAVID
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HANDe CADET H JR
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141
HARDERe E C
HARRINGTONe MARSHALL C
HARRISe FOREST K
HARRIS« MILTON
HARRISON® MARK
HARRISONs WILLIAM N
HARTMANNe GREGORY K
HARVALIKse ZV
HARWOODe PAUL D
HASELTINEs NATE
HASKINSe CARYL P
HASSe GEORG H
HAUPTMANe HERBERT
HAWTHORNE « EDWARD w
HAZLETONe LLOYD w
HEINZE PETER H
HELLERe ISIDORE
HENDERSONe E P
HENDERSONe MALCOLM C
HENLEYe ROBERT R
HENNEBERRY*s THOMAS J
HENNEYs DAGMAR
HENRYe THOMAS R
HERMANe CARLTON M
HERMANs ROBERT C
HERSCHMAN»s HARRY K
HERSEYe MAYO D
HERZe ALBERT J
HERZFELD«s CHARLES M
HERZFELDs KARL F
HERZFELDe REGINA F
HESSe WALTER C
HETRICKs FRANK
HEWITTse CLIFFORD A
HEYDENe FRANCIS J
HIATTe CASPAR W
HICKLEYs* THOMAS J
HICKOX« GEORGE H
HICKSe GRADY T
HICKSe VICTOR
HILDEBRANDs EARL M
HILLe FREEMAN K
HILTONes JAMES L
HINMANs wILBUR S JR
HOBBSe ROBERT B
HOCHWALDs FRITZ G
HOERINGe THOMAS C
HOFFMANe JOHN D
HOFFMANN® CLARENCE H
HOFFMASTER*+ EDMUND S
HOGE*® HAROLD J
HOLLIESe NORMAN R §S
HOLL INGSHEAD=s
HOLMESs FRANK H
HOLMGREN»s HARRY D
HOLSHOUSERe WILLIAM L
HONTGe JOHN G
HOOKERs MARJORIE
HOOVER. JOHN I
HOOVERs THOMAS B
HOPPe HENRY
HORTONe BILLY M
HOSTETTERs JC
HOUGHe FLOYD wW
HOWARDs GEORGE w
HOWARDs ROBERT &
HOWE s PAUL E
HUBBARD*s DONALD
HUBERTe LESTER F
HUGHs RUDOLPH
HUMPHREYSe CURTIS J
HUNDLEYe JAMES M
HUNTs WwW HAWARD
HUNTERe GEORGE w IIt
HUNTERe RICHARD S
HUNTERse WILLIAM R
HUNTOONs ROBERT D
HUTCHINSe LEE M
142
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HUTTON» GEORGE L
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INSLEYe« HERBERT
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ISBELLe HORACE S
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JACKSONs JULIUS L
JACOBe KENNETH D
JACOBSe WALTER W
JACOBSe WOODROW C
JACOBSONs MARTIN
JAMES«e LH
JAMESe MAURICE T
JAY« GEORGE E JR
JENe CHIH K
JENKINS« ANNA E
JENKINS» WILLIAM D
JESSUPs RALPH S
JOHANNESENs ROLF B
JOHNSONs DANIEL P
JOHNSONes KEITH C
JOHNSONe PHYLLIS T
JOHNSTONe FRANCIS &
JONES*s HENRY A
JORDANe GARY B
JOYCEe J WALLACE
JUDD«s DEANE B
JUDDe NEIL M
JUDSONs LEWIS Vv
JUHN«¢ MARY
KABISCHe WILLIAM T
KAGARISEs RONALD E
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KALMUSs HENRY P
KANAGY« JOSEPH R.
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KARKENNYe MOSES
KARLFe ISABELLA
KARLFE« JEROME
KARRs PHILIP R
KARRERe ANNIE M H
KARRER»s SEBASTIAN
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KEGELES« GERSON
KELLUMs LEWIS B
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KENNEYe ARTHUR W
KERESTZTESYs JOHN C
KESSLERe KARL G
KEULEGANs GARBIS H
KIES¢ JOSEPH A
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KINGe PETER
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KLEBANOFFe PHILIP S
KLEINe WILLIAM H
KLUTE« CHARLES H
KNAPPs DAVID G
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
KOSTKOWSKI« HENRY J
KOTTERs F RALPH
KRASNY«¢ JOHN F
KRAUSS« ROBERT W
KREITLOWe KERMIT W
KRUGERs JEROME
KULLBACKe SOLOMON
KULLERUDe GUNNAR
KURTZs FLOYD E
KURZWEGe HERMAN H
KUSHNERe LAWRENCE M
LADOe ROBERT
LAKI¢ KOLOMAN
LAKINe HUBERT wW
LAMANNAe CARL
LAMBe FRANK wW
LAMBERTe EDMUND B
LAMBERTse WALTER D
LAMBERTONe BERENICE
LANDIS« PAUL E
LANDSBERGe HELMUT F
LANGe WALTER B
LANGFORDs GEORGE S
LAPHAMe EVAN G
LAPPse RALPH E
LARRIMERe WALTER H
LASHOFs THEODORE w
LASTERse HOWARD J
LATTAe RANDALL
LE CLERGe ERWIN L
LEEs« RICHARD H
LEIGHTYe CLYDE E
LEIKINDe MORRIS C
LEINERe ALAN L
LEONARDe LORRAINE I
LEVERTONe RUTH M
LEVINe ERNEST M
LEVYse SAMUEL
LEYe HERBERT L JR
LIe HUI=-LIN
LICKLIDER» JOSEPH C R
LIDDELs« URNER
LIDEe DAVID R JR
LIEBERMANe MORRIS
LIEBSONs SIONEY H
LIKINS« ROBERT C
LILLYs JOHN C
LINDQUISTe ARTHUR w
LINGs LEE
LINNENBOMe VICTOR J
LIPPINCOTTe ELLTS R
LISTe ROBERT J
LITOVITZse THEODORE A
LITTLEs ELBERT L JR
LLOYDs DANIEL B
LOCKARDs J DAVID
LOCKHARTs LUTHER B JR
LOGANe HUGH L
LORINGe BLAKE M
LOTHROPe S K
LOVEs S KENNETH
LUDFORDs+ GEOFFREY S S
LUTZe JACOB M
LYMANe JOHN
LYNN¢e¢ W GARDNER
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MAC DONALDe WILLIAM M
MACHTAs LESTER
MADORSKYe SAMUEL L
MAENGWYN=DAVIES¢ G D
MAGINe GEORGE B JR
MAHANe ARCHIE I
MATENTHAL« MILLARD
MALONEYe CLIFFORD J
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MC CABEe WILLIAM J
MC CLAINe EDWARD F JR
MC CLELLANs WILBUR D
MC CLUREs FRANK J
MC CLUREs FRANK T
MC CULLOUGHe NORMAN B
MC DONALDs EMMA J
MC ELHINNEYs JOHN
MC INTOSHe ALLEN
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MC KELVEYe VINCENT E
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MC KINNEYe HAROLD H
MC KNIGHTs EDWIN T
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MISER» HUGH D
MISNERe CHARLES w
MITCHELL « J MURRAY JR
MITCHELLe« JOHN W
MITTLEMANe DON
MIZEtLe LOUIS R
MOHLERe FRED L
MOLLARI« MARIO
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MONTROLLs ELLIOTT W
MOORE e« GEORGE A
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MORANs FREDERICK A
MORGANe RAYMOND
MORRISe J A
MORRISe JOSEPH B
MORRIS KELSO B
MORRISONs BENJAMIN Y
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MORRISSe DONALD J
MORTONe JOHN D
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OLIPHANTe MALCOLM W
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OSTENs EDWARD J
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PAGEs BENJAMIN L
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PEISERse H STEFFEN
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PELLAMs JOHN R
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
RICEe
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RICHMOND» JOSEPH C
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
WEINBERGe HAROLD P
WEINTRAUBe ROBERT L
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WEISSe FRANCIS J
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Classification by Place of Employment
1 GOVERNMENT
1A AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT
1AASC AGRICULTURAL STAB & CONS SER
SHEPARDe HAROLD H 2RAY,
1ACSR COOP STATE RESEARCH SERVICE
BYERLYs« THEODORE C 2T
1AFAS FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL SERVICE
HOPP se HENRY 2c
1AFOR FOREST SERVICE
FOWELLS« HARRY A 2
HACSKAYLO»s EDWARD 262KeaL
LITTLEs ELBERT L JR 2Kk2L
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1AM AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE
1AMRP MARKETING REGULATORY PROGRAMS
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1AR AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE
1ARAO OFFICE OF ADMINISTRATOR» ARS
HAINESe KENNETH A 2F2GeyY
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PARKERe MARION W 202K
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HILDEBRANDse EARL M 2G62K2Q
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SAN ANTONIOe JAMES P
SCHECHTERe MILTON S 2E2Y
SCHULTZe EUGENE S 2K
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1C COMMERCE DEPARTMENT
1cC=S OFFICE OF SECRETARY
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HANSENe MORRIS H AFRA
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
1CMAA
RICEe DONALD A
SIMMONSe LANSING G
SMALL» JAMES B
STEARNs JOSEPH L
STRAUBs HARALD Ww
WHITTENs CHARLES A
ALLENe WILLIAM G
1CNBS NATIONAL BUREAU OF
ALEXANDERe SAMUEL N
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ALTs FRANZ L
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DESLATTESs RICHARD D
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DICKSONe GEORGE
DOUGLASe CHARLES A
DOUGLAS* THOMAS B
ETSENHARTs CHURCHILL
FLBOURNes ROBERT 0
ELLINGERe GEORGE A
FERGUSONe ROBERT E
FLETCHERe DONALD G
FLORINe ROLAND &
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FREDERIKSEs HP R
FRUSHs HARRIET L
FULLMERs IRVIN H
FURUKAWAs GEORGE T
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156 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
mild
BNRNC NONRESIDENT?
POPENOEs WILSON
PORTERs B A
RANDSe ROBERT D
RAPPLEYEs HOWARD S
READ¢ W T
REEDs WILLIAM D
REIDs MARY E
RICKER» PERCY L
ROBERTS» FRANK H H
ROGERSe LORE A
ROTHs FRANK L
RYERSONs KNOWLES A
SANFORDs RAYMOND L
SCHOENINGs HARRY W
SCHWARTZs BENJAMIN
SERVICEs JERRY H
SETZLER« FRANK M
SHALOWITZ»s AARON L
SHAPOVALOVs MICHAEL
SHIMER«s H W
SIEGLERs EDOUARD H
SILSRBEE*s FRANCIS B
SMITHs CHARLES M
SMITHe EDGAR R
SMITHs FRANCIS A
SMITHe NATHAN R
SNOKEs HUBERT R
SPENCERs ROSCOE R
SPICER*s H CECTL
ST GEORGE+ RAYMOND A
STEVENSON*s JOHN A
STIEBELINGs HAZEL K
STIMSON*s HAROLD F
STIRLINGe MATHEW W
SUTCLIFFEs WALTER D
SWICKe CLARENCE H
SWINGLE«s CHARLES F
TILDENs EVELYN B
TORRESONs OSCAR WwW
TRUEBLOODs CHARLES K
UMPLEBYs JOSEPH B
VACHERse HERBERT C
VINAL¢ GEORGE w
VOLWILER» ERNEST H
WALKER» EGBERT H
WALTONs GEORGE P
WARD« HENRY P
WATERMANe ALAN T
WATTSe CHESTER B
WEAVERe ELMER R
WEBBs ROBERT w
WEIDAe FRANK M
WEISSe FREEMAN A
WHERRYs EDGAR T
WHITEs ORLAND E
WHITTAKERs COLIN W
WICHERSs ENWARD
WILLIERe LILLIAN E
YOCUMe L EDWIN
ZIES*¢ EMANUEL G
ZIMERMANNs ALFRED G
ZOCHse RICHMOND T
ADAMSs¢ ELLIOT Q
AMBS¢ WILLIAM J
BARBEAUe MARIUS
BENDER» MAURICE
BENNETTe WILLARD H
BERKNER»s L V
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BRECKENRIDGEs ROBERT G
BREITse GREGORY
BREWERe CARL R
BRICKWEODDE*s F G
CALLENs EARL R
CHITWOODs BENJAMIN G
CLEVENe GALE w
SEPTEMBER, 1965
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COTTAMs CLARENCE
DAVISe PHILIP vy
DE FERIETs J KAMPE
DU PONTs JOHN &
DUPONTs JEAN R
ECKERTs w J
EVANSe W DUANE
FELSENFELDs OSCAR
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FRIEDMANs LEO
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GOULDe IRA A
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HAKALAs REINO W
HALL «® E RAYMOND
HALSTEADe BRUCE w
HANDe CADET H JR
HARDERs EC
HARWOOD+s PAUL D
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HUTCHINSs LEE M
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JOHNSON¢ PHYLLIS T
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JORDAN» GARY B
KARRe PHILIP R
KFGELESe GERSON
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KNOPF se ELEANORA B
LAMBe FRANK W
LEINERs ALAN L
LEVYs SAMUEL
LEYs HERBERT L JR
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LIEBSONs SIDNEY H
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MC DONALDe EMMA J
MC KENZIFe¢ LAWSON M
MC WHORTERe FRANK P
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PELLAMe JOHN R
PIGMANe W WARD
PIKL« JOSEF
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PRICEs E wW
READINGse OLIVER S
REINHARTs BRUCE L
RENKINe EUGENE M
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157
SNCOC
RIVLINe RONALD S
ROSSINI» FREDERICK D 2B
RUBEYe WILLIAM W 2D2H3F
SAGERe WILLIAM F Ae
SCOTTs DAVID B 2G62V
SHAPLEYe A H
SHAWe JOSEPH C
SHEN*® SHAN=FU
SHIMKINe DEMITRI B
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SILBERSCHMIDT»s KARL M
SIMHAs ROBERT
SMARTse J SAMUEL 2B
SMITHe HENRY L JR Ze
STAKMANe E C
STEVENSe ROLLIN E
TAUSSKY* OLGA
THOMPSONe JACK C 2x
TILLYERe E D
TOLL« JOHN S 2B3G
TULANEs VICTOR J
TUNELL« GEORGE An
VANGELT« MARIO G 2G
VESTINEe E H
WETDLEINe EDWARD R 2G
WELLMAN«s FREDERICK L
WILSONe RAYMOND & 2B2G
WINTe CECIL T
WULF es OLIVER R
YOUNGe DAVID A JR 2F
SCLUN CLASSIFICATION UNKNOWN
CUTHILL« JOHN R
DAVISe CHARLES M JR
EMERSONs W B
EULERe ELVIRA A
FOXe DAVID W
HESS¢ WALTER C 2vV
HOCHWALDe FRITZ G 2K
HOFFMASTER»s EDMUND S
OSWALDs ELIZABETH J
SAYLORe CHARLES P
VAN EVERAe R W
AMRINEs MICHAEL
PEACOCKe ELIZABETH D
158
NOT CLASSIFIED BY OCCUPATION
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
2B
Classification by Membership in Affiliated Societies
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON
ABBOTe CHARLES G
ABELSONe PHILIP H
ABRAHAMs GEORGE
ADAMSs LFASON H
ALEXANDER»s SAMUEL N
ALLENe HARRY C JR
AL Te FRANZ L
APSTEINe MAURICE
ARMSTRONGs GEORGE T
ASLAKSONe CARL I!
ASTINe ALLEN V
AXILROD»s BENJAMIN M
BALDESe EDWARD J
BARBROWs LOUIS E
BASS«e ARNOLN M
BEACHe LOUIS A
BEARCEs HENRY Ww
BECKETT» CHARLES w
BEITJe K HILDING
BEKKEDAHL« NORMAN
BELSHEIMse RORERT O
BENESCHe WILLIAM
BENNETTe WILLARD H
BERL« WALTER G
BERLINERe ROBERT W
BESTUL« ALDEN B
BIBERSTEIN® FRANK A JR
BLOOMe MORTIMER C
BOGLEe ROBERT w
BRAATENs NORMAN F
BRANSONe HERMAN
BRECKENRIDGEs F C
BREWERe A KEITH
BRICKWEDDE®s F G
BROMBACHER«e W G
BROWNe ALFRED E
BURGERSe JM
BURINGTONée RICHARD S
CALDWELL*«® FRANK R
CALLENs EARL R
CANNONe EDWARD W
CARDERs DEAN S
CARMICHAELe LEONARD
CARRINGTON¢ TUCKER
CARROLL»® THOMAS J
CLAIREs CHARLES N
CLEVENs GALF w
COHNe ROBERT
COLEs« KENNETH S
COOKe HAROLD T
COOKe RICHARD K
COOTERe IRVIN L
COSTRELL* LOUIS
CRAGOEs CARL S
CRANE « LANGDON T JR
CRAVENe JOHN P
CURTISe ROGER w
CURTISS«e LEON F
DARWENTe BASIL DE B
DAVISe RAYMOND
DAVIS« WATSON
DAVISSONe JAMES W
DE PACKHs DAVID C
DE VOREs CHARLES
DOLECEKe RICHARD L
DOUGLAS» CHARLES A
ORYDENe HUGH L
DUERKSENé JACOB A
DUNNINGe KENNETH L
EGLIe PAUL H
ETSENHARTs CHURCHILL
SEPTEMBER, 1965
7TRETD
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ELBOURN:« ROBERT D
ESTERMANNé IMMANUEL
FALLONs ROBERT J
FAUST« WILLIAM R
FONERs SAMUEL N
FOOTEs+ PAUL D
FRAPS¢«¢ RICHARD M
FRENKIEL¢ FRANCOIS N
FULLMERe IRVIN H
FURUKAWA®s GEORGE T
GAMOWs GEORGE
GARDNERe IRVINE C
GARNER« CLEMENT L
GELLER« ROMAN F
GHAFFARI« ABOLGHASSEM
GIBSONs KASSON §S
GIBSONe RALPH E
GISHe OLIVER H
GLASSERse ROBERT G
GOLDBERGs MICHAEL
GORDONe CHARLES L
GRAYs« ERNEST P
GREENe MELVILLE S
GREENSPANe MARTIN
GRISAMORE*s NELSON T
GUILDNERe LESLIE A
HALL» WAYNE C
HAMMERSCHMIDTs WM W
HARRINGTONe MARSHALL C
HARRISONe WILLIAM N
HARRISONe MARK
HARTMANNe GREGORY K
HAUPTMANé HERBERT
HENDERSONe MALCOLM C
HENNEYe DAGMAR
HENRYe THOMAS R
HERSEYe MAYO D
HERZe ALBERT J
HERZFELDs® CHARLES M
HERZFELNe KARL F
HEYDENe FRANCIS J
HOBBSe ROBERT B
HOFFMANe JOHN D
HOGEe HAROLD J
HOLMGRENe HARRY D
HOOVERe JOHN I!
HORTONe BILLY M
HUMPHREYSe CURTIS J
HUNTERe WILLIAM R
HUNTOONe ROBERT D
INSLEYs« HERBERT
TRWINe GEORGE R
JACKSONe JULTUS L
JACOBS+ WALTER W
JENe® CHIH K
JESSUP¢ RALPH S
JOHNSONe DANIEL P
JOHNSONe KEITH C
JOHNSTONe FRANCIS E
JOYCE+ J WALLACE
JUDD+e DEANE B
JUDSONs LEWIS V
KARLE« JEROME
KARRERe SEBASTIAN
KENNARDe RALPH B
KENNEYe ARTHUR W
KESSLERe KARL G
KEULEGANe GARBIS H
KIESe JOSEPH A
KINGe PETER
KLEBANCFFe PHILIP S
KLUTE+ CHARLES H
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160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
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SMITHe HENRY L JR
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161
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HOWEs PAUL E 4CONS AFRA ROBERTSe IRENA Z 2HTRI AMRA
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162 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
2G
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HALLERs HERBERT L
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AMES»« LAWRENCE M
ARMSTRONGs GEORGE T
ARSEMs COLLINS
BABERSe« FRANK H
BALDES+ EDWARD J
BARRETT+ MARGARET D
BLACKse RICHARD B
BLANCe MILTON L
BLUMs WILLIAM
BURINGTONe RICHARD S
BURNETTe HARRY C
BUTLER«e FRANCIS E
BEACHs LOUIS A
BEANs HOWARD S
BEKKEDAHL« NORMAN
BELSHEIMs ROBERT O
BENJAMINe CHESTER R
BERKNERs L V
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BOETONG ELLIS. 7
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BOSWELLe VICTOR R
BOUTWELL*« JOHN M
BOWLES*s ROMALD E
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BRENNERe ABNER
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BRIERs GLENN wW
BROWNe ALFRED E
BIRDe HR
BRUCKe STEPHEN D
CALDWELL« FRANK R
CARHARTs HOMER W
CARMICHAEL + LEONARD
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SEPTEMBER, 1965
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CLARKs KENNETH G
CURTISs ROGER w
CUTTITTAs FRANK
COCHRANes DORIS M
COLEs HOWARD I
COOLIDGEs¢ HAROLD J
CORYs ERNEST N
COYLEs THOMAS D
CHAPINe EDWARD J
CHAPLINEe WR
CHRISTENSONe LEROY D
CRAFTONs PAUL A
CRAGOEs CARL S
DAVIS+ MARION M
DUERKSEN¢ JACOB A
DURBINe CHARLES G
DE CARLOs MICHAEL
DE PUE*s¢ LELAND A
DETWILER SAMUEL B
DOLECEKs RICHARD L
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ELLINGERe GEORGE A
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FAULKNERe JOSEPH A
FAUSTe WILLIAM R
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GUILDNERe LESLIE A
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GEILe GLENN w
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GORDONs FRANCIS R
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HARRISONe WILLIAM N
HARVALIKs Z V
HARWOODs PAUL D
HASKINS*s CARYL P
HAUPTMANe HERBERT
HAZLETONe LLOYD W
HUBBARD*s DONALD
HUNTs W HAWARD
HUNTERe RICHARD S
HUNTERs WILLIAM R
HUTTONs GEORGE L
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HENLEYse ROBERT R
HERMAN¢ CARLTON M
HEYDENse FRANCIS J
HOBBS» ROBERT B
HOERINGe THOMAS C
HOLMES«e FRANK H
HOLSHOUSERs WILLIAM L
HOOVERs JOHN I
HORTONe BILLY M
HOUGHe FLOYD W
HIATTe CASPAR W
HICKOX« GEORGE H
HICKSe GRADY T
HILDEBRAND#é EARL M
Hitte FREEMAN K
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JAY« GEORGE E JR
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MAC DONALDs WILLIAM M
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MARYOTTe ARTHUR A
MATLACKe MARION B
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MC CABEs LOUIS C
MC CLELLAN®s WILBUR D
MC CULLOUGHs NORMAN B
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MILLIKEN® LEWIS T
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
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WILSONs WILLIAM K 1CNBS AFRA SHANNONe JAMES A 1HNIH AFRA
WINSTONe JAY S 1CWEB AFRA TIDBALLe CHARLES 5S 2HGWU AFRA
YUILL« JOSEPH S 1AFOR AFRA WORKMANe WILLIAM G 4CONS AFRE
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YOUNGs ROBERT T JR 1DAHD AFRA 2J COLUMBIA HISTORICAL SOCIETY
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SEPTEMBER, 1965 165
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BORTHWICK4 HARRY A
BOWMANs PAUL W
BROWNe EOGAR
BROWNe RUSSELL G
CASHe EDITH K
CHAPLINE® WR
COOKe HAROLD T
COOK» ROBERT C
COONSe GEORGE H
CULLINANé FRANK P
DERMENs HAIG E
DETWILERe SAMUEL B
DIEHL e WILLIAM W
DRECHSLERe CHARLES
DUTILLYe ARTHEME
EGOLFe DONALD R
ELLIOTT» CHARLOTTE
EMSWELLER«s SAMUEL L
GALLOWAYs RAYMOND A
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HACSKAYLO*s EDWARD
HAMMONDe H DAVID
HEINZE« PETER H
HILDEBRANDe EARL M
HOCHWALDe FRITZ G
HUTCHINSs LEE M™
JENKINS« ANNA &
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LAMBERTe EDMUND B
LE CLERGe ERWIN L
LETGHTY+s CLYDE E
CViMmizee ELSERT = UR
LUTZ« JACOB M
MARTINe JOHN H
MC CLELLANe WILBUR D
MC KINNEYe HAROLD H
MILLERs PAUL R
O BRIENe JOHN A
PARKER«e KENNETH W
PARKER*s MARION W
POLLOCKe BRUCE M
POPEs MERRITT N
RANDS« ROBERT D
REIDe MARY E
RICKERe PERCY L
RODENHISER® HERMAN A
RYALL« A LLOYD
SCHULTZe EUGENE S
SHROPSHIRE® WALTER A
SMITHe NATHAN R
STEEREs RUSSELL L
STEVENSe RUSSELL B
STEVENSON¢ JOHN A
STEWARTs DEWEY
STUARTs NEIL W
TAYLORe MARIE C
THOMASe CHARLES A
WALKER« EGBERT H
WEINTRAUBs ROBERT L
WETSSe FRANCIS J
WHEELERe WILLIS H
WILLIERe LILLIAN E
WOODSe MARK W
YOCUMe L EDWIN
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SOCITETY OF AMERICAN FORESTERS
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
20
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POLINGs AUSTIN C
RABINOWe JACOB
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168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
2x
EN,
RICHMONDs JOSEPH C
RITTe PAUL E
RIVELLOe ROBERT M
SCHUBAUERs GALEN B
SLAWSKY« MILTON M
SMITHe PAUL A
TEPPER*s MORRIS
VINTIe® JOHN P
WALKERe RONALN E
WEISSLERe ALFRED
WILDHACKe WILLIAM A
WOLFF e EDWARD A
AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL
BLANCs MILTON L
BRIERe GLENN W
CRESSMANe GEORGE P
CRY« GEORGE W
FRENKIELs FRANCOIS N
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KLEINe WILLTAM H
KOHLER«® MAX A
LANDSBERGe HELMUT E
LISTse ROBERT J
MAC DONALDs TORRENCE H
MACHTAs LESTER
MARCUS¢e SIDNEY O JR
MARTINe ROBERT H
MITCHELL»® J MURRAY JR
MORANe FREDERICK A
MORTON®s JOHN D
MYERS« WILLIAM H
NAMTAS«s JEROME
NOFFSINGERe TERRELL L
OLIVER VINCENT J
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PUTNINSs PAUL H
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SMITHse RAYMOND G
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INSECTICIDE SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON
BEROZAs MORTON S
BICKLEYs WILLIAM E
BUNNe RALPH w
CAMPBELL*¢ FRANK L
CHRISTENSONs LEROY D
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SEPTEMBER, 1965
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Delegates to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Representing
the Local Affiliated Societies*
Seeeempiical Socicty Of Washington oo. ii... o..cce ces secseseisessasessesnsdeeteenccce Urner Lipper
mrmronolorical Society of Washington .....).2........06...:seccscssesetecsccecc cece STEPHEN T. Boccs
REIL EOCIELY) QE VV ASIITIPTOR foto eco sac loss Sdsseosdceseeseo Setaccceccsscceesss es. ecas JoHn L. Parapiso
PUEMEUBEIOGICLY OL AV ASIN EON oo... o.. occ cs ccss ids csduecssestocesccessersstosesadeccdsssccciceccs. FLorRENcE H. Forziati
Bemmmaierical Society:of Washington ....................c.ccccccccccsccccccssessssssesosseeccssesccccsncscccue, Harotp H. SHEPARD
II PR ADIIC FSOCIELY oo. fcc odsccccetsctlossssdoacseewteace cl edadec ede ALEXANDER WETMORE
STS aN GL GL SCT) ee A Luna Leopoip
emeatoovictysof the District of Columbia ....0.0.....0.....0..0cccesecc THomas M. Brown
INET ONC OICICEY: oO hve aa pos eadtieslenccueee eu U. S. Grant, III
RUPPME TIMP EDELY (OF AV ASIN ETON. 20200: pos .ccs,eesadeccesientesec cla he i ke Peter H. HEINzE
PPM AMRETICAN | FGTESECTS 6... oo... oe coc5énceecescoccscidcseccssessoseeccensescoeeecececcdechececccsececlec Harry A. Fowetts
Meeemmetan Society Of Fngimeers. ...................0..ccccccceccsctocescccssccccscsucsesoccsccescsececcéeccecccesescese, Martin A. Mason
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers .....0....00...0...cccccccccccccceccececcececceccsccseeeceecee. GrorcE ABRAHAM
American Society of Mechanical Engineers 200.000.000.000. oocccceecccccceccececescecssecesesecseeseeceevecee. Wittiam G. ALLEN
Helminthological Society of Washington .o.0.00.0....0......ccccccccscssscsscssscesecsccecsesecscceseceesecseeccecs Marion M. Farr
pementcan Society for Microbiology ....................0c0c.c0-6ccsecsssssevccsscssgstdaseussecosscenceeecdesesseenese Francis B. GorRDON
Seen er Aamerican Military EMpineers ..................61..ccceccssscssscsssssesesssneccssonnvevsssvrevecovenvaesenensens H. P. DemutTH
Pomerroume society of Civil Engineers: ......................:0..cccscecececescecsecacesessensssssnetssstsevens THORNDIKE SAVILLE, JR.
Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine ......................ccccccsesssssssseseveseesneesssteneteeeeveee: FALCONER SMITH
SE MNCATEMERIE LED PEGE FIVECEAIG oo. 5c). Galois os vecd ced cadascede acuscvedvnancnsnstandopecrvedusewekecsivecsobammurapensiveths Hucu L. Locan
International Association for Dental Research .......00..0....0. ccc cccccccccceccseeescsccseseesesssetseseeeesesees Harotp J. Caur
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics................0..0.ccccccceeeee Delegate not appointed —
Pamemican Metcorolopical Society ..........-...0.......cecsascesssestevssscestesseotessedscnseetesnes J. Murray MirtcHeE tt, Jr.
SME SO EIELY GL W SSMATIPUON: 5.asesincececendccisessavcossesnsucoacevnsverncasanieanesvbvsecnnveswbvivenstinicas: H. Ivan RAINWATER
Acoustical Society of rnevioa be NUR Eucla! EAM IA RET Bette CN ARM sah Matcotm C. HENDERSON
MERINDITIW ISIE PEER: | SMELCLY, (55:5. 5c5si. sch. soc yialsdeccsschs ac usedubeniaucseissastons suedbsncoecebeeahenedeutenpsentniagencsdayen Greorce L. WEIL
MEE POG PECHTIOLOBISES, 5.c...c2.2..0sc2--sesencssons sees sneconcenseocestensouaataceavencdancesthtesanusaetend RicHarp P. FARRow
EMIS MPR MR NITE STUNTED EE 3505 60st can 2c soho) Sees ckgneren tesond cara ndacdeenb pegntodada vttobig aeaRR ah all J. J. Dramonp
NESTA CT ALERT CA i Ud en Oe eo cia cuban agente de ohiamn tacts Kurt H. STERN
Washington LEICSTCSTSS CSO WS Toy chy S18 OS 111 SE ag OD es RC ROLES ep Morris LEIKIND
American Association of Physics Teachers .................cccccsccssssssssssscsscseses cesses teseeees Delegate not appointed
* Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective affiliated societies.
Volume 55 SEPTEMBER 1965
CONTENTS
1965 Directory
Generali Informatiiena (603000005) 00) Oy oi 9 an ad
Alphabetical: List of Members .....1/ 00 4.0.8 04 cao
Classification by Place of Employment. ...........................
Classification by Membership in Affiliated Societies .......
Washington Academy of Sciences
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VOLUME 55 NUMBER 7
Journal of the
WASHINGTON
ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES
OCTOBER 1965
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Editor: SaAmueEL B. DEetwiter, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Associate Editors
Harotp T. Coox, Department of Agriculture HELEN L. ReyNoips, Food and Drug Adminis-
Ricuarp P. Farrow, Nation ner “ tration
: jonal Cannes Ass Ratpu G. H. Sr1u, Department of Defense
RussELL B. STEVENS, George Washington Uni-
Harry A. Fowe ts, Department of Agriculture versity
ciation
Contributors
FRANK A. BIBERSTEIN, JR., Catholic University JosEpH B. Morris, Howard University
Cuar_Les A. WHITTEN, Coast & Geodetic Survey Jacos Mazur, National Bureau of Standards
Marjorie Hooxker, Geological Survey ALLEN L. ALEXANDER, Naval Research Laboratory
REUBEN E. Woop, George Washington Univer fjowarp W. Bonn. Public Health Service
sity ‘ :
Epmunp M. Buras, Jr., Harris Research Labo- Victor R. Boswett, USDA, Beltsville
ratories ANDREW F. FREEMAN, USDA, Washington
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ACADEMY OFFICERS FOR 1965
President: Leo ScHUBERT, American University
President-Elect: JouHn K. Taytor, National Bureau of Standards
Secretary: ALPHONSE F. Forziati, Advanced Research Projects Agency
Treasurer: Roman R. Mitter, Naval Research Laboratory
Se ee eS eee
eee
mire
The Menace ot Methuselah:
Possible Consequences of Increased
Lite Expectancy:
Kenneth E. Boulding
Professor of Economics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
In the past ten years we have been
witnessing an extraordinary explosion of
biological knowledge. It seems not unrea-
sonable to suppose, indeed, that in the
field of biology we are now in the position
corresponding to where we were in the
field of nuclear energy in about 1900. We
know that life has a code; we know that
the building up of the body or the pheno-
type of various living organisms is done
by information carriers; and we have a
pretty fair idea what the code is. If past
experience is any guide, this information
should begin to result in profound prac-
tical results in a couple of generations. In
1900, we knew that nuclear energy ex-
isted, but we did not have the slightest
idea as to how to tap it. Today we can
almost say that we know the code of life;
we just don’t know how to write it. The
possibility, however, of quite radical
changes in our control over biological
processes is something which every stu-
dent of the future has to take into account.
One of the greatest mysteries of bio-
logical systems is aging. In the short run,
the biological system is an open system,
in von Bertalanffy’s sense. That is, it
consists of a structure which we might
almost describe as a role structure, the
role occupants of which are constantly
changing. In the body of any organism,
the particular atoms which comprise the
* An address before the Washington Acad-
emy of Sciences on March 18, 1965.
OCTOBER, 1965
body are continually changing; the struc-
ture, however, remains much the same,
just as in a flame the atoms are con-
tinually moving from one zone to the
other but the zones remain constant.
Flames do not age. They go out when
they have no more fuel or when the en-
vironment is disturbed; but if fuel and
oxygen are continually provided, there is
no reason why a flame should not last
forever. The flame, indeed, in many cul-
tures has been a symbol of immortality.
The body is likewise an open system, but
it seems to have certain irreversible proc-
esses at work in it, which eventually
change the nature of the system. Part of
these processes are the processes of
growth, the element in the _ biological
organism which assures that we do not
simply maintain the open system of the
baby, but change this gradually to the
adult. We really understand very little
about this. It may be the same growth
process that produces aging, which is a
kind of negative growth, or it may be
quite a different process. All we seem to
have at the moment is a few speculations
regarding the accumulation by irreversible
processes of certain substances in the
body, but at present we certainly don’t
know enough about aging to do anything
about it. If indeed, however, as one sus-
pects is the case, aging is built into the
organism by its genetic information sys-
tem, the possibilities of.intercepting this
information and changing it seem to open
171
up, even though the techniques of doing
this are as inconceivable today as the
techniques of nuclear energy were in
1900. It may be, of course, that this is a
pipe dream, that some fatal Heisenberg
Principle will be discovered which will
deprive us of the opportunity of putting
new information into the system; but at
the moment, at any rate, there seems to
be no nonexistence theorem to this effect,
and the possibility of the discovery of
the Fountain of Youth is perhaps just
around the corner.
If the aging process were really under-
stood and controlled, this would open up
the possibility of an almost indefinite ex-
pansion of the human life span. Up to the
present, all improvement in medicine has
only enabled more people to live to be
aged. The probability of living to be
seventy is much greater today than it was
a hundred years ago; the probability of
living to be a hundred is no greater at
all, and may even be less. Once we crack
the aging barrier, however, there seems
to be no reason why the process should
not be slowed down indefinitely, and why
man should not remain in full vigor for
centuries. Bernard Shaw, with the un-
canny insight of the artist, foreshadowed
something like this in his “Back to Me-
thuselah,” though the methods which he
proposed were more akin to Christian
Science than to modern biology.
One caution must be added here, against
undue hopes of immortality. Old age is
by no means the only cause of death, and
even though we have had remarkable suc-
cess in eliminating causes of death in the
young, we have not eliminated them com-
pletely. A particularly intractable cause
of death which is not closely related to
age is accidents; and even if we elimi-
nated all causes of death except this, the
existence of an accident rate would pre-
vent the expectation of life from shooting
off toward infinity. Indeed, at the present
accident rate, even if all other causes of
death were removed, the average expec-
tation of life would probably not rise
172
much above two or three hundred years.
Even this relatively modest extension,
however, as we shall see, would create an
enormous crisis.
All this, of course, is science fiction.
In these days, however, one seems to have
to read science fiction in order to keep up
with the news. What is certain is that any
major extension of the span of active
human life would create a crisis for the
human race almost beyond imagining.
Even if there is the slightest possibility of
such an event, we should begin to think
about it now and to prepare ourselves for
the totally new, wonderful, and terrifying
world which this possibility opens up.
What I am trying to do in this paper is
little more than social science fiction. Our
knowledge of social systems is still fairly
primitive, and our knowledge of any
system whatever beyond the limits of the
variables which we have experienced is
precarious. We do know enough about
social systems, however, to be able to
make at least speculative projections of
these extreme values.
The essential problem arises because
society has an age-specific role structure,
and if the age distribution of the popula-
tion does not correspond to the role
structure, various tensions and difficulties
arise. There is one role for the new-born
baby, another for the ten-year-old, an-
other for the teenager, another for the
college student, another for the person of
middle age, another for the aged. This is
true of occupational roles; we do not
expect a teenager to be a college presi-
dent, or a grandfather to be an office
boy. Age specificity is even more impor-
tant in other roles. The five-year-old is
most unlikely to be a parent, and it is a
rare woman who gives birth to a child
after the age of sixty. We expect children
to play hopscotch; we do not expect
elderly bankers to do the same. The one
item of information which tells us more
about anybody than anything else is the
date of his birth. The age specificity of
roles is not, of course, absolute. There is
a certain amount of flexibility. Occasion-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ally we find a man of thirty becoming a
college president, or a child prodigy giv-
ing a concert, or a man of eighty becom-
ing a father. For each role in society we
may have perhaps a ten-year margin in
regard to the age that can occupy it. Even
when all allowance is made for this flexi-
bility, however, the age specificity of
roles is a limiting factor of enormous
importance.
We are perceiving at the moment,
especially in the tropical countries, a little
foretaste of what a major upset in age
distribution can bring about. In large parts
of the tropical world, there was a drastic
decline in infant mortality in the years
around 1950, due mainly to the introduc-
tion of chemical insecticides and the sub-
sequent control of malaria. In some coun-
tries in less than two years the infant
death rate was halved. As a result we now
find in many countries enormous cohorts
of teenagers, almost twice as many as
their somewhat elder brothers and sisters.
The impact of this is only beginning to be
felt in urban unemployment, juvenile
delinquency, and the general disruption
of these societies, and this is something
which is likely to increase and become a
world-wide problem in the next ten years,
as these youngsters enter the labor mar-
ket. The effects on traditional societies
are going to be particularly disruptive. If
twice the usual number of teenagers are
seeking to enter the role structure of a
traditional society, it is hard to see how it
can avoid being blown to pieces. Either
half the teenagers will have to be driven
out of it into the cities, or there will be
widespread disruption and maladjustment.
At the other end of the scale, we find
that even the increase in the number of
the aged has created severe social prob-
lems. In the ancient world, old age was a
respectable and honorable role, mainly
because so few people survived to it, and
scarcity gave value. In the modern world,
where almost everyone survives into his
seventies, the aged become of little value
to society, they have no clear role, they
OCTOBER, 1965
become disorganized, they tend to be
segregated, and old age begins to take on
terrors which it did not have in an earlier
society. | was struck when I was in Korea
with the extraordinary serenity and
beauty of the faces of the old people in
the villages, by contrast with the anxiety,
the striving after a false youthfulness,
and the pathetic discontent of so many
old people in our own society. In the
traditional society, if you succeeded in
living to be old, you had something to
look forward to. In modern society it is
so easy to live to be old that there is
nothing much to look forward to, and this
can easily have a disintegrating effect on
the whole of life.
What might be called the traditional
age-specific role structure in society has
been developed over the course of human
history to fit in with pre-scientific mor-
tality tables. Even the relatively small
changes in age distribution which have
occurred in the present century have
created severe problems. Imagine, then,
the kind of problems which would be
created if large numbers of people started
to live to be a hundred and fifty or two
hundred, or even five hundred. This
would create a set of wholly unprece-
dented problems, simply because the age-
specific role structure would be unable to
adjust fast enough to correspond to the
age distribution. It would create problems
not only for the old but for the young,
because of the fact that it is not the
absolute age structure which matters so
much as the relative age structure, that is,
the proportion of people of different ages.
In a society in which everyone lives to be
seventy, the equilibrium proportion of
children and young people up to adoles-
cence is about a quarter of the total
population. In a society in which every-
body lives to be a hundred and eighty,
this would fall to a tenth of the popula-
tion. If we can imagine a society in which
the average age of death is a thousand,
only one percent of the population in
equilibrium would be under the age of
173
ten. Formal education, assuming that this
ended in the twenties as it does now,
would be a very small part of the total
human enterprise, and it is almost incon-
ceivable for us to imagine a set of age-
specific roles which would correspond to
such longevity.
On the positive side of the picture, one
may point to the fact that while longevity
would create enormous. problems, it
would also increase the power of the
human race, one would hope, to deal with
these problems. In terms of simple eco-
nomics, economic development is impos-
sible if the average age at death is below
a certain figure, at a guess about thirty.
Under these circumstances, half the popu-
lation is under the age of fifteen, the
working force is a small fraction of the
population, and the sheer requirements of
transmitting the culture from such a small
adult population to such a large child
population are so great that there is noth-
ing left over for growth, development, and
change. An absolutely necesary prereq-
uisite for economic development is an
increase in the average age at death, and
one suspects that this was a major factor
in the extraordinary and apparently ir-
reversible development which followed
the invention of agriculture and the do-
mestication of plants and animals. The
difference between the average age at
death of Paleolithic and Neolithic man may
not have been more than five or ten years,
but this small margin was enough to
insure that Paleolithic man, in effect,
stagnated for an inconceivable length of
time. The moment man entered the Neo-
lithic, he began an irreversible and ac-
celerating process of development, simply
because he now lived long enough, thanks
to more secure and adequate food sup-
plies, so that he did not have to spend
all his time and energy in simply trans-
mitting his culture to the next generation.
A substantial increase in longevity, such
as we are contemplating here, would re-
lease even more resources for growth and
development, assuming, of course, as I am
174
doing throughout, that the increase in
longevity is accomplished without any
substantial impairment of the physical or
mental powers.
Let us now take a brief glimpse at
some of the organizations and institutions
of society which are likely to be affected
by a substantial increase in longevity—
let us say, modestly, to two hundred years.
The first of these is obviously the family.
A substantial increase in longevity would
correspondingly reduce the childbearing
and child-raising function of the family.
If the population is eventually to reach
equilibrium, each couple will not be able
to average much more than two children.
One can imagine, therefore, a couple
marrying, say, in the twenties, having all
their children raised and independent by
the time they are fifty, and then enjoying
say a hundred and fifty years more of
childless married life. It would be surpris-
ing if this did not produce some strains,
especially if sexual activity remained un-
impaired for most of this period. It would
not be surprising to see the development
of new forms of household arrangements,
for instance joint families on the Oneida
Community plan, or even a rise in monas-
ticism, or perhaps a retreat to the desert
and the hermits’ caves. One certainly
wonders what will happen to the sense of
kinship, even with a stationary population.
By the time a man gets to be two hundred,
he will have quite a lot of descendants,
and how interested he will remain in his
great - great - great-great-great-grandchildren
is a little hard to predict. The economics
of the family certainly changes somewhat
under this kind of structure. Inheritance
will become a relatively unimportant as-
pect of income redistribution, and any
great expectations will indeed be long
deferred. Wages and salaries are likely to
be the only form of income which will be
adequate to support most persons, though
the pattern of retirement on the death of
one’s parents would probably become the
dominant model, as it would only be very
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
late in life, say at about a hundred and
seventy-five, that anything would be in-
herited.
The effect on other organizations, such
as businesses, universities, or government
departments, of a substantial increase in
longevity, would be even more drastic
than on the family. In the family, at least,
the main difference in reorganization
would be over fairly early, and after that
the reaction would be optional. In the case
of the organization, there is a much more
age-specific role structure, with each level
of the hierarchy corresponding roughly
to a certain age group. It is even written
in the American Constitution that the
President must be over thirty-five. Be-
cause of the fact that income, status, and
responsibility usually rise with age, an
individual can make economic progress
even if the society does not. The rate at
which his income and status are likely to
increase, however, depends on the age
distribution. There are always fewer roles
in the higher levels of a hierarchy than in
the lower levels. If the mortality at each
age was such that the number of survivors
at each age group corresponded to the
number of places in the hierarchy, every-
one who survived would be automatically
promoted, and those who don’t survive
presumably don’t mind. Even the present
decline in mortality in middle age has
created real problems, as now there are
far more individuals in each age group
than there are positions in the hierarchy
which correspond to the age group. If
everybody lives to be seventy, there may
be only one position at the top of the
hierarchy which is appropriate for the
age, and a very large number of frus-
trated and disappointed seventy-year-olds
will be found at the lower levels.
An increase in longevity, to say two
hundred, would accentuate this problem
enormously. The average rate of rise of
income and status is likely to be lower,
the greater the average age at death. If
the average age at death is two hundred,
the rate of rise in income and status per-
OCTOBER, 1965
haps for the first hundred years of life
will be almost negligible, and the pros-
pect of being an assistant professor for a
hundred and fifty years might daunt the
most enthusiastic of academics. It is the
propensity of the old, rich, and powerful
to die that gives the young, poor, and
powerless, hope. When death is postponed,
so is promotion. This will unquestionably
introduce enormous psychological strains,
which might well threaten the functioning
of large hierarchical organizations.
The effect on the educational system
would not be confined to the general
effect on organizations. Knowledge tends
to grow at such a rate that a professor
easily finds himself obsolete even in his
fifties, and certainly the Ph.D. could
hardly be regarded as a union card for
university teaching for a hundred and
seventy-five years, again assuming that
intellectual vigor was unimpaired with
age. The contrast between the distin-
guished and the undistinguished would be
enormously accentuated. Imagine the uni-
versities today scrambling for Adam
Smith and Ricardo, still in their prime at
the age of two hundred or so.
In a society of Methuselahs, formal
education would become a very small part
of human activity. In some ways, this
might be desirable. As scarcity develops
value, the scarcity of children and young.
people would make them highly valuable
to society, and a great deal would be put
into their education. It would almost cer-
tainly happen, for instance, that formal
education would be extended many years
beyond what it is now. We might very
well expect it to go on for forty or fifty
years if the life span increased to two
hundred. Whether this would really in-
crease the competence of the human race
is a nice point on which [I would not
venture an answer.
The impact on savings, insurance, pen-
sion plans, and indeed economic life in
general would certainly be drastic. The
consumption function in any society is
highly dependent on the age distribution.
175
By and large, the young and the old
consume more than they produce and
those in middle life produce more than
they consume. If the proportion, both of
the young and of the unproductive old, is
small, with the present psychology at
least, the consumption function is likely
to be very low. Unless, therefore, there
are deliberate attempts to offset this in
the form of government expenditures or
budget deficits, there is very likely to be
a chronic state of deficient demand and
unemployment. A man who lives to be
two hundred would be able to accumulate
enormous amounts of capital by saving a
relatively small proportion of his income
each year. Suppose, for instance, he were
saving on the usual kind of pension plan,
by which he saved, say 10 percent of his
income; and suppose his income averages
$10,000 a year. In a working life of two
hundred years, with interest at 5 percent,
he would accumulate $358,000,000. Even
if the rate of interest were only a modest
1 percent, he would still accumulate
$145,000. If there were only a few Me-
thuselahs in a society, and if they had an
inclination towards thrift, it would not be
long before they had gathered unto them-
selves most of the wealth of the economy.
Indeed, this problem is not unknown. In
the Middle Ages, the church and its con-
stituent bodies operated as Methuselahs, a
monastery, for instance, being theoreti-
cally immortal; and in many countries the
church did in fact acquire so much of the
wealth that it was eventually dispossessed.
In Swift’s wonderful chapter on _ the
Struldbrugs in Gulliver's Travels, which is
the first, and still the best, essay on this
“copious and delightful” subject, as Swift
calls it, he says, “. . . if it had been my
good fortune to come into the world a
struldbrug, as soon as I could discover
my own happiness, by understanding the
difference between life and death, I] would
first. resolve, by all arts and methods
whatever, to procure myself riches. In the
pursuit of which, by thrift and manage-
ment, I might reasonably expect, in about
176
two hundred years, to be the wealthiest
man in the kingdom.” What would hap-
pen if all the other struldbrugs had the
same ambition is not altogether clear.
The impact of longevity on saving and
interest rates raises problems of economic
motivation which have haunted economics
for a long time. Let us take first a simple
but quite unrealistic assumption, that a
person saves during his working life in
order to equalize his consumption in all
the years of his life, including the years
of retirement when he has no income. Let
us suppose, then, that the individual has
fifteen years of retirement without in-
come. The following table shows what
proportion of his income in each year of
his working life he must save in order to
provide for his retirement, leaving no net
worth at the end, with various rates of
interest. We see, for instance, that with a
working life of fifty years at 5 percent
per annum rate of interest, we need to
save 4.7 percent of our income in order
to provide for our old age. If the working
life is 185 years, we need only save $1 in
$10,000. Saving for old age, of course, is
not the only motivation for saving, and
indeed in an equilibrium population, sav-
ing of this kind would result in no net
saving at all, as the dis-saving of the old
would exactly offset the saving of those
in middle life. However, the fact that in
a population of Methuselahs a very large
proportion of the population would in
fact be in middle life and of working age
means that in a market society it would
be very easy to run into an under-con-
sumption problem, and every effort
would have to be made to diminish saving
and see that people spent almost up to
the hilt of their income.
The effect on interest rates is some-
what problematical, and indeed merely to
pose the problem reveals the extraordi-
nary deficiencies of economics in this
respect. High interest rates are in a sense
a subsidy for thrift, and in a world of
Methuselahs, this subsidy could become
very large at interest rates which are
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
common today, as we see, for instance,
by the fact that a difference in interest
rates between 1 percent and 5 percent
changes the lifetime accumulation of our
Table 1. Proportion of Income That Must
of 15 Years
Rate of interest 0
(% per annum)
Percentage income saved
in working years:
(1) Working life = 50
years
(2) Working life = 185 1.5
years
2.6 0.7 0.2
decumulations, and inheritance. In _ the
absence of any explicit model of the
problem, however, we can only guess at
the answer.
be Saved to Provide for a Retirement Period
0.03 0.012
(Note: if n is the number of years lived after starting work, and s the number of years of re-
tirement, n-s being the working life span, and ithe rate of interest, the proportion of income saved
in each year of working life, assuming constant income, is a@ — [ (1 -+7)&—1]/L[ (1 + 1)"—1].)
Methuselah above from a modest and
reasonable $145,000 to an absurd $358.-
000,000. It seems almost certain that if
the redistributional effects of different
capacities for thrift and different inherit-
ance patterns are not to be intolerable,
rates of interest would have to fall at
least to the neighborhood of 1 percent
and below.
The impact of longevity on the distri-
bution of property is again a problem of
enormous interest, but one which at the
moment economists seem to have no ap-
paratus to solve. It is an astonishing
tribute, indeed, to the extent to which we
take the average length of human life for
granted, that we never work it in as an
explicit variable in our models. Death is
like bankruptcy; it breaks up an existing
gestalt of assets which are bound together
by the person, and the component parts
of a divided inheritance almost certainly
do not grow as fast as the asset complex
did before death broke it up, especially,
of course, where the deceased himself
was an important element in the asset
complex. In a world of Methuselahs, this
event would be much rarer, hence one
suspects that there would be much less
redistribution from the rich to the poor
in the natural course of accumulations,
OCTOBER, 1965
All these considerations suggest that
longevity is likely to present a much more
serious problem for a market economy
than, for instance, automation presents,
when it comes to maintaining full em-
ployment on the one hand and maintain-
ing a distribution of property which is
reasonably equitable on the other. It is by
no means impossible that a serious exten-
sion of longevity would make market
economies quite unmanageable and un-
stable and that the degree of centralized
planning and control would have to in-
crease. This might be all too acceptable to
the Methuselahs themselves, if there were
not too many of them, who would cer-
tainly be in an admirable position to
dominate all the positions of power, both
political and economic, in the society.
This might lead either to a stable subordi-
nation for the non-Methuselahs, or there
might be revolutions, and a certain equi-
librium in the length of human life might
assert itself through violence.
The short-run dynamic effects might be
very different from the long-run, depend-
ing very much on how the increase in
longevity came about. We might suppose,
for instance, as the extreme case, that
the treatment for longevity was very easy
and could be given to everybody. so that
EV
almost literally, death would take a holi-
day for, say, a hundred or two hundred
years. This would be a black day for the
morticians. Furthermore, it would com-
pletely upset all existing contractual ar-
rangements regarding pensions and an-
nuities, which are calculated, of course,
on what we think of as a normal life
table. All existing pension plans would
soon be bankrupted; old age and survi-
vors insurance would soon gobble up the
whole national budget; and there would
have to be a general moratorium on ear-
lier contractual agreements. The problem
could easily be solved, of course, by
simply raising the age at which retirement
began and pension benefits were paid.
The sellers of life insurance, of course,
would enjoy a corresponding capital gain,
and this again would probably be ad-
justed by the renegotiation of contracts.
While there would be many difficult
technical problems involved in all this,
there seems nothing in the nature of the
case to make these problems insoluble.
If longevity is costly and can only be
given to a few people, a political problem
of some magnitude would almost certainly
arise. Is longevity a civil right? Is it an
economic good, to be appropriated by the
wealthy? Is it to go to the politically
deserving? Is it to be allocated according
to some eugenic test? These are problems
which we may be thankful we do not have
to face at the moment. The only thing
which I can think of which would make a
greater political upset is weather control,
which would almost certainly create po-
litical and legal problems quite beyond
our ability to manage.
Finally, one wonders what longevity
would do to the human condition and to
the stock of knowledge, wisdom, and
competence which is the most important
stock of the human race. If we are to
believe Bernard Shaw, we must go back
to Methuselah before the human race can
hope to better its condition, simply be-
cause, in the Pennsylvania Dutch proverb,
we get “too soon oldt and too late
178
schmardt.” If we envisage the human
organism growing in experience and
knowledge while maintaining its health
and vigor for much longer periods of
time than it does now, the predictions of
Bernard Shaw might come true. It is cer-
tainly true that death causes an enormous
wastage and depreciation of human
knowledge, which has to be replaced
painfully and expensively in each genera-
tion. It is a somewhat frightening thought
that the whole mass of human culture is
totally lost every seventy years or there-
abouts, and has to be replaced by educa-
tion and experience in that period. This
may easily put a very sharp limitation on
the total amount of knowledge that the
human race can acquire, unless there is
indeed an increase in longevity.
On the other hand, we may easily run
into the problem of the inhibiting effect
of old knowledge on the acquisition of
new. The unlearning that must often be
done if new knowledge is to be acquired
seems to be more difficult than the ac-
quisition of the knowledge itself. The
great virtue of the institution of death is
that this is a way of unlearning, painfully
drastic, but effective from the point of
view of society. If, as Will Rogers is
supposed to have said, “The trouble with
people isn’t what they don’t know, it’s
what they do know that ain’t so,” the
possibility of lifetimes of two hundred
years—or more—applied in the acquisi-
tion of negative knowledge is a little
frightening. Certainly the rate of social
evolution might easily be slowed up
rather than advanced by the possession
of such an enormous dead weight of ex-
perience. It may be, of course, that along
with the kinds of knowledge which will
be necessary to produce genuine longevity
we may also crack the problem of the
obstacles to learning, and learning drugs
may be as common as aspirin or DDT.
Still, one shudders a little to contemplate
the possibilities of organizational rigidity
which might be introduced if there were
no powerful people in a society under the
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
age of two hundred. Under these circum-
stances, youth might easily despair of ever
rising to positions of power, and would
dissipate its freshness and energy in folly
and riotous living.
At the other end of the scale, there is
Swift's hideous vision of the Struld-
brugs.* Suppose longevity did not go
along with the increase of knowledge and
wisdom, but with a slow and progressive
moral and mental decay. Under these cir-
cumstances, of course, it is improbable
that we would encourage it or permit it.
Nevertheless, the taste for life is so strong
that if life were for sale, many would
unquestionably buy it. One can perhaps
visualize the extreme case in which lon-
gevity passes into immortality. The church
has promised immortality for a long time.
It is probably fortunate, for it and for
us, that the promise has been cashed only
in hope. If you could have an operation
for immortality, would you have it? How
much would you pay for it? This fright-
ening prospect now at least seems to be
somewhere over the horizon. Under these
circumstances, the business of departing
from life would have to be a voluntary
act, and we would at least begin to
appreciate the enormous benefits which
the institution of death has brought to
mankind.
* “They were the most mortifying sight I ever
beheld; and the women were more horrible than
the men. Besides the usual deformities in ex-
treme old age, they acquired an additional
ghastliness, in proportion to their number of
years, which is not to be described; and among
half a dozen I soon distinguished which was the
eldest, although there was not about a century
or two between them.” Jonathan Swift, Gulli-
ver’s Travels, Part Three, Chapter X (page 213
of Pocket edition, New York, 1939).
MN
OCTOBER, 1965
ACHIEVEMENT AWARD
NOMINATIONS REQUESTED
The Committee on Awards for Scien-
tific Achievement has called attention to
the Academy’s annual scientific achieve-
ment awards program. Nominations for
awards will be received at the Washing-
ton Academy of Sciences office, 1530 P
St., N.W., until November 12.
Each year the Academy gives awards for
outstanding achievement in each of five
areas—hiological sciences, engineering
sciences, physical sciences, mathematics,
and teaching of science (including mathe-
matics). The 1965 winners of these
awards will be honored at the annual
dinner meeting of the Academy early in
1966. Academy fellows and members are
invited to submit nominations for the
awards, in accordance with the following
procedures.
Eligibility. Candidates for the first four
awards must have been born in 1926 or
later; there is no age limit on the teach-
ing of science award. All candidates must
reside within a radius of 25 miles from
the zero milestone behind the White
House. It is not necessary that a candi-
date be a member of a society affiliated
with the Washington Academy of
Sciences.
Recommendation. Nomination forms
can be obtained from the Academy office.
Use of these forms is not mandatory, but
the sponsor’s recommendation should in-
clude the following: (a) General biog-
raphy of candidate, including date of
birth, residence address, academic experi-
ence with degrees and dates, and _ post-
academic experience with particular de-
tailed reference to work for which an
award is recommended; (b) list of pub-
lications with reprints, particularly of
that work for which recognition is sug-
gested. If reprints are not available, com-
plete references to publications must be
included.
Citation. Particular attention should be
given to preparation of a citation (80
179
typewriter spaces or less) which, in sum-
mary, states the candidate’s specific ac-
complishments and which would be used
in connection with presentation of award
to the successful candidate.
Re-nomination. Former nominees may
be re-nominated with or without addi-
tional evidence, provided sponsors make
known their desires by letter to the
general chairman of the Committee.
Early submission of biographical and
publications information will facilitate
the evaluation of nominations. Further
information can be obtained from the
various chairmen, as follows:
Edward A. Mason (general chairman), Uni-
versity of Maryland (WA 7-3800, Ext. 212).
George B. Chapman (biological sciences),
Georgetown University (337-3300, Ext. 391).
Maurice Apstein (engineering sciences), Harry
Diamond Laboratories (244-7700, Ext. 7735).
John D. Hoffman (physical sciences), National
Bureau of Standards (362-4040, Ext. 564 or
612).
Franz L. Alt (mathematics), National Bu-
reau of Standards (362-4040, Ext. 7686).
J. David Lockard, (teaching of science), Uni-
versity of Maryland (WA 7-3800, Ext. 221 or
7529) .
T-THOUGHTS *
Environment for Creativity
Is poverty inimical to creativity? It did
not prevent Saavedra de Cervantes from
writing Don Quixote nor Rembrandt Van
Rijn from becoming Holland’s greatest
painter.
We find Cervantes, the son of destitute
parents, as a common soldier in Philip
II’s army, severely wounded in the Battle
of Lepanto, captured on his way home by
Algerian pirates and released in 1586
after five difficult years in prison. Re-
turning home, he faced a family sunken in
debt. As a subordinate assistant in the tax
collector’s office, he had to struggle in-
cessantly to make ends meet. He had even
been imprisoned innocently during the
course of this employment.
180
Rembrandt’s poverty was such that his
creditors sold his house and auctioned off
his collection. When he died in 1669, all
he had to his name was some old clothes
and painting gear.
Does this infer that poverty actually
stimulates creativity? It wasn’t so in the
case of Leo Tolstoy and Charles Dickens.
Tolstoy was a nobleman who loved
horses and the hunt. He spent much time
looking over his estate, expanding it until
he finally owned 16,000 acres. He had a
large family with 13 children. He did not
have to worry about money. It was during
such a period of wealth that he com-
pleted Anna Karenina and War and Peace,
two of the greatest novels the world had
ever seen. “How this came about,” as
Somerset Maugham puts it, “is a mystery
as inexplicable as that the son and heir
of a stodgy Sussex squire should have
written the Ode to the West Wind.”
Dickens was also blessed with material
goods. He was respected, admired, and
sought after. He enjoyed success as a
public performer and celebrity. Yet, im
the midst of this affluence, prolific and
very good writings kept pouring from
Dickens’ pen.
Is being ordered to do something a
great hindrance? It did not interfere with
Michelangelo’s completion of the tour de
force of the huge frescoes of the Sistine
Chapel within four years, painting on his
back looking upwards.
We read in his letter rebuking someone
for addressing him as Sculptor Michelan-
gelo: “Tell him not to address his letters
to the Sculptor Michelangelo, for here I
* Dr. Ralph Siu’s “T-Thoughts on Research
and Engineering Management” have been issued
since August 1960 as a series of weekly memo-
randa on the management of research and engi-
neering: Originally addressed to Army science
management personnel, they have attained a con-
siderable circulation in Government and other
circles. For ready reference, the Army Research
Council republished the first 222 T-Thoughts in
collected form, in January 1965.
Selected T-Thoughts will be quoted in the
Journal from time to time.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
am known only as Michelangelo Buonar-
roti. . . | have never been painter nor
sculptor, in the sense of having kept a
shop although I have served the
people; but this I did under compulsion.”
Is good health a prerequisite? It was
not so for Marcel Proust.
Marcel Proust suffered from asthma,
rheums, fevers, and the attendant tor-
ments that continually plagued him. He
would seldom leave his bed, with sweat-
ers and mufflers over a long night gown,
stockings and night cap. His room was
darkened with closed shutters and drawn
curtains; correspondence, manuscripts,
clothing, medicines, and manuscripts,
paraphernalia scattered about in _ total
disorder. Yet it was under these condi-
tions that he practiced, as he called it,
his “travaux d’architecte” and composed
the greatest novel of the century, Remem-
brance of Things Past.
Is peace of mind essential? No. There
are many examples of which we may
quote three.
There is the writer Fyodor Dostoyev-
sky, the creator of Crime and Punishment
and The Brothers Karamozov. He seemed
to have always been in a rush to com-
plete his stories so as to satisfy his credi-
tors. He was subject to fits of epilepsy.
He had a deep passion for gambling
which led to disaster. His mind was con-
tinually tormented by carnal temptations
and the search for harmony, truth, and
God.
There is Paul Gauguin, whose beautiful
Tahitian natives and landscapes are joys
to behold. He left his wife and four
children and made himself disgustingly
disagreeable to his wife’s relatives, from
whom he sponged. He lived under terrible
poverty and mental distress. He even at-
tempted to commit suicide with arsenic
atop a tropical mountain. And, as if fate
was determined that his life of turbulence
was not to cease then, he did not steal
sufficient arsenic, which amount left him
only deathly ill for days.
Even sanity does not appear indispen-
sable. We are familiar with Vincent Van
Gogh, with his desperate loneliness, with
the feverish strain under which he
worked, with his attack of insanity, and
finally with his suicide at the age of 37.
It would appear that, while we may be
able to establish conditions in our re-
search organization that will foster pro-
ductivity by the average man of talent, it
is clear that environment alone will not
lead to the greeat “breakthrough.” The
source of man’s greatness seems to be
within himself. What the environment
can do, however, is to entice the genius
to remain or to force him to move on—
like Leonardo Da Vinci restlessly migrat-
ing from Florence to Milan, from Milan
to Florence, from the employ of Cesare
Borgia to the Pope to King Francis I.
The Big Itch
There is a tendency on the part of top
management to concentrate on the “big”
issues and let the little petty annoyances
continue uncorrected. Yet there’s an old
proverb to the effect that “it is easier for
a person to stand pain than to stand itch.”
Hot Water
I do not wish to suggest G. K. Chester-
ton’s approach to everyone. But for those
who can take it, he said, “I believe in
getting into hot water. It keeps you
clean.”
We
Some people do try so hard to be
modest. But Mark Twain insisted that:
“The only people entitled to use ‘we’ in
the singular sense are kings, editors, and
people with tapeworms.”
—Ralph G. H. Siu
MN
OCTOBER, 1965
181
Academy Proceedings
ELECTIONS TO FELLOWSHIP
The following persons were elected to
fellowship in the Academy at the Board
of Managers meeting on May 20:
BRUCE N. AMES, chief, Section of
Microbial Genetics, National Institutes of
Health, “in recognition of his outstanding
contributions to molecular genetics.”
(Sponsors: E. A. Mason, E. T. Bolton.)
ROBERT 6B. BECKMANN, professor
and head of the Chemical Engineering
Department, “in recognition of his con-
tributions to chemical engineering and
chemical engineering education, in par-
ticular his researches on mass transfer in
liquid-liquid extraction systems.” (Spon-
sors: E. A. Mason, H. W. Schamp, Jr.,
CE] White:)
DONALD F, BRANDEWIE, chairman
of Science Department, Swanson Junior
High School, Arlington, “in recognition
of his competence and effective teaching
of science to junior high school students,
and his contribution to the development
of a curriculum in earth and_ space
science.” (Sponsors: L. Schubert, R. K.
Cook.)
JEAN R. DUPONT, neuropathologist,
Department of Neurophysiology, Walter
Reed Army Institute of Research, “in
recognition of his outstanding and origi-
nal research in the peripheral innervation
of the gut.” (Sponsors: E. T. Bolton,
E. A. Mason.)
JOSEPH A. FAULKNER, head of
Acoustics and Electronics Division, Naval
Ordnance Laboratory, “in recognition of
project management of the highest order
during development of the “Puffs” sys-
tem for submarine sonar.” (Sponsors:
~M. A. Mason, E. A. Mason.)
WILLIAM M. FRANK, head, Theoreti-
cal Group, Nuclear Physics Division,
Naval Ordnance Laboratory, “in recogni-
182
tion of contributions to static meson
theory and convergence of quantum field
theory.” (Sponsors: S. N. Foner, E. A.
Mason. )
RAYMOND A. GALLOWAY, associate
professor of plant physiology, Depart-
ment of Botany, University of Maryland,
“in recognition of his outstanding con-
tributions to our knowledge of the me-
tabolism and enzyme systems in Alga, and
his excellence in the areas of plant bio-
chemistry and biophysics. (Sponsors: R.
W. Krauss, E. A. Mason.)
LESLIE A. GUILDNER, project leader,
Gas Thermometry, National Bureau of
Standards, “in recognition of his contri-
bution to the thermodynamic scale, and in
particular his research in gas thermom-
etry.” (Sponsors: J. F. Swindells, D. C.
Ginnings, M. S. Green.)
W. WAYNE MEINKE, chief, Analytical
Chemistry Division, National Bureau of
Standards, “in recognition of his contri-
butions to analytical chemistry, in par-
ticular to the methodology of activation
analysis and radiochemical separations.”
(Sponsors: R. G. Bates, B. F. Scribner,
J. K. Taylor.)
CHARLES W. MISNER, associate pro-
fessor of physics, University of Maryland,
“in recognition of his research in rela-
tivity and_ relativistic astrophysics.”
(Sponsors: S. N. Foner, E. A. Mason.)
DONALD J. MORRISS, chief, T. M.
Branch of Mensuration and Planning,
Forest Service, Department of Agriculture,
“In recognition of his contributions to
scientific planning in the management of
forest lands for multiple use.” (Sponsors:
K. W. Parker, H. A. Fowells, J. S. Yuill.)
JOHN D. MORTON, senior scientist,
Research Division, Melpar, Inc., “in recog-
nition of his contribution to the study of
infectious disease, and in particular his
development of experimental techniques
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
in aerobiology.” (Sponsors: P. E. Ritt,
aC. Jay, Jr.)
ALLISON R. PALMER, paleontologist,
Geological Survey, “in recognition of note-
worthy qualities that show both mastery
and achievement in such diverse disci-
plines as taxonomy, ecology, and _ geol-
Oye a/(>ponsors: E&. T: Bolton, EH. - A.
Mason. )
WILBUR I. PATTERSON, assistant
director, Eastern Utilization Research and
Development Division, Agricultural Re-
search Service, “in recognition of his re-
searches on the toxicity of chemicals in
foods.” (Sponsors: Henry Stevens, J. R.
Spies, E. J. Coulson.)
BRUCE L. REINHART, associate pro-
fessor, Mathematics Department, Univer-
sity of Maryland, “in recognition of his
contributions to the topology of differen-
tiable manifolds.” (Sponsors: L. Schu-
bert, W. H. Pell.)
ARTHUR R. VON HIPPEL, consul-
tant, Naval Research Laborary, and pro-
fessor emeritus, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, “in recognition of his contri-
butions to electrophysics, and in particu-
lar his research in the fields of ferro-
electrics and ferromagnetics, — electric
breakdown, dielectric polarization recti-
fiers and photocells, gas discharges, solid
state physics, and his pioneering develop-
ment of the field of molecular engineer-
ing.” (Sponsors: F. R. Kotter, A. T. Me-
Pherson, A. H. Scott.)
DONALD D. WAGMAN, chief, Ther-
mochemistry Section, National Bureau of
Standards, “in recognition of his contri-
butions to the generation, critical evalua-
tion, and compilation of thermodynamic
data.” (Sponsors: J. J. Diamond, E. J.
Prosen, L. H. Bennett.)
RONALD E. WALKER, physicist, Hy-
personic Propulsion Group, Applied Phys-
ics Laboratory, “in recognition of his
contributions to basic molecular physics
and to engineering, especially his work
leading to improved performance of
rocket and ramjet engines.” (Sponsors:
E. A. Mason, R. E. Gibson.)
OCTOBER, 1965
JAY S. WINSTON, head, Planetary
Meteorology Branch, Meteorological Satel-
lite Laboratory, Weather Bureau, “in rec-
ognition of his wide-ranging contributions
to knowledge of the planetary atmos-
pheric circulation, and to the application
of meteorological satellite data to clima-
tology and weather forecasting.” (Spon-
sors: J. M. Mitchell, Jr., H. E. Lands-
berg.)
EDWARD A. WOLFF, manager, Space
Engineering Laboratory, Aero Geo Astro
Corporation, “in recognition of his out-
standing work on radar systems: for con-
tributions to development and teaching of
space and antenna technology.” (Spon-
sors: M. A. Mason, E. A. Mason.)
ELECTIONS TO MEMBERSHIP
The following persons were elected to
membership in the Academy by action of
the Committee on Membership at its
meeting on March 30:
MICHAEL R. DeCARLO, assistant ex-
ecutive secretary, Biology and Agriculture
Division, National Academy of Sciences.
CHARLES DeVORE, deputy executive
assistant for scientific information, Office
of Naval Research.
BERENICE CG. LAMBERTON, teacher,
Georgetown Visitation Preparatory School
and staff member, Georgetown College
Observatory. |
ROBERT S. WEBER, manager, Utili-
ties Management Branch, Bureau of
Yards and Docks, Navy Department.
CONSTANCE P. WRENCH, biology
teacher, Walt Whitman High School,
Bethesda.
The following persons were similarly
elected to membership in the Academy
on May 3:
ERNST M. COHN, head, Electro-
chemical Systems, National Aeronautics
and Space Administration.
RICHARD O’DAY, mathematics teach-
er, Western High School.
The following persons were similarly
elected to membership in the Academy in
June:
183
JAMES M. CRETSOS, head, Technical
Information Center, Melpar, Inc.
DOROTHY K. CULBERT, chemistry
teacher, Yorktown High School, Arling-
ton.
CHARLES M. DAVIS, JR., assistant
professor of physics, American Univer-
sity.
JACK MOSHMAN, vice president,
E-E-I-R, Inc.
JOINT BOARD
Officers of the Joint Board for the 1966
fiscal year are Edward Hacskaylo, chair-
man; Leonard Crook, vice-chairman;
Marjorie Townsend, secretary; and Zaka
I. Slawsky, treasurer.
Committee chairmen have been ap-
pointed as_ follows: Grover Sherlin,
Secondary School Contacts Committee;
Kenneth Vigue, ES&A Day Award Com-
mittee; Edward Wolff, Finance Commit-
tee; Ralph Cole, Grants-in-Aid Commit-
tee; David Lockard, NSF Projects; Joseph
Broome, 21st International Science Fair;
William Wockenfuss, The Reporter; Leo
Schubert, Research Participation Com-
mittee; Russell Mebs, Science Fairs Com-
mittee; Zaka Slawsky, Greater Washing-
ton Interscholastic Mathematics League;
Keith Johnson, Scientific and Technical
Writing Committee.
WASHINGTON JUNIOR
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
This year’s officers of the Junior
Academy are James Fishkin, president
(Oxon Hill High School) (home phone
967-4615); Walter G. Twitty, vice-presi-
dent (Fairmont Heights High School) ;
Mary June Will, secretary (Woodrow
Wilson High School) (home phone 244.
9436); Larry Meisel, treasurer (York-
town High School); and Betsy Boehner,
membership chairman (home address
9806 Cahart Place, Silver Spring, Md.,
HE 4.7716.)
WJAS aims at the promotion of science
among young people of the Washington
area. It pursues its objectives through
scientific lectures, field trips, a gala for
winners of the Westinghouse Science
Talent Search, the annual Proceedings, and
an annual convention at Christmas time.
It also sponsors annual railroad trips to
New York and Philadelphia museums
and planetariums; as many as _ 5,000
junior and senior high school students
may take these trips in each season. Thus,
the Junior Academy promotes science not
only among its own selective membership,
but also among a segment of the rest of
Washington’s youth.
Membership in WJAS is awarded ac-
cording to a point system, based on out-
standing participation in area science
fairs, the Westinghouse Science Talent
Search, the Future Scientists of America,
or high school science clubs. Other fac-
tors such as publication of a paper,
participation in a convention or other
scientific activity, or a teacher recom-
mendation, may be considered. Further
information on membership is available
from Betsy Boehner at the foregoing
address.
SN
184,
JoURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Science in Washington
SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS
Contributions to this column may be
addressed to Harold T. Cook, Associate
Editor, c/o Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service, Federal
Center Building, Hyattsville, Md.
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT
W.T. PENTZER was elected a fellow
of the American Society for Horticultural
Science at the annual meeting of the
Society on August 17, in Urbana, III.
PEbeR! EE. LITTLE, JR., Forest Serv-
ice dendrologist, spent six weeks in
Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador, with a
forestry project under United Nations
(FAO) Special Fund. His tree identifica-
tion work included collection of wood
samples for the Forest Products Labora-
tory.
C. H. HOFFMANN, associate director
of the Entomology Research Division,
Agricultural Research Service, attended a
planning meeting of the U.S.-Japan Co-
operative Research Program on Pesticides,
held at Honolulu April 7-9. Dr. Hoff-
mann presented a paper entitled “Devel-
opment of New Pesticides and Alternative
Techniques for the Control of Pests.”
W. B. ENNIS, JR., Agricultural Re-
search Service, gave an invited paper on
“Weed Control—The Soybean Growers’
Number 1 Problem” at the Annual Con-
vention of the American Soybean Asso-
ciation, August 16-18, in Memphis.
In July, VICTOR R. BOSWELL was
appointed an assistant director of the
Crops Research Division, Agricultural
Research Service. For several years Dr.
Boswell had been chief of the Vegetables
and Ornamentals Research Branch in that
Division.
THEODORE C. BYERLY, administra-
tor of the Cooperative State Research
Service, was one of seven Department
OCTOBER, 1965
employees who received the 1965 USDA
Distinguished Service Award on May 16.
AMERICAN UNIVERSITY
LEO SCHUBERT, chairman of the
Chemistry Department, has been ap-
pointed to a Teacher of the Year Com-
mittee, whose function is to select the
outstanding teacher of the year from
nominees proposed by State commission-
ers of education. The competition is
sponsored by the Council of Chief State
School Officers and Look magazine.
APPLIED PHYSICS LABORATORY
FRANK T. McCLURE, chairman of the
Research Center, has been awarded a
John Scott Award for 1965 of the Phila-
delphia Directors of City Trusts. The
award, to be made this fall, is for Dr.
McClure’s invention of the satellite dop-
pler navigation system that is now being
used to fix positions of Navy vessels at
sea; the system is based upon signals
from satellites that are received and proc-
essed by special equipment in the ships.
The John Scott awards, which carry a
premium of $2,000 as well as a medal
and scroll, were provided for in the will
of a 19th-century Scotch chemist, and
are presented to “ingenious men and
women who make inventions”; they have
been administered by the City of Phila-
delphia since 1816.
COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY
EINAR B. KULLENBERG has joined
the Office of Research and Development.
Dr. Kullenberg, who is on leave of ab-
sence from the University of Goteborg,
Sweden, is engaged in basic research in
oceanography.
DEAN S. CARDER has been assigned
to the Advanced Seismic Experiments
Group, San Francisco.
BUFORD K. MEADE participated in
185
the Second Symposium of the Interna-
tional Association of Geodesy Commis-
sion on Recent Movements of the Earth’s
Crust, held in Aulanko, Finland, August
Baik
CHARLES A. WHITTEN was awarded
the honorary D.Sc. degree by Carthage
College at Kenosha, Wisc., on June 7.
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
SERVICES ADMINISTRATION
ROBERT M. WHITE was appointed
administrator of ESSA on July 27. Dr.
White had served as chief of the Weather
Bureau since October 1, 1963.
FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL
ORGANIZATION
ROY C. DAWSON represented FAO
and the International Atomic Energy
Agency at the opening session of an
international Training Course in the Use
of Radioisotopes in Animal Science and
Veterinary Medicine, which began on July
19 at Cornell University. Dr. Dawson
explained the purpose and activities of
the Joint Division of Atomic Energy in
Agriculture, formed recently by the two
agencies.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
WILLIAM T. PECORA, chief geologist,
was one of 395 distinguished scientists
elected to the National Academy of
Sciences during its annual meeting last
April.
MARGARET D. FOSTER, chemist with
the Geologic Division, retired on March 31.
Dr. Foster was the first woman chemist
to be employed by the Geological Survey,
beginning her career with the Water
Resources Division in 1918 after gradu-
ating from Illinois College. She did some
of the pioneer work on the geochemistry
of ground water of the Atlantic and Gulf
coastal plains. In recent years her atten-
tion has turned to the geochemistry of
the clay mineral groups, the micas, chlo-
rites, and zeolites, where she has made
fundamental contributions.
186
NAS-NRC
JOHN S. COLEMAN, formerly staff
deputy for plans and programs, has been
named executive officer of NAS-NRC. He
succeeds S. DOUGLAS CORNELL, who
has left to become president of the newly-
established Mackinac College, which will
be located on Mackinac Island, Mich.
NATIONAL BUREAU
OF STANDARDS
The Spectrochemical Analysis Section
was well represented by invited papers at
three international conferences in Europe
this year. BOURDON F. SCRIBNER,
chief of the Section, presented a plenary
lecture on “Advances in Excitation in
Spectrochemical Analysis” at the XXth
Congress of the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry, in Moscow
on July 15. MARVIN MARGOSHES pre-
sented an opening lecture, “Recent Ad-
vances in Excitation of Atomic Spectra,”
at the XIIth Colloquium Spectroscopicum
Internationale in Exeter, England, July
12. KURT F. J. HEINRICH gave a paper
entitled “Electron Probe Microanalysis by
Specimen Current Measurement” at the
IVth International Congress of X-ray
Optics and X-ray Microanalysis, held at
Orsay, France, on September 10. In each
case, the speaker was a guest of the con-
ference and presided at one of the con-
ference sessions.
NATIONAL INSTITUTES
OF HEALTH
JAMES A. SHANNON, director of NIH,
was one of 35 distinguished scientists
elected to the National Academy of
Sciences during its annual meeting last
April.
MORRIS K. BARRETT, National Can-
cer Institute biologist since 1940, retired
July 2. For a number of years he headed
the Gastric Cancer Unit and served as
executive secretary for a Gastric Cancer
Committee of the National Advisory
Cancer Council.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
MARGARET D. BARRETT, wife of
~ Morris Barrett and also a National Cancer
Institute biologist, retired July 31. She
retained her maiden name of Margaret K.
Deringer for professional use.
BERNICE EDDY, chief of the Section
on Experimental Virology, Division of
Biologics Standards, and SARAH E. STE-
WART, Division of Viral Oncology, Na-
tional Cancer Institute, participated in a
Symposium by Distinguished Women of
Science, sponsored by the Putnam Me-
morial Hospital Institute for Medical Re-
search in Bennington, Vt.
HEINZ SPECHT, formerly chief of the
Laboratory of Physical Biology, National
Institute of Arthritis and Metabolic Dis-
eases, has been appointed assistant chief
for scientific affairs, Office of Interna-
tional Research, OD. Prior to this assign-
ment, he had served as chief of the
Pacific Area Office in Tokyo.
CARL J. WITKOP, chief of the Human
Genetics Branch, National Institute of
Dental Research, participated in a 17-
member team that recently made an ex-
tensive nutritional health survey in Para-
guay.
ROBERT W. BERLINER, director of
intramural research, National Heart In-
stitute, was winner of the Homer W.
Smith Award in Renal Physiology which
is given annually by the New York Heart
Association.
KARL FRANK, acting associate direc-
tor for intramural research, National In-
stitute of Neurological Diseases and Blind-
ness, received the Superior Service Award
at the 14th Annual DHEW Awards Cere-
mony on April 9.
BERNARD BRODIE, chief of the Na-
tional Heart Institute’s Laboratory of
Chemical Pharmacology, delivered the
1965 Otto Loewi Award Lecture at New
York University School of Medicine. The
Philadelphia College of Pharmacy and
Science conferred an honorary Doctor of
Science degree on Dr. Brodie at its com-
mencement convocation, June 14.
OCTOBER, 1965
NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION
RAYMOND J. SEEGER gave an invited
address on “The Humanism of Science”
at the Annual Meeting of the Iowa
Academy of Sciences. He spoke also at
the Marshall University, where he installed
the Sigma Xi Club. Dr. Seeger’s com-
mencement address at St. Mary’s Junior
College (Raleigh) was entitled, “The
Great Society, 1984.” Together with
GEORGE TEMPLE, Sedlerian professor
of natural philosophy, Oxford University,
he has edited a recent book, “Research
Frontiers in Fluid Dynamics.” He gave
an address on “The Humanism of Atmos-
pheric Science” at the annual dinner of
the Washington Chapter, American Mete-
orological Society.
9
NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
VICTOR J. LINNENBOM and CON-
RAD H. CHEEK attended the Moscow
meeting of the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry, July 10-18.
They presented a paper on “The Effect
of pH on the Evolution of Hydrogen from
Irradiated Halide Solutions” at the Sym-
posium on Radiation Chemistry.
JOHN SANDERSON, superintendent of
the Optics Division, has been given an
interim appointment as associate director
of research for planning. In his new posi-
tion, Dr. Sanderson will be responsible
for planning long-rang programs.
ALLEN L. ALEXANDER, associate su-
perintendent of the Chemistry Division,
participated in the First Inter-American
Research Conference held in San Juan,
Puerto Rico, July 25-31.
ALLEN SCHOOLEY, associate director
of research, has returned to NRL follow-
ing a two-year assignment at the ASW
Research Center in La Spezia, Italy.
WILLIAM A. ZISMAN, superintendent
of the Chemistry Division, was awarded
an honorary D.Sc. degree at the national
Colloid Symposium at Clarkson College
of Technology, Potsdam, N. Y., on June
22. Dr. Zisman, as secretary to the Com-
mission on Colloid and Surface Chemistry
187
of IUPAC, went to a Paris meeting and
visited laboratories in France and Eng-
land.
C. H. TSAO has joined the Cosmic Ray
Branch of the Nucleonics Division as a
research associate. Dr. Tsao’s appointment
was made under a joint program of the
National Academy of Sciences and NRL;
he was formerly on the cosmic ray staff
at the University of Chicago.
BENJAMIN LEPSON has been ap-
pointed consultant in mathematics and
computation to the Nucleonics Division.
Dr. Lepson was formerly head of the
Numerical Analysis Branch at the Labo-
ratory.
TRINITY COLLEGE
IRENA Z. ROBERTS has been ap-
pointed chairman of the Chemistry De-
partment. Dr. Roberts, who has _ been
associated with the Trinity faculty since
1955, is a Ph.D. graduate of Columbia
University; she was formerly a postdoc-
toral fellow at the National Cancer Insti-
tute, and a research associate with the
Carnegie Institution of Washington.
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND
HOWARD LASTER, a specialist in
cosmic ray theory and related areas of
astrophysics, has been appointed head of
the Physics and Astronomy Department.
He succeeds JOHN S. TOLL, who recently
became president of the Stony Brook
(L.I.) branch of the State University of
New York. During Dr. Toll’s 12 years at
Maryland, the Physics and Astronomy
full-time faculty grew from 4 to 82
members.
HOMER W. SCHAMP, professor of
physics and director of the University’s
Institute for Molecular Physics, has been
appointed dean of faculty for the Uni-
versity of Maryland in Baltimore ony
by the Board of Regents.
| WEATHER BUREAU
GEORGE P. CRESSMAN was made
acting director of the Weather Bureau on
July 13. Dr. Cressman came to _ the
188
Bureau in 1958 as director of the Na-
tional Meteorological Center.
SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT
Catholic University’s Department of
Biology will hold a symposium on No-
vember 3, commemorating the centenary
of Gregor Mendel’s completion of the first
fundamental laws of genetics. In this
endeavor, which will be open to the
Washington scientific community and
which may be continued on November 4,
the Biology Department will be joined by
distinguished geneticists from Johns Hop-
kins, Cornell, the Carnegie Institution,
and the Universities of Chicago and Penn-
sylvania. The proceedings of the sym-
posium will be published as part of a
series sponsored by CU’s Institute for the
Study of Natural Species.
A purification technique developed at
the National Bureau of Standards may
produce the purest materials ever ob-
tained. The technique appears to have
most of the desirable features of conven-
tional purification procedures, but avoids
the disadvantages associated with each.
Impurity is reduced by a factor as great
as 10* in each stage of operation; and
since it is believed that any number of
stages may be employed with the same
degree of improvement and no recontami-
nation, the process may be able to pro-
duce absolutely perfect crystals.
Thirty-four universities have been in-
vited to participate in Universities Re-
search Association, Inc., a new corpora-
tion formed as a result of a meeting of
university presidents at the National
Academy of Sciences on June 20. The
corporation will offer its services to the
Federal Government as manager of a pro-
posed high-energy proton accelerator,
should Congress approve its construction.
Johns Hopkins and Maryland Universities
are among those invited to participate.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
There is a certain desirably humbling
- effect from contemplating such major nat-
ural phenomena as the Gulf Stream, a
strange “ocean river” first commented upon
by one of the really remarkable men of
modern times, Benjamin Franklin, nearly
two hundred years ago. Consider, for
example, that the Stream is in effect a
river 40 miles wide and 2000 feet deep,
and has a surface velocity of four miles
an hour. Every hour, one hundred billion
tons of water leaves the Gulf of Mexico.
an amount 1000 times that of the Missis-
sippi, and 22 times that discharged into
the sea by all the rivers of the world com-
bined! That the Gulf Stream profoundly
influences the climate of both continents is
well known; what is insufficiently clear are
the details of its pathway, the degree of
fluctuations, and its specific effects on fish-
eries, weather patterns, commerce, and so
on. As an effort to improve understanding,
a major, coordinated program of study will
be carried out during the next year, using
ships, planes, and personnel of the Coast
and Geodetic Survey, Weather Bureau,
MIT, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu-
tion, University of Rhode Island, Lamont
Geological Observatory of Columbia Uni-
versity, and the University of Miami.
To the middle-aged generation, the Lind-
bergh kidnapping case was the most pub-
licized crime in its memory, and the
detective work linking the wood from the
kidnap ladder with the floor of the sus-
pect’s attic perhaps the most dramatic epi-
sode in the long trial and conviction.
Others have heard the story of tree-ring
dating in the pueblo ruins of the South-
west. Much the same approach is reported
by R. S. Sigafoos in his work with the
Potomac River Basin trees and the story
left behind by past flood periods. By pa-
tiently assembling the evidence of scars and
other damage, fixing the date of the event
by tree-ring studies, and so on, Dr. Sigafoos
has added much to the accuracy and com-
pleteness of our knowledge of flooding in
OCTOBER, 1965
the Potomac and its tributaries. Once the
method has been established by comparison
with known high water periods, it can be
applied to river basins where the written
record is virtually non-existent.
A Symposium on the Coupling of Basic
and Applied Corrosion Research is
planned for March 21-22, 1966, under the
sponsorship of the National Bureau of
Standards, the Naval Research Laboratory,
and the Office of Naval Research. Chair-
man is Richard C. Carlston of the Metal-
lurgy Branch, ONR. The preliminary an-
nouncement states: “This symposium is
designed to bring about a dialogue be-
tween workers conducting basic and
applied research in the field of aqueous
corrosion. Communication between these
groups is frequently poor because of
diverse points of view and differences in
professional goals. A better understand-
ing of the overall problems faced by both
groups is essential in working toward
eventual solution of individual problems.
The symposium attempts to achieve this
understanding by presenting widely rec-
ognized, representative speakers from
both areas and encouraging open discus-
sions among those actively engaged in
the aqueous corrosion field.”
A series of lectures on differential
equations is being conducted in 1965-67
under the sponsorship of the Air Force
Office of Scientific Research, the Univer-
sity of Maryland, and the universities of
the Joimt Graduate Consortium. The first
session, with three lectures on control
theory, was held October 2 at Georgetown
University. The remaining sessions are as
follows: December 4, at Howard Univer-
sity, on dynamical systems; March 5,
1966, at University of Maryland, on
boundary value problems; May 7, 1966,
at Georgetown University, on differential
operators; October 1, 1966, at American
University, on differential equations of
mathematical physics; December 3, 1966,
189
at Georgetown University, on differential at George Washington University, on
equations in a Banach space; March 4, numerical solutions. Particulars are avail-
1967, at Catholic University, on stochastic able from M. W. Oliphant, professor of
differential equations; and May 6, 1967, mathematics, Georgetown University.
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
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C2 a)
190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Delegates to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Representing
the Local Affiliated Societies*
Ememecopiizeal Society of Washington oo... cesses sccssscsssssstsesecssedecssssteosscsoonecceccecsc. Urner Lipper
Mammropolopical Society of Washington oo... eccccccscclccsseelescbeesesceececcccsc., STEPHEN T. Boccs
IEEE EIENY VE NV GBIITISEON oon haa estndacdognos toda eeecteeid a JoHn L. Parapiso
MRS TCNE ES CH WW ASIIITISUOD, 2... occ cbesecsonsevacseceeacsatoncns Jecdeseessdcdeoeedecsc cl. FLorRENcE H. Forziat1
Meemmalerical Society Of Washington ..o...............0...c:sescsccscssesscesssseceeeteseeccescccoccc Haroitp H. SHEPARD
STR IRE ASSTRELE SOCKEE Gocco oscc a cyocnsccnacescsondvise sodestenssceenedcccdec. dona. ALEXANDER WETMORE
SERCO WW AGUSINTO TS eco. 6c hye cvseccnnsnsccvosecneessscivscleccusincesschoeesoscisescu ce Luna LEopoip
Giedical Society of the District of Columbia ......00000.0...c.ccccccccccsccecccccscoocecececcsccccccc cc. THomas M. Brown
SEEN SUCIEIN ee ea ee as U. S. Grant, III
SEED g) Cc) ao oe Ail ee Peter H. HEINzE
RMMUMITRMRMGTECE | POTCSUCES: 6.0.05 5..5 5-60 cc2cccceccscssccnsccesessssssecescecosocseclecssoleccseoscadbececcoeince: Harry A. FoweE ts
Mymammmoeton Society Of PMginees ...........2....20...c.0c:c.cscseccsesecscecscecssssscsssssessccsescseceseseeccecctccees Martin A. Mason
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers .0....0.0......0....0.0cccccccceccscececcocscesesecececeseseeees GreorceE ABRAHAM
American Society of Mechanical Engineers 20.00.0000... 2 cceccccccccescsesececcoceccececcsescseeseseen Winrtram G. ALLEN
Helminthological Society of Washington o.....0.000.........cccccccccescscscecsssssesscsssccsssccecsesseesseseseeees Marion M. Farr
American Society for Microbiology ....0.0........0....ccccccececcccceseceeseceees LEDER ot ERD oe er SO Francis B. GorpDoNn
meemivrer vmerican Military Engineers: .....................:..s.ccccccsesssssesssssssssssssescsesssussescanscouvnseeseees H. P. DemutH
Mmmeweem seetety of Civil Emgineers ........................00.-..ccccssseesscsacseosensetecsneeesecansees THORNDIKE SAVILLE, JR.
Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine ...0.0.0.0...0.....ccccccsesesesssseseseseseeesseseseseeteeeeeees FALCONER SMITH
aeRO SARE TICE NB oo 20. Secs cbasai sn Pno hv nsesfic tnesesevancobaavtvinsvos saUbossbubdsanacnnantasndichepuosue eden Hucu L. Locan
International Association for Dental Research o.0..................ccccccceseseessesessscsesescsceescseseetacsesesees Haroip J. Caur
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics...............0....00.cc0ccce Delegate not appointed
Reeraemm MELCOTOIOPICA! SOCIETY no... .....:.......-ccsescesssescssssncoeessensessensnntecsanessonst J. Murray MircHeELt, Jr.
BEMIS IOCIELY Gl W ASIUITIGEON «...<css00icresocssvavecesnovecsnncesesssonsessonssosensecnpusverstaresenserhie sees H. IvaAN RAINWATER
NNEC ER CGE MEIOTIC 25.5... ¢.0050esesavessse snvsvodecy ascseeasocuadevgycesonacivasveanantocbenteon Matcotm C. HENDERSON
NNER ET RRS EEE 1H ais ds hs ctdfod snk oss ars vcbsdecminvh vids sudamelnp erased pbebbon his Lote s-pSapanenan Greorce L. Wem
MRMITUMEES OL GOR LECHNOIOGISIS: .....,........:...-slaessscscnees snovesccvoneescnasecensecedesnerstaresiaassesesensneess RicHarpD P. Farrow
UN RNS PERINAT 28 EG 29.0 ag ti stptnbs cnx nur duhsnventnksnonvyien ccnp walghvertrs Mats dethneade J. J. Dramonp
Electrochemical oo VE ROE: ARTE SSG 8 MIRROR ne AED OR RE OI KOOL PE SRRENANT EY Re cat Kurt H. STERN
Smee SRTctOiy Get Suerte Clem b ac ohioscel coo scc-picccesescssncsueMvseieesenecssansetcdeosesviucedbobocactace Morris LEIKIND
American Association of Physics Teachers ....0.........ccccccccsccssesssceseseeseeveseeesses ........Delegate not appointed
* Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective affiliated societies.
Volume 55 OCTOBER 1965
CONTENTS
K. E. Boulding: The Menace of Methuselah: Possible Consequences ;
of Increased! ile Rxpiectaney i080)... 00 ee Os Meee ere ae
Achievement Award Nominations Requested ..................0.....00.....
Te Throats; 2 oe ee a tt
_ Academy Proceedings
Elections to Fellowship 0.00.0. 0..0: csp ok, cee nama one
Elections to: Membership |:.o°.¢. cn ug2) ic apn oem
Wodne Board 7 ities tele der ah Ok a eee Od gee connec eae ey:
Washington Junior Academy of Sciences 00.00.0000... te
Science in Washington
Scientists in the Mews. 62 che ae as Oe aa eae
Washington Academy of Sciences
1530—P St., N.W.
Washington, D.C., 20005 *
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LIBRARY
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VOLUME 55 NUMBER 8
Journal of the
WASHINGTON
ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES
NOVEMBER 1965
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Editor: Samuet B. Detwiter, Jr., Department of Agriculture
Associate Editors
Harotp T. Coox, Department of Agriculture HeELen L. ReyNotps, Food and Drug Adminis-
RicHarp P. Farrow, National Canners Asso- tration
ciation RusseL__ B. Stevens, George Washington Uni-
Harry A. FoweE ys, Department of Agriculture versity
Contributors
FRANK A. BIBERSTEIN, Jr., Catholic University JosEPpH B. Morris, Howard University
CHARLES A. WHITTEN, Coast & Geodetic Survey Jacos Mazur, National Bureau of Standards
Marjorie Hooxer, Geological Survey ALLEN L. ALEXANDER, Naval Research Laboratory
eee E. Woop, George Washington Univer- powarn W. Bonp, Public Health Service
si
uae M. Buras, Jr., Harris Research Labo- Victor R. Boswett, USDA, Beltsville
ratories ANpREW F. Freeman, USDA, Washington
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ACADEMY OFFICERS FOR 1965
President: LEo ScHUBERT, American University
President-Elect: Joun K. Taytor, National Bureau of Standards
Secretary: ALPHONSE F. Forziati, Advanced Research Projects Agency
Treasurer: Roman R. Mitier, Naval Research Laboratory
ae
Mass ‘Transportation, Scientific
Technology, and Urban Life®
Henry Fagin
Professor of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wisconsin
In this setting of the National Academy
of Sciences, it seems peculiarly appropriate
for us to consider mass transportation in a
somewhat broader-than-usual context—the
relationship of our evolving general scien-
tific technology to the evolving urban struc-
ture of the Nation’s Capital. The current
focus of public attention on transportation
provides a convenient access point to this
inquiry.
After all, everyman is an expert on trans-
portation—a fact that explains why so
many affluent people today insist on driving
cars. When I was young, driving was widely
held to be a rather low-level occupation, a
boring pursuit to be relegated to the chauf-
feur, on a par with other things for which
one might wish to have a maid, a cook, or a
butler. Seductive packaging has trapped
our wives into operating home-based ma-
chinery that releases maids, cooks, and
butlers for higher types of work out in the
world; while we have been enticed by Ted-
Holmes-based machinery in the form of su-
perb highways and Detroit’s irresistibly-
packaged four-wheeled cocoons. We have
made air pilots of the boys who used to
watch the road while we watched the girls.
We have indeed ended up as integral work-
ing cogs in the transportation system, dis-
ciplined by the appalling and self-enforcing
law of the road to pay attention or perish.
A half year and a thousand decisions ago,
your program chairman asked me to ad-
*An address before the Washington Academy
of Sciences on May 20, 1965.
NOVEMBER, 1965
dress you on the subject of mass transporta-
tion. This was said to be a highly contro-
versial local issue on which someone talking
about facts might be listened to, provided
he came from far enough away. Wisconsin
qualified. He wanted me to explain the
general ideas current among people who
think about urban transportation planning.
Now, a half year and a thousand decisions
later, I find that many questions, then con-
troversial, have been reasonably happily
resolved. A consensus appears to have
crystallized about the big things to do next
in transportation action in this metropolis
—the city and its suburbs. While this con-
sensus is not yet fully embodied in enacted
legislation, it is nonetheless operative. With
questions about the character of the overall
system of subway, railroad, and highway
services reaching agreement, attention is
moving to the details that will afford the
best possible fit between the large mullti-
mode system and the particularities of local
development. At this level of discussion,
however, someone like me, from afar, has
relatively little to contribute.
I feel impelled to speak out here tonight,
nevertheless, because I sense that the signifi-
cant debate is about the shift from the im-
mediate transportation program to a set of
more fundamental questions concerned with
the broad social, economic, cultural, and
political evolution of the National Capital
region—questions in no way settled by the
transportation consensus. Your present pro-
gram promises workability for the Nation’s
Capital region—but in no sense, greatness.
19]
I propose to explore the latter issue at
some length, here this evening, precisely
because your present transportation pro-
sram appears to be a satisfactory guide for
effective needed measures in both mass
transportation and highway development
for at least the decade to come. But first,
briefly, let me justify my change in em-
phasis by a short explanation of why I do
regard the mass transportation problem
here as reasonably settled. Then I shall go
on to the broader questions.
My view of metropolitan transportation
is tempered by a sense of the great diversity
of types of urban areas, and hence the great
diversity of transport system needs. In
generalizing about metropolises, I find it
convenient to note several dimensions in
which people already have observed that
metropolises differ. Each urban area can
be understood best if placed uniquely in a
sort of multi-dimensional measuring model.
I will ask you to imagine each metropolis a
point along four different yardsticks. You
may readily imagine three of these in the
angles where the ceiling tops two walls at
a corner of this room. How to visualize the
fourth yardstick is more difficult, but it’s
there somewhere.
The first yardstick or dimension of this
measuring model is extent, the magnitude
of the region. The big ones, say over one
million in population and twenty to thirty
miles across, behave quite differently from
the small ones.
Second, there is the matter of density.
How many people, or homes, or plants per
square mile? How far you have to go to get
from one activity to another is another
useful way of looking at density. What is
the density in terms of straight-line dis-
tance separating people or establishments,
or time required, or travel costs, or an
index that reflects all of these? A given
density may look high from the standpoint
of someone with an auto, but unworkably
low to a pedestrian.
Third, there is the degree of centrality.
Along this yardstick are several significant
12
points. Let me illustrate centrality with the
question of obtaining food. At one extreme
is total diffusion when each household raises
its food in its own garden. Less diffuse
is the urban pattern of the corner grocery
store, or the suburban pattern of the road-
side stand. Further along the scale are
cities where the corner stores have yielded
to the supermarket and roadside stores to
regional shopping centers. The extreme of
centrality in retailing would be a metropolis
with stores only to be found in a single
downtown business district. Please note that
I have illustrated centrality only with food.
Other centrality scales describe the patterns
respectively of the commercial, industrial,
and cultural establishments of a particular
metropolis. You see that this dimension
is really measured by a whole bundle of
yardsticks of relative centrality.
The fourth set of yardsticks measures
the scale and degree of various kinds of
segregation within the area. A salt-and-
pepper pattern of diversity is at one end of
the yardstick; very large areas, internally
homogeneous, characterize the other ex-
treme. The yardstick in this dimension
measures separately each of the patterns
of segregation—for example, area speciali-
zation by race, income, family type, age,
housing type, manufacturing, warehousing,
etc. A particular metropolis may have a
salt-and-pepper pattern for one of these
elements, while having large-scale districts
with respect to others.
Fifth, among the yardsticks there is one
that measures the level of communications.
As R. F. Muraca of Stanford once pointed
out, “If travel were instantaneous and cost-
less, other factors, including personal ones,
would have more influence on the localities
of employment and residence. As transpor-
tation is made more and more efficient, em-
ployment and residence will be driven in
opposite directions.” Indeed, I might add,
at zero travel time and cost, the city as such
would likely disappear. One must know the
transport network and the costs and levels
of service available, then, before one can
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
fully describe an urban area. The same is
true of the other utilities—water, drainage,
power, communications.
With the foregoing framework for classi-
fication in mind, where would one place
the National Capital metropolitan region
in the multi-dimensional space that de-
scribes significant urban difference?
(1) Washington in extent is well beyond
the minimum size at which grade-separated,
high-capacity, high-speed mass transit is
feasible and begins to become essential.
Today Washington’s density dictates rail
service. Some day, perhaps, a more in-
dividualized and footloose vehicle will take
over the same rail cuts and tunnels. Some
people will drive battery-powered cars or
buses to the electrified rights of way that
you are about to develop. But instead of
changing to trains, they will switch to auto-
matic control, and make the journey down-
town or back, riding while reading. More
than a dozen national capitals elsewhere,
with smaller metropolitan populations than
Washington, already are served by rail
rapid transit systems. Washington is nearly
alone among the major capitals of the west-
ern world in not having rail rapid transit.
(2) It is my impression that Washington
stands toward the lower end of the scale of
residential or night-time density. In this
respect you are more like Los Angeles and
Milwaukee than Philadelphia or New York.
This suggests the need for auto and bus
distribution, at least in your one-family
suburban areas; and for this you need to
improve your highway system with better
circumferential freeways leading to the
rapid transit corridors. Day-time densities,
however, which reflect your concentrations
of people at work, are toward the high end
of the metropolitan scale, unlike Los An-
geles. Rail rapid transit to and in the cen-
tral areas, like the Boston and Philadelphia
systems, seems essential.
(3) A relatively high level of centrality
characterizes most of the components of
Washington’s non-residential — structures.
NovEMBER, 1965
Your governmental establishments are
heavily clustered in the central strip from
the Pentagon to the Capitol. Hotels, non-
governmental offices, and major businesses
are equally concentrated alongside. Thus,
the major work places of the region can be
reached on foot from a small number of
stations in a central distribution grid. More-
over, with the Federal Government as the
main employer of the larger non-central
establishments, the metropolis is in a posi-
tion to, and should, direct future regional
sub-centers of governmental employment to
strategic locations along, or at the extremi-
ties of, the mass transit network as radial
routes extend outward into the suburban
areas.
(4) A number of kinds of segregation
in the Washington metropolis already result
in relatively large areas of homogeneity.
Not only is there a heavy city-suburban
split by ethnic background, but also exten-
sive areas cater to people of one income
level, or one type of housing accommoda-
tion. Certain neighborhoods of Philadel-
phia, by way of contrast, successfully con-
tain greater mixtures of one-, two-, and
multi-family houses than does Washington
—and greater mixtures of ethnic groups,
too, for that matter.
(5) Finally, in relation to the level of
transportation services, Washington’s auto-
mobile flows, particularly during the peak
hours of work travel, are relatively slow
and congested. In this respect, Los Angeles
stands high in the numbers of persons ac-
commodated, though certain of its highway
network sectors have become dramatically
inefhcient. In Washington, the service level
of the taxi system is at the high end of the
scale for major cities. The level would be
even higher were it not for the congestion
of thousands who use autos because there
is not yet any practical alternative. But in
terms of mass transportation, Washington
stands low on the scale of service level.
despite its extensive surface transit system,
because the metropolis has grown beyond
193
the size and density that can be served ade-
quately without grade separation. Your
present attempt to utilize the same right-of-
way for individual and mass travel not
only produces a low efficiency for your bus
operation, but also guarantees a frustrating
trip for the private car and taxicab as well.
In sum, quite aside from its future
growth and change, Washington already
has the cluster of characteristics that typify
metropolises in need of grade-separated
rapid transit facilities. It is like Stockholm
or the Philadelphia of 1920—not like Madi-
son, Wisconsin, with only a fourth of a mil-
lion in the metropolitan area. I hope and
trust that an excellent system will be created
here and placed in operation with no fur-
ther delay. With this minimum basis for
an effective modern metropolis coming into
being, Washington can now turn to further
issues of very great significance. It is to
these issues that I shall now address my
remarks.
By good fortune, I recently came across
a unique book that deals extensively with
the very questions that seem most timely
and germane to our National Capital in
1965. I have been reading the “Proceed-
ings of the Dunsmuir House Conference on
Space, Science, and Urban Life,” a report
on a series of sessions held in 1963 among
scientists, planners, industrialists, and gov-
ernment officials. The group met in Oak-
land, California, to see what should be done
to capitalize on advances in science and
technology, made in the space program
but perhaps applicable also to improving
urban life.
I imagine you share the curiosity I[ felt
when the report came into my hands. It
was clearly stamped with the magic letters
NASA. I think I detected in myself at that
moment a faint reverberation of the emo-
tion released three milleniums ago in the
breast of the Prophet on Mount Sinai, when
he recognized an earlier four-letter symbol,
also with repeating second and fourth let-
ters, at the top of certain tablets which
were passed into his hands.
194,
In the Dunsmuir House Conference docu-
ment, a great many stimulating ideas appear
that are quite relevant to your metropoli-
tan problems. Two major concepts are
especially pertinent to what I want to em-
phasize about Washington tonight. More-
over, the flavor of the observations is so
remarkable that I am inclined to offer them
verbatim before summarizing their impli-
cations for us here.
The first general subject is what to do in
the face of the awesome magnitude of the
modern metropolis and its bewildering
complexity. The second is how to close the
widening gap between what we have and
what twentieth-century mankind could have.
Unity and Complexity
The first subject might be called the di-
lemma of the complex—whether to treat
the whole, which may be a formidable pros-
pect, or to treat parts as though they were
separable, which may violate the whole.
We have always approached the metropolis
as essentially a problem for decentralized
handling, both geographic and functional.
We fragment regional water, air pollution
control, transit, and housing among dozens
of local geographical jurisdictions. We
fragment economic development, social wel-
fare, and transportation among dozens of
separate functional departments of govern-
ment. It is fascinating in this regard to
hear a strongly contrary view arise as a
major finding of people reflecting on the
significances of the space effort for urban
life. For example, in a summary of immedi-
ate progress that can be made to apply new
technology in urban communities, Burn-
ham Kelly of Cornell, who earlier had
worked on defense against nuclear bomb-
ing, said:
The important contribution to come from
NASA research is not the fallout from special
studies, but the possibility of applying to mod-
ern, metropolitan complexity a new and com-
prehensive research method. I agree with Karl
Wolf that the more powerful the organization
and the wider the scope, the greater the chances
of success. In the end, I believe the concern will
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
stretch so far beyond municipal limits that the
effective organization for such research may well
be the State, making use of a regional frame-
work that is at best only suggested in our States
at the present time.
In a similar vein, Carl F. Stover of Stan-
ford said:
The point is that the city has to be seen as an
organic whole. In the life of the city, as in the
life of man and nature, it is impossible to change
just one thing. This is a fundamental lesson of
the record of urban growth and of every effort
we have made to improve our cities and metro-
pelitan areas. With the increasing power that
modern scientific technology provides, I think
it is even more important that we know what
we are changing before we start to change it...
We have to be prepared to get solid information
about our situation and about the implications
of the change that we want to introduce before
we act. Having the information, we must be
willing to act on it and not ignore it in terms
of some passionate political or personal predilec-
tion. This area of municipal research is, | think,
ai. area where there is a great deal of very shabby
action on both the part of the researchers and
the policymakers.
Probably the most important thing that the
space effort has to teach us is how to go about
a big job, involving science and technology in
achieving a social purpose. It gives us the clear
lesson that we need to know what our goals are
and what kinds of problems we are going to have
to face in achieving those goals. It tells us that
these goals and problems must be operationally
defined in terms of the total environment in
which we are working. It provides us a model
for drawing on available knowledge and techni-
cal capacity, and for going about systematically
developing the necessary additional knowledge
and technical capacity. It is a good prototype, in
other words, for an orderly, toughminded attack
on a problem and its resolution through the use
ot man’s knowledge and his technical skill.
With these initial bold assertions of the
need to tackle a whole, irrespective of its
apparent magnitude, the truth is that the
problem is really raised rather than solved.
Neither in the space program nor in the
metropolis is it conceivable that all deci-
sions could be made in one place at the top.
The key question then is: What is the best
way of distributing various kinds of deci-
sions throughout the structure of a large
system ?—the metropolis being an example
of a very large system, indeed. William O.
NOVEMBER, 1965
Baker of Bell Telephone Laboratories gave
one clue in discussing the relation between
suppliers and operators. He said:
In some industries, such as_ transportation,
there has been an unfortunate division between
the components suppliers and the systems oper-
ators. Hence, while the automotive firms have
vastly improved diesel and electric power for the
railroads, there has not necessarily been a cor-
responding increase in the effectiveness of the
systems technology. A similar situation is seen
in many aspects of the construction industry,
where the component suppliers, including chemi-
cal, metallurgical, and material manufacturing
sources, have kept at the very forefront of mod-
ern science, but systems operators—the assem-
blers, building trades, and even architects, to
say nothing of regulatory bodies—have not sup-
ported most efficient assimilation of these com-
ponents into systems of new structures.
On the other hand, in the power industries,
the components resources—the makers of boilers
and other energy converters, turbines, generators,
distributing equipment, appliances, and so forth
—have largely, on their own initiative, kept
close to the systems engineers and _ operators,
that is, the electric utility companies. The gen-
erally excellent results that accrue are noted
subsequently. In the communications industry,
it has so far been largely possible to integrate
the research components developers and manu-
facturers directly with the systems operators, as
is seen in radio companies, such as RCA with
their manufacturing and broadcast activities; the
telephone companies, such as General Telephone
and Electronics, with its Sylvania manufacturing
branch, the Bell System with the Western Elec-
tric Company, and others. Here the efficiency
and responsiveness to human and public needs
seem to be the highest, and it may be that the
demands of modern society for use of science
and technology will require more and more of
this kind of integration.
In the foregoing remarks, one sort of in-
separability was asserted, the essential con-
tinuity of suppliers and operators. George
L. Simpson, Jr., of NASA, observed the
underlying mechanics of the connections in
the following passages, in which he estab-
lished a second principle of linkage to guide
organizational subdivision—the continuity
of information and decision:
Somehow a source of information, of com-
munication must be tied rather closely and in-
sistently to a structure of action. Communication
must be sharp enough and focussed enough to be
195
acted on; the best source of information can only
give information. To be effective it must be
brought very close to a structure of action.
Let me give an illustration. The present Coun-
cil of Economic Advisors is at once a source of
information with a specific directive, and a part
of the structure for governmental action. Because
it is built into this structure, its study, its work,
its communications cannot be ignored.
In the metropolitan community, [a mechanism
for information] must be established in the
structure of government, the structure of action,
that it cannot be ignored—not that the informa-
tion must be accepted, not that it must be ap-
plied. But the mechanism must be such that the
information cannot be ignored in the normal
course of that community’s life and action.
Two of the Conference participants in
their divergent remarks highlighted a major
tension in modern urban life over the best
mix between public policy and the private
market in the determination of many metro-
politan questions. This again is an aspect
of decentralization. Dr. Baker reminded
the Conference of the remarkable role of
profits in achieving effective exploitation
He said:
It is always interesting that the great diversity,
the choices, the options that are provided to man
by modern science and technology have actually
made true profits one of the most valuable and
essential gauges of social progress. . . . Society
chooses, often with the sure touch of mass pref-
erence, to get from among many the particular
type and quality of goods and services it wants.
By its willingness to pay and to provide profits
in this way, society stimulates the emergence of
the best and the most effective. This process,
subject of course to exceptions and to the scofis
of the cynic, still seems to be the greatest hope
for the proper selective use of science and tech-
nology in the national interest. The American
people seem to have a shrewd realization that
this is a good tactic for the wisest exploitation
of technical discovery and engineering. These
policies must be accepted governmentally and
politically if there is to be progress in the great
urban complexes which are emerging, and wherein
especially there is a temptation to collectivize
and to ignore the selectivity and thrust toward
quality provided by a responsible profit system.
of resources.
Dr. Baker was speaking, of course, of the
profit motive as a general selective mecha-
nism. It is hard to imagine that the central
current role of NASA, the moon-landing
196
mission in this decade, could have been de-
termined in the marketplace; and he did not
challenge the validity of the space effort.
Whether the evolution of the metropolis
itself should be placed in the public-policy
category was the subject of the following
assertions by Karl W. Wolf of North Ameri-
can Research Corporation.
But the key question remains: What is the
system supposed to do? In other words, how do
we want to live, and, even, what really do we
individually want to become and what kind of
environment or city is necessary to our growth?
In contrast to their utilization in the space
program and in defense, science and technology
must be seen within the framework of socio-
economic systems in the metropolitan sphere.
Science and technology here are genuinely en-
abling factors, which, when properly planned,
can lead to a maximum freedom of choice. Con-
sidering interdisciplinary approaches as well as
the impact of science and technology across all
kinds of metropolitan areas and functions, it
becomes clear that partial, half-hearted planning
cannot encompass the range of choices which
our technology and wealth theoretically can
make possible.
This realization that our problems can only be
solved on a revolutionarily large scale means
that a whole range of values now becomes a
matter of social policy. Comprehensive planning
will be necessary in a different sense of the
word than is used today. Key elements in this
new type of planning require the contributions
of the philosopher, the statesman, the visionary,
the scientist, and the artist who is capable of
transforming the concepts and goals into the
physical shape of urban architecture. Such plan-
ning might demand technical, economic, and
administrative means not yet in existence.
Thus far, you will note, | have drawn on
the Conference participants for related
ideas about how to deal effectively with a
complex phenomenon like the urban metro-
polis. The following propositions sum-
marize the statements:
(1) It is essential that someone be re-
sponsible for seeing the metropolis as a
whole and for setting policy with respect
to the parts in full appreciation of the ef-
fects on the whole and vice versa.
(2) In this process, there must be as
much continuity and integration as pos-
sible, both within the chain from supplier
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
to operator, and within the chain from in-
formation and plan formulation to respon-
sible action.
(3) The mechanisms of the market, in-
cluding the energizing search for profits,
have proved strikingly effective in advanc-
ing technology and distributing its fruits.
Any contrary policy for decisions in the
metropolis should be regarded and applied
with great caution.
(4.) Nevertheless, through deliberate so-
cial policy the range of choices about homes
and jobs and shopping and recreation
within the urban system could be greatly
extended over the choices the market now
offers. This could be achieved through the
adoption and realization of governmentally-
initiated measures to influence the evolution
of an environment of a kind that would not
be likely to arise merely out of the market
mechanism. Our exploitation of the profit
motive has outstripped our techniques of
public action in the urban area. The high-
est priority, therefore, should be given to
the creation of technical, economic, and
administrative means for achieving, in the
excellence of the urban environment, the
potential that is implicit in the scientific
and technological revolution of our day.
The second major contribution of the
Conference on the potential application of
space program concepts to the improvement
of urban life, like the first one, was not a
technique or an invention but another very
general concept. This was the powerful con-
viction, voiced by scientists who had been
involved in the space effort, that what a peo-
ple accomplishes is very directly the out-
come of what they expect to accomplish. If
this be true, it has vital implications for the
urban community. By what means will we
set the goals for metropolitan action? How
will we pitch our aspirations high enough to
spur our efforts to the maximum level of
excellence attainable? Before coming to
these operational questions, let us look first
at the underlying premise. Dr. Baker ex-
pressed it when he was commenting on the
NOVEMBER, 1965
key impact of the space program on urban
life:
Thus, there will not be a loose spillage of
these efforts and results into other main chan-
nels of industry and commerce. Presumably, the
better the management of these missions, the
less the byproduct that emerges casually in the
form of commercial technology. This quality of
modern science and technology is probably not
yet well understood, since in an earlier part of
this century it was fitting and fashionable to
emphasize the unity of knowledge in technology
as well as in science. In the meantime, however,
and even just during the past decade, the accum-
ulated knowledge about each of several different
technologies has become so large that practical
transfer among them is increasingly inhibited.
However, there does seem to be a deep cou-
pling of the major forces of our space program
with the most central needs of our society. This
can be shown in respect to the transportation,
communication, power resources, and construc-
tion industries. This coupling is through the
expectations which space systems and programs
represent to the people of our nation. Thus our
people see, first, that our national leaders bespeak
expectations from science and engineering beyond
those ever realized before. Then they see our
national abilities, led by scientists and engineers,
turned actually to achieve many of those seem-
ingly fantastic expectations. Manned space flight
is probably the classic example, so far, of this
national gaining of the “insuperable.” Here is
seen, indeed, a very subtle quality of the Free
World’s approach, even in the formulation of
these expectations, in contrast to the approach
of other societies. We have been critized for an-
nouncing beforehand our expectations of space
achievements, particularly of manned flight, and
most recently of lunar voyages. Our habits are
in striking contrast to the practices of other
nations, whose achievements in this field have
been announced only after the fact.
It is true that exercising such restraint is a
conservative and certainly canny way to play a
cosmic and costly game. On the other hand, if,
indeed, the aspirations of man in science and
technology are to liberate wellsprings of human
energy—as in the great cathedral building waves
of the Middle Ages or the oceanic explorations
of a few centuries ago—is it not wise, and also
just, to have the detailed nature of science and
engineering behind these feats laid out as great
expectations beforehand? It is experience with
these new dimensions of expectations by our
people and the reasonable achievement of such
expectations in such domains as our national
space program that will, in fact, have the most
profound influence on the role of science in
197
other and perhaps even more vital affairs. It is
in this context that I would like to suggest the
effects of expectations on scientific developments
in industries that will be central to progress in
regional and urban well-being and advance in
the years ahead... .
Why are aspects of operations in outer space
sO prominent in our foresight about the indus-
trial strength which must underlie urban wel-
fare? This is because the industries involved
in urban support — transportation, communica-
tion, power resources, and construction—are com-
posed of large technical systems. They cannot
be either advanced or best directed by any
single miracle of discovery . Thus, on the
whole, what is required most for progress in
these areas is a progressive set of expectations,
very great and very brave ones, that will chal-
lenge the scientists and engineers of these enter-
prises and of our national community to do the
best things for each of them.
Later in the Conference, Dr. Wolf carried
this thinking a step further in its direct
application to the metropolis as a unified
entity, an urban system for producing ex-
cellence in the human environment. He
said:
Comprehensive planning, furthermore, must in-
corporate to some degree a revival of Utopian
thinking as an intellectual challenge in order to
identify the numerous possibilities of metro-
politan life. First, in the two-phase new plan-
ning approach, the planning team must delib-
erately divorce itself from narrowly practical
considerations. It must forget about pragmat-
ics and address itself to the potentials of the
urban environment, since the ideas of the future
influence to a great extent what the future
will be. Creative foresight and planning go be-
yond experience. Together, they not only copy
the past; they also combine past elements in
new ways to construct better fitting results and
they also introduce a host of new factors.
Planning is characterized by its forward look.
It is, however, much more than prediction—it
means shaping the future as one wants it to be
and is capable of making it.
This, then, leads us to the incorporation of
“the existing” or, in other words, the experiences,
and to the second phase of the new planning
approach. Here the dream or the idea is trans-
formed to the attainable. Here, the more power-
ful the organization that implements and the
more comprehensive the plan, the greater the
chances of success because the more factors can
be kept under control.
We do not leave, for example, the matter of
defense or space research solely to private in-
dustry or to groups and associations dealing with
198
foreign affairs. It is done in a tremendous co-
operative effort in which professional military
men and government scientists lead in the pro-
jection of systems requirements, the subsequent
identification of inventions, and the consequently
needed research. An inter-disciplinary group of
men must first identify the fundamental ques-
tions to be answered before genuinely “practical”
or completely fitting solutions are possible.
The same should be done for solving metro-
politan problems, especially in the utilization of
science and technology. Both are ambiguous and
can be made to serve a variety of often non-
compatible needs.
The operative question is: How can we
bring this kind of process about? Here is
Carl Stover’s view, continuing the remarks
I alluded to in part earlier:
We would never, I believe, have thought it
sensible to try to get to the moon with spin-
off from the regular operation of American in-
dustry—even though some of the knowledge and
some of the technical skills that have been de-
veloped in American industry for other purposes
have been helpful in getting the space job done.
If we had approached the space job with the
goodness of heart, the weakness of mind, and
the confusion of purpose that characterize most
of. our efforts to improve urban areas, we would
never have gotten off the launching pad.
At the outset we must decide what cities ought
to be. We have to discover how a city can be
a good home, fostering good men. This is another
reason for caution in approaching the problems
of the urban area strictly from the standpoint
of technology—for while the city is an engineer-
ing system, it is also a human system. In at-
tempting to apply technology to the human sys-
tem, some of technology’s greatest virtues actu-
ally turn out to be its greatest liabilities. The
values inherent in technology may not always be
the values we want for man—efficiency, order,
and rationality as technology projects it. Would
a city perfectly ordered by technology be a
good home for man?
By tradition, the pursuit of the common good
is the purpose of politics. Thus, if technology
is to serve the common good, there must be a
political judgment. Here, I think, all of us are
inclined to balk, because when we look at poli-
tics, we see a bad image. We are reminded of
deals, of inefficiency, of wastefulness, and of
disorder. One answer to this has been to trans-
form politics into administration. I do not think
that this is ultimately the correct answer for a
society as dedicated as we are to the importance
of the citizen’s role in determining not only the
directions of his government but also the proc-
JoURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
esses through which his government operates.
Thus, a very important consideration which comes
about as a result of thinking about technology
and its impact on the metropolitan area and
upon our national life is how we can somehow
restore politics to its proper role as a process
whereby the total community can participate in
making judgments about the future shape of the
common life.
A tremendous burden falls today on you
who are the citizens of the Nation’s Capital
metropolis. For the people of America,
Washington is the symbol of urban beauty.
Your majestic public spaces, your trees in
blossom, your monuments, and your monu-
mental design are the images Americans
carry with them when they envision urban
magnificence.
But you and I know also that there is an
ugly and sordid Washington, a city of pov-
erty where the human spirit sickens and
children grow in bitterness at the contrast
between the marble city and the asphalt
city. You and I know that true urban
beauty resides deeper than the architecture,
the sculpture, the plantings, however splen-
did.
A century ago too, our urban cities were
places of sorrow as well as hope, of misery
as well as prosperity. What redeemed them
and made them essentially human places
was the ever-flickering community involve-
ment toward raising the standards of city
life. Old law tenements were an advance
over the warrens that preceded them. The
new multiple dwelling laws, the settlement
house movement, the early public housing
efforts, the urban social work and welfare
programs were all products of a vital politi-
cal community that marked the 19th cen-
tury city, however inhuman some of its
aspects.
What is so paralyzing today, inhibiting
effective human interaction on perfectly evi-
dent problems, is the way the contemporary
urban community, in overleaping the cen-
tral city boundaries, has destroyed the old
mechanism of metropolitan politics—the
big city that embraced the whole metropo-
lis; the place where men of all kinds, bound
NOVEMBER, 1965
together by the common threads of urban
production, came to terms with each other
in the give and take of municipal political
life. It is not that the 19th century political
behavior was especially elevated. Fre-
quently it was not. But the political me-
tropolis did then exist, and it was a means
of grappling with the urban problems of
the day. The whole community could face
the whole set of problems.
A very major problem for us is that
metropolitan politics really does not now
exist. We have conflicts and we have in-
terests in common among the peoples of
our spreading urban regions. We have be-
gun informal and voluntary efforts to talk
about these matters. But we have not yet
created the governmental structures within
which metropolitan politics can be played
out. Until we do so, we will not solve our
tough urban problems, to say nothing of
realizing our magnificent urban potentiali-
ties. We will have at best a high-capacity
transport nework with no worthwhile place
to go.
As I experience Washington today, I
sense a ferment toward the invention of
some new governmental concept embracing
the whole expanding metropolis. I see a
search for something that will link city and
suburb in a new and different unity. Some-
thing that will link planning and action to-
gether, information and decision. Some-
thing that will link social and economic and
environmental policy. Something beyond
an areawide transportation agency, how-
ever comprehensive; beyond a _ regional
land use planning agency, however well
staffed. [I see coming some instrumen-
tality that will enlist the many leader-
ships throughout expanding metropolitan
Washington and will commit you and your
neighbors to the creation here in this cen-
tury of a great city not yet dreamed.
MN
199
Pecora Appointed Director
Of Geological Survey
William T. Pecora
was named director of
the Geological Survey
in an announcement on
September 27 by Secre-
tary of the Interior
Stewart L. Udall. He
succeeded Thomas B.
| Nolan, director since
1956, who a Pees the post in order
to return to full-time research activity.
Dr. Pecora is the eighth director in the
86-year history of the largest scientific
agency in the Department of the Interior.
In announcing the appointment, Secretary
Udall praised him as a “scientist of unusual
depth and stature,” and termed the job a
“most responsible one, particularly at a
time when the mineral and water resources
needs in support of our Nation’s economy
and well-being have never been greater, and
when evolving knowledge of the physical
structure of the earth is becoming increas-
ingly important in domestic and interna-
tional affairs.”
An outstanding expert in mineralogy,
petrology, and geochemistry, with special
emphasis on determinations of scientific
principles as guides in the exploration of
mineral, fuel, and water resources, Dr. Pe-
cora received the B.S. degree in geology at
Princeton University in 1933, and the Ph.D.
degree in geology at Harvard University
in 1940.
Dr. Pecora has acquired international
stature for his work in a number of geo-
logic fields, such as rare minerals and
volcanic regions. He is the author of over
40 scientific publications based on field and
laboratory research. His research studies
have been made throughout the United
States, and—on behalf of foreign aid pro-
-grams—have extended into many parts of
Latin America.
Among his professional affiliations, Dr.
200
°
Pecora is a member or fellow of the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences, the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Wash-
ington Academy of Sciences, the Geologi-
cal Society of America, the Geological So-
ciety of Washington, and the Executive
Committee of NRC’s Division of Earth
Sciences.
T-THOUGHTS
The Function of an Executive
The following is a delightful delineation
of the function of an executive:
“As nearly everyone knows, an execu-
tive has practically nothing to do except
to decide what is to be done; to tell some-
body to do it, to listen to reasons why it
should not be done, why it should be done
by someone else, or why it should be done
in a different way; to follow up to see if
the thing has been done; to discover that
it has not; to enquire why; to listen to
excuses from the person who should have
done it; to follow up again to see if the
thing has been done, only to discover that
it has been done incorrectly; to point out
how it should have been done; to conclude
that as long as it has been done, it may
as well be left where it is; to wonder if it
is not time to get rid of a person who can-
not do a thing right; to reflect that he
probably has a wife and a large family,
and that certainly any successor would be
just as bad, and maybe worse; to consider
how much simpler and better the thing
would have been done if one had done it
oneself in the first place; to reflect sadly
that one could have done it right in twenty
minutes, and, as things turned out, one has
had to spend two days to find out why it
has taken three weeks for somebody else
to do it wrong.”
Also I might add a quote from Major
General Leslie E. Simon, USA (Retired) :
“It is good to have the strength of a
giant; it is shameful to exercise it.”
—Ralph G. H. Siu
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
A CONTRIBUTION
FROM THE ARCHIVIST
A Critical View of Mendel’s Law
In the Proceedings of 1907
The centenary of Mendel’s main work
provides the occasion for recalling a dis-
cussion of “Mendelism” in this Academy
a8 years ago. At the meeting of February
26, 1907, Charles B. Davenport spoke
about “Heredity and Mendel’s Law” (1). In
the discussion, O. I’. Cook voiced his objec-
tions. He then elaborated his remarks inte
a 50-page article(2), of which some parts
from the beginning and from the end are
reprinted below.
Orator Fuller Cook (1867-1949) was an
active biologist, a great traveler, and a
prolific writer (3). W. Andrew Archer, his
colleague at the National Arboretum, com-
piled a bibliography, dated June 15, 1950,
in which he listed 397 items published by
Cook between 1887 and 1947. In an ad-
ditional report, Archer filled 70 pages with
a chronological “Itinerary of O. F. Cook”
which he introduces as follows:
The not inconsiderable task in compiling this
itinerary has been done mainly in the hope that
it might guide to determine the origin (in doubt-
ful cases) of the innumerable specimens accu-
mulated by Dr. Cook in various fields, principally
palms, wild cottons, economic plants, general
tropical flora, fungi, millipedes, ants, and fossils”
(4).
In one of his many publications in the
Academy, Cook explains his “kinetic view
of prepotency” which he wants to be un-
derstood “not in the Mendelian sense of an
arbitrary and inexplicable ‘dominance’ of
one character over another, but mindful of
the law of proportion between symbiasis
and prepotency” (5).
As the following excerpts from his 1907
article show, Cook has two fundamental ob-
jections: (1) “The methods of reproduc-
tion rather than the methods of inheritance”
are responsible for “the definite mathemati-
cal relations which appear in a Mendelian
experiment.” (2) We must distinguish “the
NovEMBER, 1965
process of transmission” from “the process
of expression”; often, there is a polarity
between these two.
References
(1) C. B. Davenport, Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci. 9
179-187 (1907).
Ze @: F. Cook, Mendelism and other methods
of descent. Ibid. 189-239.
(3) Obituary by H. F. Loomis. J. Washington
Acad. Sci. 40, 173-5 (1950).
(4) The two mimeographed reports are avail-
able in the Department of Agriculture Library.
(5) O. F. Cook, The vital fabric of descent.
Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci. 7, 301-323, (esp. p. 314)
(1906).
—Eduard Farber
Excerpts from the Cook Article
[190] In Mendelian crosses or hybrids there
is a definite and uniform proportion between
the expression of characters in what are called
the first and second generations. It has not
unnaturally been supposed that this regularity
of proportion must obey an internal law or prin-
ciple of descent governing the relations and com-
binations of characters. Definite mathematical
relations must represent, it has been argued, defi-
nite entities inside the germ-cells. Here, at
last, appeared to be a triumphant justification
for the mechanical speculations of Darwin, Na-
geli, and Weismann, to the effect that characters
are transmitted from generation to generation
by means of minute determinant particles or
character-units of the germ-cells. It was found
possible to explain the mathematical relations of
typical cases of Mendelism by supposing that the
presence or absence of certain particles in the
germ-cells determined the presence or absence of
the character in the adult organism.
In a Mendelian cross the parents differ in at
least one pair of definitely contrasted characters.
All the individuals of the so-called first genera-
tion show the character of one of the parents,
which is called the dominant. In the following
generations three-quarters of the individuals have
this character of the dominant parent, and one
quarter the other character (recessive), which
did not appear at all in the first generation. . .
[191] The Nature of Experiments
in Descent
But if the facts of Mendelism are examined
somewhat more closely and in the light of
modern knowledge of the peculiar nature of the
reproductive processes of the higher plants and
animals, it will be found that the definite math-
ematical relations which appear in a Mendelian
experiment arise from the methods of repro-
201
duction rather than from the methods of inherit-
ance. Other interpretations are possible. ...
[2138]
Position of Mendelism as a
Method of Descent
Mendelism is one of the methods of descent
in which unlike produce unlike. Mendelism has
aroused special interest in the scientific world
largely because it seemed to contradict the ear-
lier inferences from the idea of heredity, by
showing that contrasted differences are pre-
served, and not reduced to a uniform inter-
mediate average. Instead of being a form of
heredity, Mendelism is a specialization of heter-
ism; it is one of the methods of increasing divers-
ity of descent, which sustains the efficiency of
the processes of sexual reproduction. The pres-
ervation of differences inside the species by means
of sex-inheritance is one of the most familiar
phenomena of descent, but the intimate re-
semblance between Mendelism and _sex-inherit-
ance has not been adequately appreciated.
[238]
A typical experiment in Mendelism, instead
of involving two successive crosses or conjuga-
tions of gametes, includes only one such cross.
The so-called first generation is built up by the
vegetative subdivisions of the gamete parents,
before conjugation is completed. The so-called
second generation represents the first organisms
produced after the completion of the conjuga-
tion of the gamete parents.
The difference of proportion between the two
generations in the expression of divergent par-
ental characters is to be explained by the peculiar
methods of reproduction followed by the higher
plants and animals, and by the fact of domi-
nance or expression-polarity, instead of by the
Mendelian theory of alternative inheritance of
character-unit particles.
Mutations do not differ from Mendelian hy-
brids in any essential respect, either at the time
of their first appearance or in later combinations.
The preservation of the new character by defi-
Conclusions
nitely reciprocal inheritance of expression-po-
larities is favored by the same conditions of
restricted descent which induce the mutative
variations.
The analogy of the Mendelian phenomena, ap-
plied to variations induced by crossing, shows
that new characters which come to expression in
the first or conjugate generation are not likely
to be permanent. Dominant variations can gain
expression in the second or perjugate generation,
but recessive variations are not shown before
the third generation, and may not be brought
into expression until still later generations, un-
less the first perjugate generation is self-fertil-
ized. As many variations of economic value be-
have as recessives, this fact is of practical sig-
nificance in breeding experiments.
Two distinct phenomena have been confused
in the Mendelian conception of inheritance, trans-
mission and expression. The failure of a char-
acter to secure expression does not indicate that
it has failed of transmission. Polarity, or recip-
rocal expression inheritance of divergent parental
characters, explains the phenomena of Mendelism
and related forms of descent without requiring
the assumption of pure germ-cells or of char-
acter-unit particles.
There is no evidence that normal transmission-
inheritance is a phenomenon involving the alter-
native admission or exclusion of character-units,
or that characters are transmitted as particles or
mechanisms. The process of transmission is in-
dependent and separate from the process of ex-
pression, which often yields polar or reciprocal
results. This reciprocal polarity of expression-
inheritance shows how new characters can be
preserved and thus contribute to the normal di-
versity of a species or gradually transform it.
Evolutionary advance can thus take place without
selective or geographical isolation. The general
evolutionary significance of Mendelism lies in
its testimony to this fact, and not in the theories
of inheritance by character-units and pure germ-
cells.
Ge)
202
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Academy Proceedings
49 1st Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences
SUBJECT: MENDELIAN CENTENNIAL CELEBRATION
(1865-1965)
PLACE: GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
ovth and O Streets, N.W.
DATE: THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 18, 1965
SCHEDULE
Cocktails at 6:00 p.m. in the Faculty Lounge, New South Hall
Dinner at 6:45 in the Main Dining Room, New South Hall
After-dinner lectures at 8:30 in Gaston Hall Auditorium
DINNER SPEAKER
Alexander Weinstein, Harvard University, ““The Reception of Mendel’s Paper
by His Contemporaries’’
In 1866 there appeared a paper on hybridization which advocated further research
into the problem, “to what extent the characters of the paternal and the maternal plant
remain unmodified in the hybrid, and to what extent, after they have blended with each
other, they can separate again.” Geneticists will recognize in this a statement of the
Mendelian theory of segregation. The writer of the words, however, was not Mendel
but Nageli.
Obviously this contradicts the ordinary view that Nageli did not understand Mendel’s
work and ultimately forgot it. Because of his reputation as the leading expert of his
day on matters of heredity, the opinion of Nageli was decisive in the case of Mendel. We
can say he understood, but that he failed to grasp the full significance of Mendel’s
ideas, perhaps because other features, thought to influence development, had not been
properly evaluated.
AFTER-DINNER LECTURES
(1) Louis Levine, City College of New York, ‘‘Mendelian and
Evolutionary Genetics”
Mendel’s theory of heredity included the principles of dominance,
segregation, and independent assortment. Subsequent research indi-
cated that the genes are located on the chromosomes which can
break and form new combinations or arrangements of the genes.
The demonstration of gene mutation combined with the facts of
heredity permitted investigations on evolutionary genetics. Distri-
; butions of genotypes in populations and the factors that would
alter en frequencies were studied. Field and laboratory studies of Drosophila have indi-
cated the possible ways that natural selection can operate in evolution.
(Continued on next page)
NOVEMBER, 1965 203
(2) Ellis Bolton, Carnegie Institution of Washington, ‘The
Physical Basis of Inheritance”’
The nucleotide sequences in deoxynucleic acid (DNA) represent
the total genetic potential of organisms and those in ribonucleic acid
(RNA) molecules, the primary gene products, indicate the activity
of genes. DNA is a duplex structure whose complementary strands
may be separated and caused to recombine. RNA, in general, is a
single-stranded structure and since it is the primary gene product
that reflects the nucleotide sequences in DNA, it may also be induced
to combine with complementary regions in DNA. These observations have led to the
development of powerful new tools which are being used to penetrate into the most
intimate aspects of the architecture and molecular behavior of living cells, and into gentic
relationships among organisms.
Non-members wishing to attend the cocktail party and the dinner ($3.00) should tele-
phone reservations to Mrs. Humphrey, Washington Academy of Sciences (AD 4-5323)
by November 15. Members should use the jorms that were sent to them by mail.
No reservations are needed for lectures in Gaston Hall Auditorium.
The Public Is Invited
BOARD OF MANAGERS
MEETING NOTES
March Meeting
The Board of Managers held its 571st
meeting on March 18 at the Cosmos Club,
with President Schubert presiding.
The minutes of the 570th meeting were
approved as previously distributed.
Announcements. Dr. Schubert announced
that continued consideration had been given
to establishment of a Membership Commit-
tee panel for behavioral sciences. How-
ever, a prospective chairman of the panel
had declined appointment on the grounds
that it was not clear what the behavioral
sciences were thought to be by the Acad-
emy, and on what standards behavioral
scientist nominees should be judged. The
Board felt that these questions warranted
further study; Dr. Schubert indicated that
he would discuss them with the Executive
- Committee at its meeting on April 13.
Secretary and Treasurer. Mrs. Elizabeth
Humphrey of the Academy office reported
204
She re-
for the secretary and treasurer.
ported current balances of $5,758 for the
Academy and $1,977 for the Junior Acad-
emy.
The Board approved requests by Frank-
lin E. Allison, Donald B. Brooks, Kenneth
G. Clark, Ned R. Ellis, Frank L. Roth, and
Willis L. Tressier for transfer to emeritus
status. Resignations by Raymond L. Nace,
Myrna J. Robertson, George L. Trager, and
Walter G. Wadey were accepted. The Board
suggested that in considering requests for
emeritus status, Mrs. Humphrey should as-
certain whether the members had actually
retired from gainful employment of any
sort, or had merely retired from their ofh-
cial positions.
The Board declined a request from a
junior high school in New York State for
the loan of back issues of the Journal; it
was suggested that Mrs. Humphrey try to
determine whether Journals were available
at some library within the area of the
school, and so inform the school.
Dr. DeVore re-
Public Information.
JoURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ported that responsibility for publishing the
Science Calendar has been transferred from
the Joint Board on Science Education to
the Washington Board of Trade, thereby
saving the Academy $350 annually. Frank
McManus of the Board of Trade is the con-
tact for information regarding the Calen-
dar.
Dr. Schubert commented that the Joint
Board had expanded its name to “Joint
Board on Education for Science, Engineer-
ing, and Technology of the Greater Wash-
ington Area.”
Meetings. Dr. Steinhardt reported that
the April “Conversazione” would be similar
in format to the one held in 1964, with a
new list of topics for discussion. Several
Board members suggested that round tables
for the discussion groups would be prefer-
able to the long, rectangular tables used
last year, although it was recognized that
round tables would involve an extra charge
by the Cosmos Club.
Special Events. Chairman Diamond
pointed out that establishment of a Meet-
ing Arrangements Committee appeared to
have obviated the need for his Special
Events Committee, and recommended that
the latter be abolished. After considerable
discussion of the functions of the Pro-
gram, Meeting Arrangements, and Special
Events Committees it was decided to con-
tinue the Special Events Committee during
1965.
Science Education. Dr. Taylor an-
nounced that the fifth curriculum confer-
ence for teachers, sponsored by the Joint
Board, would be held at the Naval Ord-
nance Laboratory on April 3; also, that the
last conference of the series, concerned
with elementary school science teaching,
would be held at Ramsey School, Alexan-
dria, on May 1.
On Dr. Taylor’s motion, the Board ap-
proved a contribution of $300 to the Joint
Board, in accordance with its annual prac-
tice.
Encouragement of Science Talent. Dr.
Schubert read a communication from
NovemMBerR, 1965
Father Heyden, listing 40 local high school
seniors selected by the Committee for 1965
awards, namely, a certificate of merit and
a voucher worth $7.50 for a book to be se-
lected by the student. It was also announced
that the annual student award dinner would
be held at Georgetown University on April
21; members of the Academy were welcome
to attend.
Mrs. Humphrey stated that in 1964, only
23 students out of the 40 selected had pur-
chased books, so that about $139 of the
$300 deposited with Brentano’s, to cover
the estimated cost of the books, had been
returned to the Academy. She hoped that
the voucher arrangement set up for 1965
would prove more successful than the 1964
system, of depositing a lump sum and then
issuing letters of credit to the students.
Dr. DeVore announced that on April 7,
at the Cosmos Club, illustrated lectures
would be presented by the three winners of
the 1964 Young Engineers, Applied Scien-
tists, and Architect Awards, sponsored by
the D. C. Council of Engineering and Archi-
tectural Societies and the Washington
Academy of Sciences.
Archivist. Dr. Farber reported that he
had at hand a number of miscellaneous
publications received at one time or an-
other from other scientific organizations.
The Board recommended that they be given
to the United States Book Exchange.
History of Science in Washington. Dr.
Leikind reported on the recent first meet-
ing of this newly-organized committee. In
response to a portion of the report, Mr.
Detwiler commented that interesting arti-
cles on the history of science in Washington
were always welcomed in the Journal.
Editor. Mr. Detwiler reported that copy
for the April issue of the Journal had been
sent to the printer.
Other Business. Dr. Schubert reported
that he and Dr. Frenkiel had represented
the Academy at the Engineers’ Scientists,
and Architects Day meeting, held February
17 at the Presidential Arms.
205
May Meeting
The Board of Managers held its 572nd
meeting on May 20 at the National
Academy of Sciences, with President
Schubert presiding.
The minutes of the 57lst meeting were
approved as previously distributed.
Announcements. Dr. Schubert an-
nounced that Howard Owens of Science,
Dorothy Calber of Yorktown High School,
Virginia, and Charles Davis of American
University had been appointed to the
Joint Board on Education for Science,
Engineering, and ‘Technology of the
Greater Washington area (formerly the
Joint Board on Science Education). He
also announced the death on May 20 of
Ralph Goetzenberger, immediate past
president of the D. C. Council of the
Architectural and Engineering Societies.
Secretary. Dr. Forziati reported that
Frank Neumann of Seattle, Wash., a fellow
of the Academy, had been killed in the
Alaskan earthquake of March 9, 1964.
He also reported several changes in the
Board of Managers, as follows: Peter H.
Heinze as new delegate from the Botani-
cal Society; Florence H. Forziati as new
delegate from the Chemical Society of
Washington; Morris Leikind as delegate
from Washington History of Science
Club; Elmer L. Mayer as new delegate
from the Insecticide Society of America;
Malcolm C. Henderson as new delegate
from the Philosophical Society; and Mau-
rice Apstein to be removed as delegate
from the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers.
Treasurer. Mr. Miller reported that at
the end of April, the Academy’s income
(not counting a $1,000 loan repaid by the
Junior Academy) was $14,333, and its
expenses $11,641, leaving a balance of
$2,692. Last year at the same date, $12,-
478 had been received, and by the end of
the year a total of $18,539 had been re-
ceived. If the same proportion holds, total
income for 1965 could be about $21,000;
if income is the same as in 1964, then
206
expenditures again will be out of line
with income.
Last year, total expenditures were
$7,863 above income. Mr. Miller felt that
1965 expenses should be pared to bring
them into line with anticipated income.
Mr. Miller also reported that 110 resi-
dent fellows, 29 nonresident fellows, and
19 members had not paid their 1965 dues;
he estimated that the total back dues owed
amounted to about $1,860. He planned
to contact the delinquents during the
summer when the membership lists were
reviewed.
Dr. McClellan inquired about the
causes of the Academy’s deficit spending
in 1964. Mr. Detwiler explained that this
was due primarily to the need for an
Academy office, with a part-time paid
secretary, and to the desire of the 1964
Board for an expanded Journal. Dr.
Forziati explained that meetings also have
become more expensive: Board dinners
are subsidized to the extent of a dollar
per person attending, and the annual
-award dinner costs about $800. So far in
1965, $1600 had been spent on meetings.
Dr. Schubert stated that he planned to
appoint a budget committee to allocate
funds for the remainder of the year.
Membership. Dr. Cook reported that at
meetings on March 30 and May 3, the
Committee had elected eight candidates to
membership, as follows: Michael R. De-
Carlo, Charles DeVore, Berenice G. Lamb-
erton, Donald J. Morriss, Robert S.
Weber, Constance P. Wrench, Richard
O’Day, and Ernst M. Cohn.
On Dr. Cook’s recommendation, the
Board elected 20 persons to fellowship
in the Academy, as fellows: Arthur R. von
Hippel, Ronald E. Walker, William M.
Frank, John D. Morton, Jean R. DuPont,
Jay S. Winston, Robert B. Beckmann,
Joseph A. Faulkner, Edward A. Wolff,
Charles W. Misner, Donald F. Brandewie,
Wilbur I. Patterson, Bruce L. Reinhart,
Raymond A. Galloway, Bruce N. Ames,
W. Wayne Meinke, Allison R. Palmer,
Donald J. Morriss, Donald D. Wagman,
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
and Leslie A. Guildner.
Meetings. In the absence of the meet-
-ings chairman, Dr. Schubert announced
that the fall meetings program was es-
sentially complete. For the November
meeting, a special program is planned to
celebrate the Mendel centennial, with co-
operation from the afhliated societies.
Grants-in-Aid. On recommendation of
Dr. Cole, the Board approved a grant of
not more than $200 to Jon R. Voskuil of
George C. Marshall High School, Falls
Church, for work in the field of piezo-
electricity and crystal resonance. (The
exact amount was later determined to be
$70, to be spent for an ultrasonic gener-
ator, a Rochelle salt crystal, and miscel-
laneous electronic components. )
Science Education. Dr. Schubert an-
nounced that Dr. Taylor was approaching
the end of his term as chairman of this
committee, and did not wish to continue.
He asked the Board to suggest names for
a replacement.
Dr. Schubert reported that he had
written to the Academy’s affiliates to re-
quest financial support of the Joint
Board; to date, he had received seven
replies but only three contributions.
Dr. Schubert also mentioned that the
Junior Academy was again financially
solvent, since the Pennsylvania Railroad
had paid the travel commission due for
last year’s group trips.
Encouragement of Science Talent,
Father Heyden reported that the Com-
mittee had concluded its activities for this
year with an award dinner for 40 out-
standing high school science students,
held in April.
Editor. Mr. Detwiler asked for expres-
sions of opinion on the desirability of
including rosters of various affiliated
societies in the September directory, as
was the case in 1963 and 1964.
Policy Planning. In the absence of
Chairman Cowie, Dr. Schubert stated that
he had reviewed the recommendations of
this Committee over the past three years,
and was surprised to find that no action
NovEMBER, 1965
had ever been taken by the Board. Dr.
Robbins suggested that a summary of the
Committee’s recommendations be mailed
to Board members for future considera-
tion.
New Business. Dr. Farber announced
that he had written a monograph, “Oxi-
dation Theories and Techniques in the
19th Century and the Beginning of the
20th,” which had been supported in part
by an NSF grant, although he had borne
most of the cost of preparing the manu-
script. Dr. Schubert said that American
University would be willing to provide
funds for printing 2,000 copies of the
monograph, and wondered whether the
Academy would be willing to sponsor it.
No formal decision was reached.
Dr. Schubert discussed a request that
the Academy should support Engineers,
Scientists, and Architects Day activities
with a $150 contribution. There was a
general discussion of the desirability of
active participation in this affair, without
a definite conclusion. The question of
financial support was deferred to a fall
meeting of the Board.
NAS-NRC will sponsor a public sym-
posium on Scientific Aspects of Pest Con-
trol, in Washington on January 31-Febru-
ary 3, 1966. The program is intended to
provide a comprehensive review of the
present status of pest control in modern
life. It will encompass the methods of
pest control—biological, chemical, and
genetic—presently in use, their develop-
ment and regulation, and the multiplicity
of ways in which pest control measures
interact with the physical environment,
with plant and animal life, and with man.
Special emphasis will be given to the
advances, problems, and future needs in
pest control research. Attendance will be
open to persons involved in every aspect
of pest control. The Department of Agri-
culture, acting on behalf of HEW, In-
terior, and other Federal agencies, re-
quested NAS-NRC to conduct the pro-
gram, which will be held in the Depart-
ment of State auditorium.
207
Science in Washington
SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS
Contributions to this column may be
addressed to Harold T. Cook, Associate
Editor, c/o Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service, Federal Cen-
ter Building, Hyattsville, Md.
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT
A. M. POMMER has been elected to fuil
membership by the Chapter-at-large, So-
ciety of the Sigma Xi. He also has been
appointed co-chairman of the Research and
Engineering Management Round Table;
chairman of the Publicity Committee, In-
strument Society of America; and chairman
of the Research Committee, Maryland As-
sociation for Retarded Children.
C. R. BENJAMIN was named president-
elect of the Mycological Society of America
at its annual meeting, held at the University
of Illinois last August. He will assume
the duties of president of the society in
August 1966.
ASHLEY B. GURNEY, Entomology Re-
search Division, returned early in Septem-
ber after five months overseas; he was en-
gaged in field and curatorial studies on
grasshoppers and related insects in cooper-
ation with the Egyptian Ministry of Agri-
culture, under a P. L. 480 project dealing
with the insect fauna of Egypt. He also
spent three weeks collecting insects in Ethi-
opia, and five weeks studying cockroach
and grasshopper identifications in several
European and English museums.
GEORGE W. IRVING, JR., has been ap-
pointed a member of the Scientific Advisory
Board of the Sugar Research Foundation,
Inc., New York City. Dr. Irving also will
serve on the advisory board for American
University’s 11th Institute on Research Ad-
ministration. During the month of October,
he addressed the USDA Club in Chicago;
_ the Hyattsville Lions Club; and _partici-
pants in a Foreign Affairs Seminar held at
the Agricultural Research Center in Belts-
ville.
208
JUSTUS C. WARD served as a member
of the FAO Working Party on Official
Control of Pesticides which met in Rome
from September 20 to 25. The aim of the
Working Party was to survey the possi-
bility of proposing a model law on pesti-
cides, for offer by FAO to any country that
needs. guidance in writing a pesticide law.
COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY
DONALD A. RICE participated in sym-
posia of the International Association of
Geodesy for Electromagnetic Distance
Measurements held at Oxford, England,
September 6-11, and in the meeting of the
International Gravimetric Commission,
Paris, France, September 15-18.
DAVID G. KNAPP participated in the
Second International Symposium on Equa-
torial Aeronomy, Sao Jose dos Campos,
Brazil, September 5-11.
NATIONAL BUREAU OF
STANDARDS
WILLIAM J. YOUDEN retired on June
30 from. the Applied Mathematics Division.
Internationally known as a statistician, Dr.
Youden had been with the Bureau since
1948. He has done significant research in
mathematical statistics, especially in the
field of experiment design, and has vigor-
ously promoted sound understanding and
increased utilization of modern statistical
techniques throughout science and industry.
ALLEN V. ASTIN received the fourth
ASTM Award to Executives on June 16.
Presented at the Society’s Annual Meeting
held at Purdue University, the award
“honors an executive who, through his out-
standing interest and support, has furthered
the accomplishments of ASTM.”
JOHN A. BENNETT, metallurgist in the
Engineering Metallurgy Section, received
the ninth Richard L. Templin Award of
the American Society for Testing Ma-
terials on June 16, at an awards luncheon
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
held during ASTM’s 68th Annual Meeting
- at Purdue University. He was cited for
an outstanding paper, “A Simple Environ-
mental Chamber for Rotating-Beam Fa-
tigue,” published in the June 1963 issue
of ASTM’s monthly journal, Materials Re-
search & Standards.
SAMUEL PENNER, an internationally
known nuclear physicist, was recently ap-
pointed chief of the Accelerator Physics
Laboratory in the Institute for Basic Stand-
ards. In this position, he will plan, direct,
and conduct original research in nuclear
physics with particular emphasis on deter-
mining the structure of nuclei with the tech-
nique of elastic and inelastic electron scat-
tering.
OSCAR MENIS was recently appointed
chief of the Quantitative Separations Sec-
tion of the Analytical Chemistry Division,
Institute for Materials Research. As head
of this Section, he will be responsible for
the development of a program to broaden
and refine the traditional methods of chemi-
cal analysis which should lead to marked
improvement of the Bureau’s capabilities
in the area of standard reference materials
and in its program of service analysis.
Invitational papers have been given by
staff members in foreign countries, as
follows:
G. M. Brauer, H. J. Caul, G. Dickson,
G. C. Paffenbarger and W. T. Sweeney at
the International Association for Dental
Research, Toronto, July 22-25.
D. R. Lide and C. M. Sitterly at the Sth
European Congress on Molecular Spectros-
copy, Copenhagen, August 16-20.
J. R. McNesby, H. Okabe, and M. D.
Scheer before the International Conference
on Photochemistry, Tokyo, August 25-28.
J. R. Manning at the International Con-
ference on Electron Diffraction and Crystal
Defects, Melbourne, Australia, August
16-21.
L. Marton at the 3rd Czechoslovak Con-
ference on Electronics and Vacuum Phys-
ics, Prague, September 23; Indian Insti-
tute of Science, Bangalore, September 3;
NOVEMBER, 1965
and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences,
Research Institute for Technical Physics.
Budapest, September 28.
K. E. Shuler, a series of lectures at the
NATO Summer School on Theoretical
Chemistry, Lake Constance,
September 14-24.
J. R. McNesby at the Max-Planck-Institut
fur Kohlenforschung, Mulheim, West Ger-
many, September 15.
M. D. Scheer before the Chemical So-
ciety of Japan, Tokyo Institute of Tech-
nology, Tokyo, September 3.
C. M. Tchen at the Laboratory for Plas-
ma Physics, Faculty of Sciences, Univer-
sity of Paris, September 21.
Germany,
NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
W. S. PELLINI, superintendent of the
Metallurgy Division, is now on detached
service with the London Office of the Office
of Naval Research for an extended period.
In this assignment he will be making a
survey of metallurgical developments in
Europe.
PETER KING, currently chief scientist
of the Office of Naval Research, London,
recently spent two weeks in Washington
visiting local laboratories and scientific or-
ganizations. Dr. King will remain at his
post in London for an additional year.
A. I. SCHINDLER, head of the Metal
Physics Branch, has been selected by the
NRL Branch of the Research Society of
America to receive the RESA Award for
Pure Science. The award is made for
distinguished research on the electronic
structure and related physical properties
of transition metal alloys.
JOSEPH A. KIES, head of the Ballistics
Branch, was the 1966 winner of the Bur-
gess Memorial Award, presented by the
Washington Chapter of the American So-
ciety for Metals. Mr. Kies was recognized
for his outstanding contributions to metal-
lurgy, specifically as related to the appli-
cation of fracture mechanics theory and
practice to the solution of fracture prob-
lems in large rocket motor cases.
209
Publications Received
During the Exchange Program
The Academy office harbors on_ its
shelves a number of books and single
issues of journals sent in by scientific
organizations with which the Academy
entertained an exchange. These publica-
tions, some of them relatively unknown
and none more recent than 1963, deal
with many different subjects. Here is a
list of these publications; they are avail-
able to readers of this Journal.
Air Pollution Control District, City of Los
Angeles (10 issues, 1956-8).
Annales Inst. Nac. de Anthropologia e Historia,
10, 11, Mexico, 1958-9.
Anthropologia Fisica de Veracrus, by Johanna
Faulhaber, 2 vols., 1950-6.
Argentina, Publ. Inst. de Invest. microquimi-
cas, Rosario, 18, 1954.
Biota 2, 15, 16, Magdalena del Mar, Peru,
1958.
Bull. Inst. Nat. d’Hygiene, Paris, 4 issues,
1956-8.
Bull. Inst. Politehnic Din Jaci (Roumania),
Tom IV (VIII), 1958.
Bull. New Jersey Acad. Sci. 3, 1, Spring 1958.
Bul. de la Divulgacion Nos. 1, 2, 4, 8, Minis-
terio de Agric. de Colombia, Palmira, Valle,
1957-9.
Central Meteorological Office, Seoul, Korea,
Monthly weather summaries, Oct.-Dec. 1959.
Ciencia e Naturaleza J, 1, June 1957, Quito,
Ecuador.
Ciencia y Technologia 5, 18, 19, 1955; 6, 21,
22, 1956. Ciencias Sociales 7, 39, 40, 1956. Un-
ion Panamericana, Washington, D.C.
Conference on the facilities of the Smithsonian
Institution, Feb. 27, 1927.
Collogue Interntl. de photochimie corpuscu-
laire, Strassbourg, 1-6 Juillet, 1957 (Abstracts,
Paris, 1958).
Faculte des Sciences de l’Universite de Skopje,
1963 (in Cyrillic alphabet, mathematical).
Fields, Robert W. Geology of the La Venta
Badlands, Colombia, South America. Univ. of
California Press, 1959.
Hindustan Antibiotics Bull. 2, 2, Nov. 1959.
Iheringia, series scientificas do Museo Rio-
Grandense de Ciencias Naturales Zoologicas Nos.
1-4, Porto Allegre, 1957.
Interntl. Union of Anthrop. & Ethnological
Sciences, Bull. 2, Vienna, UNESCO, 1959.
Istanbul Teknik Univ. Bult. JJ, 1, Istanbul,
1958.
210
Memoirs of the Raffles Museum, Singapore 2,
June 1955. (Pridmore, F. Coins and Coinage of
the Straits Settlements and British Malaya 1786-
1951.)
Ministerio de Agriculture de Colombia, Agri-
culture tropical 14, 1958; 15, 5, 6, 1959.
Minneapolis J. Sci. 2, 2, Dec. 1958.
New York Academy of Sciences, Trans. Ser. 2,
18 (7), May 1956.
Occupational med. Foundation & Inst. of oc-
cupational health, list of occ. health publns. 1940-
90, 1951-57, Helsinki, 1958; annual report 1956,
Helsinki, 1957.
Osterreichische Ak. d. Wiss. Wien, Math.- Na-
turwiss. Klasse, Anzeiger 92, 1-15, 1955; 99, 1-15,
1962.
Pesquisas No. 2, 1958; No. 3, 1959. Instituto
Anchietano de Pesquisas, Porto Allegre, Rio
Grande de Sul, Brasil.
Polish scientific abstr. ROK 5 (2), 1959.
Polska Ak. Nauk, Inst. Podstawowysh Probl.
Technike, Tom V, 1; VII,-35 (VIN I-4-iikee2e
4,5; XI 5. Warszawa, 1956-9. Subtitle on VIII
and IX: Archives de mecanique appliquee.
Publicaciones de la Seccion Ciencia y Tec-
nologia, Guia de Inst. y Soc. cient. Latinameri-
canas, Union Panam., Washington, D. C., Part 6,
1953; Part 2, 2nd ed., 1954.
Republica de Venezuela, Minist. de Agricultura
y Cria, Mem. 1960, Caracas.
Acta biol. Venezuelica, Vol. 2, Art. 18-28,
1958 (on Mallophaga).
Rev. Colombiana de anthropologia VII, Bogota,
1958.
Rev. Colomb. de Folclor, No. 3, 1959.
Rev. del S.O.P.D.E., Servicio Off. de Difus-
ione Radio Electrica 4, 5, Montevideo, 1957.
Bol. inform. de la bibliotheca 42, 3, 1958; 46,
7, 1959; 48, 9, 1960.
Sovjet Review, Nov. 1961, Interntl. Arts &
Sciences Press, New York.
Texas Reports on Biol. & Med. 15, 4, Winter
1957.
Universidad Central de las Villas, Cuba. Ex-
cursiones arqueologicas a Camaguey, 1958.
Universidade de Rio Grande do Sul, Escola de
geologia, Porto Allegre, 1959. A. W. Schneider,
Estudio do sub-sole de Porto Allegre.
Universidad Nacc. de San Marcos de Lima,
Fac. de Chimica, 1956. Anti-protons—gravity.
Villars, G. E. Elementos de atomistica, Monte-
video, 1953.
Wiss. Zeitschr. Humbold Universitat zu Berlin,
Math.-Naturwiss. Reihe 5, 3, 4, 1955-6. Ges.-und
Sprachwiss. Rehie 5,3, 4, 1955-6; 6, 2-4; 7, 3,
1958-9.
Wiss. Zeitschr. Padag. Hochschule Potsdam
4, 1958-9.
Year Book of the Interntl. Council of the
Scientific Unions, 1956 (Roy. Soc. London).
; —Eduard Farber
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CONTENTS
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DECEMBER 1965
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
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Geologic History of the Michigan Basin*
George V. Cohee
U. S. Geological Survey
The Michigan structural basin has been
recognized since the work of Douglass
Houghton, the first state geologist of
Michigan. The circular pattern of the
rocks beneath the glacial drift in Michigan
was shown on a map published by James
Hall as far back as 1843. Hall credited
Houghton with the information on Michi-
gan incorporated in his colored geologic
map of the middle and western states.
Houghton’s report of the Lake Superior
region in 184] aroused widespread in-
terest in the possible copper and other
mineral resources of the Northern Penin-
sula, and he and his associates had indi-
cated the location of coal deposits in
Michigan before his accidental death in
1845. The mineral resources of the basin
area have been exploited for commercial
use since the early history of the state.
Coal was first mined near Jackson in 1835
and oil was discovered near Port Huron
in 1886. Wells were drilled in search for
brine as early as 1881, and gypsum has
been mined since 1841. Exploration for
these natural resources provided a wealth
of geologic data that was of valuable as-
istance in the early interpretation of the
geology of the state and the later explora-
tion for its mineral resources. Twenty-six
thousand wells have been drilled for oil
and gas, and many thousands of test wells
were drilled for coal and water. Sample
study well logs are available for most of
the oil test wells, and more than 7,500
sets of drill cuttings from wells drilled in
* Address of retiring president of the Geologi-
cal Society of Washington, December 8, 1965.
Publication authorized by the Director, U. S.
Geological Survey.
DECEMBER, 1965
different parts of the state have been
available for study.
The Michigan Basin is a roughly circu-
lar structural basin (Fig. 1). It includes
the Southern Peninsula and eastern part
of the Northern Peninsula of Michigan,
eastern Wisconsin, northeastern Illinois,
northern Indiana, northwestern Ohio, and
western Ontario. The basin is bordered on
the west by the Wisconsin Arch, on the
south by the Kankakee Arch, and on the
east by the Findlay Arch and Algonquin
axis. The basin includes an area of 122.-
000 square miles, part of which is covered
by Lakes Michigan, Huron, and St. Clair.
The Trenton Limestone, one of the im-
portant structure contouring units in the
central part of the country, is exposed at
the surface in Wisconsin, northern Michi-
gan, and Ontario and extends in the sub-
surface throughout the Michigan, Illinois,
and Appalachian Basins. Contours on top
of the Trenton Limestone of Middle Or-
dovician age show the circular shape of
the basin (Fig. 2). It is at sea level along
the Cincinnati Arch in central Indiana
and western Ohio and dips into the basin
at a rate of 60 feet per mile, or slightly
more than 1% grade. In the central part
of the basin the Trenton is estimated to
be 10,000 feet below sea level. There is
fairly good control for these estimates, as
a well drilled in Bay County at the west
edge of Saginaw Bay and east of the
central part of the basin reached the top
of the Trenton at a depth of 8,800 feet
below sea level, and one drilled in Oge-
maw County north of the central part of
the basin reached it at a depth of 8,900
feet. Drawn to true scale, the configura-
211
ONY TA Rae
‘ . ae
Central part
of basin
=
wn
2)
(e)
=)
on.
S
>
x
OF
ss
EXPLANATION
: ie
Oil and gas field
G P%
(ea)
Z Mey, Lima-Indiana Trenton field
eo outs
Boundary of pre-Cambrian
rocks at surface or beneath
the glacial drift
(@) 50
LS eee
Scale in miles
Figure 1. Map showing structural setting of the Michigan Basin and its oil and gas fields.
tion of the basin on the top of the Trenton _ high.
Limestone would be inversely comparable
to the topography of a baseball diamond.
The deepest part of the basin would be
about as deep as the pitcher’s mound is
Sandstones of Late Cambrian age rest
on Precambrian rocks throughout the
area of the basin, which is bordered on
the north by Precambrian rocks at the
212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
surface, on the south by Silurian rocks
beneath the glacial drift, and on the south-
east by Ordovician, Silurian, and Devo-
nian rocks along the Algonquin axis in
Ontario (Fig. 3).
The Cambrian deposits consist of about
2,600 feet of sandstone, dolomite, and
shale. Dolomite is predominant in the
upper part. Ordovician rocks are approxi-
mately 2,000 feet thick and consist of
dolomite and limestone in the lower and
middle parts of the sequence and shale in
the upper part. Silurian rocks are pre-
dominantly dolomite, anhydrite, salt, and
some shale and constitute an aggregate
thickness of about 3,800 feet. Devonian
rocks, which are about 3,500 feet thick,
are largely dolomite, sandstone, salt, and
anhydrite in the lower part and limestone
and shale in the upper part. An abundance
of black mud, later forming fissile shale,
was deposited in Late Devonian time.
More than 2,100 feet of Mississippian
sandstone and shale crop out almost en-
tirely within the Southern Peninsula of
Michigan and 750 feet of Pennsylvanian
sandstone and shale occupy the central
part of the basin. Overlying Pennsylva-
nian and Mississippian rocks in the west-
ern part of the central basin area is a
Jurassic redbed sequence of unconsoli-
dated to poorly consolidated sands and
mudstones with some gypsum, which are
generally 100 feet thick but may attain a
thickness of 400 feet in places. All of the
rocks are under a blanket of glacial drift.
Bedrock is exposed in small limited out-
crops in the southernmost and northern-
most parts of the Southern Peninsula and
at many places in the extension of the
basin in the Northern Peninsula. Although
the thickness of drift averages about 300
feet, in certain places in the northern half
of the Southern Peninsula some wells
have penetrated as much as 1,000 feet of
drift.
It is estimated that approximately 14,-
000 feet of sedimentary rocks overlie the
Precambrian in the central part of the
basin west of Saginaw Bay (Cohee, 1948).
DECEMBER, 1965
I eT
which most is in the
A north-south section across the basin
shows a much greater thickness of Silu-
rian and Devonian rocks in the central
basin area than on the margins of the
basin. This is due to the vast amount of
salt and anhydrite included in both the
Silurian and Devonian rocks. According
to estimates by Hardenberg of the Michi-
gan Geological Survey (oral communica-
tion), the Salina Formation of Late
Silurian age includes 66 trillion tons of
salt, or 7,210 cubic miles. One bed alone
is 500 feet thick in places. The Detroit
River Group of Middle Devonian age in-
cludes 5 trillion tons, or 543 cubic miles
of salt. Anhydrite is also abundant in both
the Salina and Detroit River.
An east-west section south of the central
basin area shows the thinning and trunca-
tion of Late Cambrian and Early Ordovi-
cian sedimentary rocks from west to east.
In a well drilled recently at the southern
tip of Lake Michigan in northern Indiana,
a total of 3,300 feet of Late Cambrian and
Early Ordovician rocks is present, and in
Ontario across the river from Detroit, all
of these rocks are absent owing to thin-
ning and erosion, and the Middle Ordovi-
cian rocks rest on Precambrian rocks.
The volume of rock in the Michigan
Basin is estimated to be on the order of
108,000 cubic miles. Of this total volume,
Pennsylvanian rocks constitute less than
1%, Mississippian 5%, Devonian 16, Silu-
rian 30, Ordovician 21, and Cambrian
27%. About 47% of the rocks in the basin
is carbonate rock; 23% sandstone, of
Cambrian; 18%
shale; and 12% evaporites (Cohee and
Landes, 1958). Most of the deposition of
evaporites took place during Late Silurian
and early Middle Devonian time. There
was some deposition of evaporites during
Mississippian time, and a very small
amount of gypsum
Pennsylvanian and Jurassic time.
was deposited in
Basement Complex
Only a few wells have been drilled into
the Precambrian basement rocks around
213
-1000
Figure 2. Contours on top of Trenton
the margin of the basin, and none of the
wells drilled in the deeper part of the
basin reached the basement. The deepest
well drilled in the Michigan Basin was
completed as a dry hole at a depth of
13,000 feet in Cambrian sandstone. The
well was drilled in Ogemaw County sev-
eral miles north of the center of the basin.
The basement was reached in two wells
214
Limestone (dots are control points).
drilled on Beaver Island at the northern
end of Lake Michigan. In one well, base-
ment was reached at a depth of 4,705 feet
below. sea level and another well drilled
about 3 miles to the southwest, somewhat
down the dip, reached weathered granite
about 700 feet higher. The amount of
physiographic relief on the old weathered
basement surface is of the order of hun-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
dreds of feet. A well at the southern end
of Lake Michigan reached basement at a
depth of 3,628 feet below sea level. A few
wells were drilled to the basement along
the Kankakee Arch in Indiana, the Find-
lay Arch in northwestern Ohio, southeast-
ern Michigan, and southwestern Ontario.
Here basement was reached at depths of
from 2,000 to 3,000 feet below sea level.
Many wells in southern Michigan have
been drilled into the Cambrian sequence
but not entirely through it. Cost of drill-
ing, naturally, accounts for the lack of
wells to the basement in the central basin
area. A well drilled to 11,000 feet on the
north side of the central basin area sev-
eral years ago cost over $1,000,000.
The basement consists of many differ-
ent sedimentary, igneous, and metamor-
phic rock types. From the small number
of wells that have penetrated the base-
ment, it is difficult to develop any definite
pattern of rock types. In eastern Michigan,
a few of the wells penetrated metamor-
phic rocks that may be associated with the
Grenville orogeny of the Canadian Shield.
C. H. Stockwell (1965) has given the
name Grenville to the orogeny of 880 plus
or minus million years ago. Basement in
the northeastern part of the basin is char-
acterized by rocks ranging in age from
0.8 to 1.1 billion years, and in most of
the remainder by rocks up to 1.5 billion
years old (Rudman, Summerson, and
Hinze, 1965).
In the Northern Peninsula at the west-
ern edge of the Michigan Basin, the Pre-
cambrian rocks trend in an east-west di-
rection, with the pattern dominated by a
series of high-angle faults. Gravity data
show that these trends probably connect
with other trends in the Southern Penin-
sula (James et al., 1961; Case and Gair,
1965).
The Bouguer gravity anomaly map of
midwestern United States, published by
Rudman, Summerson, and Hinze in 1965,
shows a gravity high, which is labelled
trend B, extending northwest-southeast
through the Michigan Basin. The authors
DECEMBER, 1965
infer that this “high” extends northward
into Lake Superior and thence westward
through the lake area to the western end,
where it is a part of the prominent
gravity feature known as the Mid-Conti-
nent gravity “high”. Thiel (1956) showed
that the positive part of the “Mid-Conti-
nent High” originated from dense basalt
flows of Keweenawan age and that paral-
lel negative anomalies result from a con-
trast with low-density Keweenawan sedi-
ments. Rudman and others show another
linear positive anomaly, trend C, extend-
ing from eastern Kentucky across the
Cincinnati Arch into southwestern Michi-
gan.
Zietz and others (in press) have pointed
out the strong possibility that the Michi-
gan trend may tie up with the area of
east-west-trending gravity and magnetic
anomalies in the iron district in the North-
ern Peninsula. They state that the mag-
netic data indicate that anomaly C is not
a continuing lithologic unit.
The Tectonic Map of Canada reveals
numerous folded areas and major faults
at the northern edge of the Michigan
Basin, and similar features occur in north-
ern Michigan and Wisconsin bordering
the basin. We can assume that the base-
ment under the Michigan Basin is char-
acterized by such features.
We know that the Howell anticline,
which is at the southeast end of the strong
northwest-southeast anomaly through cen-
tral Michigan, has been elevated at dif-
ferent times during the Paleozoic age and
that some faulting has taken place along
the fold. It is believed that other struc-
tural features, such as faults and folds in
the basement of the Michigan Basin, were
likewise reactivated at different times.
Cambrian Period
Deposition of sediments in the Michigan
Basin following the Precambrian did not
begin until Late Cambrian time when the
sea transgressed from the south. Quartz
sand from the old weathered Precambrian
surface to the north and northwest ac-
215
O N TY ASR eo
Precambrian
Figure 3. Map showing geology of the Michigan Basin beneath the glacial drift.
cumulated as a thick blanket of sandstone
over the area of the Michigan Basin. The
greatest accumulation was in a shallow
trough centering on the west flank of the
present basin, and it thinned to the east
and west and thickened southward toward
the Illinois Basin.
216
Ordovician Period
Sedimentation was continuous from
Late Cambrian through Early Ordovician
time. The rocks consist of sandstone, silt-
stone, shale, and dolomite. Clastic sedi-
ments were deposited around the margins
of the basin on the north and carbonates
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
were deposited to the south, in which
direction they thicken greatly.
Near the close of Early Ordovician time
the sea withdrew and the area of the
Michigan Basin was exposed to subaerial
erosion until into early Chazy time. The
St. Peter Sandstone of Middle Ordovician
age was deposited later in varying thick-
nesses on the eroded surface. Uplift oc-
curred along the Findlay Arch, at which
time the Cambrian and Lower Ordovician
sequence was truncated along the axis of
the arch. This sequence thins both west-
ward and eastward, and at the northern
end of the Findlay Arch it has been en-
tirely eroded and the Middle Ordovician
rocks overlie Precambrian rocks.
Middle Ordovician limestones and
Upper Ordovician shales accumulated
across the basin and the Kankakee and
Findlay Arches without any apparent
break in the sequence of deposition. There
was a slight thickening of the deposits in
the central basin area.
Silurian Period
Early Silurian rocks consist largely of
shale and dolomite deposited across Mich-
igan with little expression of the basin at
that time. This deposition was followed by
a clearing of the seas and the great ac-
cumulation of the Niagaran dolomite with
an abundance of reefs, some of them as
much as 400 feet thick. The reefs of the
Niagaran have been highly productive of
natural gas in southern Michigan and in
southwestern Ontario. An east-west up-
warp occurred in southern Michigan dur-
ing Niagaran time, and now only 100 feet
of Niagaran rocks occurs along this ridge,
as compared to 400 feet in northern In-
diana and 700 feet in the northern part of
the Southern Peninsula.
Although there was minor subsidence
in the Michigan Basin area during Middle
and Late Ordovician time, the first pro-
nounced downwarp was in Late Silurian
time. During that time 4,500 feet of dolo-
mite, salt, anhydrite, and some shale ac-
cumulated in the Southern Peninsula. The
DECEMBER, 1965
aggregate thickness of the salt is approxi-
mately 2,000 feet, and one bed of almost
pure halite has been shown by drill rec-
ords to be about 500 feet thick. Sylvite
did not accumulate with the salt deposits.
The greatest thickness is near the center
of the basin and is limited to the Southern
Peninsula and southwestern Ontario. At
Detroit there is an aggregate thickness of
more than 400 feet of salt; because of
thinning and leaching, all of this salt is
absent at Trenton, Michigan, 14 miles to
the south (Landes, 1945).
The Salina, which includes all of the
Silurian salt, began with widespread ac-
cumulation of limestone, dolomitic mud,
salt, and anhydrite. Deposition of dolo-
mite, anhydrite, halite, and shale con-
tinued until the end of Silurian time.
Deposition of the salt was the result of
the evaporation of brine in a closed basin
in an arid climate. Once the basin became
more or less tectonically stable and ac-
cumulated a large volume of saturated
brine, continued evaporation caused the
deposition of alternating bands of clear
and cloudy salt. Salt deposition was in-
terrupted occasionally by the influx of
normal sea water, which was then fol-
lowed by deposition of anhydrite and
dolomite (Dellwig, 1955, and Alling and
Briggs, 1961).
Salt is produced from the Salina For-
mation at Detroit, St. Clair, and Port
Huron in southeastern Michigan by dis-
solving the rock salt in wells and evap-
orating the brine. It is mined at Detroit
from a bed 1,135 feet below the surface.
The mine has many miles of passageways,
with caverns 22 feet high and 50 feet
wide in 98.3% pure halite.
The Kankakee and Findlay Arches were
shelf areas during much of Late Silurian
time, and little sedimentation occurred
there as compared to that in the Michigan
Basin. The units extending across the
arch are thin, and in general they differ
lithologically from the deposits in the
basin. Also it is difficult to correlate the
Late Silurian deposits of the northern
217
part of the Illinois and Ohio Basins with
the thick evaporite deposits of the Michi-
gan Basin.
Devonian Period
The Devonian Period was especially a
time of sea transgressions and recessions;
at times basin subsidence and _ isolation
from seaways resulted in deposition of
thick evaporite sequences in part of the
section. Following the recession of the
Late Silurian sea from the basin, there
was a period during which no great
amounts of sediment were deposited, or if
deposited they were subsequently removed
by erosion. Only 25 feet of Early Devo-
nian dolomite and sandstone occurs on
Garden Island in the northern part of
Lake Michigan (Landes, Ehlers, and
Stanley, 1945).
Middle Devonian time began with a
period of dolomite, cherty limestone, and
sand deposition. This was followed by the
extensive deposition of the evaporite se-
quences of the Detroit River Group, which
includes dolomite, anhydrite, and _ salt.
More than 400 feet of salt accumulated
in the northern half of the Southern
Peninsula. This salt is mined in western
Michigan by wells producing artificial
brines.
The basin was not isolated in the latter
part of Middle Devonian time, and much
pure limestone and limestone and _ shale
were deposited in the extensive seaways
crossing the Michigan Basin and _ the
Kankakee and Findlay Arches. The Dun-
dee Limestone, deposited at that time, is
quarried at Rogers City and Presque Isle
in the northeastern part of the Southern
Peninsula and consists almost entirely of
calcium carbonate. The limestone is used
in the steel, cement, and chemical indus-
tries. In the region of the Straits of Mack-
inac in Middle Devonian time, following
the deposition of the Detroit River Group
and prior to deposition of the Dundee
Limestone, large masses of rock collapsed
into caverns formed by the solution of
salt beds in the Salina in that area. The
218
resulting rubble, which ultimately in-
volved about 3,500 feet of beds, is now
found throughout the Straits region and
it forms several important physiographic
features in that region (Landes, Ehlers,
and Stanley, 1945).
In Late Devonian time, black organic-
rich mud was deposited widely in the
eastern part of the country (McGregor,
1954). The Michigan Basin was a part
of this huge depositional area, and more
than 150 feet of Antrim black shale ac-
cumulated around the margin of the basin.
Black, greenish-gray, and gray shale ac-
cumulation continued into Early Mississip-
pian time, especially in the central part
of the basin, where as much as 700 feet
of Antrim black shale of Late Devonian
and Early Mississippian age may be found.
Mississippian Period
Deposition of clastic sediments con-
tinued from Devonian through most of
the early part of Late Mississippian
(Meramec) time. Mississippian rocks are
largely shale and sandstone, especially
those of Early Mississippian age. In
Early Mississippian (Kinderhook) time a
large mass of green muds and silt was
carried into the western side of the basin
as a result of uplift and erosion in the
Wisconsin highlands to the west. This
body of shale and siltstone, which is
called the Ellsworth Shale, overlies the
black shale and intertongues with the
Antrim black shale to the east near the
central part of the basin. On the east side
of the state the Bedford Shale, a gray,
silt shale, and the Berea Sandstone were
being deposited at the same time the Ells-
worth was being deposited on the west
side of the state. This clastic material
came from Ontario and the Canadian
Shield and was carried into the eastern
side of the basin as deltaic deposits form-
ing the here-named Thumb Delta. Near
the close of Kinderhook time, the basin
ceased to receive the large amounts of
material from the east and west, and black
mud (Sunbury) deposition occurred
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
again throughout the basin. During Early
_ Mississippian time (Osage) a great thick-
ness of gray shale and sandstone was
deposited across the basin and the Kan-
kakee and Findlay Arches (Monnett,
1948). In the beginning of Late Missis-
sippian time (Meramec) the basin con-
tinued to receive clastic material but be-
came more restricted, and anhydrite was
deposited with the shale. Also, sandstone
and some dolomite were deposited in
small amounts. These deposits, which
have been named the Michigan Forma-
tion, serve as an important source of
gypsum where the anhydrite is near
enough to the surface to become hydrated.
Sand was deposited in southern Michigan,
while mud and dolomite were deposited
to the north. The amount of dolomite in
the Michigan Basin increases northward,
which suggests a seaway to the north and
northwest.
The youngest Mississippian unit in the
basin is the Bayport Limestone of Mera-
mec age, which is limited to the central
part of the basin. It is very irregular in
its thickness and distribution because of
erosion during the _ post-Bayport pre-
Pennsylvanian uplift near the close of
Mississippian time. On some of the large
anticlinal folds, several hundred feet of
Mississippian rocks were removed during
this period of erosion. The Michigan Basin
was uplifted and eroded during the latest
part of Mississippian (Chester) time. Al-
though thickness maps indicate some thin-
ning of pre-Mississippian units in the
vicinities of major anticlinal folds, it is
believed that the post-Bayport and _ pre-
Pennsylvanian uplift and folding was the
most important tectonic orogeny since the
one at the close of the Early Ordovician
time. The principal structural trends were
formed at this time, which undoubtedly
were the reactivation of old Precambrian
structures.
Pennsylvanian Period
Pennsylvanian time in the Michigan
Basin was principally a period of clastic
deposition under deltaic and swamp con-
DECEMBER, 1965
ditions, with some marine inundations of
sufficient magnitude to form beds of
limestone, some of which are as much as
20 feet thick. A total of more than 750
feet of sandstone, shale, limestone, and
coal was deposited in the basin, and these
deposits range in age from Morrow
(Early) to Des Moines (Middle) Penn-
sylvanian age.
The Early Pennsylvanian seaway ap-
parently extended into the Michigan Basin
from the north and west, as the limestone
deposits of the lower part of the sequence
thicken in that direction. Delta deposition
proceeded from east to west across the
basin, and according to Shidler (1965),
after these deltaic deposits had nearly
filled the basin, the western part of the
state may have been the site of a small
relict sea, which had become supersatu-
rated with salines from the erosion of the
Mississippian and older rocks. Red muds
were deposited in this relict sea and later
formed the red shales now found in
western Michigan. These red shales, as
well as associated green shales of western
Michigan, grade eastward into gray and
black shales. Also, the thick, buff-colored
limestone wedges out eastward.
The early influx of deltaic deposition
was followed by an invasion of shallow
sea from the south and southwest. During
this time a thin-bedded, fossiliferous lime-
stone was deposited, and it is included in
the Saginaw Formation as the Verne Lime-
stone Member. The fauna of the Verne
Limestone Member is related to that of
the Seville Limestone of Atoka age in
Illinois and the lower part of the Mercer
of Pottsville age in Ohio (Cohee, Macha,
and Holk, 1951). This was also the time
of coal development in the swamps
formed by the fluctuations in sea _ level
during the Verne marine transgression.
Following the period of Verne marine
transgression, clastic deposition increased
from the east, and thick deltaic sandstone
and shales were deposited again. The
source of the clastic material was from
the north and the east, as before. Some
219
red shale and gypsum were deposited in
northern and western Michigan.
Upper Pennsylvanian rocks are not
present in the basin because of uplift that
probably was associated with the Appala-
chian orogeny. The folds in the basin were
rejuvenated at that time and the long
period of marine transgressions in the
Michigan Basin was brought to a close.
Jurassic Period
The youngest pre-Pleistocene deposits
in the basin are a sequence of redbeds
consisting of clay, shale, sandstone, and
some gypsum. These deposits, which indi-
cate accumulation in an arid climate, are
limited to the central and western parts
of the basin and overlap both Pennsyl-
vanian and Mississippian rocks and un-
derlie the glacial] drift. A study of the
well logs and samples in the area of the
redbeds shows much variation and uneven
distribution, suggesting that the sediments
were deposited in topographic depres-
sions. The beds are lenticular and vary
greatly in thickness in short distances.
The greatest thickness, of from 300 to
400 feet, was found in wells in the central
part of the basin; elsewhere the beds are
around 100 feet thick.
Recent spore studies of drill samples
from the redbeds, by Aureal Cross of
Michigan State University and his stu-
dents, have indicated a Late Jurassic
(Kimmeridgian) age for these deposits.
Even though erosion prevailed upon the
land from Late Pennsylvanian to Jurassic
time, it is likely that these deposits ac-
cumulated in depressions as valley fill
and in playa lakes.
The basin continued to be elevated and
underwent erosion until the advance of
the Pleistocene ice sheets.
Some Results of Tectonic Movements
As a result of faulting and other tec-
tonic movements along some structures,
secondary dolomitization has taken place
by the circulation of magnesia-rich waters
(Landes, 1946). The porosity that de-
220
veloped as a result of the solution of the
limestone, its recrystallization as dolomite,
and further solution of the dolomite cre-
ated reservoirs for the accumulation of
oil and gas in those areas of fracturing.
In an area near the Deerfield oil pool,
Monroe County, the Trenton and Black
River rocks are more than 700 feet thick
and they are entirely dolomite. In a well
nine miles east and another thirteen miles
west of the anticlinal fold, the rocks are
entirely limestone. Dolomitization of the
limestone along the fold, which is faulted
in part, developed sufficient porosity in
certain zones for the accumulation of oil
and gas. These porous zones are found at
various depths in the dolomitized lime-
stone.
Solution cavities and dolomite crystals
may be observed in cores and drill cut-
tings from oil-producing zones in various
dolomitized rocks (Fig. 4).
In the Lima-Indiana Trenton field in
northwestern Ohio, dolomitization oc-
curred throughout great thicknesses of
the Trenton and Black River limestones
along the Findlay Arch, and oil and gas
production is confined to the areas where
the limestones were dolomitized. The
dolomite in the producing zone contains
irregular areas of porosity, as shown by
thin sections (Bownocker, 1903). Rock
fragments from the producing zone blown
out of the well at the time of shooting
showed honeycomb structure with open-
ings several inches long, and some speci-
mens were porous on one side and dense
on the other side. The surface of the cavi-
ties indicated that they were caused by
solution. The largest oil well in Ohio,
which produces approximately 40,000 bar-
rels in 24 hours, was drilled in the Tren-
ton of the Lima-Indiana field in north-
western Ohio.
The largest Trenton oil field found to
date in the Michigan Basin is the Scipio
field in southern Michigan where hun-
dreds of oil wells and many dry holes
have been drilled along a fracture zone
that extends for 35 miles and along which
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
itization
and dolom
ion
solut
ing
e zones showi
-producin
il
from o
Cores of rocks
Figure 4
a2
1965
DECEMBER,
there has been secondary domolitization
of the limestone. The oil and gas accumu-
lations are associated with the dolomitiza-
tion and are in the synclines and on the
flanks of the small folds. According to
Ells (1962), structure contours on the top
of the Trenton in the densely drilled parts
_of the field indicate numerous minor anti-
clinal folds and synclines in a near en
echelon arrangement, suggesting defor-
mation by shearing forces and movement
along a pre-existing basement fault. As
the Trenton and Black River limestones
are dense and have little porosity except
where they have been dolomitized, the oc-
currence and size of oil and gas fields
are dependent upon the fracturing and
amount of dolomitization of the limestone
host rock.
In the Deep River oil field in Arenac
County, Michigan, oil is obtained from
rocks of Middle Devonian age on an
anticline that was faulted on one side
parallel to the trend of the structure.
Secondary dolomitization of the limestone
took place along the fault following fault-
ing. Oil is found only in the dolomite
made porous by the dolomitization proc-
ess. Wells drilled in the limestone were
dry holes and the top of the structure,
where secondary dolomitization had not
taken place, was dry (Landes, 1948).
Oil Shale Possibilities
At the beginning of this discussion I
mentioned the early development of some
of the natural resources of the Michigan
Basin; I should like to end with refer-
ence to a future possible resource that
may someday prove economic. The Michi-
gan Basin is underlain by the black An-
trim Shale of Late Devonian and Early
Mississippian age, that varies in thickness
from 150 feet around the eastern and
northern margin of the basin to as much
as 700 feet in an elongated area in the
central part of the basin. Analysis of sam-
ples obtained some years ago from a well
drilled in the northern part of the basin
showed oil yields up to 17 gallons per
pagap
ton of shale in the lowermost part of the
Antrim. Samples from a well drilled in
the southeastern part of the basin had
yields up to 15 gallons per ton in the
lower part of the Antrim (Swanson,
1960).
At the request of Donald C. Duncan, a
set of drill cuttings was obtained recently
from a well drilled in Midland County in
the center of the basin. He has been inter-
ested for a long time in the oil possibil-
ities of the Antrim in connection with his
oil-shale studies. The Antrim Shale in this
particular area is about 500 feet thick.
The analysis showed that the lower 365
feet would yield an average of 5.3 gallons
per ton, and one zone 200 feet below the
top of the Antrim averaged better than 8
gallons per ton. Another zone 10 feet
thick near the base averaged almost 10
gallons per ton.
These analyses suggest that if the Ant-
rim Shale should someday be used as a
source of oil, the best yield will not
necessarily be limited to the lowermost
30 feet of the shale. These deposits con-
tain large amounts of organic matter, and
only a small fraction of this is converted
to oil with presently used methods of
analysis. Currently there is interest in
developing methods to produce methane
from such organic-rich shales. If these
methods eventually become economic, this
resource should be enormous.
Acknowledgments
I wish to express my thanks to the
Michigan Geological Survey, the Univer-
sity of Michigan and the State Geological
Surveys of the adjoining states, the
Geological Survey of Canada, and the oil
companies operating in Michigan, for their
assistance in providing the multitude of
well data used in the Michigan Basin
studies. I also wish to take this opportu-
nity in expressing my appreciation to
K. K. Landes, Hugh D. Miser, Arthur A.
Baker, and Carle H. Dane for their most
gracious assistance and guidance during
the studies of the basin. Elizabeth King of
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the Branch of Regional Geophysics has
been most helpful in providing geophysi-
cal information. The beneficial comments
by Wallace deWitt and other colleagues in
the Survey during the preparation of this
paper are greatly appreciated.
References
Alling, H. L., and Briggs, L. I. Stratigraphy of
Upper Silurian Cayugan evaporites. Amer.
Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 45, 515-547
(1961).
Bownocker, J. A. The occurrence and exploita-
tion of petroleum and natural gas in Ohio.
Ohio Geol. Survey Bull. J (4th ser.), 31-101
(1903).
Case, J. E., and Gair, J. E. Aeromagnetic map of
parts of Marquette, Dickinson, Baraca, Alger
and Schoolcraft Counties, Michigan and _ its
geologic interpretation. U. S. Geol. Survey
Geophys. Inv. Map GP-467, 1965.
Cohee, G. V., and Landes, K. K. Oil in the
Michigan Basin. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum
Geologists, Habitat of Oil 473-493 (1958).
Cohee, G. VY. Cambrian and Ordovician rocks in
Michigan Basin and adjoining area. Amer.
Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 52, 1417-1448
(1948).
Cohee, G. V., Macha, C., and Holk, M. Thickness
and lithology of Upper Devonian and Car-
boniferous rocks in Michigan. U. S. Geol. Sur-
vey Oil and Gas Investigations, Chart OC 41,
1951.
Dellwig, L. F. Origin of the Salina Salt of
Michigan. Jour. Sed. Petrology 25, 83 (1955).
Ells, G. D. Structures associated with the Albion-
Cipio oil field trend. Michigan Geol. Survey,
1962.
James, H. L., and others. Geology of central Dick-
inson County, Michigan. U. S. Geol. Survey
Prof. Paper 310, 1961.
Landes, K. K. The Salina and Bass Island
rocks in the Michigan Basin. U. S. Geol. Sur-
vey Oil and Gas Inv., Prelim. Map 40, 1945.
Landes, K. K., Ehlers, G. M., and Stanley, G. M.
Geology of the Mackinac Straits region. Michi-
gan Geol. Survey, Div. Pub. 44, Geol. ser.
37, 1945.
Landes, K. K. Porosity through dolomitization.
Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 30,
317 (1946).
Landes, K. K. Structure of typical American oil
fields. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull.
3, 299-304 (1948).
McGregor, D. J. Stratigraphic analysis of Upper
Devonian and Mississippian rocks in Michigan
Basin. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull.
38, 2324-2356 (1954).
DECEMBER, 1965
Monnett, V. B. Mississippian Marshall formation
of Michigan. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geolo-
gists Bull. 32, 629-688 (1948).
Rudman, A. J., Summerson, C. H., and Hinze,
W. J. Geology of basement in midwestern
United States. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geolo-
gists Bull. 49, 894-904 (1965).
Shidler, G. L. Pennsylvanian sedimentation pat-
terns of the Michigan Basin. Master’s thesis,
Graduate College, University of Illinois, 1965.
Stockwell, C. H. Structural trends in Canadian
Shield. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull.
49, 887-904 (1965).
Swanson, V. E. Oil yield and uranium content of
black shales. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper
396-A, 1960, p. 37.
Thiel, E. Correlation of gravity anomalies with
the Keweenawan geology of Wisconsin and
Minnesota. Geol. Soc. America Bull. 67, 1079-
1100 (1956).
Zietz, I., King, E. R., Geddes, W., and Lidiak,
kK. G. Crustal study of a continental strip from
the Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky Mountains.
Geol. Soc. America, in press.
T-THOUGHTS
Promotion Ladder for Research
Directors
Can one train to become a director of
research through the administrative lad-
der? The following view was expressed
by Dr. Charles H. Best* of the Univer-
sity of Toronto:
“While increasing amounts of non-
specific administrative duties may be dis-
charged by other than research personnel.
I do not believe that we will ever evolve
a successful strain of directors of re-
search who have been developed along
any route than that of extensive personal
experience with the technical and scien-
tific problems involved. The director must
have experienced the thrills and disap-
pointments himself if he is to act as the
mentor and guide for successive waves of
enterprising, efficient, and highly moti-
vated young people. A director should be
one who really knows when a junior
*In Ilza Veith, Perspectives in physiology,
pp 17-18. American Physiological Society, Wash-
ineton,.D. €C. (1954).
223
worker is properly motivated and other-
wise equipped for a career in investiga-
tion. He should be able to recognize those
who are using research merely as a step-
ping stone and those, usually more senior
and rather troubling people, who may be
sheltering behind a forest of scientific
names and complicated procedures in an
obscure and little-used byway of research
——or, on the other hand, may. be the
geniuses of the future. A director should
realize, of course, that new techniques
can unlock a stubborn door and reveal
long, clear, upward trails—and that in
exceptional circumstances they can _pro-
duce plausible findings which may be
published in long series of papers over
many years before it is realized that these
results are essentially meaningless and
are devoid of physiological significance.”
Lessons of History
Charles A. Beard, the noted historian,
was once asked whether he could sum-
marize all of the lessons of history in a
short book. He replied that he could do it
in four sentences:
“(1) Whom the gods would destroy,
they first make mad with power.
(2) The mills of the gods grind slow-
ly, but they grind exceedingly fine.
(3) The bee fertilizes the flower it
robs.
“(4) When it is dark enough, you can
see the stars.”
The Worried Look
It has been said that “A good execu-
224,
tive is a person who goes around with a
worried look on his assistant’s face.”
—Ralph G. H. Siu
Membership to Vote
On Officers for 1966
The Academy’s Nominating Committee,
headed by Malcolm C. Henderson as dele-
gate from the Philosophical Society, met
on October 21 to select the following can-
didates for office in 1966:
For president-elect: Heinz Specht of the
National Institutes of Health.
For secretary: Richard P. Farrow of the
National Canners Association.
For treasurer: Richard K. Cook of the
National Bureau of Standards.
For manager-at-large, 1966-68 (two to
be elected): Alphonse F. Forziati (De-
fense), Roman R. Miller, (Naval Re-
search), Jacinto Steinhardt (Georgetown),
and Edward A. Mason (Maryland).
These candidates, together with any
independent nominations that may have
been made before December 1, will be
voted upon by the membership during
December, by the usual mail ballot.
The successful candidates will take of-
fice at the close of the annual meeting in
January. At this time, current President-
elect John K. Taylor will automatically
assume the presidency.
Previously elected managers-at-large
who will continue in office during 1966
are Allen L. Alexander and Francis W.
Reichelderfer (class of 1964-66) and
Malcolm C. Henderson and George W.
Irving, Jr. (class of 1965-67).
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Academy Proceedings
December Meeting
492nd Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences
SPEAKER: VINCENT GIULIANO
Senior Staff Operations Group, Arthur D. Little,
Inc.
SUBJECT: THE FACT AND FANCY OF INFORMATION
RETRIEVAL
DATE: THURSDAY, DECEMBER 16, 1965
os p.m:
PLACE: JOHN WESLEY POWELL AUDITORIUM,
COSMOS CLUB
2170 Florida Avenue, N.W.
Abstract of Address—tThe speaker will identify some of the main innovations—both
technological and social—for dealing with written information, primarily scientific in-
formation. He will distinguish between what is currently being done, what is real-
istically hoped to be accomplished, and what might best be described as science
fiction. He will then attempt to relate the growing interest in information retrieval
to two main kinds of change: new developments in the technology for dealing with the
information on the one hand, and the changing nature of the social processes of tech- |
nology and the sciences on the other. The technical developments include major innova-
tions in the areas of copying and micro-image storage and reproduction, high-speed,
low-cost data transmission, and a whole constellation of developments connected with
digital computer techniques. The social changes include the tendency toward specialization
in the basic sciences, leading to the accumulation of large, highly technical bodies of
information, and the simultaneous increase in the demands of applied technology—
whereby many “systems” applications require drawing upon detailed knowledge from
numerous, quite diverse basic disciplinary lines.
The Speaker — Vincent Giuliano was born in 1929, studied at the University of
Michigan (B.S. and M.A. degrees), and received the Ph.D. degree from Harvard
University in 1958. He has been a visiting lecturer in the Mathematics Department
at Harvard, and is at present a member of the Senior Staff Operations Group at Arthur
D. Little, Inc. He is the author of 35 papers, and is a specialist in information proc-
essing research.
The Public Is Invited
DECEMBER, 1965 225
BOARD OF MANAGERS
MEETING NOTES
June Meeting
The Board of Managers held its 573rd
meeting on June 24 at the Cosmos Club,
with President Schubert presiding.
The minutes of the 572nd meeting were
approved as previously distributed.
Announcements. Dr. Schubert announced
that Malcolm W. Oliphant of the George-
town University Mathematics Department
would replace Richard K. Cook as chairman
of the Committee on Membership. He also
reported that he was writing to the major
scientific organizations to solicit nomina-
tions for the Academy’s 1965 annual
awards.
Treasurer. Mr. Miller distributed a re-
port showing expenses for the years 1961
through 1964, and January through May of
1965. To date in 1965, income was $15,-
724.78 and expenses were $14,709, leaving
a balance of $1,015.28. Calling attention
to the 1965 deficit of $7,643.29, Mr. Miller
felt that definite steps should be taken to
reduce expenses or increase income in 1965.
In connection with costs of the Journal,
Mr. Detwiler distributed an analysis of
Journal expenses and income credits from
January 1960 through May 1965. In this
analysis it was shown that obligated ex-
penses in 1964 ($11,073) exceeded the
original budget (of $9,500) by $1,573. He
explained that increased costs in 1964: were
due to (a) two large issues addressed to the
particular interests of certain Academy afh-
liates (76 pages for the April issue and 52
pages for the May issue) and (b) the Sep-
tember directory issue (88 pages), which
included complete membership rosters for
nine of the Academy’s affiliates as well as
the Academy’s roster.
In a discussion of the merits of joint
directories, it was generally agreed that the
1964, directory represented an excellent
service to the scientific community. There
was doubt, however, as to the extent to
226
which it influenced members of the afh-
liated societies to join the Academy, or
stimulated participation by the affiliates in
Academy functions. And it appeared clear
that, whatever the merits of joint director-
ies, they were currently beyond the Acad-
emy’s means. Accordingly, the Board di-
rected that the 1965 directory should be
limited to the Academy membership.
The Board agreed to Mr. Miller’s pro-
posal that a budget committee be appointed
to establish a budget for 1965, with the
treasurer as chairman.
Membership. Dr. Schubert discussed an
apparently awkward situation created by
the two classes of membership in the Acad-
emy (“members” and “fellows”), in that
there seemed to be some confusion as to
where applications for proposed members
should be sent; the matter had been con-
sidered by the Executive Committee, which
felt that one person—presumably the chair-
man of the Membership Committee—should
receive all incoming nominations, sort them
out, and route them appropriately.
Dr. Cook pointed out that such is the
present procedure. The Membership Com-
mittee has been reviewing applications for
both membership and fellowship. Appli-
cations for membership, involving simply
an interest in Academy objectives, are sent
to the Academy office for routine process-
ing. Applications for fellowship, on the
other hand, are transmitted to the appro-
priate panel of the Membership Committee,
where they are carefully reviewed. Dr.
Cook felt that the mission of promoting
membership in the Academy belonged to
the Membership Promotion Committee, but
that all actions relating to becoming a mem-
ber or fellow should funnel through the
Membership Committee. He felt that the
current operational procedure was satis-
factory.
Dr. Cook also commented that the Mem-
bership Committee kept a tickler file on
candidates for membership, who might at
a future time be considered for fellowship.
Dr. Irving suggested that the burden of
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
this procedure might be spread by having
the Membership Promotion Committee re-
submit the names of members ready for
fellowship status, to the Membership Com-
mittee; no action was taken.
Special Events. Mr. Diamond pointed
out that inasmuch as a Meeting Arrange-
ments Committee had been created, it seem-
ed superfluous to have a Special Events
Committee to handle essentially the same
sort of work, but to function only once or
twice during the year. The Board approved
his recommendation that the Special Events
Committee be discontinued. Dr. Schubert
then announced that Mr. Diamond had
been appointed the new chairman of the
Membership Promotion Committee.
Archivist. Dr. Farber reported that he
had finished compiling a list of books and
articles on file in the Academy office, that
had been received by exchange with other
organizations over a period of several years.
A list cf these publications is to appear
in the Journal; Academy members are wel-
come to select items of interest.
History of Science. Dr. Farber reported
that the History of Science Committee
planned to write a history of the Washing-
ton Academy of Sciences, and hoped that
the National Science Foundation would
underwrite its cost. The Board approved
his recommendation that the Committee
prepare a proposal for submission to NSF,
requesting its support for the history.
Editor. (See under treasurer’s report. )
Mendel Centennial. Plans for the Novem-
ber meeting of the Academy, celebrating
the Mendel Centennial, were discussed. Dr.
Schubert reported that this meeting would
be held at Georgetown Universitv, and that
several Academy affliates—the entomolo-
gists, the botanists, the foresters, and the
microbiologists—had indicated a desire for
active participation in the event. Mr. Miller
saw in this collaboration an opportunity to
recruit members for the Academy from
these groups; and the Board agreed with
his suggestion that a representative of
DECEMBER, 1965
each of these affiliates be invited to work
with the Membership Promotion Comit-
tée.
Monograph Committee. The question of
sponsorship for Dr. Farber’s monograph,
“Oxidation Theories and Techniques in the
19th Century and the Beginning of the
20th” was raised. Dr. Farber thought that
it would contain about 150 pages. Dr.
Schubert believed that American Univer-
sity would contribute $1,500 toward pub-
lication costs, and that Pergamon Press
would publish it; however, it was desired
to have a sponsor who would assume re-
sponsibility for distribution. Dr. Cook
suggested that the Committee on Mono-
graphs be revived and made responsible for
the monograph; the Board agreed to this
suggestion.
October Meeting
The Board of Managers held its 574th
meeting on October 21 at the Cosmos
Club, with President Schubert presiding.
The minutes of the 573rd meeting were
approved with minor corrections.
Announcements. Dr. Schubert intro-
duced James Fishkin, a student at Oxon
Hill High School and president of the
Washington Junior Academy of Sciences,
who discussed some of the activities of the
Junior Academy. In particular, he dis-
cussed the proceedings of the annual science.
convention, of which 1000 copies were
printed last year, but only 100 copies
sold, thus resulting in a substantial finan-
cial loss. He estimated that abstracts of
papers presented at the next convention
could be printed for about $600; and
since WJAS has about 600 members, the
cost could be absorbed by increasing the
annual dues from $1.00 to $2.00 per
member, and presenting each member
with a copy of the abstracts. He asked
the Board’s approval for this increase, as
well as for an increase in dues of new
members from $1.50 to $2.50. These
changes were agreeable to the Board.
Dr. Schubert announced that past Pres-
227
ident Frenkiel would represent the Acad-
emy at the next AAAS meeting in Berk-
eley. He also reported that he had met
with representatives of the D. C. Coun-
cil of Engineering and Architectural So-
cieties, to discuss plans for more active
participation by the Academy in ES&A
Day.
President-elect Taylor introduced the
new program chairman, Dr. Gray, who
asked for ideas on a collegiate science con-
gress, to be held at a local university on
a Saturday in May 1966. He thought that
NSF might support part of the costs of
the congress.
Because of Dr. Taylor’s expected ab-
sence from the city, the Board changed
the date of the next annual meeting
from the third Thursday (January 20,
1966) to the fourth Thursday (January
27). (Note: After the meeting, it was
determined that the Cosmos Club audi-
torium was not available on January 27,
and in an informal canvass of the Board
the date was changed back to January 20.)
Dr. Henderson, as delegate of the Philo-
sophical Society and chairman of the
Nominating Committee, asked the dele-
gates of the other affiliates to confer
with him directly after the Board meet-
ing, to set up a slate of candidates for
office in 1966. (Note: The candidates are
listed elsewhere in this issue. )
Treasurer. Mr. Miller presented a de-
tailed report of income and expenses to
date in 1965, and indicated that a year-
end deficit of $4,500 was anticipated. The
Board approved his request to sell Acad-
emy stocks in this amount, to make up the
deficit.
Dr. Henderson advised that a lawyer,
retained in 1964 to consult in the matter
of obtaining tax-exempt status for the
Academy, had presented a bill for $438.16.
The Board approved payment of the bill.
Membership Promotion. Dr. Diamond
reported that the Committee had devel-
oped a letter to be sent to members, to
ask them whether they desired to be con-
sidered for fellow status; this letter, he
228
felt, would simplify the upgrading of elig-
ible members. He would be willing to serve
as one of the sponsors for these candi-
dates. Further, he felt that the nomina-
tion of such people could be streamlined
by eliminating the customary letter of
recommendation.
In connection with the solicitation of
new members, Dr. Henderson suggested
developing a form letter that could be
sent to groups containing likely prospects
for membership, particularly those soci-
eties to which issues of the Journal had
been addressed over the last year or so.
The status of delegates from the affili-
ated societies, who were not members or
fellows of the Academy, was next dis-
cussed. The Board agreed that such per-
sons should automatically be elected to
fellowship.
Ways and Means. Dr. Frenkiel reported
the committee’s view that corporate mem-
berships should be established as a means
of financial support for the Academy.
Meeting Arrangements. Dr. Menkart
announced that the next general meeting
would be held November 18 at George-
town University. He indicated that the
poster mailing list, used to advertise
Academy meetings, needed to be updated.
Awards for Scientific Achievement. Dr.
Mason reported that postcards had been
mailed to the membership, _ soliciting
nominations for the Academy’s 1965
awards. The deadline for receipt of nomi-
nations is November 12.
History of Science. Dr. Farber reported
that he was developing a proposal seeking
NSF support for a study of the Acad-
emy’s history. He expected to have this
proposal ready for the next Board meet-
ing.
Grants-in-Aid. Dr. Schubert advised the
Board of a letter received from AAAS, to
the effect that an unused balance of $163
from the 1963 AAAS grant was to be
considered as forfeited; but that $312
from the 1964 grant and $457 from the
1965 grant were available to the Acad-
emy. Dr. Schubert asked that students
JoURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
with worthwhile research projects be re- September (directory) issue of the Jour-
ferred to the committee chairman (Dr. nal had been printed, that the October
Cole). issue was in press, and that work was
Editor. Mr. Detwiler reported that the about to begin on the November issue.
BYLAWS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
(Last Revised in December 1964)
ARTICLE J—Purposes
Section 1. The purposes of the Washington Academy of Sciences shall be: (a) to stimulate
interest in the sciences, both pure and applied, and (b) to promote their advancement and the
development of their philosophical aspects by the Academy membership and through cooperative
action by the affiliated societies.
Section 2. These objectives may be attained by, but are not limited to:
(a) Publication of a periodical and of occasional scientific monographs and such other pub-
lications as may be deemed desirable.
(b) Public lectures of broad scope and interest in the fields of science.
(c) Sponsoring a Washington Junior Academy of Sciences.
(d) Promoting science education and a professional interest in science among people of high
school and college age.
(e) Accepting or making grants of funds to aid special research projects.
(f) Symposia, both formal and small informal, on any aspects of science.
(g) Scientific conferences.
(h) Organization of, or assistance in, scientific expeditions.
(i) Cooperation with other Academies and scientific organizations.
(j) Awards of prizes and citations for special merit in science.
(k) Maintaining an office and staff to aid in carrying out the purposes of the Academy.
ARTICLE JJ—MEMBERSHIP
Section 1. The membership shall consist of three general classes: members, fellows and patrons.
Section 2. Members shall be persons who are interested in and will support the objectives of
the Academy and who are otherwise acceptable to at least two thirds of the Committee on Mem-
bership. A letter or application form requesting membership and signed by the applicant may
suffice for action by the Committee; approval by the Committee constitutes election to member-
ship.
Section 3. Fellows shall be persons who by reason of original research or other outstanding
service to the sciences, mathematics, or engineering are deemed worthy of the honor of election to
Academy fellowship, which may be attained only through nomination as provided in Section 4.
Section 4. Nominations of fellows shall be presented to the Committee on Membership on a
form approved by the Committee. The form shall be signed by the sponsor, a fellow who has
knowledge of the nominee’s field, and shall be endorsed by at least one other fellow. An ex-
planatory letter from the sponsor and a bibliography of the nominee’s publications shall ac-
company the completed nomination form.
Section 5. Election to fellowship shall be by vote of the Board of Managers upon recommenda-
tion of the Committee on Membership. Final action on nominations shall be deferred at least one
week after presentation to the Board, and two-thirds of the vote cast shall be necessary to elect.
Section 6. Persons who have given to the Academy not less than one thousand (1,000) dollars
or its equivalent in property shall be eligible for election by the Board of Managers as patrons
(for life) of the Academy.
Section 7. Life members or fellows shall be those individuals who have made a single pay-
ment in accordance with Article III, Section 2, in lieu of annual dues.
Section 8. Members or fellows in good standing who have attained the age of 65 and are re-
tired, or are retired before the age of 65 because of disability, may become emeritus. Upon request
to the treasurer for transfer to this status, they shall be relieved of the further payment of dues,
beginning with the following January first; shall receive notices of meetings without charge; and,
at their request, shall be entitled to receive the Academy periodical at cost.
Section 9. Members or fellows living more than 50 miles from the White House, Washington,
D. C., shall be classed as nonresident members or fellows.
DECEMBER, 1965 229
Section 10. An election to any dues-paying class of membership shall be void if the candidate
does not within three months thereafter pay his dues or satisfactorily explain his failure to do so.
Section 11. Former members or fellows who resigned in good standing may be reinstated upon
application to the Secretary and approval by the Board of Managers. No reconsideration of the
applicant’s qualifications need be made by the Membership Committee in these cases.
ArtTIcLE IJI—DUuEs
Section 1. The annual dues of resident fellows shall be $10.00 per year. The annual dues of
members and of nonresident fellows shall be $7.50 per year. Dues for fractional parts of the year
shall be at the monthly rate of one-twelfth the annual rate. No dues shall be paid by emeritus
members and fellows, life members and fellows, and patrons.
Section 2. Members and fellows in good standing may be relieved of further payment of dues
by making a single payment to provide an annuity equal to their annual dues. (See Article II,
Section 7.) The amount of the single payment shall be computed on the basis of an interest
rate to be determined by the Board of Managers.
Section 3. Members or fellows whose dues are in arrears for one year shall not be entitled to
receive Academy publications.
Section 4. Members or fellows whose dues are in arrears for more than two years shall be
dropped from the rolls of the Academy, upon notice to the Board of Managers, unless the Board
shall otherwise direct. Persons who have been dropped from membership for nonpayment of dues
may be reinstated upon approval of the Board and upon payment of back dues for two years
together with dues for the year of reinstatement.
ARTICLE I[V—OFFICERS
Section 1. The officers of the Academy shall be a President, a President-elect, a Secretary,
and a Treasurer. All shall be chosen from resident fellows of the Academy.
Section 2. The President shall appoint all committees and such non-elective officers as are
needed unless otherwise directed by the Board of Managers or provided in the Bylaws. He (or his
substitute—the President-elect, the Secretary, or the Treasurer, in that order), shall preside at
all meetings of the Academy and of the Board of Managers.
Section 3. The Secretary shall act as secretary to the Board of Managers and to the Academy
at large. He shall conduct all correspondence relating thereto, except as otherwise provided, and
shall be the custodian of the corporate seal of the Academy. He shall arrange for the publication
in the Academy periodical of the names and professional connections of new members, and also
of such proceedings of the Academy, including meetings of the Board of Managers, as may appro-
priately be of interest to the membership. He shall be responsible for keeping a register of the
membership, showing such information as qualifications, elections, acceptances, changes of resi-
dence, lapses of membership, resignations and deaths, and for informing the Treasurer of changes
affecting the status of members. He shall act as secretary to the Nominating Committee (see Art.
VI, Sect. 2).
Section 4. The Treasurer shall be responsible for keeping an accurate account of all receipts
and disbursements, shall select a suitable depository for current funds which shall be approved by
the Executive Committee, and shall invest the permanent funds of the Academy as directed by that
Committee. He shall prepare a budget at the beginning of each year which shall be reviewed by
the Executive Committee for presentation to and acceptance by the Board of Managers. He shall
notify the Secretary of the date when each new member qualifies by payment of dues. He shall
act as business adviser to the Editor and shall keep necessary records pertaining to the sub-
scription list. In view of his position as Treasurer, however, he shall not be required to sign con-
tracts. He shall pay no bill until it has been approved in writing by the chairman of the com-
mittee or other persons authorized to incur it. The fiscal year of the Academy shall be the
same as the calendar year.
Section 5. The President and the Treasurer, as directed by the Board of Managers, shall
jointly assign securities belonging to the Academy and indorse financial and legal papers neces-
sary for the uses of the Academy, except those relating to current expenditures authorized by the
Board. In case of disability or absence of the President or Treasurer, the Board of Managers may
designate the President-elect or a qualified Delegate as Acting President or an officer of the
-Academy as Acting Treasurer, who shall perform the duties of these officers during such dis-
ability or absence.
Section 6. An Editor shall be in charge of all activities connected with the Academy’s pub-
lications. He shall be nominated by the Executive Committee and appointed by the President
230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
for an indefinite term subject to annual review by the Board of Managers. The Editor shall
serve as a member of the Board.
Section 7. An Archivist may be appointed by the President. If appointed, he shall maintain
the permanent records of the Academy, including important records which are no longer in cur-
rent use by the Secretary, Treasurer, or other officer, and such other documents and material
as the Board of Managers may direct.
Section 8. All officers and chairmen of standing committees shall submit annual reports at
the January meeting of the Board of Managers.
Section 9. Prior to November 1 of each year the Nominating Committee (Art. VI, Sect. 2),
having been notifed by the Secretary, shall meet and nominate by preferential ballot, in the
manner prescribed by the Board of Managers, one person for each of the offices of President-elect,
of Secretary and of Treasurer, and four persons for the two Managers-at-large whose terms expire
each year. It shall, at the same time and in like manner, make nominations to fill any vacancy in
the foregoing. Not later than November 15, the Secretary shall forward to each Academy member
a printed notice of these nominations, with a list of incumbents. Independent nominations may
be made in writing by any ten active members. In order to be considered, such nominations must
be received by the Secretary before December 1.
Section 10. Not later than December 15, the Secretary shall prepare and mail ballots to mem-
bers and fellows. Independent nominations shali be included on the ballot, and the names of the
nominess shall be arranged in alphabetical order. When more than two candidates are nominated
for the same office the voting shall be by preferential ballot in the manner prescribed by the Board
ef Managers. The ballot shall contain also a notice to the effect that votes not received by the
Secretary before the first Thursday of January, and votes of individuals whose dues are in arrears
for one year or more, will not be counted. The Committee of Tellers shall count the votes and
report the results at the annual meeting of the Academy.
Section 11. The newly elected officers shall take office at the close of the annual meeting,
the President-elect of the previous year automatically becoming President.
ARTICLE V—BoARD oF MANAGERS
Section 1. The activities of the Academy shail be guided by the Board of Managers, con-
sisting of the President, the President-elect, one Delegate from each of the affiliated societies,
the Secretary, the Treasurer, six elected Managers-at-large, and the Editor. The elected officers
of the Academy shall hold like offices on the Board of Managers.
Section 2. One Delegate shall be selected by each affiliated society (see Art. VIII, Sect. 3).
He shall serve until replaced by his society. Each Delegate is expected to participate in the
meetings of the Board of Managers and vote on behalf of his society.
Section 3. The Board of Managers shall transact all business of the Academy not otherwise
provided for. A quorum of the Board shall be nine of its members.
Section 4. The Board of Managers may provide for such standing and special committees as
it deems necessary.
Section 5. The Board shall have power to fill vacancies in its own membership until the next
annual election. This does not apply to the offices of President and Treasurer (see Art. IV,
Sect. 5), nor to Delegates (see Art. V, Sect. 2).
ARTICLE VI—CoMMITTEES
Section 1. An Executive Committee shall have general supervision of Academy finances,
approve the selection of a depository for the current funds, and direct the investment of the per-
manent funds. At the beginning of the year it shall present to the Board of Managers an itemized
statement of receipts and expenditures of the preceding year and a budget based on the estimated
receipts and disbursements of the coming year, with such recommendations as may seem desirable.
It shall be charged with the duty of considering all activities of the Academy which may tend
to maintain and promote relations with the affiliated societies, and with any other business which
may be assigned to it by the Board. The Executive Committee shall consist of the President, the
President-elect, the Secretary and the Treasurer (or Acting Treasurer) ex officio, as well as two
members appointed annually by the President from the membership of the Board.
Section 2. The Delegates shall constitute a Nominating Committee (see Art. IV, Sect. 9). The
Delegate from the Philosophical Society shall be chairman of the Committee, or, in his absence,
the Delegate from another society in the order of seniority as given in Article VIII, Section 1.
Section 3. The President shall appoint in advance of the annual meeting an Auditing Com-
mittee consisting of three persons, none of whom is an officer, to audit the accounts of the Treas-
urer (Art. VII, Sect. 1).
DECEMBER, 1965 231
Section 4. On or before the last Thursday of each year the President shall appoint a com:
mittee of three Tellers whose duty it shall be to canvass the ballots (Art. IV, Sect. 10, Art. VII,
Sect. 1).
Section 5. The President shall appoint from the Academy membership such committees as
are authorized by the Board of Managers and such special committees as necessary to carry out
his functions. Committee appointments shall be staggered as to term whenever it is determined
by the Board to be in the interest of continuity of committee affairs.
ARTICLE VIJ—MEETINGS
Section 1. The annual meeting shall be held each year in January. It shall be held on the
third Thursday of the month unless otherwise directed by the Board of Managers. At this meet-
ing the reports of the Secretary, Treasurer, Auditing Committee (see Art. VI, Sect. 3), and
Committee of Tellers shall be presented.
Section 2. Other meetings may be held at such time and place as the Board of Managers may
determine.
Section 3. The rules contained in “Robert’s Rules of Order Revised” shall govern the
Academy in all cases to which they are applicable, and in which they are not inconsistent with
the bylaws or the special rules of order of the Academy.
ARTICLE VII[I—CoopEerATION
Section 1. The term “affiliated societies” in their order of seniority (see Art. VI, Sect. 2)
shall be held to cover the:
Philosophical Society of Washington
Anthropological Society of Washington
Biological Society of Washington
Chemical Society of Washington
Entomological Society of Washington
National Geographic Society
Geological Society of Washington
Medical Society of the District of Columbia
Columbia Historical Society
Botanical Society of Washington
Washington Section of Society of American Foresters
Washington Society of Engineers
Washington Section of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Washington Section of American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Helminthological Society of Washington
Washington Branch of American Society for Microbiology
Washington Post of Society of American Military Engineers
National Capital Section of American Society of Civil Engineers
District of Columbia Section of Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine
Washington Chapter of American Society for Metals
Washington Section of the International Association for Dental Research
Washington Section of American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
D. C. Branch of American Meteorological Society
Insecticide Society of Washington
Washington Chapter of the Acoustical Society of America
Washington Section of the American Nuclear Society
Washington Section of Institute of Food Technologists
Baltimore-Washington Section of the American Ceramic Society
Washington-Baltimore Section of the Electrochemical Society
Washington History of Science Club
Chesapeake Section of American Association of Physics Teachers
and such others as may be hereafter recommended by the Board and elected by two-thirds of the
members of the Academy voting, the vote being taken by correspondence. A society may he
released from affiliation on recommendation of the Board of Managers, and the concurrence of
two-thirds of the members of the Academy voting.
Section 2. The Academy may assist the affiliated scientific societies of Washington in any
matter of common interest, as in joint meetings, or the publication of a joint directory: Provided,
it shall not have power to incur for or in the name of one or more of these societies any expense
or liability not previously authorized by said society or societies, nor shall it without action of
Dae JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the Board of Managers be responsible for any expenses incurred by one or more of the affiliated
societies.
Section 3. No affiliated society shall be committed by the Academy to any action in conflict
with the charter, constitution, or bylaws of said society, or of its parent society.
Section 4. Each affiliated society shall select one of its members as Delegate to the Academy
who is a resident member or fellow of the Academy.
Section 5. The Academy may establish and assist a Washington Junior Academy of Sciences
for the encouragement of interest in science among students in the Washington area of high
school and college age.
ARTICLE I[X—Awarps AND GRANTS-IN-AID
Section 1. The Academy may award medals and prizes, or otherwise express its recognition
and commendation of scientific work of high merit and distinction in the Washington area. Such
recognition shall be given only on approval by the Board of Managers of a recommendation by a
committee on awards for scientific achievement.
Section 2. The Academy may receive or make grants to aid scientific research in the Wash-
ington area. Grants shall be received or made only on approval by the Board of Managers of a
recommendation by a committee on grants-in-aid for scientific research.
ARTICLE X—-AMENDMENTS
Section 1. Amendments to these bylaws shall be proposed by the Board of Managers and
submitted to the members of the Academy in the form of a mail ballot accompanied by a state-
ment of the reasons for the proposed amendment. A two-thirds majority of those members voting
is required for adoption. At least two weeks shall be allowed for the ballots to be returned.
Section 2. Any affiliated society or any group of ten or more members may propose an
amendment to the Board of Managers in writing. The action of the Board in accepting or reject-
ing this proposal to amend the bylaws shall be by a vote on roll call, and the complete roll call
shall be entered in the minutes of the meeting.
ACT OF INCORPORATION OF
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
We, the undersigned, persons of full age and citizens of the United States, and a majority
being citizens of the District of Columbia, pursuant to and in conformity with sections 545 to 552,
inclusive, of the Revised Statutes of the United States relating to the District of Columbia, as
amended by an Act of Congress entitled “An Act to amend the Revised Statutes of the United
States relating to the District of Columbia and for other purposes,” approved April 23, 1884, hereby
associate ourselves together as a society or body corporate and certify in writing:
1. That the name of the society is the Washington Academy of Sciences.
2. That the term for which the Corporation is organized shall be perpetual.
3. That the Corporation is organized and shall be operated exclusively for charitable, educa-
tional and scientific purposes and in furtherance of these purposes and for no other purpose shall
have, but not be limited to, the following specific powers and purposes:
a. To encourage ir the broadest and most liberal manner the advancement and promotion of
science.
b. To acquire, hold, and convey real estate and other property and to establish general and
special funds.
c. To hold meetings.
d. To publish and distribute documents.
e. To conduct lectures.
f. To conduct, endow, or assist investigation in any department of science.
g. To acquire and maintain a library.
h. And, in general, to transact any business pertinent to an academy of sciences.
Provided, however, that notwithstanding the foregoing enumerated powers, the Corporation shall
not engage in activities, other than as an insubstantial part thereof, which are not in themselves in
furtherance of its charitable, educational and scientific purposes.
4. That the affairs, funds, and property of the Corporation shall be in general charge of a
Board of Managers, the number of whose members for the first year shall be nineteen, all of
whom shall be chosen from among the members of the Academy.
DECEMBER, 1965 233
5. That in the event of dissolution or termination of the Corporation, title to and possession of
all of the property of the Corporation shall pass to such organization, or organizations, as may
be designated by the Board of Managers; provided, however, that in no event shall any property
of the Corporation be transmitted to or vested in any organization other than an organization
which is then in existence and then qualified for exemption as a charitable, educational or
scientific organization under the Internal Revenue Code of 1954, as amended.
Editor’s Note: This Act of Incorporation is shown as amended in 1964 by Francois N. Frenkiel,
President, and George W. Irving, Jr., Secretary, acting for the Washington Academy of Sciences,
in a Certificate of Amendment notarized on September 16, 1964. A copy of the original Act of
Incorporation dated February 18, 1898, appears in the Journal for November 1963, page 212.
Science in Washington
SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS
Contributions to this column may be
addressed to Harold T. Cook, Associate
Editor, c/o Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service, Federal
Center Building, Hyattsville, Md.
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT
ALFRED H. YEOMANS, Pesticide
Chemicals Research Branch, Agricultural
Research Service, is retiring from govern-
ment service effective December 30.
PAUL R. MILLER was designated a
fellow of the American Phytopathological
Society, in recognition of his outstanding
contribution to the profession of plant
pathology, at the Society’s National Meet-
ing in Miami Beach on October 6.
COAST AND GEODECTIC SURVEY
JOSEPH L. STEARN retired recently
after 34 years of service in the Geodesy
Division.
JOHN S. RINEHART has been ap-
pointed director of the Office of Science
and Engineering, Environmental Science
Services Administration.
HOWARD UNIVERSITY
MODDIE D. TAYLOR, professor of
chemistry, has been elected member-at-
large of the Executive Committee of the
Division of Chemical Education, Ameri-
234,
can Chemical Society, for the 1966 term.
Dr. Taylor spent the summer at Chandi-
garh University, Punjab, India, where he
served as a consultant on the revision of
the chemical education program of India.
GEORGE C. TURRELL, associate pro-
fessor of chemistry, presented a paper
entitled “On the Vibrational Spectra of
Polyatomic Impurities in Crystals” at the
Eighth European Congress on Molecular
Spectroscopy in Copenhagen, August 14-
20. He also visited spectroscopists and
facilities at the University of Lund, Swe-
den; Institiit fiir Physikalische Chemie der
Universitat, Frankfurt; and Laboratoire
de Spectroscopie Infrarouge, Faculté des
Sciences de Bordeaux. Dr. Turrell will be
on sabbatical leave for the academic year
1966-67 as an exchange professor at the
University of Bordeaux.
NATIONAL BUREAU OF
STANDARDS
HARRY C. ALLEN, JR., formerly chief
of the Inorganic Materials Division, has
been named deputy director of IMR.
The following staff members presented
papers in foreign countries:
J. R.. McNESBY, “Far-Ultraviolet Pho-
tochemistry in Free Radical Studies,”
Seventh International Symposium on Free
Radicals, Padua, Italy, September 5-10.
C. M. TCHEN, “Statistical Theory of
Magnetohydrodynamic Turbulence,” Fac-
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ulty of Sciences, University of Paris,
October 7; and “Kinetic Theory of Turbu-
lence in a Rarefied Plasma,” Division of
Applied Physics, Centre d’Etudes Nucle-
aires, Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France, Oc-
tober 8.
NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
JOHN A. SANDERSON, acting associ-
ate director of research for program
planning, has been named president-elect
of the Optical Society of America. He will
take office on January 1, 1966.
DEATHS
PAUL CHARLES MARTH, 506, plant
physiologist in the Crops Research Divi-
sion, Agricultural Research Service, died
at Prince Georges General Hospital on
November 4, following a long illness. Dr.
Marth was best known for his work on the
use of plant growth-regulating substances
in the production of horticultural crops,
postharvest handling of horticultural
products, and control of weeds. He held
B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees from the
University of Maryland. In 1963 he re-
ceived the Superior Service Award of the
Department of Agriculture.
SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT
The spectacular electric power failure
in the Northeast has somewhat over-
shadowed, to coin a pun, the less dra-
matic water crisis in New York of last
spring and summer. In the long run, the
latter may be the harder to solve.
In any event, a possible means to con-
struct enormous wells in the form of
underground, rubble-filled chimneys, by
nuclear explosions has been broached.
Aside from the obvious problems attend-
ing the use of atomic devices in any peace-
time’ situation, it would seem entirely
practical to produce, more or less at will,
reservoirs of some millions of gallons
capacity. A one-kiloton explosive, deto-
nated 400 feet below the land surface,
would form a rubble-chimney about 90
DECEMBER, 1965
feet in diameter and 270 feet high, with
a storage volume of 3 million gallons.
Besides, ground water would flow from
surrounding rocks as much as 100 times
that into a drilled well of equivalent
depth, in the opinion of Arthur M. Piper
of the Interior Department’s Menlo Park
installation. A 100-kiloton explosive, by
the same reasoning, would form a
chimney 420 feet in diameter and 1,250
feet high, with a storage volume of 30
million gallons and an inflow area as
much as 500 times that of a drilled well.
When condensation within stills, air con-
ditioners, dehumidifiers, and all similar
devices can be continued over a long pe-
riod of time as distinct drops, the efficiency
is materially better and the cost corres-
pondingly reduced. At the moment this
is accomplished largely by adding organic
promoters to the system, or by coating the
surfaces with a thin hydrophobic polymer.
Robert A. Erb, of the Franklin Institute
in Philadelphia, now suggests a coating
for condenser surfaces that will resist the
formation of films without necessitating
additives or accepting the retardation in
heat transfer of presently available plating
materials. The so-called noble metals, par-
ticularly gold itself, seem to be the answer.
Increases in condensation rates in gold-
plated tubes over that in stainless steel
or copper alloy run in the neighborhood
of 50 percent. An added benefit is that —
sea-water steam has virtually no more
detrimental effect than ordinary distilled-
water steam on the gold surfaces, even
after exposure continuously for more than
a year. The implications for fresh water
recovery from oceans are obvious.
Problems emerge in our increasingly
dense and complex society appreciably
faster than they can be solved, and often
a hoped-for solution proves either less ef-
fective than had been hoped or brings
with it other difficulties. We now read,
in an article by Cooper Wayman, of the
Geological Survey, that. the much touted
235
soft detergents will not of themselves
solve the nettlesome problems of froth in
water supplies, oxygen depletion in rivers
and streams, and so on. One practical
difficulty, at least, is that neither the
hard nor the soft detergents break down
adequately under anaerobic conditions;
that is, unless sufficient oxygen is avail-
able to microorganisms they. cannot ac-
complish the task of degradation, even
though the substrate itself is such as to
be biodegradable. Threats to ground water,
and related problems brought on by de-
tergent use, can perhaps only be met by
the development of “super-soft” materials
that will decompose even when supplies
of oxygen are negligible. Research indi-
cates that detergents having this property
can be made from sugar and certain
natural oils such as cottonseed oil. It re-
mains to demonstrate the technical and
economic feasibility of using sugar-based
detergents.
Enthusiasm for the Nation’s efforts to
land man on the moon varies from whole-
hearted dedication to outright disapproval,
depending upon the individual consulted,
but there does seem to be a certain
amount of ancillary research of interest
to all. For example, in studies of the vol-
canic pumice of the Mono Craters of Cali-
fornia, just east of Yosemite National
Park, on behalf of the space program,
staff members of the Geological Survey
have obtained samples of permafrost that
may well be the southernmost occurrence
of that material in North America. Be-
cause many features of the site are simi-
lar to those observed on the moon, ex-
tensive examinations are under way.
Among these, cores have been taken to a
depth of 60 feet which in turn showed
ice scattered throughout, mostly between
7 and 20 feet below the surface. Labora-
tory studies of the ice samples are being
made to determine age, composition, and
possible bearing on theories of naturally-
occurring ice on the moon.
236
Some years back there appeared a de-
lightful story bearing the title, “The
Final Traffic Jam,” which described the
gradual increase in congestion until at
some fateful moment every square foot
of every highway, street, or alley, plus
all driveways, turnoffs, and parking lots,
was occupied by a vehicle. Matters came
to a complete halt, which led many if not
all to view the situation as an emergency
of the utmost concern. As the tale un-
folds, an absurdly simple solution was
adopted—to pour concrete over the whole
thing and start again!
Whether this fate is in store for the
land areas of the United States—and
many who commute from the suburbs of
our larger cities may feel at times that
we are perilously close to reaching this
stage—it is apparently not unlike that in
the Gulf of Mexico. There, with 2,000 oil
well structures scattered in a zone reach-
ing 60 miles from shore, and another 3,500
in inshore waters, it has become neces-
sary to show traffic lanes on the nautical
charts of the Gulf put out by the Coast
and Geodetic Survey.
Thirty such lanes will be shown, gen-
erally two miles wide and extending ap-
proximately one to 125 nautical miles
from the Gulf coast. In these areas, no
oil drilling structures will be permitted.
Action in this connection has become
necessary as the number of wells in-
creased in the past three years by 1000,
and in view of the nearly 50 collisions
that have taken place.
Occasionally, a simple tabulation is
more effective than any other device in
impressing upon the reader the enormous
consumption of natural resources within
the United States. We read, for example,
that during the period from the opening
of the New York World’s Fair in April
1964 to its closing in October of this year,
the Geological Survey’s data showed the
following amounts of materials used:
180 trillion gallons of water
68,000,000 tons of iron ore
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
760,000 tons of copper
7,200,000 tons of aluminum ore
438,000,000 tons of sand and gravel
4,290,000 tons of sulfur
4,424,000,000 barrels (oil equivalent) of min-
eral fuels
9,274,000 tons of phosphate rock
It is not always the more profound as-
pects of a scientific project that strike the
fancy. A story in the NIH Record tells
in some detail how Zenzo Tamura, a Japa-
nese scientist visiting the Laboratory of
Clinical Biochemistry of the National
Heart Institute, has affixed fluorescent
dyes to the peptides in wasp venom and
thus greatly facilitated chromatographic
separations. This step leads in turn to
studies of the effect of these individual
peptides on high blood pressure, and is of
interest to those concerned with the some-
times fatal after-effects of wasp attack on
humans. Yet to the ordinary reader, the
most poignant impressions are gained
from the simple statistic that in the
decade of the 1950’s, 229 of the total of
460 deaths from venomous animals were
due to Hymenopteran insects (snakes
killed only 138), and from viewing a
small photograph showing a wasp pin-
ioned to a tiny straitjacket, being “stung,”
as it were, by a miniature electrode. Few
victims of a wasp’s displeasure in the
past will fail to recognize in themselves
a sense of revenge at this adroit turning
of the tables.
Biophysicists, who like biochemists tend
not to know one organism from another
and even to give the impression of caring
little for this traditional kind of biology,
are very likely to be well aware of the
giant squid. This animal, a not very at-
tractive member of the mollusc group,
has long been used as a source of large
nerve axons for research in the physiol-
ogy of impulse transmission. A particu-
larly valuable species, the giant form of
South American waters, provides an axon
with diameters above a millimeter, thus
permitting experiments not otherwise pos-
DECEMBER, 1965
sible. Behind this story, which is of
course well known, lies the nagging
worry that if only the molecular biologists
at one end of the spectrum and the sys-
tematists at the other could talk more
successfully to each other, any number of
other species not now used in research
could be uncovered and a host of prob-
lems made more tractable. There are
obvious advantages to experimenting upon
well-known and long-studied organisms,
but it is hardly likely that they are the
most favorable material for some of the
experiments that now need to be devised.
Surely one of the most effective re-
searchers with the electron microscope is
H. Fernandez-Moran of the University of
Chicago. When he suggests, in a seminar
at the National Institutes of Health, the
direct readout of such fundamental cel-
lular elements as the base pairings of
nucleic acids, it must be taken very seri-
ously indeed. On the other hand, we can-
not but remark that his ancillary proposal
that the instrument be used for ultra-
miniaturization, making printed circuits
on surfaces the size of cells, is less at-
tractive. True, one could then impress
the entire contents of the Library of Con-
gress on a surface the size of a single
page and read it with the electron micro-
scope. True, too, it would postpone the
day when we will be physically engulfed
by the products of our scientific and tech-
nical effort. But it will not help one whit
to ease the impossible burden of compre-
hending the vast compilation of published
information, nor help in its wise evalua-
tion and use.
One of the more intriguing suggestions
to be found in freshman geology, as most
encounter it, is that the present continents
are formed from the drifting apart of an
ancient land mass. Presumably, as soon
as map-making was sufficiently precise to
reflect a realistic picture of the coast
lines of the east and west borders of the
Atlantic, many must have been struck by
237
the goodness of fit between the two. Cer-
tainly debate has lasted for many years
over whether this was a geological possi-
bility, let alone a probability.
Robert S. Dietz, a staff member of
what now calls itself the Environmental
Science Services Administration, suggests
that a search be made for what might be
called microcontinents, the left-over pieces
from such a_supercontinental breakup.
In his view, a major effort in this direc-
tion would go far to settle once and for
all the controversy and, if successful, un-
cover the missing, Texas-sized pieces nec-
essary to make the jigsaw puzzle com-
plete. He points out, incidentally, that
the advocates of continental drift have
tended to overlook an argument which
strongly supports their thesis, in that the
“fit” of the edges of the continental
shelves of the two land masses bordering
the Atlantic is vastly better than that of
the shorelines themselves. He considers
the San Andreas Fault in California as an
example of drift on a small scale.
Many who espouse unpopular scientific
notions will take comfort in Dr. Dietz’
remark that the continental drift is “an
example of an outrageous hypothesis
which may well be true.”
But evidence derived by scientists of
the Applied Physics Laboratory, from
gravitational effects measured on satellite
orbital changes, and which suggest that
the earth has four distinct bulges or
corners, does not justify a return to the
equally outrageous hypothesis that the
world is flat.
Not long ago there were reports, as in-
deed there had been several times pre-
viously, of exceptionally hot and _ salty
waters to be found in the depths of the
Red Sea, temperatures running above
44°C and salinity approximating 27 per
cent. Atlantis IJ, a vessel of the Woods
Hole Oceanographic Institution, has made
possible still further sampling with even
more startling results. Specimens at tem-
peratures as high as 56° have been taken
in acid brines with heavy metals 100 to
1000 times that of normal sea water.
In these days when “wet” chemistry is
scorned by the more sophisticated ana-
lysts, it is amusing to read that the sci-
entists aboard the research vessel were
unable to make the old-fashioned chemi-
cal analyses of sediments taken from the
ocean floor just beneath the hot brine
regions, although they seemed almost cer-
tain to be rich in iron, manganese, zinc,
and other materials. As the story goes,
they were obliged to wait until they found
an Arabian college with a chemistry
laboratory sufficiently antiquated to per-
mit the simple tests of a former day.
Egon T. Degens suggests that the brines
may not be sea water at all, but rather
derived from rifts in underlying strata,
through which the material moved up-
ward from volcanic intrusions. If so,
they can be interpreted as the equivalent
of what the oceans were in pre-Cambrian
times, some two to three billion years
ago.
—Russell B. Stevens
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ee ee ere ea ee SS et i
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Delegates to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Representing
é | the Local Affiliated Societies*
Philosophical Society of Washington ............... ee eer ett y-- ec ys ceed MaAtcoitm C. HENDERSON
Anthropological Society of Washington ................. <i vite Ree oF in tec ce ee aN oe STEPHEN T. Boccs
Biological Bear STUNDEN i oes tach p snes eg onan sca nta soe se noone densdavsasevasisiens JOHN L. Parapiso
Chemical Society of Washington ........................... he orel dis-e reap homie FLORENCE H., Forziati
Entomological Society of Washington ............0...000000cccccceeceeeeeeees BP en etn Harotp H. SHEPARD
MR METIERSCOMTATINIC SOCIOL. o.oo. ..cecceccescceccsesnescsctescscsecsusceucvesesssececasstecsseceeccasseteesers ALEXANDER WETMORE
eee WY USINNTD LONE 22s es vada cecena cs sesacsecccevesuadeseosesebeeneslscletlecedsieeveeese oes Luna LEopoLtp
Memes society of the District of Columbia ........0.....0.........ccccccccecsecsssseccedectlendecscuseadh THomas M. Brown
IRR TT tN SESEME EY 5.50 occas sais <b oss leneaccincdibncescessdenishcsseoosscvotevsen!syavepecucesssereenceeses U. S. Grant, III
NNN EUNICE OL Vi ASPDITLO EON 5.00). oes osi vcs esc dn ncencecesensnssesetsvessnecsssessssnsectecsacucessepanstocoben’ Peter H. HEINZE
I ATT PIOTESECE Seep ceed es vabescudescneveecevstasvdesssesovesestemlevseseseen Harry A. FoweE.ts
MemrtEONEICLY OF EN GINECTS —....-..... 0c. .c2.-.-c0-c-necc-coceescsenvcatvacercacsecseassessencnesssesscsnsees -Martin A. Mason
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ................. EEN Waa D878 eS eee GrorcE ABRAHAM
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .........2...0.)6..0.00:0) is illeceeccct beeen ..... WILLIAM. G. ALLEN
Helminthological Society of Washington SEs Opies Ue OR Pan eR a me ed AUREL QO. FosTER
American Society for Microbiology ................. se TES? ou oe ee eae AMR. eee REE FrANcis B. GorDon
Society ‘si Momeriean Military ISMSIMCeTS on... cc. cccec. cee cceecssseescseopesesennessnesenessens ceva H. P. DemutH
amemrommroocicty Of Civil Engineers oo)... 2... ccc cece ces escscnensssteendeeqensennesesenet THORNDIKE SAVILLE, JR.
Society tor Experimental Biology and Medicine ......................-.£...-:.-:ees Witu1am H. SuMMERSON
American Society for Ee he ar a ae Hueu L. Locan
International Association for Dental Research 2........cccc:scsssssssssssssssssssssssesvsssssssssssssevvssssee Haroip J. Caur
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics ........0..0...000:cccceeeeeee: Delegate not appointed
eMerIeA METCOTOIOPICAL SOCIELY |< oo....2)....etec.ncecdneeeseecisecesccnedeseeseecoeooneensnneenes ..J. Murray MitcHeE tt, Jr.
EGeecticide Society of Washimgtor i... ecco esseernegey pee tegeeicetag gece H. Ivan RAINWATER
Meaastical Ber gM ET Ne saps senednce dusedepnesussonieebiave Matcotm C. HENDERSON
Baa So: S11 8 ata eal ee GreorceE L. WEIL
Institute of Food ig SDLP ave pet SSA a RI ty ce 2 one eee RicHarD P. FARRow
NN ci EG. Yorn calc coalibeca local degen ndunvennsvasanweacvesshedvessnaearnentgnsee: J. J. DrAmonp
eR a rt rem I a oc es osk cate eco oneneneatbdnea cstv cpnardevasstnecnanenentaagerseanceneuuneweremnstoenns Kurt H. STERN
Waatmeton History of Science Cab o.......:.....-.-. ces cise cecse een eeteeeeseseeeseeeeeeseseneveneensadeneanenanes Morris LEIKIND
iP rean AGAmiaTOM Ol PiHysics LERCHETS 2:7...-...i).5-.0iseiseecsiegseeesselacenseteneaeccosonseunennesedes RAYMOND J. SEEGER
* Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective affiliated societies.
Volume 55 DECEMBER 1965 No. 9
CONTENTS
G. V. Cohee: Geologic History of the Michigan Basin ..............2.22.220.000200.2--- 211
T-Theuphts-o oo a ee 223
Slate of Officers. for T906 > .j0..000)2. co er 224
Academy Proceedings
December Meeting of the Academy ......0..0:0...2:00)..00200-4 1 225
Board of Managers Meeting Notes (June, October) ............202..20-000000--- 226
Bylaws of the’ Washington Academy of Sciences ...............0.022.2:20::cceeeeee 229
Revised Act of Incorporation of the Washington
Academy of Sctemces (2.000:..):s/.c.20).0 es 233
Science in Washington
Scientists im the News)... 00000. eee ti eee rr 234
Science: and Development. :.22.020./0.0.0060. 000 ecee eee 235
Washington Academy of Sciences 2nd Class Postage
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