CONTENTS.

A Grooved Stone Axe from the Ohio Drift. H. C. MERCER

Biologic Origin of Mental Variety. H. NICHOLS

Fossils and Fossilization. L. P. GRaATAcAP, 16, IQI,

Bacterial Diseases of Plants. E. F. SMITH ERETI E

Nocturnal Protective Coloration of Animals. A. E. VERRILL...........

Inferior Boundary of the Quaternary ees O. H. HERSHEY

Pouched or Pocket Gopher. C. Is WEBSTER,....,.cccessessrenesesed edessoos

Undescribed Species of Ra F. SMITH..

Birds of New Guinea. G. S. M

Scope and Position of fiodkeniGty. A. MATHEWS

Polyphyletic Disposition of Lichens. F. CLEMENTS

Some M itah Clad c r: Ee S

The Floida Sea Monster. A R. VERRI aa o a N

The Optic Lobes of the Bee’s Brain. F. C. KENYON

Notes on the Flora and Fauna of Mammoth Cave. R. E. CAL ee

es in Economic Ornithology, with Reference to the- tata.

JUDD

Dr. daa on the Development of the Vertebral Column. O. P. Hay.

The san serait, Geological Congress. P. FRAZERe..sssscseeesseeees 406,

In Memoriam, E. D. Cope. P. FRAZER

Obituary 3 Notice of a es Cope. J.S. KINGSLEY

Toxodon E. D. COPE ;

e: of beret a C. R. Eastman

Golden-eye or Lace-wing Fly. C. M. WEED.

Biological Studies in Massachusetts. G. C. WHIPPLE........--.503, 576,

n the Affinities of Tarsius : A Contribution to the Phylogeny of the

imates. C. BABE AAE GEA ER e EET E ET E 569;

Natural Impulses.` W. B

New Observations on the Origin of the aliigo Islands, with Re-

marks on the Geological Age of the Pacific Oċean. JG: ÉAUR.

661,

The Swamps of Oswego County, N. Y., and their Flora.” W. NE

ROWLEE.......- : : «2.690,

Biology and Medicine. - W. H. WELCH.. U seen

Hair and Feathers. J. S. KINGSLEY

Birds of the Galapagos Islands : A Criticism of Mr. Robert Ridgway" s

Recent Paper. G. BAUR..

1897.] Contents. Vv

512; Report of Canadian Geological Survey for 1894, 513;

Thaxter’s Laboulbeniacez, 513 ; Comstock’s Entomology, 515 ;

Hertwig’s The Cell, 516; Kirby’s Entomology, 516; Birds of

Illinois, 517; The Forces of Nature, 517; Morgan’s Develop-

ment of the Frog’s Egg, 594 ; Miocene Mollusca and Crustacea

of New Jersey, 597; Sixteenth Report of the U. S. Geological

Survey, 597; Russell’s Glacier’s of North America, 597 ; Cocci-

dæ of Ceylon, 701 ; Section Cutting and Staining, 704; The

Cambridge Natural History, 704; Aquatic Insects, 705 ; The

Senile Heart, 706 ; Sixth Report of the Shaw Gardens, 706 ;

Tarr’s Elementary Geology, 804; U.S. Fish Commission, 804 ;

Hand-book of British Birds. 805 ; A List of Periodicals.............

RECENT BoOKS AND PAMPHLETS.—50, 145, 216, 324, 421, 518, te 706

gl NOTES.— General Biology.—Reactions to Stimuli in Para

m, 974 ; Average Contribution of each Ancestor to the pola

Herta of the Offspring, 1043 ; Preformation vs. Epigenesis,

1044; Dissemination of Organisms, 1044 ; Plankton Note......... 1045

Parahi. —Basic Rocks of Devonshire, 52; Magmatic Alteration of

Hornblende and Biotite, 52; Petrography of Little Rocky

Mountains, 53; Volcanic Rocks of Bolsena, Italy, 54; Analcite-

Bearing Rocks, 54; Petrographical Notes, 55, 150, 221, 425, 523,

607, 1053; Petrography of the Viterbo Region. 148; Missourite,

149; Schists of the Spessart, oe ; Petrographical ary

150; Rocks at Bedford, N. Y., 219; Basic End-number of t

Em Syenite Nepheline TATR 219 ; Anorthosites of kaloy

Lake Region, 220; Volcanic Rocks of Fox Islands, Maine, 220 ;

Italian Petrography, 326; Eclogite of the neni et oe 27:

Nodular Granite from Finland, 327; Volcani from Lak

. Superior, 328; Diabases of Goslar, 328; heme: of “ath Paw

Mountains, 423; Laurentian Rocks North of Montreal, 424;

Rocks of the Leucite Hills, 424; Rocks of the Columbretes,

Spain, 424; Dykes in Tyrol, 425; Mud Enclosures in Trap, 520;

Ke erae Dyke near New Haven, 521; Gabbros of Bohemia,

521; Exotic Blocks in Eocene Schists of the Alps, 521; Eleolite-

Syenite of Portugal, 522; Ancient Volcanic Rocksof Pennsylva-

nia, 605; Rocks Associated with Magnetites near Port Henry,

605; Basalts of Steiermark, 606; Volcanic Rocks of Bohemia,

606; Zonal Crystals, 607; Igneous Rocks of Trans-Pecos, Texas,

806; Italian Petrographical Studies, 807; Rock Differentiation,

807 ; Granites of Pyramid Peak District, California, 808; Pegma-

tite, 809; Petrography of the a Iron gS 1050; Rock

Formation of Silver Cliff and Rosita Distric TO51

ae —Production of Precious Brema in ee 329 ; Coloring Mat-

of Minerals, 331; Pearceite and Polybasite, 331; Miscellane-

ous Notes, 332; Lewisite and Zirkelite, 601; Epidote and Zoisite,

of Crystals, 603, 607; Miscellaneous Notes, 603 ; Derbylite, 1045;

Zirkelite, 1045; Wellsite, a New Zeolite, 1046; Silicate Contain-

iv The American Naturalist. (Yol. XXXI,

The Advance of Biology in 1895. C. B. DAVENPORT... <-s.. :reers serso `

Edward Eor Cope, Naturalist—A Chapter in the History of

Science. T. GILL

paoe Homotogies A’ — to es Determination of the

of Vertebrates. C. S. MIN

The ices gi Organic Selection. H. F. OSBORN

The Geological Congress in Russia. C. PALACHE

Some Unwritten History of the Naples Zoological Station

Wind River and Bridger Beds in the Huerfano Lake Basin. H.F.

GBORN iaie. urosta oA ahr aE r rA AET sk lO ee

Peculiar Zonal Formations of the Great Plains. F. E. CLEMENTS

The Cricket as a Thermometer. A. E. DOLBEAR

EmN A Review Dedicated to the late Professor Cope. H. F.

OSB

Hammar’s gro Layer. E. A. ANDREWS

A North American Freshwater Jelly Fish. E. Ports

Observations on the Functions of the Pyloric Czeca of Asterias Vul-

g E A. STONE.

EDITOR’S TABLE.—Protection of Wild ee 41; Mammoth in

Alaska, 42; Gypsy Moth, 42; Field Museum, Chicago, 42;

Series of Lake Superior Rocks, 43; Original Research in Uni

versities, 139; Woodrow Wilson on Science, 140; Science in

Thoughts on Scientific Fads, 509 ; Change of Ownership of the

American Naturalist, 699; Association of Agricultural Colleges

and Experiment Stations, 700; The American Naturalist, 800;

L’ Année Biologique, 802 ; Scattered Biological Data, 803 ; Amer:

ican Journal of Physiology, 804; The Toronto Meeting of the

British Association, 896 ; The Louisiana Society of Naturalists,

got; Milk Supply, 971; Government Publications, 97113 ; Ac-

43; Biological Examination of Lake Michigan, 45 ; Indiana

Academy of Science, 46; Beal’s Grasses, 47; Brush’s Mineral-

ogy, 48 ; Chudzinzki on Facial Muscles, 49; Bailey’s Survival

of the Unlike, 140; Prillieux’s Diseases of Plants, 142; Camp-

bell’s Mosses and Ferns, 143 ; Experimental Morphology, 212 ;

Oceanic Ichthyology, 213 ; Fishes of North America, 214; Evo-

lution or Creation, 216 ; Sudworth’s Arborescent Flora of U. S.,

310; Lehmann and Neumann’s Bakteriologie, 312; Science

Sketches, Let ; Recent Papers on Vertebrate Paleontology, 314;

Surface Features, Missouri Geological Survey, 419; Life in

Ponds sey Streams, 510; Year Book of the Department of

Agriculture for 1895, 511 ; Mack’s Popular Lectures, 511; Mar-

tin’s Human Body, 511; Geology of Pennsylvania, 511 ; Report

of the U, S. Fish Commission, 512; Animals at Work and Play,

785

vi The American Naturalist. [Vol. XXXI,

ing Lead, 1046; Bixbyite, 1047; Zinkenite Group, 1048; Terres-

tri i Missouri 1049

Geology and Paleontology.—Relations of Lambdotherium, 55; Develop-

ment of Footin Palaeosynopinæ, 51; Western American Loess,

58; Extinct Birds of Chatham Island, 59; Rocks of the Antarc-

tic Continent, 222; Queries on Rock Differentiation, 223; Coal

Measures of Arkansas, 223; Lead and Zinc of Iowa, 224; Erup-

tive History of Yellowstone Park, 224; Atlantic Coast Eocene,

225; Glacio-Marine Beds of Europe ; Geological News, 227, 337,

530, 613, 712; Alleged Fossil Micrococci, 333; Geology of Luang

Prabang, 333; Chico-Tejon Beds, 333; Position of Periptychidæ;

335; Glacial Beaches of Michigan, 336; Lake Agassiz, 337;

The Prehistoric Dog, 337; International Geological Congress,

524; The Laramie and Related Formations of Wyoming, 528;

Lower Cretaceous Flora of Europe and America, 530; Geology

of Alaska, 608 ; Phylogeny of Daemonelix, 609 ; Nature, Struct-

ure and Phylogeny of Daemonelix, 610; Origin of Edentatas

612 um Deposits of Kansas, 612; Gesligy of the Panaliti

Coral ars 613 ; Hollick on Block Island, 709; Age of the Him-

alayas, 709; Geological History of the Bermudus, 710; Cana-

dian Paleozoic Fossils, 710; Kellaways Fauna in Beluchistan,

711; Fauna of the Wombeyan Caves, N.S. W., 711; A Region

of Environmental Change, 712; Archegosauras, 975; Recon-

struction of Soren sae prnierT os; 980 ; Schuchert’s Synopsis

of American Fossil B

Botany.—Climatic r of Lake Erie on Vegetation, 60; Class

cation of Protaphyta, 63 ; Metric System in Botany, 151 ; Sore

and Faxon’s Sphagna, 152; The Cell Nucleus, 153; An Austra-

lian Curiosity, 154 ; Stolons of Phragmites, 227 ; Key to Mosses,

228 ; New Species of Fungi, 339, 426; Botanical News, 343, 430,

ka 715, 906; Changes in Nomenclature of American Trees,

1053

A ‘Scientific Dictionary of Plants, 532; Order and Family in

Botany, 532; Botanical Society of America, 615; Botany in the

National Educational Association, 616; Marine Biological Lab-

oratory, 616; A Beginner’s Botany, 617; The Death of Sachs,

713; Opportunities for Research in the Missouri Botanical Gar-

den, 714; Gray’s Synoptical Flora, 809; Britton and Brown's

Illustrated Flora, 810 ; The Nature of Ivy ce 901 ; Bot-

any in Detroit, 903 ; Hdtiinical Society of America, 905 ; Govern-

ment Timber Tests, 906 ; Distribution of Plants Along Shore at

the Lake of the Woods, 980; Bailey’s Principles of Fruit Grow-

ing, a teecccces sescecece 1055

Vegetable Physiology,—What is Leuconostoc mesenterodes? 228 ; New

Disease of Tobacco, 231; POA Plant Geography, 435; Che-

motropism of Fungi 717

Zoology.—Nuclei and Cytoplasm in Isopods, 66; Climbing of Myria-

pods, 71; Species of Lepidosiren, 72 ; Regeneration of the Lens

1897.]

Contents.

of Triton, 72; English Sparrow Not Always a Nuisance, 73 ; Ori-

gin of Chiropterygium, 74; New White-Footed Mouse, 74; Bats

from Lower California, 75; Deaths from Mammals and Snakes

in India, 77; Number of Species of Living Animals, 78 ; Terce-

ira Dog, 79; Amoeba coli Not Pathogenic, 155; Bipalium, 155,

Egg-Laying in Sagitta, 155 ; American Chetognaths, 156; Cen-

tral American Diplopods, 158; Development of Wing Scales in

Lepidoptera, 158; Rapid Growth of Apus, 158; HEEE ETTEN

158; Mutilations of Redfish, 159; Reithrodontomys in Virgini

160; Inheritance of Monodactyly in the Pig, 161; Newfoundland

Martin, 161; Zoological News, 163, 241, 629; pilsrdides mustel-

arium in American Skunks, 234; Appendages of Peneus, 235;

Nerve Endings in Vertebrate Stomach, 236; Breeding of Ross’

Gull, 237; Mammals of Bertie Co., N. C., 237; New Vole from

Nova Scotia, 239; New Race of Gibb’s Mole, 241; Paramoeba

eilhardii, 344; Diplodal Sponge Chambers, 345; Asymmetry of

Spirorbis and Relations of the Species, 345; Malpighian Tubes

of Orthoptera, 346; Eels Eating Limulus Eggs, 347; Elas-

coma zonatum East of the Apallachians, 348; The Human

Tail, 349; Gases of Physalia and of Fishes, 440; Ascaris, 440;

Excretory and Circulatory Organs of Nemertines, 441; Epitokic

Forms in Cirratulidee, 442; Crop in Dragon Flies, 442 ; Regen-

eration of an Antenna in Place of an Eye, 443; Variable Sutures

in Turtle Skull, 446; List of Mammals of Raleigh, N. C., 446;

Stichospira paradoxa, n. g. et. sp., 535; Enigmatic Strictures of

Sipunculus, 541; Observations on Pesijathh 543; A`Myrmeco-

philous Mite, 544; Poison of Centipedes, 544; Ear-like Organ in

Phlceothrips, 545; “ Delarvation ” as a Translation of ‘‘ Echinil-

ABS: 546; Orientation of Organisms by Light, 619; Relation

‘Between Intensity of Light and Rapidity of Movement, 620;

‘Birds of Chester Co., Penna., 623, 311, 907; On the Use of the

Terms Heredity and Vdriability, 629; Origin of Life, 720; Life

Cvcle of Coccidia, 721; Nephridia of the Nemertine, 722; A

A Remarkable fe scape Cirripede, 723 ; Classification of Or-

thoptera, 724 ; A Preserve of Black Foxes, 725; Metamorphoses

of Leptoceptialis, 726; Fauna of Aldabra, 811; Czecal Append-

ages of the Orthopteran Mid-Gut, 985; The Hypochoria: 985 ;

Blood- Vessels in Epithelinm

Entomelogy —Antennee of Lepidoptera, 80; Sleeping Trees of Hymen-

era

80 ; Nets Excluding Insects, 81; Life History of Sannina,

81 ; Smith’s Economic meagre 82 ; Oceanic Migrations of

viving Ichneumon Attack, 164; Viviparous Ephemerid, 165 ;

Coleoptera of the Rio Grande Valley, 349; Life History of

Xylina, 350; Notes on Dragon-flies, 351 ; Changes in Intestinal

Epithelium of Tenebrio, 354; Insects Affecting Domestic Ani-

mals, 449; Life History of Coleophora, 451; Studies of Mimicry,

451; Vitality of Ephydra, 452; San Jose Scale, 547; Spruce

viii The American Naturalist. [Vol. XXXI,

_Gall-Louse, 548; Hemiptera, 549, 633 ; Coleoptera, 550; Dip-

ective Value of Motion, 814 ; Ambrosia Beetles, 816; Brown-

Tailed Moth, 817; Scudder’s Guide to the Orthoptera............+

LEmbryology.—Movements of Blastomeres, 83 ; Mechanical Explanation

Cell Division, 84 ; Corpus Luteum, 167; Cleavagein Ovarian

Eggs, 169; Spinning Powers of Eggs, 243; Two Animals from

One Egg, 452; Do the Astral Rays Pull or Push? 453 ; Contin-

uity of Cells in Eggs, 454; Breeding Habits of the Spotted Sal-

amander, 635 ; Cell Division and Nuclear Division, 637; Visual

Complexity of Protoplasm in Certain Eggs, 639; Some Activi-

ties of Living Eggs, 730; Spinning in Serpula Eggs, 818; Fer-

tilization

Physiology.—Venom of the Australian Black Snake

Psychology.—Reinversion of Retinal Image, 86 ; Bird’s Nests and In-

stinct, 89; Psychic Evolution, 91 ; Ashncicain Psychological

Association, 169; Psychology in 1896, 248; Studies in Tele-

ene Language, 252; Inheritance of Subserviency, 253;

eams, 354; Courtship of Grasshoppers, 357; Notes on Child

Pook, 455; Effects of Music on Caged Animals, 460; Mr.

Spencer’s Psychology, 553; Involuntary Movements, 557; Con-

traction of the Field of Vision, 558; Rapid Calculators, 642;

Visual Perception of Depth, 644; Physiological Effects of Men-

tal Work, 732; The Tactual Threshold for the Perception of

Two Points, 820; L’Année Biologique, 823; Notes on the Ex-

perimental Study of Memory, kee Odor-mixture, 987; Psy-

chology at the British Association, 988: Physical Basis of Pain,

end mag s Social and Ethical Tucerpretofions in Mental

DEVEDE sis cnenetoncneraesy secon T

Anthropology.—The PUETA Cross, 255; Maler’s Exploration in o-

_ tan, 258; Cave Hunting in Syria, 258; Pile Structures of Semi-

nole Indians, 357; Grooved Stone Axe in South America, 359;

_ Fossil Bird Bones from the Bone Caves of Tennessee, 645;

Scapulæ of Indians of the Northwest Coast, 736; The Tomahawk

of the North American Indian, 824; A Triple Indian Grave in

Western New York, 826; The History of Mankind..................

Microscopy.—Formol, 92, 464, 46s; Preparation of Rotifers, 360; Angle

of the Razor in Section Cutting, 464; Schaper’s Method of Re-

pasen he

a OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES, 96, 174, 259, 361, 467, 559,

fee eenes

See NEWS, 97, 188, 267, 365, 478, 566, 657, 751, 828, 917, 990,..

1056

245

I060

Index.

INDEX.

1897.]

etches IRED Characters......... 1041

Activities of Eggs....... 7305. Ba

a rar ages of De-

971

spa Biological Survey... 188

fame Geology 608

Alteration of Hornblende and

tite 52

Alternation of Generations in

reer 34

aiun rosi

Auntie polar ie Habits

of. 635

American and British Associa-

tions 6

American Morphological Socie-

179

Ame n Naturalist 800

nee. Bronce) Society,

cays EEE 96

American “Psychological Asso-

ARRE E E TOU e EES 169

American PSN of Natural-

E 174

Amocba 155

nalcite- eair Rocks. ......++ 54

Arpan ws, E. bit Breeding of

PTD FSLONIB cess nna s > nen ace 635

Tavanport’ 3 Experimental

aara OLOR V- acces ssh stneninnaae 212

Spinning T Spr gy Eggs. 818

Animals, Number of Livi ving..... 78

sdeple nar of Rain y Lake Re-

nrar 20

E Continent, Rocks of. 222

Antenna Replacing an Eye...... 443

Antennæ of Lepi opiera P 80

Apus, ey Growt a EE 158

Arche Mi 5.

A ia EET E E 975

Arkansas Coal S ip ivena at 223

Asparagus Beetle.........csc.sseees 728

Atlantic Eocen 225

Augen-Gneiss at Bedford, N. Y. 219

Angite «2... sescsceresroegseee reenenes 150

peer Syene Series 219

Ax I, 359

Ege a Diseases of

Here w one eeroeere sr... 3d,

secs F. C; penta ” Music

at Anim

: E

cer’s Py cooley - A E

aE: Jurassic of.

Bangs, O., De escription of New-

foundland Mart

(6) e

— White-Footed Mouse.

eee eeeeee teers eee eenee

stew etawe

see eee sesos

eee mene sence ee tsewoe

S .ceccscee

Origin of ‘the Galapagos

Islands. . 661,

pencdidi, A. 1 “Triple ‘Indian

AE eerie Geology o bi: ai

Bernhardt, W., Natural Im-

jsulses

Bessey, C. E., Arrangement of

Proto hyta

ey s Survival of the Un-

sssssrosesse soseoosss

othe in Detroit.........-»--

oe ibe CS rasses of North

aton had Tarona North

\merican Spha

Ietric System F pE a

Votice of J. vo: at: RE

worth’s j E ARAOR

tr >

ee eceeee

hater s Laboulbeniaceæ.

mmerman’s Cell nones

nemistry, Positio i OF . +00

NHS ta

eaa ones ast

sees ee ee ree t ere ee

Heat et New hse irene

Birds of Soma

B sne rise and Instinct

Richwit

Blac

BI pietade Movem o

Blood Vessels in Epithelium

Blum, F., not Forma

Botanical Society of America

Botany M Detroit. ccs. oaei

Brain of

pees” S., Mammals of

North Carolina .......+. 247;

British eects

Bridge

Ber

PONI freman ere Psychology

kow Tailed Moth

ar Aad A Rocks of.

Bee, of

ie i € E.,Schuchert’s Syn-

opsis of Brachiopods.........

ages in Poy once

pigs Taoa of

sersosesss:ossos sessssooo

see eeeereres

Caves in Sy

Cell Division, Explanation of...

Cell ste on and Nuclear Di-

Chatham Is., Extinct Birds of,

Cnelone, Variations i in Skull of.

isa ropterygium, ee of...

motropism a MATE: sso issues

Chico- ejon Bed

Chive Psychology. pbves's etratt ATTE

Crai i

Cladocera oE Manttoba -x

eavage of Ovarian Eggs.......

Clements E., Arrangement

PROMO e se eee eee meter

of Lichens

Campbells Mosses and

Fern

Ronit Formations of Great

Plains

Climate and Vegetation. vessaeds te

C easures = Arkansas. .

Coccids, Notes

Coccidae of Ceylon

ockerell, a D. A., Bipalium

i Jam

oninia in Coccidol-

The American Naturalist.

Review of Green’s Coccide......

Coleophora, ee tory...

Coleoptera of T

Coleoptera, Notes s a E 559,

Continuity of C is

Contraction of Field of Vision...

Cope, E. D., Notices of

410, 414,

Jordan and Evermann,

rae of America

Gardener on the In-

fone

Position of Peripty

apers on Vertelir-

ology

seer eres tees ae

Coral Reef, Geology of............

Corpus luteum a

Saruhan

Crat ke

Crawford, J. F. Studies in

Telegraphic Langua

Cretescene Flora of vison, and

Ameri

s.essoss

sesoses

_ Plants of New Jer

C imr

Cross. Swastika

(

rustacea, Sexual Organs of...

ee team Zonal Structure of 603,

( ier Fossil

Cytology of Isopods............... ;

Diea E PE ce 609,

“Pe B. Adv-

ance o Biology in 1895....

Inheritance from p radier

Delarvation

Der by lite

Devonshire, mee Rocks of...

Diabases of Go

Dipelti

Dipl a of Central America..

Diptera, Notes o

Disease of A e AS PRS S Z

, Prehistoric

Terceira

Dolbear, A. E. ’ Cece as

Thermometers ................

Dormouse, Extinct

tter of Minera bi

Obitua

[Vol. XXXI,

Index. xi

1897. ]

Dorsey, G. Scapular of

Northwest Coast Indians..... 736

Dragon Fly, ae entation 82

Flie S, NOTES Ol.essssessssoeeree 351

Kgcndueensmiens 354

Dito of Ohio, Implements in.. I

ARLE, C. Affinities of pen

Eastman ag ey <humncters gs

Mactopetaiichthys ETET 493

Earthworm, New -.--is-sesisesessss 203

Echinoderms, Fu nction of Cæca 1035

Eclogite of tas APEE: 327

Edentates, Origin of...........s. 12

Eels Fee dingo on Limulus Eggs. 347

Eggs, Activities 73

Spinning aielo OF siiente 242

Rigenmatin, C. H. Steindach- 5

Elassoma zonatum in the East. 348

Eleolite, _Svenite of ceil gen 522

Ellis. J. B ys Everhardt,

M., New F UM, iie ey 426

nargite 604

English Sparrow notaNuisance 73

EmtoOmocaris.....+ccecscserssceeeecens 27

Eocene of Atlantic coast ......... 225

Ephemerid, Viviparous........... 165

Epidote 602

Epigenesis.....+..seeeseseeeeeseeseeres 044

Epithelium, Blood Vessels in... 986

ger mee of Tenebris in Meta-

ohh PE en Og Ree 35

Haproetie 817

Evolution, Psychic .....-..++20+0++ 9I

xtermination of Insects......... 42

Extinct Birds of Chatham Is 59

AUNA of Aldabra 811

hiner and Hait assir -T67

ch be ie Saai 56

ield of Vision, Contraction of. 558

Faroa! in

Fiske, a Ronee on Hemip-

masons 55

Flora ral Swamps... --690, 792

Foot in the Paleeosynopine E 57

Formo 92, 267, 464, 465

Fossils and Fossilization, 16,191 28.

F.azer, P. E. D. Cope........ ..- 4I

International Geological

ONgTESS»o. ns. saeeee eoraennereeo

Fu afuti, Geology of......-..-.-.. 13

ungi Species.....--.+++339, 426

Fungus, A Stone Making RE I

‘ABBROS of Bohemia isin ROR

Gala Islands, 661, .

Ce Pt

Gall Louse of Spru 548.

Ga no B, Di istribation of a

Elassoma

Geological Congress, Interna-

paksi 407, 451, 524. 592, 95I

Geology of Luang Prabang...... 33

114

Gill, vp. — Drinker Cope,

Wien! is 31

Glacial Deadlies of Michigan.... 336

A ETES Beds of Europe.. 255

tieaj , A. Note on Lysm

433

Gatte aah the Vertebral Column 397

a Eye Fly 500

and Bean’s Oceanic Ich-

hve ology, 13

Gopher ket 114

Granite of ‘Bachergebirge. 222

Granites of Califor 808

rom Finland 327

GranOphyTes.....-.seceeseeeeseeserees I5I

Catane. Courtship of...-.. 357

Gratacap, ; ossils and

Fossilization A 16, 191, 285

Grave, Triple Indian 826

: Gull, ‘Bait of ROSS! ...s0sc00es 236

p of Kansas 612

AIR and Feathers..,.......-+++ 767

Hammar’s Ecloplasmic

Layer 1027

Hawaiian Lavas 425

Hay. O. P. Vertebral Column, 397

Hemiptera.....---..eceeee cesce 549, 633

Hershey, O. H. Limits of

Quaternary Era.......--.++++++ 104

Himalayas, Age of 09

Hitchcock, A. S. Warming’s

Pflanzengeographie.........+- 435

Hobbs, W. Brush’s Deter-

minative Mineralogy ... 48

Hornblende 52, 150

Ha erano, Take Dotti arees 966

604

Humphrey, J. E. Obituary of. 920

Hypochorda......sseeseeeees sereesses 985

JCENHUMON Attacks 164

Infusorian, Aea. e SAS

ap iea of CONGA = 253

. 1042

i Insects of Domestic Animals... a

padaaetnanbe 3

conan of... 42

nN EE EINE DONE TEPER

Vision of

T ir “Cecio Con-

gress.-----407, 451, e aa

İnstinct and Bird’ s Nes

s.s..

xii

neripive Rocks at Bedford,

N. Y

Involuntary Movements..........

Iowa Academy of Science........

Iron aar of Aone RRAIN

trial from Missouri...

Iso sods | Intestinal Cells of.......

y Poison

peo Fish, Fresh-water......

Jud -D. Economic Orni-

asd and the Cat-Bird..

ENYON, F. C. Abstracts by,

45, 71, 72, 78, 89, 155, 156,

158, 235, 236, 245, 443, 464,

Delarvat

ptic rte Bee’s Brain..

Keratophyre near New Haven..

Kingsley, J. S. E. oe ot Sng

Hai

Loa ee ALUM

e Wing F

tikes assiz

Lake Superior Rocks, Series of

Lambdotherium, Relations of..

L’Annee Biologique................

arami rmation

ped nage Rocks of Canada....

Lavas Hawaiia

Lead ees Zinc of Iowa.

Lee, W. T. Mosasaurid | Fro

Colorado........5.

Lepidocyrtus

Lepidosiren, Species of....:...4:.

Lepidoptera, Antenne of

Lepidoptera, Colors of Scales of.

TESIEN R a KATETI

s.sessore

pee)

Br Hills, Mont., Rocks of.

pasaia Ro ock, N

OOO Ree OHO HEH HOO ee eee

Eih

Ee. Resuon Of.

ife, Origin

Little Rocky ie ta eo Petro-

SOY OF riia Veco

of Western America.......

Lyman, T., Obituary of..

Lysimachia, Note on. ......+++++

PA CNETITES of Port Henry

s.s.s,

The American Naturalist.

| Mead, G.

Macropetalichthys, Characters

Malpighian Tubes of Orthop-

tera

Mammals of Costa Rica.........

Mammals of Raleigh, N. C.,

237;

sees teeeeene

‘Flora and

Mammoth in Alas

pg a eaves

Fau

Marine Biologios Laboratory..

“eqn aS L. American Spring

irain peat hy sa fieis

Marsupials,

Marten, sa reei

Mason, ‘0. T. The fee epee

Mathews, A. Scope and Posi

tion of Biochemist i

Matthews, W. D. Development

of Foot in Paleeosynopine.

s of New

Gu uin :

Mearns, 7 Z. _ Reithrodonto-

yo .

y, Origin obits:

Mental Work, TAfects of.

Mercer, 00

Maler’s in

ucatan

Pile Structures of Seminole

Explorations

ndians see een eee

Methods of er ieee

Metric System in Botany.........

await Glacial ea ae

Micrococci.

Micro

Milk Supply, ber Sgro of.:

Miller ts from

eee eee ewww ee

ei eesi:

| Cephalic To

nd Ancestry of V

t ‘ee

Missouri, poe n of

Missouri Botanical Garden.....-

Missourite

Missouri, Terrestrial Iron from.

nee et eee eeneee

Mole

pore = GEE AE RRE

bden .

eee eee ee

Mon y g

Montana Petrography..........-..

[Vol. XXXI,

1 97.|

Montgomery, T. H. Birds of

Chester Co., Penna....622,

Mot from Animals in

Mo Bit from Colorado;

Moseley. E. see Influ hor ef of

La $ Eri Vegetatio

at p of Blaster ee oes

a yah" in Tra

Music and C

ustela San cies.

Mutations of Oregon Redfish,

iapods, bing of

r hi a s Mite......, 544,

Mvyoxus

s.r...

Poreseesese

Peer eee

NAS: Station, Unwritten

Natural Tipu. POETER

Nemertine Nephri

Nena Gascas System

Nephridia of Nemertine......'...

nds in oo PPNI

TET

New Gui

New York yika of ager

ISI, 259. 467, 565,

Nichols, ss Origin of go Jodia

Vari

ssssessosososersa

Pi arena

Nitrates neken E PE O E A

rth Carolina, Mammals of...

Nanhi of Animal Species......

ETERA SENSER T e

DONATA, Day T TOPDAN N

sessssss ss sessy

Carer and Family i in Pian. Sis

Oregon, Rocks of... mee

Organic Selection

ler or ie, Dissemination of...

of Li

Orthoptera, Intestine o

optera, r Relat an Tubes,

Osborn Relations of

Lam Pantie scams

os of perma Select-

Wind River and Bridger

LE are a of Phena-

codus

Tritubercr y wee eeecces Se eerewege

Ostracoda, Pliocene

Ovarian an Eggs, Cleav. a

Owls, Names of Benni, SEURAA

Index.

xiii

ACIFIC Ocean, Age of..661, 864

Pain, Physical Basis of...... 1057

Palache, C. Geological Con-

gress in Russia 951

Palæosynopinæ, Foot of... 57

Paleozoic Fossils of Canada.. 710

Pain. Physiological Basis of...., 1057

Paramecium, Reactions to Stim-

uli 974

Paramoeba 344

‘arasitism 450

Peach Tree Borer.. > 81

-earceite 331

-egmatite 809

EELNE E EE E 337

Perception pe Two Points......... 820

Peripatus, Habits of...........+..-+ 543

-eriptyc chidae, oe of... 335

Peromyscus 74

Pe memes! Instruments. 150

Pe trograpl hy of 326

-etrography y of Greece Iron

Ran 1050

Petoleam in California. ....... 531

Phenacodus, Reconstruction of. 980

Phototaxis of Or song eenkueses 619

Phragmites, Stolons of............ 227

Phyllocarida ssr ue 227

Phytophtora -s.s sus- rriorse 231

Pig, Mon ny w aniale sib enitted 161

Pilsbry, H. A. bes Cirriped.. 723

Pile Structures of Seminole In-

ians, 3 57

ee C44

Plants, Diseases of.....++-++.++. ads. 123

Pinte ange eae ai of at Take

980

Poison. Tey P Priori ning... gol

Poison of Australian Black

Snake 245

POLY baite. s cess Eros ahenea 331

Postage on Scientific Objects... 309

Potts, E. Dai Jelly Fish 1032

Pound, R and Clements, F. =

stribution of Plants a

Lake of pos Wo0ds.....+0+0+2

ait Geology Of.--.es+es-ee0e8 333

ous Stones in 1896.......... 329

Pitter ryt Renata Ors whale 1044

Prehistoric Dog 337

i OF eA S os 338

Principles of Fruit Growing..... 1055

Protection of Wild Animals..41, 97

Protective ColormtiD isea ar 99

ROCEEIB 0s tssstummmeststerevesssiess, 613

Protoplasm, Complexity of.... 38

yta, Arrangement of. 63

‘Lake Michigan .... 241

Psychic Evolution........0--.s0. QI

Xiv

Psychology in 1896

Pyroxenes of New Vork........-.

UARTZ-PORPHYRY of

Westphalia

Quaternary, Lower Limit of ..

sence sees seseseeee

ATEA EAN in Boulder

Randotph, B Fu „Bird Life in

Central] Ame

Rapid Calculators

Reactions w Simah. in Para

Wuicuayuction Method.. ... .

Red Fish, Mutilations of.........

Regeneration of Lensin theta:

R a in Blare

Pilsearch | in Uke ersities, .........

Retinal Image, Reinve sa on of,

Reviews. L’Année Biologique

5, 800,

Bailey’s Survival of the Un-

Bailey’s Principles of Fruit

Growing

Baldwin’s Social and Ethi-

Develo

Balfour’s

Aeron isis ein east taiinai

Poston aah of Periodicals..

Britton and Brown’s Flora.

— Determinative Min-

ralogy

Canbenige Natural History

ol.

Campbell’s Mosses and

Ferns

Chudeteert s Facial Mus-

erin Microtomy........

Comstock’s st or the

Study of Insects...........4+..

Cooke’s Field | Doia Setii

Cornish’ nimals at Work

and Playr aare i ale.

- Eaton 4

Ameriees ph agna.

Furneaux i Lafe in Ponds

and Strea

Geology of Canada, Annual

Report for

Geology of Penns Arama

Semik s ‘Syn ynopt

Green’s Coccidæ of Ceylon

The American Naturalist.

248

602

-Stossich on Asca

Harrop and Wallis’s Forces

of ature

Hertwig’s The Cell...........

Hollick’s Block Island......

Jordan’s Science Sketches.

Kirby’s Elementary Ento-

MO Beli iene et esereards

ogy

— Precious Stones in

896

Lehmann mrs Neumann’s

Bakteriolog

Mach’s Popul ar r Lectures...

MeNiell’s Tryxalina

Martin’s Human Bod

at eeeees

Missouri Geological S

Ze reeseeeereeeees

i=)

nee

Proceedings of the Indiana

Acade

Ratzel’s History of Man-

kind

Report U. S. Fish Commis-

sioner

Illino:

Sideways s Birds of the Gal-

apagos Archipelago

I Glaciers of North

s.ssossoss

antichest's Brachiopods...

Seuader 's Guide to Ortho op-

sesssssoossss

aces Botan

izer ith’s

mology

Economic Ento- i

Sudworth’s Ar ubreaeent

ora

Swann’s ier Birds...

Tarr’s bare a ry Geology

r’s Laboulbeniazez.

ban Fish Commission Re-

U.: ts. Geological Survey

s.s.s,

OIT eet eee eees

eee te ee ee ee ee eee eee ee eee

Willis’ s Disie of Plants ;

Wilson; The Swastika Cross `

er for 1894...

Ridgway’ s Órnithology of

| Vol. XXXI,

1897.]

wees ag Craft. ids.

Yea “sta ne Depart-

rani of. karit

Zimmerman’s Cell Nucleus.

Robinson, Ps L., Ivy Poisoning

Rock Dec

Rock Differenti Paaa, s BRNE 223,

Rock Formation of Oraa

Rock Weathering.........

Rocks, Analcine Bea ring

Rocks of Jeer tretie Continent..

Rocks o

Rocks, Volcanic, of Bolsena..

Rocks of Texa

Ross eS Manitoba Clado-

fet Luke bone eened Jee. Veeke vie 660668

Rotifers, naam Ofsi PLE

Rowlee , Swamps of

Oswe .-690,

sossseos

rsh , N.

Russell, Py- ‘Ratzeil’s History

of M I

ato Life-History Ee

ta, Oviposition..........

Sagitta Paya opas a REN E a

St. Louis Academy of Sciences,

183, 362, 562,

San ie Secale

Scalpell

Scapulæ of Northwest Coast

EET EST TA ETRE

Science i m Newspapers

je Sa Bureau in Washing-

Ponies eo

eee eeeeeees

Section Knife. Angle of..........

Selection, Organic

spine rete "Indians, Pile Struct-

Sepii ag Spinning rea

cae Islands, Rocks o

Shea ee , Prillie

s.s...

ux’s Dis-

pan Pl ants

prerii Australian Curios-

ity

Shists, Crystalline. of Spessart,

Shists of Malvern Hills...........

eee R. , Fossil Birds

ennessee........ ukio

Silicate ¢ containing lead...........

Sipunculus, + Urnes ” in.........

Skunk, Parasite Of..ss rir eroii

Sleeping of Hymenoptera........

mith, E. F., Bacterial Dis-

eases of Pl AORE ET E

Lehman and Neuman’s

Bakterol

ssssssgoasosoe Cena me

Index.

XV.

Smith; F., New meee of Me-

gas coli des Perai oniran uiay 703

Snake ag iso 45

Spanish a Rocks of...s2 424

Spencer’s Psychology............. 53

Spessart, Cr a “ate Schistsof, 149

pinn ts of —— X 818

oe En Aapa of.. a 5

Spi 29

r- arhat iaaa Sal Canada...... 613

Sponges, Stru eh sseeseacesens 45

Sporozoa of Anthro TE N 721

Spring-tail, Habits ob. 163

Starfish, Cæca OB PARR a OTA 1035

Steindachneri 158

Sterki, To , Stichospira.-. 535

acing PENT ERST AEA A 535

Sto rk TE Function of Cæca

of 1035

Stone, eee Names of

Horned Owls 236

Stone Age i

Stroud, B. B., Formal......... 92, 465

S ne spre aes te 1 Rod 985

Swamps of Oswego Co., N. Y...

690, 792

Swastika Croesi. riai hii: 255

Swine Tan Gases obrna o

Syria, Caves 258

J ege of Ma 349

on x ciaiala 212

Tarsius, " Affinities Of; cis tosses 569,

Tawney, G. A., Perception of

Two Points 20

‘hunation of Hducatión

Teeth of M als 3

Telegraphy, Psychology OB 252

Tercei 79

Tertiary ee , EAR juseewnudad -yia

Thelycu m of Peneus 235

Thrips, Sense TERN IN ieir: 545

Timber Tes 906

Pear ae 231

Tomahawks 24

Toney E Botanical Club, 186, 260,

364, 470, 650, 748

ae sl pagent a of Mud in..... 20

W., Terceira Dog.-.... 79

Treca, Names of North Ameri-

ase 434

wo A at SN from one Egg- 452

Tyrol, Rocks öf ninure 425

[U NTACRINUS 227

ARIATIONS inSkull of

elon

xvi

Verrill, A. E., Productive Col-

oration

Florida Sea Monster..........

Vertebrze, Homologies of..,......

bral |

rtebraria......

erte brates, Aeey of

Visio

Vision, Reinversion of Retinal

eet e ewes

of Insects

Visual Perception ns

Vitality of Inse

yore Aog Petrography

Sida Ephemerid -

Volca me Peak from Lake Su-

s.s...

sena

k of M

eed of ipai sen l arke

ole, Ne

Voles of North America......+...

ARREN, H.C. Reinver-

sion nof Retinal e en

1 a

Water Supply, Study of..........

W: Ee OA pne and

Variability scncsisJesedevecses ove

Weathering of Rocks PARR P EETA

Webster, C. L. Pocket Gopher.

The American Naturalist.

Weed, C. M. Golden-Eye or

Lace-Wing Fly.........ses0ee.

Smith's Economic Entomo-

logy

Welch, W. H. Biology and

Medicine po

Wellsite

oles G.C. Biological Stu-

n Massachusetts, 503,

Pe Lie p: Nathorst’s Paleozoic

White- Haske Mouse, New...

Whiting, C. A. Remarkable

Vitality

Wieland, G. R. Variation in

Skull of Chelone

Wild Animals, Protection of. 41,

Cveeccease

s.....

sesssesosss

Woodworth, W. M. Filaroides

in S S

ĶYLINA, Life History

UCATAN, Explorations of...

ee Park, History

EOLITE, New

Zinc of Iowa

Finicenite

Eee wis. OO;

Toicite

Zones of Plants on Great Plains.

Zoological Society of London...

[Vol. XXXI,

$4.00 per Year.

$4.60 per Year (Foreign).

35 ets. per Copy. ;

THE

. AMERICAN 3

T NATURALIST 4

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE.

MANAGING EDITORS:

Pror. E. D, COPE, and Dr. F. €. Panton. Philadelphia, Pa.,

alpen AoT

ESSEY, Lin

or. W. 3 BAYLEY, raae Maine,

ERW

Pror. C. M. pdre Arita N. H.

Pror. A. C. pais

PRRP

ae je WARREN, oA,

or. E. A. ANDREW:

IN F. SMITH, Washington, D: C:

Vol. XXXI.

JANUARY, 1897.

bi A GROOVED STONE AXE FROM THE OHIO DRIFT.

Me ter)

Tus BioLocic ORIGIN OF weg VARI

a ae ib py N fichols, 3

(Contin

FossILs AND Piai amot, Oh

EP Gratar CA; 16

‘THe BACTERIAL DISEASES OF Prawns: A CRI

T STATE OF

wi ‘i "Dre rwin F. Smith. 34

—The Protentióa of Wild Ani-

mmoth in Alaska—The Gyp

ide Pe Museutn—Ser-

eal fo kea oa

erminative

ROS e ciao

<50

Mineralogy and Blo

zinzki on he 1 Facial Minde

CENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.'

ENERAL NOTES.

ek Sic acetate Basic Rocks of Devonshire

Petro matic c Alteration of Hornblend

Biotite~ ont of the Little Rocky

CON TEN Pa.

-the Retinal

SCIENTIFIC NEW

e ee Cells o

mal Species—The Ter

tr ‘a

Entomology. —Antennze of Lepidopte

ing es of Hymenoptera —Effectiven

Net in Excluding

Peach-tree Borer — Smi icon

y—Oceanic Migration

Embryology. — Movements of Blastom

A Mechanieal Sa

xper on Reinyersi

age- Birds nests and fost

Psychic Evolution. ae

rmal, (Formaldehyde 40

Microscopy.—Fo

solu :

OCEEDINGS OF Sciex TIFIC Socretizs.”

Psychology. —Ex

cent. ution

eens Post Office as s

NATURAL SCIENCE:

SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

OF “NATURAL SCTENCE” DURING 1895.

RAL SCIENCE, for 1895 has published ee from

| distinguished writers.

PLATE I.

Ampelis cedrorum from life.

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. KAXI. January, 1897. 361

A GROOVED STONE AXE FROM THE OHIO DRIFT.

BYE C Menceé

Mr. E. W. Claypole in the American Geologist for No-

vember, 1896, says that Mr. Elmer E. Masterman, in the sum-

mer of 1896, found a grooved greenstone axe of common ab-

original American type, in situ, twenty-two feet down in a de-

posit of what Mr. Claypole regards as glacial gravel, near

New London in southeast Huron County, Ohio. The latter

quotes the finders narrative which declares that he, Master-

man, while digging a well, without witnesses, found the axe

bedded in a stratum of tough blue clay, in which, after re-

moval, it left its impress. Above it rested one foot of coarse

gravel, covered by thirteen feet of silty material banded with

films of sand, and overlaid finally by a superficial covering

eight feet thick of clay and stones.

Mr. Claypole who has wisely examined the case on the spot:

cites in favor of the genuineness of the discovery, the extra-

ordinary decomposition of the greenstone specimen, which

when sawed in half was found to be rotted or leached (he

thinks by contact with sulphurous water) almost entirely

through its interior, a process lasting probably a long time,

while a series of concentric limonite stains like the year marks

ona oe exposed on the sawed cross section, seemed fur-

2 The American Naturalist. : [January,

ther to testify to the long continuance of the work of disinte-

gration, and preclude, in Mr. Claypole’s opinion, the fear of

“ doctoring” as by any of the artificial processes used to pat-

inate or age flints in England and France.

On the other hand, further data furnished by Masterman

and fairly cited by Mr. Claypole invite doubt. Masterman is

a collector who has been gathering specimens for the last ten

years “at various depths in the gravel” without having made

the fact generally known to archeologists, namely: a green

stone celt, not much leached, five feet deep in the clay, in 1889 ;

a green stone axe, somewhat leached, in 1882, seven feet deep in

the gravel; a partly finished celt, not leached, chipped, and a

little polished, in 1895, marked “ 13 ft. deep in the gravel ;”

large chipped shovel-shaped blade of veined slate, found by Mr. D.

White, on July 14, 1884, five feet deep in the gravel, and

given to Mr. Masterman; a spear-head of red flint, found at a

depth of seven feet while denn another well, together with

other specimens believed by their discoverer to be of glacial

age, while it is further stated that in the well where the axe

in question was found Masterman had previoúsly unearthed

at a considerable depth in the gravel a small arrow or spear-

point of white stone.

If the gravel deposit at New London is really glacial drift,

and if the objects enumerated above have been found in it in

situ, let us hope that further discoveries will follow as they have

followed the first findings at the important drift beds of Europe.

Let us hope that Mr. Claypole has prepared Mr. Masterman .

for a temporary preservation of the records in future, and for

the calling in of witnesses, while it may be supposed that not a

few archeologists would gladly sieze the opportunity of hurry-

ing to New London on wire, to see an exposure of the gravel

where one or more signs of human handiwork could be shown

protruding from the stratified drift, or where, as at Caddington

or Hoxne, Chelles, Amiens or Abbeville the discovery of other

such objects could be reasonably guaranteed. Should the evi-

dence become generally satisfactory we need not be trou-

bled because the object thus found in American driftis polished,

while all blades of human handiwork till now procured from

LPE AR ae Ee A Ee iy Be ee

1897.] The Biologic Origin of Mental Variety: 3

European drift are chipped and never polished, since though

much evidence has been accumulated to show that man chipped

before he polished stone in Europe, the testimony of Africa,

Asia and America is not yet in upon such sequence in the de-

velopment of the stone craft of primitive man.

THE BIOLOGIC ORIGIN OF MENTAL VARIETY, OR

HOW WE CAME TO HAVE MINDS.

By HERBERT NICHOLS.

Continued from Vol. XXX, p. 975).

The widely popular theory of like nerve currents having been

put out of the field, it remains for us to examine the rival one

that the afferent nerve currents differ correspondingly with the

forms of sense which they mediate. Before doing so it is well -

for us at this point to recall the main purpose of this paper as a

whole, and the somewhat tortuous course of its investigations

from the beginning. Our main object, as our title states, is to dis-

cover how man came to have such a mind as he now has; or,

put otherwise, to discover the origin of our mental diversity and

its relationship to our organic evolution. At the outset we

found it doubtful whether protoplasmic life originated with

one sense or with many. We next determined that molecular

differences, underlying our various senses, must have been de-

termining factors of their own selection and survival, and that

therein, when rightly followed out, must lie the key to the

secrets we are in search of. Alternative theories regarding

these molecular differences then presented themselves, one of

which we werg enabled to dispose of. And we are now left

with the probability that the afferent nerve-currents differ

correspondingly with the forms of sense they mediate, and

with the task of examining what light this fact sheds on the

origin of our minds, and on the question whether life began

with many senses or with one.

4 The American Naturalist. [January,

Thus reoriented in our work, it must. be observed that our

remaining hypothesis also divides into alternative possibilities.

Granting that the currents in the afferent nerves are diverse,

still it remains possible either: That they may continue on,

through the end-organ processes, each preserving its distin-

guishing characteristic or phase of molecular activity till, at

last, it articulates directly with its appropriate external stimu-

lus. Or, that they may specifically terminate in the end-organs,

and be linked, thence onward, to their outer stimuli by one —

or more intermediate processes. These, if I am not mistaken,

are the ultimate alternatives which remain for the solution of

our problem.

To decide whether, on the one hand, the afferent currents do

preserve their specific nature through the end-organs, till they

articulate with the external forces, or if, on the other, inter-

mediate activities come between them and these last, is, there-

fore, a crucial point in our investigations, and one of the impor-

tant crux of our science. Unfortunately, however, it is one

that the world’s present stock of knowlege is unable to deter-

mine, and one that this paper must leave for future investiga-

tion. The best authorities of our day present arguments on

both sides, and too few facts of any kind are known to make

any of them even approximately conclusive. Within the sphere

of vision, the theories of Helmholtz, Herring, Ebbinghaus

and Mrs. Franklin all demand intermediate retinal processes

between the light vibrations and the neural conditions which

must be conceived to be correspondent tothe final color-pictures.

On the other hand it is the notion of Prof. Wundt that the vari-

ous color-currents result immediately from diverse functions of —

the light vibrations as they fall on the ends of the optic fibrils in —

the retina; and Prof. Cattell and many others incline to follow

this opinion. In the sphere of hearing it is well determined —

that the sound-waves do not break immediately on the ends of ~

the auditory fibres; yet it is difficult even to guess whether the —

final stimulus is a mediatory form of mechanical vibration, oF —

is some unknown and perhaps chemical process set-up in the —

end-cells in which the auditory fibrils terminate. Still less is —

known regarding smell and taste, save that chemical processes, —

cn RR ee eee nk OR:

Jo Se oe mga

1897.] The Biologie Origin of Mental Variety: 5

mediate or immediate, are here certain, and make the possibil-

ity of their being involved in other end-organ processes the

more likely, and, therefore, the more confusing. The question

whether temperature acts directly on the nerves of heat and

cold is again illustrative of the difficulties of our end-organ

problem. The wide diversity of stimuli that, apparently,

affect the pain nerves is also perplexing. And finally the fact

that all sorts of artificial stimulation of the cut stumps of the

sensory nerves—pricking, pressing, burning, and the applica-

tion of ice, electricity and various chemicals—alike produce

the one customary effect, sets the task of deciding definitely

as to the initiation of sensory impulses entirely in the future.

While it is thus impossible for us to determine the nature of

the end-organ processes by positive evidence of their present

condition, there still remains the wide field of their morphol-

ogy, which ought, if we could understand it, to reveal both

their nature and their evolutionary history. But here again

we find ourselves among uncertainties. The best we may do,

therefore, in survey of the final hypotheses among which

future science must find the ultimate truth, is to set in order

the loose-ends of their several, at present, indeterminable possi-

bilities, somewhat categorically, and with brief enumeration ©

of the conditions involved in each. In so doing, we reach the

limits of what should be expected regarding these matters

within the limits of this entirely prospective paper.

As a step to this end, it is necessary to recognize still one

other source of difficulty. While all problems of physiological

morphology are much complicated by uncertainty whether

we must be guided therein by Weismann or by Lamarck, we

must anticipate peculiar difficulties from this source, in our

present problem. We become aware of this the moment we

weigh our two main propositions in view of these rival biologic

principles. If life began with one primary sense and developed

our various ones at successive periods, the cue for this develop-

ment would be different under the one theory than under the

other. If Weismann is to be followed we must depend chiefly

on spontaneous variations; in which case we must estimate the

difficulties of new specific energies being born into the central

6 The American Naturalist. [January,

nervous system at different epochs, and finding serviceable

articulation with environmental exigencies by means of the

nerves and end-organs. If Lamarck is to guide us, then we

must think of the various external forces as playing upon the

surface of the developing organism, and modifying the nerve

currents through to their central terminations in agreement

with their own molecular, or molar characteristics and peculiar

needs. The course of morphologic development would be oppo-

posite in the two cases. In the first, the variations would begin

in the nerve centers and make their way to the surface. In the

second, the modifications would work from the surface, inward.

Until a decision may be reached, therefore, between these two

great morphologic principles, we shall be obliged, in estimat-

ing the probable mode of origin of our senses, to keep up a

double system of conjecture on this score, as well as on others.

Its many difficulties having been set before us, we can now

formally sum up, under its remaining contingencies, what may

be called the residuary outlook of our general problem. We

have remaining our two main postulates, that life began (O)

with one sense or (M) with many ; our belief that the afferent

nerve currents are diverse ; the alternatives that these currents

articulate (d) directly, or (i) by intermediate end-organ pro-

cesses ; and the two evolutionary principles, (w) the Weisman-

nian and (l) the Lamarckian. With these before us, we have

to cast up the possibilities of our mental origin under the

combinations offered by their several limiting determinations.

Beginning with the postulate, ‘O’ of one primary sense, and

the doctrine ‘d’ of direct articulation, the course of morpho-

logic history may be prospected as follows:

(Od w). Under the Weismannian principle we may conceive

that, from time to time, neural variations appeared, making

possible certain molecular activities (sense-energies) whose res-

pective peculiarities were diversely adapted to different envi-

ronmental forces, and to physiological congruency and main-

tenance within the creatures own organism ; and which varia-

tions, therefore, were rejected or perpetuated according to the

sum total of their fitness within the five spheres of evolutionary

selection pointed out in our preliminary investigations. Look-

il eas cm reel Seas CR A Ms ee oii ae, De Paar: SAE gee ete ito Sel BS. a tbe A

1897] The Biologic Origin of Mental Variety : 7

ing upon our own sensory equipment as the outcome of this

process, we must conceive each present coupling of sense and

appropriate stimulus to be one that has existed unaltered since

the first appearance of that sense. Asan example of this we

must conceive, that although many primitive creatures display

actinic susceptability, yet they experience thereby no such color

sensations as we do; that these last were born in to the line of

our ancestry at an unknown period, (not necessarily coincident

with the appearance of eyes); and that the rise of serviceable

end-apparatus has gradually specialized the neural basis of

these sensations to a coupling with certain ranges of ether-

vibration called light.’

(O41). Under the Lamarckian principle we may conceive

that the diversity of environmental forces played on the devel-

oping organism, from without, each in a way tending to mod-

ify the nervous mechanism to its own peculiarities and needs,

and to mould the total organism: in accord with its net func-

tional efficiency within, again, our full five evolutionary

spheres. In this case it would be extremely difficult to deter-

mine whether the sort of.sense that now responds to any given

stimulus, let us say light, is at all like that which responds to

the same stimulus in primitive creatures. An actual example

of this mode of development may possibly be found in the his-

tory of our ears ; that is, if as Prof. Lloyd Morgan has suggested,

gross vibrations, such as rolling the body, were the appropriate

stimuli for the cilia of the otic organs at a primitive stage of

development, a crude sense of equilibrium being the psychic

result; and if our present hearing has come about by perfect-

ing adjustment of these organs, continuously, to finer and finer

vibrations, while a correspondent change took place in re-

spondent sensations.

Starting again with the same postulate of one primary sense,

we must next couple it with the doctrine of intermediate arti-

culative processes in the end-apparatus.

1 Since there is evidence that amorphous creatures react to various stimuli, if

we suppose but one primitive sense, we must conceive that it responds, alike, to

several forces. Also similarly for each newly appearing sense. Under these

conditions, the narrowing of each of our senses to its present stimulus, is to be

explained by morphologic specialization.

8 The American Naturalist. [January,

(Oi w). Under the Weismannian principle, we may conceive

the same general plan of developnent to have proceeded, here,

as formerly under this principle (Od w) with reference to the

-birth of each new sense, but with a more complicated pro-

gramme with reference to the couplings of inner sensations with

different outer forces, at different periods. Relative to this last

we may observe that, since the permanency of intermediate

articulations must depend on the permanency of the organs

that perform them, therefore it is not likely, that the precise

couplings now obtaining in us were constant or, perhaps,

occurred at all before these organs developed. Under these

conditions it would be even more difficult to follow the his-

tory of our sense-origins, than under the method of our last

above paragraph. The method of this present paragraph,

however, may be exampled, if it should prove true that the

phenomena of color-blindness are due to the failure of birth

in certain people and species, of neural variations sufficiently

differentiated to be responsive to the solar waves in the

fuller way exhibited in our normal color spectrum. Some-

thing like this is demanded to explain the origin of color sen-

sations under Prof. Wundt’s theory of vision.

(Oil). Under the Lamarckian principle, as under the Weis- —

mannian, the intermediate processes would but complicate —

the general plan of evolution outlined under direct articula- _

tion (O41). And again the Morgan explanation of otic mor-

phology may serve as an example, except that now we should ;

no longer conceive vibration of the otic cilia to have direct —

determination of the auditory impulses; but should be obliged

to consider certain as yet undetermined mediatory processes, —

including, perhaps, unknown chemical activities in the otic —

cells.

several senses have risen at successive periods, and that for —

_ each of them the peculiar fitness of its underlying neural corre-

spondence has been the ultimately determining factor of its —

birth and selective perpetuation from among other possible

senses, and also of its connection with its present stimulus.

SPS TS OE ip, OM rn Pane Chee ae oe

See oN ed eee, MRE eae as “3 Ae fee

are yer

The last above four paragraphs exhaust, if I mistake not, the 4

evolutionary possibilities under the postulate that life began —

with one sense; the central idea in each case being that our —

1897,] The Biologic Origin of Mental Variety : 9

Turning now to the postulate of many primary senses, we

have no longer to account for the birth of new senses. Our

problem, here, is to determine how our present senses were shut

in, and all others shut out; and this is the problem of the

origin of our sense organs, and of the establishment and per-

petuation of the articulate processes, mediate or intermediate

which they perform.

(M4 w). The Weismannian principle, here, of course can have

no immediate bearing on the birth of different senses, since all

of ours, and many more are supposed to have existed origin-

ally. Under this postulate taken with the doctrine of “ through

currents directly articulate,” our problem would be at its sim-

plest ; for the same couplings of senses and stimuli that exist now

are likely to have continued, fixedly, from the beginning. The

perpetuation of any particular sense, under these conditions,

must have been decided jointly, on the one hand, by the need

which the developing organism had of being adjusted to cer-

tain environmental forces rather than others; and on the other,

by the capability of the organism to fit itself to, and to main-

tain the peculiar neural modes (energies) correspondingly to

these forces. As examples of this sort of development we should

explain the skin to be a peripheral organ which has preserved

our sensibility to heat and to cold through the profitability of

preserving the developing creature from temperature extremes,

at the expense of losing sensibility to an unknown number

of other forces. Or perhaps, and as I suspect this is a far more

profound statement, it may quite well have been that it was

the adaptability of certain molecular sense-forms for general

physiological organization, that originated such organization

in lines of their correspondent stimuli, rather than in other

lines; as for instance in the line of a creature suspectable to

our environmental stimuli, rather than in the line of a creature

susceptable, let us say, to electrical influences.

(M41). Under the Lamarckian principle the reasons for the

selection and perpetuation of the particular sense elements,

which now make up our mental equipment, would be so similar

to those set forth in our last above paragraph, that they need

not be here repeated. It is the method of general biologic

growth that would be different in these two cases.

10 The American Naturalist. [January,.

Turning again and for the last time to the doctrine of inter-

mediate end-processes, we come as I suspect, under its combina-

tion with the postulate of many primitive senses to the particu--

lar combination of possibilities most likely to accord with the-

truth, and which therefore, must solicit the attention of future

investigators. Yet for olr present purposes of merely schedul--

ing the different possible categories, and the general plan of

each, it is perhaps sufficient, after what we have said of the

other case, to state of the present ones as follows.

(Miw). Under the Weismannian principle, with many

primitive senses, and complex end-processes, the resulting pro-

gramme and the reasons therefor should easily be constructed

by modifying our third and seventh last above paragraphs.

(Oiw and Mdv).

(Mil). And under the Lamarckian principle the correspond-

ing programme should be easily constructed by modifying

paragraphs third, seventh and tenth now last above. (O41,

Oil, and M4@}).

Finally we must observe regarding all the above possibilities

that it is not necessary that any one of them should have pre-

vailed universally. In other words it is logically possible that.

some one of them should have ruled in the production of one

of our senses, and another sense have followed quite a different

course. Thus while it is quite possible that light is the direct.

stimulus of color sensation, as Prof. Wundt thinks, and always

has been, yet it may be that the final stimuli for our heat and

cold sensations are certain processes of mechanical contractions

and expansions among different tissues, which processes are

intermediate between the nerve impulses and the physical

modes of motion called heat and cold; or, directly the reverse

of this may have been true. Moreover it is possible that cer-

tain of our above categories may have prevailed at one period,

and another at another; though this could not apply to all

the categories, some of them being mutually exclusive.

Such is the field of our problem. It is doubtful if there is an-

other that has been equally neglected, or that presents greater

confusion. Yet because of its importance there is still required

of us to consider what avenues offer themselves for solving its

1897.] The Biologie Origin of Mental Variety. 11

many difficulties; and why it is imperative that its several

propositions should henceforth be taken to heart in all prac-

tical investigations both of Biology and of Psychology.

By way of establishing the roads of sound attack, certain

false paths must be pointed out that, heretofore, have continu-

ally led our subject to obscurity and to contempt. Some of

the errors here indicated have been made by Biologists, and

others by Psychologists; but most of them are made by bot

alike. Biologists are wont either to underrate the part that

mind, or its physical equivalent plays in evolution, or to read

into it, everywhere, the same world of psychic life that we our-

selves experience. The doctrine of Parallelism is responsible

for the first mistake ; for in conceiving that all conduct must be

accounted for within physical forces alone, there is a tendency

to fail of full recognition of the facts themselves. The marvel-

ous variety of our mental life is nearly sure to be left out of

practical account. Nor is it any excuse for this to say that our

notions of “ molecular differences” and “specific energies” are

vague; for once having adopted Parallelism, it is hardly con-

sistant to ignore the most important factors in the whole

course of Evolution, on the ground that they are too complex

to reckon with. This is the crucial error made in our problem

to-day ; for since mind would not be mind without this variety,

therefore all that “ mind” means in the vast region of conduct,

and all that “conduct” means in animal evolution is centered

in the problem of specific energies, whether Parallelism be

accepted or not. To neglect them is the greatest practical

error in modern Biologic Science.

It is scarcely less wrong to read our life into simpler lives.

This is done by most investigators of primitive fields, and

detracts lamentably from their work. The fault originates in

a lack of careful examination of the whole field of possibilities ;

such an examination as we have followed out in this paper.

So long as it is uncertain whether primitive creatures react,

sensorily, with many responses or with one; or whether the

forces that mould our sensory life now, are the same as gov-

erned the analogues of our sense organs during earlier periods;

and above all while the world’s present “ artificial, scholastic

12 The American Naturalist. [January,

and untrue ” conceptions of emotion and feeling shall continue

to be read into amoeba and protozoa; for so long are gross mis-

interpretations and fallacies scarcely to be avoided.”

Another region of misleading assumption isembraced with-

in current doctrines regarding “ unconscious ” neural processes,

and “ subconscious consciousness.” Itis the accepted attitude

? Examples of these difficulties abound. Already I have spoken of the prob-

lem, now become classic, of determining whether fishes hear with their ears, or

get only such a sense of equilibrium as we get from the semicircular canals—

our canals and our cochlea being both derived from the single otic vesicle

of the fish. Of course it must make much difference whether the comparative

Psychologist and Biologist, in estimating the conduct of fishes in their sensory en-

vironment, credit them with hearing or not

A similar question is raised in a still more striking manner by a species of Cle- 7

psine reported by Prof. Whitman. This creature displays a series of dorsal pairs 3

of segmental sense organs, in graded states of development, all the way from fully

developed eyes in the anterior segment, down through organs that show but a

bit of pigment imbeded in the skin, to final posterior analogues that can not be

distinguished from ordinary dermal organs of touch. The problem here is not

only where touch leaves off and sight begins, but also where mechanical pressure

leaves off and the sun begins, as a part of the creatures active environment.

Again the ordinary earth worm serves as an example. It moves in response to

light, heat, odors and such stimuli as in us cause taste and touch. Yet no differ- .

ence has as yet been discovered among its simple sense-fibres, which apparently

are all alike. Until our general problem is somewhat cleared up, the psychic life — :

of this creature must be extremely doubtful, and most easy of misinterpretation J |

: :

by the careless observer

As we go backward from the worms the difficulties increase, till with amor-

phous creatures the greatest possible doubt is reached, and we are finally brought

to face our two main propositions of many original senses or one. Acco

ing as the naturalist assumes the one proposition or the other, does he make both =

the psychic and the environmental life of such creatures either very simple, or

toloreably complex. Be.

the careless assumption of any one sense or function as necessarily the first,

comes in here by way of example. As, for illustration, the assumptions respec-

tively that touch, or taste, or muscle sense, or heat and cold, or pain, or pleasure

must have come first; or that the innervation function of central cells must

develop before the carrying power of nerves, and perhaps the contractility of

‘muscles develop before either. It by no means follows that such matters may not

be legitimately considered, and with results of great value. But inthesame way —

ave the Srey of the actinic susceptability of protozoa should make the Biolo-

the appearances of eyes

vile truth being that a sort of i incipient sight may prevail previous to the appear. _

ance of any special sort of eye apparatus whatever), so the numerous possibilities

bera we have traced out in this lecture should make one careful in interpretting

milar matters along this whole line of Biology and Psychology,

1897.] The Biologie Origin of Mental Variety: 13

of most “ good science” to avoid.“ speculation ” on these topics.

Yet it is the loosest and most reckless kind of wholesale specu-

lation, to build up the whole of modern Psysiology and Biology

on the theory that all but a certain fraction of neural activities

are unconscious, while really so little is known of the whole

subject. Already, in my last lecture,*? I have pointed out the

evils resulting from doing this in several concrete problems of

Physiology. We have now to consider these results in a larger

field. The truth is that the right to dub all subcortical neural

activics “unconscious,” though but little contested since the

death of Pfluger, still rests on little else than ill-founded prej-

udice.* And to dub them so on insufficient grounds isto run

3 A lecture on “ Psychology and Physiology,” next preceeding the present one

in the course mentioned in note on p. 963.

+ A crucial departing point for practical errors in all assumption of ‘‘ uncon-

scious” processes must obviously lie in the criterion applied for deciding whether

_ consciousness is present or not. The tests heretofore applied are always either the

“ purposeness ” of the activity in question, or our “immediate cognizance” of it,

in case it is an activity within our body. It is evidence of the surprising ease with

which Science is led astray in these matters, that both of these tests prove the

shallowest sort of fallacies when properly examined. If by ‘‘purposeness” be

meant psychologic purposing, or conceiving of the end to be accomplished, by the

creature performing the act, and immediately initiatory to its performance, then

plainly this is preposterous. Notoriously not all “ motor ideas” are of this sort.

If “ability” to preconceive the end be meant, then this is more absurd ; since it

makes the “ability ” of consciousness the test, where the presence of consciousness

is to be tested. And again if mere conduciveness to some purpose is meant,

why then, every iron locomotive and nearly scales else in nature must, by

this test, be a “conscious ” machine. It is remarkable that such psychologists

as Romanes, Profs. Wm. James, Lloyd Moric and Edward D. Cope should

stumble into such a visible pitfall in matters of such grave importance.

Regarding the other “test ”—i. e. of our “immediate cognizance” of our bodily

rocesses—it may first be noted that we are never “directly conscious ’’ of any of

our bodily processes, not even of those curtical activities supposed most immedi-

ately to underlie ovr conscious states. And next re should be noted that the

question is not at all of our bei f any of t ‘or

SR of certain activites ofe some of the lower nerve-centres of the spine) ; si

not this more than of our being conscious of the psychic life of some other

person or creature than ourselves. But the real question is: are these :

themselves, attended by correspondent psychic states? That such states, if they

exist, do not form a part of our personality, in those cases where their correspond-

ing neural activities are momentarily shut-off from meddling with our cortical

activities, should be no more surprising than that the conscious states of an-

other man’s brain do not mix in our personality, his brain being shut off from

14 The American Naturalist. [January,

the risk of ignoring the evolutionary influences of “mind”

throughout the major bulk of our nervous system, and of

introducing false and misleading analogies along the whole

line of Comparative Biology. For Neurologist, Physiologist

and Biologist, then, to fall into the habit of considering neural

processes generally as “unconscious” is nearly certain to

end in their losing sight of the problem of mind altogether.

How important is the rôle of “ mind,” even though one adopt,

strictly, the doctrine Parallelism, I have all too scantily out-

lined in this paper. And in view of this I now sincerely trust

that the evils, which I here emphasize as natural to false

notions of unconscious processes, may not seem exaggerated.

Turning from false paths to true ones, we are finally brought

to consider, in a few brief words, those lines of investigation

which promise a sure advance upon our desired goal. Itisa

prevailing sentiment among modern scientists, that the funda-

mental relation of mind to body lies, at present, beyond the

limits of profitable investigation. We are led in this paper to

think otherwise. We are not likely to solve the whole problem

in a leap, yet unmistakeably the time has come when we may

enlarge our conceptions of it widely, both within the fields of

Biology and of Psychology ; and may do this without aband-

ing any of the ususal severities of Science.

In our summary we reduced our general problem to eight

remaining possibilites, among which we are unable to choose at

present. This number immediately reduces to four upon reach-

ing a decision upon the Weismann-Lamarck Controversy ; and

no one conceives that this decision lies beyond profitable

inquiry, or doubts that it will soon be reached. The remain-

ing four uncertainties will be reduced to two by determining

whether end-organ processes are “ immediate,” or complex ; and

our brain. And, finally, in those cases where such subcortical activities do reach-

up to influence the cortex, there is reason to assume that, then, their correspondent

consciousness does form a part of our personality. It would appear, then, that to

determine if our subcortical processes are “ conscious ” or not, we must be driven

back upon the same grounds as for deciding whether any separate animal is con-

scious. And all simple and direc: tests, must, therefore be henveforth abandoned,

if great resultant harm from false conclusions, ey Science, is to be

avoided.

1897.] The Biologie Origin of Mental Variety : 15

thus, again, is a practical region of investigation. Already

there is enlivened interest in the subject, and results of great

value are being reached along the whole line of our several

senses; results which, indeed, as a good numbcr of eminent

scientists are likely to claim, leave no doubt, even now, as to

how we should decide regarding this region of our perplexity.

Should this happy consummation be reached, we should

then have but our two primary propositions to decide between.

And here, also, we have not only a legitimate field, but one

regarding which it is probable the world of Science already

has abundant data to give substantial conclusions, when once

its importance is appreciated. In truth I have not, from the

first, lost sight of or neglected the great value of the work

done and being done in the field of Comparative Sense

Organs; nor have I thought so much of the task being insur-

mountable, of determining whether all our senses date from the

beginning or not, as of the problem being too grave and far

reaching for me to seem to treat it either lightly, or dogmatic-

ally within the short space I have been able, here, to devote to

it.

It seems, therefore that our categories of doubt are likely to

narrow to a substantial conclusion, even if the present aspect

of Evolutionary Science should in no way broaden. But here,

again, our problem is bright with promise; for its horizon is

sure to broaden. And in setting down how this is likely to

happen, I beg that my few concluding words, because of the

importance of the subject, may be given special emphasis.

However, natural the explanation may be, it still remains sig-

nificantly true that the modern Science of Biology, wonderful

as it is, has yet hardly progressed beyond the bare facts of

Comparative Anatomy. These have been set up, like mile-

stones, showing us where the course of Animal Morphology has

run. But the Physiological processes, explaining how the course

was run, remain nearly as unknown, and as little considered as

before the day of Darwin. That Biologic Evolution can

never be an understood fact until these physiological processes

are given due study, is, among Scientists of first rank, just

beginning to be appreciated. When fully appreciated as, it

16 The American Naturalist. [January,

will soon be in the coming century, a more wonderful period |

of Evolutionary Science will then open, than even that which

has made this 19th Century conspicuous. And when these

physiological processes do thus become the object of enthusi-

astic research, at that moment will the rôle of “mind” begin

duly, and necessarily to receive preponderating attention.

This will happen the same, whether Parallelism remain the

popular doctrine or not. Conduct is sure to be recognized,

in time, as the major region of Physiological Biology; and

“mind” is the chief source of conduct, whether the word im-

ply “ molecular activities or “ psychic force.”

This, then, in one word, is the summary of all our conclu-

sions. Mind would not be mind save for its marvelous com-

plexity. The basis of this emplexity is the variety of its sen-

sory elements. These elements, or their physical equivalents,

then, must be major factors of animal evolution; they must ex-

plain the origin of mind; and they must play in Biology and

Physiology all the part that mind unquestionably plays. To

neglect them hereafter, either in Biology or in Psychology, is

to neglect a major = and probably the major factor of both

Sciences.

FOSSILS AND FOSSILIZATION.

By L. P. GRATACAP.

(Continued from Vol. XXX, p. 1003.)

Two very remarkable and instructive deposits of vertebrate

remains which illustrate their placement, sepulture, and min-

eralization, are represented in the tertiary beds of the Niobrara

River in Nebraska, the lacustrine basins of Wyoming, in the

United States,and the fluviatile plains of Argentina and Uru-

guay in South America formed by the water-ways which pre-

‘ceded and defined the present Parana, Paraguay, Uruguay

and La Plata Rivers. In South America the Parana, Para-

guay and Uruguay Rivers carry down vast amounts of sand,

1897.] Fossils and Fossilization. 17

clay and detritus from the eroded mountain chains of Brazil.

- And this is due to the fact, as pointed out by J. Ball (Notes of a

Naturalist) that a continuous and heavy rainfall in Brazil not

only aids in the process of disintegration of the rock, but sup-

plies the necessary vehicle for transporting itaway. Theannual

rainfall in Brazil varies from 100 to 130 inches, and as its east-

ern seaboard is its oldest surface, this region has been “subjected

throughout vast periods of geological time to the utmost force

of disintegrating agencies, applied to a rock very liable to yield

to them, and where, without reckoning the large proportion

which must have been carried by rivers to the sea, we see such

vast deposits of the disintegrated materials formed out of the

same matrix.” The lofty maritime ranges of Brazil have been

reduced by this constant withdrawal of their materials, and

the predecessor of the present river system which had its in-

ception in those early ages afforded the conduits by which the

vast quantity of detrital matter was borne down over the broad

pampas and plains of Argentina and Uruguay. We may

conceive that this weathering and deposition were carried on

with greater energy at a time when meteorological disturban-

ces were more violent, and when these same streams, repre-

sented in that distant time by much shorter rivers, had a

steeper slope, ran more swiftly, and possessed greater erosive

or tearing and sweeping power. This discharge of abraded

matter has built up the wide level country which now consti-

tutes the flat lands of Argentina and Uruguay, whose exten-

sive pampas arose through this sedimentation continued

through ages of this current of abrasion. In turn the rivers

ploughing new channels through the vast accumulations over

which they were now compelled to make their way, contin-

ually added to the outskirts of the new formation, and with

every increment extended their own banks, and gradually

assumed their present proportions and their present course.

For, to use the language of Prof. Ball, “it cannot be doubted

that the finer constituents carried down by the Parana and its

tributary, the Paraguay, from the same original home, have

largely contributed to the formation of the Argentine pampas,

and Paraguay, including the northern portion of the Gran-

18 The American Naturalist. [January,

Chaco. Borings and chemical analysis of the soil may here-

after give us reliable data; but in the meantime we may safely

reckon that an area of 200,000 square miles has been mainly

formed from the materials derived from the ancient mount-

ains.”

In the west, in Wyoming, Nebraska, and Montana, there ex-

isted in tertiary times large fresh-water lakes,’ the success ors

to the wide cretaceous seas which before that era swept over

the axis of the scarcely emergent Rocky Mountains. Into

them, from the erosion of the non-resisting strata of their mar-

gins and encircling ridges—an erosion caused by heavy rain-

falls which appear at times to have acquired the strength and

permanency of the precipitation in the tropical rain areas—

was washed enormous quantities of shore sand and continental

mud and silt. These contributions of earthy matter in con-

junction with the organic testaceous life of the lakes were

finally consolidated into deposits of shales, marls and earthy

limestones. Into the wide bosom of these contiguous and

more or less connected sheets of inland water was also gathered

the remains of a remarkable fauna, wherein, as Dr. Newberry

remarks, we have the proof “that during unnumbered ages

this portion of the continent exhibited a diversified and beau-

tiful surface, which sustained a luxuriant growth of vegeta-

tion and an amount of animal life far in excess of what it has

done in modern times.” The fossilization of these mammals

(Carnivora, Insectivora, Ruminantia, Pachyderma, Rodentia)

is a matter of considerable interest. They must have been in-

troduced into the lakes by sudden meteorological emergencies

when their own capture and imprisonment in these seas was

synchronous with violent terrestrial denudation by which they

_ were safely entombed. Their own character and that of the

associated flora forbid the supposition, advanced by Lyell and

apparently applied by Hayden, as to their having fallen into

the waters through breaking ice, over whose precarious sur-

*It must be remembered, however, as Dr. Hayden indicated, that ‘‘ the lowest ;

beds of the Tertiary exhibit a somewhat brackish or estuarine character, and &

few fossils (Ostrea subtrigonalis) are found which are peculiar to such waters.”

Preface to Leidy’s Extinct Mammalian Fauna.

1897.] Fossils and Fossilization. 19

face they were passing. The year was then one of sub-tropical

mildness and warmth. Their excellent preservation in many

instances, as well as the number and completeness of their

skeletons, prove that their fossilization resulted from a sudden

calamity and rapidly ensuing sepulture. It seems most likely

that the floors of those ancient lakes were themselves abysses

of mud, a soft calcareous and argillaceous silt into which the

great mammals sank when dead, or if caught in overwhelm-

ing floods were speedily enveloped in the accompanying tor-

rents of earthy material. These remains have undergone a

partial mineralization, and have been penetrated by the min-

eral matrix quite extensively. In examining the typical col-

lection of mammalian fossils from the White River of Dakota,

from which Dr. Leidy made many of his species, I have ob-

served the process of fossilization. The marrow cores of the

leg-bones of Oreodon culbertsonti Leidy are almost closed with

chalcedony quartz and calcite. The brain cavities of the

same animal are filled with an exact mould of marl which in-

dicates the pasty consistency of the original substance in which

the skull was placed. The remarkable series of similar moulds

used by Prof. Marsh (Monograph of Dinocerata) to illustrate

the growth and specialization of the animal brain have been

formed in the same way, retaining with fidelity the furrows

and rugose character of the interior surfaces of the skull.? The

interparietal spaces of the lower jaws of Hyracodon nebracensis

Leidy are also invaded by clay and mineral matter, so as to

partially mineralize the contiguous bone. In the leg-cores of

the same animal a cement of argillaceous limestone with sep-

arated grains of quartz and sometimes a solid stem of quartz

filling the passages are noticeable. The bones of Menodus

proutii Leidy are heavy from parietal petrifaction and replace-

ment, and in some the cellular structure of the bone is satu-

rated with chalcedony flakes and granules. It is quite cer-

tain that the geological changes which have effected the ele-

vation of these tertiary lakes and made them dry basins,

? These brain moulds might not be strictly considered fossils, but they come

within the application of our definition as an “indication of life” in the same

way as casts of shells.

20 The American Naturalist. [January,

bringing with them a train of mineralogical accidents as a

necessary accompaniment in the percolation of mineral waters

and the solidification of the natural cement which surrounds

the fossils have contributed towards rendering these remains

impenetrable. I do not know how the petrifaction of bone

compares with the silification of wood, either as a process or

in the time required, but it is certain that, in some instances,

teeth have been completely changed into a mineral, as in the

case of the saurian teeth found by Mr. C. M. Wheatley in a

bone bed at Pheenixville, Pa. Here, to quote Mr. Wheatley’s

own words, “ the casts only of the teeth remain, the substance

of the tooth being converted into dolomite, but retaining the

exact form of the tooth with the sulcations as distinct as in the

original. Twenty teeth, of probably three or four genera of

Saurians, all converted into dolomite occur on a piece of sand-

stone six by three inches.”

Bischof, quoting the results of Marcel de Serres and L.

Figuier, says that the chemical changes involved in the petri-

faction of bones consist principally in a diminishment of the

organic matter, in an entire disappearance of the phosphoric

acid, and in an increase of the carbonate of lime and iron

oxide.

Again, Fremy found that the animal substance of bones—

the so-called ossein—was decomposed by burial and replaced

by various incrusting minerals, namely, silica, sulphate of

lime, fluoride of lime, and especially carbonate of lime.

Dr. Mantell has made some interesting observations on the

mineralization of bones. He remarks (Petrifactions and their

Teachings) of the bones of reptiles that “the osseous carapaces

and plastrous of the turtles, and the bones and teeth of the

crocodiles and lizards, are almost without exception heavy,

and of various shades of brown or umber, from the permeation

of their structures by solutions of carbonates or oxides of iron.”

Mantell refers to the curious appearance of bones imbedded in

white limestone, which have become a blue-black from the

combination of their phosphoric acid with iron, forming the

blue phosphate of iron (vivianite), while in other cases the

~ Pi P< oe eT E ed =< i

ee Oe ere ye S

y a ah Re ee RE NT eee ep eee 2

open surfaces and cells are infiltrated with cale-spar or reful- J

gent with a golden frost of iron pyrites,

1897.) Fossils and Fossilization. 21

It is rare to find fossil bones silicified, and this replacement

so common in vegetable or invertebrate remains is very un-

common. The bones of vertebrates are often found distorted

from having undergone softening from their partial macera-

tion in water, and become almost unrecognizable upon their

extraction.

“The Maidstone Iguanodon,” says Mantell, “is a striking

example of this kind ; in the entire series of bones exposed,

there is scarcely one that is not more or less altered by com-

pression. The humerus and thigh-bones especially are com-

pletely distorted ; the vertebrate pressed almost flat, or squeezed

into abnormal shapes, etc.” Bones of the Moa, taken out at

North Island, New Zealand, were of the consistency of putty,

and could be broken or kneaded almost like columns of clay,

but hardened upon exposure and drying.

In this connection, relative to the accumulation of bone de-

posits in the past, some observations of the recent African

traveller, J. W. Gregory, are of vital interest. He says (The

Great Rift Valley, J. W. Gregory, p. 268) “here and there

around a water hole we found acres of ground white with

the bones of rhinoceros and zebra, gazelle and antelope, jackal

and hyena, and among them we once observed the remains of

alion. All the bones of the skeletons were there, and they

were fresh and ungnawed. The explanation is simple. The

year before there had been a drought, which had cleared both

game and people from the district. Those which did not mi-

grate crowded round the dwindling pools and fought for the

last drop of water. These accumulations of bones were there-

fore due to a drought and not to a deluge.”

The fossilized remains of marine vertebrates are not uncom-

mon, and in the cretaceous beds of Wyoming they have been

preserved with remarkable completeness, eliciting the remark

from Prof. Marsh that “ he noticed the skeletons of six of those

mighty swimming lizards—the mosasaurs—each eighty feet

in length, in sight at one time.”

The fish beds at Twin Creek, Wyoming, the fish remains in

Ohio, including the great Dinicthys, those at Sunderland,

Mass., together with numerous indications of marine creatures

22 The American Naturalist. [January,

in the Cretaceous of New Jersey and the phosphate deposits of

the Ashley River, S. C., seem to show that somewhat more

favorable conditions for their preservation existed in these

earlier times than at present, when bones appear to become

quickly destroyed in the ocean, and only the most refractory

substances, as enamel and very dense bone, resist the agencies

of solution. Itseems altogether likely that the sedimentation

must, at least at seasons or periods, have been rapid and con-

siderable; that vast volumes of calcareous mud discharged

into the cretaceous seas entrapped fish and reptile within the

unchanging films and sheets of earthy matter. The wonder-

fully preserved fish of the eocene in the Green River beds, ex-

hibit instances of almost complete immobility, as if no motion

had disturbed the fish since its death, no tide or current, and

that it was quickly covered over by sediment. The fish and

reptilian remains in Ohio, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Iowa and

Missouri bear evidence of separation and rolling, the articula-

tions being infrequently retained in place, the mouth parts —

and skulls alone cohering together, though these are more

commonly dismembered, while in complete uniformity with

the experience of to-day, in many cases, teeth and spines are

the sole representatives of these ancient denizens of the sea.

Mechanical conditions under which marine vertebrate re-

mains have been entombed very naturally affects the nature

of their preservation. The sandy, coarse shore deposits which

prevailed in the Catskill period—our equivalent of the Old

Red Sandstone of Europe—was unfavorable for the cohesion

of the fish which were enclosed in it, and the action of shore —

waves and the agitation of the gravelly matrix broke them

apart, and scattered over the shore surface the fragments of

bones, scales and spines. On the other hand, the shallow sea

basins wherein the Huron and Erie (now shown by Prof.

Orton to be identical) shales were deposited, furnished a fine-

grained impalpable carbonaceous silt in which occasionally

the remains of the monstrous placoderm Dinicthys were en-

tombed entire, and preserved with comparatively slight dislo- _

cation or injury. In the open sea of the Upper Helderberg

and Carboniferous where conditions similar to our present seas _

1897.} Fossils and Fossilization. 23

may have prevailed, little else than the hardest portions of the

fish were preserved as the dermal tubercles, spinesand armored

heads, with an occasional jaw retaining its teeth. Even this

slender survival of material compares favorably with the de-

structive activity of our seas, and may perhaps add weight to

the opinion of Verrill and Smith that this destruction to-day

can be only assigned to the depredations of small crustacea.

It also lends some seriousness to suspicions that in these pale-

eozoic waters deposition was more rapid than at present. But

in the fish layers of Boonton, N. J. and Sunderland, Mass., in

the Triassic slates and in the thinly fissile lime shale of Twin

Creek, Wyoming, we find an extensive placement of fish skel-

etons and bodies which are usually quite perfect in outline

and which must have been deposited almost simultaneously

by some sudden catastrophe, and also very rapidly sealed

within fresh sediment, in which they remained undisturbed

by the motion of the water, and protected against change by

the overlying films of calcareous mud. Dr. Newberry has

suggested that in the case of the triassic fish their death was

connected with the irruption of hot waters produced by the

intrusion of the igneous trap rocks through the floor of the

triassic sea. The similar beds at Weehawken, N. J., show that

the fish have undergone considerable maceration and distor-

tion, and the subsequent breaking of these slates have helped

to obliterate the organic remains. The Twin Creek fish bed

is a compilation of very thin sheets of flaky limestone with

clay, between whose slightly undulating surfaces runs a wav-

ing black film, the section of a slab presenting a delicately

lined face like a paper pencilled with parallel tracings. Here

the fish lie with very slight dislocation appearing ; to use Dr.

Leidy’s words, “as if whole shoals had been suddenly en-

shrined for the contemplation of future ages.” It would seem

as if an innumerable series of overflows, each carrying with it

floculent carbonaceous matter, had left a deposit of carbonate |

of lime from suspended particles over the fish, and, as each

overflow receded, these fine particles followed the absorbed

water and remained upon the surface in a veil of black sedi-

ment. It may be that a sudden irruption of water carrying

, et The American Naturalist. [January,

suspended mud may have overwhelmed these fish, and this

water-burst may have been attendant upon other circumstan-

ces by which the fish were frightened into shoals and ex-

posed to a common death. The carbonaceous films may also

be due to the penetration of oil between the lamine of lime-

stone, the oil arising from the decomposition of fish. |

Some of the bone beds of Ohio present a mass of ground

plates, broken teeth and crushed spines, which have become

cemented together by carbonate of lime into a breccia of or-

ganic fragments. They represent, according to Dr. Newberry,

a deposit in deep water of the excrements of larger fish whose

digestive vigor has failed to entirely destroy the harder parts

of their prey. It is not necessary to assume that these remains

were buried very quickly, as their own strength and hardness

would resist erosion, solution and the destructive power of

animal feeders, though the circumstances attending its deposit

must have been peculiar. A fragmentary layer of such a

character accumulated in deep water—this conclusion Prof.

Newberry believes is warranted on account of the absence of

shore stones, gravel, pond wash, ete——and not dispersed by

the currents, and quite destitute of all other fossils than fish

debris, is an anomaly which Prof. Newberry explains by this

assumption: “It has seemed to me not impossible that this

fish bed was, for the most part, made up of excrementitious

matter, and that it represents the hard and indigestible parts

of fishes which have served as food for other and larger kinds.

On this supposition the fragmentary and worn appearance of

the bones would be attributable to the crushing, maceration

and partial digestion which they have suffered. If this is the

true history of the deposits, it accumulated in some nook or

bay, perhaps bordering a coral reef, where large and small

fishes congregated, age after age, until their kjokkenméddings

formed a sheet some inches in thickness over all the sea-bot-

tom.”

It may, however, be said that the strongly bituminous or oil

odor in this rock elicited upon striking it, shows that it did

not represent solely the excrements of fish, but received very

probably the occasional contribution of the bodies of living

1897.] Fossils and Fossilization. 25

members of the surrounding marine fauna. In this connec-

tion the important observation recorded in Lyell’s Principles

(Vol. II, p. 583), that upon the north coast of Ireland—the

Rockhall Bank—“ a bed of fish bones was observed extending

for two miles along the bottom of the sea in ten and ninety

fathoms of water,” is of interest. Lyell,in the same place, also

speaks of fish bones occurring in extraordinary profusion east-

ward of the Faroe Islands. This “bone bed” was three miles

and a halfin length and forty-five fathoms under water, and

contained a few shells intermingled with the bones.

In the cranial plates of Acanthaspis pustulosus, one of the fishes

of the Devonian of Ohio, the space between the outer hard bony

walls are filled with carbonate of lime which has infiltrated

and consolidated the intra-mural cellular tissue, while the

clavicle of Onychodus sigmoides presents internally a granulated

area of carbonate of lime similarly formed and Prof. Claypole

speaks of the second layer of the shield of his placoderm fish

from the Upper Silurian of Pennsylvania as having its cells

“ filled with infiltrated calcareous matter which, under the ac-

tion of the weather, is dissolved out, leaving an exceedingly

brittle cellular mass to represent the original shield”. These

bones probably retain their phosphate of lime, since fish bones

and teeth in the Old Red Sandstone in Lievland (?) according

to Bischoff, have lost but very little of the original percentage

of this salt.

It must, however, be remembered that normal calcium

phosphate is soluble in ammoniacal salts, sodium nitrate, com-

mon salt and other salts; that its abstraction from buried

bone may be quite rapid, and the cavities left by its absorption

may become filled with mineral matter. An exchange may

be effected between carbonates of alkalies and the phosphates

in bone by which carbonate of lime remains and the phos-

phoric acid is removed, and solution may be effected by aque-

ous carbonic acid alone. The turtles of the Miocene of Ne-

braska, which are so numerous, are represented by their joined

carapaces and plastrons, and these are filled with the porous

marl or earthy limestone of the White River beds. The bone

of these parts presents a finely reticulated structure, and

26 The American Naturalist. [January,.

through its minute passages a ferruginous infiltration ap-

pears, giving it a speckled surface. It seems more than likely

that much of the original phosphate has disappeared, and

that carbonate of lime with argillaceous admixture composes:

the present skeleton.

The fish of the Twin Creek, Wyoming basin have each

been immersed in the products of its own decomposition.

Their bones seem to be, in many instances, covered by an in-

tegument formed from the dried and mineralized skin and

scales of the living fish, while the oily elements arising from

their dry distillation or decomposition have impregnated the

bones, converting them to a dark honey-brown substance some-

what laminar in structure, in places, elsewhere irregularly

cubical, and soft and brittle. The fish in the triassic shales:

present ichthic outlines made up of rhomboidal scales. These

scales, as is well-known, are essentially bone, very smooth,

hard and lustrous, their shining and durable surface being

formed of a substance allied to enamel and now called ganoin.

This ganoin has undergone little or no change. The scales

yield slowly to hydrochloric acid. The original cartilaginous

or fleshy parts have probably aided preservation by forming

oily products which bathed the fish, enclosed as it was in the

shale, and upon dessication contributed their indestructible

carbonaceous residues to its mass.

The eretaceous saurians entombed in the gypsiferous shales

and limestones of Kansas have successfully escaped the action

of decay, while the remains of sharks, predaceous fish, and tor-

toises are also found as fossils, but only in a partial phase, at

least, of preservation. The bones of the fish, who were, accord-

ing to Cope, related to the salmon, possess such a density and

hardness that they are maintained as nuclei crowning knobs

of shale, which stand in relief amidst the worn and denuded

surfaces about them. This is quite remarkable, and seems to

clash completely with what we know to-day of the preserva-

tion, or rather absence of preservation, of the bones of marine

vertebrates. Prof. Marsh, in speaking of the specimens of cre-

taceous birds, remarks that “that they are all mineralized and |

in the same state of preservation as the bones of the extinct

reptiles which occur with them in these deposits.”

1897.] Fossils and Fossilization. 21

In the process of mineralization, which is the last phase of

the entire process of fossilization, we may imagine that bones

undergo contrasted changes, according to the varying circum-

stances of their position. Prof. Leidy has even observed in a

letter to Dr. Holmes that fossilization, petrifaction or lapidifi-

cation is no positive indication of the relative age of organic

remains. The cabinet of the Academy of Natural Sciences of

Philadelphia contains bones of the megalonyx and of the ex-

tinct peccary, that are entirely unchanged: not a particle of

gelatine has been lost, nor a particle of mineral matter added,

and, indeed, some of the bones of the former even have por-

tions of articular cartilage and tendinous attachments well-

preserved. On the other hand, bones of mammals from the

Keuperkalk near Schweinfurt, Germany, yielded to Von Bibra

scarcely a trace of phosphoric acid (Bischof); the principal

constituent was clay. Bones exposed to saturation by water

which may, or must, contain a very considerable quantity of

mineral salts in solution, soon surrender their soluble elements

and undergo a gradual reconstruction amounting, in some

cases, to complete lithification. The phosphate and carbonate

of lime may be replaced by silica, or the former may be ex-

pelled by reaction with alkaline carbonates, and the bone as-

sume more and more entirely the composition of carbonate

of lime.

The circumstances attendant upon the fossilization of inver-

tebrates necessarily contrasts strongly with those observed in

the fossilization of vertebrates. Invertebrates—corals, mol-

lus, crustacea—are more usually the inhabitants of the salt

waters, they are sedentary or somewhat limited in the range

of their voluntary wanderings, their hard parts are almost en-

tirely carbonate of lime, and at their death their shells or

coverings are apt to be so situated as to secure more or less

perfect preservation. The invertebrates which form the largest

part of the fossil remains of the world are shore occupants, or,

if removed from land, were living in comparatively shallow

waters, waters certainly not exceeding 500 fathoms in depth.

They lived either in the sandy flats or rocky barriers along

the very margins of the ancient ocean and upon the oscillat-

28 The American Naturalist. [January,

ing edges of the continent, or in the impalpable sediment de-

posited further away from the shore, or gathered in estuarine

inlets, or they formed the denizens of purer and deeper waters

and became later, in the secular changes of the earth’s crust,

consolidated into limestone beds. This variation of position

implied a greater or less likelihood of preservation as fossils.

Darwin has observed that along the west coast of South

America “ no record of several successive and peculiar marine

faunas will probably be preserved to a distant age.” And the

reason he assigns is that as the coast of that continent is rising,

“the littoral and sub-littoral deposits are continually worn

away, as soon as they are brought up by the slow and gradual

rising of the land within the grinding action of the coast-

waves.” The remains of animals so situated as to become ex-

posed to the reassorting action and denudation of the shore

currents and waves may suffer pulverization and dispersal,

and those which are not soon covered by sediment may be

dissolved or injured. Those farther away are entombed in

the accumulation of sediment which falls down over the sea-

floor more uninterruptedly at some distance from land where |

it is less agitated and shifted by the waves and currents. In

the elevation of the ocean bottom and its gradual change to

dry land the emergent surfaces would undergo considerable

disturbance from the waves, and along these eroded edges the

fossils would disappear by crushing and attrition. Yet Dar-

win’s observation seems scarcely so important, when we con-

sider that the same stratum continued outward upon the slop-

ing bed of the ocean is for some time exempt from this

wearing, and during that time the sediments produced by the

destruction of its own emergent portions are constantly ac-

cumulating over it and rendering its own stability greater.

This view has been indeed taken by Mr. Hopkins, who ex- —

pressed his belief that sedimentary beds of considerable hori- —

zontal extent have rarely been completely destroyed. Further- —

more, we must remember that, in so far as we have indicated ©

three different cycles of deposition with their accompanying

and characteristic forms of life, these animal forms are not re-

stricted with any precision to these areas, and that organic

1897.] Fossils and Fossilization. 29

remains which, by some accident, have been destroyed upon

one kind of bottom, may remain represented in another that

was not subject to the same exigencies. As Prof. Verrill re-

marks, at the end of an enumeration of six or seven sorts of

bottoms which carried distinctive faunas: “It must, however,

be constantly borne in mind that very few kinds of animals

are strictly confined to any one of these subdivisions, and that

the majority are found in two, three or more of them, and

often in equal abundance in several, though each species gen-

erally prefers one particular kind of locality. In other cases

the habits vary at different seasons of the year, or at different

hours of the day and night, and such species may be found in

different situations according to the times when they are

sought.”

The animals living along rocky shores and clinging to the

rocks themselves or dwelling in their crevices and amongst

the sea-weeds that clothe them, are not so apt to be preserved

as fossils, except as they die they are swept seaward and be-

come buried in the muds or sands of the less exposed beaches

and flats. The occupants of the sandy beaches are provided

with organs and have developed habits which enable them to

secure protection against the wear and violence of the waves

and the alternating drying and wetting of the district they in-

habit. They penetrate the sand deeply and secure immunity

from the accidents of the surface in the pockets, burrows and

tubes within which they can withdraw themselves. These pro-

tective habits render their preservation as fossils much more

probable. The animals living in the muddy bottoms, whereon

we may suppose a finer deposit settles, forming a tenacious

and impalpable sediment or silt, are, in many cases, identical

with those placed within the sandy areas, and immediately

along the shores of a country the sandy and mud types of

beach grade insensibly into each other so that a sandy beach

can hardly be free from mud or a muddy margin of the land

free from sand. And in this way the animal species found on

one or the other accommodate themselves freely and easily

_ to the vicissitudes and qualities of both. But the character of

a mud bottom insures a better preservation of a shell as a fos-

30 Fhe American Naturalist. [January,

sil, and many fragile and delicate organisms, such as the fossil

hydrozoans, known as graptolites, are retained in the fine-

grained slates (which have originally been mud layers) that

would have scarcely survived comparison in the coarser and

impressionable beds of sand. Such muddy layers may be en- -

tirely argillaceous or markedly siliceous, or they may be cal-

careous and formed at considerable depths, as in the case of

the deep-sea ooze which assumes the character, as described

by Sir C. Wyville Thompson, of a grayish, calcareous paste.

These beds from this fine state of mechanical division are pre-

cisely adapted for keeping unbroken the tests, coverings and

hard parts of the animals that are buried in them, and if

sufficiently argillaceous to prevent crystallization, upon con-

solidating into stony strata retain their contents in a very

beautiful and perfect condition.

The deeper zones of the sea nurture the coral growths, or

receive from the pelagic life above them the unceasing con-

tributions of dead shells, the cases of foraminifera, and the

skeletons of aberrant crustacea, or form beds congenial to

glassy sponges, submarine thickets of crinoids and fields of

gorgonias. These sea-deposits, which are somewhat exempt

from the mingling sediments of the shore, though, of course,

only approximately, and more or less completely, according to

the nature and distance of the neighboring coasts, as regards

their fossiliferous character, form very perfect beds of deposi-

tion. The variety of animal life becomes here very great, and

its fertility continually augments the rising sheets of animal

precipitation. The pelagic life above these regions is con-

stantly contributing its mineral contents to these beds, and

the broken, half-dissolved shells of pteropods, with the tests

and insoluble residue of foraminifera, form a calcareous com-

mixture, in which whole shells, corals, crinoids, star-fishes, sea-

urchins and the dust raining down from dead and decomposed

swimming organisms, parts of fish, etc., become imbedded.

The explorations of the Challenger showed that, according to _

Murray, the foraminifera of the open sea are subjected to solu-

tion in the carbonated sea-water, and that their argillaceous .

ash, so to speak, drops down and spreads upon the floor of the

1897,] Fossils and Fossilization. 31

ocean basin as a red or gray clay, while in places the siliceous

parts of radiolarians also furnish a very considerable propor-

tion of this mineral sediment, and the mass holding carbonic

acid in solution has doubtless a solvent influence on many of

the contained testaceous remains, and destroys their perfection

as fossils. Upon elevation and consolidation into stony layers,

the process of crystallization, started in the calcareous paste or

jelly—which process partakes also of the nature of a hardening

in a natural cement—produces sometimes a cementation of the

parts, so that the fossils are coherent throughout with their

matrix, and are extracted with difficulty, or, indeed, but ob-

scurely detected at all. Centers of crystallization also form in

the centers of the fossils themselves, by which all trace of

organic structure is obliterated. .

One of the most typical and important groups of fossils is

the corals, and to discover the circumstances of their accumu-

lation in the past we must look at the coral making portions

of our globe to-day. Many of the deep sea corals are simple

or single individuals, and are living in neighborhoods in the

deep seas, while the great reef-making corals rising in coral

banks to the surface of the water and prolonged by branching

or acervuline growths are communal, and these coral colonies

form the substantial basis of sea islands. They furnish the

material which is heaped up in calcareous sand strata, making

porous limestones, such as are seen in the Aeolian rocks of the

Bermudas, or which, dissolved as a calcareous glue, unites the

agglomerated fragments of beach shells into the Coquina beds

of Florida. The coral colonies begin their growth at depths

hardly exceeding 50 fathoms, though the Challenger explora-

tions revealed coral life at depths of 1,300 fathoms. If they

establish themselves in more shallow water at the customarily

assumed limit of 20 fathoms, the sinking of the shores they

skirt, according to the convenient hypothesis of Darwin and

Dana, depresses the platforms from which they start to this

depth or much more. The thermal conditions probably de-

termine the depths at which reef-building corals can live, and

it is a possible and probable circumstance that in varying

positions and in other geological times, reef-making corals may

32 The American Naturalist. . [January,

have begun their labors at depths much exceeding 20 or even

50 fathoms. The coral wall rises upward, and it bears in its

midst and over its surface an extensive and variegated ocean

life. First the corals of different genera massed together in

contiguous groups and colums, then the fan corals (gorgon-

ias) with bryozoa, crinoids, coralline sea-weeds and sponges,

and finally numerous sea-worms (annelids) like Serpula com-

plete the heterogeneous assemblage with an occasional molluse

or some sedentary crustacean. “All these things,” to quote the

expressive description of Thompson, “living and dying, are

constantly yielding a fine powder of lime, which sinks down

and compacts in the spaces among their roots; and every break-

er of the eternal surf grinds down more material and packs it

into every hollow and crevice capable of receiving and retaining

it.” In this dust the dying portions of the coral wall become

entombed, and mingling with them the shattered or complete

skeletons and remains of the associated fauna. Thus the

whole is ready for fossilization; it is raised, or similar beds

were raised, above the action of the ocean waves, becoming

more and more bound together, more and more hardened and —

more dense. The solvent action of surface waters cement it —

together and converge through the interstices of the mass

molecules of carbonate of lime which fill up the minute crev-

ices, the microscopic pores, hastening the formation of a fossil- _

iferous limestone. In these perfectly preserved masses, heads —

and nodules of coral are found retaining the most delicate de-

tails of structure, and with them fragments or complete exam-

ples of their associated guests and tenants. One of the most —

striking illustrations of an ancient fossil coral reef is that

offered by the Falls of the Ohio at Louisville, Ky., where —

ledges of horizontal limestone form a low escarpment over —

which the river plunges. The formation is Devonian, and, —

while the softer parts of the stone have weathered away, the

harder calcareous corals stand out in projecting groups, and

in their commingled diversity of genera with bryozoal remains —

and the joints, stems and heads of crinoids, forms a complete |

reproduction of a modern coral reef. As to the condition of |

preservation in which the corals are found, Lyell has taken ~

1897.] Fossils and Fossilization. 33

occasion to call attention, in the collection of Dr. Clapp,’ to the

equal perfection of the “ pores, foramina and minute micro-

scopic structure” of the palaeozoic corals with those gathered

from our present oceans, remarking that “no one but a zoolo-

gist would have been able to guess which set were of modern,

and which of ancient, origin.”

We may feel quite confident that in any study of our fossil-

bearing strata we are generally contemplating beds that have

not been abyssal in their origin. The remains of mollusca in

the abundance usually present in our fossiliferous beds, cannot

easily be regarded as indicative of very great depths of deposi-

tion. The Challenger expedition, while it revealed an unex-

pected fertility in the deep-sea life, also showed that molluscan

life at great depths was scanty and unimportant. Sir C.

Wyville Thompson summarizes the conclusions reached by say-

ing that “the two great modern groups of the mollusca, the

Lamellibranchiata and the Gastropoda, do not enter largely

into the fauna of the deep sea. Species of both groups, usually

small and apparently stunted, were widely, though sparsely,

diffused.” The character of many of the fossiliferous beds be-

trays readily enough the bathymetric relations they bore to

the continent. The sandy grits, coarse conglomerate, the

shales and slates, modified by the calcareous debris of shells

and the argillaceous marls, are not deep-sea products. The

pure limestones themselves cannot be regarded as having been

formed at excessive depths since so much of the ancient life

preserved in their fossils is irreconcilable with this view. Prof.

A. Agassiz has indeed written (Dredgings of Three Cruises of

the Blake): “ Probably no invertebrates of a period older than

the jura and chalk existed in the deep sea, or, if they did exist,

they did not wander far from the continental shelf. Their

distribution was then as to-day, mainly a question of food.

The animals of those times lived upon the shelf, and, while

they and their predecessors remained as fossils in the littoral

beds of the earlier formations, their successors, belonging

either to the same or to allied genera, passed over into the fol-

lowing period.”

3 Second Visit to the United States: Sir Chas. Lyell.

3 (To be continued.)

34 The American Naturalist. [January,

THE BACTERIAL DISEASES OF PLANTS:

A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE PRESENT STATE OF

OUR KNOWLEDGE.

By Erwin F. SMITH.

(Continued from Vol. XXX, p. 924.)

II. THE HYACINTH (HYACINTHUS ORIENTALIS L)).

2. THE BACTERIOSIS OF HYACINTHS (1889).

(I) THE DISEASE:

(1) Author, Title of Paper, Place of Publication, ete.—This dis- —

ease was described by Dr. A. Heinz, Director of the Botanical-

Physiological Institut in Agram. His paper (85) Zur Kentniss |

der Rotzkrankheiten der Pflanzen was published in Centralblatt —

J. Bakt. u. Parasitenkunde, Bd. V, No. 16, 12 April, 1889, pp.

535-539. ‘a

(2) Geographical Distribution—The disease was discovered in

some potted hyacinths received from a florist in Agram. There

is no statement respecting its occurrence in the field or in hot-

houses. :

(3) Symptoms.—All of the potted plants developed equally

well until blossoming time, the last of January. Then visible —

differences appeared, although the plants were exposed to the —

same external conditions. Some of the plants continued their —

normal development, unfolded their blossoms in regular order, ©

and remained entirely sound. Others were delayed in their

development, and several circumstances indicated the presence —

of a disease before there were unmistakable symptoms. These —

symptoms soon appeared. The tips of the leaves yellowed, 3

shriveled, and dried out for a distance of some centimeters —

The blossoms either fell off before unfolding or opened in ir-

regular order, and fell off soon after. Finally, in all the dis-

eased specimens a progressive rotting was detected. This first

attacked the axes of inflorescence, and then the leaves and bulb

1897.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants: 35

scales. This rot produced a viscous (schmierigem), bad smell-

ing slime. After two or three days the bulbs were entirely

softened, and only the slightest pull was necessary to draw the

leaves and scapes out of the bulb scales.

(4) Pathological Histology.—A microscopic examination of the

slime and of the affected tissues showed the existence of great

numbers of bacteria. Primarily, they occupied the intercellu-

lar spaces ; but the dead cells and the vessels were also full of

them. The nucleus of the cell resisted longest, and could still

be detected after the rest of the protoplasm was destroyed. No

Hypomyces or other fungus was present.

(5) Direct Infection Experiments.—No record of any.

(II) Tue oRGANIsM.— Bacillus hyacinthi septicus Heinz.

This name does not mean that Dr. Heinz regarded his or-

ganism as in any sense a variety of B. hyacinthi Wakker, the

practice of using trinomials to designate varieties not being

current in bacteriology or generally accepted as good usage in

any branch of botany. Dr. Heinz simply followed a common

and vicious practice in the selection of his specific name, the

literature of bacteriology being full of trinomials, quadrinom-

ials, and even more extended names. Of course, all of these

polynomials, Dr. Heinz’s included, must give way to binomi-

al names, but in as much as I have not seen his organism, and

as it was not fully described, I prefer to leave the consideration

of its proper nomenclature to whomsoever shall have occasion

to study it thoroughly.

1. Pathogenesis :

(A) Yes.

(B) Yes. Very easy. “The material may be taken from

any suitable diseased spot; and it is demonstrable that

everywhere the same species of bacterium is present

in large quantities—I might almost say in pure cul-

ture—foreign organisms occurring only in the outer

bulb scales, where they might be expected, and where

they are of no consequence.” “ The here observed bac-

teria belong toa single species.” “ I could not discover

a mixture of different bacteria; the above named is

also unlike Bacterium termo (Cohn?). So much is

The American Naturalist. [ January,

established not only by the microscopic investigation

but also by the very successful culture experiments.

Bacillus butyricus was also not to be found.”

“ Necessary precautions being taken for granted, a

pure culture is obtained the easiest, when, by means

of flamed instruments, the epidermis is lifted from a

diseased but not yet entirely softened spot, a trace of —

the slime removed from the parenchyma, and the

same transferred to a nutrient substratum. The ma- —

terial may be taken just as well from a bulb scale, only

in this case one must set to work so much the more —

carefully. Whether we inoculate a liquefied substra- —

tum directly, or put a trace of the slime in sterile water,

and inoculate only from this (a very simple method _

of dilution, which here leads to entirely satisfactory

results), we always get on the plate an abundance of —

the uniform colonies of this bacterium.” |

cessful. “ If, by means of a needle, an extremely small | ;

quantity of the bacilli are pricked into the epidermis :

of a leaf, or of a scape of an otherwise entirely sound —

hyacinth, the sickening of this part with the described |

symptoms can usually be observed within 24 hours. —

The most destructive action takes place around the-

point of inoculation, over a breadth of about 3 cm.

Here at first the tissues softens, the part becoming

transparent. Finally, as a rule, the organ breaks, as

its tissue, including the epidermis, is changed for the

specified distance into the characteristic, slimy-v1s-

cous, rotten-smelling pulp. We obtain the same result :

when the inoculation is made on a bulb scale. Theim-

oculated scale first sickens, but soon after the neigh- —

boring ones also become affected, and the disease

spreads from this point even into the parts abovè

ground. The reverse behavior (inoculation of the

aerial parts, and the spread of the disease into the

bulb) could not be observed. This circumstance indi- |

cates, in all probability, that under natural conditions

1897.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : 37

the disease spreads from the bulb upward. I would

add, that the spread of the bacilli from the point of

inoculation is very rapid. Ifa leaf15 to 20 cm. long

is inoculated at its base outside of the bulb, the bacilli

may be detected even after 24 hours, at a distance of

5 to 10 em. in the leaf parenchyma.”

(D) Apparently; in part, at least. Statements not very

explicit.

Conclusion.—Pathogenic nature clearly established.

Note.—Lack of full proof under D seems to be atoned for by

repetitions under B and C.

2. Morphology :

(1) Shape, size, etc—The organism is a conspicuous bacillus,

with rounded ends. It is 4 to 6x1», and always single.

Shorter rods occur; but direct observation shows these to be

younger stages, which have resulted from division. The pro-

cess of division is easily observed in hanging drops.

(2) Capsule—No mention of any capsule.

(3) Flagella.—Organism actively motile. Nothing concern-

ing organs of motion.

(4) Spores—No mention of any spores.

(5)- Zooglæa.—“ Inoculated nutrient fluids become uniformly

cloudy. I have not observed in them any local heaping-up of

the bacilli.”

(6) Involution Forms.—No mention of any involution ae,

3. Biology :

(1) Stains—No special peculiarities. The organism Se

readily with all the ordinary stains.

(2) Gelatin.—Organism grows well upon ordinary gelatin. —

The surface colonies on plate cultures are circular, about 2 mm,

in diameter, smooth and shining, not very prominent, bluish-

white with a somewhat darker center, translucent. The buried

colonies have an oval form, and are rather (ziemlich) pointed

at the poles. They are yellowish-whiteand dull. The bacillus

does not liquefy gelatin.

(3) Agar.—Growth as on gelatin. There are no noteworthy

differences either in plate or stab cultures. In stab cultures

the bacillus grows uniformly the whole length of the stab, and

38 The American Naturalist. [January,

forms on the surface of the agar a smooth, bluish-white, in-

tensely shining growth, which does not reach the wall of the

tube even after weeks. After 8 to 10 days little vesciculate

projections appeared along the stab.

(4) Potato, ete—Organism grows well upon potato, forming

after 36 hours a dirty yellow, slimy covering, the surface of

which is granular. Cultures several days old sent forth an in- i

tense rotten odor.

(5) Animal Fluids.—No mention of specific sorts. See (IT) 2 (5).

(6) Vegetable Juices—No mention of any trials.

(7) Salt Solutions and other Synthetic Media—The organism |

grows well in Cohn’s nutrient solution, and in sugar solutions,

etc. In sugar solutions, with addition of sodium phosphate !

and peptone, a fine growth, but no butyric acid.

(8) Relation to Free Oxygen—Aerobic. No special experi-

ments, but from the behavior of the agar stab cultures the

bacillus is probably also facultative anaerobic.

(9) Reducing and Oxidizing Power—No statement.

(10) Fermentation Products, and other Results of Growth :

(a) Gas Production.—No statement.

(b) Formation of Acids—No odor of butyric acid could be —

detected in any of the cultures. No mention of any other acid. —

(d) Formation of Pigment.—Organism dirty yellow on potato. —

(e) Development of Odors.—Causes a rotten smell in the host —

plants, and an intensely putrid odor on potato. Chemical —

nature of the odor not determined. No smell of butyric acid. —

(£) Enzymes.—No statement. Cell walls are softened and —

destroyed, and protoplasm is consumed in the presence of this —

organism.

(g) Other Products—No mention of any.

(11) Effect of Dessication—No statement.

(12) Thermal Relations :

(a) Maximum for Growth—Not determined.

(b) Optimum for Growth—Not determined.

(da) Death Point—Not determined.

(13) Relation to Light—No statement.

1897.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants: 39

(14) Vitality on Various Media.—No statement.

(15) Effect on Growth of Reaction of Media (acid, neutral, alka-

line).—No statement.

(18) Sensitiveness to Antiseptics and Germicides.—No statement. —

(17) Other Host Plants—The common onion, Allium cepa,

was inoculated both in the leaves and in the bulbs, and in both

cases with positive results. This plant must therefore be in-

cluded as a possible host. Inoculations into other plants, such

as Richardia, Chlorophytum, Triticum, Phaseolus, etc., gave

negative results.

(18) Effect upon Animals.—No statement, and probably no

experiments.

(III) Economic ASPECTS:

(1) Losses—Disease not observed in the field.

(2) Natural Methods of Infection —Not known.

(3) Conditions Favoring the Spread of the Disease-—Not known.

(4) Methods of Prevention —No suggestions.

Remarks.—Organism not satisfactorily described. The first

part of the paper is devoted to a brief review of papers by

Wakker and Sorauer. De Toni and Trevisan in (11) Saccardo’s

Sylloge, vol. VIII, p. 984, under B. hyacintht Wakker, make the

following remark concerning B. hyacinthi septicus Heinz,—“ ver-

isimiliter huc spectat.” The reason for this remark is not ap-

parent. Certainly, so far as we can judge from the published

statements of Drs. W. and H., the two organisms are widely

different in their pathogenic effects, and also in their behavior

on culture media. The rapid destruction of the host by Dr.

Heinz’s germ is specially noteworthy.

Whether the hyacinth disease described by Dr. Sorauer is

distinct or identical with the preceeding, whether it is identical

with the white rot of the Netherlands, or, finally, whether it

is in any proper sense of the term a bacterial disease at all,

must be left an open question. His account of the symptoms

especially in the foliage certainly suggests the disease described

by Heinz. Sorauer himself identifies it with the white rot of

the hyacinth described by Schneevoogt and others, and also

erroneously supposes it to be the same as the yellow disease

described by Wakker. Dr. Sorauer made numerous and

40 The American Naturalist. [January,

apparently quite careful microscopic examinations, but no —

pure cultures. His attemps at direct infections yielded nega-

tive results and he says that the bacteria do not attack sound

well ripened bulbs under normal meteorological conditions.

The fungus, Hypomyces hyacinthi Sorauer, was closely associated

with this rot but is believed to be only a secondary trouble in

as much as the bacteria were sometimes found in the affected —

tissues where no mycelium could be detected. The fungus —

may however spread the disease by acting as a carrier of the —

microorganisms. The latter consisted of coccus forms and 3

rods, and were identified, in part, as Clostridium butyricum —

(Bacillus amylobacter), apparently on no better grounds than the

microscopic appearances and a bad smell supposed to be due

to butyric acid. This work was done fifteen years ago and :

now has little other than a historic value. The following are —

Dr. Sorauer’s papers:

(36) Der weisse Rotz der Hyacinthenzwiebeln, Deutscher —

Garten, 1881, pp. 198, (not seen), and (37) Der weisse Rota —

(Bacteriosis) der Hyacinthenzwiebeln, Sorauer, Handbuch der —

Phlanzenkrankheiten, 2nd. ed., part II, pp. 95-102, with one plate —

(devoted exclusively to the Hypomyces), Berlin, 1886.

Concerning the “white rot” of the Netherlands, Wakker

states distinctly that it is not a parasitic disease, and seems to

have proved that it does not attack sound bulbs but only such

as have been weakened by anonparasiticgummosis. Whether

this is always the case may, perhaps, be regarded as doubtful,

in as much as Dr. Wakker’s inoculation experiments were not

very numerous. This white rot is a slimy, and often foamy,

stinking, bacterial decay to which gummosed bulbs are fre-

quently subject in rainy, warm weather, particularly after the _

bulbs are dug and placed in silos in the earth to undergo &

ripening process. The disease may also appear afterwards in

rooms where the bulbs are spread out to dry. The whole or :

only a part of a bulb may be attacked according as the whole |

or only a part is gummy. The diseased parts are soft and

white and look as if boiled. Dr. Wakker’s views may be

found in (34) and in (38) Contributions à la pathologie végétale. —

VI. Nouvelles recherches sur la gommose des Jacinthes w

1897.] Editor’s Table. 41

plantes analogues. Archives néerlandaises, T. XXIII, Haarlem,

1889, pp. 383-396, 2 plates.

In confirmation of the statements made in No.1 of this

series, p. 632, 2nd paragragh, and as a curious commentary on

the way in which many books are thrown together, we may in

passing refer to the account of “the white or yellow rot of

hyacinth bulbs” given in Dr. Frank’s new book (89) Die

Krankheiten der Pflanzen, Bd. II, pp. 23-25, Breslau, 1896.

Most of the two pages is wasted in an exposition and criticism

of Dr. Sorauer’s views; Wakker’s studies are condensed into

four lines and badly at that; no mention is made of Heinz’s

paper; and the review concludes as follows: “ Für eine patho-

gene Bakterienwirkung fehlt wenigstens bis jetzt der Beweiss.”

EDITOR’S TABLE.

WE publish in our news department an account of a project now on

foot in Europe for the protection of the large game of Africa. It is

greatly to be hoped that this plan will be carried into effect without

delay. Certain members of the French Société d’Acclimatation have

formed a committee haying for its object the domestication of the Af-

rican elephant, which seems to be entirely feasible. Meanwhile, in

America the plans for the preservation of a herd of bison are not being

realized. This is due to the neglect of Congress to legislate for the

proper protection of game in the Yellowstone National Park. This

must be done at an early day, or the herd of bison there will be exter-

minated. It is expected that a portion of Fairmount Park, Philadel-

phia will be set apart for the breeding of bison. If this hope shall be

realized and other small herds now existing are preserved, this species

may be saved from extinction as a result of inbreeding. This fate

is said to be overtaking the herd of Aurochsen or European bison in

the government preserve in Lithuania. They are said to be becoming

very infertile. The seals of Alaska are having a rest, and their de-

struction is for the time being delayed. Enough remain to enable

them to recover their old abundance if protected. The American

and British Commissions are composed of able men who will see

42 The American Naturalist. [January,.

the herd preserved if they can accomplish it. The crusade of the

Audubon society against the slaughter of birds for the decoration of

ladies’ bonnets has produced good fruit. The practice of wearing

birds has become less common in America at least, and a relatively

small number of women appear to be willing that the most beautiful

of living things shall be exterminated to gratify a fleeting fancy.

Ir is to be hoped that the recent enormous seizure of game being

illegally shipped out of the State of Minnesota, over the Chicago, Mil-

waukee and St. Paul Railroad, will be very much of a check upon the

extinction of the game mammals that has been going rapidly onward

for some time. The seizure made in the freight yards of the Chicago,

Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad, at St. Paul, comprises several tons

of venison, and the fines, at the rate of $50 per piece, may amount from

40,000 to 50,000 dollars.

THE newspaper press is again publishing reports of the existence

of the Mammoth in the interior of Alaska. Bones of this species are

abundant in that region in the latest deposits, and there is no a priori

impossibility in the supposition that some herds of this gigantic mam-

mal still survive. On the other hand, the sole source of the stories are

the aborgines, who, as we are informed, are not noted for veracity,

and who like to be entertaining. The huge bones havé not escaped

their observation, and may have given rise to the stories that they tell, |

The matter is, however, worth looking into by persons who have oppor-

tunities for doing so on the spot.

How differently different people regard nearly the same subject may

be illustrated by the people of Massachusetts struggling hard for the

last five or six years to exterminate the gypsy moth and by the action

of the Entomological Society of London in appointing a committee to

take measures for the protection of British lepidoptera from extermina-

tion at its meeting on October 14. Warm sympathy with the movement

has been expressed by the London Entomological and Natural History

Society the North London Natural History Society, and the Liecester

Literary and Philosophical Society. The first step to be taken is to

learn what species are in danger of extermination.—F. C. K.

Tue Field Museum of Chicago has been recently enriched by an ex- _

tremely valuable callection of Egyptian Antiquities, through the gen-

erosity of one of the trustees, Mr. Edw. E. Eyre. Some remarkably

fine Roman bronze bath tubs from near Pompeii have been procured :

for the Museum by Dr. Brestrad.

SR a AN amas E F. pig

1897.] Recent Literature. 43

Mr. Oscar Roun has at considerable expense collected together

series of 86 specimens of rocks from the Keeweenawan, the Penokee and

the Marquette districts in the Lake Superior region. The collections

represent all the important rock types found in these districts. They

are intended more particularly to illustrate the reports of the United

States geologists upon the copper and iron-bearing series of the Lake

Superior region, though they may serve also as supplements to the col-

lections of Paleozoic rocks at present furnished by dealers in geological

materials, since they embrace specimens from the Algonkean and the

Archean systems as recognized by the U. S. Geological Survey. The

collections, having been made at the suggestion of Prof. C. R. Van

Hise, may safely be accepted as typical. In spite of the great expense

that has attended the making of the collection its price has been placed

at $40.00. A rare opportunity is offered to practical geologists and to

teachers of geology in our colleges to secure a trustworthy set of rock

specimens from one of the most interesting geological regions in the

United States. Itis hoped that the offer will be availed of, and that Mr.

Rohn may be induced to collect from other much discussed districts.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Zur palaozoischen Flora der Arktischen Zone by A. G.

Nathorst, Zur Fossilen Flora des Polarlinder, I, Theil, 1 Lief, 80 pp.,

XVI pl., Stockholm, 1894.

In this memoir on the Paleozoic Flora of the Arctic Zone, Dr. Na-

thorst presents a comprehensive and exhaustive review and revision of

the Paleozoic plant material brought by the various expeditions from

the Arctic regions. Following in the footsteps of Heer, he has been so

fortunate as to have in hand not only all the Arctic specimens hitherto

described, with the exception of the fragments brought by McClintock

from Mellville Island, but also important later collections made from

several localities in the Devonian and Eocarboniferous of Spitzbergen

by De Geer and himself in 1882.

The results of Nathorst’s work diverge along three lines, viz., the

material imperfectly or often erroneously figured or described by Heer

is presented in its true relations with detailed accuracy, and is supple-

mented by the more recent collections ; the geological age of the fossili-

44 The American Naturalist. (January,

ferous teranes is more definitely fixed; and the identity or affinity of

the floras with the others of the same age in lower latitudes is verified

and found to constitute important evidence of climatic uniformity.

In the strictly paleobotanic portion of the memoir, which is most

useful to students of fossil plants, there are, besides the refiguration and

redescription of many of Heer’s types, numerous points of special in-

terest. To mention the many interesting species found, or the valuable

specific correlations made by Dr. Nathorst, would far exceed the space

available in a short notice. Among the more notable cases in the former

class are the new provisional genus Pseudobornia, and the elaborations

of the characters of Cyclostigma Haughton, which is here included in

Bothrodendron, though a subgeneric differentiation is suggested. Pseu-

dobornia appears, as its name indicates, to be Calamitic in its nature,

though no prejudice is expressed as to its relations or possible identity

with Bornia or Calamites. Pseudobornia ursina Nath. is very sugges-

tive of Calamites inornatus Dn. The existence of a Knorrid stage in |

Bothrodendron is made plain beyond doubt, while the absense of both _

Lepidodendron and Sigillaria in the Bear Island Ursa beds, gives rise :

eee Ade a mg ioe wot A tir cB ES a S es

to a strong presumption that the Stigmariæ found there are to be re- —

ferred as roots to Bothrodendron, which Nathorst seems to think may

have been the ancestor of Sigillaria and Lepidodendron. ;

The flora of the Liefde Bay system of Spitzbergen with species of |

Cyclopteris, Lepidodendron, Bothrodendron?, Psilophyton-like stems, — |

and Psygmophyllum, while, indicating a Devonian age, is insufficient

to warrant with confidence a closer correlation. A comparison, how- — |

ever, of Nathorst’s figures shows a close relation of the Arctic Le ; l

pidodendra with the American Upper Devonian species. It seemsto

the writer that the Psygmophyllum williamsoni Nath., which isregarded

by Nathorst as a Gymnosperm, deserves a comparison with our Archa- a

opteris obtusa Lx., or the A. archetypus Schmalt. i

The flora of the Lower Carboniferous of Spitzbergen with Sphenop-

teris bifida L. and H., and other species (several of them new) of Sphen-

opteris, Adiantites, Cardiopteris, Archæopteris, Lepidodendron, Halonia,

Bothrodendron (B. tenerrimum A. and T.), Carpolithes, and Samarop- —

sis, is closely related to, when not identical with, species in the Calici- —

ferous Sandstone and Lower Carbonifi Limestone of Great Britain,

or the Culum of continental Europe. Several of the species, €. g.

Sphenopteris sturii Nath., S. flexibilis, S. kidstonii and Lepidodendron

spitzbergensis are very close to, if not identical with plants found in the

Pocono (Vespertine) series of the Alleghenies, or the Horton series of

Nova Scotia, though the general aspect of the flora seems as a whole to

be somewhat younger.

1897.] Recent Literature. 45

The “ Ursa” flora of Bear Island, with Calymmatotheca, Pseudobornia,

Lepidodendron cf. pedroanum, and Bothrodendron (B. kiltorkense and

others), has, with the exception of the comprehensive Stigmaria ficoides,

nothing definite in common with the Lower Carboniferous flora, and

appears to be nearest related to the Kiltarkan flora of upper Devonian

age, or perhaps it represents the transition from the Devonian to the

Carboniferous.

Finally, Dr. Nathorst discovers no difference in the character of the

vegetation in the Devonian or Lower Carboniferous of the Arctic zone

and that of the contemporaneous deposits in other parts of Europe,

both the ferns and the Lycopods being of full size and apparently

grown under conditions equally favorable, so that, so far as yet known,

fossil plants offer no evidence of a difference in climate at those periods,

between the Arctic and the lower latitudes of Europe. We may add

that the same climatic conditions appear to have existed contemporan-

eously in the Appalachian region of the United States—Davip WHITE.

A Biological Examination of Lake Michigan in the Tra-

verse Bay Region.—The Sixth Bulletin of the Michigan Fish

Commission bears this title and in some one hundred pages records the

work done by Dr. H. B. Ward and an efficient corps of assistants.

Besides Dr. Ward’s report, there are to be found within the covers

of the bulletin the reports of five others, either assistants or those to

whom specimens were sent. Aquatic plants are treated by H. D.

Thompson, the Protozoa by Dr. C. A. Kofoid, the Rotifera by H. S.

Jennings, the Turbellaria by Dr. W. McM. Woodworth and the Mol-

lusca by Bryant Walker.

The objects of the work were a study of the life of the lake in all its

manifold relations and especially of those factors which bear upon the

welfare of food fishes in general and of the young white fish in par-

ticular.

The more important conclusions that Dr. Ward arrives at are:

That 63 per cent of the food of the common white fish, Coregonus

celupeiformis consists of Crustacea. Twenty per cent of this is formed

by Mysis relicta Loven, and 43 per cent by Pontoporeia hoyi Smith.

After the crustacea come small mollusks at the rate of 26 per cent,

made up mostly of several species of Pisidium.

That the ultimate source of the food supply is found in the plankton

of which he estimates that there is for Lake Michigan almost 9,300,000

cubic meters, representing a weight of from 102,300 to 118,600 metric

tons, or 12 to 16 pounds to each acre of surface. With Hensen he

46 The American Naturalist. [January,

concludes that the productiveness of the water about equals that of the

land; but, at the same time, he points out that there is an element of

error in these comparisons since they are made with an artificial

productiveness in the land.

The plankton does not occur in swarms; and that it gradually in-

creases to a depth of 30 meters, below which it decreases. The varia-

tions found in distribution through different strata of water are prob-

ably due to vertical migration.

The uniform distribution of the plankton indicates that the fish

feeding upon it find a limited food supply everywhere.

The bottom flora and fauna are not sufficient to maintain large

numbers of bottom fish. The well known migrations of white fish

along shore seem thus to be correlated with the non-localized food sup- —

white fish except over catching.

Finally he speaks strongly and with the very best of reason in

favor of the fisherman and pisciculturist being given the same govern- —

mental attention that is given the agriculturist. Piscatorial stations —

where the best of investigatorial talent may be employed continually —

would not only offer the best means for preventing the extinction of the —

food fishes, but would enable the piscatorialist to maintain a good sup- —

ply.—F. C. Kenyon.

Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Sciences for 1895.

—Several times we have had occasion to notice the volumes put out —

by the Indiana Academy of Sciences, and always in a favorable man- —

ner. The present volume, recently issued (although its title page bears

date February 1896) proves no exception. These 300 pages contain

papers on mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, physiology

and hygiene, the total presented in full or in abstract numbering.

these, but a few can be mentioned here. In his presidential address —

Mr. A. W. Butler discusses the changes in the flora and fauna which —

have occurred since the beginning of the century and these changes —

have been numerous and important. Many are the animals, once

abundant, which are now rare or exterminated. Read Audubon’s ac —

count of a pigeon roost and now “a single pigeon in a year.” Mr. A-

H. Purdue presents his studies of the earthquake of Oct. 31, 1895, the —

greatest in the Mississippi Valley since 1811, and the interesting fact —

was brought out that its epicentrum nearly coincided with that of

There is a plentiful supply of white fish food on the old fishing

grounds and no reason can be given for a diminution in the supply of

ahs Uaioe

1897.) Recent Literature. 47

the New Madrid earthquake. Science, apparently, is not favored by

those having charge of the State Library, if we can judge from the

catalogue of the botanical literature which is contains. The Academy

should endeavor to change this. Certainly Science should be as well

treated as literature in a state library. Mr. R. E. Call revises the

Unios allied to U. parvus, doing it in a way to please those who do

not believe, with the late Dr. Lea, that we have over 600 fresh water

clams in the United States. There are two or three papers on fishes,

but most important is one by Evermann and Scoville upon the spawn-

ing of the blue back salmon of the Pacific rivers. These studies were

made in the lakes of Idaho and the conclusion is drawn that these fish

spawn but once and then die, and that the well known mutilations are

received on the spawning beds while making their nest.

The Academy is trying to make a thorough biological survey of the

state and hence the local lists published have no little value. These

include molluses, birds, fishes, the bird notes of Mr. Butler being espe-

cially valuable from their fullness. Prof. Stanley Coulter reports upon

the collections of plants—nearly a thousand species—that have come

into the possession of the Academy ; but the first place in importance,

though the last in the volume, should be given Prof. Eigenmann’s re-

port of the biological survey of a limited fauna—that of Turkey Lake.

The physical features of the lake are described in detail and small

collections are reported upon by several persons but most interesting

-and valuable are the studies of variation, the preliminary stages of

which are reported upon. Such studies carried on in this manner

would be of great value did they only give us results of use in system-

-atic science ; but they promise more than that.

The State of Indiana for two years past has published the Proceed-

ings of the Academy, and it should continue to do so. There is not a

state organization of similar character anywhere which is doing better

work than is this. Its members are working for the good of the State,

‘and this without any hope of gain. The State should make the results

of these labors accessible to all.—J. S.

Beal’s Grasses of North America.'—About ten years ago Dr,

Beal, brought out his useful Vol. I, and now we have the companion

volume after many years of waiting. The first volume treated the

subject somewhat agriculturally while here we have a scientific de-

scription of every species occurring in North ict including all

the cultivated species also.

1 Grasses of North America, by W. J. Beal, Ph. D., in two volumes. Vol. II,

pp. viii, 706, 8vo, with 126 figures. New York, lanis Holt & Company, 1896.

48 The American Naturalist. [January,

The plan of the work is excellent and in the main it is well worked

out. The sequence followed is that of Hackel in Engler and Prantl’s

Naturalichen Pflanzenfamilien. The characterization of each division

and tribe is full and apparently well drawn, and under these the de-

scriptions of genera and species are equally well made. Occasionally

one notices a little redundancy of words, but this is a fault which will

displease very few. We are so accustomed to short and insufficient de-

scriptions that it is quite gratifying to find descriptions in which there

is something to spare. To a large extent these descriptions are new,

at least the book is not a mere compilation of scattered descriptions.

The student will find here, for the first time, descriptions of all our

grasses, 809 native and 103 exotic species. The author has attempted

to illustrate nearly every genus, and he has succeeded so well that of

146 genera, 126 are figured. Some of these figures are crude, and the

lettering in some is cruder still, but taken as a whole, they are helpful,

while many are very well done.

We notice with pleasure that the nomenclature is in accordance

with the “ Rochester-Madison Rules,” and, contrary to what some

have feared, the changes in well known names are not many. The

synonomy is full, but has not been as carefully collected as it should

have been, due probably to the employment of clerical help. We

notice with regret also that the range of many species of the Plains

has not been acurately given, although authentic lists, and even her-

baria, could have readily been consulted. These errors of omission

and commission are, however, not so great as to be seriously harmful,

and they can easily be corrected in a second edition. As it is, the

work will be very useful, and American botanists are deeply indebted

to the author, for completing this laborious task—Cuar.es E. BES-

SEY.

Brush’s Determinative Mineralogy and Blowpipe Analy- |

sis.’—This most valuable text-book on blowpipe analysis, with tables —

for the determination of Mineral species by blowpipe methods has long ~

been the standard text used in our colleges. The first part (Blowpipe :

Analysis) has now been entirely rewritten and enlarged from 62 to —

163 pages. The valuable tables which were based on von Kobell’s

Tafeln zur Bestimmung der Mineralien are now in process of revision —

for a later edition of the work. As these tables comprise but 33 a

double pages against 163 pages of the text devoted to blowpipe analy-

2 Fourteenth Edition, Revised and Enlarged, by Prof. S. L. Penfield. Wiley, 4

$3.50.

1897.] Recent Literature. 49

sis, it seems to the reviewer that it would be well to change the title to

Blowpipe Analysis and Determinative Mineralogy, which would then

indicate the natural order of considering these subjects and the one

followed in the book.

The new text is admirably written and of especial value because of

the discriminating judgment that has been shown in selecting the

characteristic tests for the elements. When no really satisfactory

blowpipe test for an element exists the author recommends a test em-

ploying the wet methods. In order to make the work as complete as

possible tests for the rarer elements are included but appear in finer

print. Valuable hints concerning the best quantity of material to be

used in each case and little “ tricks” of manipulation which are usually

only learned after considerable experience in applying the methods

abound in the book. Mineralogists generally will rejoice to see this

valuable work brought up to date by so experienced and so accurate

a mineralogist as Professor Penfield and will look forward with inter-

est to the appearance of the revised tables. The author announces in

his preface that he intends to add a chapter to the work so as to treat

briefly ere and the physical properties of minerals— Wm.

H. Hos

Chudzinski on the Facial Muscles.’—M. Chudzinski, who for

many years was the preparateur of anatomy, and the active colleague

of Paul Broca, has just published a work of well matured thought, the

result of dissections carried on by the author during twenty-five years.

This paper comprises a study of the muscles of the face and neck in

many different races of men, their variations, their anomalies, and

their analogies and differences with those of the monkeys. When it is

considered that these muscles are the ones that control the physiog-

nomy, that is to say, control the expression of mind, one can appreci-

ate the interest whirh this work of M. Chudzinski will have, not only

for anatomists, but also for anthropologists and artists.

3 Some Observations on the Muscles of the Human Skull and Face, by Theo-

phile Chudzinski, Assistant in the Laboratory of Anthropology at the School of

Hautes Etudes, Member of the Society of Anthropology, Laureate of the Acad-

emy. One volume in 8vo, with 25 figures in the text. 4 fr.

50 The American Naturalist. [January,

AMERICAN NATURALIST LIST OF RECENT BOOKS

AND PAMPHLETS.

ANDREWS, C. W.—The Osteology of Palxolimnas chatamensis and Nesolimnas

(gen. nov.), dieffenbachii. Extr. Novitates Zoologice, Vol. III, 1896

—— The Osteology of Diaphorapteryx hawkinsii. Extr. Novitates Zoologice,

Vol. IJI, 1896.

——Note on the Skeleton of Diaphorapteryx hawkinsii. Extr. Geol. Mag, —

1896. From the author. 2

—On a Skull of Orycteropus gaudryi, Forsyth Major, from Samos. Extr. —

Proceeds. Zool. Soc. London, 1896. From the author.

Baker, F. C.—Preliminary Outline of a new Classification of the Family Muri- —

cide. Bull, Chicago Acad. Sci., Vol. II, No. 11, 1895. From the author.

Boure, M.—La Topogruphite Glaciare en Auvergne. Extr. Ann. Geog. 5e

Ann., 1896. From the author.

DAVISON, A .—The Tentacular Apparatus of Amphiuma. Extr. Amer. Nat,

save. Fron the author. a

Wm.—The Animal Nature of Eozoon. Extr. Geol. Mag., 189. — 4

;

From t sie author

DEPERET, C. athe Vexistance de Dinosauriens Sauropodes et Théropodes dansle

Crétacé supérieure de Madagascar. a

—Sur les phosphorites quaternaires de la régione d’Uzél. Extrs. Comptes

endus, Paris, 1895. From the author.

FAIRBANKS, H. W.—The Geology of Point Sal. Extr. Bull. Dept. Geol. Vol.

2, 1896. From the author.

Fisher, A. K.—The Mammals of Sing Sing, N. Y. Extr. Observor, Port-

land, Conn., Vol. VII, 1896. From the author. 4

GARMAN, H.—Some Notes on the Brain and Pineal Structures of Polyodon

folium. Bull. Ill. State Lab., Vol. IV, 1896. From the author.

Hay, O. P.—On some Collketions of Fiha aud:On thé Skeleton of Toxochelys

latiremis. Field Columbian Mus. Pub. 12 and 13. Zool. Ser., Vol. I, 1896.

From the author. n

_ INGEN,,G. VAN AND T. G. WHITE.—An Account of the Summer’s Work in Ge-

ology on Lake Champlain. Extr. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., XV, 1895. From

the author. a

JorDAN, D. S.—Notes on Fishes, Little Known or New to Science. Extr.

a Stanford, Jr. Univ. Pub., 1896. From the author.

Keyes, C. R.—Orotaxis: A Method of Geologic Correlation. Extr. Amer.

Geol., Vol. XVIII, 1896.

ac Revie ew of Wachsmuth and Springer’s North American Fossil Crinoidea

Camerata. No date given. From the author.

Livy, P. O.—I Coccodrilli Fossili del Veneto. Dagli Atti R. Inst. Veneto T.

VIL Ser. 7, 7, 1895-96. From the author.

MERCERAT, A.—Etude comparee sur des Molaires de Toxodon et d’autres rep”

Heuntante=de la méme famille. Extr. Anales Mus. Nacion., Buenos

IV, 1895. From the author.

1897.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 51

Merriam, C. H.—Revision of the Lemmings of the genus Synaptomys, with

Descriptions of New Species. Extr. Proceeds. Biol. Soc. Wash., Vol X, 1896.

——Sigmogomphius lecontei, a New Castoroid Rodent from the Pliocene,

near Berkeley, Calif. Extr. Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. Calif., 1896. From the

uthor.

MILLER, G. S.—The Central American Thyroptera.

—Note on the Milk Dentition of Desmodus. Extrs. Proceeds. Biol. Soc.

Washington, Vol. X, 1896. From the author.

Genera and subgenera of Voles and Lemmings. races American Fauna,

No. 12. Washington, 1896. From the Smithsonian Institutio

OctLey, J. D. On a New Genus and Species of Fishes from Jimia Bay.

a a Galaxias from Mt. Kosciusko. Extrs. Proceeds. Linn. Soc. N. 8.

Wales, 1896. From the author!

PavLow, M.—Noveaux irati tertiaires trouvés en Russia. Extr. Bull.

de Moscow, 1896. From the au

Peracca, M. G.—Retiili ed ‘Gan raccolti nel Darien ed a Panama dal Dott.

E. Festa. Extr. Boll. Mus. Zool. ed Anat. Comp. Torino, Vol. XI, 1896.

From the author.

PERRINE, C. D.—Earthquakes in California in 1894. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv.,

Washington, 1895. From the Survey.

Ricumonp, C. W.—Catalogue of a Collection of Birds made by Doctor W. L.

Abbott in Eastern Turkestan, the Thian Shan Mountains, and Tagdumbash

Pamir, Central Asia, with Notes on Some of the Species. Extr. Proceeds. U.S. .

Natl. Mus., Vol. X VIII, 1896. From the Museum.

RITTER, E.—Etudes sur l’orographie et l’hydrographie des Alpes de Savoie.

Extr. du Globe, 7, XX XIV, Mémoires Genève, 1895. From the author.

RoLLINAT, R. ET E. Trovessart.—Sur la Reproduction des Chauves-souris.

Extr. Mem. Soc. Zool. de France, 1896. From the authors.

TT, W. B.—On the Osteology and Relations of Protoceras. Extr. Journ.

Morphology, Vol. IX, No. 2, 1895. From the author.

SHuFELDT, R. W.—On the Affinities of Harpagornis. Extr. Trans. New

Zealand Inst., Vol. XXVIII. 1895. From the author

True, F. W.—Note on the Occurrence of an Armadillo of the genus Xenurus

in Honduras. Extr. Proceeds. U. 8. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1896. From the

author.

Weekly Weather Crop Bulletins North Carolina State Weather Service.

Geological Map of the verse of the Passaic, New Jersey. Trenton, 1895.

From the New Jersey Geol. S

Wuite, T. G.—The Faunas a the Upper Ordovician Strata at Trenton Falls,

Oneida Co., N. Y. Extr. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XV, 1895. the

author.

Wuiteaves, J. F.—Notes on some of the Cretaceous Fossils Collected during

Capt. Pallizer’s Explorations in British North America in 1857-60

umbia. Extrs. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada (2), Vol. I, 1895-96. From the

author.

52 The American Naturalist. [January,

WILDER, H. H.—Lungless Salamanders. Extr. Anat. Anz. XII Bd., 1896.

From the author.

WOLTERSTORFF, W. AND JOH. BorHM.—Ueber fossile Frösche aus den altpleis-

tociinen Kalktuff von Weimar und Taubach. Adbruck a. d. Zeitschr. d. Deutsch.

Geolog. Gesell. Jahrg. 1896. From the author.

General Notes,

PETROGRAPHY.'

The Basic Rocks of Devonshire.—The diabases of southern —

Devonshire, England, have been carefully investigated by Busz.’ The —

diabases occur in floors often between Devonian slates and schists. The —

plagioclase of a specimen from Anstie’s Cove, near Torquay, is partially .

changed to prehnite. All specimens contain brown hornblende, which —

is regarded as original. At Babbacombe the diabase is full of porphy-

ritic crystals of labradorite. The groundmass in which these lie is-

composed of a second generation of plagioclase in a serpentine-like sec

ondary matrix, which has been derived from the augite and other com-

ponents of the original rock. Both porphyritic and groundmass pla |

gioclases are deformed as the result of pressure. At Highweek blocks —

of a pale pikrite were found. Their material is identical in appearance —

with the rock of Nassau. It consists of olivine, augite, feldspar, bie

tite, enstatite, apatite and magnetite. The rock is very much alte

Its composition, as shown by analysis, is:

SiO, Al,0, Fe,0, FeO CaO MgO Na,O K,O H,O TiO, P,O, FeS, Total —

40.12 7.76 7.35 8.66 6.53 23.69 1.20 58 4.03 .37 .18 2010

It contains also traces of Cl, CO, and Cu.

Along the banks of the Avon, at South Brent, blocks of Kersantite

are met with. The rock possesses no noteworthy features, except that :

in it are crystals of orthoclase surrounded by zones of newly formed

plagioclase.

The Magmatic Alteration of Hornblende and Biotite.—

Hornblende and biotite in many igneous rocks are surrounded by i 2

of augite and magnetite that have resulted from their alteration.

process by which this zone or rim has been formed is generally cal

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

? Neues Jahrb. f. Min., ete., 1896, I, p. 57.

i iA

1897,] Petrography. 53

upon as a chemical one. The rock magma is supposed to have fused the

hornblende or biotite grains, or to have partially dissolved them, and

from the resulting mass the augite and magnetite are believed to have

crystallized. Washington,’ in a recent article, discusses this theory.

He shows that the alteration is confined almost exclusively to the con-

stituents of the intermediate and basic volcanic rocks. It is not a

phenomenon of acid rocks, nor of plutonic basic ones. The author

believes that the two minerals named are formed under intratellurial

conditions, and that when the conditions are changed to those prevail-

ing at the surface the complete but homogeneous compounds break up

into a heterogeneaus aggregate of simpler ones, i. e., becoming para-

morphed. It is believed that many of the grains of augite and magne-

tite scattered through certain volcanic rocks may have been components

of these paramorphs that have been carried from their original positions

by magma movements. Some of the augite andesites are thought to

owe their augitic constituent to the processes above outlined.

Petrography of the Little Rocky Mountains, Mon.—The

Little Rocky Mountains are situated in central Montana, about 180

miles east of the Rocky Mountains proper. They are formed by a dome-

shaped uplift of Paleozoic and older rocks in the midst of horizontal

cretaceous strata. The nuclear rocks are classed by Weed and Pirsson* as

Archean-Algonkian, because consisting of various schists associated with

a quartzite. Around these and covering them, over much of the extent

of the mountains, are porphyries that grade in places into phenolitic

facies. The rock was extruded asa laccolitic mass, which now partially

covers the Archean schists. In the main it is a granite porphyry, con-

taining orthoclase and oligoclase phenocrysts in a fine grained ground-

mass composed almost exclusively of orthoclase, anorthoclase and

quartz. This rock is replaced occasionally by a syenite-porphyry, or by

a granite-diorite-porphyry, which differs from the granite-porphyry in

the presence of chloritized augite and in the predominance of plagio-

clase phenocrysts over orthoclastic ones. At two places tinguaite re-

places the normal rock. This phonolitic phase is a dense, dark-green

rock, that is apparently a contact phase of the normal porphyry. In

their section the tinguaite shows large phenocrysts of sanidine and

smaller ones of augite in a fine groundmass of alkali-feldspars, aegirite

and nephelite. The syenite-porphyry from Lookout Butte is charac-

terized by the absence of all minerals but the feldspars and a little

3 Jour. Geol., Vol. IV, 1896, p. 257.

‘Jour. of Geology, Vol. IV, 1896, p. 399.

54 The American Naturalist. [January

quartz, and by the fact that the feldspars of the groundmass are almost — |

exclusively albites. An analysis of the predominant granite-porphyry i

yielded : %

SiO, Al,O, Te,O, FeO MgO CaO Na,O K,O TiO, BaO S,0H,0 Cl Total

68.65 18.31 .56 .08 .12 1.00 4.86 4.74 .20 .13 .10 1.10 .08=99.88 ~

The Volcanic Rocks of Bolsena, Italy.—The volcanic rocks a

of the Bolsena region in Italy are reported by Washington‘ to comprise

two distinct types—the trachytie and the leucitic. The former include

andesite and vulsinite, a rock that differs from normal trachyte in con- 1

taining a great deal of plagioclase and occasionally some olivine. The —

plagioclase is anorthite. Both this mineral and the large crystals of |

orthoclase that occur as phenocrysts are surrounded by mantles of |

orthoclase in optical continuity with the nuclear grains. An analysis —

of the rock gave: }

8:0, TiO, Al,0, Fe,0, FeO MgO CaO Na,O K,O P,O, Ign Total

58.21 tr 19.90 4.0 Of. -98 -3:58 2.57 . 9,17 —100.09 E

The vulsinite is ar an effusive rock intermediate in eae be-

tween trachyte and andesite. 4

The leucite rocks are leucitites, leucite-phenolites (leucite- orthoclae)

leucite-tephrite and leucite-basanites. All these rocks are briefly

scribed by the author.

The Analcite-bearing Rocks.—Pirsson,’ in a general article om

the monchiquites and other related rocks gives the results of his study

of a number of interesting rock types, all of which contain analcite —

The glassy base of monchiquites is shown to have the properties of this

mineral. Analcite is also thought to be present in many other rock

as an original component. The conditions favorable to its production

are those that obtain in dikes or other small intrusive masses—they

proa of rocks, Jok as there exists a leucite group. The monchiquites

are analcite basalts and the fourchites are analcitites.

Petrographical Notes.—Callaway’ gives a brief account of the

origin of schists of the MalvernjHills, England. The rocks were orig-

inally diorites, epidiorites, granites and felsites. They have been chang®

to schists by the usually processes of dynamic metamorphism.

5 Jour. Geol., Vol. IV, 1896, p. 542.

e Jour. Geol., Vol. IV, 1896, p. 679.

™Proc. Liver. Geol. Society, 1895-96, p. 453.

1897.] Geology and Paleontology. 55

banding of some of the schists is due to interlaminations of igneous

rocks of different characters.

Several new occurrences of alnoite are described by Smyth* from near

Manheim, N. Y. The rock of a small dyke does not differ in any essen-

tial respect from the rocks described a few years ago. The rock of a

large dyke is very fine grained on the margin of the dyke, but in its

interior it is a coarse grained panidiomorphic aggregate of reddish-

brown mica and serpentine pseudomorphs after olivine, together with

a little magnetite, apatite and perofskite. Melilite has not been ob-

served in the rock, but the author thinks that it may have been

present before alteration set in.

In the report on the the Mine la Motte sheet of the Missouri Geo-

logical Survey, Keyes and Haworth’ describe the Archean rocks found

within the district as granites which pass upwards into prophyries,

Some of the granites are granular, while others are porphyrtic. In

composition they are normal. The porphyries are like those of the -

Iron Mountain district. The acid rocks are cut by intrusions of diabase,

and of quartz disabase porphyrites.

In a collection of rocks from the Provinces Kansu, Schensi, Hupe

and Honan, in China, Steuer” finds granites, hornblende-vogesite,

melaphyre, serpentine, amphibolite, gneiss, and various schists and

sediments.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Lambdotherium not Related to Palzosyops or the Titan-

otheres.—The little species Lambdotherium popoagicum of the Wind

River beds, found contemporary with Paleosyops borealis, has been

treated by Cope, Earle and others as an ancestral titahothere. A

more careful examination of the numerous specimens in the American

Museum shows at once that it bears much closer resemblances to the

horses, especially in the chisel-shaped incisors, the atlas, the manus and

A restatement of its definition and principal characters appears to

be of value.

8 Amer. Jour. Sci., 1896, Vol. II, p. 290.

® Missouri Geol. Survey, Sheet Report, No. 4. p. 24.

10 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1896, II, p. 477.

56 The American Naturalist. (January,

GEN. LAMBDOTHERIUM Cope. Incisors chisel-shaped. Premolars

relatively reduced, a wide diastema in front of p}. Superior molars

bunoselenodont with an oblique ectoloph, including a very prominent

parastyle and sharply defined mesostyle; protoloph with a sharply

defined protoconule. Manus with the fourth digit reduced, functionally

tridactyl with lunar widely displaced.

L. popoacicus Cope.’ This species was established upon two man-

dibular rami with the anterior and posterior portions fractured (Am.

Mus. Cope Coll., 4863). The animal is small (pm2—m3=.069), rang-

ing in size between the largest Hyracotheres and smallest species of

Paleosyops (P. brownianus). Remains of twenty individuals are —

now contained in the American Museum, Cope Collection. The num-

ber of incisors is unknown and it is also uncertain whether there are

three or four premolars. The incisors are chisel-shaped. The canines

are sharply pointed. The second and third upper premolars have —

single internal lobes. The form of the molars is very characteristic;

they differ from the contemporary Hyrachothere molars in the obliquity

of the ectoloph, the prominent parastyle and sharply defined meso-

style, the protoconule is acutely triangular, while the metaconule is

not defined but merged in the low metaloph ; in fact, the inner half of

the crown is quite like that of the early horses. In the lower jaw P,

is a laterally compressed protocone, P, has rudiments of additional

cusps, P, is submolariform with its tetartocone rudimentary or absent.

The lambdoidal lower molar crests give the name to the genus; the

the paraconid (as in the Hyracothere) is feebly reduplicate; in M;

the hypoconulid varies from a conic to a selenoid or crested form.

The few skeletal characters known are very significant (See Am. Mus.,

Cope Coll., No. 4880). Asin the Equide the vertebrarterial canal

passes through the upper side of the transversal process of the atlas.

The displacement in the manus is extreme, the lunar resting on the

unciform and demonstrating that although four toes existed the foot

was mesaxonic ; at the same time the median digit was not greatly en-

separated inferior and sustentacular facets as in the horses.

Remains of the tibia, of the calcaneum and other characteristic

limb bones all resemble the corresponding parts in the contemporary

Equide.

1 Am. Nat., 1880, p. 748, Tert. Vert., p.

1897.] Geology and Paleontology. 57

This animal differs, however, from the contemporary horses in the

prominent median cusps (mesostyle) of the superior molars, and the

asymmetry of the outer wall (ectoloph) caused by the prominent par-

astyle. This forbids our placing it with the true line of horses. The

molars and the pes resemble those of the imperfectly known Triplopus

amarorum & species whose relations to Triplopus the writer has always

doubted.

It appears possible that we have here another side line of perisso-

dactyls, related to the horses. —Hrnry F. OSBORN.

Development of the Foot in the Paleosyopinz.—The fol-

lowing observations are based on the specimens contained in the col-

lections of the American Museum of Natural History of New York.

The Lower Eocene member of the group, Paleosyops borealis Cope,

was rather slenderly built, with comparatively long toes, well sepa-

rated. With the great increase in size in the Middle and Upper

Eocene came a corresponding change in foot structure. Two types

developed, one with short broad foot, the toe bones short, stout and

widely spreading ; the other with longer and rather stilted foot, the

metapodials long, but set close together. The former type is that of

Palseosyops, and is correlated with a short wide head and general stout

heavy build. The latter is the Telmatotherium type, and is associated

with long heads and probably much more slender form. The species

ean be conveniently distinguished by two characters in the astragalus,

viz., the length and thickness of the neck, and the shape and relations

of the sustentacular facet.

In an astragalus referred to P. borealis, the neck is moderately

long and not thickened at the base. The sustentacular is a rather

long oval, and scarcely separated from the distal (cuboid and navicu-

lar) facets. In our specimens of P. laticeps Marsh, the characters are

much the same asthe above. P. paludosus Leidy, and P. ultimus’

Osborn, have a broad, short-necked astragalus, the sustentacular facet,

in the former species at least, being short-oval and generally (but not

always) well separated from the distal facets.’ The other (Telmato-

therid) line shows a slight lengthening and considerable thickening of

the neck, and a change in the shape of the sustentacular facet, either

to an extremely long oval, separate from the distal facets, as seen in a

specimen referred to T. hyognathum Scott & Osborn, or else a long

2 Species not yet described.

3 It is not so, cae in the Princeton specimen described by Earle in his

Memoir on Paleosy

58 The American Naturalist. [January,

triangular shape, confluent at its base with the distal facets, as seen in

T. cornutum Osborn, of the lower Uinta. In the small species T. meg-

arhinum Earle, the primitive type persists through to the Lower

Uinta, with some lengthening of the neck of the astragalus and of the

sustentacular oval. A Bridger specimen of T. cultridens is more ad-

vanced, being intermediate between megarhinum and the supposed

hyognathum. Diplacodon in the Upper Uinta, shows a short neck,

but the facet was long elliptical, tending towards confluency ; it ap-

pears more nearly allied to the persistent primitive forms than to —

either extreme type, as shown in T. cornutum on the one hand and P.

paludosus on the other. These characters of the foot-structure appear

to be mainly dependent on the size of the animal and are, therefore, of —

little taxonomic value; but there appears to be a valid distinction be- —

tween the long-footed Telmatotheres and the short-footed Palseosyops, —

which may serve as a further reason for separating the two genera. —

It must be remembered, however, that intermediate forms were abund- —

ant, and gave rise, probably, to the later Titanotheres.

In all but two of the above mentioned species the foot material is —

associated with skulls more or less complete. The determinations of —

the latter are on the authority of Osborn and Earle, and they will be _

fully described by Prof. Osborn in a forthcoming paper, this note, by

his kind permission, being published in advance.—W. D. MATTHEWS.

The Western American Læœss.—In a paper read before the :

Iowa Academy of Sciences Mr. B. Shimek states that his investigations

concerning the deposition of the Læss of Iowa have convinced him

that the theory of the lacustrine origin of the deposit and its origin in

violent fluviatile floods are equally untenable. He offers instead the

theory that the less is of æolian origin, and that it was deposited

principally in forests amd to a lesser extent in dense growths of smaller

plants, while proportionately small quantities only were carried

directly into the waters and there deposited.

The author adduces the following facts to show that the loss is not

of aquatic origin :

“ First.—The land area during the period of the formation of the

loess was large as is shown by the remains of great numbers of terres-

trial mollusks.” ,

“Second.—The occurrence of dry region mollusks, many of which

species are now living TATEN Iowaand eastern Nebraska, particu-

larly in wooded regions.”

Sar ee nea ee OE tae EN E AAA ae

E E oo Sin Sate Ih tat gtk a E MER aria, Ole gto ct Cope Prat PI

1897.] Geology and Paleontology. 59

“Third.—The deposits often occur so high above the surrounding

region that it is difficult to conceive of the manner in which water

laden with the fine silt could reach the place of deposition.”

“ Fourth.—The siliceous and other particles which the loess contains

are generally angular and often show a freshness of fractures which

would scarcely appear in particles which had been rolled and washed

about by the waters.”

“ Fifth.—The distribution of the loess is better accounted for by the

consideration of the action of the winds, and by the distribution of the

forest areas.”

Mr. Shimek adduces evidence demonstrating (1) that the lcess was

deposited under climatic conditions essentially the same as those which

prevail in the same region to-day; and (2) that the deposition was

slow and continued through a period of considerable extent; and (3)

that a forest lying adjacent or near to drift covered plains is especially

favorable to the deposition of lcess.

The differences between the loess of eastern and western Iowa are in

accordance with the general topographical and climatic differences

which probably existed during the loess period, as they do now.

In considering the time element the author estimates the deposition

to go on at the rate (minimum) of one mm. a year. If this be correct

the time required for the formation of the entire deposit would not be

unreasonably great. (Proceeds. Iowa.Acad. Sciences [1895], 1896.)

The Extinct Birds of Chatham Island.—The Tring Museum

is in possession of an immense collection of bird remains from the

Chatham Islands, consisting of many thousands of bones. The collec-

tion is being worked up by Mr. C. A. Andrews, and the results pub-

lished in Novitates Zoologicee. From so large a mass of material Mr.

Andrews was able to obtain nearly complete skeletons of several of the

extinct species, and to form a tolerably accurate idea of the degree of

individual variation in some of them. The first paper on the subject

appears in the March number (1896) of the publication above men-

tioned. It comprises a detailed description of the osteology of Diaph-

orapteryx, prefaced by a brief explanation of the adoption of the gen-

eric name. In closing he calls attention to its close resemblance to

Aphanapteryx, and discusses Milne-Edwards’ statement that the simi-

larity of the two forms is a strong evidence that the islands in which

they occur, viz., Mauritius and Chatham were formerly connected with

the great Antarctic Continent. The author is inclined toward Dr.

60 The American Naturalist. [January,

Gadow’s explanation that the likeness of the two forms is the result of

parallism in evolution.

The ancestors in the two cases, generalized rails capable of flight,

were probably of different genera, or, at least, of different species. ;

A second paper (Sept., 1896) gives the osteology of Paleolimnas —

chathamensis and Nesolimnas (gen. nov.) dieffenbachii. =

The proportions of Paleolimnas, together with the considerable —

size of the sternal keel and the deep impression of the insertion of the —

Pectoralis major on the crest of the humerus leads the author to state T

that “it seems probable that Palæolimnas may have still been capable

of heavy flight for short distances.”

Of Nesolimnas, the new genus, Mr. Andrews remarks as follows:

“In Nesolimnas we have an annectant form linking the flying to —

the flightless rails. In its plumage, in the condition of its sternum,

and in many other points, it reminds us of Hyopotænidia ; while on

the other hand, in the reduction of its wings and the consequent mod-

ification of its hind limb it approaches Ocydromus. The existence f

such an intermediate type seems to give strong support to the opinion

that the Ocydromine rails have originated from forms capable of

flight at a comparatively recent date and in the islands they now in- —

habit.” 4

Both papers are profusely illustrated. |

BOTANY.’

Climatic Influence of Lake Erie on Vegetation.—In

small district in northern Ohio, including Erie County, Sandusky Bay

and the peninsula that bounds it on the north, with the islands of the

Put-in-Bay group, there are growing wild 103 species and varieties of ‘

phanerogams, which so far as known have not been found anywhere iN

Michigan, 118 not found in Canada, and 233 not within fifty miles 0

the city of Buffalo, at the east end of the lake. Bo

Lake Erie is not a barrier to the dispersal of seeds, but it affects dif

ferently the climate of places on its different sides, making each differe

from the others and different from that of places lying in the same lati-

tude, but not near the lake. The south shore is protected from north

winds, and receives the full benefit of those from the opposite direction,

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska. —

1897.] Botany. 61

while it is the reverse with places on the north side; but why such a

great difference in the vegetation at the east and west ends? Is it not

due to something else than climate? Let us see. At Buffalo the mean

temperature in summer is about four degrees lower than at Sandusky.

In the spring months the difference is even greater, being five degrees

in April and nearly five in May and in June. The prevailing winds

are from the southwest, and traverse the lake for nearly its whole length

before reaching Buffalo, keeping it cool insummer, the temperature not

having exceeded 92° since the establishment of the weather bureau

there twenty-six years ago. Moreover, at the opening of spring the

wind takes the ice with it to the east end of the lake, where it remains

so crowded as to prevent navigation three weeks or more after Sandusky

Bay is clear. The average date of the last killing frost in spring at

Sandusky is April 30th, at Buffalo, May 20th. Moreover, Buffalo is

not, like Sandusky, so situated as to be protected from cold northwest

winds in autumn. Its first killing frost comes on an average September

15th; but at Sandusky it is not until October 24th—thirty-nine days

later. The summer at Buffalo, counting the time between the average

dates of killing frost, is about two months shorter than at Sandusky—

118 days at Buffalo, 177 at Sandusky.

The fact that a number of plants belonging to the Sandusky flora have

been found nowhere in Canada, except on the southernmost points, viz.,

Pt. Peleé Island and Pt. Peleé, which must enjoy nearly as much im-

munity from frost in spring and autumn as the United States shore

immediately to the south of them, implies that the climate elsewhere is

too severe for them, and probably for most of the 118 Sandusky plant

that are not known to grow in Canada at all. The influence of the cli-

mate is further shown by the fact that besides 103 species which have not

been found in Michigan at all the Sandusky flora includes a number

that have been found only in the southern and especially the south-

western part, where Lake Michigan affords them some protection from

ost.

It is interesting to observe that the protection from frost afforded by

Lake Erie scarcely extends beyond the counties that border upon it,

and as a result we have many plants in these that have not been re-

ported from any other county north of the middle of the State, and

quite a number that have been found nowhere else in Ohio except in

the southern part, within forty miles of the Ohio River. Even so far

south as Columbus the first killing frost in autumn occurs on an average

six days earlier than at Sandusky.

62 The American Naturalist. [January,

When Lake Erie subsided after the melting of the glacier, and Mar-

blehead emerged from the water, it was left bald, so to speak, for what-

ever deposit the glacier may have left upon it was washed off from

most of it by the lake. The same was true of portions of Kelley’s Island

and Put-in-Bay, and here, where one would expect to find a moist

climate, the scant soil formed by disintegration of the limestone becomes

more parched under the summer sun than any spot in Ohio farther —

east. I doubtif another place could be found in the country as far east

where there are so many plants that belong to the western plains ason

Marblehead. 4

Having shown that the conditions of climate and soil near the south-

western extremity of Lake Erie are peculiarly suited to southern and —

western plants, it remains to indicate briefly how the seed succeeded in

getting so many miles away from home, though the problem is no more

difficult than accounting for the dispersal of any rare plant that is found

only at widely separated stations. The seeds of the Composite, which

` are the best represented of all, might many of them have come on the

wings of the wind, and so with Asclepias and others. The seeds

Ammania coccinea and Rotala ramosior may have stuck to the feet of a

by cattle, which, before the time of railroads, were driven from Illinois |

east by way of Marblehead and Cedar Point, being made to swim across

the channel that connects Sandusky Bay with the lake. At an earlier

day, when the bison roamed as far east as Lake Erie, seeds of various

kinds must have clung to its hair. Others, probably came with the-

Indians, who seem to have been attracted by the good fishing in this

region. Few, if any, are such as have fruit whose seeds are dropped

by birds. Fruit-eating birds in migrating would carry northward only

those whose fruit survives the winter.

Following is a list of plants which, on the south shore of Lake Erie, 1

believe occur farther north than anywhere else in this part of the coun-

try. Some of them in the west, where the summer isotherms bend to

the north, extend to southern Minnesota. As a number of these arè

both southern and western in distribution, I include in the same

some that appear to reach their eastern limit near Sandusky. Onl

a few of either the southern or western species extend east along the

lake as far as Cleveland. Quite a number, I believe, have not hitherto

been recorded as occurring as far north by one hundred and fifty miles,

or so far east by a still greater distance.

1897.] Botany. 63

Viola pedatifida, Desmodium sessilifolium, D. illinoense, Baptisia

leucantha, Psoralea melilotoides, Petalostemon candidus, P. violaceus,

Ammania coccinea, Rotala ramosior, Spiræa lobata, Eryngium yuccefo-

lium, Thaspium aureum trifoliatum, T. bardinode angustifolium, Acti-

nella acaulis glabra, Aster shortii, Boltonia asteroides, Eclepta alba,

Helianthus grosseserratus, H. hirsutus, H. mollis, H. occidentalis, Eupa-

torium altissimum, Kuhnia eupatorioides, Liatris squarrosa, Solidago

rupestris, Asclepias sullivantii, Phacelia purshii, Cuscuta decora, Cono-

bia multifida, Gerardia auriculata, Seymeria macrophylla, Lippia lan-

ceolata, Euphorbia dentata, Populus heterophylla, Smilax bona-noz, §.

ecirrhata, Juncus scirpoides, Carex conjuncta, C. shortiana, Poa brevi-

folia, Equisetum levigatum.—E. L. MosELEY, Sandusky, Ohio.

The Systematic Arrangement of the Protophyta.—[In a re-

-cent study of the families and genera of the Protophyta I have reached

some results which involve a rearrangement of the group, the general

outlines only of which may be given here. It is, of course, here as else-

where, a matter of individual judgment as to the value to be assigned

to any structure in determining the place which a particular plant must

occupy in a system, and it is doubly difficult when we are dealing with

such minute and simple structures as the protophytes. Moreover, it is

-quite probable that some of the forms now thought to be distinct are

ônly stages of others also given specific or generic standing. Neverthe-

less, we have here a great mass of organisms with sufficient autonomy

to demand classification at our hands, and we may not excuse ourselves

-from this task merely because we do not know fully the life history of

-every species,

The following provisional arrangement has therefore been made as a

result of a careful study of the whole problem. As will be observed, I

have not considered the hysterophytic habit of some of the forms as

entitling them to be separated widely from those to which they are struc-

turally similar. In other words, the “ Bacteria” are here not regarded

as constituting a distinct family. Furthermore, it appears that “ Bac-

teria” have arisen at various points in the protophyte system, so that

it is now impossible to maintain a compact group of the hysterophytic

genera. Indeed, it is highly probable that we should admit into some

genera both holophytic (green) and hysterophytic (colorless) species,

as, for example, the species of Schizothrix.

In the arrangement below, the hysterophytes are preceded by a star

-(*),80 that the position of the “ Bacteria” may be noticed at a glance.

64 The American Naturalist. [January,

ORDER I.—CysTIPHOR&.

Plants one-celled or associated in loose groups in a gelatinous matrix.

Family 1.—Chroococcacee.—Our genera may be disposed as follows:

A. Cells globose, dividing irregularly in three planes, Chroococcus,

Glceocapsa, Aphanocapsa, Microcystis, Polycystis, Anacystis, Gom- —

phospheeria, Cœlophærium, Clathrocystis.

B. Cells globose, dividing ragulariy.i in two or three planes. Merismo-

pedia, *Sarcina.

C. Cells cylindrical, dividingin one plane only. Synechococcus, Glæo-

theca, Aphanotheca.

ORDER II.—NEMATOGENEÆ.

. Plants several- to many-celled by division mainly in one plane, form-

ing simple or branched filaments ; cell-walls often thickish, and sepa- —

rating an outer continuous layer as a sheath, which encloses the row —

of cells.

Five families may be distinguished as follows:

A. Cells in each filament alike ; no heterocysts. Filaments cylindric

motile, Oscillariacee.

B. Cells differentiated ; heterocysts present.

a. Division of cells in one plane only.

1. Filaments moniliform, unbranched, Nostocaceé.

2. Filaments cylindrical, sometimes spuriously branched, |

Scyton

3. Filaments tapering, sometimes spuriously branched,

Rivulariacee.

b. Division of cells ultimately in three planes. Filaments with

true branches, Sirosiphoniacee.

The relationship of these families to each other may be indicated by

the following diagram :

Sirosiphoniacee

Rivulariacee

Scytonemacece

Nostocacece

Oscillariacee

Chroococcaceee

1897.] Botany. 65

The arrangement of our genera within the families may be as follows:

Family 2.— Oscillariacee.

A. Cells green or greenish; usually two or more filaments in each

sheath; Schizothrix, Porphyrosiphon, Hydrocoleum, Dasyglea,

Microcoleus.

B. Cells green or greenish ; filaments solitary in the sheaths, or sheath-

less; Plectonema, Symploca, Lyngbya, Phormidium, Oscillaria,

Arthrospira, Spirulina.

. Cells colorless; filaments without sheaths, or nearly so; *Lepto-

trichia, *Beggiatoa, *Bacillus, *Pasteurella, *Clostridium, *Cor-

nilia, *Vibrio, *Spirillum, *Pacinia, *Bacterium. This series is

parallel to B, and perhaps may eventually be merged into it. Cer-

tainly Spirulina and Spirillum are closely related, if, indeed, they

are not identical.

Family 3.— Nostocacee.—Nostoc, * Leuconostoc, *Staphylococeus, *Mi-

crococcus, Wollea, Anabzena, *Streptococcus, Aphanizomenon, No-

dularia, Cylindrospermum.

Family 4.—Scytonemacee.—Microcheete, Scytonema, Hassellia, Toly-

pothrix, Desmonema.

Family 5.—Rivulariacee.—Calothrix, Dichothrix, Polythrix, Isactis,

Rivularia, Gleotrichia, Brachytrichia.

Q foe i LT 1 ~

1 i i

Family 6. , Stigonema,

It will be observed that the “ Bacteria” are confined to the first,

second and third families, by far the greater number occurring in the

Oscillariacee.

The “Slime Moulds” (Mycetozoa) are not here regarded as proto-

phytes. These interesting and often very beautiful organisms I am

reluctantly compelled to consider as falling outside of the dominion of

Botany; and much as I dislike to do so, I am assured that we must

surrender their study in the future to our zoological friends —CHARLES

E. Bessey.

66 The American Naturalist. [ January,

ZOOLOGY.

The Relation of Nuclei and Cyptoplasm in the Intestinal

Cells of Land Isopods.'—Somewhat more than two years ago the

late Professor Ryder and Miss Pennington (Anat. Anzeiger, Bd. IX,

Nr. 24 & 25) announced the discovery of the fact that nuclei in the

adjacent cells of the intestinal epithelium of Porcellio may become

amoeboid, wander toward each other, and in some cases fuse together.

This surprising fact the authors mentioned interpreted as a non-sexual

form of conjugation; and, while recognizing its unique character, did

not doubt that it was a normal phenomenon, even suggesting that it

might have some relation to sexual conjugation. :

Owing, however, to the entire novelty of these observations and inter-

pretations the paper was received by many persons with considerable

reserve. One author, W. Schimkewitsch (C. R. Soc. Natural., St. Pe- —

tersbourg, 1895, I, and Biolog. Centralblatt, Bd. XVI, Nr. 5), while —

confirming the observation, denied that the nuclear fusion was a normal —

phenomenon. He interpreted it not as a form of nuclear conjugation }

but simply as as an artifact. :

In the course of a study of amitosis, upon which I was engaged, it

occurred to me that the phenomenon is question might be an irregular

form of direct nuclear division ; and with the approval of Dr. Mary —

Pennington, the junior author of the paper first mentioned, I undertook —

a review of that work. i

My observations began with Porcellio, and were then extended to ‘

Oniscus and Armadillidium. On the whole the results of this review —

confirm the conclusions of Schimkewitsch. The phenomenon, which —

may be readily observed, is in most cases neither a form of nuclear con- —

jugation nor division, but simply an artifact. I was first impr i

with the fact, as was also Schimkewitsch, that in the most carefully pre

served preparations relatively few of these so-called “ conjugating

nuclei” were found; on the other hand, in cases where the intestine

was cut open before fixation, or was in other ways roughly handled,

many of them occurred.

The shape and structure of these nuclei is such as to suggest the idea

that they have been squeezed out of shape by some sort of pressure.

They are most frequently long and pointed, with the chromatic substance

condensed at one end, and with an empty nuclear membrane at

other, Figs. 1,2 and 3. In some cases these nuclear processes are

‘Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of University of Pennsylvania,

No. VI. : .

1897.] Zoology. 67

forked or branched, in others they are uniaxial. In adjacent cells the

axes of nuclear elongation are frequently parallel; sometimes they

radiate more or less regularly from a common area. The chromatic

substance within these elongated nuclei is usually drawn out into rods

or threads, which are parallel with the axis of elongation, Fig. 3. They

frequently extend through several cells, and in a few cases were ob-

served to protrude through the coelomic parietes of the cells. They

show no marked tendency to fuse with each other, their long processes

frequently passing through two or three cells without fusing with the

nuclei of those cells. They are no more abundant in animals, which

have been starved four weeks, and in which the alimentary canal has

been for a long time entirely empty, than in animals which are well

fed. In many cells the nuclei are broken up into several fragments,

Fig. 2, each of which, though possessing no part of the original nuclear

membrane, is yet sharply marked off from the cytoplasm. In all such

cases the nucleus shows its characteristic staining reactions ; in fact, the

nuclear substance, though flowing through the cytoplasm, does not

mingle with it. In general the nucleus and cytoplasm behave like two

fluids, which are not miscible, e. g., oil and water. In some cases, how-

ever, which will be described a little later, the substances of the nucleus

and the cytoplasm appear to mingle at a definite point in the cell, and

this under what seems to be normal physiological conditions.

The view that these distorted nuclei are squeezed from one cell to

another is still further supported by the fact that the coelomic, and

especially the luminal walls of these intestinal cells, are strong and

thick, while sections show that in most regions the parietal walls are so

thin that they cannot be distinguished; the nuclei might therefore

easily pass through these parietal walls. The apparently well-marked

cell boundaries which one observes in surface views of the intestine are

really the superficial muscle fibres which run in the furrows between

successive rows of cells.

I was at first inclined to attribute the source of the presumable pres-

sure by which these bizarre forms of nuclei were produced to the con-

traction of these circular and longitudinal muscle fibres which, especially

in the posterior portion of the alimentary canal, lie with great regu-

larity between the successive circular and longitudinal rows of cells.

The fact, however, that these abnormal nuclei may occur singly or in

very narrowly circumscribed areas, and do not usually follow the lines

of a single muscle fibre, whereas the fibres most probably contract as a

whole, Jed to the abandonment in the main. of this view.

68 The American Naturalist. (January,

A study of sections of the intestine show that almost every cell, and — :

especially those in the anterior region of the alimentary canal, is trav- :

ersed by bundles of very strong fibres, which run from the luminal to

the coelomic side of the cell, and inclose the nucleus as in a bard i

cage, Fig. 4. These fibres when cut across curl slightly at the ends, —

showing that they are elastic; and it is possible that they may, under

certain circumstances, contract, thus forcing the nucleus out through 4

the bars. The presence of these fibres certainly explains the re

and branched, or even broken appearance, which the nuclei ohne

present. :

Experiment, however, demonstrates the fact that the principal, if not

the only cause of these distorted nuclear forms, is merely the mecha :

ical pressure incident to the ordinary methods of removing the intestine — 7

from the body. I find that by pulling off the head segment and then l

carefully separating the tail segment from the next anterior one the

intestine can be slipped out of the body, generally without injury, $ simply a

by pulling on the tail segment. I have prepared many such specimens n

which do not show a single distorted nuclear form. If now an intestine —

so removed be gently pressed in several spots with a blunted pencil, the

distorted nuclei are found, after staining and mounting, to be locate

immediately around these spots. If the entire alimentary tract ?

gently pressed with a spatula, every nucleus may be caused to take t

form, I believe, therefore, that these distorted nuclei are largely.

not entirely, the result of mechanical pressure produced by contact

with foreign objects. Whether cells which have undergone such pre

sure may afterwards restore their nuclei to a normal condition, oF

gain them, if altogether lost, is a question which I am now investigating:

In some cases in which the intestine was removed with the mot

pains-taking care a few cells were found in which a normal looking

nucleus extending into two cells, Fig. 8. Some of these cases, I

convinced, are amitotic divisions of the nucleus; e. g. figures 7 an

show cells which are indented on the ccelomic side and in which t

nuclei are dumb-bell shaped. That this is nota case of “ conjugation

is evidenced not only by the shape of the cells but also by their size!"

they are scarcely any larger than single neighboring cells.

other hand there are many cases in which nuclear forms which mig

be mistaken for amitotic division figures are plainly proclaimed to

squeezed nuclei by the absence of a nuclear membrane from one €P

Fig. 3 3

There remains to be described the remarkable structure of some

which, I believe, are entirely normal. In the anterior region

1897] Zoology. 69

alimentary canal the luminal side of each cell is covered by a very

thick coat of chitin. Through this chitin run a great many minute

channels which unite to form larger channels and ultimately open into

the cell. The space into which they open is filled with a homogeneous,

non-granular substance which stains an intense black in iron hæma-

toxylin. This substance is limited to the space lying between the

nucleus on the one side and the chitinous wall on the other and it evi-

dently fills the channels which penetrate this wall. Its appearance is

very different from ordinary cytoplasm and I believe it is a form of

secretion which is being elaborated by the cell to be poured through

the channels mentioned into the alimentary canal. The proximity of

the nucleus to this substance, as well as the aggregation of the chroma-

tin on the side of the nucleus next to it, suggests that the nucleus must

play an important role in its formation; the nuclear membrane, how-

ever, is intact on all sides.

In that portion of the intestinal wall on the ventral side immediately

posterior to the well developed typhlosole the nuclear membrane is in

all cases excessively thin on the side of the cell next the lumen, and it

is usually drawn out into finely pointed processes which become con-

tinuous with the cyto-reticulum. In several cases which I have ob-

served the nuclear membrane is altogether wanting on this side of the

nucleus, and in such cases it can be readily seen that the cyto-reticulum

is continued into the nucleus, while the chromatin granules, which are

densest toward the middle of the nucleus, become directly continuous

with the large microsomes of the cytoplasmic net. This transition of

chromatin granules into microsomes is most beautifully shown when a

differential stain such as the Biondi-Heidenhain mixture is used.

such cases the chromatin granules within the nucleus are green, the

microsomes are red, and between these the granules shade from one into

the other through various tints of blue and lilac. It is of course pos-

sible that in this case the nuclear membrane may be ruptured owing to

pressure. Against this view, however, may be urged the fact that the

disappearance of the membrane always occurs at one point, viz. on the

side next the lumen and furthermore there is no evidence of rupture,

the structures of the cytoplasm being continued without interruption

into those of the nucleus. I hold, therefore, that these cells normally

show a direct continuity between cytoplasmic and nuclear structures,

though I cannot at present explain the functional significance of this

fact.

Finally in the cells of the dorsal wall posterior to the typhlosole the

nucleus is deeply indented in certain cases on the side next the lumen,

70 The American. Naturalist. [January,

the chromatin is massed on the opposite side and the nucleus is very

large and vesicular containing many irregular dark-staining masses or

nucleoli, which are frequently vacuolated. On the luminal side the

nuclear membrane becomes so thin that it is impossible to say whether —

it is continuous or not. Between the nucleus and lumen the cytoplasm

is unusually dense and immediately outside of the nucleus it is massed

into a dense darkly-staining substance, which projects by one or many

processes into the cavity of the nucleus. These processes frequently

contain vacuoles and in structure and staining qualities they exactly

resemble the nucleoli. Frequently these processes are deeply con-

stricted at the base as if they were about to be cut off and set free into

the nuclear cavity, as indeed I believe to be the case. a

The general similarity of this process to the reception of food material

by the egg of Dytiscus as observed by Korschelt is at once apparent, —

In this case, as in that, there is little doubt that the granular material

is a nutritive substance, which, in the case of the Isopods, is taken up —

from the alimentary canal and sent up in a broad band to the nucleus,

where it aggregates immediately outside the nuclear wall. Unlike the —

cases observed by Korschelt; however, this substance projects into the

vesicular nucleus in the form of processes which appear to be cut off

and set free within the nucleus. There are many reasons for believing —

that this substance projects into the nucleus rather than that the nu- —

cleus sends out pseudopodial processes into it. The nuclear wall is ab

this place so extremely thin as to be absolutely invisible in many places,

and the nucleus itself is of such an open and vesicular character that it

seems scarcely possible that it should actively send out processes into

this densely granular mass. Moreover the evidence that these processes _

are set free into the nuclear cavity seems to me very good, though, pe _

haps, not absolutely convincing. I shall leave the consideration of thé

functional significance of this phenomenon to a future paper.

DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES.

Fig. 1. A small portion of the intestinal wall of Porcellio which had

been gently pressed upon with a spatula. The entire intestine W

similar to the bit here shown. Fixation, Corrosive-Acetic ; stain, Br

ondi-Heidenhain ; Obj. 8mm.; Occ. 4 (all the figures were sketch

with a camera lucida under Zeiss Apochromatic lenses). a

Fig. 2. Longitudinal section through dorsal wall posterior to typhlo

sole showing distorted nuclei. The contiguous cell boundaries atè

marked only by the circular muscle fibres which are seen in cross-sec"

tion. Fixation, picro-formalin; stain, Biondi-Heidenhain; Obj. Š

mm.; Oce. 4. a

PLATE ILI.

Conklin on Isopoda,

PLATE HI.

aR eo on y

KG, eA Mia

{sige

Conklin on Isopoda.

PLATE IV.

ey a

Ren

Seu eae:

Conklin on Isopoda.

1897.] Zoology. 71

Fig. 3. Cell from ventral wall near anus showing nuclear substance

which has been forced from right to left in the sedan Fixation,

Hermann’s fluid; stain, iron haematoxylin ; Obj. 3 mm.; Occ. 12.

Fig. 4. Section of elongated cell at dorsal margin of typhlasdlė show-

ing fibres which traverse the cell. No lateral cell walls visible. The

chitinous lining of alimentary canal is shown in double contour. Fix-

ation, Flemming’s fluid ; stain, iron haematoxylin ; Obj. 3 mm.; Occ.

Fig. 5. Cell from region of typhlosole, dorsal side, showing the very

thick chitinous wall (unshaded) which is perforated by many minute

canals. Nucleus slightly distorted. Feu Hermann’s fluid ; piain

iron haematoxylin; Obj. 3 mm. ; Occ. 1

Fig. 6. Cell from ventral side pokorio : typhlosole showing Satan

ity of nuclear and cytoplasmic structures. The cyto-reticulum is very

strongly marked on the side of the cell next the lumen. Fixation,

Hermann’s fluid; stain, iron haematoxylin; Obj. 3 mm.; Oce. 12.

Fig. 7. Cell from dorsal wall posterior to typhlosole showing an in-

dentation on the coelomic side which is probably the beginning of cell

division ; the circular muscles are shown in cross section. A densely

granular process of nutritive substance projects into the nucleus on its

luminal side. Fixation, corrosive sublimate; stain, Biondi-Heiden-

hain; Obj. 3 mm.; Oce. 12.

Fig. 8. Cell =e same region as preceeding figure, showing later

stage of amitosis. Fixation, stain and magnification same as Fig. 7.

Fig. 9. Cell from same region as Figs. 7 and 8. Nutritive substance

projects by many processes into nucleus, some of which contain vacu-

oles and are apparently being set free into nucleus to form nucleoli.

Fixation, stain and magnification same as preceeding figure.

E. G. Conxiiy, University of Pennsylvania,

Myriapoda Climbing Vertical Glass Surfaces.—Dr. C. Ver-

hoeff has been making experiments upon the climbing powers of Polyz-

enus and of juloid diplopods. His results show that unless the surface

is such or is covered with some substance that gives a purchase to their

claws the diplopods have not the power of climbing in the true sense of

the word. They are only able to reach up the sides of a glass dish by

using the last few segments of their body as a base of support. On the

other hand the Polyxenids can climb. This fact, it may be noted, is

patent to every one who has collected and kept them alive in a

vial. They are invariably found in the neighborhood of the cork, ready

to escape as each new one is putin. And it may be added that the pauro-

pods can climb, though ‘scarcely as well as Polyxenus. But what they

72 The American Naturalist. [January,

lack in the power to climb clean, dry glass surfaces may, perhaps, be

accounted for by the fact that these little fellows, dependent as they are

upon respiration through a delicate cuticle, quickly succumb to dry-

ness. I have watched individuals of both Pawropus and Europauro-

pus as they ran up the sides of a vial or of a crystallizing dish, going

easily where the surface was covered by fine particles of earth or hu-

mrus, and falling off where the surface seemed clean.—F. C. KENYON.

Lepidosiren articulata Not Distinct from L. paradoxa.?—

Prof. E. Ray Lankester has lately made a study of the limbs of the

various specimens of Lepidosiren conserved in the various European

museums, and finds that in every case examined the skeleton of the limbs

is hot a continuous cartilaginous rod, but is composed of a series of

articulated cartilages. This removes the difference that Ehlers sup-

posed to exist between his specimens from Paraguay and those from the

Amazon basin, and caused him to create the species L. articulata. To

further show that the specimens from the two river systems are in all

probability of the same species L. paradoxa, Prof. Lankester compared

the specimens in head-length units, with the following result, which

shows differences of no specific importance.

Brazilian, average: total length, 9.87; inter-membral, 5.25: post-

membral, 3.5; cervico-dorsal, 3.21.

Paraguayan, average: total length, 9.75; inter-membral, 5.21;

post-membral, 3.59; cervico-dorsal, 3.2.—F. C. KENYON.

The Regeneration of the Lens in the Eye of Triton.—

Some two years ago we were astounded by the contents of a brief com-

munication by Gustav Wolff in the Biologischen Centralblatte® bear-

ing the title, “ Remarks on Darwinism, with an experimental contri-

bution to the Physiology of Development.” In this the author brought

forth the results of an experiment that flatly contradict one of the

chief tenets of Weismann, inasmuch as he showed that the destruction

of an organ formed from the ectodermic layer is followed by a regen-

eration of the structure from a layer of cells of mesodermal origin. In

other words, the lens of the eye of Triton teniatus, when destroyed, is

reproduced by a lens that develops from the iris! Later on, Wolff

published his final paper with illustrations. But the work was in

great need of confirmation, This has been done by Erick Miiller,

who seems to have begun his task with as much skepticism as might

be expected.

2 Trans. Zool. Soc., XIV., 11-24.

? Bd., XIV (1894), No. 17.

* Arch. f. Entwicklungsmechanik d. Organismen, I, 1895.

5 Arch. f. mikr. Anat , xlvii (1896), 23-34.

1897,] Zoology. 73

The larvee chosen varied from 3-6 em in length. Each was held in

a damp cloth to avoid injury, the cornea carefully slit with a scalpel

and the lens removed without injuring the iris. Within one day

changes were noted in the layer of cells composing the latter. The

inner layer began to take on the appearance of embryonic cells. The

cells began to loose their pigment, which was taken up and carried off by

the leucocytes that began to fill the pupillar space. Then they began to

prow:

Fig. 1. I0 days after the destruction of the lens; showing the new lens, 4

iglecidenitag from the iris. Fig. 2, 18, days after the operatio

increase in size and by the tenth day a small group of them, recogniza-

ble as a small swelling in the accompanying figure, copied in outline

from the author’s figure, had been pushed into the pupillar space.

From this time on, the group of cells underwent all the changes recog-

nizable in the normally developing lens. The posterior layer became

much thicker than the anterior; its cells became more or less colum-

nar and finally arranged themselves in concentric layers covered as a

whole by the outer one-celled layer. By the fortieth day after the op-

eration, the inner cells forming the inner three-fifths of the lens had

lost their nuclei and become transparent. By the sixtieth day the re-

generated lens had every appearance of a normal one.

The changes were followed through from day to day and, as shown

_ by the fifteen figures given by the author, seem conclusive.—F, C.

Kenyon.

The English Sparrow not Always a Nuisance.—It is grati-

fying to run across direct evidence that that feathered nuisance of our

large cities, the English sparrow, does a little real good, after all that

may be said against him. According to a late communication by S.

D. Judd in the Auk, this sparrow has a fondness for the seeds of the

common dandelion. Of all the seed-heads of this plant collected from

aspace of ground six feet in diameter, one hundred and thirty-five

showed traces of the bird’s beak.

The same author says that he has seen an English sparrow chase

through the air, catch and devour a cicada. Catching insects that

fly in a direct line does not seem to be a very difficult matter, but

others able, like the dragon fly and flies generally, to dodge, as well as

74 The American Naturalist. [January,

others of a naturally uncertain course, nearly if not always elude the

bird’s bill.

He also reports that the sparrow is very fond of picking up the in-

sects injured or killed by the electric lights.—F. C. K.

The Origin of the Chiropterygium.—lIt has been said that the-

limb of the higher Vertebrates—Man, Reptile, Batrachian—does not

exhibit the rayed structure of fishes. To explain this condition M.

Mollier offers four possible solutions.

1. A single ray may have persisted and present segmentation is a.

secondary formation, all the other rays having degenerated.

2. Two rays only may have been preserved. Traces of these two rays.

would then be found in the forearm. The five fingers would be a

secondary division, while a fusion of two rays would take place in the

region of the humerus.

3. Five primitive segments might be represented, indicated both by

the number of nerves together with the muscular buds, and by the

number of the fingers.

4, The number of rays might be indefinite; they united to form a

single mass, which ulteriorly underwent a secondary segmentation.

To the first hypothesis is opposed the fact that concentration is every-

where the rule, while this supposition would necessitate that the primi-

tive outline, which had started from at least two segments, must en-

large.

As to the second hypothesis, embryology shows that the two bones of

the fore arm develop from a single mass.

The third hypothesis rests on several concurrent conditions. But

we find, according to M. Mollier, that the number five is not constant.

Among the Batrachians, there are only three.

The only plausible theory then, is the fourth which agrees with all

the facts of embryology which Mollier therefor accepts. (Revue

Scientif. Sept., 1895, p. 340.)

A New White-footed Mouse from British Columbia.—

During a collection trip in the northwest, Mr. Will C. Colt made sev-

eral excursions to Saturna Island (in the Gulf of Georgia half-way

between Victoria and Vancouver City), British Columbia, and secured

there over two hundred white-footed mice. This enormous series, now

in the Bangs collection, taken in January, February, March, April and

May, 1894, represents a strongly marked and hitherto undescribed

subspecies of Peromyscus texanus. The same form is probably found

on all the islands and coasts of this vicinity, and agrees in its dark

coloration with the whole fauna of this saturated region.

1897.] Zoology. 75

Through the kindness of Dr. ©. Hart Merriam, I have been able to

compare the Saturna Island series with a series of P. tavranus gambellii,

` belonging to the collection of the Department of Agriculture, from the

type locality, Monterey, California. . I have also made comparison with

a large amount of material from Nicasio, California. Specimens from

the latter place agree very closely with specimens from Monterey. The

Saturna Island form is the darkest colored member of the texanus group,

and is readily distinguished from either of its two nearest allies, P.

texanus gambellii and P. texanus arcticus, by the peculiar sooty black of

its upper parts. The new form may stand as:

PEROMYSCUS TEXANUS SATURATUS subsp. nov. Type from Saturna

Island, B. C., No. 2581 Sold adult, coll. of E. A. and O. Bangs. Col-

lected by Will C. Colt, January 31, 1894. Total length 190; tail ver-

tebræ 94.5.

General Characters —Size and proportion about as in P. taxanus

gambelli, from which form it differs in being very much darker in color ;

the general tone of the upper parts sooty-black instead of yellowish-

brown. :

Color. —Upper parts sepia-brown, much intermixed with sooty-black,

most intense on face and middle of back, paling off on sides ; a narrow

and indistinct band of cinnamon along lower sides ; under parts grayish-

white, the hairs deep plubeons basially; a black orbital ring; ears

black, narrowly-edged with white; tail quite hairy, sharply bicolored,

black above, white below; feet and hands white.

Size—Average measurements of ten old adult specimens: total

length 180.95; tail vertebre 76.20; hind foot (from dried skin) 21.25.

Remarks.—P. texanus saturatus has a short tail, shorter than the

head and body, and this character will always serve to distinguish it

from any of the long-tailed mice with which it might be found, such as

P. austerus, P. macrorhinus and P. keenii, all these having the tail longer

than the head and body.—Ourram Banos.

Some Bats from Lower California.—A small collection of

mammals made by Mr. A. W. Anthony at San Fernando, Lower Cal-

ifornia, during April, May and June, 1894, includes four species of

bats. All of these are interesting, on account of the locality at which

they were taken, while one, an addition to the ‘North American’

fauna, is very slightly known.

In a paper on the birds of San Fernando (Auk, XII, April, 1895,

p. 134) Mr. Anthony has given a detailed account of his collecting

ground. “The region,” he writes, ““* * * has for its center the old

76 The American Naturalist. [January,

abandoned copper mines of San Fernando, one league south of the ex-

mission of the same name which is situated about twenty-five miles

from the Pacific coast of the peninsula in about latitude 29° 30’. It

has an approximate altitude of fifteen hundred feet above sea level,

and is the center of one of the most barren of the Lower California

deserts.” Such a locality could not be expected to furnish a very ex-

tensive bat fauna. Hence the collector’s notes on the habits of the

animals under conditions apparently so unfavorable are of such value

that they may be quoted entire for each species.

CH#RONYCTERIS MEXICANA (Tschudi).—Mr. Anthony secured ten

specimens of this species in the shafts of the abandoned mines. Southern

Mexico has hitherto been the northern limit of the known range of

this bat, which now finds a place in the fauna of ‘ North America.’

The ten specimens, all but two of which are adults, measure as follows:

Number, |

Sex, Slee ae ba

Total length Tt \@ 118 T5 i 86 65 1? 75 nf

Tail v bree 98/8 9.6 9 6 7:6| 8.6 8.4

Free of tail, 8/ 1.8) 1.4 -2 0.8) 1 4 2

L. of interfemoral membrane from base of tail,.. 18 |16 1 16 |12 |15 (16.4116 |145

Occiput to tip of nose,... 2 132.4 | 3% 82 |26 |28.6/32 |30 |32

TODS Wel: balghti gariey-pin aA 5.4 : 5.4| 3.8 4.2| 4

Nose leaf: width, .8| 4.6) 4.4 4.4 3.4| 3. 8/4 |4

from meatus, 2 14.8 14.4|14 |14 |1 16 |15

-4/10 110 | 8 | 9.2110 {10 110

5 | 5 5 | 6.2

4 oA} 2 26| 2.8

6143 J44 |38 4 4 40 )\43

8.8 |10 8] 8 110

37.4 |28 l-4186 197.6

35.6 |41 |29 40 |41

16.5 |17.4|12.6 16.4 |17

21.6 |21.4 |15 20.6 20

11.4 |11 | 8.4/10.4 12 {11.8

87.6 (39 |27 t l. 187 186

10.6 12 9.4 -6 11.8 11.4

13.9 14.6 11 t > |14 jl4

36.8 137 |28 t > 186 4

9.6 10.4! 8.8 |10 ) | 9.4)10

12.7 |13 110 2 2 113 {12.4

“ This bat I never saw flying about in the evening. One came into

my cabin one night about 9.30, but with this exception, I never saw

one outside of the shafts and tunnels of the mines. Here they were

fairly common and usually found near the mouth of the opening—fre-

quently where the sun could reach them at some hour of the day.

When disturbed during the day, they usually took to the open air, and

either sought shelter in one of the old buildings about the shaft, or

flew into one of the abandoned shafts near by. They showed a

marked preference for the light, but if pursued took to the lower levels

1897] Zoology. 77

and for a number of days did not venture from that Stygian darkness

that Vespertilio seemed to prefer. In flight they were quick and

strong—more so than any other bat I have met with. I think they

seemed to see well even in bright sunlight, and were by no means easy

to secure after being driven from the mine.

“In fresh specimens the tongue is very similar to that of Dryobates,

being extensible for at least an inch and a half and also barbed, though

of course the barbs are soft.”

ANTROZOUS PALLIDUs (Le Conte).—Five specimens.

“The large, pale bat I only took in the cabin. They frequently

came in through the open door and were secured with a shingle.”

VESPERTILIO NITIDUS H. Allen, Threespecimens. As Mr. Anthony

did not distinguish between the species of Vespertilio and Vesperugo in

his collection it is probable that his notes refer in greater part to the

latter.

“ Vespertilio is the only bat I saw during the evening. They usu-

ally came out early, but owing to their habit of flying through the

brush very low (3-6 ft. above the ground) they were hard to shoot.

During June I found them catching insects about the tops of the cardones

and shot several. One was found under a plank where it had crawled

to spend the day. They were common in the mine, seeking the deeper

levels where it was very dark, in marked contrast to the leaf-nose

Ch ycteris| the only other species found under ground.”

VESPERUGO HESPERUS H. Allen. Sevenspecimens which the collector

did not distinguish from Vespertilio nitidus—Gerrit S. MILLER, JR.

Deaths from Wild Mammals and Snakes in India.—From

the annual report for 1895 of the government of Madras’ one learns

that 1923 persons were killed by wild mammals and snakes, and that

of these, 277 cases are attributed to wild mammals and the rest, 1646,

to snakes. It is possible that the deaths reported’ from snake bites

may be due to poisoning from other sources. The deaths caused by

wild mammals are shown to be:

4 from elephants.

177 from tigers. —

64 from panthers or leopards.

12 from bears.

10 from wolves.

“In his notes Mr. Anthony does not distingush between Vespertilio nitidus

and Vesperugo hesperus.

7 The Zoologist, September, 1896.

78 The American Naturalist. [January,

2 from hyenas.

8 from other mammals.

Of these deaths, 85 occurred in the district of Ganjam and 73 in

Visagapatam. In Ganjam much of the destruction was due to a man-

eating tiger.

The largest number of deaths from snake bites occurred in Chingle-

put, North Arcot, South Arcot, Tanjore, Trichinopoly and Salem, from

which districts 58 per cent of the total number were reported.—F. C. K.

The Number of Living Animal Species.—For the benefit of

the curious, as well as the zoological student, the following table giving

the census of the animal kingdom as known in the years 1830, 1881 and

1896 is inserted. The first two columns are taken from a note by A.

Günther, in Annals‘and Magazine of Natural History,’ and the last

from a note in The Zoologist.? The last was compiled in February

(1896) by the contributors to The Zoological Record.

1830 1881 | 1896

Mammalia, ù ‘ . $ { j 1,200 2,300 2,500

arm, r ; r 5 $ ; : 3,600 11,000 12,500

‘eptilia, . : ; j í s i 443 2,600

Maieiehiane, oi gutiuce OPADU 4 100 300 |} 4400

Fishes, k ‘ í ‘ : |. 3,500 11,000 12,000

Tunicata, a

Mollusca, . 11,000 33,000 50,000

Brachiapoda, $ 5 150

Bryozoa, à ` ; : 1,800

i r r . 1840 wits 7,500 20,000

\rachnida, i : : : 1 8,000

L enogonida, . ‘ 70 10,000

Myriapo ® 450 1,300

Protracheata, : ; ; z 4 : : pot 3,000

Hexapoda, ; i á ė ? : 49,100 | 220,150 230,000

Vermes, $ ‘ : 412 6,090 6,150

Echinodermata, ‘ ; 230 1,843 3,000

lentera ° 1834 500 2,200 2,000

ngiæ, . 1835 50 400 | 1,500

Protozoa, . 305 3,800 6,100

71,588 | 311,558 | 366,000

It may be noted that among the mollusca, the tunicates, brachiopods

and bryozoa were probably included in the 11,000 and 33,000 of the first

8 XVII, 180.

° Aug., 1896.

PLATE V.

The Terceira Dog.

1597.] Zoology. 79

‘two dates. The dates 1840, 1834, 1835, are the earliest at which the

‘enumeration of the groups opposite them was made. Of course the

sum 366,000 will not be recognized as complete by the student of

fatinistics, who will claim that many valid species have been described

that are not mentioned in the Zoological Record, and if we take

estimates into consideration, it may be noted that the late Dr. C. V.

Riley estimated that 10,000,000 would not be too great a number to

represent the probably existing species of insects alone. If this be a

fair estimate for the one group, insects, then, since they seem to

represent about two-thirds of the whole, a reasonable estimate for the

whole animal kingdom would be about 15,000,000 of species. But at

the same time that this estimate is considered, it should be noted that

the facts brought to light within the last few years by students of the

mechanics of ontogeny and especially by such experiments as those

made by Weismann and others in studying the seasonal dimorphism of

of Lepidoptera indicate that very many of the species hitherto

regarded as valid may be far from valid, and that descriptions of

species in the future unless they are based upon a long series of

experiments are apt to be much more uncertain than before.

F. C. Kenyon.

The Terceira Dog.—While many other dogs of various breeds

are seen in Terceira, the yellowish-brown bull dog, often with black

face, is so abundant as to be recognized as the characteristic dog of the

island. Commonly it stands some two feet high, and while often gentle

is frequently very savage. It is said that those intended for watch dogs

are trained to jump at a hat held in the hand, in this way learning to

spring at a person they attack. When kept chained, and not fondled,

they will attack any person approaching, even refusing to recognize

their master at night in many cases.

Usually the ears are trimmed round, and the short, deformed tail is

docked to a stub, so that these marks are almost as characteristic as

those which are hereditary.

Occasionally a dog of this breed is seen on the other islands, Madeira,

or the continent, but all that I have ever seen were originally derived

from Terceira, and are called Terceira dogs by the Portuguese. The

group of these dogs accompanying (Plate V), I owe to Mr. A. E. Cady,

of Providence. The single animal I took with a Kodak on aship in the

islands— Wm. TRELEASE.

80 The American Naturalist. [January,

ENTOMOLOGY!

Antenne of Lepidoptera.—Mr. Donaldson Bodine summarizes”

his studies of the antennz of Lepidoptera as follows:

1. “ Muscles in the head move the scape; muscles in the scape move

the pedicel ; distad of the scape no muscles have been demonstrated,

and the clavola is, therefore, capable of motion in itself only when acted

upon by some external force causing a flexure and a subsequent exten-

sion.

2. Besides organs for protection there are at least six types of sense

organs situated in the antennz, and all but one are developed from a

simple sense-hair, inserted at the ectal end of a pore canal through

which it is connected with a multinuclear sense-cell.

3. The antennz doubtless function as sense organs of touch, smell

and hearing, although those senses are not subject to the same limita-

tions as in the higher animals and may be considerably different in

their range of perception.

4. The antennz show that all Lepidoptera are descended from one

primitive stem form, of which we may predicate the more essential

feature of structure,

5. The evolution of ventral expansions, of pectinations, of the chitin-

ous surface, of the sense organs shows an increasing differentiation of

structure following the demand for increasing specialization of fune-

tion.

6. In the more essential features, the evidence of the antenne of all

the families of the Lepidoptera confirms the provisional classification

based upon the wing structures, though in a number of cases it indi-

cates a change in the relationships of the families.”

Sleeping Trees of Hymenoptera.—At a recent meeting of the

Entomological Society of Washington, Mr. E. A. Schwarz reported

these interesting observations.’ In Texas during April and May two

species of bees, Melissodes pygmaeus Cress. and Celioxys texanus Cress-

were seen at 7.30 A. M. sleeping on dead bushes, mostly Celtis pallida.

It is on the thinnest, outermost twigs and more particularly on the stout

thorns with which this shrub is liberally provided that single sleeping

! Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

? Trans. Am. Ent. Soc., XXIII, 47.

3 Proceedings, IV, 24.

1897.] Entomology. 81

specimens of these bees are found. Their position is uniform; the twig

or thorn is grasped tightly with all of the six legs, and, in addition the

mandibles are widely opened and with their tips firmly inserted into

the wood. It requires some force comparatively speaking to dislodge

the bees from their position. * * * On the very first day I found that

there are certain dead shrubs which serve as sleeping quarters for a

multitude of the bees. In the course of time I discovered within a

short distance four shrubs (or dwarf trees) upon each of which from 50

to 70 specimens of the sleeping bees could be seen every morning,

and several other shrubs which harbored a smaller number of specimens

with plenty of room for more. Here my third species the Sphegid

Coloptera wrightii comes in. It was always on the sleeping trees in

company with the bees, but not so numerous as the latter. I neversaw

it asleep at the hour I made these observations, but the specimens were,

like watchmen, slowly walking up and down the twigs, over the bodies

of the sleeping bees, carefully and deliberately touching and examining

with their antennz the bees, as if trying to arouse them from their

sleep. If I had been on the spot at an earlier hour I would no doubt

have ascertained also the sleeping habit of the Coloptera. A well-

frequented sleeping tree presents a very striking and exceedingly pretty

sight, which I never wearied of observing day after day.”

Effectiveness ofa Net in Excluding Insects.—-Prof. F. Plateau

has made a number of interesting experiments as to the effectiveness

of a net in excluding insects, although the meshes were wide enough to

allow their passage. His conclusions are: (1) A stretched net does

not absolutely stop the flight of insects. (2) In their flight the insects

behave as if they did not see the meshes. (3) Direct passage during

flight is always rare; in most cases the insect stops and scrambles

through, if at all. (4) The explanation is to be found in the lack of

precision associated with compound eyes; the threads of the net, like

etchings on an engraving produce the illusion of a continous closed

surface.—Journal Royal Mier. Society.

Life-History of the Peach-tree Borer.—There is but one gen-

eration of larvæ of Sannina exitiosa annually. The moths appear as

early as May in the latitude of Washington, D. C., and southward,

over what approximates the lower austral region. In the upper austral

region, roughly comprising the States above the cotton belt and below

the northern tier, the moths do not appear until after the middle of

June. In the transition region, which comprises the northern tier of

States, together with most of New York and New England, the moths

82 The American Naturalist. [January,

appear chiefly in July and later, emerging, however, as early as June,

and belated individuals as late as October. June and July are there-

fore the worst months for the moths over the principal peach districts.

The egg is deposited on the bark, usually at or near the surface of the

ground, although rarely it may be placed well up on the trunk or in

the crotches of the larger branches. The egg is very minute, not ex-

ceeding 0.2 mm. in length, oval, yellowish-brown in color, and irreg-

ularly ornamented with hexagonal sculpturing. The young larva on

hatching is very active, and immediately burrows into the bark, usually

entering at cracks, Having worked its way to the sapwood, usually

near or below the surface of the ground, it feeds steadily through the

balance of the summer and well into the fall, constantly enlarging its

excavation, and causing the exudation of the gum intermixed with ex-

erement and fragments of bark, which is so characteristic of its pres-

ence. It remains dormant in the larval state du ring winter and resumes

feeding again the following spring, reaching full growth in the central

districts by the middle of June. It transforms to chrysalis within an

elongate, cocoon-like cell constructed of its own frass and particles of

bark attached with gum and threads of silk. The moths emerge very

shortly after the chrysalis state is assumed, usually only a few days

intervening. The males appear a few days earlier than the females.—

C. L. MARLATT, Cireular No. 17, Dept. of Agriculture.

Smith’s Economic Entomology.—Professor J. B. Smith has

written and the Lippincott Company has published a valuable and read-

able book of nearly 500 pages with abundant illustrations. Its full

title “ Economie Entomology for the Farmer and Fruit-grower and for

Use as a Text-book in Agricultural Schools and Colleges” indicates its

scope and purpose. Itis divided into three parts the first devoted to

the structure and classification of insects; the second to the classifica-

tion and life-histories of insects, and the third to insecticides, prevent-

ives and machinery. Hight chapters are devoted to the first part, nine

to the second and five to the third. The book is an admirable resumé

of the present status of economic entomology, and will prove especially

helpful in those agricultural colleges where the course in entomology .

is too short for the use of Comstock’s excellent manual.—C. M. W.

Oceanic Migration ofa Dragon -fly.—Robert McLachlan‘ records

the taking of many specimens of the Dragon-fly Pantala flavescens F.

on the P. and O. Steamer “ Victoria” in the ocean 290 miles from `

* Ent. Monthly Magazine, VII, 254.

1897.] Embryology. 83

Kealing Island. “The insects were observed at night and during heavy

rain, suggesting nocturnal migration with the possibility that they were

seeking shelter from the rain, or were attracted by lights in the cabin.

This power of extended migration will also account for the extension

of the species over the whole intertropical zone, and far beyond it on

either side,

EMBRYOLOGY!’

Movements of Blastomeres.—In a lengthy and detailed paper

Professor Roux? gives the! results of certain experiments upon the

isolated cells of the morulas and young gastrulas of the frog. In pre-

vious papers he had shown that when the cells are teased apart in solu-

tions of salt or of white of egg they may move together again, travers-

ing short distances without any apparent means. He considered that

cells aitracted one another somewhat as do sperm and ovum and rele-

gated such attractive phenomena to the field of chemical influences.

In the present paper minute and rigorously classified descriptions

are given of changes which such cells undergo when once they have

come into contact.

In general two or more cells in contact glide, or crawl as it were, upon

one another into some new relative position. This movement of one or

both may be accompanied by a revolving or waltzing, very slowly. The

form of the cells becomes changed very markedly, as is especially well

shown when three cells form a row. In this case the middle one is

very much compressed, as if the cells crowded together with great force.

The rearrangements and changes of shape are in some cases much as

take place with soap bubbles and might be explained as the resultant

of the surface tensions of the separate bubbles or cells. But in many

cases the arrangements are directly opposed to the laws governing the

arrangements of soap bubbles and cannot be explained on so simple a

asis.

Besides the external changes in form and position there are internal

changes, as is made evident by the changes in position of the pigment,

In such cells as have more or less pigment this may recede from the

Surface to appear again in concentrated form at some one region of the

i Edited by E. A. aremt Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts reviews and

preliminary notes may be se

? Archiv f. erep d. Org., TET June 12, 1896, pps. 381-464.

84 The American Naturalist. [January,.

cell. When several cells are together the arrangement of the pigment

appears to be in some way determined with reference to the arrange-

ment of the cells, being at like poles or in zones, ete., according to the

way the cells are combined.

The bearing of these facts upon normal development becomes evident

when we recall that not only are rearrangements of cells of importance

in the normal processes of cleavage in many eggs, but that they also

seem to play an important part in the formation of the later embryo in

the case of the eggs of Ascaris as emphasized by O. zur Strassen.’

Such movements of cells may then he looked for as a not unimpor-

tant factor in the production of the characteristic shapes and organs of

embryos.

The explanation of the nature of these movements is by no means

ready. The author recognizes that simple surface tension of a homoge-

neous material will not account for all the phenomena, but he is in-

clined to think that surface tension may be a sufficient cause provided

there were a change in its character at different parts of the same cell

and at different times in the same area owing to some change in the

nature of the material of the cell.

A Mechanical Explanation of Cell Division.—As the phe-

nomena of cell division form so large a part of the visible changes the

embryologist studies, he will eagerly welcome any clue to their better

understanding. Especially when we are offered an explanation of ;

the complex changes of indirect or mitotic cell division, which figure

so strikingly in the important early changes the egg undergoes. If

weary of the idea of muscle-like contractility of fibres or the mysterious

movements of chromosomes under chemical influences he will turn with

relief to the mechanical views presented by Dr. Ludwig Rhumbler.*

The keynote of this honest attempt lies in the assumption that the

observed physical changes of cell division may be due to purely physical

causes, whatever the complexity and differences of the unknown chem-

ical factors lying back of these physical changes.

The author first assumes that protoplasm is a viscous fluid, next that

it has essentially the structure claimed by Bütschli, that is he regards

protoplasm as a froth or foam of more liquid drops or alveoli surrounded

by less liquid surfaces or lamellæ—in which may be fibres of soft gran-

ules arranged in rows,

In such a foam radiating lines may appear from the arrangements

of the vesicles or alveoli and the author assumes that the radiations in

"See American Naturalist, Dec. 1896, p. 1059.

* Archiv f. Ent. der Organismen, an Taly 21, 1896, pps. 527-618.

1897.] Embryology. 85

cleaving cells are of this nature and not due to actual threads. That

radiations may be formed in various preparations of soap-suds and

mixture of white of egg and gelatine is shown by careful figures and

by diagrams and the similarity of such artificial radiations to cell

radiation demonstrated. Here a contraction of a central body, as an —

air-bubble, suggests the way in which the centrosome may act.

In elucidating the phenomena of cell division on the basis of a foam

structure the author takes the figures given by Ziegler for sea-urchin

and nematode as a norm. In these eggs the nucleus and the attraction

spheres undergo very marked changes in size while the radiations in the

protoplasm outside the nucleus quickly grow long and then short.

These rhythmic changes of size and distinctness lead to the following

assumptions,

The centrosome absorbs liquid from the surrounding cytoplasm and

then concentrates it into smaller bulk than it formerly occupied. The

nucleus swells from absorbtion of liquid. The detailed application

of these assumed factors to the phenomena of cell division cannot

well be given in the bounds of an abstract and must be sought in the

original. The author there sets forth how the absorbtion of liquid by

the centrosome will lead to the formation of radiations, asters, as well

as to the removal of yolk bodies, ete. from the neighborhood of the

‘centrosome. The final division of the centrosome is brought about only

in consequence of the swelling of the nucleus. This body removes liquid

from the regions not affected by the centrosomes and this removal of

liquid will cause a strain which may be represented as a system of

‘curves concentric with the nucleus. Where the centrosome lies the cyto-

plasm is already less liquid, more viscid, while on the opposite side of

the nucleus it is most liquid.

The removal of liquid from lines of alveoli causes the alveoli to become

‘smaller and thus the rows exercise a pull upon the region of the centro-

some. This pull of the alveolar material eventually parts the centro-

‘some and draws the halves asunder. As the rows of alveoli that sur-

round the nucleus are the longest their contraction under continued loss

of liquid to the nucleus will lead to the separation of the centrosome

halves till they reach the poles of the nucleus.

The observed second increase in size of the centrosomes follows this

period of nuclear swelling and leads to the formation of new sets of

radiations. These radii, pr lines of alveoli, now reach to the cell wall

and exert a pull upon it as liquid is taken in from the alveoli to the

‘centrosomes. As the rows of alveoli become most viscid near the cen-

trosome a more liquid region is left in the equatorial plane and here the

86 The American Naturalist. l [January,.

alveolar rows finally break in the cleavage of the cytoplasm. Mean-

while the vacuole-like nucleus has been pulled apart towards the centro-

somes.

After the cleavage of the cell the centrosome again ceases to absorb

liquid and so passes into the resting stage. The case where there is an

immediate division of the centrosome into two that remain for the sub-

sequent cell divisions also admits of explanation upon this alveolar

basis; the same is true of various other cases and phenomena.

If this attempt at an understanding of the complex marvels of cell

division appears much too ineffectual it is partly due to the imperfect

representation given in this abstract and in part the result of the un-

finished character of the present paper which claims to be but the first

of a series. In the next article the author hopes to consider the nucleus

with its chromosomes and spindle; and we cannot well judge of the

success or failure of the attempt till that part lies before us.

Probably few will judge that much ultimate truth has yet been dis-

covered in the attempted explanation of such exceedingly complex phe-

nomena but if it prove that the right line of research has been struck

the author has added much to our conceptions of the forces at work in

embryological processes.

PSYCHOLOGY.’

Experiment on Reinversion of the Retinal Image.—The

inversion of the image on the retina, and its influence upon our visual

perception of space, have given rise to considerable discussion in the

past. That we see things in an upright position notwithstanding this

inversion, has seemed to many writers to require special explanation-

Accordingly, some have assumed a reinversion of the image in the —

cerebral cortex, while others have adopted a theory of visual projection

which makes the retinal inversion essential to upright vision. During

all this discussion the possible relativity of up and down escaped notice

for a long time. What we mean by down is simply the ground side,

and by up simply the sky side. As everything imaged on the retina is

inverted, there is no point of reference to give an indication of the

inversion of the rest. The only problem that arises, then, is concern-

ing the co-ordination of visual with tactile space. This is a real diffi-

culty: I see my left hand down at my left side; I feel it in the same

place. How can this co-ordination be reconciled with the fact of retinal

1 Edited by H. C. Warren, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.

1897.) Psychotogy. 87

inversion? There have been attempts to explain the situation in two

different ways; either on one of the theories mentioned above, which

assume the subjective space-scheme to be something absolute and rigid,

and which postulate a cortical or projective re-inversion of the visual

figure to conform with the uninverted tactile figure; or else by suppos-

ing the space-scheme plastic, so that it is capable of being determined,

or at least “oriented,” by experience. According to the latter view

the visual and tactile “spaces” are not necessarily the same in origin;

they have come to coincide only through habitual association.

Dr. G. M. Stratton, of the University of California, reported at the

recent Psychological Congress at Munich an experiment of his own,

which was, so far as it went, a crucial test between these two lines of

theory. The details have since been published in the Psychological Re-

view, (Vol. III, pp. 611-617), from which I quote. By means of a

pair of convex lenses, he succeeded in inverting the field of vision with-

out otherwise altering its relations. The effect of this contrivance,

when placed to the eye, was to give a re-inverted (or upright) retinal

image. For the experiment, the apparatus was bound to the face in

such a way as to exclude from the right eye all light except that pass-

ing through both lenses, and the visual field of the other eye was dark-

ened. The observer wore the apparatus constantly for two days,

except at night, when his eyes were carefully bandaged; so that dur-

‘ing all this time he saw only the inverted field of vision.

“ The course of experience,” says the author, in reporting the results,

“ was something as follows: All images at first appeared to be in-

verted ; the room and all in it seemed upside down. The hands when

stretched out from below into the visual field seemed to enter from

above. Yet although all these images were clear and definite, they did

not at first seem to be real things, like the things we see in normal

vision, but they seemed to be misplaced, false, or illusory images between

the observer and the objects or things themselves. For the memory-

images brought over from normal vision still continued to be the stand-

ard and criterion of reality. The present perceptions were for some

time translated involuntarily into the language of normal vision; the

present visual perceptions were used simply as signs to determine how

and where the object would appear if it could be seen with restored nor-

mal vision. Things were thus seen in one way and thought of in a far

different way. This held true also of my body. *

“ As I moved about in the room, the movement of the visual images

of my hands or feet were at first not used, as in normal vision, to decide

what tactual sensations were to be expected. Knocks against things

88 The American Naturalist. [January,

in plain sight were more or less of a surprise. I felt my hand to be in

a different position from that in which I saw it, and could not, except

by cool deliberation, use its visual image as a sign of impending tactual

experience. After a time, however, repeated experience made this use

of the visual image much less strange; it began to be the common

guide and means of anticipation. I watched my feet in walking, and

saw what they were approaching, and expected visual and tactual

contact to be reported perceptionally together. In this way the limbs

began actually to feel in the place where the new visual perception re-

ported them to be. The vivid connection of tactual and visual percep-

tions began to take away the overpowering force of the localization

lasting over from normal vision. The seen images thus became real

things just as in normal sight. I could at length feel my feet strike

against the seen floor, although the floor was seen on the opposite side

of the field of vision from that to which at the beginning of the experi-

ment I had referred these tactual sensations. I could likewise at times

feel that my arms lay between my head and this new position of the

feet; shoulders and head, however, which under the circumstances

could never be directly seen, kept the old localization they had had in

normal vision, in spite of the logical difficulty that the shape of the

body and the localization of hands and feet just mentioned made such

a localization of the shoulders absurd.

“Objects lying at the moment outside the visual field (things

at the side of the observer, for example) were at first mentally repres-

ented as they would have appeared in normal vision. * * * But later

I found myself bringing the representation of unseen objects into har-

monious relation with the present perception. They began now to be

represented nos as they would appear if normal vision were restored,

but as they would appear if the present field of vision were widened or

moved so as to include them. *

“ As to the relation of the visual field to the observer, the feeling that

the field was upside down remained in general throughout the experi

ment. At times, however, there were peculiar variations in this feel-

ing according to the mental attitude of the observer toward the present

scene, Ifthe attention was directed mainly inward, and things were

viewed only in indirect attention, they seemed clearly to be inverted.

But when, on the other hand, full attention was given to the outer ob-

jects, these frequently seemed to be in normal position, and whatever

there was of abnormality seemed to lie in myself, as if head and

shoulders were inverted and I were viewing objects from that position,

as boys sometimes do from between their legs, At other times the im-

version seemed confined to the face or eyes alone.

1897.] Psychology. 89

“On removing the glasses on the third day, there was no peculiar

experience. Normal vision was restored instantaneously and without

any disturbance in the natural appearance or position of objects.”

As the author remarks, the experiment did not cover enough time

to determine the full power of experience. But the main point at

issue—the two opposing views of subjective space already alluded to—

seems to have been fairly well settled. There was shown to be a pos-

sibility of co-ordinating our tactile space with an artificially inverted“

visual space ; the localization of the hand (e. g.) by feeling was gradually

assimilated to its position in the new visual field, ete. There was not, of

course, time to overcome completely the experience of ages in one direc-

tion. But that it was overcome at all, and that the new experience

was to a large degree reconcilable with the tactile data, shows clearly,

I think, that the original co-ordination is quite independent of any

mental projection or cerebral re-inversion. The two space-schemes

arise separatively ; that they correspond, point for point, as they do, is

owing simply to repeated and uncontradicted experience.

It is to be hoped that the author will be able to repeat the experi-

ment again and observe the effect of a longer continuation of the experi-

ence. He might be able eventually to get rid of the persistent inver-

sion of the head and shoulders, perhaps, by looking at himself fre-

quently in a mirror. If a single pair of lenses could be devised to

cover both eyes, the difficulties arising from imperfect convergence

might be overcome, and the experiment extended to binocular vision.

Howard C. WARREN.

Birds’ nests and instinct.—Some very interesting observations

on the nesting habits of birds recorded by Dr. R. Williams in the Oct-

ober (1896) number of the Zoologist are worthy of note, the more so

since they bear upon the subject of instinct and the power of learning

from experience that has lately been occupying the attention of cer-

tain psychologists. It must be regretted that Dr. Williams’ observa-

tions seem to be hap-hazard and, therefore, lacking the detail that would

make them conclusive. In this respect he is not different from the host

of oological observers that claim the title of scientists. Take for in-

stance his note regarding cuckoos hunting their nests. He says “my

son informed me one day that he knew where a cuckoo was going to

lay. He said he had seen a cuckoo fly out of a hedge, which on ex-

amination he found to contain a hedge-sparrow’s nest ready for eggs.

The boy’s expectation was realized. He visited the nest repeatedly,

and one day announced that the Hedge-sparrow had begun to lay.

Three days later he brought me the contents of the nest, consisting of

90 The American Naturalist. [Januaryy

one cockoo’s egg and the clutch of hedge-sparrow’s eggs.” Now, it

may be asked, how, from this account, is one to be sure that the egg was

laid by the cuckoo that was seen to fly out of the hedge? There is no

statement that the bird was watched from day to day, or that it was

known to roost and feed in that immediate vicinity. No one is said to

have gone early in the morning to the roosting tree and from that

time follow and note the actions of the bird through the day until it

' went to roost again for the night. It is improbable that such obser-

vations were made in this case in this way. Yet it is not impossible to

make them thus carefully, for it has been done in studying the feeding

habits of our American cuckoo.

Aside from this criticism the observations are very interesting so far

as they go. For instance in 1889, he found the nest of a European

blackbird situated in a depression in the ground very much as one

usually finds the nests of the skylark. Several other blackbirds nests

were found by the keeper of the wood, which were similarly placed.

Two thrushes nests were also found in the neighborhood, and like those

of the blackbirds on the ground. The wood abounded in thickets and

fir trees, but these more favorable places contained very few black-

birds or thrushes’ nests. It was learned upon inquiry that the pro-

prietor finding the wood a stronghold for these species had made-

systematic raids upon their nests in consequence of their destruction of

his fruit. Did the birds profit by experience and seek a safer position

for their nests ?

The other instance to be noted concerns the sandpiper. “In May,

1886, just when these birds were commencing to set,” the author says,

we had a very heavy rainfall, heavier than any remembered by my

father, who is over eighty years of age. The land on each side of the

river near my house was under water. The common sandpiper usually

nests on patches of gravel thrown up by the water, and more or less

covered with docks and other weeds. These places being flooded, the

nests were swept away and destroyed. On the subsidence of the flood,

the sandpipers built again on their old sites, only to find their nests

swept away by another flood. In the nesting season of the following

year (1887), wishing to secure a few clutches of sandpiper’s eggs,

searched in the usual places for a whole morning without success. The

next day I accidently came upon a sandpiper’s nest containing four

eggs, the nest being placed at the foot of a willow fully 100 yards from

the river. The discovery put me on the right track, and I found six

more nests in various positions, all a long way from the river.” Evi

dently this was profiting by experience and the conclusion is borneout

1897,] Psychology. 91

by the fact that the birds seemed to conclude that the new position was

not so favorable as the old to which next year they returned.

His numerous other observations are interesting but space permits

noting only the case of a wood warbler—which usually makes a covered

nest—making a nest in a situation such that the top was formed by the

root of a tree.—F. C. Kenyon,

Psychic Evolution.—lIn the paper by Mr. Nichols which is con-

cluded in this number of the NATURALIST, is to be found the Neodar-

winian doctrine of psychic evolution, which is also adopted by Prof. W.

H. James. I have already criticised this doctrine as expressed by Prof.

Mark Baldwin in a paper in the Narurauisr (1895, April, p. 342;

May, pp. 422-28). This doctrine is in short, that structures come into

existence before the functions which they represent, and it is, therefore

in direct opposition to the Lamarckian view, that structures are the

result of functions. Of course the Lamarckian view does not deny that

completed structures perform their’ functions better than they can be

performed by unspecialized structures. This doctrine has the distinct

advantage as a hypothesis, of really doing what a doctrine of evolution

is supposed to do, i. e. of explaining the origin of structures. This the

Neodarwinian doctrine does not do. Asa theory of origin of organs of

specific consciousness and of their functions, it is quite the same whether

we assume with Prof. James that central organs must first exist, or

whether we believe with Prof. Wundt that special end-organs must first

exist. The fact is that a doctrine that assumes that any organs must

be primary and not secondary is in so far not a doctrine of evolution.

The evolutionary doctrine of the origin of organs of special conscious-

ness must be the same as that which explains the origin of other

organs. That is, that energies acting as stimuli, external and internal,

impinging on live protoplasm, produce modifications of its structure.

If these structures are concerned directly or indirectly in the produc-

tion or modification of states of consciousness, their use, or the subjec-

tion of the tissues to the stimuli which produce them, will produce

pleasure or pain. The organism proceeds to repeat or avoid the ex-

posure thereafter accordingly, and use and disuse have their beginning.

Whether any form of general and diffuse consciousness preceded in

time special forms of consciousness, or whether all forms of conscious-

ness have been due to corresponding stimuli, is a subject of present

research. It can be assumed with much probability however, that the

stimuli of pressure, heat, light, and hunger, would produce different

forms of consciousness, since they would produce different effects on the

ultimate structure.

92 The American Naturalist. [January,

That this is the proper order of psychic evolution may be inferred

from two considerations. (1) The sensations due to pressure, light,

heat, hunger, ete. are experienced by animals of low as well as of high

organization. (2) The order of structural evolution is from the homo-

geneous to the heterogeneous, or from the generalized to the special.

ized.—E. D. Corer.

MICROSCOPY.

Formal,’ (Formaldehyde 40 per cent. solution).—Practical

experience with Formal in the Laboratory. By Bert B. Stroud, D. Sc.,

Instructor in Physiology, Vertebrate Zoology, and Neurology. Cornell

University, Ithaca, N. Y

During the past two years much interets has been shown concerning

formaldehyde, as an agent for hardening and preserving anatomic

material. An extensive literature has arisen, which as Lee’ has ob-

served, is sadly confused by the indiscriminate and incorrect use of the

terms Formol and Formalose. The term formol is a very bad one.

Because according to the principles of chemical terminology the suf-

fix ol is applied to a different class of compounds, examples of which

are alcohol, glycerol, and phenol.

The molecular structure of the aldehydes differs from that of the ex-

amples given.

Formalose might be confused with formose, a mixture of carbohydrates

made from formaldehyde. Formalin is a term which has no meaning.

We have to deal with a definite chemical individual; why then

should it not be called by its own proper name or by a suitable contrac-

tion of that name? It may be urged since the commercial product is

a solution of gaseous formaldehyde in water, that the name should in-

dicate such solution. But the term hydrochloric acid is an excellent

precedent for saying formal or formaldehyde, since the acid of the

laboratory is a solution of the gas HC1 in water. But every one calls

the solution hydrochloric acid.

1 The term Formaldehyde is a cumbersome one. Professor W. R. Orndorff has

suggested that Formal, from Formal-dehyde is the best scientific contraction.

The term Methanal, for formaldehyde, was adopted by the Geneva Congress of

Chemists

2 Formol or PAREL Anatomischer Anzeiger. XI, No. 8, October 24,

1895, 8. 255-256

1897.] Microscopy. 93

The strength of the 40 per cent. solution of formal is subject to some

variation, since on standing for a long time it deposits a precipitate of

metaformal and the solution is weakened by the amount of formal pre-

cipitated. _Metaformal may also be obtained, as a bluish-white amor-

phous powder on simple evaporation of the commercial 40 per cent.

solution. This amorphous form is readily soluble in water heated to

60°-70° C. It can be easily manufactured and would soon become a

commercial article if there were a demand for it. The writer suggests

that this would be the most convenient and economical way to use for-

mal. Solutions of definite strength could be easily prepared, by simply

weighing the proper amount and dissolving it in water heated to 70°

C. Considerable expense for packing and transportation would be

avoided.

Action of formal on animal substances—The writer is inclined to

believe that the action of formal varies with the kind of tissue, its

source, whether from an aquatic or a terrestrial vertebrate, and the

period of immersion in the liquid.

1. Action on white of egg.—Six portions of 4 ce. each were treated

with solutions of formal of the following strengths,—0 2 per cent.; 0.8

per cent.; 1.6 per cent.; 3.2 per cent.; 8 per cent.; 40 per cent. The

mixtures were put into vials and tightly corked. A flocculent preci-

pitate resulted. It was slight in the dilute solutions, but more copious

in the bottle which contained the 40 per cent. formal. After 48 hours,

the dilute solutions had assumed a translucent appearance but remained

perfectly fluid. The 40 per cent. solution was of a jelly-like consistency

and was more opaque than the weaker solutions.

2. The mucus of petromyzon, fishes, and necturi was coagulated ; at

first translucent, it finally became more or less opaque and sometimes

could be peeled off from the skin.

The first general effect of formal on animal tissue is to coagulate the

proteids; this fact probably accounts for its value in the Golgi method.

Fats are apparently little altered. It has been used in this laboratory

for the preservation of lampreys, Amia, and other fish-like vertebrates,

of amphibia, reptiles, birds, mammals and of brains. The action on verte-

brates up to and including amphibia has been more or less satisfactory.

But the results upon muscles and viscera of reptiles, birds, and mam-

mals where the specimens were immersed for four months or longer

were far from being satisfactory. The action is rapid at first, then pro-

ceeds more slowly, several months being required to obtain the final

effect. However, material for immediate dissection* may be kept in

2 per cent. formal (formal 2 ce., water 98 cc.).

* Material will keep quite well for four to six weeks.

94 The American Naturalist. [January,

Among the undesirable effects may be mentioned :

1. Swelling of tissue from absorption of water.

2. Partial solution of connective tissue elements.

3. Diminished elasticity, sometimes brittleness, of glands, ducts, and

membranous viscera so that they may not survive the rough usage of

the average beginner.

4. The action on tissues rich in proteids as muscles of the terrestrial

vertebrates is something like dissociation. The connective tissue is

either softened or dissolved so that the fasciculi and fibres are easily

teased apart.

5. Muscles are shortened so that the limbs are usually flexed. Ifthe

limb is forcibly extended, either the muscles themselves or the tendons

break. The dissection of individual muscles is liable to tear them. If

the specimen has been in the fluid for several months, the muscles be-

come rigid and brittle. If the limb be forcibly adducted, the hume-

rus or femur will usually break. The separation of individual muscles.

and the demonstration of their actions are very difficult or even im-

possible.

In June, 1895, a lot of sea-lampreys were prepared by injecting 2

per cent. formal through the dorsal aorta. They were then put into

2 per cent. formal. The solution was changed three times and about

Sept. 1, they were put into 50 per cent. alcohol. In Jan., 1896, the

specimens had shrunken slightly. Preservation was fair, with the

exception of a long longitudinal check in the axon (notochord) and

the blood vessels did not show so well as in the previous year when al-

cohol was used for injection and preservation.

Brains.—Formal appears to be almost an ideal fixer and preserva-

tive for brains where gross morphology is the object. They are tough

and flexible; the alba, cinerea, and fibre tracts are well differentiated.

The natural color is more perfectly retained than where other agents

are employed. But membranous portions, telas, and plexuses are not

so well preserved as where alcohol is used

The following mixture was sa aladoniiy employed for sheep brains—

a 2 per cent. solution of forma

Formal (40 per cent. solution) ; wit 120-00

Aea chloride... i . 46 grams.

Wate

After 5-8 inhi sles nostima may on into 2.5 per cent. formal in-

definitely.

Eyes.—Sheeps’ eyes were well preserved in 2 per cent. formal; the

cornea, lens, and vitreum had a more natural appearance but the lens,

1897.] Microscopy. 95

capsule, and recti muscles were much better preserved when alcohol

was used.

The chief objections to formal are:

1. It does not preserve well the plexuses and membranous parietes

of the brain.

2. It is in unstable chemical equilibrium.

3. The conditions attending its use are favorable to chemical change,

t. e., (a) solution, (b) moderate heat, (c) the presence of substances

themselves in unstable chemical equilibrium.

4. The large excess of water present causes tissue to swell and aids in

dissolving connective tissue.

5. The cost of a given solution is less than that of alcohol, but the

renewal of solutions brings the total expense up to nearly that of

alcohol free of tax; and in the writer's judgment, excepting for brains

and perhaps for aquatic vertebrates, the final result is less satisfactory.

SuMMARY.

1. The most suitable contraction of the name Formaldehyde is Formal.

Formalin is meaningless. Formol is incorrect. Formalose is mislead-

ing.

2. Some uniform standard for preparing solutions is desirable.

3. Formal is an unstable chemical compound. It polymerizes on

standing. A precipitate of Para- and Metaformaldehyde, insoluble in

water at ordinary temperatures, is formed and the solution is weakened

by the amount of the precipitate.

4. Para- or Metaformal may be procured in the dry form and solu-

tions can be prepared when desired by simply dissolving the required

amount in hot water (70° C.). This would be the more economical

way to nse formal.

5. Formal coagulates proteids and dissolves connective tissue. The

action proceeds slowly and the final effect is reached in about yow

months.

6. Solutions of formal will freeze so that it is unsafe for the —

of museum preparations.

T. Formal, as a general preservative for terrestrial vertebrates, is

ihadlicfukonh

Formal appears to give good results for:

a. The fixation and preservation of bfhins for the study of gross

morphology and fissures.

b. For the preservation of the cornea aol vitreum of the eye.

c. For the Golgi method of staining nerve cells. -

96 The American Naturalist. [January,

d. For Weigert’s method.

e. For the temporary preservation of anatomic material.

f. Perhaps for the preservation of aquatic vertebrates.

g. For hardening material in which the blood vessels have been in-

jected with colored gelatin. .

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Boston Society of Natural History.—December 2d.—The fol-

lowing communications were made: “The Early Services of Mr.

Thomas T. Bouvé to the Society,” by Charles J. Sprague and James C.

White; “ Mr. Bouvé’s Work in the Society Since 1870,” by Alpheus

Hyatt; “Mr. Bouvé’s Work in Geology and Mineralogy,” by W. O.

Putnam, “ Statement Concerning Some Recent Discoveries at Trenton,

N. J., Bearing Upon the Early Presence of Man in the Delaware

Valley ;” Prof. G. Frederick Wright,“ The Extent of Preglacial Erosion

in the United States, and its Bearing on the Question of the Length

and Date of the Glacial Period.’—Samurt Hensuaw, Secretary.

American Philosophical Society.—December 18th.—Drs. W.

H. Furness, 3d, and H. M. Hiller made a preliminary report on their

explorations in Borneo and the Loochoo Islands.

University of Pennsylvania Biological Club.—December

7th. Program.—* Demonstrations of Some Mexican Plants,” Dr. John

W. Harshberger; “ Demonstrations of Slides Showing Conjugation of

Nuclei in the Intestinal Cells of Land Isopods,” Dr. E. G. Conklin.

Reviews: Botanical, Dr. J. M. Macfarlane, Dr. H. C. Porter; Chemi-

cal, Dr. Mary E. Pennington; Psychological, Dr. Lightner Witmer.

Original Communications: “ Diseased Action and Senility, Considered

in Connection with Biological Work,” Dr. J. H. Allen.

December 21st Program.—Demonstrations: Slides showing deform-

ation of nuclei in the intestinal cells of Land Isopods, Dr. E. G-

Conklin. Reviews: Botanical, Drs. Macfarlane, Harshberger, Porter ;

Chemical, Dr. Mary E. Pennington; Psychological, Dr. Lightner

Witmer ; Pathological, Dr. Ferree Witmer. Original Communications:

“The Native Dahlias of Mexico,” Dr. John W. Harshburger.—H. C.

PORTER, Secretary. |

1897.] Scientific News. 97

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Mr. Gosselin, of the British Embassy in Berlin, mentions in a recent

report (says the Times) that the question of preserving big game in

German East Africa has been under the consideration of the local au-

thorities for some time past, and a regulation has been notified at Dar-es-

Salaam, which it is hoped will do something toward checking the wanton

destruction of elephants and other indigenous animals. Under this

regulation every hunter must take out an annual license, for which the

fee varies from five to 500 rupees, the former being the ordinary fee for

natives, the latter for elephant and rhinoceros hunting, and for the

members of sporting expeditions into the interior. Licenses are not

needed for the purpose of obtaining food, nor for shooting game dam-

aging cultivated land, nor for shooting apes, beasts of prey, wild boars,

‘reptiles, and all birds, except ostriches and cranes. Whatever the

circumstances the shooting is prohibited of all young game—calves,

foals, young elephants, either tuskless or having tusks under three

kilos, all female game, if recognizable—except, of course, those in the

' above category of unprotected animals. Further, in the Moschi dis-

trict of Kilima-Njaro, no one, whether possessing a license or not, is

allowed without the special permission of the Governor to shoot ante-

lopes, giraffes, buffaloes, ostriches and cranes. Further, special per-

mission must be obtained to hunt these with nets, by kindling fires, or

by big drives. Those who are not natives have also to pay 100 rupees

for the first elephant killed, and 250 for each additional one ; and 50

rupees for the first rhinoceros, and 150 for each succeeding one. Special

game preserves are also to be established ; and Major von Wissmann,

in a circular to the local officers, explains that no shooting whatever

will be allowed in these without special permission from the Govern-

ment. The reserves will be of interest to science as a means of pre-

serving from extirpation the rarer species, and the Governor calls for

suggestions as to the best places for them. They are to extend in each

direction at least ten hours’ journey on foot. He further asks for sug-

gestions as to hippopotamus preserves, where injury would not be done to

plantations. Two districts are already notified as game sanctuaries.

Major von Wissmann further suggests that the station authorities should

endeavor to domesticate zebras (especially when crossed with muscat.

and other asses and horses), ostriches, and hyena dogs crossed with a

European breeds. Mr. Gosselin remarks that the best means of pre-

venting the extermination of elephants would be to fix by international

alana amongst all the powers on the East African coast a close

98 The American Naturalist. [January,

time for elephant, and to render illegal the exportation or sale of tusks

under a certain age. (Nature, Oct., 1896.)

Dr. Baumann, who died at Freiburg, on November 2d, in his

forty-ninth year, was Professor of Medical Chemistry at the University

e Freiburg i. ~A Ahe “n of a chemist he served the full term of'a

i ip and then entered the Technical College of

Stuttgart in order to concplatis his studies in physics, chemistry and

natural science. Thence he went to Tübingen to take his diploma.

There the noted physiologist, Hoppe-Seyler, recognized his talent and

made him his assistant ; and when he left Tiibingen to take a professor-

ship at the University of Strassburg, in Alsace, in 1872, Baumann ac-

companied him. In 1879 Baumann was made Director of the Chemical

Department of the Physiological Institute of Berlin. In 1882 he went

to Freiburg as ordinary professor of medical chemistry, and there re-

mained until his death.

Dr. Theodor Morgo died September 5, 1896, at Szent Lorinez

in the Comitat Boranyu. He was born in 1816, and at the time of his

death was Professor of Zoology at the University of Budapest.

Dr. Raffaele Zoja died September 26, 1896, in consequence of

an Alpine catastrophe. Dr. Zoja was born March 10, 1869 and at the

time of his death had done considerable work in the field of histology

and embryology. Under Maggi he worked upon Hydra; at the

Naples Zoological Station, upon the cell structure of the lower inver-

tebrates; at Messina with Kleinenberg, on the ontogenomechanics of

Medusa ; and in Berlin with O. Hertwig on the development of Ascaris

megalocephala. This last work he had just finished at the time of his

death.

Dr. August Louis Boot died Aug. 30, 1896. He was born Sept.

18, 1821 and took the degree of M. D. in 1845. Medicine not proving to

his taste he gave up practice for the study of conchology in which he

became well known as the author of “ Materiaux pour servir a l'étude

de la famille des Mèlaries ” (1868), “ Catalogue scientifique des especes

qui composent la famille des Mélaniens” (1862), and “ Die Melaniaceen

in Abbildungen nach der Natur mit Beschreibungen.”

It is to be noted that the salary attached to the position of Mackay

Bacteriologist to the Linnzean Society of New South Wales, which re-

cently advertised in Nature for applicants, arises from £12,000 be-

queathed by Mr. Wm. Mackay. His total benefactions to the society

amount to £100,000. The object of the appointment is entirely the

advancement of natural knowledge by research.

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Vol XXXI. FEBRUARY, 1897.

CONTENTS.

| NOCTURNAL PROTECTIVE COLORATION OF MAM-

; MALS, BIRDS, FISHES, Insects, ETC Eaton sik Ratón North Aerien Sphagaiee

Verrill. 99 | The Cell Nucleus—Another Australian Curios-

5 » THe INFERIOR BOUNDARY OF Ma ; Quat ER it

Era, r H. Hershey, 104 P ARREA coli not hope Bie

4 “Tue POCKET, OR PoucHED sikai lium kewense — Egg-Laying in Sagitta >

Clement L, Webster. 114 | Chætognaths of American Wate aa

"Protons CEDAR BIRDS. tral American Diplopods—The Developt

Dr. R. W. Shufeldt 120 | of the Wing-scales and their pi

THE BACTERIAL Diseases oF PLANTS: A CRITI- Lepidoptera—Rapid Growth of Apus S

CAL REVIEW OF THE PRESENT STATE OF OUR dachneria—Mautilations of the Oregon

KNOWLEDGE. (Continued.) Zr win F, Smith. 123 | —On. the Decurrence of the Genus Rei

_ Eprror’s TasLe—Ori : dontomys in Virginia—I

‘ BLE—Original Research in the

2 Universities—Prof. W. Wilson on Science ae “4 ee Pegs a a p

and the Humanities. . . ote od kee ec etc eae

i Reep Lrrerarone—Ba iley’s Survival of the ' De toa Dh The eae }

a nike—Prillieux’s Diseases of Plants— Sphinx Caterpillar So tar Ichneumon

Campbells Mosses and Ferns. T te ee tack- Viviparoos Rphom E

~ RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS 145 . r

l mga Ne A Embryology—The Corpus Lateam —Creavage ;

4 GENERAL Norss. iù Ovarian Eggs. !

: a ‘aphy—Petrography of the Viterbo Re- Psychology. L Anina Meating bE the American

gion, Italy—Missourite, a New Leucite Rock— eae LenS Association.

1 F SCIENTIFIC Sorri

; The Ciyataliimo Schists of the WT PROCEEDINGS

X eat —Petrographical Notes. oe . 148 | Screntiric ent R ge ON wc E ee

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL, XXXL - « February, 1897. 362

NOCTURNAL PROTECTIVE COLORATION OF MAM-

MALS, BIRDS, FISHES, INSECTS, ETC.

By A. E VERRILL.!

Although much has been written regarding the protective

and imitative colors and forms of various animals, as seen by

daylight, very little attention has been paid to their protective

colors as seen by moonlight, twilight, and starlight, when large

numbers of species of small mammals and fishes, and numer-

ous insects are most active in search of food and most of the

large carnivorous and insectivorous species are abroad in

search of their prey. Moreover most birds and many fishes

and insects sleep in exposed situations and are thus subject to

the attacks of nocturnal predaceous species. The latter, in

turn, need protective colors for the night-time, in order to avoid

the notice of their prey. One of the most evident effects of

moonlight or starlight is to give very black shadows. In the

case of bright moonlight these black shadows of trees, etc.,

may be broken up by patches of white moonlight. Therefore,

black or dark-brown animals are nearly invisible in such

shadows. If black animals have patches of white or light

yellow these will serve a useful purpose by breaking up and

obscuring the outlines of bird or beast and look like patches

of moonlight on a shadow. 7

oor of a paper read before the Morphological Society. Dec. 30, 1896.)

100 The American Naturalist. [February,

Accordingly we find many nocturnal carnivorous mammals

that are black (e. g., minks, fisher, bears) and some that are black

and white. We also find numerous black, as well as black and

white, birds, insects, etc., whose colors can best be explained as

due to the influence of natural selection among protective

nocturnal colors. The dark gray and brownish-gray colors so

common among small nocturnal mammals, like mice, arvicole,

moles, shrews, marsupials, etc., are highly protective at night.

Even when these creatures are running about among green

grass and weeds they are scarcely visible in a feeble light.

Such colors are not at all protective in the day time, in such

places. Moreover, such mammals usually hide in holes or

crevices in the day time, where the color does not matter.

Most nocturnal black, brown, and dark gray insects, like the

ground beetles, crickets, ants, etc., unquestionably find protec-

tion in these colors, though they are conspicuous in the day

time. Among diurnal birds and insects there are, also, many

cases of conspicuous and bright colors that become protective

by moonlight and starlight, when these creatures are asleep or

quietly resting among foliage or flowers, and most exposed to

their nocturnal enemies. In general, it may be said that in

all cases where black or very dark colors are strongly contrasted

with white, yellow, or other light markings, these patterns are

more likely to be protective at night than in the day time.

Such colors may be due, in many cases, to other causes, but

when no special cause for their origin can be found, they are

probably due, in most cases, to nocturnal protective value, and

this can be definitely ascertained by a study of the nocturnal

habits and surroundings.

Many of our native butterflies have bright and conspicuous

colors which are the reverse of protective in the daytime,

when their acute senses and active habits afford fair protection.

But I have observed that at night, when roosting on flowers,

their colors so blend with those of the flowers as to render them

inconspicuous, even in good moonlight. Many species of

Argynnis and allied genera are conspicuously marked with red,

brown, and orange on the under side of the wings, and have

bright silvery spots or blotches in addition, so that they are

1897.] Nocturnal Protective Coloration of Mammals, Ete. 101

conspicuous in the daytime. I have noticed that when these

large butterflies are roosting at night on goldenrods and other

favorite flowers, with their wings folded up over the back,

their colors not only blend with those of the flowers but their

silvery spots shine in the moonlight like the dewdrops that

surround them.

Many birds, insects, etc., have acquired colors that are equally

protective both by day and by night. This is true inthe case

of the green colors of those that live on or amongst foliage, and

in the case of those that have dull gray and brown colors, imita-

tive of the bark of trees on which they rest. It also applies

to bright colored insects that live on flowers of the same colors.

But the multitudes of cases, which cannot be explained in

this way, are probably due to special nocturnal protection.

Many fishes that rest at night amongst the stems of aquatic

” grasses, sea-weeds, etc., have dark or black stripes crossing the

body transversely, obliquely, or longitudinally. Such colors

are highly protective at night, when they are most exposed to

their predaceous enemies, for the dark bands then resemble the

dark stems and shadows of the weeds, and serve admirably to

conceal the outline of the fish. Black fins and tails serve a

similar purpose. Such markings of fishes are generally more

distinctly developed at night than in the day time, as explained

in the next article.

In a similar way, the striped colors of the tiger are doubt-

less more effective for concealment at night, or in the dusk of

evening, among the stalks of reeds and shrubs, than in the

day time. The same is true of the colors of the spotted jaguar,

leopard, etc.

The common raccoon is fairly well protected even in the day

time by its gray fur, when resting on the large gray branches

of trees, but as it generally hides by day in holes, we must

regard its peculiar coloration as due to nocturnal protection,

for which it is emniently adapted.

102 The American Naturalist. [February,

Nocturnal and Diurnal changes in the Colors of Certain Fishes,

and of the Squid (Loligo), with notes on their Sleeping Habits.

—These observations were mostly made in the U. S. Fish

Commission Laboratory, at Wood’s Holl, Mass., in 1885 to

1887, when the laboratory was in excellent condition for bio-

logical studies. In order to observe the nocturnal habits of

the fishes, ete.,in the aquaria, the gas was turned down low, so

as to give a light just sufficient for distinct vision, after every

one except myself had retired. Great care was also taken not

to jar the floor or furniture. Under these conditions many

interesting observations were made. It was noticed that while

many species became very active others took this opportunity

to sleep, and in doing so, assumed unusual colors and positions.

Several species of fishes, while asleep, had colors very different

from those seen in the day time. Others showed a decided

increase in the intensity or contrast of their colors, without

changing the pattern. The latter was the more common habit,

and was noticed especially in the case of species that have

longitudinal, transverse, or oblique dark bands or stripes or

irregular mottlings. As previously explained, these dark

stripes are highly protective colors for fishes that rest at night

among weeds and grasses. Among those showing this change

are several species of minnows (Fundulus), and the king-fish

(Menticirrus nebulosus), in which the blackish stripes come out

more strongly and clearly when asleep than when awake. The

black sea-bass, (Serranus furvus), especially when young, shows

its black markings more clearly when asleep. The sea robins

(Prionotus palmipes and P. evolans), and various species of

flounders show more strongly contrasted and darker colors

than in the day time. But the scup or porgy (Stenotomus chry-

sops) shows much more remarkable changes in color. This

fish, in the day time, usually has a bright silvery color, with a

brilliant pearly iridescence, but at night, while asleep, it be-

comes dull bronzy or gray, and is crossed by about six trans-

verse black bands, colors very effective for concealment among

the stalks of eel-grass or sea-weeds. If aroused by suddenly

turning up the gas, it immediately resumes its day time colors.

If killed in alcohol this fish, and many others, as well as the

1897.] Nocturnal Protective Coloration of Mammals, Ete. 103

squids, usually taken on their nocturnal colors, though these

generally soon fade out.

A species of file-fish (Monacanthus) which has, in the day

time, mottled olive-green and brown colors, with slightly darker

fins and tail, when sleeping becomes pallid gray, or’nearly

white, and the fins and tail become black. This and other

related species took curious positions while asleep, often lean-

ing up obliquely, with the back against the glass of the aquaria

and the abdomen resting on the bottom ; sometimes, also, lean-

ing up in a corner of the aquarium with the body curved, or

against stones in similar attitudes.

The tautog or black fish (Tautoga onitis) usually sleeps on

one side, resting under the edges of rocks, or half buried in

sand or gravel, much after the manner of flounders. They

` often had their bodies variously bent. This fish did not show

any marked change of colors, but its ordinary dark colors are

nocturnally protective.

The common squid, when resting quietly on the bottom, late

at night, and apparently asleep, takes on its darkest colors, due

to the full expansion of the brown and purple chromatophores,

so that the color is much like that developed when excited

in the day time, and similar to the usual color of alcoholic

Specimens. When swimming quietly in the day time the usual

color is pallid or translucent bluish-white, with very small,

Scattered, dark specks, due to the strongly contracted chroma-

tophores. It takes this color, also, when resting upon the light

sandy bottoms, waiting for the approach of the small fishes on

which it feeds. It has the power of changing its colors at will,

but its nocturnal color is probably automatic and protective.

104 The American Naturalist. [February,

THE INFERIOR BOUNDARY OF THE QUATERNARY

: ERA.

By Oscar H. HERSHEY.

The great diversity of physical conditions of the earth’s

surface in the Quaternary era of its geological history, has

been conducive to much legitimate difference of opinion

among students as to the most natural boundaries of the era.

A few consider it proper to commence it at the opening of de-

position of the now well known Lafayette formation. A few

others, the writer included, would date it from the close of the

Lafayette epoch of aggradation in the coastal plain and Mis-

sissippi embayment regions. But the larger number of geolo-

gists are accustomed to refer its beginning only as far back as

the first marked extension of land ice in North America and

Europe, namely, to the opening of the Kansan epoch. It is the

purpose of this paper to defend, if possible, the intermediate

proposition.

The Quaternary era, as limited by many geologists, was

characterized by a great extension of land ice in the form of

broad névés passing into and bordered by vast glaciers. As

known from their effects, these masses of glacial ice were of

great extent, covering at their maximum expansion millions

of square miles of the northern temperate zone, and having

great development on other parts of the earth’s surface, nota-

bly in the southern portion of South America, and on nearly

all high mountain ranges even under the equator. But be-

tween the several maxima of cold, producing and in part pro-

duced by these glaciers, there seem to have been climatic

periods of comparative mildness. These are commonly known

as interglacial epochs because the deposits which belong to

them are frequently found interbedded with those which are

due to direct ice action, and also because they separated the

several epochs whose most characteristic condition was glacia-

tion. But the interglacial epochs were longer than the alter-

nate glacial epochs, so that in point of time, the Quaternary

1897.] Lhe Inferior Boundary of the Quaternary Era. 105

era, even considered as synonymous with the term, “The Ice

Age,” did not have glaciation as its predominating condition.

In the light of modern discoveries in the later geologic history

of Europe and America, the “ Glacial period ” becomes more

figurative than real. Glaciation was the most remarkable and

the most prominent feature of the Quaternary era, but its im-

portance was not so great as to overshadow the claims of other

natural conditions to the right of constituting the essential ele-

ments in the definition and limitation of the era.

It is the opinion of the present writer that the era whose

early boundary is under discussion, was naturally set apart

from all preceding time by a difference in climate, and toa

less marked extent by a difference in fauna and flora; not so

much by new species of animals and plants as by a different

distribution of them. Just as the present climate differs from

that of the Tertiaries so also differed the general Quaternary

climate therefrom. We are, in fact, probably living under the

normal conditions of the Quaternary era; at least there is no

very important difference between the interglacial floral and

faunal remains and those of the present time. But all of the

various lines of research into the conditions prevalent in the

Tertiary era, combine to demonstrate that its climate, in any

given geographic district, was somewhat milder than in the

same locality at the present time. It is the time of change

from the mild Tertiary climate to the somewhat colder Quater-

nary climate that I would consider as the most natural and,

therefore, the most convenient divisional line between the two

eras.

In endeavoring to fix this time of climatic transition by

means of the effects produced, we are confronted by the imper-

fection of the geological record. A large part of the interval

between the time of pronounced Tertiary mildness and early

Quaternary severity, was occupied by conditions not favoring

the preservation of organic remains, namely, by an elevated

condition of the land and rapid erosion. Hence, we are

reduced to the necessity of theoretically deducing the most

probable cause of such a general change in climate, and then

endeavoring to fix by evidence, if possible, the time when said

cause or causes came into operation.

106 The American Naturalist. [February,

EAH

G LThe general climate of any portion of the earth’s surface is

determined by latitude, i. e., by the amount of heat received

from the sun. But there are other influences which combine

to modify the climate of any given locality. The most im-

portant are the extent and position of the bodies of land, the

heighth and trend of mountain ranges, and the relation be-

tween ocean and air currents. If all these conditions remain un-

changed fora very long period, no great diversity of climate will

effect the locality. But any disturbing influence, destroying the

relations between the conditions mentioned must, in rerum

nature, effect the climate of the entire earth toa certain extent.

Of strictly terrestrial causes there are none so potent to bring

about this result as great earth movements, changing the rela-

tion between the continents and seas, thus modifying the ocean

currents, and by presenting barriers in the form of high

mountain ranges, interfering with the courses of the prevailing

winds. In view of the fact that astronomical causes of the

changes of geologic climates are not capable of practical demon-

stration, while the terrestrial or land movement theory not

only is capable of such proof, but already such evidence has

been collected to indicate at least a time relation between the

main land disturbances and the most important climatic

changes, I shall consider only the latter hypothesis in the pres-

ent discussion.

If the peninsula of Florida were uplifted several thousand

feet into a high narrow plateau, and then dissevered by the

erosion of deep valleys into separate mountain peaks and

ridges, the present warm temperate and subtropical flora and

fauna would largely disappear. With the production of a

rocky sea-cliff about its borders and the destruction of the

swamps and marshes, the palmetto and alligator, each the

most characteristic portion of the Floridian flora and fauna,

would be eliminated; forced to migrate or become extinct,

With them would go the destruction of many other animals

and plants. The geologist who would make a study of the

region one million years hence, would find such a great con-

trast in the fossil remains enclosed in the strata laid down near

the coast now and those after the uplift, that he would be con-

1897.] The Inferior Boundary of the Quaternary Era. 107

strained to refer them to separate periods in his geologic clas-

sification. Yet the climate and natural history conditions of

the rest of the earth’s surface may have remained unchanged,

so that his divisions, based on the changes in Florida, would

be of merely local significance.

But if the uplift, instead of being confined to the peninsula

of Florida, were of continental extent, its effects would be far

reaching and very important. With the extension of the land

area, there would be an increase of the distinctly interior por-

tion of the continent, whose climate, slightly different from

that of the coasts, would have an appreciable effect on the

flora and land fauna of the present coastal regions. The eleva-

tion of the continent, also, would lower the general tempera-

ture throughout its extent, driving southward the present

north border of various temperate species of trees and other

plants, and so changing the facies of the flora in any given

locality. Such elevation of a very extensive land area, if

thousands of feet in height, would have some effect on the

climate of the entire earth, although just what this effect would

be would depend largely upon the situation of the uplifted

land with relation to the prevailing winds and ocean currents.

But the most important manner in which the uplift would

effect the natural history of the continent would be through

radical changes of its soil and physical features. The low-ly-

ing, somewhat swampy plain, with its deep soil resulting from

a long accumulation of the products of secular decay, would

give place to a sharply dissected plateau, the steep hill sides

and narrow crests of its individual ridges covered but thinly

with a stony soil. While the effect upon the flora and fauna

of any one change in conditions would probably be compara-

tively slight, the combined effect of all must be considerable,

even if the uplift be but little. Indeed, it seems evident that

not even the least change in the relation between land and sea

can occur without somehow effecting the climate, and through

it the life characters of the region in movement.

In an article entitled “The Relation between Baseleveling

and Organic Eyolution,! J. B. Woodworth discusses “ the effect,

* American Geologist, Vol. XIV, No. 4, October, 1894.

108 The American Naturalist. [February,.

on organisms, of the changes in physical geography which

arise in the process of baseleveling.” One of his most im-

portant conclusions is that the great change at the close of the

Mesozoic era, from a characteristically reptilian to an equally

characteristic mammalian land fauna, was due primarily to

the great change in the physical features of the continent

which is known to have closed the Cretaceous and introduced

the Eocene period. The low-lying denudation plain of the

later Mesozoic era was rapidly changed into the more elevated

hilly land surface of the early Tertiary era. Toward the clos-

ing stages of Tertiary time, a peneplain had again been

formed over a large portion of the continent, but it was not so

perfect nor so extended as the previous one, and, hence, its.

effect upon organic life was less marked.

The main Tertiary or Tennesseean period of base-leveling

in the eastern portion of North America was terminated by a

slight seaward tilting of the continental plateau. A portion

of the former land area was depressed beneath the sea, and om

it was laid down a marine formation of red and orange grav-

elly loam—the Lafayette formation. The land on the alterna-

tive side of the axis of general deformation was slightly up-

lifted, thereby stimulating the streams to greater activity,

which carried the products of rock disintegration into the

neighboring sea to form the Lafayette formation. The soil and

subsoil of the land area of that time were prevailingly of a

red color, for had it been otherwise the Lafayette formation

would not be so generally of that tint. Red soils are charac-

teristic of lands whose climate is comparatively mild. The

soils of the central and upper Mississippi basin, from whence

chiefly was derived the red Lafayette loam of the Mississippi

embayment region, are not known to have been of a decided

reddish tint in the Quaternary era, except locally during the

mild Aftonian interglacial epoch. On the contrary, the col-

ors which almost exclusively dominate the deposits and buried

soils of the Quaternary era are blue, yellow, brown and black.

The fineness of tho materials introduced by glaciation, the

broad swampy flats, and the usually severe winter climate

were the combined causes of the dark color of the Quaternary

1897.] The Inferior Boundary of the Quaternary Era. 109

soils. None of these conditions were present in any marked

degree during the Lafayette period, as the color and composi-

tion of the marine deposits and interior river gravels positively

demonstrate.

The causes which produced glaciation not yet having begun

to operate on the continent, the extension of the warm gulf

waters to the head of the Mississippi embayment and the

borders of the southern Appalachian province, must have in-

troduced a milder climate into the upper and central portions.

of the Mississippi basin, providing no counteracting influences.

were brought to bear. The probable slight elevation of the

continent northward from the Lafayette coast certainly did

not possess sufficient power to modify the climate to any ap-

preciable extent. Therefore, it seems evident that any change

of climate in the eastern half of the territory now included in

the United States, which may have accompanied the opening

and culminating stages of the Lafayette epoch, must have been

in the nature of increasing mildness instead of an increase in

the severity of the climate. In short, so far as the climate is-

concerned, all the evidence which is at present known to exist

is demonstrative of the practical continuance of Tertiary con-

ditions to the close of the Lafayette epoch. Hence, those

geologists who wish to include the Lafayette epoch under the

Quaternary era, must base their claims on some other natural

feature than climate. Mere earth movement, if its effects are

not prominent, cannot be considered as instituting a new era,

and, as the elevation of any part of America or the world at

large in the Lafayette epoch is not known to have been great

in vertical extent, and to have seriously effected climates, 1t-

can hardly constitute a legitimate reason for placing the epoch

in the Quaternary era.

Immediately following the close of the Lafayette epoch there

Was a period of pronounced elevation of the continent. This

is indicated by the valleys which have been eroded beneath

the surface of the Lafayette deposits, by the great depth of the

coastal valleys now submerged to form the fiords of the coasts

of British America, Alaska, Scotland, Norway, Patagonia and

other portions of the earth’s land area; and no less truly

110 The American Naturalist. [February,

though less definitely by the cafion valleys of the interior por-

tions of the North American continent. The period of high-

level continued to the opening of the Kansan epoch of glacia-

tion, when, through some cause not rightly understood, but

probably largely the great weight of the accumulating ice-

sheet, the land in the eastern half of North America was de-

pressed, and has remained to the present time at a much lower

altitude than before the Kansan epoch. The high-level period

or epoch just mentioned, seems naturally set apart both from

the preceding low-level Lafayette epoch and the succeeding

low-level Glacial epochs. It has, therefore, been defined as a

geologic time unit and designated the Ozarkian epoch, from

the fact that its results are so well seen in the sharp cut cafion

valleys of the Ozark mountain and plateau regions of southern

Missouri and northern Arkansas.

Although commonly considered as a unit, the Ozarkian

high-level epoch was probably characterized by two main ele-

vatory movements. The first began and ended at and very

soon after the opening of the epoch, and was of great areal ex-

tent but not very marked vertical movement. To it, however,

may be traced nearly all the recognized effects of the Ozarkian

high-level condition of eastern North America. The second

decided disturbance of the earth’s equilibrium seems to have

occurred very nearly at the end of the epoch. It was some-

what local in nature and effected most the northeastern por-

tion of America, (and probably all the lands surrounding the

North Atlantic). I must acknowledge that Iam basing my

claims for this elevatory movement on somewhat slender evi-

dence. But the deep, narrow, now submerged valley channels

in the border portions of the continental plateau off the mouths

of such rivers as the Delaware and Hudson, certainly were not

in process of excavation during the whole or even any large

part of the Ozarkian epoch. They must be the result of a

special elevation near the close of the epoch. And, further, the

cafion valleys of the Mississippi basin sometimes have rock

shelves buried under the present valley bottom. Often these

rock shelves cannot be explained by any inequality of the

strata excavated, but seem to indicate a renewed period of up-

1897.] The Inferior Boundary of the Quaternary Era. 111

lift near the close of the epoch. I may also add that those

who, like the present writer, are inclined to find between the

preglacial high-level of the eastern part of North America and

the immediately succeeding glaciation a relation somewhat

like cause and effect, see nothing at all improbable in the idea

of a marked, comparatively rapid, local uplift of the regions

afterwards glaciated.

The Ozarkian epoch, as already indicated, was terminated

by the accumulation of the Kansan ice-sheet and the conse-

quent depression of much of the land formerly elevated. It

is here that most geologists wish to open a new era in the

earth’s geological history. There are, I believe, a number of

objections to it. Inthe first place, glaciation, although effect-

ing millions of square miles, was yet local when the entire

land area of the globe is taken into consideration. Beyond

the districts actually glaciated, it is often very difficult to ac-

curately locate in a series of “ effects” those which are chron-

ologic equivalents of the opening of the Kansan epoch. A

marked elevation of wide extent would, by reason of its hav-

ing an observable effect on the streams of the disturbed area,

and thereby modifying to a certain extent the erosion forms

produced, be of vastly more utility in establishing a natural

classification of time than a local accumulation of land ice.

Furthermore, we have no evidence of any great change in

climate, and hence in flora and fauna in the unglaciated dis-

tricts at the opening of the Kansan epoch. Certainly the tem-

perate species of animals and plants were driven away from

the near vicinity of the ice, but to what distance we cannot

say. Indeed, there is no probability that the change in the

natural history conditions of regions not close to the great

Quaternary glaciers at the opening of the Kansan epoch, was

nearly as radical as that which must have resulted upon the

withdrawal of the sea to beyond the present coasts and the

general continental uplift and peneplain dissection which

characterized the early stages of the Ozarkian epoch. If

change of climate, of the physical features of continents, and

of the geographic distribution of faunas and floras be accepted

as the prime essentials in establishing a new era, the opening

112 The American Naturalist. [February,

of the Ozarkian epoch has superior claims over the opening

-of the Kansan epoch.

The great geological eras are demarked by widespread un-

conformities and a radical change in sediment. As every

effect has had a cause adequate to produce it, it may be as-

sumed that these breaks in the sedimentary series were cor-

related with and directly dependent upon great changes of the

‘land areas, usually of continental and often of almost world-

wide extent. These changes were of the nature of great earth

pulsations, uplifting and depressing the continental plateaux,

-and, when the contraction of the earth’s crust was very severe,

corrugating it and even, at times, fracturing it along certain

lines of weakness. The new geological era thus instituted is

usually considered to date from the time that the disturbance

first assumed prominence, modifying the flora and fauna of

the land areas and the nature of the sediment deposited in the

-sea about their borders. In short, it may be considered a rule

that the natural opening event of the eras previous to the

‘Quaternary as at present constituted, was a profound distur-

bance of the earth’s equilibrium, and it does not seem to the

writer that this rule should be set aside in subdividing the

later geological history. Therefore, convenience and the need

of a classification based strictly upon natural conditions, seem

to demand that the Ozarkian epoch should be included under

‘the term Quaternary era.

If we accept the above proposed innovation on the gener-

ally accepted scheme of geologic time divisions, we are con-

strained to reconstruct the previously established Quaternary

classification. For it will soon become evident that the time

of Ozarkian high-level of the continent deserves more than 4

mere recognition as an epoch equivalent in significance to any

one of the succeeding glacial or interglacial epochs. It was

pre-eminently a time of comparatively elevated conditions of

the land without glaciation. Succeeding it was a period chat-

acterized by alternating glacial and non-glacial conditions,

rapid epeirogenic movements, repeated migrations of faunas

and floras, but no long continued high-level conditions. In

point of time the former or Ozarkian period or epoch was by

1897.] The Inferior Boundary of the Quaternary Era. 113

far the longer. This is graphically illustrated by the vast dif-

ference in the amount of valley erosion accomplished during

the two periods. Although the glacial epochs are usually con-

sidered to have been accompanied by increased precipitation

and other favorable conditions for rapid erosion, the valleys

then excavated are quite insignificant as compared with the

]

2 Modern Epoch—Flood plain deposition.

Pe Terrace Epoch—Valley erosion.

Wisconsin Epoch—Drift deposition.

— m Toronton ? Epoch— Valley erosion.

i E

> ` ; e

3 z 3 Iowan Epoch—Drift deposition.

eee ee 3

S| See i ; :

=] :

2 Kansan Epoch—Drift deposition.

fz 2 Ozarkian Epoch—Valley erosion.

Ozarkian valleys. More erosion was accomplished in certain

districts during the Aftonian interglacial epoch than during

the combined Kansan, Iowa, Toronton ? and Wisconsin epochs.

Yet the Aftonian rock gorges never approach in size the

‘Ozarkian valleys of the same region. In fact, any one who

has studied the Ozarkian valleys of the southern Appalachian,

the Ozark and the upper Mississippi regions, and compared

them with the results of post-Kansan erosion in such districts

as western Illinois and northern Missouri cannot fail to be im-

pressed with the fact that the time which has elapsed between

114 The American Naturalist. [February,

the close of the Lafayette epoch and the opening of the Kan-

san epoch was longer than all the time since. If we do not

adopt any very large factor of safety, the known evidence will

imply a length of time for the Ozarkian period twice and, per-

haps, thrice as great as all subsequent time. Therefore, by

reason of its length and other features in some respects pecu-

liar to it, the Ozarkian period, or more properly sub-period,

may be considered co-ordinate with the Glacial sub-period, the

two to constitute approximately equal divisions of the Pleisto-

cene period as in the table on page 113.

THE POCKET, OR POUCHED GOPHER.

(Geomys bursarius.)

By CLEMENT L. WEBSTER.’

In passing over the beautiful prairies of the west, especially

in portions of Iowa and southern Minnesota, the attention of

the “traveler is arrested by the great number of isolated or

grouped mounds, which are seen over the surface.

Fic, 1. Geomys bursarius.

These mounds are generally circular, and have a rounded

or flattened top; and a diameter, at the base, of from four to

twenty feet; and usually rise to a height of from one to three

feet.

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1897.] The Pocket, or Pouched Gopher. 115

Although the marginal outline of these mounds are usually

circular, still, some of them are oblong, or have a gently flow-

ing contour.

These mounds are isolated from five rods to one mile from

one another, or are closely and irregularly grouped, or arranged

in rude circles, semicircles, or even straight lines.

In some instances, we have counted as many as sixteen of

these mounds in an area containing about two acres.

The locations of these mounds are exclusively in the prairie

regions, and may be found on either high and dry, or on low

and rather moist land. In Iowa and Minnesota, where I

have devoted considerable study to these “ peculiar mounds,”

they may be seen for many miles over the level prairies.

By far the greater number of these mounds owe their origin

to the Pocket Gopher, (Geomys bursarius), which, year by year

made additions to them by the dirt brought forth in the exten-

sion of their underground channels, until they finally assumed

the proportions now seen.

Fic. 2. Geomys bursarius.

Upon the death of the animal, or for some other cause, these

mounds, and channels, were finally abandoned, and the

116 The American Naturalist. [February,

mounds left to be taken possession of by the indigenous plants

of the region, which are always, under such circumstances, of

much ranker growth than is usual under other conditions.

Although I have been a resident of Iowa for more than

twenty-eight years, yet comparatively few of the mounds under

consideration have been reared by these Rodents during that

time.

The question may arise: If nearly all these structures (which

are very numerous) are the works of Geomys bursarius, why are

there so very few of them in process of erection to-day.

To this query, we conceive of but one or two satisfactory

replies; and thisis: In the somewhat remote past, this species

reached its culmination, or greatest expansion, in the regions

under consideration ; and that to-day witnesses its final decline;

or else, that for an indefinite time in the past, this animal was

a resident here, the mounds witnessing to their long abode,

and upon the advent of the white settlers and the breaking up

of the wild prairie lands, its mound-building propensities,

or habits, was, to a considerable extent, modified.

Instead of erecting these great mounds to-day, this animal

usually throws up little hillocks of earth, as described farther

on in this paper.

One instance of what I may call the early mound-build-

ing propensity of this animal, was observed some years ago by

the writer on his fathers farm near Rockford, Iowa.

First there was thrown up a small hillock of the usual size

and appearance; and this was added to year by year (appar-

ently by the same animal) until a conical mound three and

one half feet in height and perhaps five feet in diameter at the

base, was reared; when for some cause the animal ceased to

work here.

In this instance several small mounds or hillocks were seen

in the vicinity.

In fig. 1 is shown a sketch of this conical mound as last

seen by the writer.

Some of the early writers on this subject have supposed that

the great mounds of the prairies referred to, represent the ruins

of ancient “muskrat houses” the builders of which existed

1897.] The Pocket, or Pouched Gopher. 117

here when the country was far wetter than now—in fact when

the country was almost one great “slough.”

Others believe them to be the “ burial mounds of the In-

dians;” while still others of these writers attribute their origin

to various causes.

In Fig. 2 is given a sectional view (and it conveys a good

general idea of internal structure of nearly all of them) of one

of these mounds as explored by the writer.

In nearly all cases the old, and sometimes recent, nests of

this animal is found in the large expansions of the burrows in

the mounds; with sometimes the decayed remains of stored

food.

In a few cases it has been found that this animal has in

recent times, taken up its abode in these mounds and here

reared its young.

In one case, in 1895, near Rockford, Iowa, there was found

in one of these mounds what was pronounced to be human

bones, by a Physician at Rockford.

As to the correctness of this identification, however, I am un-

able to state, not having personally examined the relics. If,

however, they were undoubted human bones, they then simply

represent an intrusive Indian burial here during the early days

of the country.

As a general rule, no small hillocks are thrown up by the

Pocket Gopher, or seen near, the large mounds herein treated

of.

The Pocket Gopher is usually considered a great pest;

although not altogether because of the quantity of grain, etc.,

eaten.

They do not often destroy much grain by eating it, though

they not infrequently get into a shock of wheat or barley and

‘eat the heads of a few bundles and cut the bands of many

others, and raise little hillocks in the shocks, from seven to

fourteen inches in height and ten to twenty inches in diameter.

Considerable damage is done by this animal in gardens, both

by eating the vegetables and covering many others with their

mounds of earth. “ When their holes run through a hill of

118 The American Naturalist. [February,

potatoes, they always clean out the hill.” “Sometimes they do

noticeable damage in a patch of potatoes.” ?

The greatest damage done by this Gopher, however, is in

covering small grain and grass with the earth they throw from

their holes; the injury done in this way, is, in some sections,

considerable.

During the latter part of March (1889), I counted, near Rock-

ford, Iowa, ninety hills, from five to nine inches in height and |

one to three feet in diameter, thrown up by these Gophers in

a field of Clover and Timothy. These mounds were all located

in an area four by five rods in extent.

Their channels are at times quite straight for some distance ;

but most usually they frequently bifercate, or are somewhat

tortuous.

Little hillocks, averaging from five to eight quarts of earth

each, are brought to the surface, along the line of work, at irre-

gular intervals; the distance between them varying from

twelve inches to five feet. At other times only a single hillock

will be observed in the vicinity ; the animal filling the burrow

behind him as he pursues his nocturnal way. lf any channel

be opened, which has even been closed for a long period, it will

most usually be filled again very soon, by the Gopher; thus

showing that, generally, all the underground galleries are

frequently traversed by their inhabitant.

The burial mounds of the prehistoric inhabitants of lowa,

are frequently taken possession of by these Rodents, and the

bones of the interred often gnawed ; thus giving rise to the sup-

position, in the minds of some, that this evidences to the canni-

balistic habits of the originators of these monuments. This

species lays up large stores of food for winter, such as corn,

wheat, buckwheat, and other grains, as well as roots and stems —

of weeds, which are usually cut up into short pieces. i

The store of food laid up, is generally much greater than 18

used. Under straw-stacks, on western farms, where the soil is

not frozen, this Gopher sometimes works all winter.

It is stated by Mr. Bailey (Joc. cit.) that “ Pocket Gophers work

mostly by night.” So far as my personal observations extend,

? Vernon Bailey, U. S. Agricultural Report, 1887,p. 448.

1897.] The Pocket, or Pouched Gopher. 119

however, it is shown that fully as great an amount of work is

done by this animal during the day, especially in the early

morning, as is done at night.

It is also observed by the same author, that “in the spring

many of them leave their holes and travel above ground.” In

only two cases do I recollect having observed this animal

traveling in this way.

In one instance (during an open winter) an individual of

this species was found by me traveling through the snow in

February. At another time, an individual was observed (dur-

ing a cold winter) traveling aimlessly about over the deep

snows, during the latter part of February or the first of March.

In both cases, these Gophers were observed near Rockford,

Iowa.

Dr. C. Hart, Merriam, chief of the Division of Ornithology

and Mammalogy of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, whose

exhaustive and attractive works on the Pocket Gophers and

other subjects in natural history entitles his statements to the

highest consideration, says, regarding the general belief exist-

ing that the Pocket Gopher use their cheek pouches to “ cart

dirt” from their burrow’s. ‘These cheek pouches are used

exclusively in carrying food, and notin carting dirt as is often

erroneously supposed.” (See p.17; North American Fauna ;

“Monographical Revision of the Pocket Gophers).”

Mr. Vernon Bailey, another eminent naturalist of the U.S.

Department of Agriculture, says, regarding the same subject.

“ Although it is commonly supposed that the pouches are used

for carrying dirt out of the holes, the fact is they are never used

for this purpose. “In examining the pockets of more than a

hundred specimens caught in traps I could find no evidence

that they had been filled with earth. Occasionally specks of dirt

from roots clung to the hairy inner surfaces, nothing more.

If the pouches had been filled with earth, the short hairs would

inevitably retain some of it. Furthermore, Gophers shot in

the very act of pushing dirt from their holes had none in their

3 The statements of this author are doubtless eminently correct, when applied

to the species in the region he had under consideration (Elk River, Sherburne

County, Minnesota); although apparently not applicable to the same species in

the regions considered in this paper:

120 The American Naturalist. [February,

pouches.” (See p. 15, Bulletin, No. 5, “The Pocket Gophers of

the United States).” :

The writer has, however, on several occasions in northern

Iowa, observed this animal (Geomys bursarius), to carry dirt out

of its burrow in its cheek pouches, and eject it in exactly the

same manner as Dr. Merriam describes their method of empty-

ing their cheek pouches of food, which is as follows: The fore

feet are brought back simultaneously along the sides of the

head until they had reached a point opposite the hinder end of

the pouches; they are then pressed firmly against the head

and carried forward. “In this ways the contents of the pouches

are promptly dumped in front of the animal.” (See p. 19,

Monographical Revision of the Pocket Gophers.)

This action of the fore feet is also apparently accompanied

by some muscular action of the cheek pouches themselves.

This act of carrying dirt in the cheek pouches, I have person-

ally observed, and several times killed the animal while in the

very act, and have with my own hands completed the opera-

tion. I am not, however, prepared to say that this is really a

constant habit of this species in northern Iowa.

It seems scarcely possible that so high authorities and keen

observers as Dr. Merriam and Mr. Bailey should be deceived

in their observations of the habits of this species in this respect

in the regions they have studied; so we may consider their

statements when applied to those regions, as eminently correct.

PHOTOGRAPHING CEDAR BIRDS.

By Dr. R. W. SHUFELDT.

It is now over five years ago since the writer in THE AMER-

1cAN NATURALIST invited the attention of photographers to

the value to science of first-class photographs of living animals,

taken in natural attitudes, so that they could be used as study-

models for artists and taxidermists.!. Since contributing that

1 SHUFELDT, R. W. Where young amateur photographers can be of assistance

to Science. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, V. XXV, No. 295, Phila., July, 1891,

pp. 626-630. Plate XIII, Figure 1.

1897.] Photographing Cedar Birds. 121

article, and during the intervening period, not a little of my

time has been spent in perfecting methods by means of which

serviceable photographs could be made of the class of subjects

just mentioned. Most of these experiments, however, were

made last summer, and, upon the whole, with a degree of suc-

cess far beyond my most sanguine hopes and expectations.

From living specimens,and with the animals for the most part

life size, in natural attitudes, and with natural surroundings,

there have been obtained by me excellent photographic pic-

tures of Opossums; White-footed Mouse (Peromyscus leucopus),

in the act of jumping; Turkey Buzzard (life size head); nest

and two young of Icteria virens (life size); also the same of

Prairie Wabbler; Indigo Bird; Wood Thrush (Turdus mus-

telinus); Chipping Sparrow; Cat-birds; Red-eyed Vireo; sev-

eral woodpeckers (mostly life size) ; various species of bats (life

size); many snakes, lizards, hylas and toads; bumble-bee and

flowers; and others too numerous to mention. Many of my

photographs, too, not in this list, have been published, and ap-

peared in various places.

My success with some of the birds was extremely gratifying,

and I have succeeded not only in obtaining many beautiful

pictures, but likewise a number that are in my opinion more

truthful portraits of their subjects than any of the ordinary

illustrations we usually see of them in zoological works and

text-books.

Early last summer I had in my possession a pair of living

Cedar Birds, and they were most gentle and remarkably tame.

One of them is still mine, and is kept in a large cage in order

that I may study the moult in that species, which process it is

at this writing (October 11, 1896) passing through. During

July, I also had a pair of nestling Cedar Birds, at the age they

quit the nest. With these, as well as with the adults, I made

many photographic studies. In my studio I obtained a fine,

life size picture of the male, in a most animated attitude; the

pair was also obtained, and were equally satisfactory. Out of

doors the operation is far more difficult, and the effort to

secure the young was rewarded with but partial success, while

in taking the adults under nearly the same conditions, a much

122 The American Naturalist. ` [February,

better result was obtained. When I say nearly the same

conditions, I mean that the young were attempted out in the

open, were nothing obstructed the rays of the afternoon sun;

while the old birds were tried in a piece of woods, where the

light was nicely moderated by the shade of the trees. Itisa

reproduction (by the half-tone process) of this last picture that

I desire to bring before the reader in connection with the

present contribution. It was secured in the middle of the fore-

noon of a bright summer’s day, under the following general

conditions, to wit: by means of a large sheet of buff-colored

blotting-paper the view was cut off beyond a'small branch of

poplar; this latter was next focused upon, and the camera

made steady; next, the pair of birds were allowed to alight

upon the limb at that part of it seen upon the camera’s ground-

glass. With closed shutter, and sensitive plate ready for an

exposure, the proper moment must now be intently watched

for, and with the pneumatic bulb in your hand, absolutely

nothing must distract your attention, if you have any hope of

obtaining a picture worthy of the name. Observe the light

most closely ; see to it that there is not a breath of air moving

when you are ready to expose; make no sudden movements

whatever, or your birds may, and likely will, quit the limb;

let them become accustomed to their surroundings; and, finally,

let your patience be absolutely inexhaustible. Thus it was I

stood when I made the exposure—the male bird quietly as-

sumed the attitude seen in the plate; while the female, with

her back towards me, extended her neck to its fullest length

(in that peculiar way these birds have), and slightly moved her

right wing to avoid the annoyance of a couple of leaves that

touched her shoulder. The diaphragm had but an eighth of

an inch aperture, and the time was two seconds. One of the

most difficult things to control in the out-of-door photography

of small, wild animals is the light. It is not only the black,

shiny bills of birds and backs of beetles that will take pure

white, if they get the full benefit of the sun’s rays during the

exposure, but many other structures will produce the same un-

desirable result. Before I had much experience with this tricky

factor I met with many disappointments, and ruined upon one

1897, The Bacterial Diseases of Plants: 123

occasion nearly an entire box of the best plates in my endeavor

to secure a picture of a pair of nestling Pewees (Contopus virens)

in their nest. In the pictures the birds looked as though they

had been snowed on. Cutting off the light from above in a later

attempt rectified this defect. One good way to study the effect

of the light, is upon the ground glass of the camera, when the

subject has been carefully focused upon it—and I think it will

be found a safe rule in many cases to make the exposure when

a light cloud partially veils the sun’s face. All such matters,

however, can only be gained by experience ; and to pass through

this, the best of all schooling, one must be pre-armed with an

enormous stock of the best kind of patience, with a slight

reserve fund of the same article on hand in the event of a run

upon the original supply.

The picture of the Cedar Birds taken in this way is repro-

duced in Plate I, January number of the NATURALIST.

THE BACTERIAL DISEASES OF PLANTS:

A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE PRESENT STATE OF

OUR KNOWLEDGE. |

By Davik F. Smit.

(Continued from p. 41.)

VI.

Ill. THE POTATO (SOLANUM TUBEROSUM L.)

1. THE GAS-FORMING WET-ROT OF THE TUBERS (1891).

(1) THE DISEASE:

(1) Author, Title of Paper, Place of Publication, ete.—This dis-

ease was studied by Dr. Ernst Kramer in 1890-91. His paper,

entitled (40) Bakteriologische Untersuchungen über die Nassfäule

124 The American Naturalist. — [February,.

der Kartoffelknollen may be found in Oesterreichisches landwirts-

chaftliches Centralblatt, Jahrg. I, Heft 1, 1891, pp. 11-26, 2 text

figures. 3

The rot of the potato has been known to the agriculturist

for a long time and was described by Julius Kühn as early as.

1830. Since that time it has been noticed or written upon ex-

tensively by many persons, e. g., de Bary, Hallier, Reinke and

Berthold, van Tieghem, Sorauer. For a time owing chiefly to-

the writings of de Bary, its ravages were confounded, especially

in the popular mind, with those due to the potato mildew, Phy-

tophthora infestans, but it has no necessary connection with this

fungus although in Europe, at least, it usually follows the `

latter. Prior to Dr. Kramer’s investigation the organism as-

sociated with the rot was usually considered to be Bacillus

amylobacter van Tiegh. and this was supposed to be the same

as the Vibrion butyrique of Pasteur, Bacterium navicula Reinke

and Berthold, Amylobacter clostridium Trécul, Bacillus butyricus

de Bary and Clostridium butyricum Prazm., but no one had ap-

proached the problem from a purely bacteriological standpoint

using approved methods of isolation and inoculation.

The object of the author in undertaking this series of experi-

ments was to determine first of all whether the wet rot was

actually due to bacteria and, if so, how they gained entrance

into the tuber; second, to identify the species and determine

its morphological and biological peculiarities; third, to deter-

mine what decompositions it was capable of producing in the

potato and in other substrata. Owing, says Dr. Kramer, to the

fact that several bacteria cause the butyric fermentation and

several color blue with iodine and agree in morphological par-

ticulars more or less closely with Clostridium butyricum Prazm-

(Bacillus butyricus de Bary) “ it appears still very questionable

whether the specific cause of the wet rot is C. butyricum Prazm.,

especially as the predicated cause was not studied critically in

relation to its morphology and biology by the above named

investigators [Reinke and Berthold, yan Tieghem, Sorauer].”

(2) Geographical Distribution—Potato rot occurs in many

parts of the world, in fact almost wherever the potato is cultiv-

1897.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : 125

ated, but by no means all of it is due to the particular organ-

ism isolated by Dr. Kramer, as the writer of this review has

proved conclusively (see next review). Considering the read-

iness with which almost all bacteria grow upon cooked potatoes

it seems not unlikely that even in its natural state the potato

tuber may offer a suitable nidus for the growth of a variety of

bacteria especially when it is kept unduly warm and moist.

However, this may be, only two bacterial diseases of the potato

have been worked out conclusively. The distribution of Dr.

Kramer’s wet rot of the potato is not known. Very likely it

occurs in North America as well as in Europe but no one has

established this fact, probably because no one hassearched for

the organism, his paper having been very generally overlooked.

Even the European distribution of this rot is a matter of much

doubt as it has probably been confused with the brown rot due

to Bacillus solanacearwm.

The potatoes from which were derived the bacteria used in

these experiments came from the vicinity of Graz where the

wet rot was very destructive in the autumn of 1890.

(3) Symptoms.—Under the influence of this disease the con-

tents of the tuber becomes soft, pulpy, vile-smelling, and usually

of a yellowish color. The disease may either attack the tubers

before they are harvested or during the winter in the store

houses. If one of these wet rotten tubers is pricked or squeezed

a fluid pours out which hasa strongly acid reaction and a very

bad smell, mostly like butyric acid. Gas bubbles are also fre-

quent. The remaining pulp, which is rather compact, gives

an alkaline reaction either immediately or after a short time.

This reaction is plainest in the tissues which have already be-

come completely pulpy. At the commencement of the de-

struction of the potato while the tissue is still firm, the reac-

tion is moderately acid.

The tubers forwarded to Dr. Kramer for investigation pos-

sessed all the above mentioned characteristics of wet rot. They

still had a plump look. The skin was apparently uninjured

but the whole potato was a bloated sack with a yellow ichor-

ous contents. When punctured a very bad smelling, sour

fluid escaped. The smell recalled butyric acid and amin bases

126 The American Naturalist. [February,

(trimethylamin). In some cases the escaping juice as well as

the remaining pulp gave at first an acid reaction and subse-

quently an alkaline reaction.

(4) Pathological Histology—Under the microscope the fluid

pulp appeared to be composed of starch grains, single cells of

the potato, or groups of such cells, fragments of cell walls, rem-

nants of protoplasm, and countless numbers of bacteria, chiefly

in the form of bacilli, These measured 1.5-5.0 x 0.8, and

were actively motile. Frequently they appeared as though

composed of non-septate threads, or were in chains. The

single rods were rounded at the ends, while not rarely the

longer threads appeared to be narrowed toward the extremity

(zugespitzt). Ellipsoidal forms, 1x2, appeared regularly

among these bacilli. A roundish, strongly refractive body

was visible in the protoplasm of these ellipsoidal forms. This

represented the beginning of spore formation, as was shown by

later and more exact investigation.

(5) Direct Infection Experiments.—No direct infections.

(II) Tue organism: Described as a bacillus but not named.

I have been in the habit of calling this organism Kramer’s

potato bacillus, and until such time as it can be re-studied and

carefully compared with other gas and acid producing species

it is probably best that it should remained unnamed. Some

critical student of the species is certainly the only one who has

any right to name it. We have had altogether too much of

naming things without study, i. e. on the strength of the im-

perfect descriptions of other writers.

1. Pathogenesis :

(A) Yes.

(B) Yes. This was accomplished in the following manner.

Wet rotten tubers having the skin still uninjured

were cut open with sterilized knives and small quan-

tities of the fluid pulp were transferred by means of

a sterilized platinum loop into flasks closed by cotton

plugs and half full of distilled, sterilized water, which

was then well shaken to distribute the bacteria. To

obtain a proper dilution definite quantities of this 10-

fected water were transferred to similar flasks, each

1897.]

The Bacterial Diseases of Plants: 127

half full of sterilized water. From these second dilu-

tions, the inoculations were made. The bacteria were

isolated by the poured plate method, dextrose-pep-

tone, nutrient gelatine being first used as asubstratum,

and subsequently nutrient glycerine agar which

proved very satisfactory. -

Yes. The method of infection was as follows. The

bacillus was first cultivated in a variety of fluid media

until a suitable one was found. A watery potato

juice with the addition of 1-2 per cent dextrose was

finally selected as most suitable, the bacillus develop-

ing better in this than in any other medium. This

broth was made as follows: Fresh potatoes were

reduced to pulp and digested for some hours in cold

water. The fluid was then filtered out and the dex-

trose added. The filtrate was then boiled, filtered

again, and finally sterilized in the ordinary way

under cotton plugs. A series of glass dishes (Präpar-

atengläsern), about 8 cm. deep and 10 cm. broad, were

filled half full of this broth. These dishes were closed

by corks having a short, cotton-plugged glass tube

passing through them. The vessels with the enclosed

nutrient fluid were then sterilized by discontinuous

heat. The potatoes to be tested were selected with

great care, and their surface was sterilized as far as

practicable in the following manner. These living

tubers were first cleaned mechanically, then plunged

for some minutes into a solution or mercuric chloride,

and finally washed repeatedly in sterilized, distilled

water. In this way some of the tubers (not all of

them) were rendered completely sterile. The tubers

were then placed in the sterilized broth in the glass.

dishes, the mass of the fluid having been so chosen

that when the sterilized tubers were in place they

were entirely covered by the broth. The fluid was

then inoculated with small quantities of the bacilli,

derived from pure cultures, by removing the cotton

plug from the glass tube for a moment and inserting

128

The American Naturalist. [February,

the germs on the end of a sterilized platinum wire.

The vessels were then placed in a brood oven at a

temperature of 35°C. Within 12 hours the nutrient

fluid became very turbid and began to give off gas

bubbles rapidly.

After 8 days three vessels were opened and the

potatoes taken out. Tubers and broth were examined

immediately. In places the skin of the tubers ex-

hibited folds and the tissue underneath appeared to

be soft. When these spots were cut out and examined

microscopically the entire tissue was found to be

honeycombed, the intercellular substance being

strongly swollen or entirely dissolved, the cell mem-

branes wholly or partially destroyed, and the starch

grains free in places.

After 14 days more vessels were opened and the

potatoes removed. Under the skin of these tubers

there were very soft spots and exact investigation

showed that in these places the tissue was almost en-

tirely destroyed so that great cavities were formed.

The softened tissues surrounding these cavities gave

a faint acid reaction and contained numerous bac-

teria.

Finally, after 20 days, the remainder of the potatoes

were removed from the broth and examined. By this

time the appearance of these tubers had entirely

changed. They consisted only of bloated sacks filled

with a half fluid pulp. Exactly as in case of the

original wet rotten tubers the contents consisted of

free starch grains, single cells and groups of cells,

cell membranes, remnants of protoplasm, and myriads

of bacteria. The fluid pulp gave a strongly acid re-

action and had a smell like butyric acid. When such

tubers were pressed, gas bubbles came out. Taken

out of the nutrient fluid and kept in a damp chamber

at 25°C., the tubers rapidly underwent a still further

decay. After 12 hours the smell of butyric acid dis-

appeared and the tissues showed a strong alkaline

1897.]

(D)

The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : 129

reaction, accompanied by a smell recalling ammonia

and amin bases.

Checks did not develop this rot. In sterile water

they either remained sound for weeks or else, in case

the skins were not thoroughly sterilized, contracted a

different kind of decay, due chiefly to Bacillus fluore-

scens.

Yes. In case of the tubers which were in the fluid 8

days the softened spots contained large numbers of

bacteria (bacilli), which, when critically examined,

turned out to possess all the morphological and bio-

logical characters of the bacteria obtained by pure

cultures from the wet rotted potatoes, and from which

the nutrient solutions had been inoculated. At the

same time that the tubers were examined the solu-

tions were subjected to an exact bacteriological inves-

tigation. In two instances no other bacteria were

found in them than the sort which had been put in

purposely. In the third case, several other bacteria

were present, indicating that the skin of the tuber had

not been completely sterilized.

In case of the tubers which remained in the fluid

14 days, the bacteria in the softened tissue around the

cavities were isolated and found to be identical with

those used for inoculating the fluid. In two cases

also, only the inoculated form was obtained in cultures

made from the nutrient fluid surrounding these tubers,

and consequently there could be no doubt that the

destruction of the tissues was due to these bacteria.

Similar cultures were made from the tubers left in

the broth 20 days, and with the same results. When

cultivated out, the bacteria swarming in the rotten

tubers proved to be morphologically and biologically

‘identical with the form originally inoculated into the

nutrient solution in which the tuber lay, and from

which alone the infection could result. In brief, the

previously sound potatoes became infected and wet

rotten as a result of the action of the bacteria intro-

130 The American Naturalist. (February,

duced into the nutrient solution, and these bacteria.

had been previously cultivated pure from wet rotten

potatoes.

Conclusion.—Pathogenic nature clearly established.

Remark.—‘ The objection may perhaps be raised that the

artificially induced wet rot, just described, did not begin with

infection from without, i. e. from the nutrient solution, but that.

bacteria were present in the apparently sound tissue of the

potatoes used for the experiment, i. e. foci of infection dating

from the harvest time, which later on with higher temperature

and sufficient moisture, developed further. In opposition to

this it may be stated, first, that the potatoes used in the experi-

ment came from a locality in which, in previous years, wet rot

had not appeared; and, second that the tissue of several of

these potatoes was tested for the presence of bacteria, but always

with negative results. The infection was also transmitted to

sound tubers by puncturing them with a sterile platinum wire

and then inserting into the stab a slight quantity of a bacter-

ial, pure culture. These tubers were kept in a damp chamber

at 35°C. The decay of the tuber, which always proceeded

from the inoculation puncture, was identical with that of the

wet rotten tubers. The wet rot of the potato tuber is, there-

fore, nothing but a decomposition of the same induced by a

particular species of bacteria. Sorauer, and van Tieghem per-

formed similar experiments but these differ from my own in

that the investigators I have mentioned worked neither with

bacterial pure cultures nor with sterilized tubers and sterilized.

nutrient fluids.”

There is another objection which does not seem to have

occurred to Dr. Kramer, viz., that the tubers which rotted were

exposed to abnormal conditions. They were either submerged

or placed in very moist air and quite likely deprived of their

vitality through lack of aeration. They were also exposed to

an unusually high temperature. Under these conditions,.

which would occur in the potato fields only exceptionally

as the result of exceedingly hot weather and of very frequent

or very prolonged rains, possibly many other organisms, which

are usually saprophytic, might enter and destroy the tubers,.

1897.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants: 131

lying in the warm, wet earth. This seems to be established

by Dr. Kramer’s own experiments (see last paragraph under

(IT) 1 (C.). He has shown clearly that the species in question

will produce wet rot, but not that many other species would

not also produce it under like conditions. A much severer

test of the parasitic nature of this organism would be the

inoculation of the growing leaves and stems of the potato under

normal conditions of temperature and moisture, simply by.

means of needle pricks. Under these conditions it is possible

the organism might be shorn of much of its power or refuse to

grow altogether. The determination of this point offers an

interesting field of experiment for some one.

2. Morphology :

(1) Shape, size, ete.—This organism is described as a Bacillus.

It forms rods 2.5-4.0 x 0.7-0.8 ». On gelatine and agar plates

chains are common, as are also apparently non-septate threads

which frequently reach a length of 16 ».and more. In nutrient

fluids and on potato the rods are for the most part shorter, 7. e.

1.5 to 2.0 ». long. The rods are rounded at the ends. The

threads taper off and are wavy. Spindle-shaped organisms

could not be found.

(2) Capsule—No mention of any capsule.

(3) Flagella.—The rods are actively motile. No mention of

flagella.

(4) Spores.—Thicker, ellipsoidal forms occur in old cultures.

These are 1.83 x 2.0. They have a strongly developed mem-

brane and their plasma becomes differentiated and more

strongly refractive. This is the commencement of spore

formation. The mature spores fill the whole interior of the

cell.

(5) Zoogloea.—No mention of zooglæa.

(6) Involution forms—No mention of any distorted forms.

3. Biology : by

(1) Stains—The vegetative rods take all the common anilin

stains, and the spores may be colored very prettily by Neisser’s

method. :

(2) Gelatin.—On plates of nutrient gelatin the organism forms

dirty-white colonies, around the periphery of which the gelatin

132 The American Naturalist. [February,

liquefies allowing the colony to settle to the bottom of a pit.

The funnel of liquefaction extends rapidly over large areas of

the plate. Owing to this rapid liquefaction successful gelatin

plates can be made only by very thin sowings. In most cases,

the whole plate was soon liquefied at 25° C., if somewhat

abundant sowings were made. In stab cultures, dot-formed

colonies first develop along the track of the needle and finally

fuse so that the stab appears as a thread. The liquefaction

begins at the mouth of the canal and proceeds very energetic-

ally so that ordinarily in 48 hours at 25° C., the whole gelatin

has become fluid. Streak cultures on nutrient gelatin are very

characteristic. Within 12 hours the track of the needle ap-

pears as a raised dirty white line. The line spreads rapidly

and widely to each side, forming a surface not unlike an elon-

gated, irregularly margined leaf. Scarcely has this leaf formed

when the gelatin begins to liquefy. Such streak cultures can

be carried on only at room temperatures and with inoculations

from cultures that have been grown on gelatin repeatedly;

otherwise, the gelatin is liquefied too quickly.

(3) Agar.—On plate cultures of nutrient glycerin agar the

organism forms small, dirty-white, slimy drops. When exam-

ined with a hand lens these appear to be round, have a sharp

contour, and show in the interior a brownish center. In stab

cultures the track of the needle appears as a thread, and the

organism spreads from the mouth of the canal toward the peri-

phery as a delicate layer (Auflagerung).

(4) Potato, ete—On potato it forms a dirty-white, slimy layer, |

which at first gives an acid reaction, and then becomes strongly

‘alkaline. The decomposition proceeds rapidly through the

whole slice of potato, 2 to 3 days, at 25° C., being sufficient to

involve the whole thickness. During this decay there is a

copious evolution of gas from the interior, bubbles as big as &

pin head bursting through the slimy covering and leaving ™

it little funnel shaped openings.

(5) Animal Fluids—Judging from statements cited under —

Pathogenesis C., probably several were tried but there is no

specific mention of anything but milk. In this fluid the

organism caused the separation of the casein but no other

1897.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants: 133

change. Unlike Hueppe’s aerobic Bacillus butyricus it caused

in the milk no formation of ammonia, leucin, tyrosin, and a

bitter tasting substance, when kept at 25° C.—not even after

three weeks. :

(6) Vegetable Juices—This germ grew best of all in cooked

potato juice to which 1-2 per cent of dextrose was added. At

35° C., this fluid became very cloudy in 12 hours and gas

bubbles were given off.

(7) Salt solutions and other Synthetic media.—In dextrose solu-

tions with addition of tartrate of ammonia or peptone and the

necessary mineral substances (not stated what) the organism

developed very satisfactorily with formation of carbonic acid

and butyric acid. In a starch paste to which tartrate of

ammonia and the common nutrient salts were added, the

organism grew well but there was only a slight dissolving of

the starch and no formation of butyric acid. For behavior in

mineral solutions containing 5 per cent peptone see Biology

10c.

(8) Relation to Free oxygen.— Bacillus amylobacter (Clostridium

butyricum Prazm.), as is well known, grows only on exclusion

of the air, and since the wet rot of the potato was generally

attributed to this organism, Dr. Kramer first started anaerobi-

ontic cultures. The inoculated nutrient dextrose-peptone

gelatin was poured into plates and covered with films of mica.

At the same time anaerobiontic cultures were started in Gruber’s

tubes, using dextrose-peptone, nutrient gelatin. The cultures

were kept in a brood oven at 26°C. The colonies began to

appear in 24 hours. On the plate cultures under the mica,

after 48 hours, tiny colonies appeared which did not increase in

size to any noteworthy extent. Colonies on the same gelatin,

uncovered, developed rapidly, so that on the second day this

was entirely liquefied. The liquefied gelatin smelled like

butyric acid, i. e., distinctly like sauer-kraut. In Gruber’s

tubes minute, dotdike colonies also appeared, but only a few

‘of these developed any further. The larger colonies caused a

circular liquefaction of the gelatin, 2-4 mm. broad and increas-

ing but slightly. These experiments indicated that the organ-

ism is not anaerobic. A more careful examination of the

134 The American Naturalist. | February,

colonies in the Gruber’s tubes showed that every colony buried

in the gelatin was unable to develop further, and that only a

few of the superficial ones reached a somewhat larger size and

liquefied the gelatin. “Evidently a slight quantity of oxygen.

remained in the tubes (it is impossible to pump out all the air)

and this sufficed for the development of some of the colonies.

The tiny, dot-shaped colonies under the mica, those in the

Gruber’s tubes, and those which produced liquefaction on the

uncovered gelatin were then studied carefully and found to be

all of one sort. They were bacilli agreeing exactly in their

morphological characters with the rods which had been ob-

served previously in the wet rotten tuber. That the dot-shaped

colonies in the Gruber’s tubes failed to develop further simply

from lack of oxygen is best shown by the fact that after the

opening of the tubes the growth of the colonies and the lique-

faction of the gelatin proceeded so rapidly that within 12 hours

the latter was completely liquefied, even at room temperatures.

(9) Reducing and Oxidizing Power—In stab cultures in nutri-

ent gelatin rendered blue by tincture of litmus, a confluent,

dirty-white growth was formed in the canal, and at the same

time the gelatin began to change from blue to red, comment-

ing at the upper end of the stab. When this reddening had

reaching the bottom of the tube the gelatin began to liquefy

commencing at the upper end of the stab. Along with this

liquefaction there was a complete bleaching of the litmus, the

gelatin resuming its original yellow color. It could not be

determined whether this reduction shouldbe referred to removal

of oxygen or to the liberation of hydrogen. Nutrient gelatin

stained red by carminic acid was also entirely bleached by

this bacillus.

(10) Fermentation Products and other Results of Growth :

(a) Gas Production—The organism causes a copious evolu-

tion of gas from potato tubers, living or steamed ; potato broth

with dextrose; and dextrose solutions containing ammonium

tartrate and mineral salts. This gas was determined to be CO:-

No mention is made of any hydrogen. Possibly some was

overlooked.

1897.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : 135

(b) Formation of Acids. —The bacillus produces a strong acid

reaction in solutions or substrata containing sugar, i. e., in the

potato; in steamed potato juice with addition of 1-2 per cent

dextrose; and in dextrose solutions containing tartrate of

ammonia and the necessary mineral substances; but not in

starch paste with ammonium tartrate and the nutrient mineral

substances, nor in peptone solutions containing nutrient

mineral substances. This acid was determined to be butyric

and in the following manner. The soft contents of a tuber in

the first stage of rot while still acid, was extracted in water by

boiling, filtered, and mixed with a small quantity of calcium

carbonate. A white precipitate resulted, presumably of calcium

butyrate. This was, consequently, filtered boiling hot. The

precipitate which crystalized out of the liquid exhibited under

the microscope the very characteristic rhombic prisms of

calcium butyrate. When this salt was mixed with dilute

hydrochloric acid a fluid resulted which was miscible in water,

had a boiling point of 163° C., and possessed the characteristic

smell of butyric acid.

tissues show a strong alkaline reaction. Ifa little of the soft

contents of a tuber in this stage of the rot is mixed with a few

drops of distilled water, the fluid filtered, and the filtrate mixed

with Nessler’s reagent, a decided brown color appears instantly,

indicating ammonia. A part of this ammonia combines with

the free butyric acid to form ammonium butyrate and the

remainder serves to render the decomposed tissues strongly

alkaline. The ammonia is attributed to the decomposition of

albuminoid substances by the bacillus. As additional evi-

dence, it is stated that if a 5 per cent peptone solution contain-

ing the necessary nutrient mineral substances be inoculated

with a pure culture of this bacillus, a sort of rotting fermenta-

‘tion takes place, the first evidence of which is a strong am-

moniacal smell. Nessler’s solution indicates the presence of

ammonia. ;

(d) Formation of Pigment.—Growth described as dirty-white

on agar, gelatin, and cooked potato.

136 The American Naturalist. [ February,

(e) Development of Odors.—As already stated, there is a

strong odor of butyric acid in the first stage of the rot, and sub-

sequently other bad odors appear. The latter are due to

ammonia, methylamin, and especially trimethylamin. The

existence of the amin bases was determined as follows. Methy-

lamin was found by taking a little of the thoroughly rotted

tissue, mixing it with water, filtering, and mixing the filtrate

with platinous chloride, whereupon there resulted a green pre-

cipitate, PtCl, 2CH, NH,. Trimethylamin was detected by

adding to a second part of the filtrate acid (salzsaures) platinic

chloride, the resulting orange precipitate consisting only of the

well developed octahedrons of the corresponding platinie

double salt. The formation of these amin bases is attributed

to the action of the bacillus on the nitrogenous part of the sub-

stratum. They were also detected by the same methods in the

above mentioned mineral solution containing 5 per cent pep-

tone, and consequently must have been derived from the pep-

tone. These substances may also be detected in old pure

cultures of this bacillus in peptone nutrient gelatin.

(f) Enzymes—No mention is made of any study of these

bodies. The organism undoubtedly produces several since it

is capable not only of peptonizing gelatin and of dissolving

cellulose but also of attacking albuminoids. Starch is but

little affected.

-~ (g) Other Products—See Biology 10e.

(11) Effect of Dessication—No statement. Probably not

readily injured by dry air. Forms spores.

(12) Thermal Relations :

(a) Maximum for Growth—Not determined.

(b) Optimum for Growth—Not determined. This germ

grows well at 25° C., and at 35° C., apparently most rapidly at

the latter temperature.

(a) Death Point.—Not determined.

(13) Relation to Light——No statement.

(14) Vitality on Various Media.—No statement. The organ-

ism forms spores.

1897] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants: 137

(15) Effect on Growth of Reaction of Medium (acid, neutral, alka-

line)—No specific statement. Organism will evidently grow

in either acid or alkaline media.

(16) Sensitiveness to Antiseptics and Germicides—No state-

ment.

(17) Other Host Plants—No mention of any.

(18) Effect upon Animals.—No mention of any tests.

(III) Economic Asprcts:

(1) Losses.—Serious.

(2) Natural Methods of Infection —The question at once arises :

How is the disease spread in the field, the tuber being, as is

well known, carefully protected from external injuries by a firm

layer of cork cells. If this layer is not punctured or broken

the tuber appears to be safe from parasitic attacks. Even when

the bacillus was placed on the cut surface of a living tuber in

the air of an ordinary room, Dr. Kramer found that it was

never able to cause the disease, the tuber developing a protec-

tive layer of cork cells under the mass of bacilli before they

could grow. The case was quite different, however, when

tubers lying in the infected nutrient solutions were stabbed

with a sterile platinum wire. When, after 8 days, such tubers

were examined by cutting through the stab, the canal in most

cases was found occupied by the bacteria, and the decay of the

tissue was seen to have proceeded from this canal outward.

If the cork covering was shaved off in any place, the infection

_ ordinarily began there. There is, consequently, no doubt that

in the presence of sufficient moisture the bacteria can gain an

easy entrance if the corky covering of the tubers is injured in

any way, and such injury, we know, is frequently brought

about by insects. It is well known also that the lenticels open

when potato tubers are exposed to moisture for some time,

e. g., in wet earth, and this readily accounts for the infection of

uninjured tubérs. Indeed, Dr. Kramer demonstrated experi-

mentally that in apparently uninjured tubers lying in his in-

fected‘broths the rot frequently began with a darkening and

softening around the lenticels, these changes being visible

Wwithinfa few days. When such spots were examinsd it was

found that the bacteria had already penetrated into the tissue

138 The American Naturalist. [February,

in considerable numbers. Dr. Sorauer attributed the infection

of sound tubers to this cause and Dr. Kramer was thus able to

confirm it.

(3) Conditions Favoring the Spread of the Disease-—There is

nothing on this subject beyond the statement that potatoes rich

in sugar would be attacked and destroyed sooner than those

rich in starch. It is clear, however, that this disease is likely

to be most prevalent in warm and wet autumns, high tempera-

tures and excessive rainfall offering favorable conditions for

its development.

(4) Methods of Prevention—No experiments, and no observa-

tions. Disease not studied in the field. Of course, whenever

warm, rainy weather occurs in autumn potato rot of some sort

is likely to appear, and common sense would dictate the prompt

digging of the tubers and their storage in thin layers in a

dry place, otherwise the whole crop may be destroyed in the

ground, or subsequently in the pit or cellar.

Remark.—In the later stages of decay Bacillus fluorescens is

quite common, and one is also likely to find almost any of the

common soil bacteria. This paper was announced only as a

preliminary communication, but no second paper has been

published, so far as known to the writer.

This organism differs from Bacillus amylobacter van Tiegh.

(Clostridium butyricum Prazm.) in that the latter is strictly

anaerobic, produces spores in spindle shaped cells and colors

blue with iodine. Bacillus butyricus Botkin, which is thought

by Lehmann and Neumann (41) Bakteriologische Diagnostik,

Munich, 1896; Bd., II, p. 315, to be distinct from the preceed-

ing, is also strictly anaerobic. Bacillus butyricus Hueppe differs

from Dr. Kramer’s organism in the way metioned above (II) 3

(5) in the absence of gas production, and in some less impor-

tant particulars. A number of other butyric acid forming

species have been described but all more or less imperfectly.

1897.] Editor’s Table. 139

EDITOR’S TABLE.

Waite the primary object of the University is instruction, there are

several reasons why original research is of more than incidental im-

portance to its prosperity. The mastery of his subject, which is charac-

teristic of the man who advances the knowledge of it, is an essential of

a good teacher. The belief in this truth is so general that the teacher

who is known as a discoverer will more successfully attract students to

his classes than he who is not so known. But, apart from this, the gen-

eral reputation of a school before the public is more surely affected by

the research work that issues from its faculty, than the managing bodies

of some of them seem willing to admit. As an advertisement, success-

ful original work.is incomparable. It serves this purpose in quarters

where the detailed work of the university is of necessity unknown. We

know how it is with our estimate of institutions of foreign lands; we

know them by the work of their professors in original research. We

believe that those universities which permit of the production of orig-

inal work by those of its professors who have proven themselves com-

petent for it, are wise above those who do not do so. Those who load

such men with teaching, so as to forbid such work, reduce their pros-

perity. We regret to learn that a tendency to the latter course is in-

creasingly evident in some of our great schools. Who, in the chemical

world, does not think the more highly of Harvard, on account of the

work of a Gibbs; how much better is Brown known through the work

of a Packard, and so on? Chicago, Pennsylvania and Cornell profit

greatly in various fields by the work turned out by certain members of

their faculties. Who does not know Columbia, Princeton and Johns

Hopkins as the seat of the labors of men whose names are familiar to

every American? Yet, in a few of these institutions, the prosperity

brought by these very men is becoming the means of choking their

vitality of these their life centers, by the increase of drudgery which

it brings. The managers will be wise to preserve for these men suffi-

cient leisure to enable them to advance the frontiers of the known, and

thus to obtain juster views of things as they are, and to bring us ever

nearer to a comprehension of the great laws, whose expressions 1t 18

their business to teach to the growing intelligences of the nation. By

all means nourish the nuclei of the mental life, which will thus preserve

the vitality of the cytoplasm of society, and protect them from being

smothered by it into stagnation and ultimate crystallization.

140 The American Naturalist. [February,.

ProressoR Wooprow WItson delivered an address at the recent

susquicentennial anniversary of Princeton University, which contained

pointed reference to the energy displayed by the sciences in the field of

thought and education at the present time. This reference not only

pointed out what the sciences are not competent to do, but was distinctly

uncomplimentary in its allusion to supposed evil-effects on the minds

of its cultivators, which he characterized as “ noxious gases which issue

from the laboratory.” Whatever Prof. Wilson’s private views may be,

his expressions in this address did not include those qualifying words.

which are in place in dealing with the subject from the point of view

which is to our mind the broadest and best. If the sciences do not.

teach the humanities from the side of the ideal and the esthetic, they

enforce them in sterner fashion by an exposition of the nature of neces-

sity. We may also admit, that the humanities are not their field im

general ; but they are none the less beneficial to thought as well as to-

practical life on that account. The scientific training appears to us to-

be of inestimable value, as supplying the habit of orderly thought, which.

must infallibly lead to the truth in whatever field it may be applied:

Let the humanities flourish, but let then not decline the aid of the

sciences. Together they constitute a working partnership, which em--

braces the field of human culture, and gives the mind all sides of reality,.

which includes not only “sweetness ” but “ light ”.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Bailey’s Survival of the Unlike.'—This new book from the

facile pen of Professor Bailey consists of essays and papers all of which

have been presented elsewhere, and now brought together in accord-

ance with the author’s plans. Thus while a collection of essays, it is-

not without unity. “In making these essays” the author says, “I have

constantly had in mind their collection and publication and have,.

therefore, endeavored to discuss the leading problems associated with

the variation and evolution of cultivated plants, in order that the final

collection should be somewhat consecutive.”

The following quotations from his very suggestful preface will give

the reader a general idea of the author’s position. “The underlying

1 The Survival of the Unlike, a collection of evolution essays suggested by the

study of domestic plants, by L. H. Bailey. New York, The Macmillan Com~

pany, 1896, 515 pp., 8vo.

1897.] Recent Literature. 14f

motive of the collection is the emphasis which is placed upon unlike-

nesses and their survival because they are unlike. The author also

denies the common assumption that organic matter was originally en-

dowed with the power of reproducing all its corporeal attributes, or

that, in the constitution of things, like produces like. He conceives

that heredity is an acquired force, and that, normally or originally,

unlike produces unlike.” The author's a priori reasons for belief in

the hypothesis of evolution are “the two facts that there must be a

struggle for existence from the mere mathematics of propagation, and

that there have been mighty changes in the physical character of the

earth, which argue that organisms must either have changed or per-

ished.” On the other hand, “the chief demonstrative reason for be-

lief in evolution is the fact that plants and animals can be and are

modified profoundly by the care of man.”

The body of the book is in three “ parts,” the first including essays.

touching the general fact and philosophy of evolution ; the second,

those expounding the fact and causes of variation ; and third, those

tracing the evolution of particular types of plants. The first essay

gives name to the book. In it the author discusses (1) the nature of

the divergences of plants and animals, suggesting the Mycetozoa as the

point of divergence; (2) the origin of differences, holding that all

plants and animals came from one original life-plasma which had the

power of perpetuating its physiological but not its structural identity,

no two organisms ever being exactly alike, it follows that unlike pro-

duces unlike; (3) the survival of the unlike, this being an extension

of our notion of the meaning of the phrase “ the survival of the fittest,”

by showing that the fittest are unlike.

The author gives us some interesting pages on the species dogma, in

which he pointedly shows the inconsistency of those who demand ex-

perimental evidence of the evolution of a species, and yet reject “ hor-

ticultural species” because they have been produced under cultivation.

Many examples are given of the origination of well marked “ varieties ”

which are much more different from the species from which they sprung

than are the recognized species from one another. Here Professor

Bailey’s experience as a horticulturist enables him to cite striking ex-

amples of what the candid reader must admit are good species of beans

(Phaseolus), tomato (Lycopersicum), maize (Zea), soy beans (Glycine),

ete. The horticulturist who is familiar with the plasticity of plants,

and who is accustomed to see new and persistent forms arise, cannot

help being an evolutionist, nor can he help being impatient with the

botanist who refuses to accept such forms as true varieties or species as

142 The American Naturalist. [February,

much entitled to recognition as those whose origin we do not happen

to know.—CHARLES E. Bessey.

Prillieux’s Diseases of Plants.’ —Among recent contributions

to botanical literature is the first volume of a work on the diseases of

agricultural plants including forest and fruit trees by Ed. Prillieux, Pro-

fessor in the (“ Institut National Agronomique,” Paris). The work is

the outcome of the author’s twenty years study and teaching of Eco-

nomic Vegetable Pathology.

In the introduction the change in the methods of viewing plant dis-

eases is referred to. Instead of trying to trace an anology between

human pathology and phytopathology, plant diseases came to be re-

garded as due to changes of normal physiological functions produced

either by unfavorable conditions or by the action of parasitic organisms

penetrating the tissues. The placing of phytopathology on a more

rational basis is attributed to De Candolle.’ In this connection Unger‘

might well have been cited.

The author next speaks of the aims and purposes of the work. He

says: “If I am able to render the study interesting and intelligible to

agriculturists and to all persons living in the country who have received

some general knowledge of the structure of plants, I shall have obtained

the end I have in view.”

In speaking of the difficulties of studying minute parasitic plants he

adds: “It seems to be established that such researches present too

many difficulties to be carried on by any one who wishes. My great-

est desire is to dissipate this belief and to facilitate the beginnings of

observers who, living in the country, are able to test on cultivated

plants the facts already observed and described, and to examine the

parasites in quantity in all their stages of development. If they ac

quire a taste for these oe they may be able in their turn to add

many new facts to science.” We believe the many acute investigators

who after thorough equipment have spent years in trying to solve some

of the problems presented by plant diseases will not think us pessi-

mistic if we venture to predict that the author’s hopes regarding the

contributions to the life histories of parasitic fungi which he expects

from the novice will not be realized. If, however, he succeeds in get

ting the intelligent farmers to observe carefully the parasitic plants

? Prillieux, Ed. Maladies des Plantes Agricoles et des Arbres fruitiers et Forest-

ders causées par des parasites végétaux. Home Premier, Paris, 1895.

3 De Candolle, Aug.-Pyr. Physiologie Végétale. Paris, 1832.

* Unger, Franz. Die Exantheme der Pflanzen. Wien, 1833.

1897.] Recent Literature. 143:

which destroy their crops, and to study and become familiar with the

facts that have already been established by investigators he will have

rendered an incalculable service. He next refers to the diverse forms

and various stages in the life histories of many disease-producing para-

sites and the necessity of knowing all the facts connected with the con-

ditions of their propagation and growth, and the importance of this

knowledge as a basis in devising means of preventing or combatting

them. It seems to us he might well have urged in addition the need

of a comprehensive knowledge of the complex physiological activities

of plants under normal conditions, as this must be the basis for an un-

derstanding of abnormal or pathological conditions, and must precede

any rational treatment of such conditions.

The remainder of the introduction is devoted to detailed directions

for the use of the microscope. These directions are intended for be-

ginners, and cover the simple manipulations of the instrument as used

in the elementary study of plant histology.

The various parasites of which the volume treats are arranged in

systematic order. The first part treats of “Cryptogamic Parasites

other than Fungi.” These are discussed in two chapters, one on Bac-

teria and one on Myxomycetes. The second part treats of “ Parasitic

Fungi,” to which five chapters are devoted in the following order :

Phycomycetes, Ustilaginexe, Uradinex, Basidiomycetes and Ascomyce-

tes. The style is rather concise and exact, though not so technical as

to make the work forbidding or unintelligible to the non-scientific

reader. The numerous figures, though in many cases crude, give a

fair idea of the general characters of the object represented. It would

seem that in a work intended for the use of agriculturists and horticul-

turists more attention might profitably have been given to the treat-

ment of the diseases discussed. There can be no doubt, however, of

the usefulness of the work, and if the class for whom it is especially in-

tended can be prevailed upon to use it, it will assist greatly in popular-

izing and advancing a branch of botany which is at present in its in-

fancy, but which is destined to great growth in the near future.

C. L. SHEAR.

Campbell’s Mosses and Ferns.*—This book has appeared at a

most opportune time in the history of botanical science, if, indeed, a

long-wished for book can ever fail to be opportune. The Archegonia-

5 The Structure and Development of the Mosses and Ferns (Archegoniatæ), by

Douglas Houghton Campbell, Ph, D., Professor of Botany in the Leland Stanford

Junior University. Macmillan and Company, London and New York, 544 pp.,.

8vo

144 The American Naturalist. [February,

tæ have long been most fruitful objects of research, and the bearing of

the results of such investigations upon the terminations and the begin-

nings of phylogenetic lines has been of absorbing interest. It was to

be expected that such a field would attract the attention of many of

the best botanists. So true is this, that the literature of botany for the

past fifteen years has abounded in articles upon the morphology and

the embryology of the Archegoniate. The activity of specialists along

these lines has been so great that the general student has long since

been compelled to relinquish the task of keeping himself accurately

informed of the most recent investigations and theories. The publica-

tion of these results in numerous diverse periodicals rendered all the

more imperative the demand for their collation and co-ordination.

Above all, it was desirable that these collected data should come to us,

not as the compilation of some superficial student of the subject, per-

haps, but as a judicious and discriminating compendium based upon no

inconsiderable amount of original work.

To the making of .a book for American students, no one, probably,

could have brought out a longer experience or a greater knowledge of

the subject than the author of the present volume. The collection and

arrangement of the scattered data of numerous texts and their presen-

tation, together with the extensive results of original research, has been

done in a masterful manner. The information gained by the author’s

-own investigations have enabled him to construct an admirable ground

plan into which he has woven the results of others in a most skillfully

relevant fashion. Though dealing with a subject not a little complica-

ted, the general scheme of the text is particularly fortunate, and the

‘subject matter itself much more than ordinarily perspicuous.

A critical compilation entails the discussion of numerous antagonis-

tic views and theories, and renders necessary a discriminating treat-

ment of them. The author has here had no easy task and merits espe-

cial congratulation upon the successful manner in which he has acquit-

ted himself. It would have been no more than expected if he had per-

mitted himself to incline rather strongly toward his own views upon

mooted questions. Yet such is not the case. In all instances, the

arguments on both sides have been presented in the fullest manner and,

‘in some cases, in a spirit of fairness, he has conceded, perhaps, more

than necessary. The bringing together of such a mass of facts and

theories has given the author a rare opportunity to deduce the tenden-

cies which they suggest, and to critically weigh the contradictory opin-

ions to which they have given rise. This has been thoroughly done,

and the book, besides standing as a most able symposium of the pres- ,

1897.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 145

ent knowledge concerning the Archegoniatze, will be of almost inesti-

mable value for its effectual relegation of worn out ideas, and its lucid

elaboration of those which are to direct future thought in these lines.

The text treats consecutively of the various orders and families of

Bryophyta and Pteridophyta, dealing exhaustively with their organo-

geny and morphology, and discussing in a concise manner their classi-

fication and general affinities. The peculiar thoroughness and com-

pletion of the work are among its most pleasing features. From its

-comprehensiveness, it must be primarily a reference book, and the sub-

ject matter has been so subdivided and arranged as to greatly facilitate

this purpose.

The typography of the book is good, perhaps rather above than be-

low that which should be regarded as standard for any scientific work,

in order that it may not receive unfavorable mention. Many of the

figures unfortunately, show the effects of haste, whether upon the part

of the artist or of draughtsman is not certain. It is to be regretted

that the illustrations, which so often make a poor book, has here been

permitted to mar so good a one.

I shall not place an incubus upon the book by calling it “ epoch-

making ;” such can never be truthfully said of any scientific work. It

‘does stand, however, as a most welcome and effective milestone, not

merely for the general student of botany, but for the specialist as well. -

Not only will it remain for a long time a much thumbed summary,

but it must be regarded as indicating at least the most immediate lines

of future research among the Archegoniate.

FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS.

AMERICAN NATURALIST LIST OF RECENT BOOKS

AND PAMPHLETS.

ANpREws, C. W.—Note on the Pelvis of Cryptoclidus oxoniensis (Phillips).

Extr. Geol. Mag., Decade IV, Vol. III, 1896.

— ote on the Skeleton of Aptornis defossor. Extr. Geol. Mag. London,

96.

—On the Structure of the Plesiosaurian Skull. Extr. Quart. Journ. Geol.

Soc., May, 1896.

On the Skull, Sternum and Shoulder Girdle of Æpyornis. Extr. The

Ibis, July, 1896. From the author.

146 The American Naturalist. [February,

Bain, H. F.—Geology of Woodbury Co. Extr. Iowa Geol. Surv., Vol. V,

Ann. Rept., 1895. Des Moines, 1896. From the Surve

Bancs, O.—Notes on the Synonymy of the North American Mink with De-

scription of a New Subspecies.

, Q. F.— Reconnaissance of the Gold Fields of the Southern Appalach-~

ians. Extr. Sixteenth Annual eine U. S. Geol. Survey, 1894-95, Part IL.

Washington, 1895. From the a

Contributions from the Geologien Depdrtinetit of Columbian University, No..

XXXIII. From the Uni

CookE, M. C.—Across a Common. London, 1895. From T. Nelson and’

Sons, Publishers

CoquiLtett, D. W.—Revision of the North American Empide—a Family of

Two-winged Insects. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Nat. Mus, Vol. XVIII. Washing-

ton, 1896. From the Museum.

Crosspy, W. O.—Tables for the Determination of Common Minerals, Boston,

1895. From the author.

Curtis, M. M.—An Outline of Philosophy in America. Reprint from the

Western Reserve Univ. Bull., March, 1896. From the author.

Deran, B.—Is Paleospondylus a Cyclostome? Extr. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci.,

Vol. XV, pp. 101-104.

——Sharks as Ancestral Fishes. Extr. Natural Science, Vol. VIII, 1896.

From the author

DEPERET, C.—Sur quelques mammifères de l'étage Burdigalien (premier étage-

Mediterranéan) (de Suisse et du bassin du Rhone). Extr. Compte Rendu Soc.

Geol. de France Nr. 13, 1896.

r les Dinosauriens, Sauropodes and Théropodes du Crétacé supé-

rieur de Madagascar. Extr. Bull. Soc Geol. de France (3), XXIV, 1896. From

the author.

ELDRIDGE, G. H.—A Geological Reconnaissance in Northwest Mathie

ems No. 119, U. S. Geol. Surv. Washington, 1894. From the U. eol.

Poa H. L.—Kame Areasin Western New York south of Irondequoit

and Sodus Bays. Extr. Journ. Geol., Vol., IV. ae 1896.

——Glacial Genesee Lakes. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 1896.

—— Physical Characters of Monroe Co. and Adjacent Taiha. Extr. Pro-

ceeds. Rochester Acad. Science, Vol. 3. Rochester, 1896. From the author.

GANNETT, H.—A Geographic Dictionary of New Jersey. Bull. No. 118, U.

S. Geol. Surv. Washington, 1894.

—— Results of Primary Triangulation. Bull. No. 122, U. S. Geol. Surv. Wash-

ington, 1894. From the U. S. Geol. Surv.

Geologische Karte von Böhmen Section II and III. Archiv. der Naturwiss:

Landesdurchforchung, X Bd., Nro. 1. Prag, 1895.

GILL, T.—The Differential Characters of the Syngnathid and Hippocampid _

Fishes. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Nat. Mus, Vol. XVIII, 1895. From the

Museum.

Goove, G. B.—The Principles of Museum Administration. Extr. Ann. Rept.

Mus. Assoc., 1895. York, 1895. From the author.

1897.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 147

Groos, K.—Die Spiele der Thiere. Jena, 1896. From the author.

GruLicn, O.—Geschichte der Bibliothek und Naturaliensammlung der kaiser-

lichen Leop. Carol. deutschen Akad. d. Naturf, Halle, 1894.

HATCHER, J. B.—Recent and Fossil Tapirs. Amer. Jour. Sci , Vol. I, 1896.

From the author.

Herrick, F. H.—The American Lobster: A Study of its Habits and Develop-

ment. Extr. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1895. Washington, 1895. From :

the author. l

HorLanDp, W. J.—Lists of Lepidoptera collected in East Africa by (1) Dr. W.

L. Abbott; (2) W. A. Chanler and Lieut. von Hoehnel; (3) from East African

Islands, collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott ; (4) from Kashmir, collected by Dr. W.

L. Abbott. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII. Washington, 1895.

From the Smithsonian Institution.

International Zoologist’s Directory. Berlin, 1895. From Frieländer & Sohn,

Pub.

Keyes, C. A.—Bibliography of North American Paleontology, 1888-1892.

Bull. No. 121, U. S. Geol. Surv. Washington, 1894. From the U. 8. Geol.

urv. ;

Kivana, J.—Das Moldauthal zwischen Prag und Kralup. Aus Archiv. der

Naturwiss. Landesdurchforschung, IX, Bd., Nro. 3. Prag, 1895. From the

author.

LUTCHER, H. J.—A Stronger and More Permanent Union. Orange, Texas,

1896. From the author.

Mearns, E. A.—Preliminary Diagnoses of New Mammals from the goen

Border of the United States. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII.

Washington, 1896. From the Smithsonian Institution.

MERcrRAT, A.—Etude comparée sur des Molaires de Toxodon et d’autres Re-

présentants de la même famille. Extr. Annales del Museo Nacional de Buenos

Aires, T. IV, 1895. From the Mus. ; Ha

MoENKuAus, W. J.—Notes on a Collection of Fishes of Dubois Co., ana.

No reference given.

——Variation of North American Fishes, II. The Variation of rea

caprodes in Turkey Lake and Tippecanoe Lake. Extr. Proceeds. Ind. .

Sci., No. 5, 1895. From the author. í

ings of the Biological Society of Washington, Vol. IX, 1894-95.

From the Society, ‘

Prosser, C. S—The Devonian Svstem of Eastern Pennsylvania ss eyd

York. Bull. No. 120, U. S. Geol. Surv. Washington, 1894. From the U.

Geol. Survey. : i

PumereLLY, R., J. E. WoLrF anp T. N. DALE.—Geology of the iino

ains.—— Monographs of the United States, Vol. XXIII. From the U. 8.

Survey.

Reis, O—Zur Osteologie und Systematik der Belonorhynchiden und Tetra-

8onolepiden. No date given. From the author.

IMPSON hical Distribution of the Pearly

Freshwater Mussel. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1896. From

M um. 3 :

e Muse

148 The American Naturalist. [February,

Situ, H. M.—History and Results of the Attempts to Acclimatize Fish and

other Water Animals in the Pacific States. Art. 10, Bull. U. S. Fish Commission

for 1895. Washington, 1896. From the Commission.

SmYTH, C. H.—Metamorphism of a Gabbro occurring in St. Lawrence Co., N.

Y. Extr. Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. I, 1896. From the author.

Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Arts, Sciences and Letters, Vol. X.

Madison, 1895. From the Academy.

VAN BIERVLIET, J. J.—Eléments de Psychologie Humaine. Paris, 1895. From

the author.

Watcott, C. D.—Fossil Jelly-Fishes from the Middle Cambrian Terrane.

Extr. Proceeds, U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII. Washington, 1896. From the

Weeks, F. B.-—Bibliography and Index of North American Geology, Paleon-

tology, Petrology and Mineralogy for 1894. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. No, 135.

Washington, 1896. From the Survey.

Wuire, C. A.—The Bear River Formation and its Characteristic Fauna. Bull.

U. S. Geol. Surv. No. 128. Washington, 1895. From the Survey.

Woopvwarp, H.—Address delivered at the Anniversary Meeting of the Geo-

logical Society of London, Feb, 15, 1895.

General Notes.

PETROGRAPHY.’

Petrography of the Viterbo Region, Italy.— Washington’

continues his description of the young volcanic rocks of Italy in an

article dealing with the lavas of the interesting Monti Cimini, Monte

Venere and Monti Vico. The principal rocks of the district are vul-

sinite, composed of phenocrysts of orthoclase, plagioclase, diopside and

biotite in a trachytic groundmass consisting of diopside, magnetite and

the feldspars ; ciminite composed of small olivine, diopside, plagioclase,

and sanidine phenocrysts in an andesitic felt of diopside needles, mag-

netite grains and feldspar laths—both orthoclase and plagioclase ;

peperino—a trachy andestic tuff, and a series of leucite rocks belongmg

with the leucite phonolites. The phonolites from Monte Venere are

characterized by the presence of phenocrysts of biotite. Analyses of

the three principal types are given as follows:

SiO, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO MgO CaO Na,O K,O H,O TiO;

Vulsinite 57.32 19.85 2.21 2.35 1,603.82 3.22 9.15 :57 ==100.09

Ciminite 55.44 18.60 2.09 4.48 4.75 6.76 1.79 6.63 .25 .16 =100.75

Leucite phonolite 55.21 19.81 2.69 2.86 1.68 4.61 3.13 845 .99. tr= 99°

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

2 Journal of Geology, IV, p. 826.

1897.] Petrography. 149

Missourite, a New Leucite Rock.—The body of rock consti-

tuting the core of one of the volcanic centresof the Highwood Mount-

ains, Montana, is a new type of leucite rock named Missourite by Weed

and Pirsson.* The rock isin the form of a stock intrusive in Creta-

ceous shale. It variesin character in different places, but is of the

same general nature in all. The coarsest grained variety is a-dark

gray granular rock composed of grains of fresh olivine, of pale green

augite, of brownish-yellow biotite, apatite and iron oxides embedded in

perfectly clear leucite in formless masses. The composition of the min-

eral is as follows:

SiO, AlO, FeO, MgO CaO K,O Na,O H,O Total

54.46. 2224 68 tr 10 1886 .70 _ 2.29 = 99.33

A slight zeolitization has occurred in some of the leucite, the new pro-

ducts being analcite and a new potash zeolite analogous to natrolite.

An analysis of the rock yielded :

SiO? Al,0; FeO; FeO MgO CaO NaO K,0 H,O TiO. P.O; BaO SrO SO; Cl Total

46.06 10.01 3.17 5.61 14.74 10.55 1.31 5.14 144 .78 21 32 20 05 03 99.57

This is very close to the composition of absarokite.‘ Since the structure

of the missourite is penite, the author classifies it as the plutonic equiv-

alent of the leucite basalts

The Crystalline Schists of the Spessart. apap to

Klemm the crystalline rocks of the Spessart,Germany,

and schists of unknown age, with which are associated basic intrusive

and effusive rocks and their tufis. The schists occur on the periphery

of a great granite mass, dykes from which have intruded them. Among

the foliated rocks are quartz-echists, m miom schiste, staurolite-echists, cale-

silicate hornfels, limestone, d sandstones

and graywackes. The biotite, ‘staurolite and other similar constituents

exhibit no evidences of the action of pressure upon them, although the

rocks in which they occur are highly schistose. This fact leads the

author to conclude that the foliation of the rocks was imposed upon

them when in aplastic state and not after they had become rigid. The

amphibolites are thought to be metamorphosed tuffs. The granite is a

biotitic variety with a foliation produced by pressure, but in this case

as in the case of the schists, the foliation was produced before the rock

finally solidified. In the character of its intrusion the granite is lacco-

“Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. II, 1896, p. 315.

“Cf. AMERICAN NATURALIST, p- 299.

* Zeits. deutsch. geol. Geo., XLVII, p. 581.

150 The American Naturalist. [February,

litic. After discussing the nature of the schists and gneisses of this

region the author concludes his paper with the statement that the

term gneiss should be used in a geological sense only when the origin

of the rock designated by it is unknown. He further surmises that

many gneiss areas will, upon close study, be found to be underlain by

granites and variousschists whose nature can be learned.

Instruments.—Leiss® describes a number of new instruments for

the use of petrographers. They are made under the direction of Fuess of

Berlin. The first instrument is a microscope with nicols so arranged

as to be capable of revolution independent of the stage. The stand is

constructed for the attachment of the ordinary accessories. The three

models at present on the market are known as VII, VIIa, VIII. The

second instrument is a simplified form of Federow’s universal stage,

admitting of the revolution of an object about two axes while under

the microscopic objective. The third is the apparatus planned by

Klein to aid in the examination of thin sections immersed in liquids.

The other instruments described are a compensator-ocular, invented by

J. Amann, a mica-wedge after the pattern proposed by Federow, à

vertical illuminator for use with opaque objects, a very simple micro-

scope camera made to fit over the ocular of an ordinary microscope

and an achromatic condenser for use with the same.

Diller describes an improved form of Smeeth’s separating tube for

the separation of rock powders by means of heavy solutions. The new

tube possesses several advantages over the Harada and the Brogger

tubes.

Petrographical Notes.—The reciprocal relations existing betweeD

hornblende and augite in plutonic and volcanic rocks is explained by

Becke’ as due to the fact that hornblende contains a small percentage

of constitutional water in its molecule, and that it can therefore be

formed only under certain conditions of pressure and temperature when

water is present ina magma. When the conditions of pressure and

temperature are not right augite forms in place of hornblende. A fig-

ure showing curves exhibiting the possibilities of formation of the two

minerals explains the author’s views.

A massive holocrystalline rock composed of biotite, cyanite and cor-

dierite, with apatite and rutile as accessories, was discovered by Me

7 Neues Jahrb. f. Min. B.B. X, 1896, p. 412.

8 Science, June 12. 1896, p.

®Sitzb. deutsch. naturw.-med. Ver. f. Böhmen. Lotos, 1896, No. 5.

1897.] Botany. 151

Mahon” as a bowlder in the bed of the Satlej River near Wangtu in

the N. W. Himalayas. It is regarded as a product of contact action.

Its original form is thought to have been diabasic or basaltic.

In the pre-Cretaceous, Cretaceous and Eocene beds of northwestern

Oregon, Diller”! finds glaucophane schists, sandstones, limestones, ba-

salts, tuffs and shales.

The granophyres of Strath, Skye, according to Harker” are filled

with gabbro inclusions where they intrude a great mass of volcanic ag-

glomerate. They are denser and darker than the normal granophyres

lying north of them, in which no basic inclusions are known. The

gabbro debris in the grease) is more or less dissolved, those frag-

ments that have most nearly disappeared being represented by isolated

grains of augite, hypersthene, altered olivine, magnetite and occasionally

plagioclase. The pyroxenes have suffered greater or less change into

hornblende and the olivine into pilitic amphibole. The new rock formed

differs from the normal granophyre in its structure, in that it appears

to contain nests of secondary minerals. Other fragments besides gab-

bro were also noticed in the same rock.

In the course of an article on the mineral deposits of the Central

Alps, Weinschenk™ describes the granite, gneiss, aplite, lamprophyre,

mica-schists, quartzite, amphibolite, serpentine and other rocks of the

Hohen Tanern.

BOTANY?

The Metric System in Botany.—The recent appearance of two

very important works on North American botany, viz., “ Gray’s Syn-

‘optical Fora of North America, Vol. I, part I” and “Britton and

Brown’s Illustrated Flora of the Northeastern United States and Can-

ada, Vol. I,” in which the English units of measurement are used

throughout, suggests the necessity of some missionary work among

American botanists. Can it be possible that the botanists of this coun-

‘try are the most conservative of our scientific men? We take part

from time to time in the action of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science, in which in vigorous and logical sentences

1 Min. Magazine, XI, p. 141.

"17th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, Pt. 1, p. 14-16.

- ™ Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Mey.) te p. 820

®© Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXVI,

* Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, vadai of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

152 The American Naturalist. [ February,

we express our admiration for the metric system and our conviction

that the United States Congress is derelict toward this important mat-

ter. We urge Congress to make the use of this system compulsory, and

yet we go on calmly writing books in which we use the most antiquated

of measuring units. Not content with using feet and inches, we ex-

press fractions of inches in lines! We vote enthusiastically that

mechanics, surveyors, farmers, statisticians and schoolmasters shall use

the metric system exclusively, and yet we, the botanists, who of course

are “the salt of the earth” are slow in doing what we so urgently

recommend others todo. The writer hereof must plead guilty to his

full share of blame in this matter in the past, but he wishes to assure

his botanical friends that he does not intend to inflict a long suffering

public with any work whose use will compel a retention of the old units,

as in the case of the books referred to above. Nor are these the only

books which offend in this important matter; they are singled out be-

cause of their great excellence in other respects, and also because

such an anachronism was not to be expected in them. Following their

lead, however, we may look for many little books with English units ;

thus it happens that the very books which should familiarize the peo-

ple with the metric system, the semi-popular and popular books, serve

to perpetuate an obsolescent, and what we say we hope will soon be an

obsolete system.

It is not necessary to point out the commendable exceptions to the

rule; we may, however, mention the botanical publications of the

United States National Herbarium, all of whose contributions, if we

mistake not, conform rigidly in this respect to the demands of modern

science.

The writer would urge that every botanical writer insist upon the

use of metric measurements throughout, in some cases with the English

equivalents in parentheses, and that the editors of our botanical jour-

nals and other scientific journals in which botanical papers are pu

lished lead the way in requiring conformity to this rule. If our acad-

emies of science and other scientific societies also will insist upon the use

of metric units, the present humiliating condition will rapidly disappear.

CHARLES E. Bessey.

Eaton and Faxon’s North American Sphagna.—A short

time ago a most important distribution of Peat mosses (Sphagnacew)

was made by Mr. George F. Eaton. In 1893, Professor D. C. Eaton

and Edwin Faxon announced the intended preparation of a set of

dried specimens of all the North American species. Since that time

per) Botany. 153

the work has gone forward, retarded greatly by the death of Professor

Eaton in 1895, whose son then undertook to bring it to completion. It

is now issued under the title “ Sphagna Boreali-Americana Exsiccata,”

and includes 172 numbers representing 39 species, distributed as fol-

lows:

I. ACUTIFOLIA.—S. girgensohnii Russ., S. fimbriatum Wils., S. rus-

sowii Warnst., S. warnstorfii Russ., 8. tenellum (Schimp) Warnst.

S. fuscum (Schimp) Klinggr., S. quinquefarium (Braithw.)

Warnst., S. acutifolium (Ehrh., e. p.) Russ. and Warnst., 8. sub-

nitens Russ. and Warnst., S. tenerum (Aust.) Warnst., S. molle

Sulliv. (62 specimens, representing many varieties).

II. Squarrosa.—S. teres Angstr., S. squamosum Pers. (10 specimens

and several varieties).

HI. Poryetapa.—S. wulfianum Girg. (3 specimens including two

varieties).

IV. Cusprpata—S. macrophyllum Bernh., S. floridanum (Aust.)

Card., S. lindbergii Schimp., S. riparium Angstr., 8. cuspidatum

(Ehrh.) Russ, and Warnst., S. dusenii (C. Jens) Russ. and

Warnst., S. recurvum (Beauv.) Russ. and Warnst., S. fitzgeraldi ~

Renauld, S. molluscum Bruch. (39 specimens, including many

varieties).

V. Rietpa.—S. compactum DC., S. garberi Lesq. and James. (8

specimens, including several varieties).

VI. Sussecunpa.—S. pylaesii Brid., S. obesum Wils., S. subsecundum

Nees, S. platyphyllun Warnst., S. contortum Schultz, S. rufescens

Bryol. Germ., S. orlandense Warnst., S. microcarpum Warnst.

(26 specimens, including many varieties). .

VIL. Cymprror1a—S. portoricense Hampe, 8. imbricatum (Hornsch.)

Russ., 9. eymbifoliam Ehrh., S. papillosum Lindb., 8. medium

Limpr., S. ludovictanum (Ren. and Card.) Warnst. (24 speci-

mens, including many varieties). ‘

A personal examination of this set shows it to be in every way satis-

factory, the specimens being ample and prepared with exquisite neat-

ness.—CHARLES E. Bessey.

The Cell Nucleus.—The latest contribution to our knowledge of

the plant cell nucleus is from the hands of Dr. Zim mermann of the Uni-

versity of Berlin. His “ Morphologie und Physiologie des pflanzlichen

Zellkernes” is destined to be one of the most useful of books, for in “e

he has brought together what has been made out as to the nucleus 7E

structurally and physiologically, for all groups of plants. In the first

154 The American Naturalist. [February,

part of his book he takes up methods, chemistry of the nucléus, histol-

ogy of the nucleus, nuclear division (karyokinetic and direct division),

physiology of the nucleus, ete. Inthe second part the subject is taken

up from the systematic standpoint, the stracture and division of the

nucleus being discussed for each group of plants, e. g., Angiosperms,

Gymnosperms, Pteridophytes, Bryophytes, Fungi, Algæ and Schizophy-

tes. The author has summarized the results of the investigations, and

apparently given the essential facts. In all cases he makes a direct

citation of the particular paper to which he refers, thus enabling the

student to verify the statements made by the author. It must not be

supposed, however, that the work is a mere compilation ; on the con-

trary the author has wrought into it a great deal of his own matter, so

the book is full of fresh material. It will at once find a place in every

laboratory, and we hope will be made still more useful by a good Eng-

lish translation.—Cuar.es E. Bessey.

Another Australian Curiosity.—Some time since we reviewed

an article on astrange Australian fungus which appeared to be a

peculiar edible sclerotium. A recent paper’ describes what the authors

call “ a stone-making fungus” for which a new genus is erected. This

genus appears to us, however, of doubtful validity, and illustrates a

tendency to the multiplication of genera founded upon slight and un-

important characters, which is being carried to the extreme by many

of our systematic botanists and which it seems to us should be con-

demned. Laccocephalum is said to differ from Polyporus “ in being

hard and woody from the first, in the peculiarly pitted pileus and in

the character of the spores.” The most striking peculiarity to the

superficial observer, however, is a large stone like nodule at the base

of the stipe. This has a diameter equal to or exceeding that of the

pileus, and is apparently composed of sand agglutinated and held to-

gether by the mycelium into a mass resembling a concretion of ferru-

ginous sandstone.

In the specific description there are apparently some typographical

errors, as the spores are said to be “ 44-50 inches in diameter ” (mean-

ing # probably) with spines “3 inches long” (#?). The paper is ac-

companied by a good lithographic plate giving three views of one of

the plants.—C. L. SHEAR.

2D. McAlpine and J. G. O. Tepper: A New Australian Stone-making Fungus

(Laccocephalum basilapiloides), Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 1894, Art. XIV.

1897.] EE T 155

ZOOLOGY.

Ameeba coli not Pathogenic.—This amæba has been met with

by Sig. O. G. V. Casagrandi and Sig. P. Barbagallo-Rapissiardi' in

cases of typhoid diarrhea, simple intestinal catarrh, and in spasmodic

‘dysentery, as well as in healthy persons, and the conclusions drawn

were that it is not pathogenic but is a very useful guest, destroying the

other organisms living in the intestine. Experiments with cats show

that diarrhoea does not develop unless the intestinal canal is already in

a catarrhal condition. Ameba coli will develop in them, but only be-

cause the dysenteric material injected sets up at the same time the con-

dition necessary for development.

Bipalium kewense.—Mr. Woodworth’s notes induce me to place

‘on record the probable occurrence of this phanarian at Kingston, Jam-

aica. Some years ago, when resident there, I had brought to me an

‘example which accorded perfectly with my recollection of the creature,

which I had formerly seen at Kew. The longitudinal markings were

distinct. While I have no serious doubt of the identity, I was ill at

the time of receiving the specimen, and failed to give it the attention

it deserved —T. D. A. COCKERELL, Mesilla, N. M.

Egg-Laying in Sagitta.’—In the case of Sagitta hispida Mr. F.

S. Conant finds that the process of egg-laying takes place in the morn-

ing, in this respect differing widely from Sagitta bipunctata, which de-

posits its eggs at about sunset, as observed by Fol, and agreeing with

Sagitta hexaptra as noted by Grassi. Variations in temperature affect

the time somewhat, cold retarding the process.

The ova pass through the wall of the germinal epithelium into the

oviduct, apparently through interspaces in the wall of this, undergoing

by the way a progressive series of changes in shape. In the oviduct the

ova remain from 20-30 minutes, their gelatinous envelope thickening

meanwhile. Contractions of the ovary result in pushing the eggs back-

ward towards the external opening, and when the pressure has become

sufficient the plug closing this is forced out and the eggs are extruded in

two linear rows (one on either side the animal) of only a few or as

many as 60-70 eggs each. This does not differ essentially from the

"Catania, 1895. See J. R. M. S., p. 429.

_ *Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist., XVIII, pp. 201-214. Johns Hopkins University Cir-

Culars, xy. (1896) p. 82-4.

156 The American Naturalist. [February,.

act of laying, as seen and described by Boreri in S. bipunctata, the

sausage-form that these eggs pass through being given them in the latter

case by pressure while still in the ovary.

Mr. Conant was unable to determine definitely the location where —

fertilization takes place, but supports Hertwig in affirming contra Grassi:

that no spermatozoa are found in the ovary. What little evidence he

has indicates that fertilization takes place while the ova are in the duct.

between the exterior opening and the opening of the duct of the recept--

aculum seminis. Self-fertilization seems impossible.

The eggs when laid become attached to the sides of the dish by a

gelatinous substance that facilitates handling, but collects dirt. Im

warm weather development to hatching takes place in about 36 hours,

and then the animals are miniatures of the adult form, and all are as-

ready to devour their comrades as are the mature animals.—F. C..

KENYON,

The Chetognaths of American Waters.—In his paper just.

cited Mr. Conant gives nine species as the total number known to occur

in American waters. Among them he enumerates five new species added

by himself. One of these has caused him to make some very pertinent.

remarks concer ning the divisions of the old genus of Sagitta into Sagitta,.

Krohnia, and Spadella. He agrees with Béraneck’s criticism of the

systems proposed by Langerhans, Hertwig, and Grassi, and like this.

author concludes, though under protest, to follow with Strodtmann the

arrangement proposed by Langerhans. It would have been much

- better, however, had he obeyed the impulse that his new species pro-

duced, and described all nine as species of Sagitta, instead of sand-

wiching species of Krohnia and Spadella in irrregularly between un-

doubted species of Sagitta. Or he might at least have placed the terms

Krohnia and Spadella in parenthesis.

But, notwithstanding the doubt that arises as to which of the older

arrangements to follow in placing Mr. Conant’s new species, it should

be remembered that after all any system of classification is very largely

for convenience, and that in the present state of our knowledge, not only

of this particular group of animals but of the fundamental laws gov;

erning the evolution of one form from another, any system proposing

to show genetic relationship is at least only tentative, and often weakly

so at that. In this particular case whether we should regard the number

of fins with Hertwig, the so-called teeth, or with Strodtmann and Béra-

neck, the sum of the characters as the determining features is still a

doubtful matter. Judged from the standpoint of convenience the ar-

1897.] Zoology. 157

rangement given by Hertwig seems the best, and for that reason, if

not for the sake of showing true genetic relationships, the synopsis

below is given.

A. With caudal and with one pair of lateral fins, Spadella..

a. Anterior teeth wanting.

Posterior teeth many. Seizing-hooks 8-9. Length 35 mm.

(According to Mobius). Taken off Martha’s Vineyard, North

Atlantic, S. (Krohnia) hamata (Mob).

b. Anterior teeth present.

1. Seizing-hooks 6. Anterior teeth 3-5; posterior teeth 5-7.

Length 52 mm. North Atlantic. Lat 42°, 28'; long. W..

50°, 55’, 30”, _ N. maxima Con.

. Seizing-hooks 10. Anterior teeth 8; posterior teeth 18.

A broad bilateral outgrowth of the epidermis distinguishes

this from all others. Bahamas (Binnini), Messina, Naples,

Madeira and Canary Islands. Length 10 mm.,

S. draco (Krohn) Langer

B. With caudal and with two pairs of lateral fins, Sagitta.

a. Posterior teeth wanting. Second pair of fins split posteriorly

into 4 villus-like processes. Seizing-hooks 8. Anterior teeth

4-6; corona ciliata forming a peculiar triangle on head and

neck, Tail equal half total length. Bahamas (Binnini).

Length 4 mm., S. sehizoptera Con.

- Posterior teeth present. Fins entire.

1. Seizing-hooks 7-8. ‘

a. Anterior teeth 3-4; posterior teeth 4-7. 2 external in-

testinal diverticula. Length 24-34 mm. Martha’s Vine-

yard, Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, S. hexaptera (Orb.)..

b. Anterior teeth 4-5; posterior teeth 7-10. No diverticula.

Length 5.25 mm. Jamaica, S. i tenuis Con.

2. Seizing-hooks 8-9.

a. Anterior teeth 4-5; posterior teeth 8-15. Caudal seg-

ment one-third total length. Length 7-11 mm. Jamaica,

Bahamas, N. Carolina, S. hispida Con.

b. Anterior teeth 7-8 ; posterior teeth E a ciliata

c ength 13-18 mm. Bahamas,

onfined to head. Length re >

Con..

4. Seizing-hooks 9-12.

Anterior teeth 5-7 ; posterior teeth 12-15. With both ex-

ternal and internal etedicent diverticula. Length 16-33 mm.

Vi n English "e

ineyard Sound, Gay head o g op a

—F. C. KENYON.

158 The American Naturalist. [February,

New Central American Diplopods:'—A mong a lot of chilopods

and diplopods that De. Filippo Silvestri describes as collected by Dr.

Festa at Guayra, Darien and Cuenca he describes the new species Ar-

chispirostreptus guayrensis; Plusioporus feste, Rhinocricus diversicauda,

Oxypge varicolor, Ortomorpha feste, Aulocodesmus angustalus.

The genera Oxypyge and Alocodesmus are new. The former approx-

imates very closely to Rhinocricus, but differs from that in having the

anal valves produced into long straight spines. The latter approaches

Pocock’s Udontopeltis, but differs in the position of the pores, in the

granular surface and the dorsal sulcus.—F. C. Kenyon.

The development of the Wing-scales and their pigment in

the Lepidoptera.‘—The scales of the wings of Lepidoptera are

shown by Mr. A. G. Mayer to be developed from modified hypodermis

cells like the hairs of other arthropods. The pigment comes from

the so-called pupal blood by a series of chemical changes. The colors

of the adults are not formed at once, but all pass through a series,

the first of which is a dull ochre-yellow. He succeeded by chemical

means in making pigments from the pupal-blood or hemolymph that

were similar in color to the colors of the adult insects. These pigments

react to chemical agents similarly to the pigments of the insects.

Dull ochre-yellows and drabs such as one finds among the nocturnal

Lepidoptera are the oldest, the bright yellows, reds, and greens of the

diurnal forms are derived by a complicated chemical process brought

about in the parts most exposed to the light—F. C. Kenyon.

Rapid Growth of Apus.—F rom Spencer and Hall’s® account of

the crustacea of central Australia we learn that not more than two

weeks, and probably only a few days after the fall of rain, specimens

of Apus were found measuring 23 to 3 inches in length. When it 18

remembered that the eggs of Apus must pass through a stage of drought

before they will develop, this enormously rapid growth is truly re

markable. And the evidence of it is conclusive, if it be impossible for

the mature or nearly mature form to pass through the period of drought,

which certain forms, e. g., Astacopsis and Telphusa are known to be

able to do.—F. C. K.

Steindachneria.—In 1888 the name Steindachneria was twice used

to designate new genera of fishes.

Goode and Bean in Agassiz, Three Cruises of the Blake II, p- 26

(April, 1888) used the name for a macrurid taken by the Albatross off

*Bull. Mus. Zool. Anat. Comp. Univer. Torino., XI.

* Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XXIX, 209-36, 7 Pls.

$ Horn Scientific Exp., 1896, pt. II. J. R. M. S., p. 410.

1897.] Zoology. 159

the delta of the Mississippi River. The fish was mentioned in the

following language: * * * Steindachneria, a macruroid with a high

differentiated first anal fin, has been obtained by the “ Albatross” in

68 fathoms.” No specific name and no figures were published.

We used Steindachneria for a silurid genus inhabiting the rivers of

southeastern Brazil in a paper issued July 18, 1888 (Proc. Cal. Acad.

Sei. 2d. Ser., Vol. 17). The name was defined and referred to a de-

scribed species. Mr. S. Garman called our attention to the previous

use of Steindachneria by Goode and Bean. An examination of Goode

and Bean’s note showed that their name was a nomen nudum, neither

described nor referred to any published species. On learning this we

wrote Dr. Goode an apologetic note calling his attention to these facts

and received the following in reply.“ Steindachneria has never been

published, though the diagnosis of the genus has been lying in MS. for

nearly two years. So we will change the name. It is not of the least

consequence.” This was under date of Oct, 1, 1888. This intention

to change the name was never carried out and in “Oceanic Ichthyo-

logy ” (p. 419) which has just been received, Steindachneria is still

retained for the macrurid and reference made to “Three Cruises of

the Blake.” The name Steindachneria being preoccupied for the cat

fishes I would suggest the name Steindachnerella for the macrurid to

carry out the idea of honoring the Custos of the Imperial Zoological

Museum of Vienna.—C. H. EIGENMANN.

Mutilations of the Oregon Redfish.—The sores, frayed-out fins,

and other mutilations which have been noticed upon the Chinook

salmon and redfish by evéry one who has ever seen these fishes upon

their spawning-grounds have been regarded by all as being due chiefly,

if not wholly, to the injuries incident to the long journey from the sea.

Coming so these Idaho lakes from the sea requires a journey of more

than 1000 miles, and it is, in large part, through swift and turbulent

waters and up dangerous rapids, cascades, and waterfalls against whose

ragged and jagged rocky walls and bed the fish would often be thrown

by the seething currents. That they could make this long and perilous

journey unscathed could scarcely be believed.

In the shorter coastal streams of Oregon, Washington, British Colum-

bia, and northward, the same mutilations have been observed and have

usually, without sufficient reason, been attributed to the same cause.

Until now it has, therefore, generally been held that the injuries are

received by the fish while en route to the spawning-grounds. Our con-

tinuous series of observations at Alturas Lake during the entire period

160 The American Naturalist. [Febrnary,

-of the breeding season shows, however, that this is not the true explana-

tion. Among the hundreds of redfish that we examined as they came

up into Alturas Inlet from the lake not one possessed any sores, or had

the fins frayed out in the least; every one was perfect in every way, 80

far as mutilations were concerned. Not only were all of those caught

on the gill nets as they came up from the lake free from sores, but no

sores were seen on any of the fish in the creek until some time after the

spawning had begun. The first fish were seen July 24, but not until

August 10 were any mutilated ones observed, and then only 3 out of 84

examined showed any considerable mutilations.

In marked contrast with this perfect condition of the fish as they

arrive upon their spawning ground is that observed toward the close of

the spawning season when scarcely a fish can be found whose fins are

not badly frayed and upon whose body are not one or more large

sores.

The manner in which the mutilations are really received was readily

determined by watching the fish while spawning. The spawning-beds

are usually in very shallow water, often only a few inches deep. These

beds are of fine granite gravel and sand. There is more or less definite

pairing off of the fishes, and each pair usually does all its spawning 0B

a certain area, which may be called the nest. The gravel and sa of

this area are moved about and piled up somewhat in heaps or rows as

the fish scoop out shallow depressions in the bed; this scooping OY

moving of the gravel is done as the fish swims upstream over the bed

with a rapid quivering motion of the body; during this act the body 1$

always inclined to one side and the gravel is chiefly pushed in the other-

-direction ; after swimming across the nest in this way, the fish circles :

around downstream and returns to the bed to repeat the process again

and again, keeping it up for several days. During all this time the

male follows closely behind the female, sometimes quivering and plow-

ing through the sand and gravel in the same way and thus receiving

mutilations of the same character. Often the back of the fish is tur?

against the gravel and becomes worn. On each spawning-bed are usu-

ally several supernumerary males, and among them and the paired males

there is much chasing about and some fighting which results in still

further mutilations. It may, therefore, be positively stated that the

sores and mutilations seen on the redfish at the Idaho spawning-grow

are practically all received after the spawning season begins (B. ie

Everman in U.S. Fish Commission Bull. for 1896, Art. 2.)

On the Occurrence of the genus Reithrodontomys in Vir-

ginia.—On December 6, 1896, I trapped an adult male Harvest

1897.] Zoology. 161

Mouse, Reithrodontomys lecontii (Audubon and Bachman) at Fort

Myer, Virginia. The trap was set under a fence between cultivated

fields and a strip of woodland. I believe this is the most northern

point on the Atlantic coast at which a specimen of this genus has been

taken; and I know of no published record of its occurrence in the

State of Virginia or in the District of Columbia. This specimen is

number 83,298 of the United States National Museum collection. —

Lours Zereca MEARNS.

Inheritance of the Monodactyly in the Pig.—The monodac-

tyly, observed in the pig by Aristotle, has persisted to the present time.

M. Vasilesen, Professor of Zoology in the Veterinary School at Buch-

arest, has had the progeny of a male monodactyle pig under observa-

tion for a number of years. He notes that of 54 descendants 39 are

monodactyle and 13 bidactyle. M. Vasilesen concludes from these ob-

servations that the monodactyly of the pig is a hereditary tetralogical

phenomenon, susceptible of being transmitted from one generation to

another, reproducing itself indefinitely. (Revue Scientif., Oct., 1896.)

Preliminary Description of the Newfoundland Marten.—

The marten has long been known as au inhabitant of the Island of

Newfoundland, being given by Henry Reeks in 1870 (under the name

Mustela americana) in his list of the Mammals of Newfoundland.’

67, April, 1871, pp. 2540-2553. Notes on the Zoology of Newfoundland. By

Wary Reeks.

_ No. 54, March, 1870, p. 2087, reads as follows :

“ American Sable, Mustela americana, Turton ; Pine Marten; Marten-Cat (New-

foundland).—Still common in various parts of the island, but from the increasing,

or, at any rate, present value of the furisannually becomingscarcer. It isa bold

rapacious animal, and in its habits remind one much of the common polecat (M.

putorius). One of the specimens I obtained entered the house of a settler and

carried off a dead duck (Aas obscurus), but was subsequently shot in a tree near

the spot, in fact, while returning for a second duck, having probably hid the

other. Marten cats are easily caught by iron traps placed in “‘cat-houses,” or in

** dead-falls.’’ Without attempting to settle, or even discuss, the vexed question

as to the identity of this species with the European, M. 2éel/ina, I may here state

that very eg Augers can be placed. on Boos colors of the Martine, as a very

appreciable d evenin specimens obtained in New-

foundland and the greens the formièr being much hee throughout, but espe-

cially about the head and ears. So perceptible is the distinction that a trader

readily separates the Newfoundland skins from those obtained on the mainland.”

162 The American Naturalist. [February,

Like most of the mammals of this island it is, however, very differ-

ent from its mainland cousin, and as no possible connection can now

exist between it and the continental form it must rank, a full species, as

MUSTELA ATRATA SP. Nov.—Type from Bay St. George Newfound-

land, No. 5752 9 adult, coll. of E. A. and O. Bangs. Collected by

Ernest Doane Sept. 29th, 1896. Total length 548, tail vertebra 185,

hind foot 89, ear from notch 43.

General Characters.—Size about that of M. americana (probably

somewhat larger); color very different, suggesting a dark colored mink,

rather than a marten; skull slightly different:

Color —Deep chocolate, becoming black on back, head, arms, legs,.

rump and tail; a few white hairs scattered along back ; chest and

under side of neck irregularly blotched with orange; a median line of

orange on belly; ears black narrowly bordered all round with dull

white; a patch of yellowish-white hairs in front of opening of ear.

Cranial Characters.—Skull about the size or larger than that of M.

americana ; rostrum narrow; audital bulle much larger and deeper

than in M. americana and with a more marked “ bottle-nose” projec-

tion; dentition rather weaker throughout, with greater spaces between

premolar teeth, than that of M. americana.

Size of the type skull, 9 “middle aged’, adult: Basilar length 69.2 ;

zygomatic breadth 42; mastoid breadth 34.2; breadth across roots of

canine teeth 14.2; greatest length of single half of mandible 49.6.

Size—The type ? adult; total length 548, tail vertebre 185, hind

foot 89, ear from notch 43. Of an adult 9 prolotype, (No. 5751 Bangs-

coll.). Total length 559; tail vertebree 185, hind foot 86, ear from

notch 41.

Remarks,—The above description is based upon two beautiful skins-

accompanied by skulls, both “ middle aged” adult females. Neither

has the fur quite “ prime,” both being taken in September. In its full

winter dress, this marten must be a superb creature.

There is a series of eleven skulls of M. atrata in the collection of the

Museum of Comparative Zoology, at Cambridge, Mass. collected in

Newfoundland in 1865 by James M. Nelson. I have examined these —

and find some of them to be old adults, but all are unsexed. They bear

out the characters claimed for M. atrata—the large, peculiarly shaped

audital bulls, and the weak dentition, and would seem to indicate that

M. atrata is a larger animal than M. americana.—OvuTRAM BANGS.

1897.] Entomology. 163

; Zoological News.—According to F. Neri,’ who has been study-

ing the beaks of cephalopods, these structures are composed of fibrous

cuticular lamin, which chemically are not chitinans but keratinous.

The upper part is encrtisted with lime.

The results of the Austrian deep sea expeditions of 1890-4 show, ac-

- cording to Dr. R. Sturany,’ that the eastern portions of the Mediter-

ranean is much poorer in deep sea shells than the western basin, and

further, that the fauna is doubtless of Atlantic origin.

ENTOMOLOGY.

The American Spring-tail.—This very anomalous little insect

(Lepidocyrtus americanus Marlatt) measuring scarcely more than one-

tenth of an inch, silvery gray in color, with purple or violet markings,

may be frequently observed in houses. In common with the silver fish,

it belongs to the order of insects known as Aptera (wingless), from the

fact of their having no vestige of wings throughout life.

The simple structure of these insects, and particularly their resem-

blance to the larval state of winged insects, has led to the belief that

they are the primitive forms of insect life. That this is true is, however,

y no means certain, and they may rather be degraded or debased ex-

amples of some of the higher orders of insects. The species figured

herewith is not infrequently found in dwellings in Washington, but is

apparently undescribed, and, in fact, little is known of the American

species. It is, however, closely allied to a European form (L. cervicalis),

often found in cellars, and figured by Sir John Lubbock in his mono-

graph on these insects. Another allied European species (Seira domes-

tica) has been named from the fact of its being a frequenter of houses.

These insects belong to the suborder Collembola, which (following

Sharp) is distinguished from the other suborder of Aptera, Thysanura,

by having but five body segments instead of ten, and possessing a very

peculiar ventral tube on the first segment, and commonly also a term-

inal spring, by means of which these creatures leap with great agility,

and from*which they take their common name of “ spring-tails.”

TAtti Soc. Tasc. Sci, Nat., x (1896), J. BR. M. S., p. 401.

*S. B. K. Akad. Wiss. Wein., 1896. J. R. M. S., p. 400.

| Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

164 The American Naturalist. [February,

These insects, though very abundant, have been very little studied,

and little is known of their life habits. They often multiply in extraor-

dinary numbers, especially in moist situations, swarming on the surface

of stagnant water or on wet soil. They seem to be very tolerant of

cold, and we have interesting accounts of the occurrence of a species

related to this one in the Arctic regions on melting snow fields .

and on glaciers, where they are known as “snow fleas” or “snow

worms.” Other interesting forms occur in caves, and in the Mammoth

Cave in Kentucky they are notably abundant. In houses they may

often be found on window sills, in bathrooms, and sometimes, under

favorable situations, in very considerable numbers. Especially are

they apt to occur where there are window plants or in small conserva-

tories, but are not confined to these situations. Very little is known

of their food habits, but they are supposed to subsist on refuse or chiefly

decaying vegetable matter.

The striking peculiarities of these insects are in the remarkable

ventral tube and the strong saltatorial appendage of the extremity of

the body. The first arises from the forward body segment, and seems

to act in this species as a sort of a retainer for the leaping organ, OF

spring proper. It is said to secrete a viscid fluid, which enables the

insect to better adhere to smooth vertical surfaces. The so-called

“catch,” or retainer proper, is shown in a small projection between the

hind pair of legs and the spring, and grasps the latter near the middle.

The springing organ is two-jointed, the last joint being bifurcate, and

its terminals inclosing the ventral tube.

These insects can not survive dryness, and, while they will not often

occur in sufficient numbers to be particularly objectionable, the Te

moval of the moist objects or surfaces on which they congregate and the

maintenance of dry conditions will cause them to soon disappear.—C.

L. Maruartrt in Bulletin, No. 4, U. S. Division of Entomology.

Sphinx Caterpillar Surviving Ichneumon Attack.—Rev. T.

A. Marshall records’ an interesting case of this kind. A caterpillar of

Acherontia atropos had been ‘forced’ by artificial warmth to an early

development of the moth. The latter was a perfect specimen ; in 1ts

abdomen was found a large Ichneumonid larva. “ From the caterpillar

point of view we have here only an instance of tenacity of life under

trying circumstances. * * * In the normal course of things the death :

of the Atropos larva after its change to a chrysalis, and the production

of a living ichneumon, would inevitably have taken place sometime

2Ent. Monthly Mag. Dec., 1896.

1897.] Entomology. 165

next spring. But the development of the chrysalis having been artific-

ally hastened, the parasite had no time to cause its death, and the ex-

haustion of vital juices was not sufficient to prevent the final metamor-

phosis. Hence the phenomenon of a half-grown parasite being found

in the body of a perfect moth.

“The eventual death of the moth from the action of the parasite is

probable, but not quite certain. It would seem to depend upon two

doubtful questions: (1) What is the natural duration of the life of an

Atropos? and (2) Would the robust constitution of which proof has

already been given, enable it to hold out till the parasite had escaped

from its body? The single perforation of the cuticle necessary to per-

mit the issue of the ichneumon might not be mortal in its effects. The

fatal result in other cases is believed to depend partly upon the break-

-ing up of the tracheal system by numerous perforations, and partly upon

exhaustion of the vital forces. The moth in question would only be

subject to the first of these injuries in a very mild degree ; and its great

bulk and strength might enable it, as heretofore, to defy the second.

It seems, therefore, not unreasonable to suppose that, if left to nature,

it would ultimately have recovered.”

A Viviparous Ephemerid.—M. Causard records’ the following

interesting observations the Ephemerid Chlæopsis diptera Latr. ‘‘ This

‘Species is very common in houses at the end of summer and the com-

mencement of autumn, when these insect attach themselves to the

windows or the ceilings, and there rest immovable, their two wings

turned back, and applied one against the other, the posterior part of

the abdomen terminated by two long filaments, turned back upon the

dorsal aspect. The same insect may be observed in the same place for

several days. Having captured a large number of them, I have been

able to keep them for more than three weeks before they laid their eggs.

I have found it impossible to fix exactly the duration of their existence,

because at the time of capture I did not know how long they had

emerged from the nymph state. However, that may be, there are

Ephemerz which have but little title to the name. This relatively

long existence in the adult state is in accord with their processes of re-

production.

“ Desiring one day to study the circulation of the blood in one of

these insects, in the living state, which I supposed to be sufficiently

‘transparent for the purpose, I took one of them and placed it between

two plates of hollowed glass. The pressure of these plates caused a

~ *Comptes Rendus, CXXIII, 705; Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., v, I8, p. 481.

166 The American Naturalist. [February,

regarded the insect as dead and my observation a failure. Neverthe-

less, on examination with the microscope, I observed that the extruded

matter was formed of a large number of little ovoid bodies, which im-

mediately began to move about and unroll themselves. Each of them

was a little larva, which was very active and began to swim about.

Were these Ephemerz viviparous? This was the question that I at

once asked myself. Then I examined the contents of a large number

of individuals, and I found eggs in every stage of development ; in some

the segmentation was but slightly advanced, but a commencement of

evolution was very distinct; in others, the extruded larvæ showed seg-

mentation; the most advanced enclosed completely developed larvae,

but still enclosed in the transparent membrane of the egg. I have

since been able to observe the females emitting their larve freely with `

out any pressure, so that their viviparity is a proven fact. When the

moment approaches that the insects seek the water, they allow them-

selves to fall into it and float on the surface, with their wings extended,

up to the moment at which the larve are extruded. During this opera-

tion, which lasts for a very short time, the whole of the last three seg-

ments of the abdomen are lifted upwards so as to form almost a right.

angle with the rest of the body. The larve are expelled by a double

orifice pierced between the seventh and the eighth abdominal rings;

these two openings are only separated from one another by a very

slight portion of tissue, and generally break into one another so as o

become one after the deposition of the egg. There results a large slit

which involves the whole of the lower half of the line of junction of

these two rings. In this case the digestive tube is burst so that the

nerves are detached behind the last nervous ganglion which occupies

the seventh abdominal ring. These observations led me to study the ~

female genital apparatus, which ought to be constructed with a view to

the internal development of the eggs. Almost the whole of the body

of the female is occupied by two sacs attached, the one to the other,

along the middle line; the vertical partition which separates them 18

traversed by numerous tracheæ. These sacs extend over the whole

abdomen, with the exception of the last two segments, and reach as far

as the head, occupying in the three thoracic rings almost the whole of

the space left free by the muscles of the wings and legs. Beneath them

is the digestive tube, reduced to a canal with a thin and delicate W

and the nervous chain. These two sacs open on the outside, each by ®

distinct orifice pierced in the membrane which joins the seventh ubdom-

inal ring to the eighth, and, as already described, at the moment of the

quantity of greyish matter to exude from the abdomen of the animal; I

1897.] : Entomology. 167

exit of the larvae these two openings run together to form one. To what

part of genital apparatus of other insects does this double incubation

sac correspond? I have not yet been able to settle this point, in as

much as I have only had under observation insects in which the sacs were

already filled with eggs in course of development, and in which the

empty and shrivelled ovaries were with difficulty visible. In spite of

the relatively long duration of their life, the Chleeopses takes no more

food in the adult state than the other Ephemere. Their mouth is

only armed with a few soft and incomplete parts.

“The larve are elongated, very active, armed with feet terminated

by a single hook. The head, roughly pentagonal in form, bears two

long antennæ and five ocular spots of which one, odd, is situated between

the bases of the antennz; the four others are arranged in two pairs, of

which the posterior furnishes the reticulated eyes of the adult. The

mouth is provided with a masticatory apparatus, which is well formed.

The abdomen is formed of ten segments, of which the last bears two

long filaments provided with a few stiff hairs. The length of the body

is 0.7 millim., not including the caudal filaments, which are at least as

long as the body. The cephalo thorax and the anterior part of the

abdomen contain at birth brilliant globules, which disappear in a day

Or two. During the first period of their existenee the larve have

neither trachez nor tracheal branchise. Six days after their birth the

larvee undergo a first change; their appearance changes but little, but

on each of the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th abdominal rings there appears

a pair of short prominences, each as much developed as the others, the

rudiments of the future tracheo-branchise. Three days later there is

another change; the five prominences just mentioned become elongated,

and a pair of them appear on the first abdominal ring, the trachex also

become visible. After the third change, the five pairs of tracheo-

branchiz are well formed and receive the trachez. Those of the first

ring do not develop completely until the fourth change, and, finally,

those of the seventh abdominal ring, apparent at the third change, are

not complete till after the fifth. From that time the larva possesses all

ats organs,”

EMBRYOLOGY.’

The Corpus Luteum.—The fate of the Graafian follicle of the

Mammal’s ovary is certainly very remarkable. The well known corpus

‘ Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts reviews and

Preliminary notes may be sent.

168 The American Naturalist. [February,.

luteum that results from the rupture of the follicle is generally thought

to be a growth of connective tissue, for the most part. J. Sobotta,’

however, finds that in the mouse this structure is formed by the en-

largement of the epithelial cells of the follicle, aided by growth of con-

nective tissue. His results are obtained from the very large numberof

sections used in his previous study of the fertilization and cleavage of

the mouse’s egg (See AMERICAN Naturauist Aug. ’95) and from the

thousands of specimens at his disposal he is able to write a complete

history of the corpus luteum.

It is interesting to note that in three cases in which the egg was

abnormally retained in follicles that had ruptured as usual when ripe

the usual corpora lutea were formed, though of course the egg had not

been fertilized. This and other reasons lead the author to affirm that,

in the mouse, no distinction can be drawn between corpora lutea vera

and corpora lutea spuria, that is to say the yellow body is just the same

whether the egg is fertilized or not.

The chief results of this paper may be summarized as follows:

In the ripe Graafian follicle of the mouse the connective tissue sheath

is composed of a fibrous outer part and of an inner coat of large, rounded

cells; the many-layered epithelium internal to the latter shows mitotic

divisions ; at the centre is the usual liquid bathing the discus proliget-

ous that envelopes the egg. Both the connective tissue and the epithe-

- lial layers are much thinned away on the side next the body-cavity

where the rupture is to take place.

When the follicle bursts it happens only exceptionally that blood

escapes into its central cavity. The ruptured follicle is at first just

like the ripe one except for the loss of the egg, discus proligerous, and

the chief part of the liquid. The cleft in its side is very quickly healed.

over by the union of its epithelial edges.

About an hour after the rupture of the follicle the cells of the inner

connective tissue sheath begin to divide by mitosis and liquid 1$

secreted into the central cavity. Migratory corpuscles appear in the

inner connective tissue sheath.

In from five to seven hours the growth of this sheath gives rise to

fine radiating partition that penetrate the epithelial layers. The inner

sheath is used up in the growth of these partitions as they extend 10

through the epithelium to the central space; leucocytes are found all

through the epithelial layers.

After forty to fifty hours the liquid accumulated in the central space

has been reabsorbed and its place taken by a small, gelatinous connec-

? Archiv. f. Mik. Anat. 47, April, 1896, pp. 261-306.

1897.) Embryology. 169

tive tissue mass; about this the epithelial cells are subdivided by a

network formed from the radiating partitions and the leucocytes; the

epithelial cells in the meshes of this network are much enlarged but

not increased in number, division having ceased at the time of rupture.

The yellow body is complete in from sixty to seventy-two hours. It

is then much larger than the original Graafian follicle, as the epithelial

cells are swollen to ten times their former size and are intertwined with

the newly formed connective tissue bearing a rich network of capillaries.

Later more or less fat is deposited in the epithelial cells and the body

has a slightly yellow color, but here, as in some other mammals, the

name is misleading.

As far as the author's observations go the corpora lutea do not

degenerate, in the mouse, but remain unchanged during the life of the

animal and thus add much to the size of the ovary.

Cleavage in Ovarian Eggs.—Professor J. Janosik’ finds in some

follicles that atrophy in the rabbit and guinea-pig ovarian eggs may

undergo a real cleavage, though of course there has been no fertiliza-

tion (as far as known). Such ovarian eggs may form small cells very

like polar bodies and lying near a true spindle which is in the position

of a maturation spindle. This is more common in young than in old

animals,

There are cases of true cleavage with few to many nucleated cells and

these cells may be of equal size or some large and some small. There

are also cases of “ fragmentation ” where the isolated masses of proto-

plasm contain no visible nucleus. In these cases of ovarian cleavage

the membrana pellucida disappears as it does in the normal cleavage.

Such eggs later atrophy with their follicles.

PSYCHOLOGY:

Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Associa-

tion.—The Fifth Annnal Meeting of the American Psychological As-

sociation was held at Boston and Cambridge, on December 29 and 30,

1896. The step taken a year ago of affiliating with the American

Society of Naturalists proved so successful that this course has been

adopted permanently by the Association. At the present meeting

® Archiv. f. Mik. Anat., 48, Nov. 7, 1896, pps. 169-181.

! Edited by H. C. Warren, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.

170 Fhe American Naturalist. [February,

about 35 members were in attendance, besides a large number of visitors

who came to the various sessions. The proceedings as a whole were

very interesting. The number of papers offered was too great, how-

ever, for the time allotted to the sessions; as a consequence each

speaker was limited to 15 minutes, involving in many cases a rather

fragmentary presentation of the subject. This gave the meeting a

somewhat unfinished and unsatisfactory character, for which the con-

tent of the papers was in no wise responsible.

The Association held two sessions for the presentation of general

papers, on Tuesday and Wednesday mornings, and a special session on

Wednesday afternoon for the reading of the President’s Address and

the transaction of business. Besides this many members attended the

discussion on the Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics, before the

American Society of Naturalists, where the psychologists’ standpoint

was represented in the discussion by Prof. James. The lecture Tues-

day evening by Mr. Alexander Agassiz on Deep-Sea Soundings, and

the reception afterwards at Mr. Agassiz’s house, were largely attended

by the psychologists, as was also the Annual Ptr of the Affiliated

Societies at the Hotel Brunswick, Wednesday evenin

The session of Tuesday morning, (December 29th). was held at the

Harvard Medical School in Boston, and was devoted more especially

to the experimental side of psychology. The proceedings opened with

a paper on the “ Physiology of Sensation,” by Dr. E. A. Singer, and

one on the “ Intensity of Sensation,” by Mr. J. E. Lough. Both speak-

ers discussed the physical bases of sensation differences. According to

Dr. Singer, the data which yield quality distinctions are physiologi-

cal, and depend on functional differences of the end- -organs ; while the

intensity data, on the other hand, are physical, depending directly on

the intensity of the external stimulus. Mr. Lough discussed various

theories of intensity, and took the position that the intensity character-

istic depends on the greater or lesser prolongation of the stimulus.

The maximum intensity effect of a particular stimulus is reached only

by passing through a series of neural effects which are the maxima of

other lesser stimuli. With a duration less than that which is required

to produce this maximum, the effect is a lessened intensity. The

speaker reported a series of experiments whose results substantiated

this view. Two slits of different breadths were arranged one above the

other in a pendulum, so as to admit light and cast two bright images

on a reflector. These two images were of the same size and objective

brightness ; when the pendulum swung, they appeared at the same in-

stant, but one lasted twice as long as the other. It was found that up

1897.] Psychology. 171

to a certain time of exposure the broader slit gave an effect of about

double the brightness of the other. This was taken as the time re-

quired for the maximal effect in the larger slit. When the time of

swing was further lengthened this difference in intensity diminished and

finally disappeared. Mr. Lough drew a parallel between the intensity

Series and the scale of muscular sensations, though he was inclined to

regard the latter as more than a mere intensity series.

Prof. G. A. Tawney reported some experiments on the effect of prac-

tice upon the tactual double point threshold, and the so-called ‘ Vex-

irfehler” Asa rule he found that any reduction of the threshold was

accompanied by an increase in the number of Vexirfehler. His expe-

riences with different subjects indicated their division into three

distinct classes. In some subjects there was a large reduction of the

threshold as a result of practice, with a corresponding increase of Vex-

irfehler; this reduction of the threshold was not confined to the regions

actually practiced upon nor to their symmetrical points, but there was

found to be a sympathetic reduction all over the body. In other sub-

jects there were few Vexirfehler and only slight reductions of the

threshold from practice. In others many Vexirfehler occurred from

the very beginning, so that it was difficult to obtain any reliable value

for the threshold. Suggestion was found to play an important rôle in

every instance, and the results varied greatly according to the degree

in which the subject was instructed beforehand as to the purpose of

the experiment; where any suggestion was carefully avoided no real

reduction of the threshold occurred; some of the subjects to whom no

intimation of the nature of the problem was given, failed to get any

Vexirfehler at all. The whole phenomenon of threshold reduction and

Vexirfehler thus seemed to require a psychological rather than a phy-

siological explanation.

Mr. A. L. Lewis, introduced by Prof. Witmer, read a paper on

“Comparison of the Times of Simple Reactions and of Free Arm

Movements in Different Classes of Persons.” His subjects were white

men and women, Indians and negroes, both of the latter classes being

males, The instrument used was the Hipp chronoscope, which was

tested before and after every series, giving constant and variable errors

of only 1¢ each. Reactions on sound showed the order, from the short-

est time upward, to be Indians, white men, negroes, women ; the first

two classes were between 100s and 110s, the last two were between

150s and 160s. For visual stimuli the white men gave a reaction time

Somewhat shorter than the Indians; the time for free arm movemen

172 The American Naturalist. [February,.

followed the latter order. In each case the time of the women was con-

siderably longer than that of the white men and Indians.

Prof. Cattell reported upon the work in progress at the Columbia.

laboratory. He spoke of investigation on the nature of mental im-.

agery. An object is named by the investigator, and the subject re--

ports the order in which the images from different senses are recalled ;.

a passage is read, and the nature of the resulting memory images is in-

vestigated in a similar manner. An examination of various poets-

shows that some, (such as Swinburne), habitually avoid certain harsh

sounds, while others, (such as Browning), pay little heed to this point ;:

the former seem better adapted for loud reading, the latter for visual

perusal. Prof. Cattell reported another study on the nature, duration,.

etc., of after images, with special reference to the individual peculiari-

ties of different subjects. The problems under investigation at Colum--

bia include also one on the relation of objective rhythm to the greatest.

possible speed of voluntary rhythmic movements, one on color nomen-

clature, and one on the relation between the duration and intensity of

light stimulation. According to Prof. Cattell, the results in the last

case thus far were not in agreement with those reported by Mr. Lough..

Prof. Witmer read a paper on the “ Organization of Practical Work.

in Psychology.” He spoke of the beneficial results to be obtained

from the correlation of psychology with medicine and teaching. Up

to the present time the results of contemporary psychological investiga-

tion have not been scientifically applied, in the instruction of either

normal or defective children. Prof. Witmer recommended a number:

of steps to be taken with a view to accomplishing this end: 1. A

series of uniform psychological tests, determined at the outset and not

altering constantly with changes of fashion, to be applied everywhere

to school children of all grades, and to follow as far as possible the

same child throughout its course. Another series, devised in the same

way, to be applied similarly to the mentally defective. 2. A perma-

nent exhibit of the results obtained from these tests, and of the meth-

ods employed in making them, which should be accessible to teachers

and others interested. 3. An experimental training school for the

defective classes under psychological auspices. 4. A psychological

clinic and dispensary, in charge of an ‘expert’ with thorough medical

as well as psychological training, for children who without any marked

mental deficiency theless backward under the ordinary methods

of teaching; children would be brought here for consultation, and after

examination the proper treatment or course of training would be rec-

ommended.

1897.] Psychology. 173:

Miss Mary E. Harmon reported on a series of psycho-physical meas-

urements to which 100 normal school girls and 100 kindergarten

pupils of both sexes were submitted. The usual questions of age, par-

entage, etc., and anthropological measurements, were supplemented by

tests of sound reaction, free arm movement time, ete. Among the kin-

dergarten children, the girls were found to be much slower in the arm

movement test than the boys, the average times being about 2150 and

1550 respectively.

Prof. Wesley Mills reported on personal experiences under ether.

He described the narrowing and intensification of consciousness prior

to evanescence, and compared it with De Quincey’s similar experiences

under the influence of opium. 7

Brother Chrysostom, of Manhattan College, spoke upon a “ Pre-

liminary Study of Memory.” A set of 30 questions was distributed

among various educational institutions ; a few have responded already,

and these results were reported. The questions were minute and

thorough-going ; several were devoted to different characteristics of the

attention and its individual variations. One inquiry being as to the

time of day in which the best work could be done, the answers were:

found to be about evenly divided between the forenoon and late even-

ing.

Interesting discussion followed the separate papers, but unfortunately

the program was so crowded at both this and the Wednesday sessions.

that this important part of the proceedings had several times to be cut

short.

The meetings on Wednesday (December 30th) were held in the Pea-

body Museum of Archzology at Cambridge. The morning session was.

devoted largely to historical and theoretical topics. Prof. Armstrong

reported on the growth of the study of philosophy in American col-

leges in the past twenty-five years; he described the great progress

everywhere since 1872 in the number of courses, hours and instructors

in the department, the broadening and specialization of the courses, and

the increase of special foundations and endowments.

Two papers followed on the relation between mind and body. Prof.

D. S. Miller summed up the evidence against the theory of psycho-

physical parallelism, and spoke in favor of Bradley’s construction of

the causal relation. Prof. C. S. Strong, speaking on the same topic,

favored a form of the parallelistic theory which recognized the “ effi-

cacy of consciousness”; it was a mistake, he argued, to believe that

the parallelistic theory necessarily involved the reduction of conscious-

ness to the rôle of an epiphenomenon.

174 The American Naturalist. [February,

Prof. Creighton discussed the concept of the “ Transcendental Ego,”

and was followed by Mr. F. C. S. Schiller, who examined the nature of

“ Pessimism,” and Prof. James Seth, who discussed the “Standpoint

and Method of Ethics.” Two papers devoted to logic were given in

outline merely. Prof. J. G. Hibben exhibited and explained a set of

diagrams by means of which the various forms of immediate inference

were generalized and schematized. Prof. A. T. Ormond summed up his

position with regard to the negative in logic.

. The session closed with a report by Prof. Sanford on a new eye

sphygmograph, which furnishes the best available method (apart from

vivisection) of measuring the blood supply of the brain. After de-

scribing the apparatus, he exhibited diagrams of records obtained by

means of it before and after nervous excitation; these were compared

with simultaneous records of the wrist pulse.

The afternoon session was devoted to the Address of the out-going

President, Prof. Fullerton. The subject of the address was “ The

“ Knower’ in Psychology.” Opening with an historical review of the

position taken by various thinkers regarding the agent or subject of

knowledge, he proceeded to criticise in detail the theories held by Prof.

Ladd and other members of the Association. After the address Prof.

Ladd replied to the criticism of his own views.

At the business meeting of the Association, Prof. J. Mark Baldwin,

of Princeton, was elected President for the ensuing year, and Dr. Liv-

ingston Farrand, of Columbia, was re-elected Secretary and Treasurer.

Several new members were elected into the Association, and the two

annual vacancies in the Council were filled. The committee appointed

at the previous meeting (1895) to formulate a system*of uniform phy-

sical and mental tests, submitted their report, which was not read in

full owing to the lateness of the hour. The committee were unable to

agree on a complete system of uniform tests; they recommended that

for the present considerable latitude be given within certain broad

lines, with a view to comparing various tests, so that the best may

eventually be adopted.—H. C. W.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

The American Society of Naturalists met December 29th, =

the Harvard Medical School, Boston. The meeting of the affiliated

Societies, was fully up to the standard of previous gatherings, both as a

the amount of work accomplished and the attendance. The programs ©

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 175

the societies were full, the physiologists especially showing an important

increase in the number of workers. Several young men presented

maiden papers of merit to the morphologists ; while the merits of the

opposed theories of psychic parallelism and interference in animal

evolution were discussed by the psychologists among the topics before

them. The discussion of the inheritance of acquired characters was made

the subject of the special discussion by the naturalists, and, although

the subject is not new, a large audience was present, the other societies,

excepting the physiologists, adjourning to attend it. Profs. Minot and

James, of Harvard University, took the negative, and Macfarlane and

Cope, of Pennsylvania, the affirmative. It was generally regretted

that more time had not been alloted to the discussion, so as to have en-

abled others to take part in it. The evening dinner was closed by an

interesting address from the President, Prof. Scott, of Princeton, an

innovation which we hope will become the regular custom.

The following is the program of proceedings: Reports of Com-

mittees ; Election of New Members; Appointment of Special Com-

mittees ; Discussion, subject: “ The Inheritance of Acquired Charac-

teristics ;” “ Zoology,” Prof. C. S. Minot; “Botany,” Prof. J. M.

Macfarlane; “ Paleontology,” Prof. E. D. Cope; “ Psychology,” Prof.

Wm. James; Special Papers.

Prof. ©. S. Minot opened the discussion on heredity, suggesting the

wide interest in the solution of the problem of whether characters ac-

quired during the life of the parent were transmitted to the offspring.

It was well illustrated in the popular beliefs that correct habits of life

or the opposite, in parents, had an important influence on the character

of children, leaving out of the question the force of example. To many

the incentive to right living was centered largely on the bearings of

the matter on education of the young.

The scientific data, however, on which to base a theory, was most

meagre in amount and unsatisfactory in character. Much of the rea-

soning had to be in assumptions, which were but sparsely indicated in

the evidence. The characters generally of an individual were largely

the result of many generations of development, and were the last term

of a series, each part of which had a causal relation to the result.

Several specific characters were taken up by the speaker, as the de-

velopment of the facial nerve in the embryo, cases of false articulation

forming in luxated joints, characters in the Papilio genus of butter-

flies, and some other instances. It was urged as an observation that all

normal parts, whether hard or colored or otherwise highly differenti-

ated from the germ, seem to follow a predetermined plan in the develop-

176 The American Naturalist. [February,

ment of the individual, and, in the history of a species, and have a tend-

-ency to differentiate in series. The presence of series it was therefore,

argued is no evidence of the transmission of acquired characters.

An elaborate presentation of the two theories of the primal unit of

life was entered into, detailing first the views of investigators who re-

garded the start as a small, discrete, homogenous particle gifted with

-considerable locomotive power, and thus capable of conveying impres-

sions from the outside of the subject to the more remote precincts of the

germ within. Opposed to these were theories to which the speaker ad-

hered, which assumed the unit to be the cell, relatively large, of a

various chemical constituency and with something of an organization.

‘The first of these two theories permitted the further step of assumption

that acquired impressions could, by the greater facility in movement,

reach the germ, while the second theory found the germ rather re-

moved from outside impressions, and tending generally to perpetuating

the type or the result of accretions from a long previous series of ex-

-periences and impressions. Prof. Minot was.thus opposed to the idea

-of transmission as defined in the question.

Prof. J. M. McFarlane was in favor of the theory of transmission,

‘drawing his data from botanical studies in an exhaustive review of the

vegetable kingdom. His arguments were directed mainly to examples

of changes in genera and species from changes in environment, and a

-lot of evidence was adduced having some relation to the transmission

of acquired characters, but mainly to showing the prompt response in

‘mature to the influence of surroundings.

Prof. Cope’s defence of the doctrine of the inheritance of acquired

characters was selected from the evidence contained in his book, “ The

Primary Factors of Organic Evolution.” He referred especially to the

history of the moulding of the articulations of the vertebrate, and espe-

cially the Mammalian skeletons, of which such complete series has been

furnished by paleontology. The forms of these articulations he believed

to be the result of their movements, for the reason that they could be

formed artificially as the result of experiment, or in consequence of

luxations. He believed that the resulting forms have been inherited,

because they are found in the embryo, before the animal has had an

opportunity of developing the structure for himself by interaction with

the environment.

He admitted the justice of Dr: Minot’s demand for an explanation

of this phenomenon. He stated that the preformationists offered no

explanation ; and, indeed, so far as he could see, none is possible from

their point of view. The epigeuesisists could, on the contrary, appeal

4397.) Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 177

to the phenomena of memory as a plausible explanation. Stimuli

from without and within the organism leave a record in the brain-cells,

which give the form to consciousness when the latter invades them’

along the guiding lines of association. Why should not the germ

plasma be capable of a similar record of stimuli, which is expressed in

the recapitulatory growth of the embryo? He thought that the evi-

dence pointed to such a process. These stimuli affected the soma and

the germ plasma simultaneously, in accordance with the doctrine of

Diplogenesis; but that the soma only records results in each tissue

which are appropriate to the functions of the same, while the germ

plasma and brain-cells may record them all. The certainty of record

in both cases he supposed to depend on the frequency and strength of

‘the impression, as is known to be the case with the memory of the men-

tal organism. Hence mutilations or single impressions were rarely re-

corded, while those due to the constant and habitual movements are

recorded, and furnish the physical basis of growth and of evolution of

He further remarked that the belief that natural selection originates

structure could not be entertained, as paleontological evidence shows

that evolution has proceeded by very gradual additions and subtrac-

tions of character, which required long periods to become of any value

‘in the struggle for existence—sometimes an entire geological period

-being occupied in the elaboration of a character to structural usefulness.

Finally, he referred to the physical mechanism of mental phenomena,

-and stated thatsome psychologists require a completed machine in order

for the performance of special mental function. The speaker called

attention to the fact that it is highly probable that the fundamental

‘Sensations do not even require a nervous system for their expression.

-Thus Protozoa appear to experience the sensations of hunger, tempera-

ture and the muscular sense of resistance. Hence, it is as true of the

-physical basis of mental as of other functions that the formation pro-

duces the structure, while structure merely specializes or perfects func-

‘tion.

Professor Wm. James followed from the psychologic point of view.

-He said that the brain was evidently an organ capable of great varia-

bility of function, and that variations in new directions were frequent.

He regarded genius as a form of sporting, and that such sporta fre-

“quently served as guides to the development of human society. He

believed that education was of primary importance, and did nos find

much evidence of the inheritance of characters acquired in this mer:

He believed on the contrary that mental acquisitions are transmitted

178 The American Naturalist. [February,

from generation to generation by education and by imitation, a process,

which Prof. J. Mark Baldwin had termed “Social Heredity.”

At 8.15 P. M. the Society attended at the Fogg Museum of Art,

Harvard University, Cambridge, a lecture by Mr. Alexander Agassiz,

on “ The History of Deep Sea Explorations ;” and at 9.30 P. M. attended

a reception by Mr. Alexander Agassiz, at his residence on Quincy Street,

Cambridge.

On Wednesday, December 30th, 12 M., the Society attended at the

Fogg Museum of Art, Harvard University, Cambridge, a lecture by

Prof. E. B. Wilson, on “ Recent Developments of the Cell Theory; at

1.30 P. M. was served at the Faculty Rooms, University Hall, Cam-

bridge, a luncheon, by invitation of the President and Fellows of Har-

vard College. Two addresses were delivered in honor of the Fiftieth

Anniversary of the arrival of Agassiz in Cambridge, by President.

Elliott and Prof. Wm. James. At 3 P. M., Mr. Alexander Agassiz met.

the Society in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, and described the

Museum; and at 6.30 P. M., Hotel Brunswick, corner of Boylston and

Clarendon Streets, Boston, a business session was held. At 7 P.M. the

annual dinner of the Affiliated Societies took place at the Hotel Bruns-

wick, at the close of which the societies listened to the address of the

President, Prof. W. B. Scott.

American Physiological Society.—Program: Tuesday, De-

cember 29th, at the Harvard Medical School, General Business;

Reading of Papers: W. T. Porter, “Studies in the Physiology of the

Mammalian Heart:” T. Hough, “On the Duration of Cardiac Stand-

still with Different Strengths of Vagus Stimulation ; ” R. Hunt, “ Some

Experiments on the Relation of the Inhibitory to the Accelerator Nerves

of the Heart ;” W. H. Howell,“ Exhibition of Plethysmographic Curves

Obtained During Sleep, with Remarks;” H.P. Bowditch, “ The Rela-

tion between Height, Weight and Age in Growing Children ;” ©: 8

Minot, “An Experiment on Telegony;” S. J. Meltzer, “On the Con-

traction of the Stomach Produced by Direct Stimulation and by Stimu-

lation of the Vagi with the Faradic Current; ” Fr. Pfaff, “An Experi-

mental Investigation of Some of the Conditions Influencing the Secretion

and Composition of Bile” (With Mr. A. Balch); G. Lusk, “ The Pro-

duction of Sugar from Gelatine in Metabolism ;” W. T. Porter, “ De-

monstration of a Method for the Isolation of the Mammalian Heart ;

S. J. Meltzer,‘ Demonstration of the Reaction of the Stomach to Faradie

Stimulation ;” G. T. Kemp, “ Demonstration of a Convenient Form of

Apparatus to Avoid Explosions in Gas Analysis.” o

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 179

Wednesday, December 20th, at Harvard University, Cambridge,

General Business; Reading of Papers: G. C. Huber, “ The Structure of

the Sympathetic Ganglia of Vertebrates, with Demonstration of Prepa-

rations ;” G. O. Huber, “ Remarks on the Ending of Nerves in Muscle

Tissue, with Demonstrations ;” W. Mills, “The Functional Develop-

ment of the Cerebral Cortex in Different Groups of Animals;” R. H.

Cunningham, “The Restoration of Coordinate Power After Nerve

Crossing ;” R. H. Chittenden, “ The Proteolytic Action of Papain ;”

C. F. Hodge,“ Experiments on the Physiological Influence of Alcohol ; ”

G. T. Kemp, “ The Physiological Action of Nitrous Oxide;” S. J.

Meltzer, “On Bactericidal Effects of Lymph from the Thoracic Duct”

(with Dr. Charles Norris). G. W. Fitz, Demonstration of Apparatus :

1, A spring cylinder chronograph for spark records; 2, A lever system

to illustrate the action of muscles in relation to joints; 3, A form of

student’s myograph ; 4, A modification of the location reaction appara-

tus. C. F. Hodge (for C. C. Stewart), Demonstration of preparations

of the nerve cell under acute alcoholic poisoning. General Business.

The American Morphological Society.—Boston, December

29, 1896.—The following papers were read: Arnold Graf, “On the

Individuality of the Cell” Maintained the individuality of the cell

pointing out the existence of organs in it. A. D. Mead, “ On the Cen-

trosomes of Cheetopterus.” Pointed out the existence of primary and

secondary centrosomes in the unfertilized egg, the latter arising from

the reticulum of the cytoplasm. These form the centers of spindles,

and these spindles divide. History of the egg centrosome during ma-

turation traced, and at the close of the formation of the second polar

globule it occupied a position in center of chromosomes. Author was

not certain of the origin of the male centrosome. F. R. Lillie, “ Ori-

gin of the Center of the First Cleavage Spindle in Unio complauatus.

This form is unlike Myzostoma in that it has male and female asters;

but the centrosome of segmentation, like that of Myzostoma, arises from

the female. E. B. Wilson, “Centrosome and Middle Piece in the

Fertilization of the Egg.” In Toxopneustes the centrosome arises

not from the middle piece, but from a point between this and the

head of the spermatozoan. H. E. Crampton, Jr., “ Observations on

the Fertilization in Gasteropods.” Largely a confirmation of a paper

by Mead. Miss Byrnes, “ Maturation and Fertilization of Limax.” C.

S. Minot, “A New Microtome; New Laboratory Methods.” Method

of sharpening microtome knives—exhibited serial sections Qu thick cut

with the new microtome and with knives sharpened with adamantine by

LOG. The American Naturalist. [February,

a laboratory boy, He advised filtering of all waste paraffine in the labor-

atory. W. Patten, “Preservation of Cartilage, etc., in a Dry Condition.”

By impregnetion with paraffine as if for section work. C.B. Davenport,

“The Role of Water in Growth.” . Careful weighing of frog embryos

shows that in early stages increase in weight is almost entirely due to

absorption of water. J.P. McMurrich, “Structure and Function of the

Hind Gut of Isopods.” This region is lined with solid chitinous intima;

does not increase in number of cells; does not absorb food. Dr. Conk-

in contradicted this, claiming that the intima is traversed by fine canal-

iculi, that food-is absorbed by this region, and that its cells divide in the

length of the animal by amitosis.

December 30, 1896.—H. C. Bumpus, “ The Result of the Suspension

of Natural Selection as Illustrated by the Introduced English Sparrow.”

Showed by comparison of 1600 eggs that this bird is more variable in

the United States than in England. G. W. Field, “ The Plankton of

Brackish Water.” A. E. Verrill, “ Nocturnal Protective Colors of Ami-

mals.” On diurnal changes in colors of fishes as related to natural

selection. Margaret Lewis, “ Epidermal Sense-Organs in Certain Poly-

chaetes.” Structure and distribution of these in some maldanids. A.

P. Henchman, “ Eyes of Limax maximus.” Details of structure and

existence of primary and accessory visual organs. A. Schaper, “ Earliest

Differentiation of the Central Nervous System of Vertebrates.” A his-

tory of the epithelial sustentation, glia and nerve cells in the spinal

cord; and a parallel between ontogeny and the conditions found in

amphroxus, lamprey, selachian, etc. W. Patten, “A Basis for a Theory

of Color Perception.” Based upon the wave lengths and the conical

shape of the end-organs. N. P. Harrington, “A New Species of Ento-

concha and the Systematic Position of the Genus.” A. E. Verrill, “A

Colossal Cephalopod from Florida.” An octopus with body 18 feet long,

5 feet in diameter ; estimated weight of this part, 5 tons. Part of one —

tentacle was found 34 feet long and 10 inches in diameter at the place

where it was broken of. Its length in life is estimated between 70 and

90 feet. G. Lefevre, “ Budding in Clavellinide.” W. Patten, “ Visual

Centers of Vertebrates and Arthropods.” An attempt to homologise

these regions in the two groups. M. Bancroft, “ Notes on Chelyosoma.”

J. S. Kingsley, “Amphiuma and the Caecilians.” Claimed that these

two forms are but remotely related to each other. F. C. Waite, “ Bra-

chial and Lumbo-Sacral Plexi in Necturus.” The evidence presented

by these structures upon vertebral intercalation and on the shifting of

the pelvis.

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. -181

The Society elected the following officers for the coming year: Presi-

dent, C. S. Minot; Vice-President, S. I. Smith ; Secretary-Treasurer,

G. H. Parker; Executive Committee, J. S. Kingsley, Bashford Dean.

Many papers were left unread on account of lack of time. Probably,

in the future, papers will be admitted only from actual members ; they

will be limited to fifteen minutes; and the authors will be requested to

omit all historical reviews and details of observations, and to confine

themselves to the broader conclusions and generalizations.

Boston Society of Natural History.—January 6, 1897.—The

following papers were presented ; Mr. A. W. Grabau, “ The Sand Plains

of Truro, Wellfleet and Eastham ;” Prof. W. M. Davis,“A Geographical

Classification of Coastal plains.” —SamurL HENSHAW, Secretary.

January 20.—The following paper was read: Prof. W. O. Crosby,

“The great fault and accompanying sandstone dikes of Ute Pass,

Colorado.”—Samurt HENSHAW, Secretary.

New York Academy of Science, Biological Section.—De-

cember 14, 1896, Prof. J. G. Curtis, Chairman, in the Chair. Dr. Ar-

nold Graf made a preliminary report on “Some New Fixing Fluids ;”

Mr. J. A. McGregor read a paper entitled “An Embryo of Orypto-

branchus.”

The embryo described is about 16 millimetres long, and is the first

to be recorded of this speeies.

Prominent among its external features are the excessive amount w

yolk, the marked ventral flexure in the cervical region, and the very

early and almost simultaneous appearance of the two pairs of limbs.

The dorsal surface is pigmented, the pigment cells being arranged in

transverse bands, one band over each metamere of the body. ; Lateral

line sense-organs can be distinguished. Among the most striking in-

ternal characters may be mentioned the dorso-ventral flattening of the

notochord, the late appearance of entoderm and alimentary organs gen-

erally—due doubtless to the great mass of the yolk. The primordial

skull is unusually well-developed. The auditory vesicle has an endo-

lymphatic duct ending blindly immediately under the skin on the top

of the head. Along the sides of the body a system of organs occur

which are probably homologous with the embryonic sense-organs de-

scribed by Beard in the sharks. aay

Dr. J. L. Wortman spoke of the “ Ganodonta,” a new and primi-

tive suborder of the Edentata from the Eocene of North America.

One section or family of the suborder, viz., the Stylinodontidee, 1s COM-

posed of Hemigamus, Psittacotherium, Ectoganus and Stylinodon, and

182 The American Naturalist. [February,

forms a closely connected and consecutive phylum, reaching from the

base of the Puerco to the Bridger formation, and leading directly to

the Gravigrada or ground sloths. A second family, viz., the Conoryctide,

composed of Conoryctes and Onychodectes may be regarded as ancestral

to the Armadillos. The character and origin of the Edentate fauna of

South America was discussed at length, and the conclusion reached

that its original home was in North America. It was further held that

there was a migration to the southward before the close of the Eocene,

and that there must have then been an early land connection between

the two continents.—C. L. BRISTOL, Secretary.

University of Pennsylvania Biological Club.—Monday, Jan-

uary 4th, Program. Demonstrations: “ Descriptive Demonstration of

the Life-History of Sacculina, H. Heath. Reviews: “ Zoological,” Drs.

Moore and Calvert ; “Chemical,” Dr. Mary E. Pennington; “ Patho-

logical,” Dr. Ferree Witmer; “ Botanical,’ Dr. Macfarland, Mrs.

Wilson. (Time limit for each review, five minutes.) Original Com-

munication, by Dr. Edw. D. Cope, “ The Embryonic Appendages and

the Evolution of Mammalia.”—H. C. PORTER, Secretary.

January 18.—Program Demonstration, Cell changes in Spirogyra

grown under color-screens, Dr. Mary E. Pennington: Review.—Zoolog-

ical: Dr. P. Calvert, Chemical; Dr. Mary E. Pennington, Botanical ;

Dr. J. Harshberger, Original Communications.—Account of the Boston

meeting of the Society of American Naturalist and Affiliated Societies.

Profs. Macfarlane, Conklin, Witmer, and Cope—H. C. PORTER,

Secretary.

The Biological Society of Washington.—January 2, 1897.—

The following communications were made: “ Brief Informal Notes and

Exhibition of Specimens,” (All the members are cordially invited to

take part); E. W. Nelson, “ New Birds from Mexico ;” F. A. Lucas,

“On the Natural Mortality Among Fur Seals; ” C. Hart Merriam,

“ On the Pribilof Island Hair Seal;” W. H. Dall, “ Notes on the Mol-

luscan Fauna of the Pribilof Islands.” —FreDERICK A. Lucas, Seere-

tary. ;

January 16.—The following communications were made: David

White, “ A New Lycopodineous Cone from the Coal Measures of Mis.

souri;”’ David White, “ Unity or Plurality of Type Specimens 10

Paleontology ;” Edward L. Greene, “ Development of the Idea of a

Genus;” M. A. Carleton, “ Ontogenetic Separation of Puccinia gramms

dvene from P. graminis tritici.” —FREDERIC A. Lucas, Secretary.

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 183

Cincinnati Society of Natural History.—At the monthly meet-

ing, January 5, 1897, the following communications were made: “ On

the Pulsation of the Molluscan Heart,” by Frank C. Baker, of Chicago ;

“Catalogue of the Odonata of Ohio—Part III,” by D. L. Kellicott, of

Columbus, O. ; “An Odonate Nymph from a Thermal Spring,” by the

same author. (All three papers will be published inthe “ Journal” of

the Society —Josua LINDAHL.

The Academy of Science of St. Louis.—At the meeting of the

Academy of Science of St. Louis, on the evening of December 21, 1896,

Mr. H.von Schrenk made some remarks on the parasitism of lichens, illus-

trated especially by the long hanging forms of Usnea barbata, common on

Juniperus, etc., on Long Island, N. Y. It was shown that these lichens

do not penetrate below the outer periderm of the host, and consequently

are not to be regarded as true parasites, but that they frequently cause

the death of the latter by suffocation. As Schimper has noted for the

long moss of the South, Tillandsia usneoides, the plant is capable of

_ dissemination by wind and birds, and of growing in new stations with-

out attachment. Officers for 1897 were nominated.

January 4, 1897, Dr. Amand Ravold gave a microscopic demonstra-

tion of Widal’s test for typhoid fever, demonstrating that after the dis-

ease has existed for four days or more the blood of typhoid patients,

probably because of some contained antitoxine, possesses the power of

inhibiting the motion of typhoid bacilli from a pure culture introduced

into it within a period of one hour or less, whereas in normal blood

similar bacilli retain their power of locomotion for an indefinite length

of time. It was stated that typhoid blood possessed this property even

after having been dried for a period of four weeks or more, so that a

few drops obtained from a person suspected of having the disease may

be sent to suitable places for applying the test, thus rendering compara-

tively easy the early diagnosis of a disease, which, in its early stages,

presents many clinical difficulties. :

Professor F. E. Nipher gave preliminary results of partially com-

pleted experiments, made through the courtesy of the Burlington and

Illinois Central Railroads, to determine the frictional effect of trains of

cars on the air near them. His apparatus consists of a cup collector

supported on a bar capable of sliding in guides on a clamp attached to

the window-sill of the car. The bar is thrust out to varying distances

up to 30 inches. The mouth of the collector is turned in the direction

of motion of the train. The pressure due to the motion is conveyed

through a rubber tube attached to the rear of the collector, and passing

184 The American Naturalist. [February,

lengthwise through the car to a water monometer. The monometer has

a tube with a rise of 4 or 5 in 400, and is provided with a pivotal mount-

ing and a level.

The pressure near the train is comparatively small, and increases as

the collector is thrust further out. It approaches a limit corresponding

to the train velocity at the instant. Professor Nipher finds the relation

between the limiting pressure and velocity to agree exactly with the

formula P= vy’, where v is the train velocity in centimeters per second,

P is the pressure in dynes to the square centimeter, and S is the density

of air in C. G. units at the temperature and pressure of the observations.

He finds the pressure a maximum when the axis of the collector is

parallel to the direction of motion with the mouth to the wind. Turn-

ing the collector until the axis makes an angle of about 80° with this

position, the pressure reduces to zero. At greater angles the pressure

becomes less than atmospheric pressure by an amount which reaches &

maximum at the angle of 90°, and passes through a minimum at an

angle of 80°, when the collector is in a trailing position. The sum of —

the coefficients for the two positions of maximum compression and mini-

mum exhaust is almost exactly the same as Langley obtained with a

pressure board when exposed normally to the wind.

The result shows that a large amount of air is dragged along with the

train, the motion being communicated to air many feet away. This air

is a source of danger to one standing too near the train when at full

speed. One is likely to be toppled over, and the blow of the air com- -

municates a motion of rotation, which may cause one to roll under the

train if the nature of the ground does not prevent such a result. It was

remarked, however, that where trains have a right to run at any speed:

no prudent person would stand so near to a train as is necessary in

order to be in danger from this source.

The following officers were declared elected for the year 1897 : Presi-

dent, M. L. Gray; First Vice-President, E. A. Englar; Second Vice-

President, Charles R. Sanger ; Recording Secretary, William Trealease ;

Corresponding Secretary, F. C. Runge; Treasurer, Enno Sander ; Li-

brarian, G. Hambach ; Curators, Julius Hurter, J. H. Kinealy, E. Evers;

Directors, M. H. Post, Joseph Grindon.

One person was elected to active membership—Wii1am TREA-

LEASE, Recording Secretary.

Nebraska Academy of Sciences.—The Seventh Annual Meet-

ing was held at Lincoln, December 29, 1896, with the following pt

gram:

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 185

Presidential Address by Prof. E. H. Barbour on “ Academies of

Sciences, their Economic and Educational Value,” with suggestions

for the improvement of our Academy ; “ A New Plankton Pump” for

collecting aquatic organisms from any desired depth, H. B. Ward and

Charles Fordyce ; “ Continued Biological Investigations,” H. B. Ward ;

“ Progress in the Study of the Fauna of the State ” showing the rich-

ness of our fauna and how little it is known, Lawrence Brunner ; “ Some

Methods of Collecting, Preserving and Mounting Fossils,” Carrie A.

Barbour ; “ Nomenclature of Nebraska Trees” with the history of par-

ticular names, Charles E. Bessey ; “ Reflections on the Genus Ribes”

importance of recognizing the validity of species created by the gar-

dener, F. W. Card; “ Chalcedony-lime Nuts of the Genus Hickora

from the Bad Lands of Nebraska,” E. H. Barbour; ‘Comparison be-

tween Nebraska Diatomaceous Earth and that from Neighboring

States,” C. J. Elmore ; “ What is Mathematics ” and how it correlates

other sciences, E. W. Davis; “ A Family of Quartic Surfaces,” the

sum of the distances of whose locus from two given surfaces is constant,

Robert E. Moritz; “ A Form of Weir Notch,” giving a flow of water

varying directly as the head, instead of following the usual more com-

plicated law, O. V. P. Stout; “An Observation on Annual Rings in

Tree Growth” when complete defoliation did not induce the growth of

a second ring, F. W. Card ; “Internal Temperature of Trees” rising

as high as 119° at a depth of half an inch in a trunk exposed to sun-

shine, R. A. Emerson. The remaining papers, owing to the lateness of

the hour were read by title only, as follows: “Notice of Two Import-

ant Books on Systematic Botany,” Charles E. Bessey ; “ The Barites

of Eastern Nebraska and the Bad Lands,” Erwin H. Barbour; “ Some

Data as to Wind Distribution of Seeds,” Ed. M. Hussong ; “ Parasites

of Nebraska Dogs,” Henry B. Ward ; “ Discovery of the First Meteor-

ite in Nebraska,” Erwin H. Barbour; “ Notes on Phyllopod Crusta-

cea,” H. A. Lafler and A. S. Pearse.

The following officers were elected: President, Dr. A. S. Von Mans-

felde ; Vice-President, Dr. E. H. Barbour; Secretary and Treasurer,

Prof. G. D. Swezey ; Custodian, Prof. Lawrence Bruner; Directors,

Dr. H. B. Ward, Prof. H. B. Duncanson, Mr. C. J. Elmore and Dr.

H. Hapeman.

The next Annual Meeting will be held on the day following Thanks-

giving. The volume of Proceedings for 1894-1895 has just been issued,

price 40 cents—G. D. Swezey, Secretary.

The Botanical Seminar of the University of Nebraska.—

December 5, 1896.—The following papers were presented : Mycolog-

186 The American Naturalist. [February,

ical Statistics of Nebraska, Mr. Roscoe Pound ; The Comparative

Anatomy of the Pistil in Apocarpous Families, Mr. Ernst Bessey:

Phytogeographical Notes from Colorado, Mr. C. L. Shear. December

26th—The Polyphylesis of the Lichens, Mr. F. E. Clements; The

Phytogeography of Nebraska, Mr. Roscoe Pound: The Flora of Rob-

erts County, South Dakota, Prof. D. A. Saunders; Washington and

its Botanists, Mr. A. F. Woods.

Botanical Seminar of the City of Washington, D. C.—

December 12, 1896.—The following papers were presented: Short

Notices of Current Literature; Synopsis of the Genus Cheetochloa, J.

G. Smith ; The Origin and Development of Sexuality and Alternation

of Generations, Considered from the Modern Cytological Standpoint,

W. T. Swingle; Some Cases of Polyembryony, A. J. Pieters; Manu-

facture of Cereal Foods, Mr. A. Carleton.

Torrey Botanical Club.—At the meeting of Tuesday evening,

December 8, 1896, thirty persons were present and one new active and

seven corresponding members were elected. The death of Mr. Wm.

H. Rudkin, one of the oldest members of the club, was announced by

Dr. Britton, and a committee was appointed to take suitable action. It

was resolved that a complete list of the corresponding members should

be printed in the December number of the Bulletin. A contribution

by Dr. T. F. Allen, entitled “ Descriptions of New Species of Nitella

from North America and Japan,” was read by title by Dr. Britton in

the absence of the author. Mrs. Elizabeth G. Britton presented a

‘Contribution to the Bryology of Bolivia.” It reviewed the more im-

portant collections of Bolivian mosses, the treatment which they had

received and the present work in progress on this subject, and enumer-

ated the bryological collections made by Dr. Rusby in Bolivia in the

years 1885 and 1886. This collection contained 96 species, in 39 gen-

era, 42 of the species being hitherto undescribed. Dr. H. H. Rusby

spoke of “ Botany at the Pan-American Medical Congress held in the

City of Mexico, November, 1896.” This paper contained brief refer-

ences to the character >f the flora observed on the journey to Mexico,

an account of the scientific progress in the city, especially pertaining to

applied botany and referred to the botanical work organized by the

Pan-American Medical Congress. It was supplemented by remarks

upon the same subject by Mrs. Britton, who also attended the Congress.

A number of important publications by the Instituto Medico Nacional

were exhibited. Dr. N. L. Britton described a new species of Gera

nium hitherto confounded with G. Carolinianum. The papers by Dr. —

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 187

Allen and Dr. and Mrs. Britton will be published in the Budletin, that

by Dr. Rusby in the Druggists’ Cireular. On motion the Club ad-

journed to meet on the second Tuesday in January.

H. H. Russy, Ree. Secretary.

Chicago Academy of Sciences.—A regular meeting of the

Academy of Sciences was held Tuesday evening, December 22, 1890.

Prof. Willis L. Moore was elected a corresponding member. Mr.

Frank M. Woodruff, Ornithologist of the Academy, read a paper on

“ Recent Occurrences of Rare Birds in Chicago.”

The speaker remarked that he had been collecting data and speci-

mens during the past year for the Ornithological Report of the Geo-

logical and Natural History Survey, and had been fortunate enough

while engaged in this work to run across a number of rare species.

The most favorable time for collecting these rarities is when Lake

Michigan is almost frozen over, or during the months of January and

February, after the wind has changed from an easterly direction and

is blowing from the west. The east wind breaks up the ice and the

west wind drives the broken floes away from the shore, leaving at

times a long stretch of clear water, with here and there a small patch

of ice; in this open water the ducks and gulls gather by thousands to

feed upon dead fish and sewerage, and they may then be collected very

readily. Many of the birds gathering here at this time are inhabitants

of Alaska and Northern British America.

The rarest bird taken was a specimen of an immature male Kittiwake

Gull (Rissa tridactyla) which was shot by Mr. Wagner on the 9th of

December near Lincoln Park. This is the first record of a specimen

of this bird being shot in Illinois. Barrows Golden-eye ( Glaucinetta

islandica) was seen recently in large flocks, and two specimens were

shot, one of which got away, but the other was captured and is now in

the Academy’s collection. This species is rare, and there are but few

records of its capture. The Old Squaw (Olaugula hiemalis) is seen

commonly about Chicago, but is seldom taken. Mr. Woodruff men-

tioned the following additional more or less rare species : White-winged

Scoter (Oidemia deglandi) ; Velvet Scoter (O. fusca, at Meredosia) ;

Robin Snipe or Knot (Tringa canutus); Buff-breasted Sandpiper

(Tryngites subruficollis) ; Baird’s Sandpiper (Tringa bairdii) ; Piping

Plover (Aigialitis meloda) ; Black-bellied Plover (Charadrius squata-

rola); Stilt Sandpiper (Micropalama himantopus); Willet (Symp hemia

semipalmata) ; Turnstone (Arenaria interpres) ; Harlan’s Hawk (Buteo

borealis harlani) and American Goshawk ( Accipiter atricapillus). The

188 The American Naturalist. [February,.

Little Yellow Rail (Porzana noveboracensis) was mentioned, not as be-

ing rare, but as seldom collected, probably on account of its small size

and skulking disposition,

The paper was illustrated by specimens of the species spoken of be-

longing to the Academy and Mr. Woodruff.

FRANK Č. BAKER, Secretary..

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

It will be of interest to Botanists and Zoologists to learn that a Bio-

logical Survey of Alabama has been organized and put into operation-

The Survey will be carried on under the auspices of the Alabama Poly-

technic Institute, and will be named by the specialists engaged at that.

institution in the various lines of biological investigation. It will have

for its object the study in field and laboratory of all plants and animals

occurring in the state and of the various conditions effecting them.

The work will be done systematically and thoroughly and all results

published. In a region so interesting and little worked as this portion

of the Southern United States, careful and extended research will be

sure to yield results of the greatest value. Large quantities of material

in all groups of plants and animals (especially insects) will be collected

and properly prepared. In connection with the Survey there has been

founded an Exchange Bureau, from which will be distributed all dupli-

cate material. Anyone desiring to correspond relative to specimens,

literature, or work of Survey, should address The Alabama Biological

Survey, Auburn, Alabama.

The New Monthly Open Court—With January, 1897, the Chicago

Open Court celebrates the decennial anniversary of its nativity

and more consonantly with the solid character of its contents now

appears in the form of a monthly instead of a weekly. Undoubtedly

this change will gain more than ever the attention of thoughtful people

for The Open Court, which is devoted to the high ideal of purifying

religion by the methods employed in science,—an aim which it has

always reverently but fearlessly pursued.

In the ten years of its existence The Open Court has gained the

hearty co-operation of a majority of the world’s most eminent scientists

and thinkers, both orthodox and unorthodox. The subscription-pricè

1897.] Scientific News. 189

to The Open Court being reduced to an absolute minimum, its work

has been rendered possible only by the large private endowments of

Mr. E. C. Hegeler of La Salle, whose contributions to its support have

exceeded its net income by ninety-six per cent.

In the present opening number besides the Salutatory of the editor

expounding the purpose of The Open Court, is an extremely significant

controversy on Buddhism and Christianity between the Right Rev.

Shaku Soyen, delegate of Japan to the Chicago Parliament of Religions,

the Rev. Dr. John Henry Barrows, Chairman of the Parliament, and

the Rev. F. F. Ellinwood, a prominent Presbyterian clergyman of New

York,—a literary symposium realising the idea of a Parliament of

Religions extension. A powerful sermon on “Trade and Usury” by

Martin Luther, skilfully translated by Professor Carruth, a valiant

defence of the claims of Science in Theology by Dr. Cornill, Professor

of Old Testament history in Kénigsberg, Germany, Notes and Reviews

of important books complete the contents. With the promise of the

first number and its old reputation, The Open Court is assured of in-

creased and abiding success. (Annual subscription, $1.00: The Open

Court Publishing Co., Chicago.)

Mr. Herbert Spencer—Mr. F. H. Collins, of Edgbaston, forwards

an address of congratulation to Mr. Herbert Spencer upon the

completion of his “System of Synthetic Philosophy,” signed by more

than 80 noblemen and gentlemen eminent in public life, in literature,

and in various branches of learning and science. The signatories re-

quest Mr. Spencer to permit them to employ some eminent artist to

take his portrait, with a view to its being deposited in one of our na-

tional collections. Mr. Spencer, in a letter to Sir Joseph Hooker,

complies with the request thus made, explaining the reasons which for-

merly led him to refuse a similar proposal. Mr. Herkomer, R. A., has

undertaken to paint the portrait.

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Vol. XXXI.

MARCH, 1897.

n CONTENTS.

k a PAGE

OSSILS AND FOSSILIZATION, (Continued. )

P. Gratacap. 191

BIRD LIFE 1N CENTRAL Mine

Daniel F. SIRERE ae 199

oe aire tarn SPECIES OF MEGASCO

is FROM THE UNITED STATES. Frank ‘Smith. 202

OF hos GUINEA. (Cont one

UPON an Ux

)

lO., 5. Mead.

$ 204

DITOR’S: TABLE— Science in the sae spapers—

vernment piren Bureau—Duty

4 on Monkeys and Snakes - 210

: 2

ge LITERATU bbs piesa kental Marche

a a Mile Ichthplogy—Fishe sof North

fen Tiddle America—Eyolutic tion or Crea:

% i Pee 212

ECENT Books AND Tan. s Be a OO

k GENERAL Nor

Petro raph

| re ee en-Gneiss d- I i

Rocks at Bedford, N. Y.—The B ‘sie E matey

ore Augite- Syen ite-Nepheline-Syenite

: Regio se Anorthosites of the Rainy Lake

; iip oleanie Rocks of the Fox ure:

F Geol etrographical New * 919

ea 0;

‘ tic St Tigao Paleontologi- Roc wes of the é P ntare-

‘ €

2 iE Pa

palacio Marine rk—The ey oan ae Eocene

Botany.—Long Stolons of See

nes Gud Heald’s "Keys to ate

Vegetable Phy sible SPR ex Eata ono ostoe

mesenteroides? ee. a Disease of Tober

Caused by Phiytophthor nicotianee. 28,

aaa ance of Filaroides mus Pc

culiar Appendage a the Thelycum of —

—Ner 7 the poaa glan pat th

ariere Stupach—THe

Preliminary Description

Eastern Vole from Nova Scotia—A New

of Gib’s Mole. (Ilustrated. )—=

ws.

+ Embryolog ` Spinning Powers of Certain

“Psych 0 slag, ~The action of ti the: venom of th

Australian Black Snake-

Psy chology—The year 1896 in Scientific c Psy

chology—Studies i in the Telegraphic Language

Mrs. a ardener on Ks Inheri aame

Sobeni

nth ropolagi MÉ. Wilson’s investi igation on of.

the Seuss Cross. . (Illustrated. )—Explora-

tion of Captain A Theobert Maler i in Toa

Cave hunting in Syria.

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«OF “NATURAL SCIENCE” DURING 1895.

URAL SCIENCE for 1895 has EE contributions from

104 distinguished writers. Ea $

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ited. Articles in nr home iy of o Botany, and Say

f ‘SCIENCE for 1895 has pihia. 24 t ulipage Pl

ap the abo ve 1

dts At

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VOL, AX XI. March, 1897. 363

. FOSSILS AND FOSSILIZATION.

By L. P. Gratacap.

IV.

(Continued from p. 33.)

As regards their degree of preservation the nature of the

deposit has some influence upon the condition of fossils; and

the nature of a deposit involves also a suggestion of its position,

as we have seen, whether subject to estuarine vicissitudes, tidal

fluctuations, or the ceaseless attrition of shore waves. When

we examine the sandy and gravelly deposits of the Potsdam

(Cambrian), the Medina (Upper Silurian), the Chemung and

the Catskill (Devonian), the coarse conglomerate of the Lower

Carboniferous, or the calcareous grits of the Schoharie and

Oriskany (Lower Devonian) we find a reflexion of their physi-

cal character in the condition of the fossils preserved in them.

The trilobite layers of Wisconsin and Minnesota in the Upper

Cambrian (Potsdam) are crowded with the separated parts of

these crustacea, whose delicate articulations were unable to re-

sist the friction they were exposed to in the motions on a beach

of siliceous sand. Neither does a sandy beach receive impress-

ions with ease and certainty, as the indistinct outlines of the

trilobites in these beds show. Furthermore, ina siliceous bed,

more or less percolated through by water, the water has dis-

192 The American Naturalist. [March,

solved the calcitic or lime parts of these animals, since they

were not protected against this depletion by the presence of a

calcareous matrix, unless, as with Obolella polita, at Trempeleau,

Wisconsin, the great numbers of the fossil itself acts as a pro-

tection against solution and attrition. The influence of aslight

admixture of a plastic ingredient in improving the casts and

impressions of fossils is seen in the more argillaceous layers of

the Cambrian beds, as at Mazomania, Wisconsin, where Aglas-

pis barrandii and Dicellocephalus minnesotensis are retained with

a firmer and more legible outline. In many layers the Obolellas

are broken, and appear as shelly fragments scattered over the

rock. The Obolella is also a compact and small object, pro-

tected to some extent by the convexity of its valves; but where

it is preserved in perfection we may reasonably conclude, like the

little Gemma gemma of our coasts, it had buried itself in the sand,

and was not expelled from its safe position by waves or denu-

dation. The regular close distribution of these fossils over the

slabs of Potsdam sandstone show that they suffered little or no

displacement. On the other hand, the fragments of Ptycho-

paria (trilobite) in the same rocks at Trempeleau, Kickapoo,

prove from their heterogeneous, confused interference of parts,

some drifting, rubbing and dislocation. The Lingulepis pinni-

formis, a delicate shell, and with valves held together by liga-

ments alone, occurs in great numbers in the sandy Potsdam

beds of St. Croix, and in a very good state of preservation; in

some instances, the concentric lines of growth, the polished and

corneous surface being retained. But, for the most part, the

individual shells have suffered from friction and breaking.

Lingulella stoneana in the red beds of Mazomania are flattened

and disfigured. But in the green slates of Braintree, Mass.,

Paradoxides harlanii, a trilobite, is well preserved, except where

distortion from compression and lateral motion has strained

and deformed the parts. Similarly another crustacean, Olen-

ellus, in the less dense slates of Georgia, Vt., also Lower Cam-

brian, is found quite well preserved, but suffering mutilation

and almost obliteration at times, from the metamorphic pres-

sure by which these aluminous muds were transformed into

fissile shales. In the annelid, green paper shales of Waterville,

1897.] Fossils and Fossilization. 193

Kennebec River, Maine, the serpentine markings of what has

been referred to a worm are well preserved. In the Medina

sandstone, a red ferruginous sandstone of the Upper Silurian

age, the fossils are poorly preserved, lacking fullness of contour

and seldom showing the surface characters with any distinct-

ness. Lyell collected oyster shells and Buccinum thrown up

by a storm on the shore of the estuary of the Forth, Scotland,

and observed that “although still living, their shells were

worn by the long attrition of sand which had passed over them,

as they lay in their native bed, and which had evidently not

resulted from the mere action of the tempest, by which they

were cast ashore.” The fossils of the Medina sandstone show

abrasion, and in most cases present a rude cast of sand, made

by the filling in of the shell, without muscular markings, and

often with shrunken outlines, as if the sand filling had con-

tracted. Wet sand, occupying the interior of a shell, must, upon

drying, undergo some contraction, and being less apt to con-

tract equally than clay or a calcareous paste, reproduces its

mould less perfectly. The finer grained sandstone, however, and

those somewhat more coherent, from the intermixture of lime

or clay, are better adapted for the retention of fossil bodies and

impressions. Thus, the Chemung sandstone (Upper Devonian)

1$ a variable mixture of sand and carbonate of lime, and is in-

troduced in a series of shales and siliceous limestones, whereby,

as it formed a contiguous beach deposit to these, it became a

Tepository of fossils, and was from its constitution better adapted

to retain them. Mosely observed in the beach of Little Saba

Island that there was being formed a reddish sandstone con-

glomerate rock, made up of the débris of the rock of the higher

parts of the island cemented together by calcareous matter,

derived from the corals and calcareous sand. And in this

forming mass, which made a hard compact rock, there were

embedded “ plenty of the various corals from the beach, and

large Turbo shells (T. pica) with their nacre quite fresh in lustre,

and their bright greenish color unimpaired.” Something

Similar is seen in the Chemung flagstones, and in the fossili-

ferous layers of this group of beds the organic remains are

plentiful and well preserved. In the Catskill sandstones, which

194 The American Naturalist. [March,

vary greatly in their texture, but generally are coarse and —

irregular in grain, we find the evidence of unfavorable condi-

tions for fossil remains in the comminuted fish bones and scales,

except where massiveness precludes such dislocation and frac-

ture, as with the shoulder plates of large Antiarcha ( Bothriolepis

taylorii).

The fresh water bivalve, Amnigenia catskillensis, is found in

the Chemung beds, in the shaly stratum known as the Oneonta

sandstone, at Mt. Upton, Chenango Co., N. Y., and in the Cats-

kill beds higher up, where it is embedded in sandstone. The

state of fossilization in these two different positions is somewhat

contrasted. The shells of this species in the magnesian slate,

which has been a softer and less injurious matrix than the

sandy layers of the Catskill girt, are well preserved, indicating

a thinner and less corrugated shell than its representatives in

the sandstone. The shell has here been kept entire, as in a

replacement wherein we have the pseudomorph of the two

valves in juxtaposition, the waving and somewhat confluent

lines of growth conspicuous, and the thin, fragile expanded

margin preserved, whereas in the sandstone the impressions

of the surface are less clear and distinct, and the shell-body can-

not be removed by itself, as in the type specimen from these

softer and less sandy beds.

Fossils are well preserved in the slates, which, from their fine

texture and mechanical homogeneity, take impressions easily.

But in this group of deposits pressure has acted unfavorably in

many instances, and the fossils have suffered distortion and

compression. Many of our fossiliferous slates, as the Utica,

Marcellus and Genessee, are dark-colored from carbonaceous

admixtures, and the fossils in them partake of their color,

which, in a measure, destroys their perfection and usefulness.

Again, pyrite in many instances has been precipitated by of-

ganic reduction over the surfaces of fossils in these beds, and

the fossils then appear coated or replaced by this yellow sul-

phide, by which they are made conspicuous upon a black back-

ground. The interesting sponges of the Utica Slate are by this

means beautifully retained as a network of metallic thre

and fronds, reticulating meshes of pale gold (Cyathophycus sub-

sphericus and C. reticulata).

1897.] Fossils and Fossilization. 195

The limestone formations which represent the accreted de-

posits of foraminiferous ooze, shells, and the lime paste made

by the solution of shells, contain fossils in great abundance, and

yield excellent specimens. But specimens in individual per-

fection, such as are extracted full and free from their matrix,

are mainly obtained from impure limestone rocks. The ad-

mixture of clay or sand differentiates as it were the matrix from

its included fossils, and they seem less consolidated and blended

with the surrounding rock, so that their outlines form boundar-

ies of separation, and the fossils are picked out complete, quite

disengaged from any adhering stone. Such beds as the Hud-

son River Slates, the Waldron beds of Indiana, the Hamilton

layers in New York, the Lower Carboniferous shale at Craw-

fordsville, Indiana, are illustrations of a fossiliferous rock from

which. the fossils become detached, retaining their surface

characters and a clean, hardened epidermis, from which every

particle of rock can be separated. In siliceous limestones, like

the Schoharie Grit, the Oriskany Sandstone, and the Calcifer-

ous beds along Lake Champlain, the fossils are revealed by

weathering, whereby the limestone seems displaced by solution

in surface waters, or slowly lifted from the contour of fossils by

frost decrepitation, and the fossils remain as partial or entirely

siliceous reliefs. Prof. Perkins, of Vermont, has found produc-

tive quarries of fossils under growing trees, where the vegetable

acids have disintegrated the calcareous portions of these beds,

and left the silicified fossils in complete relief or entirely free,

as if shaken out from the enclosing envelopes of rock. In hard

limestones this surface weathering often takes place, a sort of

aerial development, by which the valves of shells, the spines

and members of trilobites, the stems and plates of crinoids,

slowly emerge and stand out on a rock, whose interior faces

only reveal a poorly discerned outline of fossils, until they

have undergone this atmospheric alteration. The fossils them-

Selves appear to have resisted the attack of acid waters and

frost from having a greater density, upon which these agents of

change failed to act, or from having become silicified in the

Process of change. In many of these beds the fossils are col-

ored by iron oxide, caused by weathering, from a protoxide to

196 The American Naturalist. [March,

a sesquioxide, and so the contained remains of animals are

changed from a blueish gray to a ferruginous yellow, and be-

come more conspicuous. Fossil shells possessing a smooth,

compact surface seem to have often escaped disintegration,

while the surrounding matrix was removed, because they af-

forded no absorptive surfaces for the retention of the dissolving

infiltrations of acid waters. It must also be borne in mind that

the changes which limestone beds undergo from secondary

erystallization, produced by the geognostic conditions of pres-

sure, heating, etc., affect all their contents, and develop a crys-

talline structure in which the fossils become scarcely recog-

nizable.

Invertebrate fossils occur as moulds, casts, or entire shells

and bodies, according as they have left their impressions in the

soft sediments amidst which they lay, or have been filled by

the penetration of the ocean mud, so as to have produced a

complete cast of their entire interior shape and markings; OF,

lastly, as they have been petrified throughout, and remain as

they were deposited, retaining their exterior shell or integu-

ments, and presenting when extracted a stone counterfeit of

the original organism. Of course, for the most part, in such a

process of petrifaction all interior structure is destroyed. But

this is not universally the case, and many important interior

appendages are sometimes preserved in exquisite perfection, 0T,

at least, so far preserved as to afford instruction to the paleon-

tologist. This preservation is determined by the nature and

substance of these parts, and depends also upon the mineral

conditions existing during the fossilization of the animal.

Thus, the brachial appendages of Orthis, Strophomena and Pro-

ductus are of such a soft and fleshy texture as to be unable

to resist change long enough for their conversion into 4

mineral framework, although their impressions are found,

whereas with Spirifera, Terebratula and Atrypa these delicate

spirals and loops, upon which the breathing arms are support

in the chamber cavity of the shell, are preserved in a siliceous

reproduction. Again, a sandy deposit will seldom permit the

perfect preservation of fragile portions of the animal, nor 10-

duce that gradual replacement of its calcareous structure by

1897.] Fossils and Fossilization. 197

silica, such as has evidently taken place in the corals of the

Upper Helderberg limestone. An exception occurs in the

Brachiopoda of the very sandy loosely coherent beds of the

Oriskany sandstone at Cumberland, Maryland. In pocket-like

cavites at this locality in the sandstone the molluscan remains

are found beautifully preserved in silica, doubtless owing to

the supersaturation of infiltrating waters with colloidal silica.

The muscular bundles, the vascular markings of the circulat-

ing system, the punctate surface of the mantle in mollusca are,

however, well retained in siliceous muds or sandy limestones,

and surpass in usefulness similar indications in limestones,

where incipient crystallization has destroyed these by knitting

both shell and its contents into a crystalline unit.

Fossils are frequently removed by solution in carbonated

waters, and possibly in waters carrying organic acids, as sug-

gested by Dr. Julien, when “in porous masses of gravel, sand

and clay” they become subject to saturation in such menstrua.

Hilgard has shown the protective influence of an argillaceous

matrix, for in the Tertiary deposits of the Southern States the

shells were only partially destroyed in the clay layers, while

calcareous concretions, made by the liberated lime from the

dissolved fossils, were frequently in the more porous portions

of the deposit. In the Palezoic sandstones generally shells are

less common than the impressions, moulds and casts, and a

similar process of obliteration may have removed them also.

The replacement of invertebrate fossils by mineral pseudo-

morphs or substitution is a very interesting and important sub-

ject, and remains yet a peculiar method in the economy of

nature. While it is true that silicification, or the replacement

of organic structure by silica, is the most common and the most

satisfactory form of this change, yet a number of other mineral

species become transferred in organic bodies to the places occu-

pied by the molecules of organic tissues, or of the carbonate of

lime shells. In the Lower Silurian beds of the Galena lime-

stone, in Wisconsin, fossils assume the substance of sulphide of

lead (Galenite); and in Cornwall fragments of antlers, con-

taining tin oxide, are found, wherein “the original structure

seems to be almost entirely reproduced as cassiterite ” (Phillips).

198 The American Naturalist. [Mareh,

In the Coal Measures the fossil mollusca (Solenomya, Macro-

cheilus Orthoceras Bellerophon) are often found as earthy casts

coated with a skin or shell of iron pyrite. Limonite, the

hydrated sesquioxide of iron, reproduces the shells of Afrypa,

Beyrichia, Dalmania, in the Clinton iron of the Upper Silurian,

in Oneida Co., N. Y., while Malachite, Sphalerite, Sulphur,

Barite, Celestite, Fluorite, Calamine, etc., in an imperfect way

replace the shells or coverings of fossils, fill their interiors, and

rarely take on the resemblance of their tissue and texture.

The silicification of fossils in its simplest expression is the

substitution of the mineral quartz—silica—for the molecules of

the shell of an organism, or for those of its hard or horny ana-

tomy. The exact steps by which this alteration is effected are

not clearly known, and of the many hypotheses offered to ex-

plain this phenomenon all may have some elements of truth.

It was observed long ago by Von Buch that this silicification

followed the organic structure.

It is certainly true that organic matter, if of some consistency,

possesses some power of arresting silica, fixing it, as it were, by

removing it from aqueous solutions. Le Conte suggests that

at least in the case of wood an alkaline silicate in water is neu-

tralized by the humic acid of the decomposing vegetation, by

which the silica of the salt is precipitated in the pores of the

wood, and the wood fibre, as humic acid, is removed as the

silica assumes its position. This seems to imply too much in-

cipient decomposition to be reconciled with the very perfect

microscopic manner in which wood texture is replaced by an

agate pseudomorph. Dr. Julien has laid great stress upon the

important silicic compounds of vegetable or organic acids in

producing colloidal silica replacements. This view seems to

be that “ during the decomposition of the sarcode of both ani-

mal and vegetable organisms, after death, gelatinous or colloid

substances are generated, resembling glairine, which are solu-

ble in sea water, which combine with silica, and may therefore

convey and concentrate it, dissolving its particles disseminated

through submarine sediments, and which may, in forms pre

duced by gradual oxidation, act also as acid solvents of lime,

oxides of iron and manganese.” A similar explanation, though

1897.] Bird Life in Central America. 199

somewhat more simple, is, that in siliceous rocks, or in posi-

tions where calcareous fossils are exposed to siliceous waters,

the terrestrial waters carrying silica, which may have entered

into solution through its union with organic bodies, dissolve

these fossils by their contained carbonic anhydride, and

this assumption of a new burden diminishes their carrying

power of other dissolved contents, and these latter are dropped

at the exact moment the new solution is effected. Or, as car-

bonate of lime is taken up in solution silica is deposited. In

the phenomenon of solutions and solvents this equilibrium of

dissolved contents perhaps is not clearly proven, but seems in

some cases probable.

(To be Continued.)

BIRD LIFE IN CENTRAL AMERICA.

By DaxnırrL F. RANDOLPH.

; A short time ago a friend of the writer was in Central Amer-

ica for the purpose of studying the country and its peculiar

people. Ornithology is a hobby of his. Upon his return, I

induced him to give me an account of his trip, which he did.

The following is a transcript of my shorthand notes of his talk.

“T remember,” he began, “that about the shores of the

lagoon where I spent considerable time, there were great

numbers of a handsome rail, which was very delicate eating,

the flesh being milk white. It has a habit of skulking under

the reeds and bushes on the shores during the day, and some-

times, when congregated in marshy places, makes a great noise

by chattering in chorus. When shot, this bird goes through

more contortions than any other bird I know of, not running

away when wounded, but invariably tumbling on the ground,

kicking and fluttering about in the most violent manner.

“A large red-breasted kingfisher is very common -in all the

lagoons and the lower part of the rivers; and blue and white

garlings are seen on nearly all the shoals and creeks.

“I went along the sea-beach (by a little lagoon), among the

200 The American Naturalist. [March,

mangroves, and secured three bittern and a few other water-

birds. Some large snipe were to be seen there, active little

sandpipers ran in great numbers along the hot sands, which

enclosed the lagoon. I recall shooting in the savannahs a

curious little goat-sucker; and I saw there a great tree covered

with the large hanging nests of the yellow-tail. I also shot a

species of night-heron, which the natives call “ the carpenter :”

it is one of the few birds they take the trouble to shoot for eat-

ing. All around the shores were large flocks of active fly-

catchers, called the “wees bird,’ and a small falcon is often

seen perched on the tall pine trees, or winging its rapid flight

across the savannah in chase of the birds on which it preys.

One evening I paddled for some distance up a creek, to shoot

something for supper. Here I met for the first time the beau-

tiful heron called “ Marana ” ; it was sitting quietly ; the glossy,

deep green leaves of a shrub forming a good background to its

graceful form, and it appeared very tame. Evidently the bird

creation of this remote creek had not often been disturbed by

human beings. Further up it swarms with bitterns, boat-bills,

darters, and other water-birds. AsI paddled along, the bushy

trees appeared to be alive with the odd-looking boat-bills,

fluttering and flying out in all directions, seemingly convulsed

with laughter.

“There are two kinds of curassow; the more common 1$

white, with a black belly; the other, known as the Queen

Curassow, is checked all over in much the same manner as the

tiger-bittern. It is a handsome bird when seen in the woods,

and erects its elegant crest gracefully as it utters its deep note.

A pair of the pretty russet-brown “jacana,” with lemon-colored

wing feathers, kept flying in front of me as I proceeded up the

creek, alighting from time to time on the floating grass which

covered the water near the bank ; owing to the immense length

of their toes, they are able to support themselves on this. i

also met with several mud-hens, which are much esteemed in

this section for food by the creoles. l

“ Darters bred high up the creek; their downy young bemg

generally seen in pairs in a nest formed of sticks, usually placed

on a branch overhanging the water. They dropped out as I

1897.] Bird Life in Central America. 201

approached, diving and swimming about very actively. The

darter seems to have much difficulty in keeping its balance

when perched on trees, the feet being placed on the body con-

siderably behind the point of equilibrium ; this formation gives

them great power of swimming under water, but makes them

look awkward when out of that element. The neck is long

and snake-like, and the beak curiously serrated, and admirably

adapted for seizing fish beneath the surface. The eggs are

bluish-white, with rather a chalky shell, small for the size of

the bird, and considered good eating by the native creoles.

“My Woukee bittern, which I had taken from the nest when

very young, gave me much amusement, especially on these

long, lonely rides. When I had passed the bar, and found my-

self in the long tranquil swell of the open sea, he began to show

symptoms of sea-sickness, being unable to sit upright, and

twisting his long neck about in the most grotesque manner,

at last he went below, under one of the thwarts.

“The brown pelican is commonly seen in small flocks upon

the coast and lagoons, engaged in fishing, or, with a steady,

powerful flight, pursuing its way to more favorable localities.

Its mode of fishing is curious; the bird soars upon its broad

wings to a considerable height, and then, as soon as a fish is

seen, it descends, beak foremost, upon the water with a sudden

wheeling evolution, and with great force; seldom, however,

falling to secure its prey. At other times, the pelicans may be

seen swimming like geese in the shallows, composedly spoon-

ing up the shoals of fry with their capacious beaks. The

quantities of fish consumed by them must be enormous. Occa-

sionally, a solitary individual may be visible, perched appar-

ently in contemplative mood, upon a convenient mangrove

bough. Another curious bird seen there is the boat-bill, called

by the Indians, “ Cooper.”

“A little green heron is everywhere commonly seen by the

waterside, and may be easily recognized, while yet unseen, by

its loud ery of “ tuk-tuk-tuk.” The plumage of the cock yellow-

tail is of a deep russet-brown, changing to black on the head

and back, and the tail feathers are of a bright yellow; the top

of the beak is coral-red, and the cheeks pale blue. They are

202 The American Naturalist. [Mareh,

sociable in their habits, living and breeding in flocks, and the

branches of some favorite tree may often be seen covered with

their long pendent nests. The difference in size between the

cock and the hen is considerable, although the plumage is the

same. They are probably attracted to these plantations by the

quantity of ripe “ panpa” and banana. Large flocks of a small

kind are seen at certain seasons of the year. I shot several,

but only secured one, the undergrowth of brush and cane being

so matted together by creepers and bush-ropes.

“I sometimes saw among the pines very handsome hawks.

The cry of the “bean-bean” is always to be heard on the

savannahs. It has a curious knob of skin at the base of the

neck. In color it is a sort of dull drab, shaded underneath

with white. In habits, this bird resembles the magpie, hop-

ping on the ground and amongst the branches of the trees, in

the same springy manner. The hen-hawk is very common

among the pine walks in the savannahs, and large green par-

rots fly chattering overhead, morning and evening. Their

flight is exceedingly rapid and powerful.. Trogons, pigeons,

and other birds were to be seen in the thickets, and a red-

headed woodpecker. However, there are few land-birds there.

The white crane is very shy and will not admit of a near ap-

proach. Some large snipe, and rarely, a muscovy duck, would

rise from the sedge.”

UPON AN UNDESCRIBED SPECIES OF MEGASCOLIDES

FROM THE UNITED STATES.

By FRANK SMITH.

Through the kindness of Mr. R. W. Doane of the Washington

Agricultural College and School of Science at Pullman,

Washington, I have recently received four specimens of a

species of earthworm which I refer to the genus Megascolides.

Mr. Doane writes me that this species is very abundant 1m

that region of country and that their burrows are sometimes

1897.] Undescribed Species of Megascolides. 203

seen extending to a depth of over fifteen feet, in cuts for new

roads. I am also informed that much larger specimens than

those sent me, are often found.

The specimens were killed at a time when they were not at

the height of sexual activity, and are not in perfect condition

for histological study, hence I have prepared this preliminary

description to be followed by a more extended account after

the receipt of more material.

MEGASCOLIDES AMERICANUS N. sp.

Alcoholic specimens are 18-19 cm. in length and .6-.7 cm.

in diameter. The number of somites in four specimens

averages 226 with extremes of 240 and 190. The prostomium

is incomplete. The clitellum is upon XIII | XXII and part

of XXIII, and is incomplete ventrally. Median interseg-

mental genital papillae are present upon XIV | XV, XV | XVI

and XVI | XVII, and paired intersegmental papillae upon

XIX | XX and XX | XXI. The median papillae are wanting

upon one specimen. Oviducal pores paired on XIV. Sper-

miducal pores paired on XVIII. Setae paired, those of the

inner pairs being closer together than those of the outer ones

and all in the ventral half of the worm. Penial setae having

ornamented distal part are present in XVIII. There are

dorsal pores posterior to the clitellum.

The septa VII | VIII to XII | XIII inclusive are much

thickened and are connected with each other by longitudinal

fibres, while the septum VI | VII is less thickened and that of

V | VI is quite thin. The pharynx has a thick dorsal wall.

A powerful gizzard is present in V. The oesophagus is

enlarged in each of the somites XII | XIV where the walls

are thick and vascular, while somites XI and XV have

smaller enlargements. The intestine begins at XIX, but

does not attain its greatest diameter until it reaches XXI.

The nephridia are diffuse and begin as far forward as IV.

They are numerous in each of the somites containing them

and large in none. Each somite has numerous nephridiopores. —

The dorsal vessel is single. Swollen vascular arches or

204 The American Naturalist. [March,

“hearts” are present in X-XIII, the posterior ones being the

largest.

Testes and large conspicuous spermiducal funnels are pres-

ent in X and XI, sperm sacs in XI and XII, ovaries in XII

and spermathece in VIII and IX. The sperm ducts of either

side unite in XVI to form acommon duct, The pair of spermi-

ducal glands isin XVIII. They are tubular and much con-

torted and form flattened masses of considerable size. The

terminal part forms a muscular duct which opens to the exte-

rior laterad of the penial sete, though in the same pore. The

common sperm duct of either side unites with the spermidu-

cal gland of its own side at the proximal part of the muscular

duct.

Three species of earthworms quite closely allied to M. amer-

icanus have been described from the Pacific Coast region by

Eisen and by Benham under the generic names Argilophilus

and Plutellus, which have since been included by Beddard in

the genus Megascolides; but the great majority of the nearly

related worms are found in the Australian region. M. amer-

icanus differs from its North American relatives in the pres-

ence of numerous smali nephridia in each somite instead of

two large ones, in the extent of the clitellum and in several

other characters.

Our knowledge of the proper classification of species included

by different writers in the genera Megascolides, Cryptodrilus,

Argilophilus and Plutellus is at present in a very unsatis-

factory state, but the species described above is quite certainly

a Megascolides. Unrv. or ILLINoIs, Fes. 25, 1897.

BIRDS OF NEW GUINEA.

By Gero. S. Mean.

(Continued from Vol. XXX, page 710.)

Merops ornatus—-the Variegated Bee-eater, according to Dr.

Bennett the harbinger of spring in Australia, is abundant in

New Guinea where it is sometimes seen in enormous flocks or

succession of flocks, flying easily but not ceaselessly as if on mi-

1897.) Birds of New Guinea. 205

gration bent. It is of a social disposition congregating together

at all times like swallows and making nests in holes along

river banks after the manner of the Hirundinidx. Here in the

sand excavations without soft nesting materials, five or six

white eggs are laid. Although the bird is a pronounced bee-

eater, its diet is not so limited as not to include other insects

as well.

This species is of elegant form, slender and smooth-feathered.

Light green, blue, black and saffron brown are the intermingled

colors. From the fan-shaped tail project straight out two black

quill shafts, an inch or more from the middle feathers, terminat-

ing in small spatulas. Herein lies the particular feature of this

pretty bird. The long, sharp black bill with its curving line

of beauty adds another element to make it as Mr. Wallace

found years ago, “one of the most graceful and interesting

objects a naturalist can see for the first time.”

On the head plays an exquisite shade of brown extending

down the neck. A similar tint lines the under side of the

Wings as well. The under parts are a vivid green approaching

to light blue on the abdomen, but on the sides a spot or two of

black may be traced. Blue of a decided depth covers the lower

back, rump and throat. The wings above are of the same

color as the under parts, becoming brown to dusky on the

scapulars and secondaries. So varied is the coloration and so

delicate the blending that the most elaborate description would

not exhaust the catalogue of charms. Yet the bird after all

is easily identified, besides being common in museums and of

wide distribution. Moreover it is not of shy habits but may

frequently be seen darting forth from some twig after the man-

ner of flycatchers in pursuit of insects, but little disturbed by

the notice its graceful motions have excited. Length about

7 inches.

An exceedingly abundant bird in New Guinea, Queensland

and everywhere in Malaysia is the Glossy Starling—Calornis

metallica (Temminck). D’Albertis speaks of these starlings as

flying in myriads over his house on Yule Island in J une, at that

time probably pursuing their migratory instincts which, how-

ever, in these low latitudes mean little more than a trip across

206 The American Naturalist. [Mareh,

the Straits or over shallow seas. Mr. Moseley bears witness to the

great numbers of this busy bird in his interesting Notes of a nat-

uralist. He writes: “An immense tree with a tall stem free from

branches, until at a great height it spread out into a wide and

evenly-shaped crown, was full of the nests of the Metallic

Starling. There must have been 300 or 400 nests in the tree;

every available branch was full of them.” The long slender

body of this starling is entirely glossy black with purple,

violet and green reflections. On the upper breast the over-

laid plumes throw off a bronze or brownish tinge. The tail is

spreading and graduated, the two middle feathers extending

about an inch beyond the others. Length about 9 inches.

Speaking generally the Pittas or Ground Thrushes as they

have been named, are of soft, brilliant and velvety plumage

wherein the colors though contrasted, blend with most harmon-

ious effect. In figure and shape they suggest the rail, having —

furthermore the short tail of that bird. In habits also they

are not dissimilar, being shy and retiring, keeping within the

gloom of the dense forest from whence their duplicated whistle

sounds like a plaintive lament in the deep silence. They live

chiefly upon insects and worms. ;

Pitta maxima or gigas found on the island of Gilolo, which —

Mr. Wallace rightly calls “ one of the most beautiful birds of

the East,” is of large size being about 10 inches in length and

standing to nearly the same height. This typical species is 4

glossy black above including the neck and throat. The under

parts are velvety-white excepting the abdomen which is black

but with the crissum and under tail coverts a fine scarlet, a

characteristic mark of this family.

A shining blue beginning near the shoulder and banding

the wings broadly, becoming less bright as it widens, adorns

the sides. The specimen which is splendidly mounted and

shown to great advantage in the Fairbank’s Museum in St.

Johnsbury, Vt., has a red feather in the upper tail coverts;

whether this is anomalous may be questioned but I have also

seen a white feather in one bird. The long strong legs of this

giant of his tribe render it comparatively easy for him to make

1897.] Birds of New Guinea. 207

rapid progress through the intricacies of the pathless woods;

the wings seem little used.

Mr. Wallace found the beautiful Pitta concinna at Lombock.

It frequents the “ dry plains densely covered with thickets, and

carpeted with dead leaves” and was so shy that only by much

_ Strategy could Mr. Wallace get a shot at it. By imitating the

peculiar whistling ery of two notes, he finally succeeded in

shooting one of the birds that came near. They hop or run

along the ground picking up insects, and on the slightest alarm

take refuge in some thickets. The plumage is very soft and

puffy. The upper body is a rich green, beneath a soft buff,

very dark on the belly; around the vent and over the under

tail-coverts lies the usual lovely crimson. The head is deep

black divided by two narrow strips of blue and brown running

over the crown as far as the nape. Bright blue appears in

bands along the shoulders and near the tail. Throat, side face

and neck are black as well as the under wing-coverts. A bunch

of cloudy white lies near the black throat. A white spot or two

marks some of the primaries. Bill black, feet brown. Length

6.5 inches. ‘

Pitta strepitans is Australian but found in Southern New

Guinea as well as on adjacent islands. In this species also the

upper parts are dull green with black on the wings, and a

white speculum, but dim blue plays over the upper wing-

coverts and rump. The lower parts are mainly identical in

color with those of P. concinna. In fact the chief variation

' apart from height and length, is in the coloration of the head.

in the present species this is dark brown with black stripe inter-

mediate. There is little significance in its name. Length

8.5 inches. -

Pitta rufiventris from Gilolo and Batchian, is smaller than

the preceding by at least an inch. Above green is the prevail-

ing tint but of a paler cast. Blue as in the foregoing, the black

being distributed in the same way also with the customary

white speculum. Head and throat are rufous. — The usual

crimson somewhat dull, appears on the belly adjoining black.

On the breast is a wide border of blue. There is little varia-

208 The American Naturalist. [March,

tion in the colors of the Pittas and but little difference in size

or shape. The present bird is about 5 inches in length.

Pitta nove-guinee, notwithstanding the similarity between

the Pittas generally is distinguished by somewhat more vivid

colors than its congeners. Above it is a shining green, below

a darker bluish-green. The head, entire neck and throat are

black, the tail a dull green. The abdomen is black, giving

space for the invariable crimson around the vent and upon the

under tail-coverts. Much bright blue covers the upper wing-

coverts, while the primaries have the customary white spot on

their dark brown surface. Upon the rump this lovely blue is

narrowed to the merest streak. A line of silvery white divid-

ing the black throat from the oily-green breast is the specific

mark. Length 6.5 inches.

Pitta macklotii is dull green above with blue and black on the

wings and rump. Below the color is like that of the preced-

ing species, though perhaps not quite so vivid. The cap 1s

brown with bluish reflection. The throat below the chin 1s

almost black. Total length 7 inches. , This is about the aver-

age size of the Pittas and like his relations the Macklotii has the

shy timid habits, retiring to the depths of thickets at the slight-

est alarm his whereabouts only to be suspected by the plaintive

note uttered now and then.

Two or three species much resemble Pitta novæguineæ, the

differences between them being but slight. In P. rosenbergu

we find the colors somewhat more pronounced. Underneath

along the sides is a length of purple gloss, while on the throat

there is a greater extent of black. Length 7 inches. Habitat

Mysore. a

A local variety if not a distinct species belongs to Geelvink

Bay and is dubbed P. mafoorana (Schlegel). Here also the

colors are deeper, while the white spot does not appear at all.

In all these instances the size is about the same. :

The brighter green on the breast of the Mafoor Island Pitta

fades into a greenish-blue on the sides. The larger upper tail-

coverts are black, the lesser feathers green, identical with the

coloration of the breast. Coracopitta lugubris, classed among

the Pittide, is entirely black and of small size, reaching only

1897.] Birds of New Guinea. 209

the length of 5.6 inches. The tail of this solitary species of its

kind is rather longer than among the true Pittas. Its legs are

long while a peculiar bristling of the frontal feathers disting-

uishes it still further from its family.

Honey-eaters are well represented in New Guinea and its

islands ; in fact several islands of the Malay Archipelago con-

tain a species, even a genus peculiar to themselves. They are

never large birds, the average size being perhaps 8 inches

in length, but they differ largely in respect to plumage, many

of them being plain, others conspicuous by their brilliancy or

some striking arrangement of color. Mr. H. O. Forbes has told

us how lovely certain forms of Myzomela are, and one in par-

ticular—M. annabelle—collected in Timor-Laut, embellishes

as frontispiece, “A Naturalist’s Wanderings.”

Ptilotis filigera (Gould)—the Streaked Honey-Eater—from

Northern Australia and Southeastern New Guinea isonly imper-

fectly described by its name. The streaks are rather obscure

markings, spots or shadings upon a portion of the generally

brownish surface. Bare whitish spaces irregular in form sur-

round the eyes. Just above the extended line of bare skin lies

a patch of black. Above this the head is dark brown, the same

color as that of the long tail on its upper surface. The neck,

throat, breast and sides area bluish-gray, lighter on the throat,

The under parts are a soft fawn color, at times reddish, particu-

larly on the flanks. The upper parts are a delicate brown,

mottled and streaked along the bend of the wings. The bill

is unusually long, dark and strong. Total length 8 inches.

The naturalist Moseley of the Challenger Expedition saw

many of these little birds together with a kindred species P.

crysalis at Cape York where they were busily employed in suck-

ing the honey or eating the insects in the scarlet blossoms of

the Erythrina tree. The last mentioned Honey-eater—P.

erysalis—Mr. Guillemard collected on the shores of New Guinea.

Ptilotis albonotata—the White-spotted Honey-eater—a new

Species when Salvadori named it twenty years ago, 1s also a

Plain member of the large family of the Meliphagide. The

White spots of the present species are small the largest appearing

just behind the ear. On the bend of the wings isa line of white,

210 The American Naturalist. [March,

while one or two more touches of white may be seen on the

wing-covertsand middle of abdomen. The ground color above |

is yellowish-green, below buff. A distinct line of yellow marks

the side of the face. Eye, bill and feet black or dusky. Total

length 5 inches. `

Ptilotis cinerea (Salvad.) the Gray Honey-eater is much

larger than the preceding species measuring about 8 inches in

length. Upper surface with tail is brown, gray of a some-

what dingy hue; marking the under body and head. The bill

is noticeably strong and curved. Its coloris black. The eyes

are black and prominent. White quills are conspicuous on

the wings and tail.

Another interesting member of the Meliphagidx found by

Senor D’Albertis in 1872 is Melidectes torquatus, so-called from

the torque or partial circlet of white, around the neck. Like

its race it has the curving bill, long tail, bare orbits and other

peculiar marks which characterize the honey eaters. This spe-

cies is fuscous above, tail and wings dark olivaceous, contain-

ing white spots on the black inserscapular feathers. Black or

dark appears on the side face and throat, and again over the

upper breast below a band of white somewhat longer. This

is margined below by a narrow line of dull yellow about the

same tint as that around the eyes and side neck. Under parts

are mainly whitish, passing into yellowish near the vent and

much marked with black spots along the sides. Feet, bill and

iris are almost black. The sexes do not differ noticeably and

are both about 8.5 inches in total length.

EDITOR’S TABLE.

—TueE greater part of the American newspaper press needs a radi-

cal change of heart in the matter of reporting on subjects which come

within the domain of biology It would pay the leading newspapers at

least to have a scientific editor or referee to whom all paragraphs and

articles on such subjects should be referred before publication. AS the

1897.] Editor’s Table. 211

case now stands, it is not safe for any person to accept their statements in

the department referred to, as truth. It is to be supposed that news-

papers, with some conspicuous exceptions, prefer to publish the truth,

and are fully impressed with the fact that their circulation depends

largely on the trustworthiness of the statements which they make.

The conspicuous announcement of false statements by newsboys may

sell more copies on the street, but such publication can scarcely invite

regular subscribers. We have, in previous numbers of THE NATURAL-

Ist, selected a few cases where foreign scientific journals have been

misled by some of the customary misstatements and fictions of the

American press, and we regretfully allege that the only safe course for

scientific journals to pursue is to ignore everything that proceeds from

this source, unless it appear over some responsible signature. This

state of affairs is regrettable, since, in many respects, American jonr-

nalism is the best in the world. It should maintain this position by

securing accuracy in the direction referred to. Popular interest in bi-

ology was never greater than it is now, and a newspaper whose reports

in this direction are reliable would certainly profit by it. This state-

ment covers all cases, from the latest discoveries in bacteriology, paleon-

tology, ete., down to descriptions of the habits of wild and domesticated

animals. It would be better to publish nothing at all than the ficti-

tious and inaccurate statements to which we are accustomed. These

naturally diminish the respect in which the press is held, and reflect on

our character as a people among the nations of the earth.

—THE proposition to consolidate the scientific work done by the

United States Government into a single bureau has been recently made.

Such schemes are pleasing to the eye, but their practical bearing is of

far greater importance both to the Government and to science. The

Proposition has been opposed on good grounds, and such as should be,

in our estimation, fatal to it. It is a good general rule not to “ put all

one’s eggs into one basket,” when there is anything precarious about

the basket. Moreover, it is obvious that different departments must

ave their own scientific assistants, precisely as they have their own em-

ployees in other directions, if their work is to go on without continual

interruption and loss. The experience of the departments and bureaus

with the Government printing office has been cited in proof of the evil

effects of such consolidation. ‘The evil is becoming so apparent that it

is now evident that the time has come for the work of that bureau to

be restricted to congressional printing, and ‘that for departmental

Printing each department shall have its own printing office. is

212 The American Naturalist. [Mareh,

especially important as regards the productions of the Government

scientific experts. Their results may lie in the hands of the Govern-

ment printer for two or three years before publication, a state of affairs

which should not exist in a progressive country, The progress of sci-

ence is rapid, and our bureaus at Washington should be able to pub-

lish their results as soon as they are prepared for the press.

—A COLLECTION of living monkeys and snakes was recently seized

by the New York Custom House authorities and sold by auction for

the nonpayment of duty. It is strange that our tariff law has not yet

been corrected so as to permit the im portation of such objects free.

They contribute to the educational material of the country both while

living and after their death, and it would seem that the scientific work

of the country should command sufficient respect to enable such a

change to be made. Of course the Committee of Ways and Means has

no especial desire to stimulate the growth of the native species of

monkeys and snakes by levying duties on foreign species. We venture

the assertion that the native production of these articles will not be

seriously affected by acts of Congress.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Experimental Morphology.'—It is a pleasure to learn that the

activity of the new German school of “ Entwicklungsmechanik ” has

stimulated so happy a response on this side of the ocean as that in the

book before us. The author’s aim is to collect, in order, the observa-

tions and results thus far gained by the experimental method as ap-

plied to the understanding of “why” organisms develop as they do.

Knowing, then, what has been attempted, we may more clearly advance

with definite purpose and prospect of success.

The present volume treats of the effects of outside reagents upon

protoplasm : three following volumes are promised, to treat in the same

way, growth, cell-division, differentiation.

Such agents are somewhat arbitrarily divided into the following

heads of chapters: chemical agents; varying moisture ; density of the

medium ; molar agents; gravity; electricity ; light; heat. :

The chapter on chemical agents considers the change in motion,

change in metabolism or the death of organisms acted upon by various

Experimental Morphology. Charles Benedict Davenport. Woodcut, pps:

280. The Macmillan Co., 66 Fifth Ave., New York. Price, $2.60.

Ls ‘

1897.] Recent Literature. 213

poisons and other chemical bodies. The question of acclimatization to

chemical agents is especially well treated and partly based upon the

author’s own work.

Though essentially a compilation of facts, and hence not always free

from the criticism of introdticing statements upon doubtful authority

—especially when one considers the author’s great regard for accuracy

and the comprehensiveness of knowledge necessary in experimental work

—there is much that is original in the summarization at the end of chap-

ters. Original work by the author is also included, and illustrated by

some of the simple, but effective, diagrams as those showing the move-

ments of amcebe in light and in darkness.

The author’s experiments upon ameeba lead him to differ from Ver-

worn and to decide that this lowly organized creature is strongly affected

by light.

Such fundamental work is of the greatest interest to all biologists,

whether devoted to botany or zoology, morphology or physiology,

chemical or physical sides of life phemomena, and this chronicle of it

should be of great interest to all who have escaped, or outgrown, that

unfortunate myopia that too often limits the interests of the specialist.

That the book is called a morphology is misleading as to its content:

scientific physiology, without dependence upon medical instruction,

would more fitly characterize it.

We trust the book will find the appreciation it so well deserves, both

among specialists and among the intelligent laity —E. A. A.

Oceanic Ichthyology.’—This work, issued as a special Bulletin

in quarto form by the U. S. National Museum, is the joint production

of Messrs. G. Brown Goode and Tarleton H. Bean. Its preparation

has extended over a number of years. As first planned it was to include

only the oceanic fishes on the east coast of North America. As new

material was acquired by the Museum from collections made by the

steamers Blake, Albatross and Fish Hawk, and from other dredgings

of the U. S. Fish Commission, the work expanded to its present form,

and it now stands as a “ compendium and summary of existing klowledge

in regard to Oceanic Ichthyology.” The discussion takes the form of

descriptions of all forms of pelagic and deep sea fishes found in the

seas of the world, special prominence being given to those of the Atlantic

cean.

? Oceanic T : reatise on Deep-Sea and Pelagic Fishes of the

World, with Syr Ae a 417 Figures. By G. Brown Goode and Tarleton

Bean. Special Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., Washington, 1895.

214 The American Naturalist. [March,

As many of the specimens are unique, and much of the material

fragmentary and hard to preserve, the descriptions have been made

exceedingly full, so that a possible loss of material may not mean a total

loss to science. Existing data concerning oceanic fishes have been care-

fully collected and incorporated with the authors’ own observations in

such a way as to be most serviceable for comparison and study by other

naturalists.

A brief introduction deplores the meager knowledge of abyssal life,

and points out that a more extended exploration of oceanic depths will

reveal innumerable new forms.

A list of new genera and species shows 55 of the former represented

by 153 of the latter.

The work comprises 553 pagesof text and 123 plates, the latter issued

separately as an atlas accompanying the text. It will be for many

years the only text-book of the subject. A melancholy interest attaches

to it as the last and most important contribution to science made by

Dr. Goode. His death occurred almost immediately after its completion.

Fishes of North and Middle America.’—This work takes

the form of a descriptive catalogue of the species of fish-like vertebrates

found in the waters of North America, north of the Isthmus of Panama.

It includes, besides the fresh. water forms, those of the off-shore banks

and continental slopes of both oceans, the waters of the Gulf Stream,

and also the Pelagic and abyssal forms that occur north of the equator.

The present volume contains descriptions of 1,627 species belonging to

522 genera. These in turn are classified into 148 families, ranged under

28 orders. , The authors recognize but 3 classes: Leptocardii, Marsi-

pobranchii and Pisces, relegating to Pisces all fish-like vertebrates with

paired fins. Sixteen new forms are described, and in the classification

of these species the authors have found it necessary to create 1 new

family, Steinegeriidz, and 16 new genera. It has also been deemed ad-

visable, for closer definition, to introduce 24 new subgenera.

We find in this work both conspicuous merits and demerits. ts

greatest merit is the thoroughness of the work done in the discrimina

tion of the species enumerated, and the appropriateness and conciseness

of the descriptions. This is the principal labor involved in the prepa-

ration of the book, and it is this which constitutes its chief utility to

the student. The excellent practice of furnishing analytical keys, which

greatly facilitates determinations, is followed. It is a monument of

3 The Fishes of North and Middle America. By D. S. Jordan and B. W-

Evermann. Bull. of the U. S. National Museum, No. 47. Pt. I, Washington,

1896.

1897.] Recent Literature. 215

labor which has extended over many years. The demerits count but

little against the value of the work in this fundamental respect.

However, we think the authors would have been wise to have re-

stricted the scope of the book to the Medicolumbian region. It would

have had then a definite application, giving it a more monographic

character, and future monographs of the Neotrophical realm and its

subregions would not overlap it. Next, we find the systematic defective

in those points where it comes in contact with the extinct forms. Want

of consideration of these necessarily destroys the perspective as to groups

which have many extinct allies. We find that in endeavoring to do

justice to Rafinesque they have gone to a greater extreme than the

circumstances require. A good many species retain his names which

can only be suppositiously identified by the method of catching fishes

in his original localities. Such a method leads to no certain result, and

does injustice to better work done by his successors. Finally, we object

now and always to the preservation of words which are misspelled or

false as to matter of fact as names, on the supposition that the law of

priority requires it. When this all important law is made to apply to

cases, which educated men never supposed possible, we have either

an illustration of excessive idealism, or of Chinese imitation. Thus, the

authors say (p. 330) respecting the name Macrodon malabaricus, given

by Bloch to species confined to South America : “In the judgment of

the present writers the law of priority, by which the first unpreoccupied

name is right and all others wrong, a rule which tends to secure fixity

of nomenclature, is more important than any rule leading toward truth-

fulness or purism in the name itself. On this ground Macrodon mala-

baricus does not mean a Macrodon from Malabar. It simply designates

that Macrodon of which the earliest unpreoccupied binomial specific

name is malabaricus. The errors in meaning in specific names deceive

nobody and rarely cause inconvenience.” We quote this paragraph in

full, because it is an illustration of a legal plea in a bad cause. Its

authors deeming truth of less importance than the letter of some law,

do not hesitate to stretch the truth in defending their case. Mala-

baricus does mean of or from Malabar, and everybody is deceived by it

€xcept experts in the science, who have gotten their information from

other sources. The habit of disregarding the truth is a bad one, espe-

cially in scientific methods. As to the cases of misspelling, which ne

authors have so religiously preserved, it may be regarded as certain pa

the educated American will be no more inclined to present himself with

an unwashed face in good society than his European colleagues.

216 The American Naturalist. [Mareh,

We hope that the second part of this work will soon be issued ; but

we understand that some delay in the publication is to be expected in

the present condition of the Government printing office.—C.,

Evolution or Creation.‘—The author of this discussion calls it

a “ critical review ” of the scientific and scriptural theories of the uni-

verse. The criticism loses its value when he states in the opening

chapter, not only his bias towards, but his firm belief in the Biblical

account of creation, “ literatum et spellatum.” In stating the evolution

theory he allows his imagination free play, unhampered by any con-

ception of its real meaning or its bearing on the study of the problem

of life as we fiud it developed on this planet.

Among the original hypotheses offered for the reader’s consideration

is one that dates the Mosaic week of creation somewhere about the end

of the ice age. This, says the writer, “ solves a score of scientific and

exegetical difficulities that hitherto have been paraded as fatal to the

credibility of the sacred Scriptures;” but it also leaves us completely

at sea as to the author’s views of the origin of the forms of life that

preceded this so-called “ Creation.” Or, does he generously leave time,

space and material for the evolutionist to demonstrate his theories?

Again, Mr. Townsend assumes a knowledge of the ways and means

of the Creator, which is startling, even to a naturalist. His description

of the genesis of man would appear to better advantage in the pages of

the modern realistic novel than it does in a critical essay. Finally, we

are gravely told that the “ chief end of the creation” (not only of the

world but) “ of the universe, is so glorify man and enjoy him forever.”

We refer to this book not because it has any value, but, because in this

country where biological education is only beginning to be general, &

good many persons may suppose that it has.

AMERICAN NATURALIST LIST OF RECENT BOOKS

AND PAMPHLETS.

Annual Report Geol. Surv. Canada (n. s.), Vol. VII, 1894. Ottawa, 1896.

From the Director of the Survey.

BAILEY, V.—List of Mammals of the District of Columbia. Extr. Proceeds.

Biol. Soc. of Washington, Vol. 10,1896. From the author.

BENDIRE, CHARLES.—Life Histories of North American Birds, from the Parrots-

to the Grackles. Special Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., Washington, 1895. From the

Smithsonian Institution.

t Evolution or Creation. By L. T. Townsend, New York, Chicago, Toronto.

F. H. Revell Co., Pub. ;

1897.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 217

BENEDI cT, J. E.—Preliminary Description of a new Genus and three new

Species of Crustaceans from an Artesian Well at San Marcos, Texas. From the

Mus

Bout E, M.—Le Cadurcotherium Extr. Comptes-rendus, 1896. From the author.

Balletin, Nos. 15, 1895, and 19, 1896, Agric. Exper. Station, New Mexico

College of Agriculture.

Bulletin No. 32, 1896, Iowa Agric. Exper. College

Cairns, F. A.—A Manual of Quantitative Chemical Analysis. Revised and

Enlarged by E. Waller, New York, 1896. From Henry Holt & Co. b.

CHAPMAN, F.—On some Pliocene Ostracoda from near Berkley, California.

Extr. Bull. Dept. Geol., Univ. Calif., 1876. From the author

Compte-Rendu des Seance du Troisiéme Congrés PRN, de Zoologie.

Leyde, 1896.

Dean, B.—The Early Development of Amia. Reprint Quart. Journ. Micros.

Se., Vol. 38, Pt. 4 (n. s.).

Baucation i in Patho-Social Studies. Reprints Chapts. XIV and XV. Rept.

Com. Ed. for 1893-94, and of Chapt. XVIII. Rept. 1889-90. Washington,

1896. From the Commissioner.

Ercunorr, Wm.—Remarks on the Synonomy of some North American Scolytid

Beetles. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1896. From the Mus.

Fifteenth Annual Report of the U. S. Geologicäl Survey for 1893-94. Wash-

ington, 1895. From the Survey

GILL, TH.—Note on Pieetiodiitai A Hypoplectrodes, Genera of Serranoid

rosat Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus:, Vol. XVIII, 1896. From the

Museu

Eisd W. J.—List of the Lepidoptera collected in East Africa by Mr. Wm.

Astor Chandler and Lient. Ludwig von Héhnel. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl.

Mus., X VITI, 1896. From the Museum.

HowaRD, L. O., AND Wm. H. AsHMEAD.—On Some Reared Parasitic Hymen-

opterous Insects from Ceylon. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII,

1896. From the Mus.

Kincstey, J. S.—On Three Points in the Nervous Anatomy of Amphibians.

Extr. Journ. Comp. Neurol., Vol. VI, 1896. From the author. : :

Marsut, C. F.—The Physical Features of Missouri. Extr. Repts. Missouri

Geol. Surv., Vol. X, 1896. From Charles R. Keyes.

MEARNS, E. A.—Preliminary Descriptions of a new Subgenus and six new

Species of Hares, from the Mexican Border of the ont s Extr. Proceeds.

U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1896. From the Muse

Mercerat, A.—Contributions à l'étude systématique di Toxodontia.

Ann. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, T. IV, 1895. From the Mus. i

Merriam, C. H.—Revision of the Shrews of the American Genera Blarina

and Notinacict: Reprint from North American Fauna, No. 10, Washington,

isso dae E. Guriey.—New species of Paleozoic Invertebrates

from Thinis and Other States, Bull, No, 11, IIL, State Mus., Springfield, 1896.

From the authors.

Extr.

218 The American Naturalist. [March,

Mursacu, L.—Observations on the Development and Migration of the Urtri-

cating Paita of Sea Nettles, Cnidaria. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., XVIII,

1896. From the Museum.

OBERHOLSER, H. C.—Descriptions of two new Subspecies of the Downy Wood-

pecker, Dryobates pubescens ( Linnæus). Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol.

XVIII, 1896. From the Museum.

Proceedings Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1895. Salem, 1896.

Proceeds. Iowa Academy of Sciences, Vol. III (1895), 1896. From the Academy.

Ruoaps, S. N.—Synopsis of the Polar Hares of North America. Extr. Pro-

ceeds. Phila, Acad. Nat. Sciences, 1896. From the author

RicHmonp, C. W.—Partial List of Birds collected at Alta Mira, Mexico, by F.

B. Armstrong.

—— Description of a New Species of Ant Thrush. Extr. Proceeds. U. S.

Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1896. From the Mus.

Rincway, R.—On the Birds collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott in the Seychelles,

Amirantes, Gloriosa, Assumption, Aldabra, and adjacent Islands, with Notes on

Habits, etc., by the Collector. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII,

1896.

Rices, E. S.—A New Species of Dinictis from the White River Miocene of

Wyoming. Extr. Kan. Univ. Quart., Vol. IV, April, 1896. From the author.

Report of the Commission of Education for the years 1893-94, 1894-95. Wash-

ington, 1896. From Smithsonian Institution.

Rosinson, W.—An Annotated List of Birds observed on Margarita Island,

and at Guanta and Laguayra, Venezuela. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus.,

Vol. XVIII, 1896. From the Mus

Rozer, O.—Verzeichness der bisher bekannten fossilen Sangethiere. Aus

dem 32 Bericht Naturw. Ver. f. Schwaben und Neuburg in Augsburg, 1896.

Saprer, C.—Sobre la Geogrofia fiscica y la Geologia. Extr. Bol. del Inst.

Geol. Mex., Num. 8. Mexico, 1896. From the author

Seventh Annual Report Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, 1896. From

Mr. Trelease.

Sixteenth Annual Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1894-95. Pts. I, II, II and

IV. Washington, 1895. From the Survey.

Technical Series No. 4, U.S. Dept. Agric., Div. Entomol. Some Mexican and

Japanese Injurious Insects liable to be iind into the United Staten: Wash-

ington, 1896.

_ Toparo, F.—Discorso Prange: nello adunanza solenne del 7 Giugno, 1896.

Extr. Journ. R. Acad. dei Lincei

Topp, J. E.—The Formation of ke Convenes: Deposits. Extr. Repts. Mo.

Geol. Surv., Vol. X, 1896. From Charles R. Keyes

Twentieth Annual Rept. Indiana Department of Geology and Natural Re-

sources for 1895, Indianapolis, 1896.

WitcHett, C. A.—The Evolution of Bird-Song, with Observations on the

— of Heredity and Imitation. London, 1896. From John Wanamaker.

Woopwarp, H,—Address before the Geological Society of London, 1896.

epee 1896. From the author

Year-Book of the U. S. Dept. Aguloalvore for 1895. Washington, 1896. From

the Dept. :

1897,] Petrography. 219

General Notes.

PETROGRA PHY.’

Augen-Gneiss and Intrusive Rocks at Bedford, N. Y.—

Luquer and Riess’ mention an augen-gneiss near Bedford, West Ches-

ter Co., N. Y., as covering an area of 15 square miles. The augen are

in large part orthoclase or microclinic erystals that have been squeezed

and flattened. They often occur in bands and are always elongated

parallel to the foliation of the gneiss in which they lie. The rock shows

abundant evidence of mashing, the large orthoclase constituting the

augen being bent and the quartz grains associated with them being

much granulated. The origin of the gneiss is ascribed to the dynamic

metamorphism of an acid igneousrock. Diorite dykes and great veins

and masses of pegmatite occur in the gneiss. The pegmatites are re-

garded as vein masses produced by segregation agencies.

The Basic End-member of the Augite-Syenite-Nephe-

line-Syenite Series.—In the Lujavr-Urt on the peninsula of Kola,

Russia, occurs the feldspar free nepheline-pyroxene rock to which the

name iolite has been given. Associated with it is an orthoclase bear-

ing rock whose chemical composition is similar to that of the nepheline

porphyry from Magnet Cave, Ark., and from Beemerville, N. Y.,

(sussexit of Brégger) and of borolanite from Borolan. An analysis of

the supposed iolite shows it to differ from typical iolite in possessing

only aegirine among its bisilicate components, and to be much poorer

in CaO than the typical rock. The composition of iolite from Tiwaara

is given in (I), while that of the Lujavr-Urt rock is shown in (ID).

he composition of the basic end-member of the quartz-augite-syenite

nepheline-syenite series as calculated by Brogger is shown in (III).

The author admits that the Lujavr-Urt rock may be regarded as an

TiO, SiO, AlO; Fes FeO MnO CaO MgO K,0 NaO P,0, H,0 Total

i. 1.70 42.79 19.89 4,39 2.93 .41 11.76 1.87 1.67 931 1.70 9 = 98.81

(IT). 45.43 28.77 3.10 .40 1.86 .22 3.38 16.16 99.32

(TIT). 45. 25. 6.5 ge Je 10 12. 1.00 = 100.00

aegerine iolite, but he prefers to give it the distinctive name urtite. It

is defined as a light colored, median grained rock composed of black

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

* Amer. Geologist, XVIII, p. 239.

220 The American Naturalist. [March,

aegerine particles in a mass of nepheline and apatite, the proportional

quantities of the three minerals present being about 12 per cent. of the

first named mineral, 86 per cent. of nepheline and 2 per cent. of apa-

tite. The orthoclase bearing porphyritic rock referred to above, is

intermediate in composition between genuine iolite and urtite.

The Anorthosites of the Rainy Lake Region.—Coleman‘

describes a number of additional occurrences of anorthosite near Bad

Vermilion Lake, Ontario. The rock is in the main a white aggregate

of bytownite or anorthite with the addition of a little chlorite or ser-

pentine and an occasional augite grain. The plagioclase grains are

often idiomorphic, and in some places the anorthosite passes into a

porphyritic gabbro. Often the feldspars are enlarged by newly formed

labrodorite, and in one section a bytownite crystal has been broken

apart and its fragments cemented by the more acid plagioclase. The

author dissents from Lawson’s view that the anorthosite in this region

represents the denuded core of an old volcano, which later extruded

granite. He is inclined to regard the basic rock as much older than

the acid one. Analysis:

SiO, AljOs FeO; FeO MnO CaO MgO NaO K,O CO, Total Sp. Gr.

46.24 1.30 212 tr 16.24 241 1.98 .18 1.08 — 101.35 2.85

Coleman suggests that all the rocks consisting almost exclusively of

plagioclase shall be called plagioclasites, and the name of the plagio-

clase which is their principal constituent shall be prefixed to this. Ac-

cording to this scheme the name of the rock described above would be

anorthite-plagioclasite.

Volcanic Rocks of the Fox Islands, Maine.—Reference has

already been made in these notes to the existence of volcanic rocks in

the islands of North Haven and Vinal Haven. Smith® has recently

made a very careful examination of these rocks from both a geological

and a petrographical standpoint. He finds the rocks on North Haven

to consist of diabase schists and schistose tuffs, a series of acid volcanics

and a small area of Niagara slates, limestones, etc. Vinal Haven is

made up of acid volcanics, a series of fragmental schists and large

masses of granitic and basic intrusive rocks in addition to acid vol-

canics like those found on the northern island, The greenstone schists of

3 Ramsay: Aft. u Geol. Féren i Stockh. Förh. 18, 1896, p. 459.

* Journal of Geology, IV, p. 907.

5 The Geology of the Fox Islands, Maine. Pub. by the author. Skowhegan,

Maine, 1896.

1897.] Petrography. 221

North Haven are squeezed normal and amygdaloidal diabases and dia-

base tuffs. They are probably pre-Niagara in age. The fragmental

schists in Vinal Haven are also probably pre-Niagara. They comprise

mainly quartzitesand quartzitic slates. The basic volcanics are altered

andesites, porphyritic diabases and andesites, and various pyroclastics.

They were erupted in Niagara time. Following the basic lavas come

the acid ones of Vinal Haven, consisting of various types of rhyolite,

among the most interesting of which is a spherulitic rock containing

spherulites of several different kinds. The commonest kind is com-

posed of branching radiate fibers of feldspar imbedded in a granular ag-

gregate of quartz. Flow breccias and tuffs occur intermingled with the

massive rhyolites. The volcanic rocks are cut by dykes of quartz por-

phyry of felsite and of diabase. The large intrusions of the southern

portion of Vinal Haven are granites, diabases (the black granite of the

quarrymen) and diorites. The granites are typical biotitic phases con-

taining some hornblende. Near the contact with the diabases they are

porphyritic. The diabase of the southern end of the island is an oli-

vine variety, while that in the eastern part is a transition phase be-

tween diabase and diorite. It contains brown hornblende and biotite

in equal quantities with augite. Some phases have in addition a con-

siderable quantity of quartz. The diorite and diabase are older than

the granite, and both granite and basic rocks are believed to be much

later than the voleanics. The only rocks of the two islands that show

evidence of dynamic metamorphism are the old diabasic schists of

North Haven. All however present many evidences of metasmatic

alteration. Their structure remains intact, but their mineralogical

Composition is quite different from what it was originally. The basic

lavas are saussuritzed and their ferro-magnesian constituents are chlo-

ritized. The glassy lavas are devitrified.

Petrographical News.—Pockels’ argues that the magnetic polar-

ity exhibited by many different kinds of rocks is due to conduction of

electricity from the air. They are ‘ charged.’

Brauns’ describes a micro-chemical test for nitrates. A drop of the

solution suspected of containing a nitrate is treated with a drop of

barium chloride and warmed in the water bath. Upon cooling octahe-

dral crystals of barium nitrate will crystallize if nitrates were originally

present.

€ Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1897, I, p- 66.

"Ib, p 73.

222 The American Naturalist. (March,

Doelter® describes a number of syntheses of rock forming minerals

and a series of experiments relating to the influence of mineralizers

in the production of rock components. The descriptions close with re-

marks on the conclusions of petographic interest that may be deduced

from the experiments.

The same author’ declares as the result of microscopic and field stu-

dies that the granite of the Bachergebirge is an intrusive rock although

it possesses gneissoid features. On maps of the district a granite por-

phyry is separated from the normal granite in coloring. This the

author believes to be a mistake, as the two rocks are parts of the same

magma.

The Koralps” are composed of mica-schists, interlaminated with

amphibolites, eklogites, marbles and gneissic pegmatites. The mica-

schists are overlain by phyllites and green schists. The pegmatites are

of three kinds—a schistose aggregate of large tourmalines and feld-

spars, a granular aggregate of tourmaline, quartz and a little feldspar,

and a massive quartz-rock containing a little tourmaline and feldspar.

The amphibolites are in part garnetiferous.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Rocks of the Antarctic Continent.—The rock specimens ob-

tained by W. S. Bruce from floating ice and the stomach of Penguins

in the Antarctic seas have been examined by Prof. Geikie, who makes

the following report :

The larger specimens are all basalt, and contain a good deal of olivine.

The small fragments are also mostly basalt, with some tracbyte. A

the specimens are what one finds upon the coasts of a region composed

of igneous rocks. There was no trace of sedimentary or schistose rocks

among the samples.

The marine deposits obtained by Mr. Bruce off the eastern extremity

of Joinville Island were determined by John Murray and Robert

Irvine. The specimens came from depths of 130 to 235 fathoms. They

consist of fragments of polyzoa, basaltic gravel, basaltic and quartz

sand, and blue mud. The latter contains mineral particles, which indi-

cate that on the adjoining land will be found true continental rocks.

(Geog. Journ., 1896.)

8 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1897, I, p. 1.

9 Mitth. des Naturw. v. f. Steiermark, 1894.

10 Doelter, Ib., 1895.

1897.] Geology and Paleontology. 223

Queries on Rock Differentiation.—The theory of the differen-

tiation of rock magmas,now so generally held by lithologists,is questioned

by Mr. G.F. Becker. The following is an abstract of his discussion of

the subject :

“All known processes by which the segregation or differentiation of

a fluid magma could take place involve molecular flow. This is demon-

strably an excessively slow process, excepting for distances not exceed-

ing a few centimeters. Soret’s method, even if it were not too slow,

seems inapplicable, because it involves a temperature unaccountably

decreasing with depth. The normal variation of temperature, an in-

crease with distance from the surface, would be fatal to such segregation.

The least objectionable method of segregation would be the separation

of a magma into immiscible fractions ; but this seems to involve a super-

heated, very fluid magma, while the law of fusion and the distribution

of phenocrysts in rocks indicate that magmas prior to eruption are not

superheated to any considerable extent, and are very viscous.

“The homogeneity of vast subterranean masses called for by the

hypothesis of differentiation is unproved and improbable. The differ-

ences between well-detined rock types are more probably due to original

and persistent heterogeneity in the composition of the globe. Hypogeal

fusion and eruption tend rather to mingling than to segregation, and

transitional rock varieties are not improbably mere fortuitous mixtures

of the diverse primitive, relatively small masses of which the lithoid

shell of the earth was built up.” (Amer. Journ. Sci., 1890.)

The Coal Measures of Arkansas.—The descriptions of marine

fossils from the Coal Measures of Arkansas, by Mr. J. P. Smith, are of

especial interest, since they afford means of correlating strata of differ-

ent regions, and also because marine fossils are usually rare in the Coal

Measures, Among the important finds are two species of Pronorites,

to which the writer refers as follows: ares

“ The finding of Pronorites in Arkansas is of great importance, since

it is the ancestor of a form, Medlicottia, which, though unknown in

Arkansas, has been found at no great distance, in the Texas Permian.

These occurrences help to prové the continuity of life from the Car-

boniferous into the Permian, and to show that the same conditions

existed here as in the Artinsk region of the Ural Mountains, where the

Carboniferous beds contain the goniatites, out of which most of the

Permian ammonites were developed.”

— The relations of the strata in which these fossils were found to the

Coal Measures in both the Old World and the New is shown in a cor-

224 “The American Naturalist. [March,

relation table accompanying the descriptions. (Proceeds. Amer. Philos.

Soc., XX XV, 1896.)

The Lead and Zinc of Iowa.—In a report on the Lead and

Zine Deposits of Iowa, Mr. A. G. Leonard states that these ores occur

in crevices in the Galena limestone in the northeastern part of the State,

in what is known as the driftless area. Contrary to the general rule,

that ore deposits are found with areas of disturbance in the earth’s

crust, the ore deposits of the upper Mississippi are found in strata which

show no evidences of having been subjected to dynamic forces. The

author accepts Chamberlain’s theory as to the localization of these ores,

viz., currents of the old Silurian sea. The oceanic waters impregnated

with metallic salts derived from the leaching of the adjacent lands

were borne by currents to areas where there was an abundance of organic

life, and here the metals would be extracted and thrown down along

with the sediments. As to the filling of the crevices, he adopts the

lateral secretion theory, as being more in accord with his observations.

(Iowa Geol. Surv., Vol. VI, 1896.)

The Eruptive History of the Yellowstone Park.—Mr. Hague

collates a series of facts to demonstrate that the pouring out of igneous

rocks in the Yellowstone Park began with the post-Laramie uplift, or

closely followed it, the outflow continuing with greater or less energy

throughout Tertiary time. The great value of paleobotany as an aid .

in determining the age of geological formations is illustrated in this

region. At least five distinct and important geological periods are de-

fined by their fossil flora, of which four are exposed in the park within

a few miles of each other.

The following table shows the relationships between the different

geological formations and the floras which characterize them:

Formations. Flora. Age.

ESEE E

Basic breccia Tamar Upper Miocene.

Intermediate breccias....... Intermediate Fbora.......... Lower Miocene.

Acid DPOCOER, .o<ccsesdisece, sis Fort Unions esses sociva sison ene.

Agglomerates, Waterlain I ivingstone Cretaceous

Igneous Material.

Sandstone Laramie Cretaceous.

Bt ee

(Amer. Journ. Science, 1896.)

1897,] Geology and Paleontology. 225

The Atlantic Coast Eocene.—A study of the Middle Atlantic

Coast Plain, with a view to its correlation with the Gulf region, by Wm.

B. Clark, has recently been published by the U. S. Geol. Surv. The

author reviews critically the characteristics of the Eocene strata as de-

veloped in the States of Delaware, Maryland and Virginia. While the

geological and stratigraphical data are examined with care, it is the

paleontological record to which is given the most attention. Accord-

ingly the report includes an exhaustive study of the fauna of the region

under discussion, together with a critical review of the species described

by previous authors, as well as the description of a number of new forms.

Briefly stated, the Eocene deposits of the Middle Slope are typically

glauconitic, with an average thickness somewhat in excess of 200 feet.

The organic remains consist largely of shells of mollusks, whose appear-

ance indicates that they were but slightly disturbed prior to their burial

in the sediments in which they are now found.

The fact that the strata are so largely made up of secondary mate-

rials shows that the position of accumulation was in the vicinity of a

coast reached by no large rivers bearing sediment, while also, for the

most part, sufficiently removed from the coast-line to be unaffected by

shore conditions. These deposits, also, were very slowly accumulated.

These conditions were markedly different from those prevailing in the

Gulf region. There numerous large rivers discharged great quantities

of material, so that the strata of the Middle Atlantic Slope must be

represented in the Gulf by deposits many times their thickness.

After considering all the facts, the writer is decidedly of the opinion,

“that the deposits under discussion represent the greater portion of the

Eocene series of the Gulf, its upper mèmbers excepted. Compared

with the section originally described by Prof. E. A. Smith, in the Ala-

bama area, it undoubtedly comprises all or the major part of the Lig-

hitic, Buhrstone and Claiborne, and, perhaps, also portions of higher

horizons ; but, regarding this latter point the necessary paleontological

evidence is wanting. The reference does not, however, necessarily in-

Volve the assumption that the basal beds of the Potomac section are the

exact equivalents of the Lignitic, since deposition may have commenced

somewhat earlier than in the other, although the difference in time was

nvt great.” (Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 141, 1896.)

Glacio-Marine Beds of Europe.—Among the important ob-

servations made by Col. H. W. Fielden during his recent explorations

of Arctic Europe was one concerning the deposition of glacio-marine

beds, Owing to the rapid elevation of the Spitzbergen region, it 1s

226 The American Naturalist. [March,

possible to examine in detail the immense deposits originally formed in

front of glaciers. These deposits now lie between the present shore-line

and the edge of the glacier of to-day. The author instances a formation

of this nature to be found at the head of Green Harbor, one of the minor

indentations on the southern side of Ice Fiord, and describes it as

follows :

“The front of the glacier that now occupies the valley is about a

mile distant from the present shore-line. Fronting this glacier, the

terminal face of which is about 50 feet in height, and extending for 12

miles in length, is a range of some 50 to 70 feet high and } mile in

width. These hills have undergone much subærial erosion, and chan-

nels have been cut in them by the numerous streams issuing from under

the glacier. Following up one of these water courses, which average

from 25 to 50 yards across, with a very level bottom, we find sections

of mud and clay rising like walls on either side to a height of 50 to 60

feet. These beds contain numerous stones, but do not show any signs

of stratification ; in them I found shells of Mya truncata. That these

beds are of submarine formation is confirmed by the existence of raised

beaches in neighboring fiords and along the adjacent line of coast, at a

higher level than the beds I am now describing. Between the present

face of the glacier and the perpendicular wall of the mud-hills runs a

sort of ditch, dry moat, or open space, some 30 yards in width, along

the entire front of the glacier. The bottom of this ditch is thickly

strewn with morainic débris, composed of rounded ice-worn stones, many

being deeply grooved, scarred and scratched. Through this slope of

rocks and stones glacier streams were pouring forth.”

The author suggests, that since this process of rock accumulation

probably went on when the glacier projected in the sea, that during the

emergence period there would come a time when the bay-ice would

freeze deep enough to incorporate the boulders of the moraine, and

quantities of ice-scratched and ice-polished stones would be floated away

on the breaking up of the bay-ice in the spring. This would explain

the occurrence of the vast number of scratched erratics found in the

glacio-marine beds of Kolgnev Island.

Observations made in Greenland show that in the neighborhood of

glaciers discharging into the sea the water is charged with sediment,

and the ship’s anchor when lifted in front of some of these glaciers

brings up a heavy weight of unctuous mud, thus confirming the theory

that “ water issuing from under a glacier in Polar regions, and dis-

charging from under the ice into the sea, can lay down glacio marine

beds in the ocean,” and.the occurrence of ice-scratched stones through-

E Botany. 297

out these beds is also accounted for. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Pt. 4,

1896.)

Geological News.—Mr. R. P. Whitfield notes a new genus of

Phyllocaridæ from the Lower Helderberg, near Waubeka, Wisconsin.

He proposes the name Entomocaris, from the resemblance of the cara-

pace to that of an ostracode entomostracan. (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.

Hist., 1896.)

A recent paper by Mr. F. A. Bather gives a morphological descrip-

tion of Uintacrinus socialis, and discusses the relations of the genus to

certain Paleozoic crinoids. He shows that Uintacrinus cannot be re-

lated either to the Camerata, as Jaekel has supposed, or to the Ichthyo-

crinidæ, as maintained by Von, Zittel, Neumayer, and others. By a

process of comparison and elimination he finally determines that of all

the known genera Dadocrinus is probably the most nearly related to

the ancestor of Uintacrinus. (Proceeds. London Zool. Soc. (1895) 1896.)

A new genus of fossil birds is reported from the Pliocene of South

Australia. The specimens consisting of portions of a dozen birds were

found at lake Collabonna. They are described by Messrs. Stirling and

Lietz under the name Genyornis newtonii. The generic name refers

to the conspicuous feature afforded by the relatively large size of the

lower mandible. The femur indicates a gigantic bird, its dimensions

Surpassing those of Pachyornis elephantopus, and nearly equalling those

of Dinornis maximus. (Trans. Roy. Soc. South Austral., XX, 1896.)

According to Lydekker, the affinities of the so-called extinct Giant

Dormouse (Myoxus melitensis) are not with the Myoxide, but with the

Sciuromorpha, He suggests for it the new generic title Leithia, defin-

ing the genus, and figures its type of dentition. (Proceeds. Zool. Soc.

London, 1895.)

BOTANY.’

Long Stolons of Phragmites.—Several years ago some remark-

able specimens of a running grass were brought to me from the islands of

the Platte River in Central Nebraska. Although quite puzzling at first

they were soon found to belong to the common Reed Grass (Phragmites

phragmites [L.] Karsten). Some of the specimens were of astonishing

length, one measuring a little more than seventeen meters! At every

| Edited by Prof. C, E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska,

228 The American Naturalist. [March,

joint fibrous roots were sent out and from many of the joints there

grew leafy stems, a meter or more in height. A careful investigation

showed that these long trailing stems were at first underground stems,

and that after growing under the surface for some distance, the sand

had been removed by the shifting currents of water, thus exposing the

stems tothe air. These exposed stems, thereafter grew as stolons run-

ning over the surface as described above. Iam told that occasionally .

these running stems almost entirely cover portions of the islands, and

the broad sand-bars along the margins of the river.—CHARLES E.

Bessry.

Barnes and Heald’s Keys to Mosses.—Botanists will welcome

the new, revised and extended “Analytic Keys to the Genera and

Species of North American Mosses” which appeared in January of

the present year, as one of the Bulletins of the University of Wiscon-

sin. The thick pamphlet includes about 220 octavo pages, eight of

which are devoted to a brief introduction, thirteen to the key to the

genera, eighty-one to the key to the species, and one hundred and

eighteen to descriptions of the species and varieties which have been

published since the issue of Lesquereux and James’s Manual in 1884.

Under the latter there are enumerated, six hundred and three forms,

many of whose descriptions are here available for the first time to most

American botanists. The work can not help but stimulate the ċollec-

tion and study of mosses, in the botanical departments of our colleges

and universities, and it should do somewhat to excite the interest of

pupils in the high schools, academies and other secondary schools in

which pupils pursue elementary botany. There is no good reason why

students who are admitted to the Freshman classes of our colleges and

universities should be wholly ignorant of the structure and relationship

of the mosses, and this book (which may be obtained for one dollar)

will be helpful to all teachers and pupils who wish to make an offort to

know something of these interesting plants —Cuar.es E. Bessey.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

What is Leuconostoc mesenteroides ?—This organism WS

first described by Cienkowsky in 1878, under the name of Ascococeus

mesenteroides. He obtained his material from beet sugar vats, and de-

scribed the organism as consisting either of rods or coccus forms. The

gelatinous clumpy masses had been familiar to sugar makers for &

1897.) Vegetable Physiology. 229

long time, and often multiplied enormously in the beet juice, forming

cart-loads of the so-called “frog spawn.” In 1878 van Tieghem also

studied the organism (Ann. d. Sci. Nat. Bot. Sé. 6. t. 7. p. 180),considered

it to be closely related to Nostoc, and renamed it Leuconostoc mesen-

teroides. His observations contradicted those of Cienkowski in several

important particulars. He found no rod-shaped bodies, but only a coc-

cus, which, in exhausted material converted some of its members into

spores, particular cells of the chain enlarging perceptibly, becoming

more refractive, and taking on a thicker wall. His first material was

discovered in the laboratory by accident in macerations of dates and

carrots. Subsequently the organism thus found was compared with that

from the beet sugar vats and found to be identical. In 1892, Liesenberg

and Zopf published two papers which threw a flood of light on the sub-

ject (Zopf: Beiträge I and II). They first obtained the organism from

the Spree River water, below certain breweries, starch factories, etc.

This form was subsequently compared with material from a beet sugar

factory in Germany, and found to beidentical. Their experiments coy-

ered a period of two years, and were carried along in two parallel series

(1) with the European organism and (2) with material obtained from

cane sugar vats in Java. The Javan and European form proved to be

morphologically identical, and there were only a few very slight physio-

logical differences, The organism as it comes from the vats is always con-

taminated with other bacteria, which stick to the gelatinous sheath.

Pure cultures were therefore obtained with some difficulty, and only

after it was discovered that the contaminating bacteria could be de-

stroyed by heat without injury to the Leuconostoc. Poured plates

made after exposing the finely rubbed mass in fluid to 75° C. for 15

minutes invariably yielded an abundance of pure colonies. The organ-

ism is plainly dimorphic. In solid or fluid nutrient media containing

grape or cane sugar it multiplied in the ordinary gelatinous or cartila-

ginous, lumpy, frog spawn form. In similar media destitute of grape

or cane sugar it grew in an entirely different form, i. e., as an erdinary,

thin-walled Streptococcus. The two forms were So remarkably differ-

ent both macroscopically and microscopically that the Streptococcus

form was at first supposed to be some intruding organism ; but repeated

transfers of the two forms back and forth always gave the same results,

i. e., the frog spawn form on nutrient media containing sugar, and the

nude form on the same media when free from cane or grape sugar.

The change from the nude to the covered form was followed in

hanging drop cultures, and occurred in 12 to 24 hours. In nature the

organism probably most often occurs in a form quite unlike that found

230 The American Naturalist. | March,

in the sugar vats. Transitions to the nude form were also observed

in old sugar cultures, which had become acid from the growth of the

organism. Moreover, the tough, shiny, elastic cartilaginous form de-

veloped on sugar media during the first week or two of growth was

always observed to break down later on, becoming first flabby and

then juicy soft. The nude form cannot be distinguished from Strepto-

coccus; and both Migula and Lehmann and Neumann now write

Streptococcus mesenteroides. Steamed potato proved excellent for

the cultivation of the nude form. The cartilaginous form grew

well on carrot. The organism is able to ferment the following car-

bohydrates with the formation of an acid: grape sugar, cane sugar,

milk sugar, maltose, and dextrin. Glycerin is not fermented. It

can produce its enormously thick envelope only from grape sugar

or cane sugar after it has inverted it. The sheath is composed of

a gum-like substance called dextran by Scheibler. It is incorrect to

speak of a “dextran fermentation.” There is no such thing. The

sugars are fermented with production of an acid, but the dextran

is as much a product of growth as cellulose. The acid formed from

the grape and cane sugar (and presumably from the lactose and

maltose) is lactic. This was identified by its calcium salt and zine salt.

Under ordinary conditions no appreciable gas was formed from any of

these carbohydrates; but in the presence of calcium chlorid, or in the

absence of oxygen, bubbles were given off (apparently CO,). Calcium

chlorid when added in 3-5 per cent. portions to properly prepared

nutrient sugar solutions greatly favors the formation of dextran.

Growth in such cases was very rapid, 101.5 grams of the Leuconostoc

in one instance being developed out of 50 grams of cane sugar in four

days. The organism is aerobic and also facultative anaerobic. It can

invert cane sugar, but produces no peptonizing or diastatie ferments,

and has no effect on cellulose. It is able to take both its N. and C.

from peptone or from asparagin, but not from ammonium tartrate. In

a 5 per cent. cane sugar solution containing the requisite inorganic salts

no growth was obtained on adding ammonium tartrate, ammonium

nitrate, or potassium nitrate, which would tend to show that it cannot

take N. from these salts. The thermal relations are peculiar. Although

a great variety of cultures in all stages of growth were examined for

spores, nothing of the sort was found, and it is believed that no spores

exist, certainly none of the sort described by van Tieghem. The

organism is nevertheless very resistent to heat, even in the nude form.

It grows at 9° to 11° C., but forms no acid. At 14° to 15° there 18

plain growth in 4 to 5 days with production of acid. “Grows well at

1897,] Vegetable Physiology. 231

21° to 23° C. Optimum 30° to 35° C. for the European form, and

30° to 87° C. for the Javan form. The maximum temperature for

growth is 40° to 43° C. It cannot grow in juice kept at 43° C., but is

not killed. The thermal death point of the frog spawn form is between

87° and 88° C. (five minutes exposure), and of the nude form only a

little lower, i. e., between 833° and 863° C. It is thought that possibly

the thick sheath may have a protective use, as dried and stone-hard

specimens brought from Java were found to be alive at the end of 3}

years. A good contrast stain for the frog spawn form is dahlia fol-

lowed by corallin—Erwrn F. SMITE.

A New Disease of Tobacco Caused by Phytophthora

nicotianz.—This disease, described by Dr. J. v. Breda de Haan,’ is

tnost destructive to the seedlings while yet in the seed bed, but attacks

older plants as well, extending its ravages under favorable conditions

even to the curing barns. In this paper, published early in 1896, the

author presents a very satisfactory account of the disease, and precedes

the account by a general description of the location of the tobacco

fields in the Dutch East Indies, The relations of soil and climate to

the parasite are fully pointed out, as are the methods of culture both of

the seedlings and of the mature plant.

The disease is, so far as he has been able to determine, confined to

the Dutch East Indies. It has probably caused some damage for many

years, but was first generally recognized in 1889. In 1893 it was very

destructive, owing to the wetness of the season.

The hyphz of P. nicotianz enter the leaf by the stomata, and ramify

principally in the intercellular spaces. They also pass through the

cells, and sometimes fill them with a net-work of hyphe.

Usually only the haustoria enter the cells. The haustoria are simple

unbranched hyphæ, which end freely in the cell.

The mycelium is normally unicellular; but when it is torn, or when

the protoplasm is contracted, on account of unfavorable external con-

ditions, the cell contents are separated from the empty part of the

mycelium by thin cross walls. ;

The contents are granular, with scarcely any oil drops, and stain

readily with an aniline blue. The hyphæ are about 5 mic. mill. thick,

and when free to do so grow long and scarcely branched. Sometimes

they may be seen reaching from one seedling to another, looking like

delicate threads.

! (De. Bibitziekte in de Deli-Tabak veroorzacht door Phytophthora nicotiane,

Mededeelingen uit's Lands Plantentuin, Number XV, 1896.)

232 The American Naturalist. [Mareh,

The spread of the disease is greatly facilitated by the method of

growing the seedlings (“bibit”). Several beds are prepared one after

another, so that the series contains seedlings of all ages. These are

separated by narrow walks, and are themselves narrow enough to permit

the coolie to reach all parts of the bed.

In his search for worms or insects the coolie touches diseased and

healthy plants, transferring the fungus from one to the other. He also

carries the germs about on his clothing or tools and watering pot.

The mature plants often show the disease on the tips of the leaves,

where persons have brushed against them in passing. The parasite also

spreads over the ground, growing from bed to bed across the narrow

walks. i

In one case only was the agency of wind as good as proven. In this

case the center of infection lay to the windward of the later attacked

beds, and the beds not in the path of the wind were not attacked.

Conidia are produced in abundance. The conidiophores usually pass

out through the stomata, but may push up through the epidermis. At

the end a pear-shaped (ob-pyriform as shown in the figures) conidium,

86 x 25 mic. mil. in size is formed, and when ripe is cut off from the

conidiophore by a cross wall.

A second conidium is sometimes developed from the side of the first

one, and remains connected to it by a short hypha. The contents of

the first conidium pass into the second one, in which the swarm spores

are developed. The development of the swarm spores requires about

20-30 minutes, at the end of which time the “slime plug” at the apex

of the conidium dissolves and they emerge. The number observed in

a conidium varied from 10 to 15.

Each swarm spore has one flagellum, and may have another, but of

this the author is uncertain. The swarm spores may give rise to sec-

ondary conidia. Two cases were observed, but in neither case was the

development of swarm spores seen. In the first case the conidium was

developed three days after the liberation of the swarm spore in a hang-

ing drop water culture. It remained in the same condition a few days

and then perished. In the second case the conidium was found open

at the end of four days and the contents gone. No mention 1s made

of swarm spores in the surrounding medium. pea

Sexual reproduction takes place by means of oogonia and antheridia.

The antheridium may arise from the same hypha as that on which the

oogonium is borne, or on a different one. The contents of the anther-

dium are emptied into the oogonium, after which the oospore RE a

wall about itself. The process is in all respects the same as that in othe

1897.] Vegetable Physiology. 233

Peronosporaceæ, except that so far as could be ascertained all the con-

tents of the antheridium pass over into the oogonium. This is a de-

parture from the usual course for Phytophthora, in which, according to

de Bary (1881) and also Strasburger (Lehrbuch der Botanik, 1894)

only a part of the contents pass over.

_ Phytophthora nicotianæ has the omnivorous habit of P, cactorum

C. & L. (P. omnivora de Bary), attacking species of Amaranthus and

seedlings of Androng as well as tobacco. The habit of the conidiophores

also resembles this species especially in the absence of the swellings

under the conidium so characteristic of P. infestans. It differs, however,

from P. omnivora in the size of the conidia, which are 50, 60 or 90 mic.

mil. long by 35 or 40 mic. mil. wide in P. omnivora, and only 36 x 25

in P. nicotianæ. The size of the conidia brings it closer to P. phaseoli

Thaxter in which they are 35-50 x 20-25 mic. mil. in size. The biologi-

cal identity not having been established the author decides to call the

present species P. nicotianæ sp. nov.

The first symptom of the disease is a wrinkling of the edge of the

leaf accompanied by. wilting, and, if the petiole is attacked, drooping of

the leaf. When the attack is severe the seedlings soon change to a

dark green slimy mass, covering the surface of the bed. The appearance

presented is as though boiling water had been thrown over the bed.

On older seedlings and mature plants the disease appears in spots on the

leaves, These are at first not well defined, and have a dark center with

indefinite circumference ; later, the center dries up and becomes trans-

lucent, or if on older leaves, brown, and a dark green border separates

it from the healthy portions of the leaves. The disease also attacks the

seedlings near the ground, causing damp off. Mature plants sometimes

show the disease in this form ; but it is nearly always due to using dis-

eased seedlings for transplanting. .

The account of the artificial cultures is unfortunately lacking in de-

finiteness.

The author made cultures in various strengths of cane sugar solution,

5,10 and 15 per cent., in prune juice, in a decoction of tobacco ashes in

water, on sterilized potato slices, on agar-agar mixed with peptone-

gelatine and tobacco water, and on slices of banana. All failed, except

those in 5 per cent, sugar water and on sterilized potato. These gave

fairly good results for a few days, but subsequently also died. The

author does not state whether his sugar solution contained any mig

genous matter, nor whether distilled water was used in making it, but

leaves it to be inferred that such was not the case.

234 The American Naturalist. [Mareh,

Mycelium forming oogonia was brought into a5 per cent. solution of

cane sugar, in which it grew for a few days and produced many fructi-

fications. After six days it remained stationary. The cultures in 15

per cent. sugar solution were poor, and developed what seemed to be a

yeast form. Conidia-forming mycelium was also grown in a 5 per cent.

sugar solution, and produced for a few days many conidia, the swarm

spores of which germinated with long germ tubes.

Agar-agar was mixed with peptone gelatin and leaf decoction

(tobacco presumably) in “ various ways,” but without success. Author

does not give the different proportions.

Some mycelium was put on the surface of sterilized potato slices, on

which it grew fairly well. The tissue penetrated by the fungus turned

red, the starch disappeared, and the cell walls became mucilaginous.

The fungus grew intra-cellular, but died after afew days. This culture

succeeded best when kept in the dark. The author does not state

whether the potato was sterilized by steam or by chemicals.

The relations of the parasite to drying and to darkness were studied.

Darkness was found to be generally advantageous to it.

The mycelium and conidia are unable to withstand the least drying.

The oospores, however, are more resistant, but succumb to constant

drying for 14 days, or when the leaves containing them were subjected

to a hot sun bath for five hours on two successive days.

Extensive experiments were conducted in order to combat the disease.

It was found that by the free admission of light and air to the seed beds,

together with liberal spraying with Bordeaux mixture every five days,

or after heavy rains and during damp weather, the fungus could be

held in check. Wheresuch measures were taken the tobacco beds were

comparatively free from the disease—A. J. PIETERS.

ZOOLOGY.

On the Occurrence of Filaroides mustelarum van Ben. in

American Skunks.—Through the kindness of Mr. Gerrit 8. Miller,

Jr., I have recently had the opportunity of examining a skull of the

common skunk (Mephitis mephitica) from North Bay, Ontario, the

frontal bones of which each exhibited, close to the sagittal plane, &

prominent swelling over which the bony tissue was so attenuated as to

be easily crushed by the finger. The specimen was still in the flesh,

and was preserved in formalin. Mr. Miller tells me that he finds these

1897.) Zoology. 235

frontal enlargements in a large percentage of the skulls of both Mephitis

and Spilogale from all localities. Merriam (Revision of the Genus

Spilogale, N. A. Fauna, No. 4, p. 3, 1890) speaks of “ large asymmetri-

cal postorbital swellings resulting from the presence, in the frontal

sinuses, of a worm-like endoparasitic arachnid of the genus Penta-

stoma,” and on p. 4 of the same work, refers to “the large swellings

produced by the worm-like parasite (Pentastoma or Linguatula) which

infests the frontal sinuses of more than half the skulls examined.”

Bangs, in a Review of the Weasels of Eastern North America (Proce.

Biol. Soc. Washington, Vol. X, p. 1, 1896) speaks of“ the parasite that

attacks the frontal sinuses of these animals as well as those of their

relatives the skunks, mink, and otter.” Putorius noveboracensis he

says “suffers so much that it is hard to get perfect skulls.” See also

the figures of skulls in Merriam’s Synopsis of the Weasels of North

America (N. A. Fauna, No. 11, 1896).

The swellings in the frontal hones of the specimen of Mephitis sub-

mitted to me are caused by a nematode worm which in every particu-

lar agrees with Filaroides mustelarum van Beneden (Mém. s. 1. Vers

Intestinaux, p. 267, 1861), and I have no hesitancy in ascribing it to

that species. Each of the swellings contained a nest of at least fifteen

to twenty of the worms. The parasite is common in Europe, occurring

in the air-passages of several species of Martins and Weasels. It has

been described and figured in the frontal sinuses of Mustela by Weijen-

bergh (Arch. Néerlandaises, Tom. III, p. 428, 1868), and von Linstow

(Arch. Naturg, Jahrg. 39, Bd. I, p. 300, 1873) has described it from

the ethmoid and frontal bones of Mustela and Putorius. The parasite

is always, directly or indirectly, connected with the respiratory system.

The object of this note is to call attention of the occurrence of Fila-

roides mustelarum in America, and to show that, without doubt, the

swellings so common in the skulls of American skunks are caused by

the presence of this nematode in the frontal sinuses ; and that the pre-

valent frontal enlargements of other American Mustelide are probably

due to the same parasite—W. McM. Woopworts.

Museum of Comparative Zéology,

Cambridge, Mass., Jan. 21, 1897.

A Peculiar Appendage on the Thelycum of Penzus.'—

A short preliminary note by Dr. Kishinouye undertakes to show that

the leaf-like structure first described by Spence Bate in the Challenger

report on the Macrura as an appendage of the secondary sexual organ

| The Zoological Magazine, Tokio, VIII, 59.

236 The American Naturalist. [Mareh,

of Penæus is not formed on the animal that bears it, but in the dilated

end of the ductus ejaculatorius as a secretion, and that probably it is

carried over to the female during copulation. It has no cellular struc-

ture whatever, and is found in a rolled-up condition in the ducts of the

males.

It was described by Spence in the Japanese variety of P. canalicu- -

latus, and is to be found, though not so conspicuously, in P. semisulea-

tus, P. curvirostris, P. monocerus ? and P. sp.— (The Japanese mayebi).

Dr. Kishinouye’s observations were made chiefly upon P. canaliculatus

and P. monoceros ?—F. C. K.

Nerve-endings in the rennet glands of the Vertebrate

Stomach.'—The nerves spreading out over the serous membrane of the

vertebrate stomach arise from the plexus of Meisner and form two other

plexi—one under the rennet glands, the other below the ephithelium

of the stomach. The simple nerve fibers form a plexus about the

membrana propria of the glands and now and then pierce it, spreading

their fine branches out around the cells. Each branch ends in a vari-

cosity, but does not penetrate the cell as supposed by Nawalichin and -

some others. In this conclusion Dr. Kytmanow, the author of the

paper cited, is in agreement with Erich Mueller, Smirnow, Arestein

and others who have studied the peripheral or epithelial terminations

of nerve fibers. His study upon the stomach of the cat was undertaken

to determine surely what Erich Mueller had left as uncertain, namely,

whether the fibers terminate inter- or intra-cellularly. For this he.em-

ployed the Golgi, methylen blue and gold chloride methods. With the

first he was unsuccessful, but with the other two, especially with the me-

thylen blue, he arrived at the conclusion that has been given.—F.

C. Kenyon.

The Breeding Haunts of Ross’ Gull.—One of the valuable

ornithological facts that the “Hero of the White North,” Nansen,

has to relate, is that he has discovered the breeding station of the

circumpolar gull, Rhodostethia rosea Macy. The small group of islands

which he calls the Hirtenland group, where he found the birds in large

numbers and breeding, lie in 81° 38’ N. Lat. and 63° E. Long. They

seem to occupy a position within an area laid down by Payer as Wilczek

land.

Proper name for the Western Horned Owl of North

America.—In the “ Auk” for April, 1896, p. 153 I published a rev!

1 Intern. Monatsch. Anat. Phys., XTH, 402-5.

1897.] Zoology. 237

sion of North American Horned Owls in which I showed that the name

subarcticus Hoy. was a synonym of arcticus Swains, and hence untenable

for the light colored Bubo of the western states.

In the same paper I proposed to recognize the small Bubo of southern

California as a distinct subspecies under the name pacificus Cassin.

For the old “subarcticus” I proposed the name occidentalis and

selected for my type a specimen from Mitchell Co., Iowa (No. 26435,

Coll. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Phila.) which showed the greatest contrast to

the small Californian race.

This specimen, however, unfortunately proves to be intermediate be-

tween B. virginianus and areticus and does not belong to the race which

I had mtended to rename; the latter not extending so far east (See

Auk., Jan., 1897, p. 132.)

Such being, the case my name “ occidentalis” must be relegated to

synonymy and I would propose for the Horned Owl of the interior

United States (the “subarcticus” of authors, nec. Hoy) the name

pallescens, designating as the type, No. 152219, Coll. U. S. Nat. Mus.

$ Watson Ranch, 18 mi. S. W. of San Antonio, Texas.

Bubo virginianus pallescens is smaller and paler than the true virgini-

anus (the wing measuring 13.75 in.) with much less rufous admixture.

The barring on the belly is much finer and the feet almost pure white.

While not differing so much in size from B. v. pacificus as indicated

in my former paper (Auk., 1896, p, 156), its coloration is quite distinct.

The latter race is darker than pallescens with more black admixture

above, heavier bars on the belly and with the feet more mottled with

rufous and brown.

In entering Bubo virginianus pacificus Cass. in the Supplement to

their Check List the American Ornithologists’ Union Committee have

added to the confusion by giving it the same number as has already

been given to B. v. saturatus.

The various races of our Horned Owls s

in the A. O, U. List:

375. Bubo virginianus (Gmelin). Great Horned Ovl.

875a. Bubo virginianus pallescens Stone. Western Horned Owl.

375b. Bubo virginianns arcticus (Swainson). Arctic Horned Owl.

375c. Bubo virginianus saturatus Ridgway- Dusky Horned Owl.

375d. Bubo virginianus pacificus Cassin. Pacific Horned Owl.

: —Wirmer STONE, Acad. Nat. Sei., Phila.

hould now stand as follows

An Incomplete List of the Mammals of Bertie Co., N,. C.—

During the years 1891, 1892 and 1893 we received a number of small

238 The American Naturalist. [Mareh,

mammals in the meat and in alcohol, from Bertie Co., N.C. The

specimens came from that part of the county which lies a few miles

west of the shore of Albemarle Sound, and about midway between the

Tar and Chowan Rivers. Nothing larger than a Flying Squirrel was

sent, hence the list is by no means a complete one, though it contains

several records of interest. The following were the species obtained :

1. Microtus pinetorum.—One specimen, Jan. 22, 1891, and three in

July, 1891. (Microtus pennsylvanicus, one of our commonest mice at

Raleigh, was not obtained at all.)

2. Peromyscus leucopus.—Twenty-one specimens were received of

this species, showing it to be the predominant Deer Mouse of the locality

as against the next.

3. Peromyscus gossypinus—Four specimens of this species were

secured, one being in the bluish pelage of the young,

4. Peromyscus aureolus.—Thirty-seven specimens. The larger num-

ber received of this arboreal species was due to the ease with which

they can be caught in their nests, when one once knows just where to

look for the said nests.

5. Reithrodontomys lecontei.—Ten specimens of the Harvest Mouse

were received. Like P. leucopus and P. gossypinus they were mostly

caught in traps.

6. Sciuropterus volans—Four adults and three young of the Flying

Squirrel were received.

7. Putorius noveboracensis.—Two young Weasels, a male 265 mm. in

total length, and a female 234 mm., were the onl y carnivora contained

in the collection. Date of capture, May 16, 1892.

8. Scalops aquaticus.—Four specimens of the Common Mole were

taken July 9, 1891; March 24 and April 22, 1892, and March 18, 1893.

9. Blarina parva.—Twelve specimens were dug out of an old stump

on Jan. 21, 1892, and four others were also secured.

10. Sorex longirostris.—One specimen, collected June 13, 1892.

11. Atalapha borealis—Thirty-six specimens of the Red Bat were

obtained. This and the next are evidently the common bats of the

locality.

12. A. cinerea,—Three specimens of the Hoary Bat were collected,

one each on Oct. 10 and Nov. 1, 1892, and April 8, 1893.

13. Nyctieejus humeralis.—Sixty-one specimens. Of twenty-seven

specimens caught roosting in an old house on June 18 and July 1,

1891, all were females.

14. Vesperugo carolinensis.—Of this bat, one of the commonest at

Raleigh, only six specimens were received.

1897] Zoology. 239

15. Adelonycteris fusca.—Three specimens of the Large Brown Bat

were secured, taken on Aug. 17, 1891, and March 7 and Nov. 9, 1893.

16. Lasionycteris noctivagans.—Six specimens of the Silver Black

Bat were taken, four on July 1, 1891, and two (caught in a hollow

tree) Dec. 26, 1892.

17. Vespertilio lucifugus.—Three specimens of the Little Brown Bat

were taken, one each on July 9, 1891, Aug. 3, 1892, and July 17, 1893.

18. Plecotus macrotus.—Big-eared Bat. One specimen was taken on

Feb. 1, 1893, and two on Oct. 24, 1894. This bat and Atalapha cinerea

have also been taken at Weaverville, in the western part of the State,

but not as yet here at Raleigh. The specimens were furnished to us

by Messrs. Thos. A. Smithwick, of Walke, and J. W. P. Smithwick, of

Sans Souci—C. S. BRIMLEY.

Preliminary Description of a New Race of the Eastern

Vole from Nova Scotia.—There is in Nova Scotia a small, bright-

colored vole with small hands and slender feet that seems subspecifically

distinct from the large dark-colored southern Microtus pennsylvanicus

typicus.

It lives in great numbers in the fields and fresh water marshes, but

especially in the glade-like openings in the spruce forest, where little

spring brooks run down through the beds of rushes (Juncus sp.) among

which its runways can be seen in all directions.

The new form, based on a series of sixty-three specimens, may be

characterized as follows :

ICROTUS PENNSYLYANICUS ACADICUS subsp. nov. Type from

Digby, Nova Scotia, No. 2155 ọ old adult, Coll. of E. A. and O. Bangs.

Collected by O. Bangs, July 22, 1894. Total length 172, tail verte-

bree 49, hind-foot 20.

General Characters.—Size smaller than M. pennsylvanicus typicus ;

hands very small; feet slender; colors bright ; skull smaller than that

of M. pennsylvanicus typicus and lighter throughout ; incisor teeth much

more slender.

Color in winter pelage, upper parts bistre-brown, somewhat shaded

with russet, with very few black-tipped hairs intermixed ; under parts

dark gray, often washed with buffy. ae

In summer pelage, upper parts with russet the predominating color.

(At this season Jf. pennsylvanicus acadieus is much paler and brighter

colored than M. pennsylvanicus typicus.) :

Cranial Chicas eal Rosie than that of M. pennsylvanicus

typicus and lighter throughout; pattern of enamel folding of molar

teeth similar ; incisor teeth much more slender.

240 The American Naturalist. [March,

Size of skull (average measurements of ten old adult topotypes).—

Basilar length 23.9, Basilar length of Hensel, 22.8, zygomatic breadth

14.7, mastoid breadth 11.8, greatest length of single half of mandible

15.6.

Size.—Average measurements of fifteen old adult specimens, males

and females, from Digby, Nova Scotia, total length 167, tail vertebra

45, hind-foot 20.3.

Remarks.—Compared with Microtus frontigenus, M. pennsylvanicus

acadicus is larger and much more brightly colored, and has smaller

audital bulle.—Ourram Banas.

A New Race of Gibb’s Mole.—In his recently published Re-

vision of the American Moles,? Mr. F. W. True treats Gibb’s Mole,

Neiirotrichus gibbsi (Baird), from the whole coastal strip from British

Columbia to San Francisco Bay as one form, although he points out

the fact that Southern examples are larger than Northern ones. I have

long considered the species to be made up of two well-defined and easily

recognized races, for the Southern one of which I now propose the name:

NEUROTRICHUS gIBBSI HYACINTHINUS subsp. nov. Type from

Nicasio, Marin Co., Cal., 9 old adult, No. 1240, Coll. of E. A. and O.

Bangs. Collected by C. A. Allen, March 10,1894. Total length 127,

tail vertebree 41.4, hind-foot 17.5.

General Characters.—Size considerably larger than N. gibbsi typicus;

color uniform black, instead of deep brownish-plumbeous as in N. gibbst

typicus; skull larger and relatively broader.

Color.—Black all over, with in places green and purple irridescence ;

under fur black.

Cranial Characters—Skull larger and relatively broader than that

of N. gibbsi typicus.

Size of the type skull, Basilar length (basion to front of premaxilla)

19.8, mastoid breadth 11.4. (One of the largest skulls of N. gibbst

typicus, from a series of eighteen from Sumas, B. C., No. 5518, Bangs

Coll., measures: Basilar lengih 18.4, mastoid breadth 10.2.)

Size—Averaye measurements of two adult specimens from the type

locality: total length 123.8, tail vertebrae 39.7, hind-foot 17. (The

average measurements of the ten largest adult specimens of N. gibbs

typicus, from a series of eighteen from Sumas, B. C., are: total length

116.4, tail vertebræ 38.4, hind-foot 17.4.)

Remarks.—I am unable to say just where the two races of Gibb’s

Mole meet ; but the San Francisco Bay specimens are very different

2 Proceedings U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIX, No. 1101.

1897.] Zoology. 241

from the British Columbia ones, and well warrant dividing the species

into a small plumbeous Northern and a large black Southern race.

In the summer of 1896, Mr. Allan C. Brooks took a series of N. gibbsi

typicus on Mount Baker, at the very edge of the perennial snow. He

Fic. 1, Fic. 2.

Fig. 1. Neérotrichus gibbsi typicus Fig. 2. Neitrotrichus gibbsi hyacinthinus

. (Ty

(No. 5513, Bangs Coll.) x $ x }.

says these specimens do not differ in any way from those taken in the

lowlands about Sumas, B. C.—Ourram Banos.

Zoological News. Prorozoa.—Among the Protozoa described

by Dr. C. A. Kofoid for the Traverse Bay region of Lake Michigan’

there are 22 Rhizopoda, 5 Heliozoa, 20 Mastigophora, and 34 Infusoria.

The close correspondence between the European aud the American

Protozoan fauna is shown in the fact that out of the 81 species that he

lists 73 are also found in Europe. With two exceptions, Podophrya

cyclopum and Glenodinium cinctum, every one of those that he records

as limnetic species (i. e., those found in open water) are also found at

Plön, as recorded by Zacharias.

TuRBELLARIA.—Two new species of Turbellaria are described as

Phonaria simplex and Mesostomia wardii respectively in Bulletin No.6

of the Michigan Fish Commission.

Rorarorra.—In the same Bulletin, H. S. Jennings describes a new

rotifer, Distyla signifera.

Moutusca.—In a list of the mollusks of Tennessee,“ embracing 71

species of Pelecypoda, 41 being aquatic and 54 terrestrial Gasteropoda,

* Bull. 6, Mich. Fish. Com.

‘Contributions to the Zoology of Tennessee, No. 4, Mollusks. H. A. Pilsbry

and S. N. Rhoads. Proc. Phil. Acad. Sci., 1896, p. 499. :

242 The American Naturalist. [March,

I note the description of one new species, Anculosa harpethensis Pilsbry.

It is distinguished from A. subglobosa Say. by its globular form and the

angulation at the base of the columella; “ face of columella concave, a

projecting angle at union of columellar and basal lips.”

MamMata.—The mammals collected by Dr. A. Donaldson Smith

during his expedition to Lake Rudolf, Africa, representing 50 genera

and 77 species, 7 of which are new, have been described in the Pro-

ceedings of the Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia (pp. 517-

546) by Mr. 8. N. Rhoads.

EMBRYOLOGY.’

Spinning Powers of Certain Eggs.—It is well known that the

protoplasm of many one-celled animals may flow out as excessively

delicate threads of living matter that exhibit remarkable currents and

contractile phenomena. Something similar to these filose “ pseudo-

podia” is met with in certain cells of many-celled animals, as in the

pigment cells of the retina, ete. In a recent paper by Gwendolen

Foulke Andrews’ it is claimed that the eggs of star-fish and sea-urchins

form very much the same sort of ee pseudopodial filaments as are

produced in those one-celled animals.

These thread-like processes are “spun” out from the protoplasm of

the egg in such exceedingly delicate filaments that they have escaped

notice and have now been revealed only with good lenses and excep-

tional optic resources.

From the elevation of the egg’s surface that meets the sperm a “ tuft”

of fine threads is spun out ; the whole surface of the eggs spins out rm

threads to make the egg membrane ; the egg spins during cleavage; 1

spins out the cilia that move the blastula: ; it spins filaments across fy

cleavage cavity and from one germ-layer to another in the gastrula ; ;

and the polar bodies spin like the rest of the egg.

These threads spun out are flowing material that branches, anasto-

moses, shows currents and other phenomena very much as do the pseudo-

podial filaments of such one-celled animals as Gromia.

1 Edited by E. A. rnae Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and

preliminary notes may

2 Journal of o, Sein 1897, pps. 367-389.

1897.] Embryology. 243

The membrane that is formed after entrance of a sperm is made in

the sea-urchin by the following spinning phenomena. In normal eggs

of Echinus clear, homogeneous, straight, smooth filaments flow out from

the egg, very close together, and all attain the same length about the

same time. These filaments then seem to fuse at the tips to make a

ceiling-like film that grows thicker. The space between the filaments

is then filled in—in some undetermined way—and thus the membrane

is completed.

In abnormal eggs the spinning is irregular and more in the form

of tufts and brushes that are more readily observed.

In the star-fish after such a membrane is formed the egg sends out a

tuft of threads from the place where the polar bodies were formed and

then ceases to spin; soon the general surface spins again and continues

to do so during cleavage. These filaments branch and anatomose ; they

may bend suddenly at the base and even bend over at right angles at

some point in their course ; they may start from the surface of the egg

at various angles even tangentially ; they may run out and attach them-

selves to the egg membrane.

When cleavage of the egg begins, the spinnings show peculiar activ-

ity near the plane where the cells will separate. As the cleavage

furrow is formed threads spin from one side to the other so that the two

cells are connected by cross filaments as fast as they are separated by

the plane of cleavage. The liquid between the cells is crossed by many |

most delicate strands and skeins of filaments that connect the two cells.

When the two cells subsequently approach and flatten against one-

another the connecting strands shorten and thicken as if contracting to

draw the cells together. When pressure is applied to such cells the

Connecting threads appear as if resisting separation of the cells and as

if more active in drawing them together.

Later when more cells are formed the same phenomena are seen and

when the cleavage cavity is present it is crossed by a network of inter-

laced filaments spun out from the inner ends of the cells. These fila-

ments connect adjacent cells and also the most remote cells of the

blastula,

When the blastula is ready to swim, the external spinnings cease

fora while and then start again as numerous processes from the general

pellicle all becoming very long and active as the well known “ cilia

that propel the blastula through the water.

In the gastrula stage both entoderm cells and ectoderm cells spin

filaments that cross the blastocæle and connect all the cells. When the

mesenchyme cells are formed they too spin many filaments that connect

244 The American Naturalist. [March,

with the other cells and with other filaments so that the blastoccele is

traversed by a very complex network of anastomosing filaments arising

from all the germ layers. These internal spinnings remain active up to

the time of formation of the proctodæum, at least.

The polar bodies spin, from the first, very fine pseudopodial filaments

that soon unite with the egg and with the egg membrane as well as with

filaments from the egg so that the polar bodies are henceforth (up to the -

period of the late gastrula, at least) united to the egg, and to the result-

ing cells, by threads of living material.

The shape of the polar bodies may be changed as if distorted by con-

traction of these filaments ; and change of place of the polar bodies seems

also to be due, at times, to contraction of the filaments.

In the anastomosing network that connects the egg with the polar

bodies material is carried hither and thither in the currents that flow

along the threads.

Eventually the polar bodies may be taken in to the blastula, through

the cleavage pore, and henceforth be connected with the network spun

out from the inner ends of the blastula cells and, later, with the fila-

ments from the entoderm cells of the gastrula also.

The natural criticism that these spinning phenomena are abnormal,

pathological, and hence of less wide interest, is met by the author with

the statement that every precaution was taken to maintain normal con-

ditions and that the eggs described were from lots that formed normal

larvee, or even themselves grew into normal larve after the observations.

Moreover it is granted that heat, polyspermy, immaturity of the egg

and adverse states of the water resulted in very profuse spinning phe-

nomena, but these truly pathological phenomena were very different in

character and easily distinguished from the less obvious phenomena

believed to be undoubtedly normal.

It is thus claimed that in these normal Echinoderm eggs the proto-

plasm can project delicate living filaments. That these are concerned

in the formation of the egg membrane. That they connect the cells

during cleavage and gastrulation so that the protoplasm is continuous

trey grea the lass a n aparaton by the cell walls.

e connecting filaments are contractile

and that they aid in drawing the cells together, they may thus prove

to be the basis of the so-called “ cyto-tropic ” movements exhibited by

the blastomeres of various eggs.

Moreover as these filaments are living hands and as material passes

along them from one cell to another, the author thinks they may prove

to be the means of that coordinating communication in the cell-aggre-

1897.] Physiology. 245

gate postulated by certain workers in the field of experimental embry-

ology.

The polar bodies are said to spin like the cells of the egg for a

long time after their formation and to remain so long in protoplasmic

continuity with the other cells that there is a possibility they may not

be entirely without a place in the developmental changes.

The peculiar activities of the protoplasm of these eggs together with

many general questions connected with such phenomena will be con-

sidered in a second paper, now in press.

Though these remarkable phenomena are new to our knowledge of

eggs the reviewer would suggest that what is here seen as living fila-

ments may have appeared to other observers as a protoplasmic envelope

on the outside of the egg. Thus it may be that the very thick cover-

ing “ Protoplasma mantel” figured and described by Selenka? in the

Ophuirid Ophioglypha lacertosa and the much thinner “ Protoplasma

schicht” in the Echinid Strongylocentrotus lividus, which also enters

the cleavage cavity, are really a collection of spinnings, possibly some-

what pathological. In the last named case this outer envelope of the

egg has recently been emphasized by Hammar‘ as a connection between

the cells.

PHYSIOLOGY.

.The action of the venom ofthe Australian Black Snake.—

From numerous experiments detailed in a lengthy paper in the Journal

and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales’ C. J. Mar-

tin concludes briefly that the venom of the Australian black snake

(Pseudechis porphyriacus) is comprehensive in its action, but affects

principally the three most vulnerable points of the higher organism,

namely, the blood, heart, and the respiratory center in the medulla.

Its method of destroying life depends essentially upon the concentra-

tion with which the venom reaches the circulation. When the concen-

tration reaches a certain limit, death may be almost instantaneous from

a coagulation of the blood, thus ending circulation. If the concentra-

tion falls short of this the venom has the opposite effect of destroying

the capacity of the blood to clot when shed. When this is the case any

* Studien über Ent. Hft. 2. Wiesbaden, 1883.

` * Archiv. f. Mik. Anat. March, 1896.

' XXIX (1896), pp. 146-278.

246 The American Naturalist. . [March,

further injection of the venom fails to cause clotting within the vessels

(thrombosis. )

The action of the poison upon the heart and respiratory center is

usually simultaneous. With the higher concentration it is the heart

that fails first, with the lower concentration, it is respiration. Hence

according to the concentration of the dose death may occur in from one

to three days from clotting of the blood within the vessels, from cardiac

failure, or from respiratory paralysis.

If the animal succeeds in passing these three possibilities it may yet

succumb from secondary pathological changes in the lungs and kidneys.

This last is not, however, a large risk, except in dogs, and if the animal

survives the nervous and circulatory depression it usually recovers with

wonderful rapidity.

The animals experimented upon were frogs, turtles, pigeons, rabbits,

cats, dogs, and for man, upon his own blood. From the details that he

records it is interesting to note that the venom destroys the red blood

corpuscles, causing the hemoglobin to dissolve out into the serum and

escape through the kidneys in a crystalline form. In blood observed

beneath the microscope the red corpuscles swell up to spherical masses,

become transparent and finally disappear. All amzboid action in the

white corpuscles is stopped. They finally become very granular, the

nucleus appears distinctly as when the corpuscles are treated with acetic

acid. Finally they are destroyed.

One very noticeable feature is that in common with other venom

that of Pseudechis at first causes a scarcity of the white corpuscles; then

this condition is followed by one in which they are more than normally

present.

The action of the venom upon the dog is about ten times greater

weight for weight, than upon any other animal. He says that the low-

est Jimit of concentration necessary to produce the destruction of the

blood corpuscles either within the body or in vitro is for dogs .00001

grammes of the venom to 100 c. c. of blood. ` The corpuscles of rab-

bits, guinea-pigs, cats, and white rats are much less easily destroyed.

A concentration of .005 per cent. produced no destruction of the cor-

puscles of his own blood.

The blood plasmas that have lost all spontaneous coagulability may

be coagulated by, (1) the addition of a saturated NaC1 solution up to

an equal volume, (2) the addition of an equal volume of a saturated

solution of MgSO,, (3) the addition of acetic acid until there is a slight

evidence of acidity of the plasma, and (4) by the similar addition

1897.] Physiology. 247

of sulphuric, hydrochloric, or phosphoric acid (Oxalic acid is ineffect-

ual).

Very much larger amounts of the venom may be injected subcutane-

ously without producing the effects that follow intravenous injections.

In this case the author thinks that the blood acquires an immunity to

further doses. How long this immunity may last, however, he is not

able to say.

The blood pressure (arterial) in the case of intravenous injections

gradually falls until death. In the case of subcutaneous injections it

falls for a while, then rises to near the normal and again falls until the

death of the animal.

With this change in the blood pressure there is a corresponding

change in the volume of the spleen and kidneys, both increasing in vol-

ume with the fall of blood pressure and decreasing with its rise.

The venom lessens the power of the blood to carry CO, and decreases

the toxic powers of the serum over micro-organisms.

Heating to 85°C. lessens the power of the venom to destroy blood

corpuscles and also its toxic qualities generally. This may be explained

by the heat converting some of the proteids of the venom into an inert

precipitate and secondly by its causing some change in their toxic power

without, however, impairing their solubility or changing them in any

may recognizable by chemical means.

Upon the nervous system the venom does not, as has been recorded

for that of other snakes, have a curare-like action, but like them it

causes a general paralysis, beginning with the lower and passing succes-

sively to the higher centers. Dogs poisoned with Pseudechis venom

loose first the use of their hinder limbs.

There is no increase of respiration followed by a decrease as has been

The effect upon body temperature is such as to cause a rise or a fall

in temperature according to the manner in which the venom reaches the

blood, if this be slowly, it may cause a rise, if rapidily, a fall. As in

the case of Crotalus venom as found by Sewall in animals more or less

immunized by repeated small injections, a lethal dose may be followed

by a rise in temperature.

Among the other pathological effects may be noted that it causes

hemorrhages in all of the organs of the body and from the mucous sur-

248 The American Naturalist. | March,.

faces. Hzemorrhages are especially to be noted in the lungs. The urine

of animals poisoned by Pseudechis always contains albumen, sometimes

hæmoglobin, and frequently blood.

An idea of the toxic value of the venom may be obtained by compar-

ing it with other poisons, basing the comparison upon the number of

grammes of an animal, viz., a rabbit, killed by one gramme of the

venom injected subcutaneously.

Cobra : : ; i è 4,000,000.

Hoplocephalus curtus ; : 4,000,000.

Pseudechis : ; : ʻ 2,000,000.

Diptheria toxine : ; ; 4,000,000 (about.)

Anthrax albuminoses . : 80.

Toxo-peptone . : : i 3,000.

—F. C. KENYON.

PSYCHOLOGY.’

The Year 1896in Scientific Psychology.— While the past year

has shown no startling developments in psychology, it has been marked

by steady progress and an unusual amount of activity. The experi-

mental laboratories everywhere have been busy, and a large number

of Laboratory Studies have been published.

In this country the activity has been especially marked; the Psycho-

logical Review and the American Journal of Psychology have devoted

more than usual of their space to experimental work. The psycholog-

ical department of Cornell University has moved into larger quarters

in Morrill Hall, where it is reported to have nine rooms and 4,000

square feet of space. The laboratory at the University of Nebraska

has moved into the new library building, and occupies a series of five

rooms and 3,000 square feet of space. A laboratory of experimental

psychology has been fitted up during the year at the University of

Kansas, under the charge of Prof. Olin Templin. The University of

Chicago and Columbia University are preparing to establish their

laboratories in ampler quarters, when the new buildings are completed.

In Russia it is reported that the Universities of St. Petersburg, Mos-

cow and Kieff have taken steps, in connection with the Minister of

Education, looking to the establishment of psychological laboratories.

The University of Kieff has petitioned for an appropriation of about.

1 Edited by H. C. Warren, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.

1897.] Psychology. 249

$3,000 to equip such a laboratory, and a yearly sum of $300 to main-

tain it. In addition to the older magazine, Voprosi Philosophi i Psi-

chologi, which has always published a large number of psychological

articles, a new Russian magazine has been started by Prof. A. A. Tok-

arsky, entitled Zapiski Psichologetscheskoi Laboratori; it is to be pub-

lished quarterly as organ of the Psychiatrical Clinic at Moscow. Dr.

W. von Bechterew has also established a new Review of Psychiatry, Nen-

rology and Experimental Psychology, to be published monthly at St.

Petersburg.

In Germany a new psychological “ Archiv” has been started by

Prof. Götz Martius, under the title of Beiträge zur Psychologie und

Philosophie, as organ of the laboratory at the University of Bonn.

Like the Psychologische Arbeiten, established a year ago by Prof. Krae-

pelin at Heidelberg, it is to be devoted chiefly to laboratory studies,

and will appear at irregular intervals. We note also the unusual activ-

ity of the Zeitschrift für Psychologie, which during the past year issued

three complete volumes and over, without any apparent falling off in

the standard of its contents.

In France, the Année psychologique has been very much enlarged,

and includes a number of original articles—partly from the Paris

Laboratory—as well as summaries of all important books and articles

in all languages that appeared during the preceding year.

The increase of general interest in psychology has shown itself in the

unusual number of articles on the subject that have appeared in the

popular magazines and those devoted to yarious departments of science.

The number of books, pamphlets and articles of more especial interest

to the psychological “ Fachmann ” has also been remarkably large, as

appears from the increased number of titles in the forth-ecoming Psycho-

logical Index. The bibliography of the Anné psychologique has joined

forces with the latter annual, which is now issued in both English and

French, The bibliography of the Zeitschrift fiir Psychologie covers the

ground for German readers.

Among the books that have appeared during the year we may men-

tion Wundt’s “ Grundriss der Psychologie,” a compendium of his lectures

on general psychology ; this has already been translated into English

by Dr. Judd of Wesleyan University. Prof. Jodl’s “ Lehrbuch der

Psychologie,” a book of some 760 pages, is the most notable German

work on general psychology of the year. In England there have ap-

peared a large two-volume work on “ Analytic Psychology ” by Mr.G.

F. Stout, the Editor of Mind, and the “ Elements of Psychology ” by the

late G. Croom Robertson, edited from his lecture notes by Mr. Rhys

250 The American Naturalist. [March,

Davids. In this country Prof. Titchener’s “ Outline of Psychology ”

is the leading contribution to empirical psychology. Among the more

specialized works published during the year may be noted “ Habit and

Instinct ” by Lloyd Morgan ; “ Studies of Childhood” by James Sully ;

and “ La psychologie des sentiments ” by Th. Ribot.

The important event of the year in psychological circles was the

Third International Congress of Psychology, which met at Munich,

August 4th to 7th, whose proceedings have already been reported in

this journal. The meeting of the American Psychological Association

in Boston, December 29th and 30th, has also been noticed here. In

April, 1896, the New York Academy of Sciences formed a section

devoted to psychology, anthropology and philology, whose meetings

were to be held monthly. American psychologists have been invited

to attend the meeting of the British Association at Toronto, next

summer, in connection with the physiological section of that body.

There is a movement on foot to secure a more adequate representation

of psychology in the American Association for the Advancement of

Science, under the section of anthropology. The International Biblio-

graphical Conference, which met in London, voted to include psycho-

logy among the 15 leading sciences to be catalogued.

A prize of £50, to be called the Welby Prize, has been offered for the

best treatise upon the following subject: The causes of the present

obscurity in psychological and philosophical terminology, and the direc-

tions in which we may hope for efficient practical remedy. The committee

in charge consists of Prof. James Sully, London; Mr. G. F. Stout,

Aberdeen; Prof. E. B. Titchener, Cornell (Ithaca); Prof. Oswald

Kiilpe, Würzburg; and Prof. Emile Boirac, Paris. The papers may

be written in English, French or German, and are to be handed in

before January 1, 1898.

The Macmillan Co. announce a “ Dictionary of Philosophy and

Psychology,” which is now being prepared under the editorial super-

vision of Prof. Baldwin, of Princeton University. The topics in nor-

mal psychology are in charge of Prof. Cattell of Columbia University,

G. F. Stout, W. E. Johnson of Cambridge University, Prof. Titchener

of Cornell University, and the Editor; the department of mental patho-

logy and anthropology is assumed by Prof. Jastrow of Wisconsin

University, and that of biology by Prof. Lloyd Morgan of University

College, Bristol. The work is expected to be ready during the present

ear.

: Necrology.—Prof. J. Delbceuf, of the University of Liège, died at

Bonn on August 14, 1896, at the age of 65 years. In addition to his

1897.] Psychology. 251

works on hypnotism, which have given him an international reputa-

tion, he wrote on fatigue, sleep, the psycho-physical law and other ex-

perimental topics.

Prof. R. Avenarius, of the University of Zurich, editor of the Viertel-

jahrschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie, died on August 18, 1896.

Prof. M. W. Drobisch, of the University of Leipzig, died on Sept-

ember 30th, at the age of 94 years.

The following changes in the personel of various universities have

occurred during the year:

Mr. G. F. Stout, fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge, and editor

of Mind, has been appointed to the Anderson lectureship on compara-

tive psychology, recently founded at Aberdeen.

Prof. E. B. Delabarre, of Brown University, has been appointed

director of the psychological laboratory of Harvard University for the

year 1896-7, during the absence of Prof. Münsterberg. In the same

university J. E. Lough has been appointed instructor in experimental

psychology, and C. M. Bakewell instructor in psychology.

Dr. C. A. Strong, associate professor of psychology in the University

of Chicago, has been elected lecturer on psychology in Columbia Uni-

versity; Dr. Franz Boas has been appointed lecturer in physical an-

thropology, and S. I. Franz and L. B. McWhood have been appointed

fellows in psychology, in the same institution.

H. C. Warren has been appointed assistant professor of experimental

psychology in Princeton University ; J. F. Crawford has been appointed

demonstrator in experimental psychology.

At Bryn Mawr College, Prof. Lightner Witmer, of the University

of Pennsylvania, has been appointed to give a course in experimental

psychology, and Dr. H. T. Lukens, of Clark University, has been ap-

pointed professor of education.

Dr. Mark Wenley, late examiner in philosophy in the University of

Glasgow, and lecturer at the Queen Margaret College, has been ap-

pointed professor of philosophy in the University of Michigan; Dr.

Edgar Pierce has been appointed instructor in psychology.

Dr. Herbert Nichols, formerly instructor in psychology at Harvard

University, has been appointed lecturer in psychology at Johns Hop-

kins University. :

Dr. Guy Tawney, demonstrator in psychology in Princeton Univer-

sity has been appointed to the chair of philosophy in Beloit College,

Wisconsin, made vacant by the death of Prof. Blaisdell.

Dr. C. H. Judd has been appointed instructor in psychology at Wes-

leyan University.

252 The American Naturalist. [March,

Dr. Arthur Allin, honorary fellow in psychology at Clark University,

has been appointed professor of psychology and pedagogy in the Ohio

University at Athens.

Dr. C. A. Scott has been appointed to the chair of experimental

psychology and child-study at the Chicago Normal School.

Dr. E. L. Hinman, of Cornell, has been appointed instructor in

philosophy and psychology in the University of Nebraska.

Dr. Alice J. Hamlin, of Cornell, has been selected to teach psycho-

logy in Mount Holyoke Seminary.—H. C. Warren.

Studies in the Telegraphic Language.—In the Psychological

Review for January, Mr. Harter, of Indiana University, reports an

elaborate study of the telegraphic language. The whole study occupied

about three years, and consisted of three parts; a cross-examination of

many operators, novices as well as experts; an experimental study of

individual differences, by the use of the Marey drum; and a study of

the curve of improvement in sending and receiving. The following are

some of the most interesting results.

I. The character of telegraphy as a language.—Telegraphy is a true

language, in which operators are able to think. At a rapid rate of

receiving, separate words cannot be distinguished, but words and groups

of words are distinguished as wholes. Just as in reading, a gramma-

tical error in a message is at once detected by the receiver, even when

he gives no attention to the sense. An expert operator is able to follow

his own machine with its individual differences even in the midst of

louder machines, and when transferred to a new machine or to new sur-

roundings may be unable to receive. Operators are keenly alive to the

presence of those with whom they communicate ; so much so that novices

are often paralyzed by stage fright. External disturbances confuse

novices, but have no effect on experts. Subjective disturbances, while

they confuse or paralyze novices, render experts more fluent. Experts,

too, are able to express their emotions over the wire. Thus there 1s an

anger-flutter, during which the sender exhibits every physical sign of

passion. During the laughter signal, (an oft-repeated “ ha,”) on the

contrary, the sender exhibits no sign of humor, though his subjective

risibilities may be considerably excited.

II. Individual differences in sending.—Sixteen subjects were tested on

eight repetitions of the sentence: “Ship 364 wagons via Erie quick.”

The study of the records on the Marey drum involved about twenty

thousand measurements. From these were ascertained the relative

length for each person, first, of all the telegraphic elements ; second, of

1897.] Psychology. 253

the elements in the word “ via”; and third, of the elements in the letter

v, for six subjects. It was found that the individual variations in each

of these results had an identifying value for each individual, and that

these differences persisted through different rates of speed. These

variations are due to two factors, one accidental, standing in inverse

ratio to skill; the other intentional, corresponding to inflection in

speech. The latter factor is what gives operators so complete an ability

to recognize other operators across the wire.

I. The curve of improvement in learning.—The sending curve rises

more rapidly and more uniformly than does the receiving curve from

the beginning of practice to the learner’s maximum ability. In the

receiving curve there are two “ plateaus,” one just preceding the ordi-

nary telegraphic rate, and another, if the learner continues to practice

increasingly difficult work, just above it. It then rises again till it

crosses the sending curve. Experts can invariably receive more rapidly

than send. The slower rate of improvement in yeceiving is due partly

to an unavoidable lack of practice, together with greater pleasure in

sending. But the plateaus have a special significance ; for while they

exhibit no measureable improvement, they are indispensable condi-

tions of a more rapid improvement after they are passed.

Only intense effort educates in receiving. Even years of practice do

not assure improvement unless there is a constant increase in the diffi-

culties of the task. Every new step in advance seems to cost more than

the former.

This detailed and careful study of telegraphy proves with scientific

rigor that it is a true language, which becomes so thoroughly assimilated

that thinking apparently resolves itself into the telegraphic shorthand,

and which admits of delicate individual inflection and emotional ex-

pression. The principles, too, which underlie the process of acquiring

it may have important pedagogical applications.—J. FORSYTH CRAW-

FORD.

Mrs. Helen Gardener onthe Inheritence of Subserviency.

—Mrs. Helen Gardener is a frequent contributor to that highly spec-

ulative and rarely scientific Journal the Arena. At the Congress of

Mothers recently held in Washington she read a remarkable paper on

heredity. As reported in the daily press it calls for some remarks,

especially as it is stated that she says that her opinions “ deal with

demonstrable facts,” and that her “theme is scientific.” Her thesis is

that “self-abnegation, subserviency to man, whether he be father, lover,

or husband, is the most dangerous theory that can be taught to or

254 The American Naturalist. [March,

forced upon a woman. She has no right to transmit a nature and a char-

acter that is subservient, inefficient, undeveloped ”, ete. This opinion is

in large part based on the supposition that the mother’s physical influence

in heredity is greater than the father’s and that the mother’s mental

condition is more certainly transmitted to the child than is that of the

fathers. Now there is not the slightest scientific ground for such an

opinion. It is a common opinion among the breeders of domesticated

animals that the father transmits the mental, and the mother the

physical qualities. Whether this be generally so or not, it is well

known that in mankind the father’s mental characters are at least as

often transmitted as are those of the mother.

But one of the results of recent investigation into heredity is the

establishment of the general principle that characteristics which are of

a temporary or one-sexed character are not as easily transmitted as was

formerly supposed. The germ-cells are so protected that long periods

of time and long-continued influences are required to produce appreci-

able changes of character in a family or a race. This truth may spare

mothers a good deal of anxiety as to the effects of their conduct during

gestation, though of course unhygienic habits will produce diseased con-

ditions in children. This, however, is disease and not character.

But the development of adaptability of character is absolutely essen-

tial to the existence of the family and of society. Nature has placed

in the hands of the man the strength of body and mind to combat and

use her forces to a degree far exceeding that with which she has en-

dowed woman. It has, therefore, come about that woman has found

her most congenial as well as useful field in the family. Moreover the

perfect development of mankind requires that the altruistic traits shall

be fostered as well as the egoistic. The natural functions of woman

develop the former, while those of the man develop the latter. Fortun-

-ately it has results that both qualities have been inherited by each sex,

but with the predominance in each of that which is most necessary in

their respective fields. The course of human evolution has not tended

to unify the sexes, but to diversify them. This is a well-known result

of scientific research.

The paper of Mrs. Gardener has a distinct tendency to discourage

the beneficent and altruistic role which woman fills in civilized society,

and to strike at the root of that admirable adaptiveness of many

women, which is a guarantee of domestic harmony. And this is of

more importance to human civilization and development than any

theory as to woman’s so-called individual independence. Like al

1897,] Anthropology. 255

other theories of individualism and anarchism it tends of the destruc-

tion of coöperative life, which is in the family the basis of civilization.

This weli understood position does not mean the neglect by woman

of her intellectual life. In this she should be, as in her moral nature,

as much a guardian of human progress as the man. But in the moral

nature she should guard the altruistic, as man is forced to develop the

egoistic ; otherwise man is likely to develop egoism in excess, and

degenerate rather than advance in the scale of spiritual being.

E. D. Cope.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Mr. Wilson’s investigation of the Swastika Cross.—Two

lines intersecting at right angles, to form a cross, make a Swastika (as

the Buddists called it in Sanscrit) if you bend the ends of the four arms

in the same direction. Drawn, painted, cut, woven, scratched or other-

wise designed upon utensils, or objects of every day life, the interésting

figure appeared first, it seems, in the bronze (possibly polished stone

age) of Europe and though not found in the earlier chipped stone

(Neolithic) period, was discovered later among the Etruskans, Greeks,

and Troyans (at Hissarlik or Troy). It seems to have been unknown

in Assyria, Babylonia, Phoenicia and Egypt, but was used in India

before the Christian Era, and persists not only in the Orient but also

among the Finns and Lapps, and in remote corners of Europe, while

generally disused for the last thousand years in Christendom.

To establish its existence in the new world Mr. Wilson, in a hand-

somely illustrated volume (The Swastika by Thomas Wilson, Curator

Department of Prehistoric Anthropology, United States National

Museum, Washington Government printing office 1896) presents valu-

able evidence. His numerous illustrations show the figure carved on

shells from the Fains Island and Toes mounds, Tennessee, silhouetted

on the copper plates from the Hopewell tumuli in Ohio, doubtfully

painted on a water jug from Poinsett County, Arkansas, and carved on

à stone metate from Nicaragua and a slab of lime stone from Yucatan.

The Kansas Indians drew it on their song charts as shown, we see it

Woven in the bead-necklaces of the Sacs, painted on a gourd rattle of

the Pueblos and figured in the dry sand paintings of the Navajoes. So

the lucky sign we are told ornaments the bead work of the Kickapoos

t This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

256 The American Naturalist. [Mareh,

Pottawotamies and Iowas, and we are shown it decorating the bull hide

war-shields of the Pimas of Arizona and painted on the triangular

female waist covers “ (fig leaves) ” of the Caneotires river Indians of

Brazil.

The book enumerates the theories of those investigators who would

derive the Swastika from the sun, from the earth, from fertility, from the

meander design, from the cross, from the fire drill, from the four

quarters of the world, and of those who deny the possibility of account-

ing for it at all. But the interesting question raised by Mr. Wilson is

how did it get to America? In answer to which certain American

students would probably contend that it grew here, that the outline

is too simple to have required suggestion from abroad, that pre-Colum-

bian Americans might have taken to drawing, painting scratching or

stamping it on any object at any time, thus only showingthat the human

an mind under given environments acts similarly.

As opposed to this conservatism Mr. Wilson declines to class the

Swastika among the simple things such as the drawing of circles cres-

cent moons or animal tracks, the wearing of beads, or, I may add, the

habits of whistling, beckoning or nodding assent,’ ete., ete.—the easy

and inevitable things that all men think of spontaneously and without

suggestion from abroad. He will let the cross fall into this category

but not the Swastika. To twist the cross arms into a Swastika is, he

holds, an inconsequent after thought, and the figure is held to be pecu-

liar, difficult and suggestive. Always associated with luck among mod-

ern North American Indians, marked on the triangular waist cover of

the Brazilian Indian woman as upon the waist of the Goddess Artemis

excavated at Hissarlik, why, he asks, did it not migrate from Asia be-

fore Columbus, as had migrated the winged globe to Mesopotamia (from

Phoenicia and Egypt) the Greek fret to modern Europe (through Egypt

from Greece) the Northumberland rampant lion (through Flanders

from Albania) or the Austrian double headed eagle to Europe (through

the Emperor Frederic II from the Turcomans and Hittites.)

If it is as old as the European bronze age it is older than and might

have migrated before Buddhism (6th century B.C.). So that it would

not signify, as Mr. Wilson urges that no sure memento of Buddha

worship has been found with it in the United States.

2I do not know whether the fact that the modern Egyptians who are inveterate

singers, do not whistle has been noticed, but I heard no Arab o r Fe ellah whis istle

of nodding it to rrie and to beckon a oe — them, turn

- the right palm downward and motioned outward with the fingers

1897.] Anthropology. 257

Mr. Wilson does not claim to have presented more than a probability.

But as science asks for demonstration we must wait for assurance of the

trans Pacific origin of the American Swastika, well pleased with the

author’s interesting collection of evidence bearing upon the prob-

lem of the origin of American peoples.

The curious fact of the similarity in primitive weaving apparatus

common to the Old and New Worlds is brought out. Small perforated

discs, generally of earthenware, found in ancient Europe, the western

United States, Mexico and South America, have been identified as

whorls or weights for giving momentum to the spindle stick thrust

through them, when twirled by the spinner over the knee and let go,

Just as women in remote parts of Germany and France have continued

to whirl the spindle in recent years.

à Of several thousands of these whorls unearthed by Schliemann in the

city layers at Troy (Hissarlik), many were marked with the Swastika

and some with the cross, while, strange to say, as Mr. Wilson shows,

certain whorls from Mexico and South America exhibit likewise the

cross (not Swastika) design. As yet more clearly testifying to the use

of the cross as a symbol in ancient America upon spindle whorls,

I take pleasure in illustrating here a whorl found by me while

the present paper was in prepara-

tion, among the specimens entrust-

ed me for classification by the His-

torical Society of Bucks County,

Pennsylvania. It was recently ob-

tained by Mr. J. W. Detweiler, of

Bethlehem, from one of the an-

cient graves (probably pre-Colum-

bian), regarded as of great an-

tiquity by the modern natives, on

the Rio Cauca Valley in the Re-

public of Columbia. It might be

Per

mt a spindle whorl marked

orls found at prehistoric and proto

forated disc of earthenware, prob-

toric A = Europe with the cross

th mall eee n seen between

Pe arms on larger cross.

tag the Museum of a Historical So-

Pe y of Bucks County at Doy erin

Deal lvania. Obtain ed by Mr. . W.

tweiler, from ve

No.112. Actual sizé.

Indian ae

ca Valley, Republic of

held that many of the American

crosses shown by Mr. Wilson are,

(like the cross stamp,on an iron gas-

plate, S. W. corner 7th and Arch

streets, Philadelphia, that hap

pened to catch my eye as I stepped

on it yesterday), decorative inter-

sections of lines or patterns, rather

than symbols. In this specimen the

258 The American Naturalist. [March,

symbolic intent of eight small crosses between the arms of the larger cen-

tral cross seems clear. No reasonable skeptic could deny the emblem.

Its presence testifying to pre-Christian cross symbolism from the Lev-

ant to the Andes, stamping it upon one of the remarkable coincidences

in craft apparatus, common to the Old and New Hemispheres, adds

keenly to the interest of the object.

Mr. Wilson has tightened the lines about a theory, (that of parallel

development) which may go too far in admitting original migration

from Asia, but denying tokens of it. And the book adds weight to our

persuasion of the existence of many objects of ethnological import dis-

covered and undiscovered, which mean migration and race-contact after

all, and can no more be explained by the theory of human minds

working alike, than scarabs in Etruria— HENRY C. MERCER.

Exploration of Captain Theobert Maler in Yucatan.—

Archzeologists look with keen interest upon all researches made among

that remnant of the Maya Indians of Yucatan who have taken refuge

in the great forest. No less important the investigation which might

devote itself to other tribes still inhabiting the fastnesses of Chiapas

or Tabasco since it cannot be doubted that Archeological information

of value has been preserved by these descendants of the most highly

developed of aboriginal American peoples. Captain Theobert Maler

is at this moment on the point of setting out on an expedition to that part

of Tabasco inhabited by the Lacandones indians among whom he will

inquire particularly for the existence of glyptical signs and any

remembered trace of the art of hieroglyphic writing once character-

istic of their ancestors. He informs me that certain interesting ancient

industries are well preserved among them as for instance the making of

incense burners (of clay?) adorned with human faces and painted with

vivid colors, while the art of chipping arrow-heads and blades of flint

still flourishes. With great interest we would follow the details of his

search for a key that might open for us the long hidden meaning of the

Maya literature, though he fears that the knowlege of the ancient

symbols among the Lacandones, is entirely lost—H. C. MERCER.

Cave hunting in Syria.—At the entrance of several rock shelters

near Liban, Syria the Abbé Charles Moulier has recently found (see

La. Nature, 25th, July, 1896) a series of chipped flint blades “ well re-

presenting the types regarded as Mousterian, or of Reindeer age” in

France. These objects which are never associated with specimens of pol-

ished stone, are discovered bedded in a reddish hard breccia mixed wit

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 259 -

the bones of animals. But strange to say, though the blades judged by

their shape, are presumed by the finder to be (like their French dupli-

cates) of Quarternary age, the bones represent animals still living in

the country.

At two other surface sites El-Ouasahai and Santon, he finds a remark-

able mixture of stone implements some chipped and others polished,

together with innumerable potsherds, bits of marble, glass and mosaic

and flint blades of various sizes and shapes, where from an archwological

point of view it would appear that he had dug into several culture

periods at once, though judged by the stratification it has as yet

seemed impossible to make any distinction between epochs. A final

detailed report of the work will be awaited with interest—H. C.

MERCER.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Boston Society of Natural History.—February 8, 1897.—

The following paper was read: Mr. William C. Bates, “ Venezuela

and Guiana, their Natural History, Scenery and People.” —SAMUEL

Hensuaw, Secretary.

New York Academy of Sciences, Biological Section.—

January 11, 1897.—Dr. G. 8. Huntington read a paper entitled “A

Contribution to the Myology of Lemur bruneus.”

The paper deals with some of the ventral trunk muscles and the

4ppendicular muscles of the forelimb and pectoral girdle. A compari.

Son of the structure of these muscles with the corresponding parts in

other members of the suborder shows L. bruneus to possess marked

primate characters in the arrangement of the pectoral girdle muscles

and the muscles of the proximal segment of the anterior limb. This is

especially evident in the lateral recession of the pectorales; the com-

pound character of the ectopectoral insertion, the junctions of a pector-

alis abdominalis with the typical entopectoral insertion, and the chee gad

of an axillary muscular arch, derived from the tendons of the Latissimus

dorsi and connected with the deep plane of insertion of the ectopectoral

tendon. À

, The presence of a third or inferior portion of the coraco-brachialis

18 noted in addition to the upper and middle portion usually present in

the Lemuroidia,

260 The American Naturalist. [Mareh,

The ventral trunk muscles present a distinct carnivore type in their

arrangement, instanced by the high thoracic extension of the rectus

abdominalis, the occurrence of a well-developed supra costalis, the union

of levator scapule and serratus magnus, the thoracic extension of the

scalenus group—iuterlocking both with the serratus magnus and obli-

quus externus.

The aponeurosis of the obliquus externus presents a well-developed

division of the internal pillar of the external abdominal ring, dove-

tailing with the one from the opposite side and forming the triangular

ligament of the same.

Mr. H. E. Crampton, Jr., reported some of his “ Observations Upon

Fertilization in Gasteropods.”

The observations were made upon the eggs of a species of Doris, col-

lected last summer on the Pacific coast by Mr. Calkins, and upon à

species of Bulla which deposited eggs at Woods Holl during the months

of August and September. The results may best be summarized by

stating that a complete confirmation was obtained of the accounts of

fertilization given by Wilson and Mathews, Boveri, and Hill for sea-

urchins, Meade for Cheetopterus, Kostanecki and Wiejyewski for Physa,

etc. The sperm nucleus is preceded by the divided centrosome ; an aster,

however, not being found till the union of the germ-nuclei. The first

polar spindle lies at each pole a double centrosome, the second matura-

tion spindle but one. These are of great size, however, and the one re-

maining in the egg finally disintegrates, the centrosome of the first cleav-

age spindle being derived from the sperm. The germ-nuclei do not

fuse, but lie very close to one another, in contact.

r. N. R. Harrington gave an account of the life history of Ento-

concha, a mollusc parasitic in a Holothurian. His paper was illus-

trated by photographs.

The following paper was read by title: N. R. Harrington and B. B.

Griffin, “ Notes on the Distribution, Habits and Habitat of Some Puget

Sound Invertebrates.” —C. L. BRISTOL, Secretary.

Torrey Botanical Club.—At the annual meeting of the Torrey

Botanical Club, beld Tuesday evening, January 12, 1897, six new active

and two corresponding members were elected. Resolutions of sorrow

were adopted regarding the death of Mr. Wm. H. Rudkin, one of the

oldest members, the discoverer of the hybrid oak Quercus Rudkinu.

Annnal reports were presented by the standing committees and officers.

It was resolved to print a list of the desiderata of the herbarium of plants

growing within 100 miles of the city. The Treasurer reported a cash

1897,] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 261

balance of $56.89 in the regular fund, and $514.14 in the Buchanan

und,

The Recording Secretary, Dr. Rusby, reported an average attendance

of 31 persons at the 15 meetings held during the year, 2 deaths, a net

gain in active membership of 28, a present active membership of 219,

corresponding membership 150, honorary membership 4, scientific

papers presented 37, of which 22 had been published. Several hundred

new species and a number of new genera had been communicated, and

there had been a marked increase in the attention given to anatomical

and cryptogamic subjects.

The Editor reported that Vol. 23 of the Bulletin had aggregated 548

pages and 34 full-page plates, and that two numbers of the Memoirs,

aggregating 206 pages, had been issued. There was a cash balance from

publications of $48.09 in addition to the balance already reported by

the Treasurer.

The officers for 1897 were elected as follows: President, Addison

Brown ; Vice-Presidents, T. H. Allen, H. H. Rusby ; Treasurer, Henry

Ogden ; Recording Secretary, Edward 8. Burgess ; Corresponding Secre-

tary, John K. Small; Editor, N. L. Britton; Associate Editors, Emily

L. Gregory, Arthur Hollick, Anna McVail, B. D. Halsted, Lucien

M. Underwood ; Curator, Helen M. Ingersoll; Librarian, William E.

Wheelock. |

The scientific program of the evening included papers by Mr. A. J.

Grout and Dr. N. L. Britton.

In the first paper, “ Notes on Some American Brachythecia,” Mr.

Grout compared the principles of classification employed by the two

prominent bryologists, Schimper and Lindberg, and stated his reasons

for preferring those of the latter to those of the former. He then

exhibited and remarked upon four American species of Brachythecium,

oa expressed the opinion that they represent a genus distinct there-

rom.

The paper will be published in full in the Bulletin.

Dr. Britton’s paper was upon “Linum Virginianum and its Rela-

tives.” He illustrated the chief distinguishing characteristics of the

Species of Linum of the Virginianuwm group, and dwelt particularly

upon the claims to specific rank of L. Virginianum medium Walter.

—Epwarp S. BURGESS, Secretary.

American Philosophical Society.—February 5th.—This be-

ing one of the three meetings during the year at which special subjects

are considered, the Committee on Programme selected “ The Genesis

262 The American Naturalist. [March,

and Chemical Relations of Petroleum and Natural Gas,” and invited

Professor S. P. Sadtler to open the subject. Professors S. F. Peckham,

of Ann Harbor, Mich., C. F. Mabery, of Cleveland, O., and F. C.

Phillips, of Allegheny City, Pa., presented their views from either the

geological or chemical standpoint, or both. Profs. Edw. Orton and J.

P. Lesley were also invited to participate in the discussion.

Biological Club of the University of Pennsylvania.—

February 1st Program.—Original communication: “Account of the

Boston Meeting of the Society of American Naturalists,” Profs. Mac-

farlane, Conklin and Cope. Demonstration: “A Fossil Micro-fungus

of the Coal Measures,” Dr. J. M. Macfarlane. Reviews—Psychologi-

cal, Dr. Lightner Witmer.—H. C. Porter, Seerctary.

The Ohio State Academy of Science held its winter meeting

at Columbus, December 29th and 30th. The attendance and papers

read show that this society is now well past the critical period of

infancy. The Presidential address, by Professor Albert A. Wright,

was an argument in favor of State coöperation with the U. S. Geologi-

cal Survey for the production of a topographic map of Ohio. The pro-

posal was heartily endorsed by the academy, and a committee appointed

to take steps toward carrying it out.

Prof. D. S. Kellicott gave a list of ten fresh-water sponges in Ohio,

with their localities ; also, additions to his list of the Odonata of the

State, bringing the number up to 94.

Additions to the list of Ohio pheenogams, including altogether about

twenty native and nearly as many introduced species, with new stations

for other rare species, were given by Edo Claassen, of Cleveland ; A. D.

Selby, of the Agricultural Experiment Station; W. A. Kellerman, of

the State University, and E. L. Moseley, of Sandusky.

“Additions to Ohio Fungi,” by F. L. Stevens, gave as new to the list

eight genera, eighty-five species, ten new hosts, and thirteen new locali-

ties. Fungi new to the State list were reported also by A. D. Selby and

Edo Claasen.

E. L. Moseley reported a bird new to Ohio, the murre, Uria troile,

whose occurrence on the Great Lakes has been doubted. Two were

shot at Put-in-Bay, December 19th, and on the same day two near San-

dusky.

_ Lynds Jones gave a detailed account of a grackle-roost on the college

campus at Oberlin. The old males began coming to the roost at night,

May 16th, while incubation was in progress; later, the females and

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 263

young. The number during July, August and September averaged

6,000. Berries and green corn formed the bulk of the diet.

Prof. Claypole read a short paper on the Potato-rot Fungus, giving

considerable evidence to show that the infection of the tukers from the

parasite upon the leaves is not through the stem, but by the conidia

falling to the ground and penetrating the tubers at the eyes.

“A Peculiar Case of Spore Distribution,” by F. L. Stevens, cites with

photographic evidence the distribution of spores of Uncinula necator by

animal agency, probably a snail.

“An Anatomical Abnormality in the Human Hand,” by E. W.

Claypole, mentions a skeleton in which there were two scaphoid bones

on both the right and left side.

“Os acetabuli,” by Lynds Jones, describes this important secondary

element of the os innominatum, which has been ignored by the major-

ity of anatomists.

Gerard Fowke gave an account of archeological work in Pike County,

and Warren K. Moorehead made remarks on a State archelogical map.

Among the most interesting and important papers was one by Mr. E.

E. Masterman, of New London, O., giving an account of the finding of

a grooved stone axe, the material of which was profoundly oxydized at

a depth of 22 feet in glacial drift or in the top of the boulder clay. The

circumstances were such that every opportunity of mistake was appar-

ently eliminated, and there seems to be no possibility of escaping the

conclusion that the implement is a genuine relic of human workmanship

which dates back to the later part of the ice age, when streams of water

from the melting glacier deposited the sheets of gravel and clay which

cover the plain of New London. Full details of the “ find ” have been

published by Prof. E. W. Claypole in the November number of the

American Geologist, to which the reader is referred.

Mr. Masterman exhibited also several other specimens, but none from

80 great a depth as the axe.

A list of Ohio Crambids was given by J. S. Stine, also a paper on

“Museum Pests and Their Treatment,” and one on “A Few Green-

house Insects.” E.W. Claypole presented a list of butterflies found in

Summit County, and a paper on a peculiar katydid. Prof. Kellicott

described a dragon-fly nymph from a thermal spring in California.

Prof. F. M. Webster read a long and interesting paper on “ Biological

Effects of Civilization on the Insect Fauna of Ohio,” and another on

“The Protective Value of Action, Volitional or Otherwise, in Protective

Mimicry.”

264 The American Naturalist. [March,

“Rev. H. Herzer gave a paper on “ Sears theta a number

of large specimens from the coal measures of

Prof. E. W. Claypole gave an account of a scaninids deposit in the

Carboniferous Conglomerate at Cuyahoga Falls, in which were found

countless bones of a small tortoise, a few bones and teeth of the beaver,

and some fragments of the skeleton of a deer.

Prof. W. G. Tight read papers on “ The Preglacial Big Kanawha

Drainage” and “A Preglacial Channel in Fairfield County.” Ina

paper on “ Huronite,” by Prof. A. A. Wright, he proposed the use of

the name “ huronite diabase,” as a petrographical term in tracing the

distribution of boulders. ‘ New Evidence Upon the Structure of Di-

nichthys,” by A. A. Wright, was a resume of the evidence now existing

as to whether the median element of the ventral armor of this Devon-

ian fish consisted of a single plate only, as argued by Dr. Newberry, or

of two plates, an anterior median and a posterior median, such as exist

in Coccosteus, its British congener. In one species of Dinichthys indis-

putable evidence of two plates exists.

A key - eae the land mollusca of Ohio was presented by

Dr. V. Ste

The ‘ities pipers read were: “A Simple Method of Inbedding Plant

Tissues in Gelatin,” E. M. Wilcox and J. W. T. Duvel; “Some Pre-

servatives for Fresh-Water Algæ,” Miss L. C. Riddle; “A Mode ot

Preserving Specimens for Class Use,” E. W. Claypole; “Some Inter-

esting Leaf Variations” and “Note on Cornus florida,” Mrs. Keller-

man ; “ Notes on Ustilaginex,” Aug. D. Selby ; “A Hybrid Impatiens,”

F. L. Stevens; “Two Hydmuns,” E. L. Fulmer; “Additions to the

List of Exogens of Cayuhoga County,” Carl Krebs; “Some Adapta-

tions in Fungi” and “ Comment on a Phase of Botanical Instruction,”

W. A. Kellerman ; “ Explorations of Norse Remains on Charles River,

Mass.,” Gerard Fowke ; “ How Do Glaciers Move?” John J. Janney :

“Two Rare Fishes,” Roy C. Osburn.

The academy appointed a committee to endeavor to induce the legis-

lature to amend the game laws, and passed a resolution to be forwarded

to Senator Sherman, protesting against the passage of the bill proposing

to prohibit vivisection in the District of Columbia.

‘The officers elected for 1897 are as follows: Pres., W. A. Kellerman,

Columbus ; 1st Vice-Pres., Dr. C. E. Slocum, Defiance; 2d Vice-Pres.,

J. B. Wright, Wilmington; Sec., E. L. Moseley, Sandusky ; Treas.,

D. S. Kellicott, Columbus. Executive Committee (elective members) :

L. H. McFadden, Westerville; W. M. Hill, East Liverpool—E. L.

MoseELEy, Secretary, Sandusky, Ohio.

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 265

Eleventh Annual Session of the Iowa Academy of Sci-

ences.—The Iowa Academy in its eleventh annual session at Des °

Moines, Dec. 29th and 30th, 1896 enjoyed one of its most profitable

sessions. The papers presented were as follows. :

Prof. S. Calvin, “ The State Quarry Limestone,” discussed a series of

limestone ledges in Johnson Co., Iowa, which are of Devonian(?) age

and consist of comminuted parts of brachiopods, crinoids, etc., some of

them deserving to rank as a brachiopod coquina. Its unconformability

on the Cedar Valley limestone shows an erosion period not hitherto

suspected in the Devonian and is evidently one of long duration. The

fauna of the’formation included the Devonian Ptyctodus and the sub-

carboniferous Psephodes among the rich fish remains and also brachio-

` pods showing affinities to the carboniferous forms.

©. R. Keyes, “ Stages of the DesMoines or Chiey coal-bearing series

of the Kansas and southwest Missouri and their equivalents in Iowa,”

also, in conjunction with R. R. Rowley (read by title), “ Vertical

Range of Fossils at Louisiana.”

A. G.j{Leonard, “Natural Gas in the Drift of Iowa” enumerates

localities where natural gas occurs in the state and discusses its origin.

Of the coal measures shales and the vegetable remains in the drift as

possible sources the author concluded that for the Iowa localities the

latter is the probable one.

J. L. Tilton, “ Results of Recent Geological work in Madison Co.”

describes the"geological formations of the county and discusses partic-

ularly the relation of preglacial to present drainage system.

G. E. Finch, “A Drift Section at Oelwein” described minutely an

exposure recently brought to light in a railroad cut showing three dis-

tinct till sheets.

S. G. Beyer, “Evidence of a Sub-Aftonian Drift in Northeastern

Towa.” Deduces from evidence at Oelwein, Albion and other points

the extension of the Sub-Aftonian to this portion of the state.

T. H. Macbride, “The Botany of a Pre-Kansan Peat-bed ” described

recognizable plants occurring in the drift section exposed at Oelwein.

B. Shimek, “ Observations on the Surface Deposits of Iowa ” gave

additional observations in support of his view presented at the last

annual meeting of the Academy that the loess formation of western

Towa were of aeolian origin. :

The same author in “The Flora of the Sioux Quartzite in Iowa,”

listed the species observed on this formation and discussed their relation

to the flora of the other parts of the state, ‘‘ Notes on the Aquatic

Plants of Northern Iowa” also by the same author was devoted mainly

to the flowering species occurring in ponds and lakes.

266 5 The American Naturalist. [March,

Bruce Fink in “Spermaphyta of the Fayette Iowa Flora” presented

‘a list of about 700 species of plants collected for that locality.

T. Z. Fitspatrick, “ Notes on the Flora of Iowa,” a short list of species

new to the state or but little known to its flora.

G. W. Newton, “ The Mechanism for securing Cross fertilization in

Salvia lanceolata.”

L. N. Pammel, “ Notes on some Introduced plants in Iowa.”

Emma Sirrine, “ A Study of the Leaf Anatomy of some species of

the Genus Bromus.”

Emma Pammel, “ A Comparative Study of the Leaves of Lolium,

Festuca and Bromus.”

C. B. Weaver, “ Anatomical Studies of the Leaves of Certain Species

of the Genus Andropogon.”

C. R. Ball, “Some Anatomical Studies of the Leaves of Eragrostis.”

The four papers above, gave extended details of anatomy bearing

particularly on the value of such characters as means of separating

species or varieties,

Gilbert L. Houser, “The Uses of Formaldehyde in Animal Morphol-

ogy.” Advantages and disadvantages; uses in Neurological work,

also in “ The Nerve cells of the Shark’s Brain” discussing morpholog-

ical importance, features of structure, and details the results reached by

use of the Golgi method.

L. S. Ross read three papers “Some Manitoba Cladocera with De-

scription of One New Species.” “ A New Species of Daphnia, and

Brief Notes on Other Cladocera of Iowa.” “The Illinois Biological

Station.”

F. A. Binning (by title) “The Probable life-history of Crepidodera

cucumeris.’

Charles Carter, of Fairfield discussed the Odonata of Iowa in some

preliminary remarks and requested correspondence on the group.

E. D. Ball, “ Notes on the Orthopterous Fauna of Iowa.”

A. H. Conrad, “ The Ophidia of Iowa ” remarked on the changes in

the fauna of the state and the desirability of a prompt study of the

oup.

che Osborn, “ Additions to the Hemipterous Fauna of Iowa”

lists of number of species not hitherto recorded.

In Business session, among other items, resolutions were passed oppos-

ing anti-vivisection laws in the District of Columbia and a subseription

was voted to the Pasteur Monument Fund.

The following officers were elected for the coming year :

W.S. Franklin, President ; T. H. Macbride, Vice-President ; B. Fink,

2nd. Vice-President; Herbert Osborn, Secretary and Treasurer; L.S.

1897.] Scientifie News. 267

Ross, J. L. Tilten and C. C. Bates to serves with officers as elective

members of executive committee—HrRBERT OSBORN, Secretary.

Botanical Seminar of the University of Nebraska.—Jan-

uary 16.—At the regular monthly meeting. De Alton Saunders pres-

ented a paper upon “ The Relations of the Laboulbeniacez to the Red

Seaweeds,” illustrated by blackboard sketches of their structure.

January 23.—This adjourned meeting was devoted to a Symposium

upon “Systematic Mycology” led by Roscoe Pound, who spoke first

upon “The Relation of Morphology to Classification” and then upon

“Schroeter’s Arrangement considered as a Modification of the Brefeld-

ian Arrangement.” Hs was followed by Dr. Bessey on “ The Natural

Arrangement of the Fungi,” and F. E. Clements on “Suggestions for

a Re-arrangement of the Higher Fungi.”

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

A Prorest.—I am sure that I voice the opinions of a large number

of naturalists when I protest against a tendency very strong in some

localities to rename things already well named. It would even appear

to an outsider that these persons must think that by this introduction of

new names they were greatly advancing science. To me it seems that

they must be clogs to the wheels of progress. One must needs know a

double or even a triple nomenclature to read their papers intelligently,

and this learning of these new names is, as Col. Lyman has expressed it,

“like saw-dust swallowing, neither palatable nor nutritious.”

As an example of what I mean I may cite the article on “ Formal ”

in the January number of THE AMERICAN NaturRALIst. Weare told

there that “ the term formaldehyde is a cumbersome one” and “ formal ”

is suggested as a substitute. Shall, therefore, every cumbersome name

be discarded? Do not the constituent parts of the name mean some-

thing? - Is not the name of the sea-urchin of northern New England—

Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis—cumbersome? Must we, therefore,

change it ?

If we must change the names of these substances, of these things, be-

cause of their sesquipedalian names, let us take some pains with the

substitutes proposed. Formal for formaldehyde is unfortunate. Formal-

dehyde has the formula H-CHO. By the rules of chemical nomen-

clature the term “ formal” would mean a compound like acetal, one

which would have the formula H-CH-(OE), and hence the endeavor

to get rid of a cumbersone term introduces a worse confusion. It is,

to quote Waterhouse Hawkins’ pun, bewildering.

—A COMPARATIVE ANATOMIST.

268 The American Naturalist. [Mareh,

Again we are to use the term formal for formaldehye both for this sub-

stance itself and for its solution in water. Is this not adding to confus-

ion? Formalin, we are told is a term which has no meaning. From

the standpoint of chemical terminology this is true but from another

standpoint it is not. It is an arbitrary term introduced into the

language to denote a forty per cent. solution of formaldehyde in water

and as such it has a distinct meaning and, on the ground of convenience,

a very great value.

In the same article are other illlustrations of just this same tendency

against which I protest. There are incidentally mentioned axon, alba,

tela, and the like and one trained in the nomenclature of universal use

has to refer to a large series of papers in order to ascertain just what is

meant by all of these expressions. I can see no reason why the term

notochord is not good enough for anyone; it is descriptive, and it has

but a single meaning which cannot by any possibility be confused. How

about its proposed substititue “axon” I have not taken the trouble

to look up the reasons for substituting this term. On its face it would

seem to imply something pertaining to the axis (of the body). But is

the notochord really axial? As far as the vertebral centres are con-

cerned it is, but beyond this it is not, and to just this extent it is a mis-

nomer. So far as any higher metazoan may be said to have an axis,

that axis is the alimentary tract.

These I merely instance as examples of what I protest against. The

terminology of modern zoology is sufficiently overloaded already with

terms and this attempt so persistently made in certain quarters to give

us in addition an almost complete series of synonyms is most aggravat-

ing. I would suggest to these would be reformers that there is no little

truth in Goethes’ lines when he says that reality “ ist alles

* Name ist Schall und Rauch.

Umnebelnd Himmelsgluth.

CoMPARATIVE ANATOMIST.

Emil du Bois-Raymond.—The well known physiologist, profes-

sor of physiology at the University of Berlin, founder of the Physio-

logical Institute, and perpetual Secretary of the Berlin Academy, died

December 26th after a severe illness. Prof. du Bois-Raymond was

born, November 7, 1818 in Berlin, where his father, who had begun life

as a match maker, had attained considerable eminence. His early

education was received at the College Francais in Berlin and later at

the College of Neuchatel. At the age of eighteen he entered the

University of Berlin and was matriculated in the Philosophical Fac-

ulty.

1897]. Scientific News. 269

At first he was much interested in electricity and attended the lect-

ures of Neander. But about 1837 he took up seriously the work in

which he became so well known. After some time spent with mathe-

matics, physics and chemistry, he began studies under J. Miiller, and

somewhat later became his assistant.

His being asked in 1841 by Miiller to repeat the observations of Mat-

teucci in his essay “Sur les phénoménes électriques des animaux,” pub-

lished at Paris a year previously, led to the historical studies that he

embodied in his dessertation for the degree of D. M. (Que apud verteres

de piscibus electricis extant argumanta ”), and to the discovery of the

main facts of modern electro-physiology. In 1858 hesucceeded Miiller

as Professor of Physiology at Berlin, and in 1867 was chosen secretary

of the Berlin Academy. As a result of his forethought the Berlin

laboratory became the model for similar laboratories the world over,

for the plans upon which the palatial building in Neu Wilhelmstrasse

was erected after the Franco German war, were of his designing.

His papers are numerous, but his great work is that “ On animal

electricity,” the first volume of which appeared in 1848 andthe last

only about ten yearsago. In 1878 he published his “collected papers,”

which comprise all of his scientific work done up to that time except

what had been embodied in his “'Thierische Elektricitat.” The his-

torical introduction contained in the first few chapters of his“ Animal

Electricity,” his essay on university organization (1870), that on the

present and the past of physiological teaching, and on the relations of

natural history to natural science (1878), that on the limits of natural

knowledge (1882) are well known.

The real greatness of the man consisted, not in the theories that he

put forth, but in the exactitude of his observations, the excellence of his

methods, and the large number of new relations that he discovered

between physical and vital phenomena, As Ludwig taught the world

how to investigate the mechanics of the circulation, and as Helmholz

how to determine the time-relations of physiological processes of very

short duration, du Bois-Raymond not only opened a new field for

investigation, but also furnished the means of working it.

Like other great teachers he founded a school, and if his pupils were

not so numerous as those of some other greater teachers, they occupy

very important academical positions. (See “ Nature”).

Prof. Francis E. Lloyd, who now holds a position in the Pacific

University, Forest Grove, Oregon, has been appointed professor of bio-

logical science in the Teachers College.

The Danish Paleontologist, Henrik Julian Posselt, died July 20,

1896. He was connected with the museum in Copenhagen and was a

Student of Molluscs and Molluscoids.

270 The American Naturalist. [March,

Dr. Stuhr goes to the University of Breslau as assistant in the Ana-

tomical Tnstitut, in the place of Dr. H. Endres who went some time

ago to tLe University of Halle.

Dr. N. Tschermak, of St. Petersburg, succeeds Prof. Barfurth as pro-

fessor of comparative anatomy and embryology in the University of

Dorpat.

Mr. Fernand Latush calls the attention of correspondents to the fact

that his present address in Cadellac-sur-Garonne, Gironde, France.

Dr. Auguste Louis Brot, conchologist, died Aug. 30th, at the age of

75 ; for forty years, he was connected with the museum at Geneva.

Dr. V. Goldschmidt has been advanced to the position of professor

extraordinarius of mineralogy in the University of Heidelberg.

J. C. Willis, formerly assistant in botany in the University of Glas-

gow, has gone as Director to the botanical garden in Ceylon.

Professor F. Jeffrey Bell has resigned his position as professor of com-

parative anatomy in Kings College, London.

T. S. Hart, of Melbourne, is appointed tutor in geology and botany

in the School of Mines, Ballarat, Australia.

Dr. Theodor Margo, Professor of zoology in the University of Budu-

pesth, died Sept. 5th, 1896, aged 80 years.

Dr, A. V. Fomin has been appointed assistant in the botanical gar-

den of the University of Dorpat.

N. Riidinger, professor of anatomy in the University, of Munich,

died Aug. 25, aged 64 years.

Dr. N. Andrussow, of St. Petersburg, takes the chair of geology in

the University of Dorpat.

Dr. Jensen was recently appointed privat-docent in physiology in

the University of Halle.

Dr. R. Zander, assistant in botany in the agricultural school in

Berlin, died Sept. 10.

Dr. F. Tognini is now conservator of the botanical garden of the

University of Pavia.

Th. Hick, instructor in botany in Owens College, Manchester, is dead,

at the age of 56.

Dr. Fritz Westhoff, privat-docent in the Akademie of Miinster, died

Nov, 11, 1896.

Dr. v. Dungern is now docent in bacteriology in the University of

Freiberg.

Dr. Braus is now privat-docent in zoology in the University of Jena.

Maurice Chaper, Malacologist, died in Paris July 5, 1896.

L. Rudolph, botanist, of Berlin, is dead at the age of 83.

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THE

AMERICAN

NATURALIST

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE.

NAGING EDITORS

Pror. E: D, COPE, Philadelphia, Pa., and Dr, F. C. KENY ON, Washington, D. ©,

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a a c. WARREN, boas: ERWIN F. ar oy AREAS D. C;

Vol. XXXI. ” APRIL, 1897.

CONTENTS.

PAG

Tue Score anp PRESENT POSITION. OF BIOCHEM- R S hoe and Polybasite—Niscellareous

ISTRY. Albert Mathews 271

Tue PÓLYPHYLETIC DISPOSITION OF Lick ae e P EAT EE Fossil Mi

Frederick Clemionts. 277 | erococci—Geology of _ Luang nies The

Fosstis AND FOSSILIZATION, ( aueranr ok Position of the Chico-Tejon Beds— The e posit-

_ P. Gratacap. 285 | ion of the Periptychidai- Alasa Bea

Some P ANTTOPA davai WITH DESCRIPTION Michigan—Lake Joe SAIRE Preistorie Dog

o E NEw SPECIES. ae S.: Ross. 298 Rowan Nev

: eon hin SEA- NOES ` E. Verrill. 304 Eois aera hole Species of of F jogi from Various ;

DITORS TAB i Hote ries——

eatio i Rl ec Taxat Science- = Zoology — Param œba e eilhardii—Diplodal

W ashineton AY point A : - 30g | Sponge-Chambers— —The Asymetry of Sse er

RECENT LITERATU soa Sudwo oth’ "g No Ee “i Ag: and the Ph yiogenins Relationships gi * a

ure of the Aborescent Flora of the United ine permanant a ata on ye

States—Atlas und Grundriss der Bakterio- Limulus—Elassoma zonatum East of the App.

ne May Lehrbuch der dy x sary Daat lachian M untains— l TA

iologischen Diagnostik—Science Sketches on

í Entomology—The Fauna of the Lanei

acute logy =e Reeg. R TEE n 310 | Grande Va illey—Life-history of Xylina—N

Recent Bo 394 | 0n Dragon-flies— —Changes of Intestinal Fpith

6 OKS AND Pawruiets. ale tt « 8241 dm in Tenebrio |

Tolna Physiolagy -Dreams Courtship of Grassh

Petrography — “Tt alian Petrography—The 326 } pers

= eA hese in the Ruhr V ‘alley Tka est- Anshr opoleg y — Recent Pile Struetures made hy

alla Eclogite of the Fichtelgebirge— g I ‘dians im East Fi A

Nodular Granite from Finland—Volcanic As sh Sg oti raha s in South Americas + seller:

Diabase pih ` Bagh aE ASP aap er ane 396 Microscopy—A Method of Preparing Rotifers.

Mi ilay — The $ Bis teation a of Pre PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. «4 45 9%

Stones i in 1395—The aoine Matter of Minar oie NEWS. he oe ee

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[mHE FOLLOWING ARE A FEW FACTS AS TO THE WORK

OF “NATURAL SCIENCE” DURING 1895.

: 2 TURAL SCIENCE for 1895 has published contributions from

104 distinguished writers.

ATURAL SCIENCE, for 1895 has published 63 specially contrib-

uted Articles in all branches of Zoology, Botany, and Geology,

besides the large July number, oprauang the results of the

tf Challenger ” » Expedition.

TURAL SCIENCE for 1895 has published 24 full-page Plates

‘illustrating the above-mentioned articles.

i TURAL SCIENCE for 1895 has reviewed 100 Books, and no-

ticed 340 Papers, Pamphlets and Periodicals.

ATURAL SCIEN CE for 1895 has contained 45 Text-figures.

NATURAL SCIENCE for 1895 has given Obituary Notices of 53

n en of: science, and recorded more briefly the deaths of 77 more.

RAL SCIENCE for 1895 has announced 210 Appointments.

URAL SCIEN CE for 1895 has given the news of 67 Muse-

ums, and of all the leading Societies and Universities. ‘

The - statements can be verified by anyone who will buy the Vol-

e. for 1895, which contain 885 large 8vo pages, ana are sold for

Specimen copies, post free, 15 cts.

art from the high character of the contents, as shown by the

at nce of the contributors, and as testified to by the Scientific and |

Press of all Countries, the above facts show that NATT é

Eis the Cheapest as well as the Best Scientific p al

AL, SCIENCE for 1896 hopes to accomplish no less 3

will be sent post free for 3 dollar bille and 30.8 ‘ets. Logs eae

gle numbers, 30 cts.

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

Ul. wa AK. April, 1897. 364

THE SCOPE AND PRESENT POSITION OF BIO-

CHEMISTRY.

By ALBERT MATHEWS.

The practical value of pure science is now so generally re-

cognized that no excuse need be given for a plea on behalf of

a neglected department. Especially is this true of a depart-

ment which so closely concerns our bodily welfare as does

physiological, or bio-, chemistry. This science has not received

in America that recognition and support which its importance

as an applied or pure science would warrant. This may be due,

in part, at least, to a failure to realize that to biochemistry

belong problems outside the scope of any other science ; it may,

therefore, not be out of place to indicate briefly what some of

these problems are, and to what position, in the world at large,

this new science has now attained.

Although it is impossible to define sharply the limits of a

science it may be said, in a general way, that to biochemistry

belong all problems of the chemistry of living matter, or of the

chemistry of metabolism. It is thus the complement of the

group of sciences treating of the forms and relationships of

organisms, botany and zoology, and of the mechanics of organ-

isms, or physiology proper. Touching each of these sciences

closely, it receives from each special problems for solution.

272 The American Naturalist. [April,

Among the more important problems of plant biochemistry

are the chemical nature of chlorophy]l, the nature and manner

of action of the starch-forming substance, the determination of

the substances out of which the plant synthesizes its protoplasm,

and the nature of this synthesis. In bacteriology the biochem-

ist has a wide field for work. The isolation of the specific im-

munizing substance in the antitoxins of diphtheria, tetanus

and other cases of artificial immunity, is a matter of great

practical importance. There is pressing need of a chemical

examination of the bacteria and their products, whether poi-

sonous or not. The determination of the active substance in

such bodies as the tubercle bacilli, which cause cell prolifera-

tion, is an interesting matter which might havea considerable

practical value.

In physiology, biochemistry has hitherto played its chief

role in the study of excretion and digestion. The results ob-

tained have thrown light on the functions of many organs. An

interesting question of physiology at the present time is that of

the internal secretions of glands. It is becoming increasingly

probable that these form an important element in the coördi-

nation of the organism, one organ or gland forming and throw-

ing back into the blood substances essential to the life of some

other organ. The determination of these substances, of such

preeminent importance to the organism, is a biochemical

problem. The isolation of the contractile substance in muscle,

the chemical changes undergone by muscle and nerve during

activity, the nature of the irritable substance of the nervous

system, are puzzles which fall to the biochemist. Our knowledge

of the chemical constitution of the fluids and tissues of the body

in health and disease is derived from this science.

In the province of biology the ultimate aim, however distant

the goal may be, is the analysis and synthesis of living matter

itself. The explanation of the formation of new protoplasm

will probably come from the biochemist. He must isolate and

examine the various substances in the cell. That this field is

full of promise is evident from the results already obtained.

Morphology, too, furnishes its quota of problems. The influence

of certain substances upon embryonic development is in part

1897.] Scope and Present Position of Biochemistry. 273

chemical. We are now familiar with the progressive differenti-

ation of organs from the egg, but of the nature of the chemical

differentiation which this structural differentiation implies

little is as yet known. Whether the chromatins of the cells

derived from the egg are different from that of the egg-cell,

and in what way, is a question of theoretical interest to be

answered definitely only by biochemical research. The de-

termination of the chemical nature of the substance causing

cell division, karyokinesis, of the substances formed, and of

the nature of the changes undergone, is essential to the under-

standing of this process. The answer to these questions may

be of value in the explanation of tumors and other pathologi-

cal growths involving karyokinesis. |

Biochemistry has perhaps its chief practical worth in medi-

cine. The physician it serves not only indirectly through the

solution of physiological and bacteriological problems, but

directly in testing the action of drugs and diets upon metabol-

ism, and in the careful study of the urine and blood in health

and disease. The physician is thus given an accurate means

of diagnosis in certain diseases. An interesting result accom-

plished recently in this direction has been the discovery of the

origin of uric acid, a substance of considerable pathological

interest, in the chromatin of the cell-nuclei, and thereby a pos-

sible explanation is given of the action of quinine, antipyrin,

and antifebrin, in decreasing the secretion of this substance.

Another practical biochemical problem important in medi-

cine is the isolation from glands and other organs of their so-

called “internal” secretions already mentioned. Hitherto, in

treating myxcedema, goitre, or Addison’s disease, by the so-

called extract therapie, physicians have used either the whole

substance of the thyroid, or thymus glands and the suprarenal

capsules, or extracts of these organs—a process which intro-

duces useless as well as healing matter. It would be advanta-

geous to use the pure remedial substance alone. In one of these

organs this is now possible, two biochemists having recently

isolated the healing substance from the thyroid gland so that

it is now prepared pure for the physician. It is not too much

to hope that similar substances will be isolated from other

274 The American Naturalist. [April,

glands and organs, and that the physician of the future will

be able partly to maintain the metabolic equilibrium of the

body, or to restore that equilibrium when disturbed, by supply-

ing the missing substances.

The composition of the yeast-cell, its metabolism when fed

on different substances and under different conditions, the de-

termination of the sugars which it will, or will not ferment, and

the isolation of its special ferments, are problems important for

the brewer, the winemaker and the baker.

The questions thus brifly indicated form a well-defined

group. They constitute the problems of one science. Many

of these problems cannot be satisfactorily dealt with either by

the organic chemist alone or the physiologist alone. The

biochemist needs both a theoretical and practical knowledge

of animal and plant morphology and physiology, which is

largely superfluous in the analysis and synthesis of the great

majority of organic substances. On the other hand these

problems cannot be left to the physiologist, for few physiologists

have the time or opportunity to acquire the necessary chemical

knowledge. Even pure physiology alone is so broad that one

is rarely found thoroughly familiar with more than a portion

of it.

It is for these reasons desirable that the independent posi-

tion of biochemistry should be recognized, and equipment and

means provided for its development. And it is an encouraging

sign of the times that so eminent an organic chemist as Emil

Fisher, has recently spoken strongly for the independent posi-

tion of biochemistry.

In Europe, largely owing to the winning personality and

untiring labors of the late Felix Hoppe-Seyler, the science is

now beginning to receive recognition. The modern science of

biochemistry, indeed, may be said to have been founded by

this illustrious man; for, although previous to him work had

been done in a biochemical direction by chemists, physiolog-

ists, agriculturists, and others, he was the first to urge the inde-

pendent position of this science. An Institute and Professorship

of Physiological Chemistry were established for him at Strass-

burg. He founded a journal in which papers treating of bio-

1897.] Scope and Present Position of Biochemistry. 275

chemical matter could appear, and thus brought to a focus a

number of lines of effort which had formerly been scattered in

chemical, physiological and agricultural publications. The

founding of the Strassburg Institute and Professorship was the

official birth of biochemistry.

But, although great progress has been made since Hoppe-

Seyler opened his first laboratory in the kitchen of the old

castle in Tiibingen, the position of the biochemist in Germany

is still behind that in many other European countries. The

Strassburg Institute remains the only purely biochemical insti-

tute in Germany. In many German universities the biochem-

ists are nominally full professors of physiology, as in Heidelberg

(Kühne), Marburg (Kossel), and Munich (Voit); in others,

besides the full professor (ordinarius) of physiology there is

an associate professorship (extraordinarius) in physiological

chemistry. This is the casein Berlin (Thierfelder) and Breslau

(Réhmann). In still others the professors of pharmacology

take over the duties of the biochemist, as in Rostock (Nasse),

Königsberg (Jafié), Giessen (Gihtgens) and Halle. In Tiibin-

gen the physiological chemist is called professor of applied

(angewandte) chemistry, and belongs to the philosophical

faculty ; in Freiburg he is professor of chemistry and belongs

to the medical faculty; in Leipsic he is a privat docent (in-

structor) in the physiological institute. In the universities of

Gottingen, Kiel and Wiirzburg there is no special instruction

in this science. In Germany, therefore, although the science

is recognized in nearly all universities, and its teachers in many

cases full professors, they are generally handicapped by being

required to teach chemistry, physiology, or pharmacology.

Outside of Germany the situation is generally more favor-

able. In Austria the universities (Prague, Vienna and Gratz)

have professorships in medical chemistry. In Switzerland

there are professorships of physiological chemistry in Basel

(Bunge) and Berne(Drechsel). At Zürich there is none, though

a good deal of work is done in the agricultural chemical labora-

tories. In Norway, at Christiania, there is no chair of physi-

ological chemistry. In Russia nearly all the universities—

Moscow, St. Petersburg, Warsaw, Kieff, etc—have chairs of

276 The American Naturalist. [April,

physiological chemistry. In Galicia such professorships are

established in the universities of Lemberg and Krakow. In

Italy and France, as far as I can learn, there are no such pro-

fessorships, but accurate information is lacking. In Sweden,

at Upsala, the biochemist Hammarsten is Professor of Physi-

ological and Medical Chemistry. At Stockholm there is also

a professorship in this science, as well asin Lund. It all these

cases, it will be understood, there are separate professorships in

physiology. In England there are no professorships of, bio-

chemistry. The biochemist Halliburton is Professor of Physi-

ology in Kings College, London. In Cambridge University,

in the extensive laboratories of Professor Michael Foster, con-

siderable space is devoted to biochemistry under the direction

of Dr. Sheridan Lea.

In Germany there is one magazine, “ Die Zeitschrift fur

Physiologioche Chemie,” devoted entirely to this science.

About four-fifths of the “ Zeitschrift fiir Biologie,” one-fourth of

Pfliiger’s “ Archiv für die gesammte Physiologie,” nearly all

of Rominsed oberg: s “Archiv für experimental Pathologie u. Phar-

makologie ” consist of biochemical papers. Many papers also

appear in Virchow’s Archiv, in the Bacteriologische Central-

blatt and various other scientific publications.

In England the “ Journal of Physiology ” contains a greater

or less number of biochemical articles—but there-is not in the

English language any magazine devoted exclusively to this

science. Nor is there any American Journal of Physiology in

which biochemical papers could appear. The English Journal

of Physiology is the only journal which will give physiological

and biochemical papers a general circulation. It is unfortun-

ate that so large a proportion of physiological papers from

American laboratories should be driven to the German journals

and language. This is the more to be regretted since the his-

tory of the Journal of Morphology teaches that an American

physiological journal, publishing papers of a high class, would

have an assured circulation among European scientific men.

We, in America, are in a backward condition when compared

with Germany, Russia, Sweden and Switzerland. Biochemis-

try in America has suffered, like physiology, from being con-

1897.] The Polyphyletic Disposition of Lichens. 277

fined to the medical schools. Here both have been treated too

largely as applied sciences. Both would greatly profit in being

taken from the medical schools and established, like physics

or chemistry, in separate institutes where both the pure and

applied science should be taught. The biochemical laboratory

should be one of the laboratories of the university, just as the

laboratory of experimental physiology, or organic chemistry.

It should be in the hands of investigators, and should give

instruction not only in urine analysis, but in the principles of

metabolism. For the purpose of mutual helpfulness it should

be in close connection with the laboratories of experimental

physiology and organic chemistry. It is greatly to be hoped

that the progress of this science in America may be furthered

by the establishment of professorships of biochemistry and of

an American Journal of Physiology and Biochemistry to pro-

vide a ready means of publication for physiological and bio-

chemical papers.

THE POLYPHYLETIC DISPOSITION OF LICHENS.’

By FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS.

The present trend of thought upon the morphology and dis-

position of the lichens must be most encouraging to those, who

stood at first alone, and then with ever-increasing company,

for the complete acceptation of the Schwendenerian hypothesis,

and of the morphologic and phylogenetic theories involved in

it. Even during the present decade, botanical literature has

not lacked for articles, penned chiefly by lichenologists, dis-

proving in its entirety the algo-lichen theory, and maintain-

ing the autonomy of the lichens, as they are pleased to term

it. When the “symbiosis”, “consortism,” or parasitism of

lichens was established beyond a doubt, and polyphylesis was

postulated as a necessary consequence, the lichenographers

again rose en masse, arguing and pleading for the dignity and

autonomy of their group. Since the tacit and universal

i 1 Read before the Botanical Seminar of the University of Nebraska. December

, 1896.

278 The American Naturalist. [April,

acceptance of the polyphyletic origin of the lichens, opposition

to their distribution among the other fungi had practically

ceased, until the revival of the question by Reinke’s articles

published during the past year or two.

To the Seminar, which has stood since its inception unqual-

ifiedly for the Schwendenerian theory, and for the considera-

tion and treatment of all fungi as fungi, my task will seem a

gratuitous one. It may not be, however, entirely unprofitable

to consider in detail the arguments still advanced by some

botanists against what is here regarded as the ultimate disposi-

tion of the lichens.

In addition to Reinke’s rather exhaustive papers, Gregory

and Schneider have written short articles, chiefly recapitula-

tory of Reinke’s views, and hence of little import, were it not

for the fact that the first endeavors to throw the weight of

Schwendener’s half-expressed disapproval to her side of the

question. Reinke’s articles, however, form the rallying ground

of all those fearful of the degradation of the autonomous

dignity of the lichens, and will alone be discussed here. His

conclusions are based upon serious work, and, in consequence,

deserve earnest consideration, although not infrequently ridi-

culous to one free from the trammels of “consortism,” “ mut-

ualism,” ete.

The greater portion of Reinke’s arguments are given in his

second paper (Pringh. Jahrb. 26:524, 1894). In the prefatory

remarks to his fifth article (Pringh. Jahrb. 29:171, 1896),

which treats of the natural lichen-system, he adduces certain

general arguments that have equal weight on either side, and

makes some specific objections that have little relevancy and

less significance. In consequence, the following discussion will

be limited chiefly to the second paper, the more important

points of which will receive successive treatment.

“ Concerning ascolichens, it may be postulated that the com-

ponent fungus no more exists, probably never existed, in the

free state.” Since lichens are lichens, and, according to

Reinke, every lichen a “ consortium,” whether its fructification

be by means of asci or by basidia, he begs the question in

limiting his statement to ascolichens. In complete refutation

1897.] The Polyphyletic Disposition of Lichens. 279

of this, I might then cite Moeller (Flora 77 : 253, 1893), who

shows conclusively that the thelephoroid fungus represented

by the three lichen genera, Cora, Dictyonema, and Laudatea,

may be, at the same time, a saprophyte, or a parasite upon two

different genera of alge, i. e., a facultative parasite. For the

ascolichens, Reinke contradicts his own statement that their

fungal prototypes no longer exist (Pringh. Jahrb. 28:71, 87,

135, 1895). The mere fact that he has been obliged to divide

the genera Calicium, Bilimbia, Bacidia, Placographa, Melaspila

and Arthonia into a series of lichen genera corresponding

respectively to the above, and a series of “ myco-genera,” Myco-

calicium, Mycobilimbia, Mycobacidia, etc., solely because certain

fungi, having parasitized accidental algal cells, have lost their

saprophytic habit, is conclusive. It is also admitted by the

best mycologists that Biatoridium, Lecidea and Buellia can be

distinguished from Biatorella, Patinella, and Karschia only

through what can be called scarcely more than incipient par-

asitism. More than this, Buellia myriocarpa, as Reinke him-

self admits (Pringh. Jahrb. 28 : 98, 1895), is sometimes provided

with gonidia, sometimes lacks them. It is then either a fungus

or a lichen. This species is certainly a remarkable one, in

that it belongs to two different and distinct subkingdoms, or

at least classes! Were cumulative evidence needed, the re-

peated artificial synthesis and analysis of lichens would be

more than sufficient to discredit Reinke’s statement, notwith-

standing his inability to appreciate the weight of these facts.

It is a scientific truism that phylogeny is the science of prob-

abilities. No thoughtful scientist should dream of demanding

absolute proof in general phylogenetic problems. In discussing

questions of phylogeny, when the ultimity of probability is

reached, except in the rarest cases, argumentation must cease.

As for hymenolichens, we may regard Moeller’s careful re-

searches as, comparatively speaking, absolute proof of their

direct and recent derivation from the Thelephoracex. For the

ascolichens, enough has been said to demonstrate the conelu-

sion toward which extreme probability points.

“The attempts at the distribution of the lichens have been

of an unsatisfactory nature.” It is by no means true that, to

280 The American Naturalist. [Aprils

know the need of a reform, one must know how to bring such

a reform about. If the method of reformation, or of rearrange-

ment is hard to discover in those matters in which the factors

are well-known and can be carefully weighed, how much more

difficult is it where phylogeny with its undiscovered and un-

discoverable quantities complicates. May we not, then, be

pardoned if we consider Reinke’s criticism of Von Tavel’s

endeavor to distribute the lichens as essentially puerile, and of

negative weight in serious discussion ?

“Taxonomy should, moreover, follow practical lines.” It

has been generally supposed that the constant endeavor of

taxonomy during the past century has been to rid itself of the

burden of practicality. If, as Reinke suggests, attempts to dis-

cover the phylogeny of any plant-group must always be un-

- fruitful to a great extent, then a practical system, not a theore-

tical one, is a desideratum. If this is true, it is both remark-

able and unfortunate that the best botanical effort of decades

past has been directed to the replacement of artificial systems

by natural ones, and to the improvement of the latter. Asa

matter of fact, such is not true. Taxonomy is, ultimately,

never a means, but an end, and the demands of practicality in

a system are entirely without force, until those are fully met

which are entailed by the departments of botany that true

taxonomy should summarize. Thus, the rapidity with which

a system may be leaved over, is no index of its value. In fact,

natural systems are necessarily complicated, and great con-

venience and “usability” in any system are in themselves

suspicious. Reinke laments the fact that the lichens have dis-

appeared so suddenly from a prominent place in texts, that it

often involves trouble to find them in “anhinge” to different

fungus-groups. Likewise, it would require less manual labor

if the lower cryptogams were still grouped as alge and fungi,

and, from the same point of view, it is a great bother to follow

an apetalous family into some obscure nook among the Chori-

petale. Yet there are those who prefer an expression of prob-

able phylogenetic relationship in a system to mere utility, and,

who, unlike Reinke, have no “ misgivings as to the fitness of

arranging a great plant-group, so rich in forms and numbers

1897.] The Polyphyletie Disposition of Lichens. 281

as the lichens,” in “ anhinge,” until a better disposition is pos-

sible.

The lichenologists, the specialists in this branch, “have

intuitively opposed the “ sidetracking ” of the lichens.” I men-

tion this argument of Reinke’s merely to show the peculiar

cogency so characteristic of his article. It would not have

been inopportune to cite the particularly felicitous, intuitive

opposition of lichen-specialists to the Schwendenerian theory.

But the author, naively, states that, while he has sympathised

with this later stand of lichenologists, it was unfortunate that

their weapons were directed against the Schwendenerian

theory.

“In the form and structure of their vegetative organs, the

lichens are closely connected with the other green, chlorophyll-

bearing plants.” If it were worth while to discuss this ques- -

tion, it might be readily shown that the only resemblance in

form is a superficial one, due to parallelism, while the other

great similarity arises from the fact that the one possesses as-

similative power in and of itself, while the other appropriates

that inherent in another organism. Itis useless to press this

point, however, since it is directly dependent upon whether the

over) is regarded as a instance of parasitism, or of “ consort-

ism.’

Reinke, apparently, labors constantly under the delusion that

those who contend for the distribution of the lichens, deny

their polyphvlesis. Contrariwise, they were the first to postu-

late and to establish it. All are in accord that, while the

lichens originated from the fungi polyphyletically, this origina-

tion occurred at comparatively few points, arid that the modi-

fication and specialization of these phylogenetic lines took place

after the fungus had become parasitic upon an alga. No one

who traces the lichens back to the fungi would for an instant

maintain that each lichen family finds its prototype among the

fungi. But, on the other hand, one must insist that at those

points where fungi passed into lichens, an almost perfect series

of gradations is noted, and that phylogenetic and morphologic

continuity are complete at these places.

Naturally, the chief argument of the author is that the

lichen is not a parasite, but a “consortium.” In direct con-

282 The American Naturalist. [April,

tradiction to this, as Reinke himself admits, is De Bary’s state-

ment that the fungus occasions considerable change in the

host, the alga. Reinke is unable to evade this, but prefers to

interpret it as an advantageous adaptation due to the synthesis

of fungus and alga to form a “consortium.” Then, in like

manner, the increased rapidity of division, and the great dis-

tension of the cells of an elder leaf, occasioned by the presence

of ecidial filaments, are adaptations traceable to incipient

“eonsortism,” if you wish, parasitism, in reality. The mere

fact that the histogenetic relations of the cells in a tissue are

not such that continuous multiplication of cell-individuals is

possible, as is the case with free alge, has no significance. The

tissue-cell and the free alga exhibit essentially the same bio-

logical behavior when parasitized. The only difference is

that, in the one case, cytogenesis fixes a limit, in the other, it

does not.

In many cases, moreover, parasitism effects little or no change

in the tissues. This is notably the case in Erysiphes, in many

Peronosporacez, and Uredinew. On the other hand, algal cells

often become so completely involved in hyphal threads that

division is impossible, when the existence of real parasitism is

quickly demonstrated.

The significance of the soridium and of hymenial gonidia is

regarded by Reinke as very considerable. To me, both, but

the soridium especially, are mere modifications of the fungus

due to changed habit, and contingent upon incipient or ad-

vanced desexualisation. The significance of either, were they

universally present, would be neither profound, nor otherwise

inexplicable. The fact that they occur almost wholly among

forms possessing a thallus of a considerable degree of develop-

ment, and the fact of their utter absence in the primitive types

is sufficient proof of their lack of meaning. Of equal weight

is the presence of lichenin. The elementary condition of our

knowledge of microchemistry should deter anyone from gen-

eralizations derived therefrom. Reinke’s statement concern-

ing the characteristic presence of many chemical substances is

essentially one of the antiquated arguments of the lichenolog-

ists, and is scarcely more valid than that one in which, speak-

1897.] The Polyphyletie Disposition of Lichens. 283

ing of the discriminative powers of certain genera of insects,

which feed upon lichens, and not upon fungi, Cooke says:

“ These insects must have come to a sounder conclusion than

some men, viz., that lichens are not fungi with the addition

of an innocuous green alga.”

The most curious error of Reinke’s is made in explanation

of Moeller’s researches upon Hymenolichenes. The author says

frankly that after reading Moeller’s article he asked himself

if its conclusions were contrary to his opinions. At the same

time, he affords an instructive illustration of how the inter-

pretation of a fact may entirely controvert its meaning. If

one were to find a facultative parasite growing at the same

time on the ground, and upon two different host-plants, the

explanation would be so obvious that one would not waste a

thought upon it. The fact that the saprophyte exists along-

side the parasite, the lichen, would mean simply that here was

the starting-point of a phylum. Notso with Reinke. To him

the occurrence of Cora as a facultative parasite signifies that

here is a fungus, which forms “consortiums” with different

algee, a proof, as he takes it, that the fungus alone is insufficient

for the thallus-body. Also, a proof in my mind that a host is

indispensible to any parasite. As for the occurrence of hymen-

omycete and hymenolichen together, Reinke considers this en-

tirely analogous to the concomitant appearance of alga and

lichen, and, as I have pointed out above, this is true, since it

involves nothing more than the simultaneous occurrence of a

saprophyte, its host, and the same saprophyte in the role of a

parasite.

I have taken up the above arguments in detail merely to

demonstrate the little bearing they have upon the question.

In determining relationships, phylogeny alone has value; his-

togeny, morphology, and physiology are useful only so far as

they can furnish data respecting the probable phylogeny. I

have already said enough to show that I appreciate the exceed-

ing difficulty of retracing phylogenetic results. Happily, in

the lichens, the phyletic lines are comparatively short; this is

especially true in the hymenolichens, where the developmental

processes are going on before our eyes. On the one side is the

284 The American Naturalist. [April,

indubitable fungus ancestor, the thelephora; on the other, the

two direct descendants, Cora, and Dictyonema, incipient phyla,

whose future directions of development are foreshadowed in

the Laudatea-forms.

The ascolichens were derived from the Ascomycetes at an

' earlier period, and their great specialization and the interval

of time elapsed have to a considerable degree obscured the

points of departure. But, as has been pointed out above, the

“ fungo-lichen” genera, Caliciwm, Bilimbia, Bacidia, Placogra-

pha, Melaspila, Biatorella-Biatoridium, Patinella-Lecidea, Buellia-

Karschia, Graphis-Hysterium, and the species, Buellia myrio-

` carpa, leave little doubt concerning the derivation of their

corresponding families. They simply await the thorough

investigation given hymenolichens by Moeller. If we are to

consider only the highly specialized ends of phylogenetic

branches, we should all be constrained to admit that lichens

must receive treatment as a group. But, in such an event, we

should do the greatest violence to phylogenesis as the deter-

minant in taxonomy, in making lichens codrdinate with alge

and fungi, merely on the basis of a physiological character.

I admit that there could bea class, or a branch, Lichenes, based

upon this physiological character, or perhaps upon morpho-

logical characters induced by adaptation to assimilation-pro-

cesses. So, also, might there be a group, Parasitice, coördinate

with Phanerogamx, which would include such closely related

genera as Cuscuta, Razowmofskya, Phoradendron, Thalesia, ete.

Such is the logical result of Reinke’s opinion that a more or

less constant physiological character, for lichens, “ consortism,”

obtains for the delimitation of great groups, in spite of the

significant evidence of phylogeny.

Summarizing: Reinke’s conclusion that lichens are physio-

logically and morphologically distinct from fungi is untrue,

and his statement that it is impossible, on account of certain

physiological characters, to distribute them among fungi is

equally unwarranted.

a897.] Fossils and Fossilization. 285

FOSSILS AND FOSSILIZATION. .

By L. P. Gratacap.

(Continued from page 199.)

There are many facts in chemistry which show that there

can be mutual displacements in solutions of various substances,

although there is also a series of facts that prove the additional

solubility of insoluble salts in the presence of other salts or in

dilute solutions. Thus, when certain salts, dissolved in asmall

quantity of water decompose one another by double interchange

of bases and acids, producing a precipitate of a difficultly solu-

ble salt, no precipitate occurs in more dilute solutions, although

the quantity of water present would not be sufficient to hold in

solution the less soluble salt, which may be produced by the

decomposition, if it existed in the separate state. For example,

sulphate of lime requires about 400 parts of water to dissolve

it; but chloride of calcium, dissolved in about 200 parts of

water, gives no precipitate with sulphate of potash. It is sup-

posed that the formation of sulphate of lime takes place, but

that the presence of the chloride of potassium, which is formed

at the same time, renders it more soluble than it otherwise

would be. Carbonate of lime seems to be rendered more solu-

ble by the presence of sulphate of potash and chloride of potas-

sium. (Ludwig Gmelin, Hand-book of Chemistry.)

On the other hand we know of the actual displacement of

chlorides from solution by other chlorides, as the solubility of

chloride of sodium in water diminishes, the greater the amount

of chloride of magnesium therein dissolved. Sulphates also

affect the relative solubility of the chlorides of sodium and

magnesium. In regard to the assumption made here, that

silica is driven out as carbonate of lime enters into solution,

assuming the structural position of the dissolved carbonate,

Bischof says, in his Chemical and Physical Geology (Cavendish

Society, Vol. I, p. 199), that “ although silica is separated di-

rectly from sea water by organic agency, still this separation

286 The American Naturalist. [April,.

may also take place in consequence of a displacement of the

sedimentary carbonate of lime and the animal remains con-

tained in it.” He further says, “ when the carbonate of lime

acts as the precipitant to carbonates of magnesia, protoxide of

iron and silica, in sea water, equivalent quantities of it enter

into solution again.” All of which can be interpreted as a cor-

roboration of the view given above.

However, the exact method of interchange is described, it

ean hardly be doubted that the pseudomorphism by which

silica assumes the form of crystallized cale-spar is closely or

exactly imitated. Von Buch, in his examination of organic

silicifications, concluded that the soluble silica deposited from

solutions took the place only of the organic matter, at least at

first, and that the substitution of the silica for carbonate of lime

was later, and in this secondary form appeared as warts, con-

cretionary rings, etc. Alexander Petzholdt, in his examination

of a silicified belemnite, found that the silicification began on

the outside, trati ively through the minute tubes

of its structure to the interior, finally effecting a continuous

silicification from the inside to the outside. He found the same

stages shown in oyster shells; and a section in the center of an

oyster shell contained 51.78 per cent. silica and 47.81 per cent.

carbonate of lime, with traces of iron oxide, while its exterior

was entirely silicified. His observations disproved Von Buch’s

assumption, and established the fact that the waters carrying

silica directly removed the carbonate of lime and so replaced

it with opal-material (soluble hydrated quartz), and that no

warts, concentric or concretionary rings were formed at all.

Whether the replacement by silica of organic tissues, as the

structure of wood or the horny apophyses of brachiopods, may

involve less obvious conditions than those prevalent in the

more ordinary mineral replacement of calcite or aragonite by

silica, or not, still the formal character of the substitution is

similar. Biscbof,in commenting upon this similarity, says,

“the penetration of the silicic acid in the minute interspaces of

the fibrous carbonate of lime, as also all the appearances pre-

sented by the silicified molluscan shells, agree so completely

with the penetration of the cale-spar by silicious substances,

1897.] Fossils and Fossilization. 287

and with the entrance of the silica between the cleavage plains

of the same, that doubtless we have here one and the same

process of alteration. Therein, however, there is a difference

between the displacement of the carbonate of lime in the mol-

luscan shell and that in the cale-spar, in so far as the latter is

frequently hollow and the former not; in the shell the space

of the removed carbonate of lime is entirely, in the calc-spar

only partially filled. We might ascribe this difference to the

well-known inclination of silicic acid to unite itself with organic

substances, if the amount of organic matter were not so small.

The true explanation of this difference must await further in-

vestigations” (Chemischen and Physikalischen Geologie).

This latter contrast in the silicification of fossils and the

pseudomorphism of calc-spar seems to arise principally from

contrasted quantitative conditions. The solid replacement of

the carbonate of lime in fossils by silica is connected with the

former’s slow solution, as compared with that of exposed crys-

tallized calcite, which may be rapidly invaded by carbonated

or acid waters, whereas the imbedded fossil receives the access

of terrestrial waters but slowly, and also retains its carbonate

of lime somewhat intermixed with organic envelopes, the sar-

codic filaments that penetrate the hard parts of invertebrates,

and so surrenders it to solution less quickly, with the result of

acquiring a dense and complete molecular replacement. In

regard to the view of thesolution of carbonate of lime in water

expelling its dissolved silica Bischof remarks, that in the case

of the hollow crystals of calcite we are shown how the water

has dissolved and removed more easily the soluble carbonate of

lime than it has deposited the less easily soluble silica, an ex-

pression, which, from the point of view taken here, is simply

equivalent to saying, that the amount of silica in the waters of

solution was insufficient to fill the space occupied by the calcite.

Subsequent crystallization of silica within these hollows would

simply produce drusy surfaces on a crystalline texture of inter-

locked crystals. Fossils also undergo so-called secondary re-

placement, when their forms become distorted and rough, and

little circular monticules of silica are distributed over and

through their shells and skeletons. This “ orbicular silica ”

288 The American Naturalist. [April,

(Beckite markings) is customarily assigned to the later periods

of the fossils change, whereas the intimate replacement of the

microscopic structure took place in the earliest stage of its

inhumation.

In the Trenton limestone of Wisconsin, a more or less mag-

nesian rock, holding from one to three per cent. of soluble

silica, the molluscan forms are replaced by silica, forming hard

brittle pseudomorphs of much beauty ; andin the Trenton beds

of Tennessee we find the corals frequently or universally sili-

cified by secondary silicification (Columnaria, Tetradium, etc.).

It would seem that the silicification of fossils, where it is of a

minute and very accurate character, must have been begun

before the consolidation of the limestone itself, and have been

completed before the layers assumed their final lithological

state. But some peculiar instances of an apparent progressive

silicification continuous with the weathering of the enveloping

rock, are known as where, in the Niagara limestone in wes-

tern New York, fossils appear in relief above the surface of the

dissolved limestone, and are seen to be complete siliceous re-

placements, the parts of the same fossils, or other similar fos-

sils, enclosed within the rock a short distance below its surface,

being entirely dissolved when placed in acid, evincing their

calcareous nature. If this is true, the replacement must take

place from the soluble siliceous constituents of the rock, which

are slowly introduced into the calcareous tests and frame-work

of fossils as these are dissolved in carborated waters. It would

seem more likely, in most cases, as in the very siliceous and

ferruginous Schoharie grit,’ that silicification has been already

partially effected, and that the action of natural solvents is to

remove the associated calcareous particles and leave the sili-

ceous residue as the representative of the fossil, somewhat less

1In this formation the shells of fossil bivalves are often removed by solution,

being almost entirely carbonate of lime; and the siliceous filling, colored brown

by the ferruginous oxydation, remains as casts of their interiors. But in other

cases silicification has partially replaced the shells, and fragments of these taken

from unweathered portions of the rock show upon solution in acid siliceous

scales, which remain undissolved. In the Trenton of Teneessee the weathered

siliceous shell of gasteropods is continuous with the siliceous parts yet plainly seen

imbedded in the unweathered limestone.

1897.] Fossils and Fossilization. 289

dense in texture, but a substantial and complete form. In fact,

in the case of many specimens of weathered fossils, where the

siliceous shells project in high relief above the limestone matrix,

the surfaces of the shell are finely perforate, or small holes

occur, as if the limestone had been removed from these spaces

and the intervening areas of silica remained imperfectly con-

tinuous. Silicification seems to have gone on with great energy

and completeness in some beds in the same formation in which

other beds show but imperfect traces of its action, and this may

be ascribed to a greater proportion of soluble silica, and per-

haps as well to the presence of organic structures more sus-

ceptible to siliceous replacement. As regards the first course,

it is true that mere excess of a quartzose matrix does not nec-

essarily facilitate silicification, as we see in the Oriskany sand-

stone, which is so frequently characterized by cavities from

Which fossils have been dissolved by carbonated waters, though

each one of those cavities is surrounded by sandstone. The

extraction of this silica could not in this case be effected so as

to replace the calcareous parts of the dissolved fossils, because

of its insoluble nature. Soluble silica, that colloidal form

which is more readily taken in solution, must be provided, for

the substitution of the lime portions of fossils. As regards the

second cause, it seems certain that thin and delicate tests or

structures, as the septa and tabule of corals, the partitions and

walls of bryozoans, and the fibrous texture of some brachiopo-

dous shells are more susceptible to replacement by dissolved

Silica than the valves of lamellibranchs or the whorls of gas-

teropods.

Sorby has called attention to an interesting siliceous re-

Placement in the calcareous grit below the coralline oolite in

England, where very small reniform bodies occur, converted

Into agate or presenting microscopic geodes, whose interior

walls were lined with an agate film. Sometimes these reniform

bodies are filled with calcareous spar, and these contrasted

fillings are seen in the same slide side by side. Whatever these

enigmatical bodies really are (Sorby was inclined to regard

them as foraminiferous), they illustrate the minute way in

Which silicification acts, for they are on an average about zbo

290 The American Naturalist. [April,

of an inch in diameter, which would give nearly three million

in a cubic inch. In the perforated walls of the favosite corals,

where the entire skeleton of the fossil has become silicified, the

minute pores are sometimes surrounded by little siliceous

mamme, which seem to have gathered under the influence of

a form of concretionary concentration.

The peculiarities of preservation of the delicate internal ap-

pendages of brachiopods varies extremely, and while specimens

of the same genus or species from one locality refuse to disclose

their loops or spiral arms to the paleontologist, those from an-

other, even with indifferent care and easier methods, are readily

examined. Thus, the Devonian Centronella trom England

afforded imperfect preforations of the loop, ete., to the Rev. Mr.

Glass, even with excessive nicety of treatment, whereas those

from Michigan, by simply fracturing them in different direc-

tions, established the accuracy of Prof. Winchell’s descriptions.

In alluding to this Dr. Davidson says, “ordinarily by this

process no certain result can be obtained, and none could be

obtained in this manner from our Devonian specimens of the

same genus. But in these (the American) specimens of C. Julia

there is sufficient contrast between the color of the loop and the

surrounding matrix to make the different parts of the loop very

clear when revealed opaquely and by fracture. In most of the

specimens the loop is of a rusty-brown color surrounded by a

lighter matrix.” Again, the Athyris of our Devonian is apt to

be filled with a dark spar, which, being impervious to light,

yields unsatisfactory results, whereas those of the English Car-

boniferous are filled “ with a spar beautifully transparent and

peculiarly favorable for working.” This is by no means uni-

versal, as Prof. Whitfield has displayed the spires of Athyris

spirtferoides in exquisite perfection in the Hamilton slate speci-

mens. It is singular that, as stated by the Rev. Mr. Glass, the —

English fossil brachiopods never—or very rarely—exhibit a

silicification of the spires in a caleareous matrix, whereas this

frequently occurs in the United States, rendering the develop-

ment of these delicate appendages comparatively simple, and

incomparably beautiful.

Few organisms are provided with a siliceous frame-work,

and except the radiolarians and the sponges animal life has

1897.] Fossils and Fossilization. 291

limited its process of universal secretion to creating skeletons

and coverings of carbonate of lime, in which there has also been

mingled in many instances phosphates and occasionally cor-

neous layers of an indeterminate mineral and organic charac-

ter. Most of the fossils we are required to study originated in

calcareous bodies, and were originally deposited as such, and

for the most part they as fossils retain their calcareous sub-

stance to-day. A mineralogical change, however, has in many

cases supervened, and the carbonate of lime, known as aragon-

ite, which formed many shells when occupied by their living

tenants, has become changed to the more stable form of the

same salt, calcite. This change has been often hastened by

pressure and heat, and even, perhaps, by perturbations of the.

earth’s crust, which have reassorted the molecular units and

brought them into the secondary state of equilibrium known

as calcite. Sorby has shown that the calcareous portion of

organisms is at first deposited in the form of granules of vari-

able size. These “afterwards undergo more or less of crystal-

line coalescence. In some cases this scarcely occurs at all; but

in others it does to a very considerable extent during the life

of the organism, and this produces a great difference in the

character of the particles into which it is resolved by decay.

The falling to powder that then takes place is the result of the

oxidization and removal of the organic portion, and, if no

crystalline coalescence had occurred, the shell or other body

might be resolved into the very minute ultimate crystalline

granules; whereas, if much coalescence had taken place, it

would break up into much larger ones, showing in many cases

its minute structure.” These observations were made with

reference to the condition of the shells of Lymnea and other

fresh water molluscs in marls, but doubtless apply to the shells

of marine formations, and may explain the fragmentary state

of shells in limestones, while it points to an agency in prepar-

ing the calcareous mud in which they are embedded, though

this latter arises more generally from partial solution of shells

in carbonated water. A remarkable form of replacement occurs

in caleareous fossils, as it has been shown by Zittel, Hinde and

Sollas that the soluble silica of the siliceous skeletons of the

292 The American Naturalist. [April,

flinty sponges is removed, and its place taken by carbonate of

lime, or by oxide and sulphide of iron. The secondary char-

acter of this lime seems also proven by the fact that it is always

crystalline, and its crystals are placed confusedly in all direc-

tions, and not in one, or, as it is technically expressed, are

unoriented.

Prof. Nicholson, in his study of certain obscure organisms

known under the general designation of Stromatoporoids, has

indicated three different conditions or phases of their preserva-

tion. These organisms are in the main calcareous encrusting

or turbinate masses, built up by a succession of poriferons

sheets or lamine, between which irregular spaces extend, fur-

rowed by inosculating canals. In the first state of preservation,

instanced by this author, the actual calcareous skeleton is pre-

served, and all cavities are infiltrated with transparent calcite,

the skeleton then appearing as a brown granular or cloudy

non-crystalline body. In the second method of fossilization

more or less silicification has taken place, the cavities becom-

ing solidly silicified and the skeleton remaining calcareous,

or the skeleton irregularly presenting a complete siliceous

frame-work. In the third method the specimens are preserved

in limestones or in argillaceous deposits. The skeleton became

infiltrated with fine mud or argillaceous sediment, and was

dissolved out, being the less stable form of carbonate of lime—

aragonite—and was replaced by calcite. Thus, the skeleton

appears as clear as calcite, while the chambers, pores and canal-

system of the fossil are represented by comparatively opaque

calcareous mud or fine argillaceous fillings. In the skeletons

and hard parts of living invertebrates the following distinc-

tions of mineral composition have been determined :

The calcareous foraminifera are composed of calcite, with

some aragonite.

The true corals are composed almost entirely of aragonite.

The alcyonarians are for the most part composed of calcite,

with small amounts of aragonite and phosphate of lime.

The echinoidea are essentially formed of calcite.

The annelids are enclosed frequently in tests, tubes, or shells

made of calcite.

1897.] Some Manitoba Cladocera. 293

The hard parts, exoskeletons, of crustacea contain varying

intermixtures of calcite and phosphate of lime.

The bryozoans have cases composed of a mixture of calcite

and aragonite.

The brachiopoda have shells composed of calcite and some

phosphate of lime, the latter salt being almost limited to the

shells of the inarticulate division of this class—lingula crania

discina, ete.

In the lamellibranchs there is found some variation in the

composition of shells of different genera, in some the shells are

- wholly aragonite, in oysters and scollops (Ostrea, Pecten) the

shells are calcite, whereas in mussels Mytilus and Pinnas, the

outer layer is calcite, the inner aragonite.

SOME MANITOBA CLADOCERA, WITH DESCRIP-

TION OF ONE NEW SPECIES.’

By L S. Ross.

No record is to be found among the literature upon Ento-

mostraca, of any systematic work done upon this interesting

division of the Crustacea in Manitoba or any of the Provinces

of Canada. The region is yet open to the student of the dis-

- tribution of the group. A short stay in the Province of Mani-

toba in June, 1895 was utilized by the author in making a few

collections from the region about Portage la Prairie on the

Canadian Pacific Rail Road fifty-five miles west of Winnepeg.

Before leaving the province some vials of alcohol were left with

a resident of the town to be filled with collections. A vial was

received every second week from the time of the visit until

cold weather, the latest being filled Oct. 21, 1895. One vial

remained to be filled the following spring.

Collections were taken by the author from the Assiniboin

River, from a deep weedy slough which was once the channel

of the Assiniboin River, from railroad ditches and from prairie

1 Read before the Iowa Academy of Sciences, Dec. 1876.

294 * The American Naturalist. [April,

pools and ponds. A hurried visit to Lake Manitoba gave

opportunity for a few hauls of the net among the rushes along

the shore.

An examination of the material obtained shows the presence

of thirty species and varieties, one of which, and possibly two,

is a new addition to the list of described species.

The forms belong to the following families:

Sididee i

Daphniide . 9

Bosminidæ . ae

Macrotrichiide . 4

Lyncadæ 0: < «18

Polyphemide . 1

Leptodoridee 1

The distribution of the species is given in the following

table:

ASSINIBOIN RIVER.

- Daphnia pulex DeGeer.

Ceriodaphnia consors (?) Birge.

Iliocryptus sp.?

Chydorous sphericus O. F. Müller.

Graptoleberis testudinaria var. inermis Birge.

RAT CREEK AT MCDONNELL ON PoRTAGE PLAINS.

Daphnia pulex DeGeer.

Ceriodaphniia consors (?) Birge.

Simocephalus vetulus O. F. Müller.

Simocephalus serrulatus Koch.

Scapholeberis angulata Herrick.

Scapholeberis mucronata O. F. Müller.

Eurycercus lamellatus O. F. Müller.

Alona costata Sars.

Graptoleberis testudinaria var. inermis Birge.

Pleuroxus procurvus Birge.

Pleuroxus excisus Fischer.

Pleuroxus sp?

1897.] Some Manitoba Cladocera. 295

Chydorus spheericus O. F. Miller.

Acroperus leucocephalus Koch.

Polyphemus pediculus Linnzeus.

PRAIRIE SLOUGH NEAR PORTAGE LA PRAIRIE.

Daphnia pulex var. pulicaria Forbes.

Ceriodaphnia consors (?) Birge.

Simocephalus vetulus O. F. Müller.

Simocephalus serrulatus Koch.

Scapholeberis mucronata O. F. Müller.

Lathonura rectirostris O. F. Müller.

Macrothrix laticornis Jurine.

Bunops scutifrons Birge.

Eurycercus lamellatus O. F. Müller.

Graptoleberis testudinaria var. inermis Birge.

Dunhevedia setiger Birge.

Pleuroxus denticulatus Birge.

Pleuroxus procurvus Birge.

Pleuroxus sp. ?

Chydorus globosus Baird.

Chydorus sphæricus O. F. Müller.

Alonopsis latissima var. media Birge.

Acroperus leucocephalus Koch.

Polyphemus pediculus Linnæus.

Derr WEEDY SLOUGH AT PORTAGE LA PRAIRIE.

Sida crystallina P. E. Müller.

Daphnia pulex DeGeer.

Ceriodaphnia consors (?) Birge.

Ceriodaphnia reticulata Jurine.

Ceriodaphnia acanthinus n. sp.

Simocephalus vetulus O. F. Müller.

Scapholeberis mucronata O. F. Müller.

Lathonura rectirostris O. F. Müller.

Bosmina longirostris O. F. Müller.

Eurycercus lamellatus O. F. Müller.

Alona quadrangularis O. F. Müller.

Pleuroxus denticulatus Birge.

The American Naturalist. [April,.

296

Pleuroxus procurvus Birge.

Chydorus sphericus O. F. Miiller.

Camptocercus rectirostris Schcedler.

Polyphemus pediculus Linnzus.

MANITOBA.

LAKE

DESCRIPTION OF A NEw SPECIES.

CERIODAPHNIA ACANTHINA.

Bosmina longirostris O. F. Müller.

Chydorus sphæricus O. F. Müller.

Leptodora hyalina Lilljeborg.

The body is large, rounded, with the valves of the shell

forming a well developed posterior s

ated from the body by a very deep

The head is separ-

Head is low,

pine.

depression.

Ceriodaphnia acanthina ?

small, rounded in front of the eye, sinuous above and angled

between the eye and the antennules; the lower margin 1s

nearly in a line with the lower margin of the valves of the

- shell.

1897.] Some Manitoba Cladocera. 297

The shell is very strongly reticulated with small very

sharply marked hexagonal reticulations measuring about .016

to .021 mm. across. Small sharp spines project from the angles

of the reticulations, many at nearly right angles with the sur-

face of the shell. In the possession of these spines this species

closely resembles C. setosa Matile. No spines were seen on the

rounded front of the head as are usually present in C. lacustris

Birge. The dorsal margin of the shell is arched, curving

gradually into the posterior margin.

The posterior spine of the shell may be near the dorsal mar-

gin, or one-third the distance from the dorsal to the ventral

margin. When the spine is situated low the posterior shell

margin above is slightly concave. The spine is as well devel-

oped as in C. lacustris Birge, and often ends in blunt teeth, but

is not divided into two parts at the end as is sometimes the

case in that species. The posterior margin of the shell curves

gradually into the strongly convex ventral margin. The for-

nices are greatly developed extending almost the width of the

shell. They are almost as broad but are not so sharply angled

as in C. lacustris and do not end in sharp teeth.

The antennules are short and thick, reaching to or a very

little beyond the angle behind the eye. Setæ are present to-

ward the distal end. The antenne are long and rather slender ;

the sete reach nearly to the posterior margin of the shell.

The post abdomen is of moderate size slightly tapering to-

ward the end and is armed with nine to eleven strong recurved

spines of nearly equal size except the first and last which are

smaller. The anal claws are, long, curved, and denticulate on

the inner side with minute teeth of two sizes. The teeth of

the basal two-fifths of the claw, some forty or fifty in number,

are two or more times longer than those of the distal portions.

The eye is of moderate size, situated near the margin of the

head or back a short distance from the margin. The lenses

do not project far from the eye pigment. The pigment fleck

is small, rounded, and situated back of the lower portion of

the eye at a distance approximating half the diameter of the

eye.

In general shape the species resembles C. rotunda Straus.

The posterior spine is not as near the dorsal margin as Kurtz

298 The American Naturalist. [April,

figures it in C. rotunda, but is in nearly the same position as in

a specimen examined of that species identified by G. O. Sars

of Norway. The reticulations are as distinct and the double

contoured markings (due merely to depth of reticulated areas)

mentioned by Herrick and used in his key, are fully as prom-

inent as in O. rotunda.

The reticulations and the minute spines on the surface of

the shell are very like those described and figured by Matile

in C. setosa. The measurements of O. setosa are but little over

half those of C. acanthinus. Matile’s description of C. setosa

gives the length .42 to .54 mm. and the height .27 to .26 mm.

while C. acanthinus measures from .80 to 1 mm. in length, and

.70 to .77 mm. in height. The head of C. acanthinus is larger

and extends nearer to a level with the ventral margin of the

shell. Some specimens of C. reticulata taken from the same

slough at the same time have the reticulations nearly as dis-

tinct as in C. acanthinus and also possess minute spines upon

the surface of theshell. The two species are distinct, however,

because of differences in the shape of the body, and of the

difference in the armature of the anal claws.

The males were not seen. The mature females measure from

-80 to 1. mm. long and .70-.77 mm. high. Found in abundance

in a weedy slough in late May, 1896 at Portage la Prairie.

NOTES ON SOME OF THE SPECIES:

Sida crystallina : Was taken only from a deep weedy slough

at Portage la Prairie.

Ceriodaphnia reticulata: Was in a bottle sent in May, 1896

from the slough at Portage la Prairie. The specimens have

the reticulations very sharply marked. Some show numerous

short spines at the angles of the reticulations. The number of

spines on the anal claw varies somewhat. This species was

found with C. acanthinus. It differs from the typical C. reticu-

lata in the distinctness of the reticulations and in the presence

of spines on the shell in some individuals.

Ceriodaphnia consors: Numerous specimens were found at

various places which are with much hesitation referred to this

species.

1897.] Some Manitoba Cladocera. 299

Scapholeberis angulata : Was taken only in small numbers, a

few being found in Rat Creek on Portage Plains.

Daphnia pulex var. pulicaria: Was found in small numbers

in a prairie slough near Portage la Prairie.

Simocephalus daphnoides(?) The body is robust, with greatest

height a little behind the middle. The head is rounded in

front and has nospines. Lower margin of the head is slightly

concave, straight, or even slightly convex to the base of the

short beak which may project at nearly a right angle to the

lower margin of the head. The head is separated from the

body by only a very slight depression. Depth of the head in

one specimen is .077 mm.; length from the posterior margin

of the base of the antenne .052 mm. The head has a daphnia-

like appearance. The ventral margin of the shell has few

very short blunt teeth. The posterior margin from short blunt

posterior spine toward dorsal margin has teeth better devel-

oped than those on the ventral margin. The dorsal margin

teeth continue forward a short distance. The posterior spine

is very short, blunt, armed with short teeth and is situated

little above the middle of the posterior margin.

The eye is of moderate size, situated near the front of the

head or at a short distance from the front, and at a distance

from the lower margin equalling one-half the diameter of eye,

or at a distance slightly greater than diameter. Pigment fleck

is irregular in shape; elongated, rhomboidal and oval forms

were seen. Pigment fleck is small, situated near the posterior

margin of the head.

Specimens measured vary in length from 2.04 mm. to 2.53

mm.: in depth from 1.20 mm. to 2.04 mm.

The description of S. daphnoides as given by Herrick in

American NATURALIST, May, 1883, and in Entomostraca of

Minnesota, is rather brief. Herrick states that the form is

found only south of the Tennessee River; but a comparison of

specimens taken in Manitoba with the original drawings and

brief description in the American Naturaist makes it ap-

pear that the form is found even in that northern province.

Lilljeborg’s “ Crustaceis ” published in 1853 gives drawings

of S. vetulus with the lower margin of the head as nearly

300 The American Naturalist. [April,

straight as in the figures by Herrick of S. daphnoides, and the

general outline of the body almost as daphnia-like in appear-

ance.

Eylmann in the “ Berichte der Naturforschenden Gesellsch-

aft zu Freiburg” Zweiter Band, Drittes Heft, published in

1886, figures the lower margin of the head of S. vetulus straight

to the short beak, and the body with greatest height at the

middle. A specimen of &. vetulus identified by G. O. Sars, of

Norway, and examined by the author has the lower margin of

the head straight to the very short beak and the eye situated

at a distance from the lower margin equal to about one-half

the diameter of the eye.

Herrick says in his description that the curved spines present

in the other species at the caudo-ventral angle of the shell are

absent from S. daphnoides. If this be constant it seems to be

the only character not possessed by specimens of S. vetulus.

The specimens taken in Manitoba, and also in Iowa, vary in

size, and shape of the head and of the body; there are such

grades of variation, and authors figure such differences of form

‘in S. vetulus; that it seems very probable that S. daphnoides is

merely an extreme form of S. vetulus.

Bosmia longirostris: Found in only two collections ; one from

Lake Manitoba and the other from a slough at Portage la

Prairie.

Macrothria laticornis: This species was met with only in a

shallow prairie slough and was by no means abundant.

Bunops scutifrons: This beautiful species was found rather

frequent in the shallow prairie slough at Portage la Prairie.

Iliocryptus sp.?: A few shells and one individual of this

genus were taken from the Assiniboin River. The species is

probably longiremus Sars.

Alona quadrangularis: Alona costata: There is some ques-

tion as to the identification of these two species. Only a single

individual of each was found. The specimen that may be

Alona costata is not strongly striated but other characteristics

agree with descriptions of this species.

Graploleberis testudinaria var. inermis: Although taken at

three different places this species was rare. A few individuals

1897.] Some Manitoba Cladocera. 301

were found in Rat Creek, one in the collection from the Assini-

boin River, and one individual and a few shells from a prairie

slough.

Dunhevedia setiger: This species is apparently rare during

the season of the year the collections were taken, as only a few

specimens were found. They were taken from a prairie slough.

Birge, in his “ List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison, Wis-

consin,” mentions the fact of D. setiger being one of the rarest

of Cladocera in that region, but that in the month of August

he found them in immense numbers, both males and females.

Pleuroxus sp ?: The shell is long and low, in some spec-

imens evenly arched from the posterior dorsal angle to a point

a little in front of the brood chamber from which the curve is

flattened slightly to a distance including the basal third of the

long sharp rostrum. In others the dorsal margin is evenly

arched from the postero-dorsal angle to the rostrum. - The

head is small, high, with the long sharp curved rostrum far

from the anterior margin of the shell, parallel with it and

reaching nearly to a line with the ventral margin of the shell.

The ventral margin is straight for two-thirds of its length from

the anterior margin; the remaining third curves gently up-

ward and has a single small tooth pointing backward, a little

in front of the sharp curve into the posterior margin. The

ventral margin has long pectinated setee becoming shorter to-

ward the posterior end of the shell. The anterior margin has

setee for a short distance from the ventral margin. A blunt

posteriorly directed projection is formed by the postero-dorsal

angle of the shell.

The post abdomen is long, slender, truncate, tapering toward

the end. The posterior edge is slightly concave and is armed

with about 18 to 20 or more small spines. The spines at the dis-

tal end of the series are much the longer and stronger. Anal

claws are pectinated, long, and slightly curved. The second

basal spine is longer than the first.

The eye is of moderate size. Pigment fleck is about one-

half as large as the eye and is situated one-fourth the distance

from the eye to the end of the rostrum. The antennules are

cylindrical with sete at the end and a lateral seta. Length of

302 The American Naturalist. [April,

antennule about equals the distance between the eye and the

pigment fleck. Antenne are short, small, with long sete.

The specimens do not agree in all respects with the descrig-

tion given by Birge of Pleuroxus gracilis var. unidens, but do

agree in many points. The largest specimen found measures

.60 mm. in length by .38 mm. in height; another measures

.60 mm. long and .33 mm. high. Birge gives a measurement

of .85 mm. by .46 mm. and states that the species is the largest

yet seen. The original description of P. gracilis var. unidens

states that, “the striation is very plainly marked. The spec-

imens found by the author are only very faintly striated and

that most distinctly at the anterior part of the shell where the

lines of striation are approximately parallel to the anterior

margin. The larger part of the surface is free from markings,

either striation or reticulation as far as could be observed.

The shell is more arched dorsally than P. gracilis is figured by

Matile. Birge’s description of P. gracilis var. unidens says:

“The upper posterior angle is prolonged into a projection,

quite characteristic, seen, I believe, in no other species.”

In the specimens found there is a slight projection, at the

angle but not so pronounced as figured by Birge and by Her-

rick. The lower posterior corner is rounded and has a small

tooth anterior to it as in P. gracilis var. unidens.

It seems improbable that the differences between the spec-

imens, and the description and drawings of P. gracilis var. uni-

dens should fall within the range of variation of a variety. The

males were not seen. Collected in small numbers in June,

1895 from a shallow slough and a small creek.

Pleuroxus excisus: Only one or two individuals were observed.

These were taken from Rat Creek, a sluggish stream flowing

into Lake Manitoba.

Alonopsis latissima var. media: The specimens resemble the

species described by Birge but have some points of difference.

Birge’s description is as follows: “ Rostrum prolonged, and

shell sharp, somewhat quadrangular in shape, marked by

strie. The dorsal margin is convex, the hinder margin nearly

straight. Its lower angle is rounded and is without teeth.

The lower margin is concave and has long plumose sete. The

front margin is strongly convex. The postabdomen is long

1897.] Some Manitoba Cladocera. 308

and slender, resembling that of Camptocercus, and is notched

at the distal extremity ; it has two rows of fine teeth and some

fine scales above them. The terminal claws are long, slender,

with a basal spine in the middle, and are serrated. The an-

tennules are long and slender, but do not reach to the end of

the rostrum. They have each a flagellum and sense hairs.

The antennz are small and have eight (3?!) setee and two (its

spines. The labrum resembles that of A. leucocephalus, but is

slightly prolonged at the apex. The intestine, cecum, and

color resemble those of Acroperus. There is a trace of a keel

present on the back.” f

Herrick’s statement, in part, is as follows: “The specimens

seen in Minnesota resemble this species, (A. latissima var.

media) very nearly, apparently, but there are some differences.

The terminal claw has an increasing series of spines to the

middle; there seems to be no lateral row of scales beside the

anal teeth ; the abdomen is rather broad at the base and nar-

rows toward the end. The shell is not square behind. The

lower margin has a few long hairs anteriorly which are followed

by a series of teeth, and in the concave parta somewhat longer

set to a point just before the lower curved angle.”

In most respects the Manitoba specimens agree more nearly

with Herrick’s description than with Birge’s. A few points of

difference are noted. In the Manitoba specimens a few long

hairs are present on the lower margin anteriorly, then at a little

distance posteriorly from the hairs are short sharp bristles,

hardly heavy enough to be called teeth, becoming largest on

the concave part of the margin. In one specimen the end of

the abdomen is deeply cleft, the posterior lobe bearing four

very strong teeth of nearly equal size.

Herrick says that hexagonal reticulations are seen upon the

shell of the embryo yet in the brood sac. In several sex-

ually mature females observed faint reticulations are present,

more distinctly seen near the ventral margin.

Polyphemus pediculus: This species was found to be quite

common in the Portage Plains region. It has not been re-

ported from Iowa, and Birge says it is not common in south-

ern Wisconsin. Although reported from Georgia it seems to

be more commonly found in the north.

304 The American Naturalist. [April,

THE FLORIDA SEA-MONSTER.

By A. E.. VERRILL.

On the 5th of December, 1896, a portion of a very large

marine animal was cast ashore on the beach twelve miles south

of St. Augustine, Florida. When it first came ashore it was

much mutilated at one end, and had evidently been dead some

time, and was, apparently, in an advanced state of decomposi-

tion. Contrary to expectation, it has resisted further decay,

and still remains, after more than three months, nearly in the

same state as at first. It was first brought tomy notice by Dr.

De Witt Webb, who has devoted a great amount of time and

labor to its investigation and preservation. Through him I

have received a dozen different photographic views of it, taken

at different times, and showing it both in its original state and

when it had been moved and partly turned over. Quite re-

cently he has sent me several large masses of the thick and firm

integument, of which the mass is mainly composed. By his

efforts it has recently (with much labor) been moved several

miles nearer to St. Augustine, to the terminus of a railroad,

and protected from the drifting sand. It is likely to keep

some months longer without much change, and to be visited

by large numbers of people. The figures now given are

copied from photographs made two days after it came ashore.

At that time the sand had collected around it to the depth of

about eighteen inches.

Its length is 21 feet; breadth about 7 feet; height about 43

feet, when the sand was removed. It weight was estimated at

about 7 tons.

As shown by the figures, it has an elongated, pear-shaped

form, broadly rounded at the larger, closed end, and consider-

ably flattened toward the smaller and much mutilated end. At

this end, as shown in both views, there are large, divergent

ridges covered by the frayed-out fibrous tissues. These ridges

are folds of the integument, but were at first mistaken for the

stumps of arms, like those of an Octopus, and were so described

PLATE VII.

The Florida Monster, end view, from a photograph.

PLATE VIII.

The Florida monster, side view, from a photograph.

1897.] The Florida Sea-Monster. 305

in letters received by me. Moreover, Mr. Wilson who visited

it, when first found, claimed to have found a portion of an at-

tached arm, 36 feet long, buried in the sand. This last state-

ment, in the light of later investigations, must have been erro-

neous and was entirely misleading.’ At that time, however, it

seemed quite consistent with the form and appearance of the

mass, Which was described by Dr. Webb as closely similar to

the body of the common small octopus. The photographs

show this resemblance very clearly ; and the ridges at the muti-

lated end, then supposed to be the stumps of mutilated arms,

seemed to confirm the view that the mass was the mutilated

body of a huge octopus,’ and as such it was described by me

in the American Journal of Science and elsewhere.

As soon as specimens of the tissues were sent to me, even a

hasty examination was sufficient to show that this view was not

correct, for instead of being composed of hardened muscular

fibers, as had been supposed, the thick masses of tissue were

found to consist almost wholly of a hard, elastic complex of

connective tissue fibers of large size. The masses sent vary

from four to ten inches in thickness. They are white, and so

tough that it is hard to cut them, even with a razor, and yet

they are somewhat flexible and elastic. The fibers are much

interlaced in all directions, and are of all sizes up to the size of

coarse twine and small cords. The larger fibers unite to form

bundles extending from the inner surface radially. According

to Dr. Webb, who opened the mass, these cords were attached

‘The memoradum written by Mr. Wilson and forwarded to me by Dr. Webb

is as follows: “One arm lying west of body, 23 feet long; one stump of arm

about 4 feet long; three arms lying south of body and from appearance attached

to same (although I did not dig quite to body, as it laid well down in the sand

and I was very tired), vr one measured over 23 feet, the other arms were

three to five feet shorter

* This was also the djin of a large number of naturalists who saw the photo-

graphs sent to me.

Sary contractile muscular integument is an essential feature of all cepha-

pods.

Statements that the creature cannot be an Octopus, but is of cetacean nature,

were published by me in several local daily papers within a day or two after the

specimens were first examined by me, and shortly afterwards in the New York

Herald and in Science

306 The American Naturalist. [April,

in large numbers to a central saccular organ, which occupied

a large part of the interior of the thicker part of the specimen.

This might, perhaps, represent the spermaceti case. Natur-

ally most of the interior parts had decomposed long before it

was opened,‘ so that we lack details of the interior structure.

Externally there is but little trace of cuticle. The surface is

close-grained and somewhat rough, with occasional gray

patches of what may be remnants of the outer skin, much

altered by decay. The thick masses contain a slight amount

of oil, and smell like rancid whale oil, but they sink quickly in

water, owing to their great density. No muscular tissue was

present in any of the masses sent, nor were there any spaces

from which such tissues might have disappeared by decay.

It is evident that such a dense and thick covering of fibrous

connective tissue could not have come from any mobile part

of any animal, but must have served for passive resistance to

great pressure or concussion.

The structure of this integument is more like that of the

upper part of the head of a sperm whale than any other known

to me, and as the obvious use is the same, it is most probable

that the whole mass represents the upper part of the head of

such a whale, detached from the skull and jaw. It is evident,

however, from the figures, that the shape is decidedly unlike

that of the head of an ordinary sperm whale,’ for the latter is

oblong, truncated and rather narrow in front, “like the prow

of a vessel,” with an angle at the upper front end, near which

the single blow-hole is situated. No blow-hole has been dis-

covered in the mass cast ashore. There is a depression, shown

in the side-view, near the large end, that I at one time thought

*It should be stated that after visiting the specimen, two days after it came

ashore, Dr. Webb did not again see it for several weeks, owing to very stormy

weather and its distance from St. Augustine. Nor did anyone suppose, at that

time, that its tissues could be preserved or utilized for study, owing to its appar-

ently advanced decomposition. The outer skin rapidly decayed, but the fibrous

mass seems very durable.

5The dimensions of the head of a large sperm whale, 84 feet long, are given

as follows: Length, about 25 feet; depth, 8 to9 feet; breadth, 5 to 6 feet. The

blow-hole is like a slit, about a foot long, and has a sigmoid curve. It is on the

left side, close to the tip of the nose. The spermaceti case occupies a large space

within the right side of the head. It is supported by strong fibrous tendons.

1897.] The Florida Sea-Monster. 307

might be a blow-hole; but Dr. Webb states, that it is a “ sulcus ”

or pit about two feet long and six inches deep, apparently not

connectedgwith the interior cavity and probably due to muti-

lation. The specimen was doubtless floated ashore by the

gases of decomposition accumulated in the interior cavity,

indicating the absence of any free external opening to it, from

which the gases could escape.

Photographs made of the under side of the thicker part,

when it was turned up by powerful tackle, show an irregular

roughness on that side, extending well forward, but not to the

end. This roughness may be due to abrasion, or it may show

where the skull was attached. If the mass really came from

the head of a sperm whale, it would seem that it must have

projected farther forward beyond the upper jaw than does the

nose of an ordinary sperm whale, and it would, apparently,

have been much broader and blunter, or “ bottle-nosed.” It is

possible, of course, that its form has changed considerably since

death ; but in view of its wonderful toughness and firmness,

no great change of the larger end, supposed to be the anterior

or nose-end, is probable. All the pulling and hauling and

turning of it partly over, by the aid of six horses and strong

tackle, have not served to change its shape materially, or rather

its elasticity serves to restore it to its former shape. Its tough-

ness and elasticity remind one of the properties of thick vul-

canized rubber.

It is possible to imagine a sperm whale with an abnormally

enlarged nose, due to disease or extreme old age, which, if de-

tached, might resemble this mass externally at least. It seems

hardly probable that another allied whale, with a big nose,

remains to be discovered. Notwithstanding these difficulties,

my present opinion, that it came from the head of a creature

like a sperm whale in structure, is the only one that seems

plausible from the facts now ascertained.

308 The American Naturalist. [April,

EDITOR’S TABLE.

Whatever fair differences of opinion may exist as to the general pro-

tective policy of our government, there can be among intelligent people

no two opinions as to the provisions in the new Dingley tariff bill, tax-

ing books, apparatus and antiquities imported into the country. A

more extraordinary anachronism than these provisions, can scarcely be

conceived. With few exceptions since 1789, books, philosophical

apparatus, etc., imported for the use of colleges, libraries, and other in-

corporated institutions, have been admitted free of duty ; and within a

few years, through representations of various scientific bodies, scientific

books in other than the English language imported for the use of

private students were also placed on the free list. It was insisted that

if institutions should have their books free, private students were still

more intitled to such consideration.

The proposed legislation reverses all this, and puts us in the position

as to enlightenment, which we occupied prior to 1789, and below that of

any existing nation civilized or uncivilized. It shows that the supposed

interest in public education professed by such legislators is a sham, and

that they are willing to see their fellow countrymen fall below the gener-

ally too prevalent level of mediocrity to something still less noble.

Probably they do not conceive of the possibility of such a degeneracy,

but the opinion held by a people that they are the greatest and wisest

on earth, is generally inversely as the truth of the assumption. The

more ignorant a man or a nation, the surer it or he is of its or his

superiority. We cannot afford in this country to shut ourselves out

from the sources of culture as developed in other countries. The sup-

position that we benefit even in a financial way by such exclusion is

fallacious. Is it necessary to say in this country to men sent to legis-

late for us, that a piece of scientific or artistic work, or an object of

antiquity, having been once produced, cannot be produced again? It

is necessary to say to men of sense, that the industries fostered by

science and art, as those of the printer, engraver, etc. are developed and

not suppressed by the abundant introduction of the works of other

countries? In the scientific field the work done here is greatly stimul-

ated by the knowledge of the work done abroad, and our ability to do

our own work is largely dependent on it.

In fact all the materials of study and research whether imported by

institutions or by individuals should be placed on the free list, and that

1897.] Editor’s Table. 309

whether they be printed in the English language or not, if we are to

maintain a place among civilized nations. It is true that we have

legislators who object to laws providing bodies for the study of anato-

my in our medical schools; and perhaps such as these desire to see the

education of our citizens taxed and suppressed in other ways; but it is

scarcely possible that a sufficient number of members of our national

legislature can be found to support the provisions of the Dingley bill,

which will restrict the development of intelligence in this country to

the rich, and cut it off from the poor.

Since the above was written protests from many institutions of learn-

ing have reached Washington, and it is said have produced some im-

pression. We hope that this may be true, and that education may be

fostered by the Dingley bill as well as it has been done under the

Wilson bill.

THE present regulations of the Universal Postal Union admit speci-

mens of Natural History to the mails thereof only at letter rates, five

cents per half ounce or fraction thereof.

At the International Congress of Zoology, held at Leyden, Holland,

in September, 1895, Dr. Chas. Wardell Stiles, official delegate of the

U. S. Government, offered resolutions, which were subsequently adopted,

that the Swiss Goverument be requested, through its delegate to the

Congress of Zoology, to propose to the next International Postal Con-

gress an amendment to the regulations thereof whereby specimens of

Natural History shall be carried in the mails of the Universal Postal

Union at the rates for samples of merchandise; that an appeal should

be addressed to all the delegates and members of the Congress of Zoology

to bring this amendment to the notice of their respective governments,

so that those governments should instruct their delegates to the Postal

Congress to act favorably upon the same; that copies of these resolu-

tions be sent by the Secretary of the Congress of Zoology to all govern-

ments forming part of the Universal Postal Union and which were not

represented at the Congress of Zoolo

In accordance with these resolutions, Dr. Stiles suggested to the com-

mittee of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia in charge

of the matter of postage on Natural History specimens, that, although

it is probable that the U. S. Government will vote in favor of this pro-

posed amendment, seeing that it is the same proposition which the

United States had presented at the last International Postal Congress

of Vienna, the cause would be helped by the Academy adopting

resolutions in favor of this proposed amendment and requesting the

310 The American Naturalist. [April,

Postmaster-General at Washington to instruct our American delegates

to vote in favor of it.

This the Academy has done, but other American scientific bodies

should join in the work, adopt similar resolutions and send them to our

Postmaster-General that he may know that the students of natural his-

tory in the United States eagerly desire such a reduction in postage

rates. The next International Postal Congress meets at Washington

on the fifth of May next. We hope that all those who are aquainted with

the facts will use such means and influence as may be at their command

to help in the accomplishment of this end.

For the guidance of those who will aid in the manner suggested, a

translation of the original French text of the amendment referred to is

as follows :

“Amendment to Article XIX (samples) 4, of the Regulations of

Details and Order

p, Objects of natural history, dried or preserved animals

and plants, geological e ~_ etc., of which the trans-

ission has no commercia l interest, and the e packing of which

conforms to the general A aa concerning packages of

samples of merchandise

If this amendment be siat by the Postal Congress, specimens of

Natural History can be sent to countries of the Universal Postal Union

at the rate of one cent for every four ounces.

The directorship of the U. S. National Museum has been acceptably

filled by the appointment of Dr. C. D. Walcott director of the U. S.

Geologic Survey, but the appointment is said to be a temporary one.

Mr. Richard Rathbun has been appointed Assistant Secretary of the

Smithsonian Institution. Mr. Rathbun has especial qualifications for

the directorship of the U. S. Fish Commission and it is to be hoped

that President McKinley will make him his appointee.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Sudworth’s Nomenclature of the Arborescent Flora of

the United States.'—If it were necessary to prove the increase in

* Nomenclature of the Arborescent Flora of the United States, by George B.

Sudworth, Dendrologist of the Division of Forestry. Prepared under the direc-

tion of B. E. Fernow, Chief of the Division of Forestry. [Bulletin No. 14, U.

S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Forestry]. Washington, Govern-

ment Printing Office, 1897. Issued January 21, 1897, 8vo, pp. VIII+319.

1897.] Recent Literature. 311

the scientific nature of the work done in the United States Department

of Agriculture one would have to do no more than compare the book be-

fore us with the publications from the same division a few years ago.

It is a source of much gratification to American botanists that the

botanical publications made by the general government are of the high-

est character, ranking equal to if not above similar publications from

any other country.

Mr. Fernow himself writes the introduction, in which he makes some

very pertinent remarks concerning the matter of botanical nomencla-

ture, indicating very clearly the position which he occupies in the

nomenclature controversy. He states the matter very concisely as fol-

lows: “ The essential basis upon which the revision has been made is

the so-called ‘law of priority,’ i. e., for species and varieties the specific

or varietal name has been taken up which was first used by the author

who first described the plant, and for genera the first established gen-

eric name either alone or in combination with a type specific name. In

order to avoid obscurity and uncertainty, the publication in which for

the first time the binominal nomenclature was used persistently,

namely, Linnaeus’s Species Plantarum (first edition, 1753) has been

made the starting point, in accordance with an expression of the

botanists of the Botanical Club of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science. Objections have been made to the injustice

committed in ignoring earlier names; the objectors overlook that it is

not a matter of justice primarily, but of expediency, which leads to the

adoption of the law of priority, and it would be inexpedient to go back

to an earlier date than the one which firmly establishes our present sys-

tem of notation.”

An examination of Mr. Sudworth’s work shows that he has done it

with much thoroughness. The citations are very full, and the excel-

lent plan is followed throughout of appending to each citation its date.

After a full citation of synonyms the various common names used in

different parts of the country are given. This at once shows that what

every botanist has believed is true as to the unreliability of such names.

Thus we find that the Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea) bears the following

names: Balsam Fir, Balsam, Canada Balsam, Balm of Gilead, Balm

of Gilead Fir, Blister Pine, Fir Pine, Fir Tree, Single Spruce, Silon

Pine, and Sapin. The Plane Tree (Platanus occidentalis) is known as

Sycamore, Buttonwood, Buttonball Tree, Buttonball, Plane Tree and

Water Beech.

The following examples will show how the species are treated, and

will convince everyone of the great usefulness of the work.

312 The American Naturalist. [April,

Catalpa catalpa (Linn.) Karsten. Common Catalpa.

Syn.—Bignonia catalpa Linneus, Sp. P1., Ed. 1, II, 622 (1753).

Catalpa bignonioides Walter, Fl. Caroliniana, 64 (1788).

Catalpa cordifolia Moench. Meth., 464, (1794).

Catalpa ternifolia Cavenelles, Desc. P1., 26, (1802).

Catalpa syrinyaefolia Sims, in Bot. Mag., XX VII, t. 1094,

(1808).

Catalpa communis Du Mont de Courset, Bot. Cult., Ed. 2, III,

242, (1811).

Catalpa catalpa Karsten, Deutsch. F1., 927 (1882).

COMMON NAMES.

ee (Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Pa, Del., W. Va.,

N.C. 5. C Also Ga. Fla., Miss., La., Ark., Ky., Mo.,

Ill., Ea. Nebr., Iowa, Mich., Wis., Ohio, Minn.).

ed Bean (Mass., R.I., N. Y., N. J., Pa, N. C., IL).

Beantree (N. J., Del., Pa., Va., La., Nebr.).

Catawba (W. Va., Ala., Fla., Kans.).

Cigartree (R. I. N. J., Pa., W. Va., Mos LI, Wis., Iowa).

Catawba-tree (Del.).

Indian Cigartree (Pa).

Smoking Bean (R. I.).

It remains for me to commend the typography and the uniform de-

capitalization of specific names. Itis a thoroughly good, modern piece

of work.—CHARLES E. BEssEY.

Atlas und Grundriss der Bakteriologie und Lehrbuch der

speciellen bakteriologischen Diagnostik. Von Prof. Dr. K. B.

Lehmann und Dr. R. Neumann. Teil I, Atlas. Teil II, Text. Verlag

von J. F. Lehmann, München, 1896.

This is a general work on bacteriology covering much the same

ground as Fliigge’s Die Mikroorganismen, but in a very different man-

ner. About 60 of the more common animal pathogenic and saprophy-

tic forms have been studied more or less carefully and re-described

according to a pre-established scheme, so that their behavior on all the

common media may be readily compared. Many other species are

briefly mentioned. These 60 species are figured in the Atlas, and Dr.

Neumann, the artist, has been peculiarly happy in some of his repre-

sentations, if not in all. Streak and stab cultures are given in their

natural tints, usually on a black background, the agar or gelatin being

represented as absent or black. The Atlas contains 63 colored plates,

including more than 600 separate figures, most of which are original.

1897.] Recent Literature. 313

On table 28 there are two figs. X, one of which is undescribed. On

tables 12, 19, 20, 55, etc., some of the figures have been accidentally

transposed. Rights and lefts have also been transposed by the litho-

grapher in some cases, as on table 37 II. There are occasional mis-

prints as “ stichcultur ” for “strichcultur ” in tables 41, 43, 44, 56, ete.

More important is the fact that several scales of magnification are used

in representation of the individual bacteria instead of the generally

agreed upon magnification of 1,000. The Atlas is very attractive

and cannot fail to be of much use. What of the text? This consists

of 448 12 mo. pages on good paper, in clear Roman type easy to read,

very systematically arranged, and with a good index at theend. The

greater part of the book is devoted to the detailed description of the 60

species, and much of this part the reviewer has only dipped into here

and there. How generally well this part has been done, or how many

are the sins of omission and commission can be told only after the book

has been used, or by those specially familiar with given organisms. It

seems to be a good piece of work. Usually, each organism is described

with reference to the following particulars: scientific name, common

name, synonyms, literature, microscopic appearance, spores, motility,

affinity for stains, need of oxygen, rapidity of growth, gelatine plates

(a. natural size, b. magnified 50 times, 70 times, etc.,), gelatin stab,

agar plates (a. natural size, b. magnified 50 times, etc.,) agar stab, agar

streak, boullion, milk, potato, conditions of spore formation, vitality,

chemical activities, occurrence, nerve pathogeneis, nearly related species.

This descriptive part of the book is preceded by a general discussion of the

subject of bacteriology, which certainly deserves praise. In a space of 95

pages Dr. Lehmann has brought together the principal facts respecting

the morphology and biology of this group of organisms. His statements

are clear, exact, and in the main happy, whether or not one agrees with

all of his propositions. One need not expect to find entire up-to-dateness

in any book. No book can take the place of the current journals, least of

all in a rapidly growing science, but this one is so very good that it de-

serves to find its way speedily into every laboratory. All the way

through, in what is omitted as well as in what is brought forward promi-

nently, there is not only evidence of a wide acquaintance with literature

and of mature judgment, but also proof that the authors have become

familiar with all the details of their subject by long experience in the lab-

oratory. Following the descriptive portion of the book is a useful “ An-

hang ” giving the briefest direction for the microscopic examination of

bacteria, staining, preparation of culture media, ete. This will prove

helpful to beginners. . Finally at the end of the book is a folded sheet

314 The American Naturalist. [April,

giving in tabular form, so that it may be seen at a glance, some of the

principal peculiarities of these 60 organisms, i. e., size, flagella, whether

staining by Gram’s method, aerobic or anaerobic, liquefaction of gela-

tin, growth in bouillon, growth in milk, spore formation, pigment on

agar, formation of H,S, indol reaction, amount of acid produced from

grape sugar, gas production, growth in CO, and finally amount of

growth in various media titrated as follows: (1) Neutral to phenolph-

thalein; (2) No. 1+10 ce. per litre of 2 Na OH; (3) No. 1+10 ce.

per litre of N H, SO,; (4) No. 1+20 cc. per litre of F H, $0,

Authors have used phenolphthalein for titrating media regularly since

1894 and recommend it for general use. “ Jedenfalls kann der mittelst

Phenolphthalein neutral hergestellte Nährboden unbedingt als Uni-

versalnährboden empfohlen werden.” All the bacteria figured in the

Atlas were grown on media slightly alkaline to phenolphthalein, and

most of the 60 sorts bore the extra 10 ce. of alkali and the 10 and 20

cc. of acid. This seems rather surprising to the writer and certainly

cannot be assumed to hold good for all species. My experience would

lead me to select for a universal medium a grade of alkalinity consid-

erably less than the zero or neutral point of phenolphthalein, i. e., one

nearer the zero of the best neutral litmus paper, as I am satisfied that

some species will not grow on media as alkaline as here recommended.

In conclusion this book may also be commended to the physician and

general reader who wishes to know something about bacteria without

becoming swamped in details. Its remarkably low price (15 marks)

puts it within the reach of everybody.—Erwin F. SMITE.

Science Sketches.’—This small book of twelve reprints needs little

comment, Those who read the sketches in Popular Science Monthly and

elsewhere will doubtless desire to have them collected into one volume.

It may be noted that the papers “ Agassiz at Penekese,” “The Fate

of Iciodorum,” “ The Story of a Strange Land ” and “ How the Trout

came to California” have taken the place of certain others in the first

edition. —F. C. K

Recent Papers Relating to Vertebrate Paleontology.’—

The first paper below cited is a review by Dr. Baur, of Chicago, of a

? David Star Jordan, 2d Ed. A. ©. McClurg & Co., Chicago, $1.50.

3 Bemerkungen über die nb ae der Schildkriten, von G. Baur, Anatom.

Anzeiger, XII, 24-25, 1896, p Jena.

On the Morphology of he fee of the Pelycosauria and the Origin of the

Mammals, by G. Baur and E. C. Case; Anatomischer Anzeiger, XIII, u. 4 &5,

1897, p. 109. Jena.

1897.] Recent Literature. 315

paper by Van Bemmelen on the Phylogeny of Tortoises read before

the Zoological Congress of Leyden. In this review Baur shows that

Van Bemmelen has fallen into a good many errors of interpretation

based on embryologic grounds, and presents a sketch of what is no

doubt the correct phylogeny of the order Testudinata. The two papers

constitute an excellent commentary on the necessity of interpreting em-

bryologic data by the facts of paleontology. An appendix discusses

briefly the characters of the Otocelid family of the Cotylosauria,

which the reviewer has regarded as the Permian ancestor of the tor-

toises (Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1896, p. 122). Baur does not consider

this proposition to be proven. He observes that the element which I

have called clavicle includes both clavicle and cleithrum, but produces

no evidence to support such a view. Were Otoccelus a Stegocephal,

his idea might be probable, although the cleithrum is not distinctly

visible in the Stegocephal Eryops; but as the former genus is a Coty-

losaurian, i. e., a reptile, itis highly improbable, as no reptile is known

to possess this element. He also remarks that the possession of a car-

apace means “gar nichts” in this connection. When, however, we

read (p. 557) that “ the characteristic of the tortoises is the carapace”

it is evident that the words “ gar nichts” are much too emphatic. In-

deed the possession of a carapace is the essential of an ancestor of the

Testudinata, since the Triassic forms possess one already well devel-

oped, as Baur has the merit of showing.

In the second paper Dr. Baur in connection with Mr. E. C. Case,

describes the best preserved skull of Dimetrodon yet obtained. The

authors add some important points to the osteology of the Pelycosaurian

skull, but curiously enough do not refer to the anticipation of many of

their results in the description and figure of the nearly allied genus

Naosaurus published by the reviewer in the year 1892 (Trans.

Amer. Philos. Soc., p. 14, pl. II, figs. 7, Ta). They add to what is

there stated the description of the bones of the preorbital region, and

determine the entire distinctness of the supramastoid (“ squamosal ”)

Ueber den Wirbelbau b. d. Reptilien u. e. a. a ca saga von A, Gitte;

Zeitschrift f. Wissensch. Zoologie, LXII, 3, 1896. Leipzi

Psittacotherium, a Member of a New and Primitive kois of Edentata, by

Dr. J. L. Wortman. From the Bulletin of the Amer. Mus. Nat. History New

York, Nov., 1896, p. 259. The Ganodonta and their relation to the Edentata, by

a Wertman, M. D., loc. cit. pp. 59-1896.

The Stylinodontia, a Suborder of Eocene = by O. ©. Marsh, Amer.

Journ. Sci. Arts, 1897, Feb., p. 137. New Hay

Contributions from the Zoological Labowatery of the University of

Pennsylvania, No. VII.

316 The American Naturalist. [April,

element. They announce the presence of a supramastoid arch whose

elements were shown to exist in Naosaurus in the paper above cited.

They, however, show what I did not discover, that it is separated by a

foramen from the postorbitosquamosal arch. This foramen is either not

‘present in Naosaurus, or it has been closed by pressure in the specimen

I described. They describe the palatal structure better than has been

done hitherto, which turns out to be quite similar to that which I had

shown to exist in the contemporary Cotylosaurian genus Pariotichus.

It is important to notice here that the supramastoid is identified with

the bone called by Baur in the Lacertilia the squamosal. This iden-

tification may well be questioned, since it is purely a roof bone in these

paleozoic reptiles, while I have shown that Baur’s squamosal enters in-

to profound articulation with the cranial walls in the Mesozoic Pytho-

nomorpha. And it is the latter that must explain the nature of Baur’s

“squamosal” in the Lacertilia, and not the more remote Paleozoic

types. (See my discussion of this subject, AMERICAN NATURALIST,

1895, 855, 1003). But whatever the relations between these elements,

neither is the squamosal of the Mammalia, which I can now show is

the element which I have sometimes called supratemporal and which

Baur calls prosquamosa

As a phylogenetic infuo ther assert that the Pelycosauria

cannot be arranged with the Anomodontia as a suborder of an order

of Theromora, because in the Anomodontia there is only one post-

orbital bar. This, according to my definitions, is true, but supposing,

that the Pelycosauria cannot be arranged with the Anomodontia on

this ground, the statement that the Theromora “do not exist,” is not

justified. In 1869* the reviewer revised this order, and included in it

the Placodontia, Proganosauria, Parasuchia, Anomodontia, Pelycosau-

ria and Cotylosauria. In 1891° it was further revised by the inclusion

of the Proterosauride. In 1894,° following the statements of Lydek-

ker, that the Proganosauria (founded on Stereosternum and Mesosaurus

only) is probably a Sauropterygian type, this group was omitted, and

the Procolophonina of Seeley was inserted, the Cotylosauria and Pseu-

dosuchia having been already eliminated. The name Proterosauria

(Seeley) was retained to represent the suborder for which I had used

the name Proganosauria, minus the Mesosauride (type of Proganosau-

ria). The order thus constituted included the Placodontia, Protero-

sauria, Anomodontia, Theriodonta and Pelycosauria. I now add that

it is probable that the groups discovered by Seeley in S. Africa called

* AMERICAN NATURALIST, October.

* Syllabus of Lectures on Vert. Paleontology, July, p. 37.

* Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Society, p. 110.

1897.] Recent Literature. 217

by him Gomphodontia and Cynodontia (which are, perhaps, not dis-

tinct from each other as suborders) belong to the Theromora. They

coincide, in all important points, differing chiefly in dentition, a character

in which the Theromora present as many types as the Marsupialia.

In view of these facts it became the duty of the authors of the pres-

ent paper to retain the order Theromora, so long as others had pre-

ceded them in reconstructing it with the advance of discovery. Also

in discussing the phylogeny the authors should do their predecessors

the justice to quote their latest opinions, and not their earliest, which

they had modified or abandoned. In the paper above cited,’ and

others, I advanced the hypothesis that the Mammalia were derived not

from the suborder Pelycosauria, as I had at one time supposed (as

cited by Baur and Case), but from the more comprehensive order

Theromora, a conclusion to which they do not refer. In one paper*® I

remark, “ The Pelycosauria could not, however, have given origin to

the Prototheria, since in that class of mammals there is a well devel-

oped coracoid,” etc.

The phylogenetic inferences of the authors may be learned from the

following quotations. After citing my opinion of 1884 that “the

mammalia are descendents of the Pelycosauria,” they remark (p. 118)

“Tt is quite evident that the Pelycosauria with the two temporal arches

and the specialized neural spines cannot be the ancestors of the Mam-

malia; they represent a specialized side branch of a line leading from

the Proganosauria to the Rhynchocephalia, which becomes extinct in

the Permian.” It must be remarked here that the specialized neural

spines are not a character of the Pelycosauria, as some of the genera

do not possess them; and I never introduced them into the diagnosis.

The case is similar to that of the basilisks which have enormously

elongate neural spines, yet the genus is one of the family Iguanide. It

is, however, probable as Baur and Case remark, that the Pelycosauria

should be excluded from the Theromora and be placed in close relation

with the Rhynchocephalia, to which order I have already referred pro-

visionally one of the genera (Diopeus). That the authors agree with

me that the Mammalia are descended from the Theromora is evident

from their conclusion that the former may have been derived from the

suborders Gomphodontia and Cynodontia, which are Theromora. They

say, “ These forms look very much like mammals and could possibly

be ancestral to them.” It is thus evident that Baur’s term Sauro-

, Mammalia, which he never defined, is a synonym of Theromora. In

à Seienn . Amer. Philos. Soc., 1892, p. 25. Origin of the Fittest, 1887, p. 335-

, 346,

* Primary Factors Organ. Evolution, 1896, p. 88.

318 The American Naturalist. [April,

describing the conditions necessary to define the ancestors of the Mam-

malia, the authors remark: “The mammals have a single temporal

(zygomatic) arch; the posterior nares are placed far behind, and are

roofed over by the maxillary and palatine plates; the quadrate is

completely codssified with the squamosal and quadratojugal ; the occi-

pital condyle is double, and the entepicondylar foramen is present in

all the generalized forms. The ancestors of mammals must show the

same conditions.” It is to be inferred from the context that the

authors mean that the Reptilian ancestors of the mammals must show

these conditions. Important exception must be taken to these state-

ments. The palate is extensively fissured in some Marsupialia, while

it is closed in the Placodont suborder of the Theromora. The com-

plete codssification of the quadrate is not to be looked for in a Reptilian

ancestor, but its reduction must. Such I have shown to be the case in

the Pelycosauria, in Diopeus and Naosaurus, and Seely has shown it

to be still more reduced in the Cynodontia. The other characters are

found in one or another of the Theromora. Hence I believe that the

opinion that I advanced in 1885, that the Theromora are the ancestors

of the Mammalia is the correct one.

Some interesting “asides” are to be found in foot-notes to this paper.

The authors state correctly that I described two temporal arches in

Diopeus leptocephalus and, therefore, placed it in the order Rhyncho-

cephalia, and stated that the Pelycosauria have only one arch, which

is homologous with the zygomatic arch of mammals. They then add

“Tt is interesting to note that the latter result was reached by Cope

(1884) on the identical specimen of (Diopeus) Clepsydrops leptocepha-

lus.” This statement, ascribing at the very least, gross carelessness to

the author quoted, is throughout untrue. The ascription of a single

temporal arch to the Pelycosauria was made by me in the original

diagnosis of the suborder in 1880 (Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., p. 38)

four years previous to the discovery of the (C.) D. leptocephalus and in

the description of the C. natalis, six years previously, in the statement

“no quadratojugal arch.” This means that the arch present, already

described by me in Clepsydrops natalis in 1878 (Proceeds. Amer. Philos.

Soc., p. 509) as a zygomatic arch, was still regarded by me as such.

In another foot-note the authors make the astonishing assertion that

what I have called the columella auris in Diopeus is a rib. The skele-

ton of this specimen possesses ribs of the usual type, however, and

_neither in this genus nor in any other is there known a rib with a cup- .

shaped capitulum with a perforation of its peduncle, I have, more-

over, figured a similar stapes in place in the allied genus Edaphosau-

rus (Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1892, P1. II, fig. 5a.) with perforation

1897.] Recent Literature. 319

below the disc. No free head was observed in the latter genus, but it

may be concealed.

Dr. Alex. Gétte, the distinguished Professor of Leipzic, gives a de-

tailed account of his researches on the embryology of the caudal verte-

brae of certain existing Lacertilia, with the view of demonstrating

that my doctrine that the intercentra of the caudal vertebre of the

Reptilia are not the homologues of the intercentra of the dorsal series

of other vertebrates, and that the conclusion that the vertebral bodies

of the Anamnia are chiefly composed of intercentra, while those of the

Amniota are centra, is incorrect. He commences by misunderstanding

the (p. 876) ground of the doctrine he seeks to overthrow, a very com-

mon cause of unnecessary polemic. He says: “ The alleged homology

of all described intercentra depends exclusively on the assumption that

the continuity of the chevron bones with the perichordal bone above

them, indicates their genetic identity, so that the latter are an expan-

sion of the bases of the former, or reversed, the chevron bones are pro-

cesses of the perichordal bones. On the contrary, I can, on the basis

of my observations on the development of the saurian vertebra, assert

as a fact, that a genetic identity of the intercentra with their inferior

arches does not exist, and that these parts originate rather as distinctly

separate, as the superior arches and their vertebral bodies.” No con-

tradiction of these facts can be justly derived from my papers on the

subject, and if I have used the word “ continuity” in describing the

relations of the chevron bones with the caudal intercentra, it has been

in the sense of homological continuity, as in the case of the superior

arches and the pleurocentra. That this is true is apparently proved

by the facts of paleontology. The ground which is fundamental in

this connection is the fact, that the elements which in the genus Crico-

tus do support the chevron bones and do not, or only in part support

the neural arches, and which may be identified by their contracted

superior long diameter, are continued all the way through the sacral,

dorsal and cervical regions from the caudal, so that the homology may

be directly traced. And secondly, because in some species of Cricotus

the upper part of the intercentrum in the dorsal region is so pinched

as to reduce the body to the form, as it has the position of a large rep-

tilian intercentrum.

r. Gétte denies the homology of the caudal and dorsal intercentra

and of different intercentra with each other on the following grounds.

First, the centra of vertebrata are not homologous bodies; second, the

chevron bones in Batrachia are primitively distinct from the caudal

320 The American Naturalist. [April,

intercentra, and do not necessarily pertain to them; third, that in cer-

tain Lacertilia (e. g, Anguis) the chevron bones are coéssified with the

centra, as is the case in the Batrachia Urodela; fourth, that the neural

arches of the caudal vertebre of Lacerta are partially divided on

on each side by a fissure or foramen, which he regards as evidence that

the vertebre of reptiles consist of two original elements, that is, are

produced by the fusion of the two bodies of the embolomerous type of

column. His general conclusions are stated at the end of the paper as

follows:

“ (1). The construction of complete vertebre with bodies and arches

in the series of the A miidæ, as in that of the Stegocephali and all liv-

ing digitates begins in an embolomerous form, i. e., with double verte-

bree to each segment. (2). The change of these double vertebrze into

simple ones is accomplished by the fusion of the pairs after both verte-

bre more or less, or especially the posterior one, have retrograded.

(3). The rhachitomous vertebra is neither a primitive nor an indepen-

dent appearance, but only a transitional stage in this change. (4).

The principal significance of the embolomerous origin of the vertebra

for the digitate vertebrates lies in the inheritance of certain remains of

the double structure, the arches, transverse processes and ribs whose

permanent forms are only to be understood on this ground.”

As regards the question of the non-homology of the vertebral bodies,

I belieye that I have shown that they are for the most part not homol-

ogous as between the Anamnia and the Amniota, but that the homol-

ogy of the contents of each of these divisions is shown by paleontologic

evidence. Itis also clear that many if not all of the vertebral bodies in

the two great divisions in question must be homologous,otherwise we must

have as many original ancestors of the vertebrata as there may be kinds

of vertebral centra, a proposition which no one will be found to believe.

In fact the embryology of forms of life of comparatively recent origin

such as the Lacertilia, is apparently, from Göttes researches, as it should

be supposed a priori, incompetent to explain the phylogeny of structures

which received their definite completion in the paleozoic ages of time.

Owing to cenogeny, is is quite certain that structures may be directly

related phylogenetically, which may appear to be in their present on-

togeny not homologous. This consideration applies to the supposed

non-relation of the chevron bones to intercentra. This relation is uni-

versally demonstrated by paleontology, and better evidence than the

changes of position in late forms such as occurs in Anguis (to which I

have added Anniella) and the snakes, must be cited to invalidate it.

1897.] Recent Iiterature. 321

As regards the precedence of the rhachitomous over the embolome-

rous type of vertebral column, tologic evi trates that

this was the history as regards Teleostomous fishes and Digitata (or

Amniota), as Zittel has shown to have been the case in the former and I

have shown as to the latter. Embolomerous forms do not come first in

geologic time in these divisions, but later. I have not made any attempt

to interpret with respect to this hypothesis, the structure of the verte-

bral column in the Selachii. They afford, however, no support to Prof.

Götte’s hypothesis, since it is probable that the Selachian vertebral col-

umn originated in a rhachitomous condition. In notochordal sharks,

e. g., the Ichthyotomi, the primitive vertebre are represented by centra

above and intercentra below, as in the Teleostomi and Stegocephali,

The superior segment supports the neural arch, and the inferior

the hemal arch. Götte’s first proposition, that the embolomerous

condition is the primitive one, is shown to be untrue as to the true

fishes by the facts adduced by Zittel and others, since the primitive

vertebree of fishes described by these authors is rhachitomous and not

embolomerous. Prof. Gétte does not observe that his fig. 6 (text, p.

384) of Callopterus, represent rhachitomous caudal vertebrz, and dor-

sal vertebre in which the centrum (pleurdcentrum) is greatly re-

duced, so that the intercentrum becomes by far the larger part of the

vertebral body. Thisis in exact accord with what is found in the Ste-

gocephali, and is contributive evidence that the vertebral body in the

Anamnia is intercentrum. That the body in the Amniota is centrum is

abundantly proven by the characters of the Permian Pelycosauria.

In this study we have again an excellent illustration of the relative

value of embryologic and paleontologic research in determining the

homologies of parts and phylogenies of types. As to this Prof. Goette

expresses himself thus (p. 377): “Since these relations can only be

directly observed or completely known in living animals, and not in

the fossil Stegocephali, so it is a self evident proposition that the un-

known can only be explained by the known, the extinet by the living

animals.” This proposition must now, in view of the results of modern

research be reversed so as to read as follows: Since these relations can

only be completely known or directly observed in fossil animals, and not

in the embryonic history of living forms, it is a self evident proposition

that the unknown can only be explained by the known, the living by the

extinct animals. Conceding the great value of embryology in the pre-

mises, it has now become fully evident that it can only be understood

when interpreted by paleontology. An excellent illustration is the

case of the embryology of the vertebre of Amia, described by Hay and

322 The American Naturalist. [April,

Gadow, the former of which is discussed by Gétte. The two researches

only agree in discovering a much greater complexity in the ontogeny

of these vertebre than paleontology gives the least ground for suppos-

ing to have ever existed in the adult types of extinct Teleostomous

fishes.

In his papers on primitive Edentata Dr. J. L. Wortman describes

more fully than heretofore on new material, characters of the genus

Psittacotherium Cope. He finds that it is armed with robust com-

pressed claws, and that the foot is short and megatheroid in appearance

He interprets the dentition in a new way, and then homologizes with

it the dentition of the genera Hemiganus and Ectoganus. The teeth ~

formerly described as incisors in these genera he regards as canines.

To these he adds Stylinodon Marsh, to form a family Stylinodontide.

The genera Onychodectes and Conoryctes Cope he places in a family

Conoryctide. Both he combines into a suborder Ganodonta of the

order Edentata.

Whether the interpretation of the dentition of Psittacotherium and

Ectoganus is correct or not depends on the interpretation of the same

parts in Calamodon. Some doubt must still remain as to this point, a

doubt which I have always felt. It is certainly not unlikely that Dr.

Wortman’s interpretation may turn out to be correct, and if true, a clear-

ing up of the subject of the relation of these forms to the Tillodonta of

Marsh will result. Accepting his view as correct, we have then a group

having strong claims to being regarded as ancestral to the Edentata.

This position I maintained as long ago as 1875, when (in the Report of

the U.S. Geol. Geogr. Surv. W. of 100th mer., Vol. 1V) I included some

of these forms (Ectoganus and Calamodon) in a suborder Tæniodonta,

and suggesting its ancestral relation to the Edentata. I have not

pressed this view recently for the reason above referred to. The name

was, however, given, and it was applied to a group so far equivalent to

Wortman’s name Ganodonta, that as matter of taxonomic rule it can-

not well be displaced. His reasons for rejecting the name are that I

referred two of the genera (Conoryctes and Onychodectes) to the Cre-

odonta, which I still do; that I failed to recognize the affinities be-

tween Calamodon and Stylinodon, which, however, I always have done

so far as the imperfect description of Marsh would permit. Thus, in

my Synopsis of Families of Vertebrata, AMERICAN NATURALIST, OC-

tober, 1889, I place in the suborder Tzeniodonta, the two families

Ectoganidae and Stylinodontidae. Wortman concludes also that the

name must be rejected because founded in error. If this be true, it is

1897.] Recent Literature. 823

no reason for the rejection ; on the same ground nearly every name in

Biology above the specific would have to be rejected.

Although Dr. Wortman makes excellent use of the material at his

disposal, and throws much light on the characters of some of the genera,

the evidence for the reference of the Tzeniodonta to the order Edenta-

ta, must be considered as yet very obscure. But the reference to that

order of Conoryctes and Onychodectes is still more difficult, if not im-

possible. If proper, a new definition of the Edentata must be forth-

coming. I am still of the opinion that the best provisional place for

these two genera isin the Creodonta, next the Tzeniodonta, to which

they have probable affinities. The position of Dr. Wortman is based

on the scientifically untenable assumption that because forms probably

stand in the relation of ancestor and descendent they must therefore

belong to the same genus, family, order, etc. He goes so far as to

place Esthonyx in the Tillodonta, to which it is probably ancestral,

although it does not possess the essential character of that order or

suborder—incisors growing from persistent pulps. For equally valid

reasons all the genera of a phyletic line might be regarded as a single

genus. This kind of formulation casts to the winds all taxonomy, and

the effect of it is seen in this instance in Dr. Wortman’s failure to de-

fine the order Edentata. It was the consideration of such forms as

Conoryctes and Onychodectes with Esthonyx and the Tzeniodonta and

certain Insectivora, that led me to propose the comprehensive order of

Bunotheria, which is the source of all the Unguiculate orders of later

time.

. Professor Marsh’s article is a much needed description of his genus

Stylinodon, of which he has obtained some important parts of the skel-

eton. It looks more like an Edentate than any of the other Tenio-

donta, with which I placed it in 1889. The figures which he gives,

will prove valuable to paleontologists, but more light will be neces-

sary before its relation to the Edentata can be determined. Prof.

Marsh cannot let the opportunity pass without proposing a new sub-

ordinal name, “Stylinodontia,” which he does not characterize, al-

though there are already two other names in the field before him, one

of which, Tzeniodonta, was proposed and defined twenty-one years ago.

The rambling discussion as to the origin of the Edentata which closes

this paper adds nothing to our knowledge of the subject, especially as

it includes the names of genera which he has never defined, and which

are so far unknown to science.—E. D. Corr.

324 The American Naturalist. [April,

AMERICAN a enn LIST OF RECENT BOOKS

ND PAMPHLETS.

ANDREWS, C. W.—On z Structure of the Skull in Peloneustes philarchus, a

Pliosaur from the Oxford Clay. Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. London (6), XVI,

1895. From the author. ;

Annual Report of the Board of Managers of the Municipal League of Philadel-

phia, 1894-95.

Bain, H. F.—Cretaceous Deposits of the Sioux Valley. Extr. Iowa Geol.

Surv., Vol. IIT, 18965.

Bancs, O.—The Present Standing of the Florida Manatee in the Indian River

Waters. Extr. Amer. Nat., 1895. From the author.

Berar, F. E. L.—Preliminary Report on the Food of Woodpeckers. Bull. No.

7, Dept. Agric., Div. Ornith. and Mam. Washington, 1895.

Boutencer, G. A.—On the Fishes found by Dr. C. Ternetz in Matto-Grosso

and Pidkidiy:

——On the Nursing Habits of two South American Frogs.

,—— Remarks on some Cranial Characters of the Salmonoids.

Synopsis of the Genera and Species of the Apodal Batrachians, with

Description of a new Genus and Species ( Bdellophis vittatus). Extrs. Proceeds.

Zool. Soc. London, 1895

—— Descriptions of two new South American Characinoid Fishes

—Note on a West African Apodal Batrachian hitherto confounded with

Caecilia seraphini of Aug. Duméril. Extrs. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), XXV,

1895. From the author

Brauner, J. C.—Decomposition of Rocks in Brazil. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc.

Amer., Vol. 7, 1896. From the Society.

Brewer, W. M.—A Preliminary Report on the Mineral Resources of the Up-

per Gold Belt of Alabama, with Supplementary Notes by E. A. Smith. Bull.

No. 5, Geol. Surv. Alabama, 1896. . A. Smith.

Bulletins No. 38 and 39, 1896, Hatch Experiment Station, Mass. Agric. Col-

Bulletins of the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Nos. 113-

117, 1895, and 127, 1896.

CALKINS, W. W.—The Lichen-Flora of Chicago and Vicinity. Bull. No. I,

Illinois Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv.,1896. From the author

CHERRIE, G. K.—Contribution to the Ornithology of San Domingo. Field

Mus. Pub. 10, Chicago, 1896. From F. J. Skiff.

Circular No. 11, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, How to Select Good Cheese. From

the ve ;

B.—The Fin-fold Origin of the Paired Limbs in the Light of the Pty-

Peones of isc Sharks. Extr. Anat. Anz., Bd. XI, 1896. From the

author.

Dottey, C. 8. _The Pl4nktonokrit, a Centrifugal Apparatus for the Volumetric

Estimation of the Food Supply of Oysters and other Aquatic Animals. Extr.

Proceeds. Phila. Acad., 1896. From the author

Eastman, C. R.—Preliminary Note on the Relations of Certain Body-plates in

the Dinichthyids. Extr. Amer. Journ. Sci., 1806. From the author.

1897.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 325

BBs, W. H.—Die krystallisirten Mineralien aus dem ‘Galena Limestone”

des südlichen Wisconsin und des nördlichen Illinois. Separat-Abd. aus Zeitschr.

f. Krystallog, etc., XXV, 2 u. 3. From the author.

Lucas, F. A.—The Tongues of Woodpeckers. Bull. No. 7, Dept. Agric., Div.

pepes = Mam. Washington, 1895.

LYDEKKER, R.—Additional Note on the Sea Otter. Extr. Proceeds. Zool.

Soe. Londen pet From the author

MEEK, S. E. AND C. J. PIERSON. < Eeiceteaien of a New Species of Gobiesox

from niere B California. Extr. Proceeds. Calif. Acad. Sci. Ser. 2, Vol.

V,1896. From C. H. Gilbert.

MERRIAM, C. H.—Synopsis of the American Shrews of the Genus Sorex. Re-

print from North American Fauna, No. 10. ashington, 1

—— Revision of the Genus Synaptomes with Descriptions of New Species. Extr.

Proceeds. Biol. Soc. Washington, 1896

——Preliminary Synopsis of the American Bears. Extr. Proceeds. Biol. Soc.

Washington, 1896.

aia of rit Weasels of North saad North American Fauna No,

#1. hington, 1896. From the aut

arene a T. H., Jr.—Extensive A in Birds as a Check upon the

Production of Geographical Varieties. Extr. Amer. Nat., 1896. From the

author. ;

Netson, A.—First Report on the Flora of Wyoming. Bull. No. 28, 1896,

Agric. Dept. Univ. Wyoming. From the author

PuiLLirs, W. B.—Iron Making in Alabatie. Published by the Alabama

Geol. Surv., 1896. From. E. A. Smith.

Report of the C issi of Education for 1893-94, Vol. II. Washington,

1896.

RicHmonp, ©. W.—Deseription of a new Species of Plover from the east coast

of Madagascar. Extr. Proceeds. Biol. Soc. Washington, 1896. From the

author.

Sanp, R.—Les Acinétiens d’eaudonce en Belgique. Extr. Annales Soc. belge

de Micros. (Mém.) t. XX, 1896. From the author.

ScHLossrr, M.—Hohlenstudien und Ausgrabungen bei Velburg in der Ober-

pfalz. Separat-Abd. aus dem Neuen Jahrb. f. Mineral, ete. Bd. I, 1896. From

the author.

SHEPARD, C. H.—Alcohol in the.Grippe. Extr. Journ. Amer. Med. Assoc.,

1895. From the author.

Simonps, F, W.—Floating Sand, An Unusual Mode of River Transportation.

Extr. Amer. Geol., Vol. XVII, 1896. From the author.

SMITH, E. A P otes on the Native Sulphur in Texas. Extr. Science N. S.,

Vol. III, 1896. From the author

Summary Final Report Pennsylvania Geological ravi 1895, Vol. ITI, Pt. I,

Carboniferous. Harrisburg, 1895. From the Surv

THomas, O.—On the Insectivorous iam Echinops Martin, with pre on the

Dentition of the Allied Genera. Extr. Proceeds. Zool. Soc. London,

——On Caenolestes, a still Existing Bites of the Epanorthide of PERTE

and the Representative of a new Family of Recent Marsupials. Extr. Proceeds.

Zool. Soc. London, 1895. From the author.

326 The American Naturalist. [April,

General Notes.

PETROGRAPHY:?

Italian Petrography.—tThe third part of Washington’s’ paper on

Italian petrography deals with the Bracciano, Cerveteri and Tolfa dis-

tricts. The products of the Bracciano volcano may be separated into

a leucitic and a non-leucitic group. The non-leucitic rocks contain or-

thoclase and basic plagioclase, in this respect resembling the vulsinites

and the ciminites, but they are more acid than these types, containing

sometimes as much as 72 per cent. of SiO, a part of which separates as

quartz. They resemble the quartz-trachytes of Tuscany, and thus oc-

cupy the position in Brégger’s classification reserved for the quartz-

trachyte-andesites. The author calls the members of the group toscan-

ites, he leucite rocks of this voleanic center embrace leucitites,

leucite-tephrite and leucite-phonolite.

The rocks of the etek ei are toscanites and leucitites, and

of the Tolfa district, toscani

An analysis of the toscanite ee Castle Hill, Tolfa, follows :

SiO, ALO, Fe,0, FeO MgO CaO NaO KO HO Total

6019 1604° 116° 248 99 292 226 611 185 = 99.00

The Quartz-Porphyry in the Ruhr Valley, Westphalia.

—This rock has been described several times by geologists, but it has

been reserved for Miigge® to investigate it microscopically. It occurs

in massive and in schistose phases and in the form of a breccia associ-

ated with schists. The massive variety resembles, in many respects, a

gneiss. It is banded in light and dark irregular bands. Spherulites

united by what was once a glassy matrix marked by perlitie cracks

constitute the groundmass in which phenocrysts of quartz and ortho-

clase are imbedded. The rock has suffered profound mechanical and

chemical alterations. The quartz grains are crossed by fine lamellae

extinguishing in different positions, and by others extinguishing nearly

together. The latter are visible in ordinary light. They are phenom-

ena of translation.* The groundmass is filled with tiny veins of quartz,

stringers of a sericite-chlorite aggregate and nests of quartz and newly

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. gl Colby University, Waterville, Me.

2 Jour. of Geology, Vol. V, p. 34.

3 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., ete., B. B. X, p. 757

* Cf. Neues Jahrb. f. Minn., ne 1892, II, p. “95, 98, 1895, p. 213.

1897.] Petrography. 327

formed feldspar. The schistose porphyries differ from the more mas-

sive ones in the greater degree of their alteration. Analyses of the

two types follow :

SiO, Al,0, Fe,O, FeO CaO MgO K,O Na,O H,O Total

Massive 76.50 15.68 78 1.10 4.92 .88 — 99.76

Schistose 72.08 16.15 2.21 18 .68 949 ZL 2.40 — 99.14

The porphyry breccias consist of fragments of porphyry and of

schists in a foliated matrix composed largely of porphyry and schist

débris. In origin they are believed to be reibung’s-breccias formed at

the juncture of schist and porphyry. The paper is handsomely illus-

trated with photo-lithographs of thin sections.

The Eclogite of the Fichtelgebirge.—Newland® gives a few

notes on the eclogites comprising a portion of the central gneissic cone

of the Bavarian Fichtelgebirge. Mineralogically, the eclogite is so

varied in composition that the rock is very difficult to define. Its

most characteristic component is garnet, but, in addition to this, it con-

tains also omphacite, hornblende, cyanite, zoisite, sphene, andesine,

muscovite, zircon, pyrites, magnetite, rutile, quartz, and a few other

minerals. No olivine could be found in any of the sections, although

it was searched for. The pyroxene, hornblende and feldspar are often

arranged in intergrowths resembling granophyre, and the pyroxene or

garnet is surrounded by a radial aggregate of feldspar, hornblende

and omphacite, which, under low powers, looks like a reaction rim.

Analyses of the rock indicate that it is nearly allied to certain types

of eruptives. (1) represents the composition of the eclogite from

Markt Schorgast, and (II) that of a diabase from Fichtelberg :

SiOa ALO; Fe,0; FeO MnO CaO MgO KO NaO H,O CO, Total

L 48.81 16.25 6.00 7.48 43 9.72 7.12 .« 64 ü — 99.03

Tl. 47.60 15.29 7.09 687 12 841 648 1.40 3.62 214 16 = 99.18

Nodular Granite from Finland.—Frosterus® describes a new

nodular granite from Kangasnierni Parish in Finland. The rock was

found as boulders in morainal deposits. It is a biotite-granite in which

the nodules are thickly strewn. Each nodule is composed of three

quite distinct parts—an inner nucleus of biotite, sometimes with a frag-

mental outline, surrounded by a zone of coarse granite and an outer

zone of fine-grained granite. Outside of these are several distinct en-

velopes, the inner of which consists principally of feldspar and the

outer of biotite and feldspar. In the envelopes the feldspar is radially

* Trans. N. Y. Ac. Sciences, Oct., 1896, p. 24.

* Bull. Com. Geol. d. la Finlande, No. 4, p. 1.

328 The American Naturalist. [April,

arranged. The author describes in detail the features of the different

portions of the nodules and illustrates them with some handsome fig-

ures. The central parts of the nodules are believed to be inclusions of

gneiss that have been affected by magmatic alterations. Surrounding

these is a zone composed of a coarse aggregate of andesine, quartz, mi-

croline and other components of a normal granite, next a zone of a

fine grained and radial aggregate of biotite, plagioclase, orthoclase and

quartz, and finally the concentric shells. The zones surrounding the

nucleus are thought to be due to contact action between the granite and

the included gneiss. The inner concentric shell is composed of plagio-

clase, quartz, orthoclase and biotite on the inner side and principally

microcline on the outer. side. The outer shell is fine grained, and is

composed of biotite, orthoclase, plagioclase and quartz. The rock sur-

rounding the nodules possesses no special features different from those

of normal granitites. Its material grades into that of the nodules.

Analyses show clearly an increase in acidity from center to peri-

phery of the nodules, which are, on the whole, more acid than the

mother-rock. After discussing the origin of similar structural phe-

nomena in other rocks, the author concludes that the nodules in the

Finland granite are due to crystallization around the centers of crys-

tallization afforded by the inclusions of gneiss.

Volcanic Ash from the North Shore of Lake Superior.

—N. H. Winchell and U. S. Grant’ report the existence of volcanic

ashes in the Keweenawan series near Duluth. The rocks in question

resemble fine grained impure sandstone. They are associated with

diabases, basalts and rhyolites. In thin section they are found to be

composed of fragments, apparently of vesicular lavas, in a matrix con-

sisting of a secondary aggregate of quartz, feldspar, chlorite, epidote,

calcite and iron oxides. A few of the fragments show traces of perlitic

parting.

The Diabases of Goslar.—The diabases in the middle Devon-

ian schists of Goslar in the Harz are discussed by Rinne.* The rocks

are always in the form of sheets interleaved with the schists. Most of

these are intrusive, but, in a few instances, volcanic bombs and other

evidences of the presence of surface volcanic products indicate the ex-

istence of active voleanoes in the district, though diabase tuffs have not

been found. From the general appearance of the upper surface of

some of the sheets there can be no doubt but that they were lavas.

7 Amer. Geol., Vol. XVIII, p. 211.

® Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., B. B. X, p. 363.

1897.) Mineralogy. 329

The bombs are found strewn through the schists associated with the

diabase. Their macroscopic features are carefully described with the

aid of a number of figures. Some of the sheets are porphyritic with

phenocrysts of irregularly outlined oligoclase surrounded by micas in

a groundmass with the composition of normal diabase. The augite in

this groundmass is sometimes idiomorphic, and in nearly all cases it is

bordered by a rim of hornblende; often the hornblende replaces feld-

spar laths embedded in the pyroxene, forming of them complete pseudo-

morphs. The augite is replaced by calcite in some greens and by

chlorite in others.

The four structural types recognized by the author are: compact

gabbroitic phases, compact ophitic varieties, compact porphyritic kinds

and amygdaloidal varieties. The gabbroitic diabases are all gabbro-

like in the land specimen. In thin section the feldspar grains break

up into an aggregate of feldspar laths. The ophitic diabases present

no unusual features except that in the coarse grained varieties the

large feldspar grains are filled with inclusions of the other components.

The amygdaloids are sometimes porphyritic, more frequently normal.

On the contact between the diabase and the schists, both rocks have

suffered from the effects of contact action. The diabase is much denser

near the contact than at a greater distance from it, and in places is

much altered, quartz being an abundant product of this alteration

The schists, which are mainly roofing slates, are crystallized near their

contact with the eruptives,

MINERALOGY.’

The Production of Precious Stones in 1895.

title Kunz’ reviews the chief features of the gem industry for the year,

giving specially copious details concerning the American production.

A six-carat diamond was found at Saukville, Wis., six miles from

Milwaukee. In California several diamonds were found, one at Al-

pine Creek, Tulare Co., five near Oroville, Butte Co., and about as

many more from near the “head of the creek,” probably referring to

one of the sources of the Feather River. From the association with

peridotite, it seems probable that more may be found in this region.

In South Africa the De Beers Company produced diamonds to the

value of about $15,000,000 in the year ending July 1, 1895, and the

| Edited by Prof. A. C. Gill, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

* Seventeenth Annual Report of the U. S. Geol. Survey, 1896, pp. 895-926.

330 The American Naturalist. [April,

output of the same company for 1896 has been sold for $26,000,000.

The total of the dividends paid by the South African diamond compa-

nies in the past ten years has been $58,000,000. A 640 carat diamond

called the Rietz, found in 1895 is superior in quality to the Excelsior

(971 carats) discovered a year or two earlier. The extent of the South

African deposits is much greater than hitherto supposed, and many

new workings are being opened. Near Winburg, in the Orange Free

State, diamond diggings of a prehistoric race were discovered.

Stonier states that the diamonds of New South Wales occur in a

Tertiary (?) deposit, and may have been derived from an intrusive mass

of peridotite, now serpentinized. They are said to be of better quality

than those from South Africa.

The great advance in the price of carbonado, which has trebled in

value, has stimulated the search for substitutes. The only source of

carbonado is Bahia, Brazil, where a single lump weighing 3,073 carats

was found during the year. The practicability of using artificial dia-

monds seems improbable in the light of Moissan’s experiments, who has

made several hundred crystals with a total weight of about } carat on

an outlay of $2000. This is about 2000 times the value of natural

diamond powder.

Mr. Kunz has named the hydrocarbon to which the phosphorescence

of certain diamonds is attributed, Tiffanyite.

Rubies have been found in place near Franklin, Macon Co., N. C.,

in decomposed gneiss with garnets and chlorite.

Brown and Judd‘ have recently described the occurrence and meth-

ods of obtaining the rubies of the noted Burmese mines, where the

paragenesis is much like that of the corundum at Orange Co., N. Y.,

and Sussex Co., N. J. In Siam rubies and sapphires have been ob-

tained during the past few years from the Patat Hills. From Black

Creek, New Zealand, rubies are also reported. Sapphires and a few

rubies are gotten by sluicing the detritus of a decomposed limestone in

Fergus Co., Montana. The outlook in this locality is promising. The

Montana rubies and sapphires are extremely varied in color.

A number of rich green tourmalines were found in 1895 at Mt.

Mica, Paris, Me. Five of these were cut into gems of from five to fifty-

seven carats in weight. At Haddam Neck, Conn., five hundred dollars

worth of tourmalines of various colors were obtained.

Turquoise is reported from Cripple Creek and from Castle Rock

Spring, Col. A mixture of prosopite and quartz closely resembling

turquoise was found at Provo, Utah.

* Trans, N. Y. Acad. Sci., May 20, 1895, p. 260.

* Phil. Trans., Vol. 187, A, pp. 151-228

1897.] Mineralogy. 331°

Unusually fine opals from near Salmon City, Idaho, as well as other

occurrences of opal in Idaho, Washington, Oregon, Arizona, Califor-

nia, Colorado and Georgia are mentioned. Australian opals were sold

for more than $100,000 in 1896.

In addition to the above named gems, mention is made at greater or

less length of andalusite, cyanite, garnet, quartz, amethyst, chrysoprase,

plasma, moss agate, labradorite, lapis lazuli, rhodochrosite, realgar,

amber, xenotime and monazite.

The total value of the gem production in the United States for 1895

is placed at $113,621, of which $50,000 is accredited to turquoise.

The Coloring Matter of Minerals.—The cause of the varied

colors of certain minerals is discussed by Weinschenk,’ who presents a

large number of facts tending to show that these colors are much less

frequently due to organic substances than has been hitherto assumed.

From considerations of the paragenesis of minerals, it is suggested that

compounds of the elements tin, zirconium, titanium, cerium, didimium,

lanthanum, nickel, tantalum and beryllium are in many cases more

likely to be the true source of the minerals’ colors. The effect of the

cathode rays and X-rays in producing a similar color in minerals,

even in some cases where the color had been previously destroyed by

heating, is cited as evidence against the organic nature of the coloring

matter (?). The occurrence of colored minerals as a result of the cool-

ing of a fused magma is evidence in the same direction. The sugges-

tion is thrown out that the color of certain minerals may be a valua-

ble index to the conditions of their origin, when investigation shall

have determined the true cause of the color.

Pearceite and Polybasite.—The systematic working out of the

relationships existing between various isomorphous minerals has re-

ceived another important contribution from Penfield. Hitherto the

name polybasite has been applied to a group of minerals whose chem-

ical composition is of the type seen in the formula Ag, SbS,, in which

Ag is partly replaced by Cu, Fe or Zn, while the isomorphous arsenic

molecules may occur in any proportion, almost to total replacement of

antimony by arsenic in some specimens. The new name Pearceite is

proposed in honor of Dr. Richard Pearce of Denver, Col., for the sul-

pharsenite, while the old name polybasite is restricted in its application

to the sulphantimonite.

ê Zeitschr. d. D. geol. Ges., XLVIII, pp. 704-712, 1896.

ê Am. Jour. Sci., CLII, pp. 17-29, July, 1896.

332 The American Naturalist. [ April,

Pearceite is monoclinic; à: b:¢’==1.7309:1:1.6199; @=89° 51’.

The crystals have usually a hexagonal aspect. They are black in

color with metallic lustre, hardness 3, and specific gravity about

6.15. It is suggested that the high percentage of copper—more than

18%—may account for the opacity of pearceite. It is very easily fus-

ible and gives readily test reactions for its component elements. The

pearceite specially studied occurs with quartz, calcite and chalcopyrite

at the Drumlummon mine, Lewis and Clarke Co., Montana.

A careful study of the crystal form of polybasite leads to the conclu-

sion that it also is monoclinic instead of orthorhombic or rhombohedral

as previously supposed. The axial ratio à : b : c'—=1.7309 : 1; 1.5796 ;

=O".

Perhaps the most interesting part of the paper is the comparison of

pearceite and polybasite with each other and with certain other more

or less allied minerals. From this it appears that arsenic compounds

have a slightly longer vertical axis than the corresponding antimony

minerals. Five cases are cited to illustrate this. Attentiou is also

called to the fact that the prismatic angle is nearly 60° as a rule, and

that in this respect chalcocite, Cu,S, and stromeyerite, Cu AgS, closely

resemble the sulpho-salts.

Miscellaneous Notes.—Davison" gives the name Wardite to a

mineral which appears from a partial analysis to consist largely of a

hydrous basic phosphate of aluminum. It occurs with the Utah vari-

scite, and may be allied to turquoise and peganite——More careful

study of the percussion figure of the micas by Walker’ discloses the

fact that the angle between the rays varies in some instances very con-

siderably from 60°. Muscovite showed an angle of 52° 53’ to 55° 57’,

lepidolite 59° 7’ to 60° 12’, biotite about 60°, and phlogopite 60° 52’

to 63° 28’. On five crystal fragments of the mineral leonite, MgK,

(SO,),+4H,0, Tenne? determined its crystal form to be monoclinic,

with the axial ratio 4: b : ¢'=1.03815: 1: 1.23349, and @==84°50'. This

is a considerable variation from the crystal form of blédite, which has

the analogous composition Mg Na, (SO,), + 4H,0. The latter mineral

is also monoclinic, but its axial ratio is à : b : e- =1.3494: 1: .6715, and

B=79° 16’.

7 Am, Jour. Sci., CLII, pp. 154, 155, 1896.

8 Am. Jour. Sci., CLII, pp. 5-

® Zeitschr. d. D. biol. Ges., XLVII, ie 632-637, 1896.

1897.] Geology and Paleontology. 333

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Alleged Fossil Micrococci.—M. B. Renault communicates to

the Academy of Sciences (Paris) a note concerning certain Micrococci

and Bacilli which he has found in Coal-Measures of Saint-Etienne and

of Commentry. They occur in these formations in considerably larger

quantities than they do in plants preserved in flint or in carbonate of

lime. They are, moreover, less varied in form and dimensions than are

those found in silicified plants, and they are not so much carbonized as

the plants in which they are found. (Revue Scient., Dec., 1896.)

Any positive determination of such objects as are figured and described

by M. Renault must, however, be regarded with suspicion, and some

new light must be obtained on the process of fossilization before fossil

Micrococci can be made credible.

Geology of Luang Prabang.'—The observations made by MM.

Counillou and Massie during their stay at Luang Prabang, as members

of the Pavie Mission, show the following facts :

(1) The existence in the vicinity of the region studied of Productus

and Schwagerina limestones, which are the equivalent of the Moulmein

(Birmaine) "beds, or one of the terms of the Salt Range series, and, per-

haps, of the limestones of Sumatra.

(2) The presence, to the northwest of Luang Prabang, of a system

of red clays, limestones and graywackes belonging to the Permian

period, and exceedingly like the upper part of the Raingung group

(India).

(3) The existence of a formation of purple clays and sandstones, be-

ginning with a pudding-stone, and containing remains of Dicynodonts.

Up to the present time these reptiles have been discovered only in the

Karoo beds of South Africa, the Panchet of India and the Elgin of

Scotland. It is natural then to consider this formation as constituting

in Laos the base of the Trias.

(4) As to the limestone of Luang Prabang, although these two geo-

logists believe its position to be inferior to the red clays, they cannot

determine its exact age for want of sufficient stratigraphic and paleon-

tologic data. (Revue Scientif., Jan., 1897.)

The Position of the Chico-Tejon Beds.—Since the discovery

of the Chico-Tejon series of marine beds on the Pacific coast by Conrad,

| Luang Prabang is situated on the left bank of the Mekong, in Coachinchina,

99° 45’ long. E. and 19° 54’ 20/7 lat. N.

334 The American Naturalist. [April,

in 1855, there has been much debate over the determination of the age

of the series. They were thought at one time to constitute transition

beds between the Cretaceous and Eocene. After a critical study of the

faunal relations of the series in question, Prof. T. W. Stanton arrives at

the following conclusions :

“1. In all known sections that contain both Chico and Tejon the

strata are apparently conformable. So far as it goes, this is an indica-

tion of continuous sedimentation ; but without further evidence it can-

not be accepted as proof that there is no break, nor should it be given

greater weight than the clear unconformability between Tejon and

older Cretaceous beds in Oregon.

“2. The Martinez group of the California Survey is not a simple

formation that can be considered a mere subdivision of the Chico, but

consists of two distinct portions, one of which is Cretaceous and insepara-

ble from the Chico, while the other is Eocene, and is here classed as

Lower Tejon.

“3. The ‘intermediate beds,’ supposed by Gabb to form a transition

from the Chico to the Tejon, are the same as the upper part of the

Martinez group and the Lower Tejon. Their fauna, so far as known,

includes no distinctively Mesozoic elements.

“4, The Chico fauna is characteristically Cretaceous, its so-called

‘Tertiary types’ being persistent or modern types that have changed

but little from the Cretaceous to the present day.

“5, An examination of the species supposed to occur in both the

Chico and the Tejon reduces their number to not more than six, and

with one exception those are all persistent types that cannot be classed

as Mesozoic. The exception is Ammonites jugalis, which Gabb collected

from two localities supposed to be Tejon in the Mount Diablo region,

but it has not been rediscovered in any subsequent Tejon collections.

The Ammonoid seen by Heilprin in the Gabb collection from Fort

Tejon may or may not be this species. It is held that the Tejon fauna

is essentially Eocene and very distinct from the Chico, even though this

ammonite should prove to belong to it.

“6. The time interval indicated by the decided change in faunas

from the Chico to the Tejon cannot now be estimated. In fact, there is

little evidence that the latter fauna is derived from the earlier, except-

ing in a few species; and it is possible that all the changes took place

by extinction and migration of species during the period in which the

barren beds between the latest Chico and the earliest Tejon fossiliferous

horizons were laid down. It will not be surprising, however, if evidence

is sometime found of a period of erosion at the close of the Cretaceous

1897.] Geologu and Paleontology. 335

on the Pacific coast.” (Seventeenth Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. Surv.,

1895-96, Pt. I, 1896.)

The Position of the Periptychidz.—This family is one of the

three which I placed in the Condylarthra on the establishment of that

order, the two others being the Phenacodontide and the Mensco-

theriide. With regard to its phylogenetic position, I adopted the view

that it is probably the type from which were derived the order Ambly-

poda. In asynopsis of the latter order, published in 1884,’ I remark

(p. 1129), “It was not until later (1877) that I assumed that the

Diplarthra are descendants of the Amblypoda, although not of either of

the known orders, but of a theoretical division with bunodont teeth.

That such a group has existed is rendered extremely probable, in view

of the existence of the bunodont Proboscidia and Condylarthra. This

hypothetical suborder has been called Amblypoda Hyodonta.” * *

“The existence of Amblypoda Hyodonta is rendered almost certain by

the discovery that the genus Trigonolestes® of the Wasatch epoch is an

artiodactyle with tritubercular bunodont superior molars. The ancestral

type of such a form must have been a tritubercular bunodont amblypod.

Pantolambda is such a form with the tubercles modified into Vs.

Moreover, such a type (Amblypoda Hyodonta) would be derived from a

a Periptychid Taxeopod, with but little modification of the latter. A

distinct facet of the astragulus for the cuboid bone, and probably a

change of the carpus by an articulation of the unciform and lunar bones

would be all that would be necessary. The discovery of Pantolambda

has increased the probability of such a change having taken place in

the hind foot, since the astragalus is intermediate in form between those _

of Coryphodon and Periptychus.”

I have never concealed from myself the possibility that the Perip-

tychide themselves might prove to be the Amblypoda Hyodonta. The

astragulus has a considerable articulation with the cuboid bone, which

has an obscure angular distinction from the facet for the navicular.

So far as this articulation goes the family might be placed in the

Amblypoda. I have awaited the discovery of the carpus of the Perip-

tychidæ from that day to this (seventeen years) ; but success has not

attended the efforts of Osborn and Wortman, who have searched for it.

It is now, however, time to remark, that as there has been no other type

discovered which could represent the Amblypoda Hyodonta, the proba-

bility that the Periptychide are that type, is increased. It is eminently

_ 7 AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1884, p. 1110.

*“ Pantolestes” in the original—Trigonolestes brachystomus, which is not a

aes

336 The American Naturalist. [April,

probable that, since the alternation in the tarsus in that family is un-

doubted, it will also be found to exist in the carpus, as required for the

missing type. Should this prove to be the case, the Periptychide must

be removed from the order Condylarthra to the Amblypoda, where it

will form the second family of the suborder Taligrada, the other family

being the Pantolambdide. The two families will differ in this, that in

the Periptychide the molars are bunodont, while in the Pantolambdide

they are primitively selenodont, or with V-shaped cusps. This arrange-

ment, if correct, puts the Periptychide in direct ancestral relationship

to the Diplarthra, and so far confirms Schlosser’s hypothesis that that

family is the ancestor of the Artiodactyla. This view is also in ac-

cordance with that expressed by Osborn and Earle in their important

paper on the Fossil Mammals of the Puerco: Bull. Am. Mus. Nat.

Hist. New York, 1895, p. 47.

The families of the Condylarthra will be, in that case, the Phena-

codontide and the Menscotheriide, and the Pleuraspidotheriide of

Lemoine, if the last be different as a family from both of the others.

—E. D. Core.

Glacial Beaches of Michigan.—During the past year Mr. F.

B. Taylor has made a study of the moraines, abandoned beaches and

outlets of the glacial lakes which formerly occupied the southern part

of the lower peninsula of Michigan. His conclusions are as follows :

The glacial waters that gathered in the Erie, Huron and Ontario

basins during the retreat of the ice-sheet underwent many changes. In

falling from their highest level to the present level of Lake Erie the

Stages. Lakes. Beaches. Outlets. Moraines.

1 |Maumee Van Wert.......... Fort Wayne........| Defiance.

2 \Onnamed a Leipsic. Imlay Toledo and De-

: troit.

3 | Whittlesay Belmore. Tyre Ubly. ......... Port Huron, Sagi-

naw.

4 /|Unnamed Arkona Undecided Undecided

5 Warren Forest Pewamo. Undecided

(Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 8, 1897). |

glacial waters changed the place of their outlet four or five times. At

each change they paused for a time, sufficient to make a distinct beach.

For the whole series of lakes the author would propose a descriptive,

1897.] Geology and Paleontology. 337

general name, as the Erie-Huron lakes, and for each separate stage

having a separate outlet a particular name. Mr. Taylor’s especial

contribution to science in this paper is the discovery of certain outlets

and the correlation of the shore-lines (as shown by the beaches), the

outlets, and the retaining dams (indicated by the moraines) of the sepa-

rate lakes. The relations of these features to each other are discussed

in detail, but may be indicated by the table on page 336.

Lake Agassiz.—Mr. J. B. Tyrrell suggests that Lake Agassiz had

its beginning as follows: Starting with the Dawson idea of three great

centers of snow and ice on the North American continent during the

glacial period, he traces the history of the centre great glacier (Ke-

watin) which originated northwest of Hudson Bay. A portion of this

glacier occupied the basin of Lake Winnipeg and the Red River Valley

for a long time. As it retired a portion of the eastern or Laurentide

glacier was advancing. The Kewatin glacier seems to have retired

northward well into Manitoba, and possibly even beyond the northern

limit of that province, before it was joined by the eastern glacier.

When they united the water was ponded between the fronts of the two

glaciers to the north and east, and the high land to the south and west.

Such is the origin of Lake Agassiz. Its waters rapidly rose until they

overflowed southward into the valley of the Mississippi, and then

gradually declined as the river Warren deepened its channel. (Journ.

Geol., Vol. IV, 1896).

The Prehistoric Dog.—M. Th. Studer, of Berne, has presented

an interesting work to the Soc. helvetique des sci. nat. on the races of

dogs found in the lacustrine deposits of the Stone Age. These are Canis

palustris, a small species dating from the neolithic ; a large dog found

in Lake Ladoga and Lake Neuchatel, which is related to the Siberian

sledge-dog; and Canis familiaris Leineri, a large, slender dog, remind-

ing one of the Scottish greyhound.

The shepherd dog appeared in the Age of Bronze, and also a hunting

dog (Canis familiaris matris-optime and Canis fam. intermedius).

These different races have a common palearctic origin. The Mediter-

ranean and Egyptian races are derived from a different type of equa-

torial origin. (Revue Scientif., Jan., 1897).

Geological News.—Mesozorc.—The Museum of Lyon publishes

in its Archives the drawings made by M. Jourdan, of a series of singular

organisms which he classed as Echinoderms under the names Pegma-

crinus cupulatus, P. radiatus, P. inflatus and P. gracilis. Since Mr.

Jourdan’s death these organisms have been much in dispute ; zoologists

338 The American Naturalist. [ April,

refuse them a place among Echinoderms, and botanists deny their being

calcareous alge. On the same plate are figured two fine Echinoderms

from Cirin. They are described by M. P. de Loriol. (Arch. Mus,

Whist. nat., Lyon, T. 16, 1895).

A new fossil fish reported by Mr. R. Storms from the bruxellien sand-

stone is remarkable for its size. It is referred to the genus Cybium

with the specific name proostii. Its mandible measures 34 centimeters.

If its proportions correspond with the modern C. regale, its total length

must have been not less than 2.55 m., or double that of C. bleekerii,

found in the same formation. (Bull. Soc. Belge de Geol., T. IX,

[1895] 1897).

Cenozoic.—Nine new species and varteties of Ostracoda from the

Pliocene beds near Berkeley, California, are described and figured by

Mr. Frederick Chapman. The specimens are such as inhabit fresh

water at the present day, with the exception of one, a Cypripopsis,

which is as often found in brackish water. They are all comprised in the

family of the Cypridæ. It is suggested by Dr. Merriam that the Ostra-

coda may be of use in determining horizons of the Berkeley Pliocene

beds. (Bull. Dept. Geol., Univ. Calif., Vol. 2, 1896).

An interesting bone breccia was discovered some months ago in the

neighborhood of the Wombeyan caves, New South Wales, by Mr. R.

Broom. The deposit is old, and contains a few new forms, 5 of which

are described in the Proceeds. Linn. Soc., N.S. W. According to the

author this 1895-96 collection from this deposit gives a fair idea of the

smaller animals living in later Tertiary times. One of the important

discoveries was that of Dromicia nana, represented by a number of both

lower and upper jaws. This find establishes Thomas’ theory that

Dromicia existed formerly in Eastern Australia. Mr. Broom considers

it probable D. nana still survives in the district of the Wombeyan

caves. (Proceeds. Linn. Soc., N. S. W., 1896).

The fossil bones of several species of monkeys found in the caves of

Brazil by Lund have been recently described by M. H. Winge. With

one exception the species are still existing, and are found in the same

localities to-day. The one extinct species, to which M. Winge gives the

name Eriodes protopithecus, is represented by several detached bones,

which cannot be referred to one individual, but which, without doubt,

can be referred to the same species. The new form resembles E. arach-

noides, having the same long, slender limbs, but shorter fingers, and

the measurements show that it must have been a very much larger

animal than its living relative. (E. Museo Lundii, Kjobenhavn,

1895-96).

1897.] Botany. 339

BOTANY."

New Species of Fungi from Various Localities.—The fol-

lowing new species of fungi have been received from various localities

in North America within the past few months:

Potyporus suBLUTEUS E. & E. On decaying beech, London,

Canada, November, 1896 (Dearness, 699c). Effused with the upper

margin more or less reflexed, margin or surface of the pores light yellow

(when dry), substance soft and pliable, pilei about 1 cm. long by 3—4

em. broad, white, short-tomentose, zoneless, subimbricate, margins

obtuse, flesh thin, white, of woolly-floccose texture, not at all fibrous.

Pores uneven, subcolliculose, unequal in size, round or subsinuous, $—3

mm. diam., ł—1 cm. long, margin subdentate, dissepiments thin. Spores

oblong, a little narrower at one end, white 4-6 x 13-2. The pores,

like the flesh of the pileus, are white inside.

Porta SUBVIOLACEA E. & E. Underside of decaying oak limbs,

lying on the ground, Newfield, N. J., September and October, 1896.

Subiculum archnoid-tomentose, white, loose, not separable from the

matrix, hymenium at first violet-color with the pores mere hemispher-

ical depressions, but the violet soon fades to dirty white, or yellowish-

white, and the pores become more elongated, but still short, more or

less irregular in shape, with the margins dentate. Spores allantoid,

hyaline, 34 x 1g. Soft, juicy and flexible when fresh.

Favo.us srriatutus E. & E. On rotten limba: in woods, Mt. Cuba,

Delaware, July, 1896 (Commons, No. 2781).

Stipitate. Pileus convex-plane, firm and rigid when dry, umbilicate,

radiate-striate with fine, more deeply colored lines, but not sulcate, —

4-5 cm. across, pale light yellow when dry, margin paler, sublobate and

uneven, narrowly incurved. Stem central, about 1 cm. long and 3-5

mm. thick, enlarged above into the pileus, solid, pale yellowish, under

the lens finely velutinous. Pores unequal, decurrent, subquadrangular

or elliptical, 1-2 mm. deep, margins acute and minutely erose-dentate.

Spores allantoid, hyaline, 5-7 x 1#. Color, pale yellow throughout.

A coarser, thicker plant than F. curtisii Berk., and lacks the ciliate

margin and setulose stipe, nor can it be referalile to Polyporus alveo-

larius Bose.

Corticrum FERAX E. & E. On dead wood, Canada (Macoun). Thin,

farinaceous, white, immarginate, soon developing in the central parts

! Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

340, The American Naturalist. [April,

small patches of yellowish, smooth, waxy hymeium. Spores elliptical,

hyaline, abundant, 4 x 3%

PENIOPHORA GLOBIFERA E. & E. On bark of Abies, Canada (Ma-

coun). Effused, thin, soft when fresh, brittle when dry, cinereous, not

cracking, closely adnate, margin at first fringed with appressed, silky,

white hairs, which soon disappear. Cystidia at first globose, soon pro-

longed above into stout, rough, lanceolate processes, 40-70 x 8-10z,

hyaline. Spores small, globose, 3» diam. The cystidia are very

abundant and easily seen with a low power, causing the hymenium to

appear pubescent.

ÅSTERELLA PROSOPIDIS E. & E. On living bark of Prosopis duleis

(Mesquite), near Monterey, Mexico, July, 1896. Dr. B. F.G. Egeling.

Perithecia gregarious or scattered, superficial, depressed-conical, 2

mm. diam., with a black, shining subconical ostiolum. Asci clavate-

oblong, 30-35 x 8-10y, subsessile, 8-spored, with stout linear paraphy-

ses. Sporidia biseriate, fusoid, hyaline, uniseptate, not constricted,

subacute, 12-14 x 4—43p.

CHAETOMIUM SETOSUM E.& E. On damaged hay in stacks, Rooks

Co., Kansas, August 1896 (Bartholomew, No. 2214).

Perithecia at first ovate or ovate-conical, or cylindric-conical, becom-

ing obovate and often flattened above, and contracted below so as to

appear stipitate, 400-500, high, clothed with straight, erect-spreading,

smooth, black hairs, 150-200 long and 5-6» thick below, tapering

above, not branched, with mycelium of reticulate, rough hyphe and

a fringe of brown, subundulate, short hairs around the base. Asci

subelliptical, 10-12 x 6-7». Sporidia elliptical, brown, 4-5 x 3-4y,

and 2-23, thick.

Differs from Ch. melioloides C. & P.in the simple, smooth hairs that

clothe the perithecia.

SoRDARIA VIOLACEA E. & E. On horse dung, Rooks Co., Kansas,

September 15, 1896 (Bartholomew, No. 2263).

Perithecia semiemergent, 2-4 confluent, 700-800y diam., slightly de-

pressed-globose, more or less roughened, with thick walls consisting of

an outer dark-colored coriaceous sheet lined inside with a thinner,

violet-colored membrane. Ostiolum hemispherical-papilliform or sub-

discoid-depressed. Asci clavate-oblong, rounded at both ends, sessile.

Paraphyses abundant, but indistinct. Sporidia 8 in an ascus, oblong-

elliptical, becoming opaque, 30-45 x 19-214. The perithecia are

mostly in confluent groups, but there is no true stroma.

SorDARIA AMPHISPH#RIODES E. & E. On cow dung, Rooks Co.,

Kansas, August, 1896 (Bartholomew, No. 2249).

1897.] Botany. 341

Perithecia scattered or 2—4 together, mostly about ł mm. diam.,

membranaceous, globose or slightly depressed-globose, entirely buried

in the matrix which is not discolored within, the very short neck ter-

minating in a depressed-globose, or subdiscoid ostiolum perforated in

the center and erumpent through a black, superficial, stromatic shield,

exactly as in Clypeospheria. Generally the ostiolum is seated in a

slight depression. Asci cylindrical, 220-230 x 20», very short stipitate,

with cylindrical, continuous paraphyses longer than the asci and about

4u thick. Sporidia uniseriate, elliptical or oblong-elliptical, yellowish,

becoming opaque, 27-30 x 19-21», not appendiculate. Allied to 8.

merdaria (Fr:) and S. macrospora Awd., but distinguished from both

by the stromatic shield.

PODOSPORA MINOR E. & E. On old stalk of Zea mays, Rooks Co.,

Kansas, July, 1896 (Bartholomew, No. 2204).

Perithecia loosely gregarious, erumpent-superficial, ovate-conical,

500 x 4004, loosely clothed, except the black, obtuse, stout, short-

cylindrical ostiolum, with spreading brown hairs. Asci cylindrical,

150 x 20. Sporidia obliquely uniseriate, ovate-elliptical or almond-

shaped, 25-35 x 15-22», with a cylindrical, obtuse, brownish appendage

12-15 x 4» at base, and sometimes with a much shorter, deciduous one

at theapex. Differs from P. brassice K1. in its smaller size throughout,

RosELLINIA BIGELOVIH E. & E. On dead stems of Bigelovia

graveolens, Golden, Colo., December, 1896 (Bethel, No. 15).

Perithecia erumpent-superficial, scattered or gregarious and cespi-

tose, ovate-globose, }-} mm. diam., with a distinct, acutely papilliform

ostiolum. Asci cylindrical, about 50x 5#. Paraphyses filiform, abun-

dant. Sporidia uniseriate, oblong-elliptical, brown, 6-8 x 34-431.

PHYSALOSPORA BETULINA E. & E. On birch bark, Newfoundland,

September, 1896 (Rev. A. C. Waghorne, No. 62).

Perithecia subgregarious, sunk in the bark, but the apex raising the

epidermis into pustules, ovate-globose, 400-550» diam., light colored

inside. Ostiolum inconspicuous. Asci clavate-cylindrical, 110 x 12%,

with abundant paraphyses. Sporidia uniseriate, elliptical or obovate,

hyaline with one or two large nuclei, 18-22 x 10-12».

LEPTOSPHÆRIA PHASEOLORUM E. & E. On old bean vines (Pha-

seolus vulgaris, cult., with Diaporthe phaseolorum C. & E., Newfield,

N. J., July 27, 1896.

Perithecica scattered, ovate-globose, about } mm. diam., covered by

the epidermis, which is raised into slight pustules and pierced by the

conical or conic-cylindrical ostiolum. Asci clavate-cylindrical, short-

Stipitate, paraphysate. Sporidia biseriate, oblong-fusoid, subobtuse,

342 The American Naturalist. [April,

slightly curved or subinequilateral, 3-5 septate and constricted at the

septa, hyaline, becoming brown, 16-22 x 5-6. Differs from L. artemi-

sie Fckl. in its smaller size throughout.

PLEOSPORA FINDENS E. & E. On dead culms of Andropogon vir-

ginicum, Newfield, N. J., October, 1896.

Perithecia buried, globose, 150» diam., with the conic-tuberculiform

ostiolum erumpent. Asci cylindrical, short-stipitate, 130-150 x 12%..

Paraphyses none. Sporidia uniseriate, oblong, 5-septate, most of them

with one or two cells divided by a longitudinal septum, straw-yellow.

Many of the sporidia are without any longitudinal septa, resembling

Leptospheria. The pycnidial form isa Hendersonia, similar outwardly

to the ascigerous, but with fusoid, straw-yellow, 3-4 septate sporules,

20-34 x 3-5y.

PLEOSPORA OLIGOSTACHYH E. & E. On leaves of Bouteloua oli-

gostachya, Rooks Co., Kansas, October 1896 (Bartholomew, No. 2325).

Perithecia scattered, hemispheric-prominent, small (200), black,

with a minute papilliform ostiolum. Asci oblong-cylindrical, short

stipitate, 65-75 x 12-14», with abundant paraphyses. Sporidia beseri-

ate, oblong-elliptical, subinequilateral, 3-septate, scarcely constricted,

one of the cells often divided by a longitudinal septum, but quite as

often this is wanting, 14-17 x 6-7y.

DIAPORTHE RADICINA E. & E. On bulbous base of culms of dead

Phleum pratense, Newfield, N. J., December, 1896.

Perithecia in small groups buried in the matrix, which is blackened

on the surface, about } mm. diam. Ostiola erumpent, short-cylindrical,

smooth, obtuse. Asci (p. sp.) cylindric-fusoid, 40-45 x 5-6. Sporidia

1-2 seriate, oblong, 3-4 nucleate, scarcely constricted, 10-12 x 3-4».

EUTYPELLA POPULI E. & E. On dead limbs of Populus, Canada

(Macoun).

Stroma orbicular, convex, 1-2 mm. diam., seated on the wood and

raising the bark into pustules, not circumscribed. Perithecia 12-30 in

a stroma, closely packed, ovate-globose, about } mm. diameter. Ostiola

short cylindric-conical, erumpent in a dense, flat-topped fascicle, dis-

tinctly quadrisuleate. Asci (p. sp.) about 20 x 4». Sporidia subbiser-

iate, allantoid, only slightly curved, brownish in the mass, 4—5 x 1-1}.

= VALSARIA COLORADENSIS E. & E. On dead bark of Negundo acer-

oides, Overland, Colorado, November, 1896 (E. Bethel, No. 136).

Perithecia 4-6 or more, buried in a cortical stroma consisting of the

whitened (but otherwise unchanged) substance of the bark, about 4

mm. diam., with thick coriaceous walls. Ostiola slightly erumpent

through small chinks in the bark, subconfluent, conic-tuberculiform,

1897.] Botany. 343

black, mostly subseriately arranged. Asci clavate-cylindrical, 50-60

x 6-7, obscurely paraphysate, 8-spored. Sporidia subbiseriate, oblong-

cylindrical, slightly curved, obtuse, brown, uniseptate, but not con-

stricted, 12-15 x 3-33».

The white substance of the stroma is surrounded by a thin, black

layer, which, on a horizontal section, shows as a black line. Stroma

orbicular or elongated, 2 mm,-1 cm. long.—J. B. Eris and B. M.

EVERHARDT.

(To be continued.)

Botanical News.—The second century of Josephine E. Tilden’s |

American Algæ has been distributed. It continues to maintain

the high standard of excellence possessed by the first century. We

should prefer to see the editor confine this distribution to the fresh-

water alge, since every marine form is but a duplicate of what one

finds in so many other sets.

Professor L. H. Bailey’s “Teacher’s Leaflets,” promise to be of

great value, if we may judge from the one issued December Ist, en-

titled “How a Squash Plant Gets Out of the Seed.” It consists of

seven pages of text illustrated by fourteen new figures of every stage of

the process. This leaflet should be in the hands of every High-School

teacher of Botany.

We are glad to notice that the handy “ Guide to the Organic Drugs

of the United States Pharmacopzia,” prepared by John S. Wright

and published by Eli Lilly & Co., of Indianapolis, has reached its

thirteenth thousand, and has been revised and greatly improved.

“ Fodder and Forage Plants,” by Jared G. Smith ; “ Useful and Or-

namental Grasses,” by F. Lamson Scribner, and “ Studies on American

Grasses,” are repectively Bulletins 2, 3 and 4 of the Division of Ag-

rostology in the United States Department of Agriculture. They have

both a practical and scientific interest, and reflect credit upon the au-

thors. In Bulletin 4. some generic changes are proposed, and a num-

ber of new species are described. The generic name Chaetoch/oa is

proposed for Setaria (preoccupied), Chamaeraphis for Ixophorus (dis-

tinct genera). Accordingly the familiar Setaria glauca is hereafter to

be Chaetochloa (L.) Scribn., S. viridis will be C. viridis (L.) Scribn.,

and S. italica C. italica (L.) Seribn.

The second bulletin of the New York Botanical Garden (issued

January 1st) contains, in addition to Dr. Britton’s vice-presidential

address on Botanical Gardens (given before Section F of the American

Association for the Advancement of Science), reports, plans, maps, reg-

ulations, ete. The map showing the general plan of the Garden is very

344 The American Naturalist. [April,

interesting, and promises that when fully installed it will be one of the

most instructive gardens in the Western Hemisphere.

In a recent number of Garden and Forest (January 13), Professor

Card makes a strong plea for experimental plant physiology as an ad-

junct to instruction in modern horticulture. It will repay reading by

all botanists, and should encourage the introduction of physiological

work in agricultural colleges, where it has generally been neglected, as

well as in the larger universities where it has already had some recog-

nition.

Professor Hitchcock’s bulletin (62) on Corn Smut, issued by the

Kansas Experiment Station, gives, in addition to much relating to

structure and the germination of the spores, an extended synonymy

and bibliography. He concludes, rather hastily, we think, that the

name under which this smut be known is Ustilago mays zeae (DC)

Magnus (= Uredo segetum var. mays zeae DCO, Fl. Fr., If, 1805, =

Uredo maydis DC. FI. Fr., VI, 1815). De Candolle himself did not

consider that he had sufficiently designated it in Vol. II of “ Flora

Francaise,” since, in Vol. VI, he does not refer to his note in the earlier

volume, but proceeds to describe it as a distinct species under the name

Uredo maydis. We should not now compel De Candolle to say in 1805

what, ten years later, he himself felt that he had not said.

Another little book has appeared from the facile pen of Professor L.

H. Bailey, which is, incidentally,.of considerable interest to botanists,

although primarily designed for gardeners. Under the title, “The

Forcing Book” (The Macmillan Company), he tells much about green-

house construction, heating and management, which will be most use-

ful to those botanists who possess, or hope to build, a plant-house. The

chapters on Lettuce, Cauliflower, Radishes, Tomatoes, Cucumbers, etc.,

are admirable illustrations of clear presentations, and will be valuable

to botanists as well as gardeners—CuAr.ues E. Bessey.

ZOOLOGY.

Paramceba eilhardii.'—The ameboid organism to which Dr. Fr.

Schaundinn gives this new specific and generic name was found by him

in the salt-water aquarium of the Berlin Zoological Institute. Its

life history was found to consist of three stages. (1) An ameeboid

stage, in which the organism measures from 10-90» microns, is disc-

18, B. K. Preuss. A. K , 1896, pp. 31-41 (12 figs.).

1897.] : Zoology. 345

like, and is provided with blunt pseudopodia. In color it is often yel-

lowish-brown, its plasma of a vacuolar honey-combed appearance, and

its endoplasm with a large number of granules. Its central nucleus is

vesicular and has an alveolar structure. Beside it isa peculiar refrac-

tive accessory body unlike anything found in other ameba. This,

during the process of division, seems to divide before the nucleus.

(2) An encysted stage, in which the vacuolar appearance disappears,

the pseudopodia become retracted, and a cyst-membrane is formed.

The sequence of division is (a) the accessory body, (b) the nucleus,

(3) A flagellate stage that begins by the emergence from the cyst of

oval swarm spores, each possessing two flagella, an ingestive aperture,

two chromatophores, a nucleus, and, like the first stage, an accessory

body. Leaving out of account this last body the organisms very closely

resemble species of Cryptomonas. Sometime after emerging from the

cyst the spores divide longitudinally, lose their chromatophores, and

become ameeboid.

Diplodal Sponge-Chambers.’—Prof. F. E. Sohults =o a re-

examination of the matter, using as examples, Corticium n O.

Sch., Chondrilla nucula O. Sch., and Ovoureila lobularis, jive his

observations made on the adie chambers of the last form in 1877.

The chambers have both an entrant and an exit aperture.

The Asymetry of Spirorbis and the Phylogenetic Rela-

tionships of the Species of the Genus.’—As a result of the

examination of a large number of specimens of this genus derived from

various parts of the world, and comprising a score of species, it has

been found that these serpulids are entirely asymetrical. The form of

the spiral is constant for a given species, and is either dextral or sines-

tral. In the dextral species the operculum is always borne by the

second right branchial, while in the sinestral forms it is borne on the

left second branchial—thus, in all cases, on the concave side of the

animal.

The muscle-fibers are developed to the greatest extent on the concave

side.

The intestine and ovaries are crowded to the convex side.

The uncini are most numerous and largest on the concave side.

In the abdominal region there are, speaking generally, n rows of

uncini on the right and n + p rows on the left side (p. = 2

* Zool. Anz., XIX (1896), pp. 426-32.

° M. Caulberg and Félix Mesnil. Comptes-Rendus, CXXIV (1897), pp. 48-50.

346 The American Naturalist. [April,

There are met with in a series of species, dextral as well as sinistral,

on the concave side, a third group of uncini, representing a fourth

thoracic setigerous ring that is lacking in others.

All this shows the influence of the spiral tube, and is explained by

the movements of the animal. The functional activity of the organs of

the concave side has preserved them, and is to be taken into account in

any phylogenetic grouping.

Taking the direction of the spiral and the presence or absence of the

thoracic ring into account, it is evident that the genus Spirobis may be

divided into four subgenera, as follows :

Dextral species,

With 3 thoracic rings ; : Dexiospira.

With 4 thoracic rings : Paradexiospira.

Sinistral species,

With 3 thoracic rings ; j Leospira.

With 4 thoracic rings ‘ Paraleospira.

The Malpighian Tubes of the Orthoptera. ‘_The malpig-

hian tubes of the Orthoptera, as regards their number and length, pre-

sent a great analogy with those of the Hymenoptera, but differ from

them in their disposition and their mode of opening.

Among the divers excretory contents of these glands have been found

in abundance: urate of sodium and urate of calcium in Gryllus; uric

acid in Gryllotalpa, in the form of irregular spherical or ovoid concre-

tions or of prismatic crystals ; urate of sodium and uric acid in Blatta

and Periplaneta.

Mr. Bordas’ studies embraced some’ forty species of the principal

families of Orthoptera, and result in the following conclusions:

In the Forficulide the tubes are few (8-10) and grouped into two

opposite fascicles.

In the Phasmids they are very numerous, and united into 20-24

fascicles (in Phibalosoma), opening into an equal number of hemi-

spherical or conical tubercles, which are short and are disposed in a

circle around the intestine, of which they are simply evaginations. In

Acanthoderus and Necroscia each collecting tubercle receives only two

or three Malpighian tubes.

In the Mantidx there are some 60-70 urinal tubes, opening some-

times irregularly, sometimes in groups of three to four (Eremiaphila).

The praying mantis possesses 50-60, united into several bundles, sepa-

rated by narrow free spaces.

*L. Bordas. Comptes-Rendus, CX XIV (1897), pp. 46-8.

1897.] Zoology. | 347

In the Periplanete and Blatte the tubes are grouped into six bundles,

each with 15-20 tubes, opening at the summit of a very short conical

tubercle. These six tubercles are simple evaginations of the intestinal

wall, and are disposed in a circle about the intestine, at almost equal

distances from one another. In Polyzosteria the tubes are filamentous,

short, and likewise grouped into six bundles. In Blabera the mode of

opening is characteristic, and very different from that in the rest of the

Blattide. The tubes to the number of 50-60 are plain, embracing

about a third of the intestinal circumference.

In the Acridide the number of tubes is very variable. Certain

species (Pecilocerus and Pyrgomorpha) have as many as a hundred,

others (Pamphagus) have 60-70, others (Gdopoda) 70-80, others

(Psophus, Pachtylus, ete.) 50-60. In all the tubes are grouped into

a few bundles (5-6).

In the Locustide the number of tubes exceeds 100, grouped into six

bundles, opening at the summit of 6 cylindro-conical tubercles, disposed

sometimes regularly at equal distances fram one another, sometimes

irregularly, at the origin of the hind gut (Locusta, Decticus, Salomona,

Pseudorhynchus, Platicleis, etc.). In the Ephippigerine one meets with

three or four of these tubercles and some 110-120 urinary tubes.

Finally, in Gryllacris, which in general have but a single, short collect-

ing tubercle, there are some 80-100 Malpighian tubes.

In the Gryllide the number of tubes is great, and exceeds a hundred.

In Gryllus and Gryllotalpa one finds 100-120. They open into a long

unpaired cylindrical collecting tubule (ureter). This, after a course of

9 mm. to 12 mm., opens at the summit of a conical tubercle furnished

with four valves limiting an gqsteriated orifice ( Gryllotalpa).

Eels Feeding on the Eggs of Limulus.—In the latter part

of May, four or five years ago, while walking at dusk along the Kicke-

muit River, which flows between the town of Warren and Bristol, R. I.,

I noticed many horse-feet crawling on the sandy bottom of the river.

The tide was high, and they had come in from outside, as is their habit

at high water. What attracted my attention the most was the fact that,

as they lay there on the river bottom, many eels had worked their way

into the clefts between their heads and abdominal regions, and were

apparently feeding. Some of the eels were very large, and made a

strange sight with their heads under the shell and their tails sticking

out sideways. Sumetimes two or three were under one horse-foot, and

if I had had an eel spear I could have caught a good mess. I have

since wondered what the eels were eating. Sometimes I think it might

348 The American Naturalist. [April,

have been something on which the horse-feet were feeding; but my

uncle, who was with me, said that they were after the spawn; and I

have since come to the conclusion that he was right, for it was the

spawning season, and the eels were only gathered around the large

female horse-feet. This spring I intend to make further observations,

and find out if this is really the case. Horse-feet are used a little as a

food for poultry on some farms in Bristol, and it was in cutting some

of them open that I noticed that the large ones were the females, for

they were full of eggs —H. C. WARWELL.

Elassoma zonatum East of the Apallachian Mountains.—

In looking through the recently issued work by Drs. Jordanand Ever-

mann, on the fishes of North and Middle America, I was reminded of

having collected some years ago specimens of one of our smallest and

least known fishes, in a locality that considerably extends its range as

recorded by these authors. Elassoma zonatum is stated in the above

mentioned work to occur from southern Illinois to Texas, Louisiana

and Alabama. In 1882 the writer obtained specimens in Waccamaw

River, near Whitesville, in southeastern North Carolina, and in the

Little Pedee River in South Carolina. Evidently it was notat all rare

where collected. My specimens were subsequently compared with

material from southern Illinois in the collection of the Illinois State

Laboratory of Natural History; and as Dr. Jordan had studied this

collection in preparing his list of Illinois fishes, there can be no question

about correctness of determination.

The number of scales in a longitudinal row along the side is not

above 36, oftenest 34 or 35, and this is true also of Illinois specimens.

The dorsal fin has 4 spines commonly? sometimes 5, and 10 soft rays,

counting the posterior double ray as two. I believe that Dr. Jordan

and his followers count this as a single ray, but its structure indicates

that it is the equivalent of two ordinary rays. The anal fin has 3 spines

and 6 soft rays, counting the double ray again as two. The branchi-

ostegal rays are always 51n number. In the description of the family

Elassomidæ published by Drs. Jordan and Evermann the number of

vertebre is said to be 24 or 25, from which I judge the count was made

from the Florida species, E. everg/adei, which I have not seen, but in

every specimen of E. zonatum examined by me the number is 29, in-

eluding the mass which continues as the urostyle, of which 14 are pre-

caudal. Illinois examples were not examined with reference to the

vertebra, but that they agree closely is shown by Dr. Jordan’s own

statement in the Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory (Vol. 1, No. 2,

1897.] Entomology. 349

p- 48, 1878), where the number is given as 28. My material was ma-

cerated and then examined with the microscope, and the count verified

repeatedly on different specimens.

The colors of the Carolina fishes are the same as those of Illinois

examples. The markings which at once catch the eye are a dusky bar

below the eye and eleven narrow vertical bars on the side, two of those

immediately behind the gill opening being enlarged to form a dusky

spot. Three dusky dots at the bases of the caudal rays appear to be a

constant character of young fishes.—H. Garman, Lexington, Ky.

The Human Tail.—According to Prof. W. Waldeyer,’ who has

recently gone over the subject, a tail is to be defined asa portion of the

body that contains the caudal, i. e., post-sacral, vertebra and sundry

other derivatives of caudal segments, all surrounded by integument.

With reference to man, Virchow, in 1880, distinguished between tails

with vertebr and soft tails—a distinction generally recognized. As

is well known the human embryo always shows evidence of a true

vertebrated tail that may even persist after birth, yet in no case is it

certain that more vertebral elements are present than are to be found

in the normal coccyx. What occurs in tailed human subjects is the

soft tail of Virchow, which corresponds to the distal non-vertebrated

portion of the tail in other animals. In some cases this may be partly

bony, but there is no increase in the number of caudal vertebre.

ENTOMOLOGY:

The Fauna of the Lower Rio Grande Valley.—Mr. H. F

Wickham publishes’ an interesting paper on The Coleoptera of the

Lower Rio Grande Valley, in which he discusses the faunal relations

of the region as follows:

Regarding the true affinities of the Coleopterous fauna and the claim

of the region to be considered tropical in its nature, opinions are more

or less divided. Mr. Schwarz has stated that “no one can doubt the

existence of a semi-tropical insect fauna along the north bank of the

lower Rio Grande.” Prof. Townsend classes the Brownsville fauna as

Lower Sonoran, with a considerable touch of Austroriparian and about

twenty-five per cent. tropical. Dr. Merriam has included it in his

5S. B. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., 1896, 775-84. J.R. M. S., 1896, p. 601.

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, NB.

? Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist., Univ. Iowa, IV, 96-115.

350 The American Naturalist. [April,

tropical region. Dr. LeConte, writing thirty-seven years ago, speaks

of it as a “ sub-tropical province.”

Looking through the list of species belonging to the five families

treated in the present portion of this report, it seems to the writer that

no one familiar with the Coleopterous fauna of the United States can

pick out more than five or six which can be called characteristic of the

Lower Sonoran zone, though it is true that quite a number range into

it. A number—perhaps fifteen or sixteen—are tolerably characteristic

of the Upper Sonoran, while possibly twelve or fourteen are more par-

ticularly tropical. The great majority are species of very wide distri-

bution in eastern and central North America, many of them extending

even to the Canadian boundary. No doubt can be entertained, however,

that a study of the phytophagous families will yield a larger percentage

of Sonoran and tropical species, since we may naturally infer that the

carnivorous beetles, of which the present list is mainly composed, are

less affected by peculiarities in the flora than the phytophaga.

More will be said on the subject in the concluding number of this

article. For the present it will be sufficient to state the conviction that

there is even less ground for considering the Brownsville beetle-faunas

as Lower Sonoran than for classing it as tropical. The little jungles

noted by Mr. Schwarz are to be considered, it seems, almost truly

tropical, while, ou the other hand, there are large areas of a very dif-

ferent nature surrounding these little forests, with a totally different

Coleopterous contingent. Some of these areas are, from their elevated

situation and dry climate, almost typically arid Lower Sonoran, while

the low-lying damp spots, not tropical, will show a high percentage of

forms common in humid regions occupied by what Dr. Merriam has

called the Carolinian and Austroriparian faunas. In other words.

Brownsville and its environs are not in one life zone, but in at least

two, and probably three, the limits of these zones being locally irregu-

lar, and determined not by temperature conditions, but by those of soil

and humidity, which, through their action on plant life, also influence

the insects. The only way in which these conditions could be approxi- _

mately indicated on a map, would be by spotting it with appropriate

colors as in mapping Boreal or Arctic faunz on isolated mountain

peaks.

Life-history of Xylina.—In Bulletin 123 of the Cornell Uni-

versity Experiment Station, Mr. M. V. Slingerland discusses at length

the life-history of three species of Xylina—antennata, laticinerea, grotet

—which have done considerable damage by eating holes in young

1897.] Entomology. 351

apples. “The green fruit worms,” he writes, “ do most of their dam-

age to the young fruits in May, but some of them continue working

until nearly the middle of June. During the first week in June most

of the caterpillars get their full growth and then burrow into the soil

beneath the trees to a depth of from an inch to three inches. Here

they roll and twist their bodies about until a smooth earthen cell is

formed. Most of them then spin about themselves a very thin silken

cocoon ; some spin no cocoon. Within the cocoon or the earthen cell the

caterpillar soon undergoes a wonderful transformation which results in

what is known as the pupa of the insect. Most of these insects spend

about three months of their life in the ground during the summer in

this pupal stage. Some evidently hibernate as pups, and thus pass

nine months or more of their life in this stage. Usually, about Sep-

tember 15th, the moths break their pupal shrouds and work their way

to the surface of the soil. Most of them emerge in the fall before

October 15th, and pass the winter as moths in sheltered nooks; some

evidently do not emerge until spring. Warm spells in winter some-

times arouses a few of them from their hibernation.

“ During the first warm days of early spring all the moths appear,

and doubtless the mothers soon begin laying eggs. No observations

have been made on the eggs or young caterpillars in the north, but in

a newspaper article published in the south in 1872, it is stated that the

eggs are deposited in the spring on the undersides of the leaves. They

hatch in a few days, and the young worms begin at once to eat the

foliage, or the fruit, or both.

“ There is thus but one brood of these green fruit worms in a year.

They work mostly in May, pupate in the soil in June, live as pupe

during the summer and sometimes all winter, and most of the moths

emerge in the fall and hibernate, laying their eggs in the spring.”

Notes on Dragon-flies.—Prof. D. S. Kellicott publishes’ some

interesting data regarding the occurrence of Odonata in Ohio during

1895 and 1896. “In 1895,” he writes, “‘I prepared and published a

chart showing what was then known about the distribution and time

of flight of each of the eighty-six species of Odonata known to inhabit

Ohio. It was believed the record, so far as it went, was reliable. Some

species had been found only in limited areas and at definite times in

the year. The schedule showed what species occurred in early, mid

and late summer, and in northern, central or southern Ohio. But

with the opening and progress of the present season, my confidence in

*The Agricultural Student, III, 141.

34 ..

352 The American Naturalist. [April,

the chart referred to has been severely tested. How did it happen?

We naturally turn to the climate and its vicissitudes for the explana-

tion of many things—trivial and grave. Will it help us in the matter

in hand?

“ The seasons of 1894 and 1895 were very dry throughout the State.

Streams and ponds lost all their water and the mud at the bottom was

dry and parched for months over large areas. Streams of considerable

volume in ordinary years disappeared entirely for weeks or there re-

mained only restricted pools here and there. The winter of 1895-6

was constant for Ohio with less than the average snowfall. The

weather remained cold until April 10th, when it suddenly became very

warm and remained so with abundant rain. What resulted as to the

appearance or non-appearance of dragon-flies? The following notes

will state some of the observed facts :—

First—Many species occurred unusually early. The largest number

recorded in April at Columbus in any previous year was five; this year

it was ten. They were taken in the following order: Anas junius,

April 13th; Ischnura verticolis, April 15th; Didymops transversa,

Basiaeschna janata, Anomolagrion hastatum, Lestes forcipata, Trames

carolina, Plathemis trimaculata, Libellula semifasciata and Nehalennia

posita. ‘The variety is not less interesting than the number. Among

them are some of our largest species and the smallest ; while four fami-

lies are represented. Five have been taken in Aprilin previous years,

although not in the same year. Anax, Ischnura, Didymops, Basi-

aeschna and Tramea have been taken as early in former years, the

first two much earlier, but the remaining forms not until May was well

advanced or until midsummer. From this a general statement may

be made that five of the ten earliest species appeared no earlier than

usual, but appeared suddenly, i. e., after a very few warm days, while

five appeared from two to four weeks early than ever before noticed.

I may extend this record of early occurrence by saying that thirty-five

species were taken before the end of May, and that several of them

were those not before seen on the wing until midsummer

“ In this connection let me say that species common to Ohio and the

Atlantic coast appear to emerge fully two weeks earlier in the interior

than on the coast at the same latitude. Nor is it a matter of isotherms

alone, as a glance at an isothermal map and the recorded captures at

Philadelphia and New York will show. It is, I suspect, due rather to

distribution of heat and affects only early appearing species.

‘Second—It is an interesting question, one often asked, but not

answered, whether the existing species are fewer than when the country

1897.] Entomology. 353

was more primitive. The diminution of streams, ponds and morasses,

as well as the pollution of streams, have been taken to be sufficient

causes for their reduction. The unusual conditions for 1894 and ’95

naturally lead us to inquire if any light has been shed on the question.

What, then, have been the observed results? So far as my observa-

tions have gone, and I have been much in the field, there is no evi-

dence in the line expected. Odonata in the region included in these

notes have been unusually abundant during the summer of 1896. No

species hitherto taken in any abundance has been missed, while several

not before taken at all have been abundant. This was unlooked for.

Possibly my records indicate this, that the usual abundance in early

spring and summer was in the vicinity of perennial waters, and that

about the transient ones they were fewer than the normal number; it

is certain that all of the six or seven additional species taken were

found in the vicinity of such streams and ponds.

“The consideration of the foregoing facts and the conditions which

seem to have influenced them leads to a possible clue to the causes.

Life of all kinds, plant and animal, in the restricted and concentrated

waters of the dry seasons, were excessively abundant. The predacious

odonate larvae, so long as any moisture remained, would be in clover;

but when the water entirely disappeared, what ?

“ Unfortunately, there are no records at hand in regard to ability to

remain in the mud or within capsules of earth at the bottom of dried-

up ponds. Other animals and some large larvae are known to do so.

Why not also the larvae of Odonata? If this fact was proven it would

easily explain the unusual abundance of dragon-flies this present sea-

son in place of an anticipated dearth. Again, the eggs of some species,

certain species of Diplax for example, do not hatch immediately, and

therefore, may remain in the dust or mud until the autumn rains or

until spring. In this connection I may state that Diplax rubicundula

and D. obtrusa have been seen industriously ovipositing among the

grass and weeds overgrowing dry ponds and ditches. Eggs thus scat-

tered would certainly have to remain without immersion among dust

and rubbish, in some instances, for weeks. The female of Lestes rec-

tangularis has been seen ovipositing in stems of Scirpus and Spargan-

ium where no water remained in the marsh and surely did not return

for a month. It would appear from these incomplete observations that

the nymphs of Odonata may and probably do readily pass the trying

times of drouth unharmed.

_ “ Third—Records made this summer have confirmed conclusions of

former years that southern forms extend their range on the western

354 The American Naturalist. [April,

border of Ohio to Lake Erie. I may cite, as example, Dromogomphus

spoliatus, which, until taken by me at Toledo, was recorded only from

the extreme south. I do not remember to have seen it in any private

or public collections. This year, along the Maumee River, it was ex-

ceedingly abundant.”

Changes of Intestinal Epithelium in Tenebrio.—Herr C.

Rengel has studied the changes of the intestinal epithelium in the

metamorphosis of the Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) and compared

them with those occurring elsewhere. Regenerative cells, from which

the new epithelium is derived, appear as subepithelial islands in very

young larve, but it is only when the metamorphosis begins that they

give rise to the elements which form the invaginal epithelium. As in

Muscidæ the disruptions begin with an energetic contraction of the

muscular layer, and the old mid-gut epithelium is raised off. Its dis-

integrating cells are held together in a “cyst” by their membranea

propria, and form the “ yellow body.” The muscles undergo gradual

disruption without active invasion by phagocytes as occurs in Muscide.

Korotneff compared the two modes to chronic and acute pathological

processes. As soon as the larval muscular layer had been disrupted,

nuclei are seen surrounding the epithelial cylinder. Whether these

nuclei are old or new elements is doubtful, but the small cells of which

they form the centers become the fibrils. Rengel’s opinion is that

many muscle-cells survive the general revolution, just as a large num-

ber of epithelial regeneration cells persist. The latter give origin to

the epithelial cylinder, the former to the mnscular layer. (Journ.

Royal Micros. Soc.)

PSYCHOLOGY.’

Dreams.—At the Psychological Congress last year, Dr. J. Mourly

Vold, of Christiania, reported some experiments which he had under-

taken with regard{to the artificial stimulation of visual elements in

dreams. The subjects included a large number of persons of different

ages, sexes and classes, but were mostly adults of an intellectual type

above the average ; all those selected were good dreamers. Dr. Vold

arranged the experiments as follows: To each of his subjects he sent,

from time to time, a package containing figures of animals, well-known

objects, ete., cut out of white paper, or some striking colored object—

1 Edited by H. C. Warren, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.

1897.] Psychology. 355

a flower, coin, ete. The package was only opened after the subject was

in bed. The contents were then displayed on a black backgronnd, and

scrutinized closely for a considerable time—usually from two to ten

minutes—without intermission ; in some cases for half an hour or more,

interspersed with periods of rest. The light was then put out, and the

.eyes closed. In the morning, immediately on awaking, the subject

wrote a report of his dreams, together with the conditions of fatigue

the night before, length of sleep, ete. Prof. Vold supplemented these

reports, when it seemed desirable, by verbal questionings. Some 300

separate tests of this nature were made.

On examining the results, it was found that the character of the

dreams depended on a number of distinct factors, such as the quietness

and uneventfulness of the preceding evening, but that it did not depend

(so far as could be discovered) on the specific time of experimentation

or of awakening, nor on the obtaining of after-images from the given

objects. The size, form and color of the objects were rarely all repro-

duced together, but one or two of these conditions often reappeared in

the dreams. The form and size of the oljert - were frequently PORES:

duced, either as in the original or with some

tion often occurred in the dream itself. The color exerted an influence

independent of the other factors, and this proved the point of greatest

interest in the results. When the given objects were black or white

(with complimentary background) the dreams in many instances ex-

hibited recurring contrasts of light and shade. Often the object reap-

peared (with considerable change of form) in the same color as shown ;

or some other object appeared in the given color, which might bea very

unusual one for it to take; in this case, either the color of the back-

ground reappeared also, or no background was discerned. In experi-

ments with colors other than black and white, the given color also

tended to reappear; this was especially the case with red; the color

might recur in the same tone, saturation and brightness as in the given

object, or it might appear modified in these respects; or, such a modi-

fication might take place in the course of the dream, as in the case of

modifications of form.

The author concludes from these experiments that the visual appa-

ratus immediately before awakening reproduces toa certain extent the

condition present at the time of falling asleep; but that the original

associations of form, size, color and abstract representation are broken

up, and new syntheses constructed in their stead. In these new syntheses

the common visual forms, or abstract representations of daily life, are

apt to become associated with the colors or outlines of objects which

356 The American Naturalist. [April,

affect the organ of vision just before the beginning of sleep. - Some such

theory seems necessary to account for the facts brought out in these

experiments.

In a note in the Revue philosophique, M. E. Goblot speaks of the

connection between dreams and the act of awakening. He urges the

view that dreams which we remember are those which accompany the

latter state. The passage from sleep to wakefulness, like that from

wakefulness to sleep, is not an instantaneous process; it occupies at

least an appreciable time. The dreams which we are able to remember

afterwards are those that belong to this period of transition; and this

fact, the author insists, is more than a mere coincidence. When we

analyze a remembered dream, we find in its last stages always some

elements of external sensation, which gradually (or quickly) unfold into

the conditions of normal waking life. All the organs of sense and

movement do not wake at the same time; and to this is due the transi-

tion period just mentioned. It is only the dreams of this period—in

which some of the conscious elements are those of sleep, while others

belong to waking life—that we are able to connect through memory

with after-consciousness ; and the memory connection is due to precisely

this association of elements of waking consciousness with the dream

elements. This is the reason, says M. Goblot, why we do not remember

those dreams occurring early in the night, in which we talk, cry out,

gesticulate, or walk, though such dreams can scarcely fail to have been

most vivid; for, unless they result in our awakening, there is no asso-

ciative element in waking consciousness capable of recalling them.

Even those dreams which we do recall have usually so slender an asso-

ciative element that they are speedily forgotten, unless we take special

pains to impress them upon the memory by writing them down, or

rehearsing them soon after waking.

The present writer would suggest that more attention be paid, in the

study of dreams, to determining the normal visualizing power of the

individual. It is well known that some persons habitually “ visualize ”

their visual memories (i. e., represent them in the form and color of the

original); while others, including those more accustomed to abstract

thinking, are lacking in this power, and substitute words or other

symbolism for the visual picture. The same is true to some extent of

sounds and other classes of sense memories. In sleep, where outer

stimulation is practically wanting, central images play the chief rôle,

and in the absence from consciousness of more vivid presentations are

mistaken by the subject for primary sense impressions. It would seem,

then, that there ought to be a broad distinction of some sort between the

1897.] Anthropology. 357

dreams of the visualizing and symbolizing ty pes of individuals. Whether

good visualizers are better dreamers, or whether their dreams are merely

of a different character from those of symbolizers, remains to be seen.

But certainly the question is well worth investigating. So far as I

know, no attempt has yet been made to gather data bearing on this point.

O W.

Courtship of Grasshoppers.'’—Prof. E. B. Poulton has observed

this process in two different genera of Acridiidæ. In the case of Pezo-

tettiz pedestris the sombre brown male quietly awaits, without audi-

ble stridulation, the appearance of a female, and jumps upon her

unawares. At first she tries to escape, but after a little struggle sub-

mits. Before pairing the male nibbles the female gently, and while

holding her keeps moving his short legs up and down. This latter

process Prof. Poulton regards as a vestige of true stridulation, and that

it may still be of use in influencing the female in some way.

In the case of Gomphocerus sibiricus the process is much more cere-

monious, the males stretching out their four palpi, stridulating, and

even patting the female. Apparently the habits are influenced by

temperature, for certain phases of courtship could be studied most satis-

factorily when the insects were first aroused to activity.—F. C. K

ANTHROPOLOGY.’

Recent Pile Structures made by Seminole Indians in East

Florida.—Mr. Henry G. Bryant, Secretary of the Geographical So-

ciety of Philadelphia, informs me that he saw, in the latter part of

March, 1896, several pile-built structures made by modern Seminole

Indians rising above the water of a salt estuary of the New River in

Dade Co., Florida. He, in company with Dr. Murray Jordan, had

visited the Seminole settlement called Big City, situated on the east-

ern side of the Everglades, within reach of the tide-water of New River,

and above the site of old Fort Lauderdale, a region now made access-

ible by railroad from Lake Worth to Miami. :

Ascending the river in a small steamboat for some eight or ten miles

above Fort Lauderdale, Mr. Bryant, with a local guide, had pro-

ceeded in a flat-bottomed boat over a submerged meadow-like country

to Big City, which he found to consist of six or eight rectangnlar huts

‘Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1896. J. R. M. S., p. 516.

? This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

358 The American Naturalist. [April,

with the typical palm-thatched roof of the country. Though these

habitations were built on higher ground which overlooked a lake-like

expanse of water, two or three platform structures were built directly

over the water, at a distance of fifteen or twenty feet from the shore.

The platforms, about ten feet long by three and a half wide, without

roof, rail, mat or cover, and about three feet above the surface of the

water, were upheld by four poles driven into the bottom of the estuary.

On inquiry Mr. Bryant who observed no objects resting upon them,

learned that the platforms served the Indians as beds when, on warm

summer nights, an exposed position over the water Seen coolness

and immunity from mosquitoes.

Just around the end of the peninsula from the Ten Thousand Islands,

not, therefore, above ninety miles east of the site of numerous ancient

pile-built structures recently unearthed among these Keys by the Uni-

versity of Pennsylvania, the modern pile-set platforms of Big City

seemed to furnish an interesting connecting link between the present

and the past of Florida. It is hard to see how riparian savages,

dwelling in any low-lying, submerged region, could avoid setting struct-

ures on piles. The town of Borneo (Lubbocks Prehistoric Times, p.

184), is built on piles like many Dayak villages. So is Sowik in New

Guinea. The Turkish fishermen live in pile-set huts on Lake Prasias

(near Salonica), just as a pile-built quarter of Tcherkask rests upon

the Don, while the natives of Celebes, Solo, Aram, Mindanao, the Caro-

line Islands and the African gold coast continue the building of dwell-

ings on piles at the present day.

The desire to escape mosquitoes has not been generally quoted as the

motive for aboriginal “ lacustrine ” construction, but I myself have ex-

perienced the efficacy of a water surrounding as an immunity against

mosquitoes, when house-boating along the mosquito-infested shores and

islands of the Lower Rhone. Then I invariably escaped the pests that

often swarmed a few yards away by anchoring for the night twenty or

thirty feet out from the shore. As at Big City, the desire to escape

mosquitoes seems to have inspired the pile builder, so in British Col-

umbia, Lord says, (see Stephens’ Flint Chips, p. 123) that Indians on

the Suman prairie recently built pile dwellings on a lake in April and

June to avoid mosquitoes. Venezuela came by its name (Little Ven-

ice) because of numerous aboriginal pile dwellings seen by Alonso de

Ojeda in a bay called by him the Gulf of Venice in 1499, while the

shores of its interior lake, Maracaibo, present native pile-dwellings in-

habited to-day. Considering these facts, it may be suspected that the

littoral regions of North and South America will, when thoroughly

1897.] Anthropology. 359

examined, more generally reveal this method of Aboriginal con-

struction, not as evidence of a unique type of culture, a “ lost race,”

or a phase of human development, but as a common adaptation of the

life of savage peoples, ancient and modern, to their daily environment.

To what extent the hybrid Seminoles of Creek origin and post Spanish

advent had intermingled with remnants of older tribes (presumably

the builders of the Ten Thousand Islands villages) encountered by the

first Spanirds in Florida, is unknown, but I heard no mention of pile

construction as practiced by modern Seminoles at the meeting of the

American Philosophical Society when the recently excavated-pile

structures of the neighboring Ten Thousand Islands were discussed.

—H. C. MERCER.

The Grooved Stone Axe in South America.—The idea of

the Ethnic unity of American Indians is strengthened by the fact that

so common an implement of their stone age as the axe should have been

hafted among them in a peculiar fashion (namely, by means of a

groove), unknown, it seems, in all other parts of the world except

Australia. Continuing to find these grooved stone axes throughout

South America adds strength to this interesting contrast between

the ancient handicraft of the new and old world, though it ap-

pears that the wide distribution of the grooved axe south of Panama

has not been often noted. The Columbian Exhibition at Madrid, in

1892, showed a grooved axe (in the Pedro Baranda collection) from

Campeche and a number of others from Ecuador, which could

not have been distinguished from Delaware Valley specimens. One

came from Nicarauga, another from Peru, and several from Bolivia,

together with a curious specimen, the base of the groove of which was

marked with spiral flutings. Several such axes had been collected

among the Tarasco Indians in Mexico, and other typical familiar-

looking specimens came from Uruguay with neighbors from the Ar-

gentine Republic. Not a few of the axe-like forms from Uruguay,

Equador, Nicaragua and the United States of Columbia had round

(pounding) or pointed (piercing) rather than blade-like (cutting) ends,

and round stones, encircled by grooves of the Sioux hammer pattern,

were sometimes noticed, as, for instance, in Equador and Uruguay.

That similar mallets (though never axes) hafted on the grooves were com-

mon in prehistoric Spain, was shown by a number of ancient Iberian

specimens photographed by me at the Museo National, Madrid. Mortil-

let figures them from Italy, and the Swedish Government exhibited ex-

amples at the Columbian Exhibition above-named from the east Sibe-

360 The American Naturalist. [April,

rian coast of Behring Straits. Notwithstanding a few flat celt-like

specimens from Peru, perforated as if for hafting, binding the handles

on grooves, seemed to be the universal American characteristic, as

against which omnipresent fashion in the new world, we know that the

Neolithic peoples in Europe hafted all their stone axes through holes.

perforating the axe. Why the latter method (granted migration during

or after Neolithic times) never reached America remains to be ex-

plained —H. C. Mercer. -

MICROSCOPY.

A Method of Preparing Rotifers.'—According to N. de Zograf

rotifers may be fixed and mounted in glycerin, balsam or dammar and

still retain the appearance of life by a slight modification of the method

attributed to M. Rousselet in Hennegrey’s and Lee’s “ Traité de micro-

scopie technique.”

The animals in a watch glass are narcotized with a solution of

cocaine, as used by Rousselet, except that the methylic alcohol is omitted.

The solution is added drop by drop to the very small amount of water

containing the rotifers. As soon as the movements of the animals cease

without having contracted their cilliary apparatus, a considerable

quantity of a 1 per cent. solution of osmic acid, diluted with 4-5 volumes

of water, is turned upon them and allowed to act for about 2—4 minutes.

Meanwhile a large amount of the liquid is removed with a pipette

without disturbing the animals, which have settled to the bottom of the

glass. Finally, a weak solution (about 1 volume to 8-10 of distilled

water) of crude pyroligneus acid is poured over the animals, and per-

mitted to act for from 5-10 minutes, after which the animals are

washed two or three times with distilled water and then the water con-

taining them very gradually replaced by alcohol, commencing with 50

per cent. and finishing with absolute alcohol.

Thus prepared the animals are found to have contracted neither

their abdominal appendages, their feet, their band of cillia, nor their

tentacles, and can be mounted equally well in glycerin, balsam or dam-

mar. The protoplasm as a result of the action of the osmic acid has a

faint gray or brownish tint; and structural details are plainly visible.

The Scirtopods (Pedalion mirum) and the Rhizotes (Melicerta, Laci-

nularia, Floscularia, Stephanoceros) give the most beautiful results, and

‘Nicolas de Zograf. Sur une méthode de préparation des Rotateurs. Comp.

Rend. Acad., Paris, CX XIV, 245-6.

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 361

sometimes, if the action of the reagents has been only sufficient to fix

the animals, they appear in Canada balsam like living animals.

The same method, the author says, has given him perfect results with

many infusorians, heliozoans and rhizopods, as well as with Hydra and

other fresh water forms. With these animals, however, the narcotiza-

tion is not necessary, but the osmice acid should be increased.—F. C.

KENYON.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Boston Society of Natural History.—February 17, 1897.—

The following papers were announced: Prof. N. S. Shaler, “ Subterran-

ean Water of Southeastern New England ;” Dr.C. R. Eastman, “ On

some Devonian Fish-beds of North America.

March 3.—The following papers were announced: Mr. T. A. Jagger,

Jr., “ Experimental Study of Mountain Building” (illustrated by mod-

els); Mr. J. B. Woodworth, “ Geology of the Gay Head Cliff.”

March 17.—The following paper was read: Mr. Frank Russell,“ An

Account of a Naturalists Voyage down the Mackenzie.” —SAMUEL

Hensuaw, Secretary.

American Philosophical Society.— January 1, 1897.— Mr.

Henry C. Mercer read a paper on “The Fossil Sloth of the Big Bone

Cave, Tennessee.”

February 19.—Prof. E. D. Cope presented a communication on

“Some Paleozoic Vertebrates from the Middle States.”

March 5.—Prof. Arthur W. Goodspeed exhibited some Recent Radio-

graphs in comparison with the work of a year ago.

University of Pennsylvania.—February 15, 1897.—Program

Demonstrations : “Some Types of Insects Injurious to Vegetation,” Dr.

S. C. Schmucker. Original Communications: “ Hatching of Dragon-

fly Eggs,” Dr. Philip P. Calvert ; “ The Morphology of the Nucleolus,”

Dr. T. H. Montgomery. Reviews: Drs. Macfarlane and Harshberger.

March 1st.—Program Demonstrations: “ The Method of Measuring

the Time of Mental Processes,” Dr. Lightner Witmer. Original Com-

munications : “ Reaction Time of Americans, Indians and Negroes,” Mr.

Albert L. Lewis. Reviews: “ Vertebrate Paleontology,” Dr. E. D.

Cope; “ Physiological Chemistry,” Dr. M. E. Pennington ; “ Botany,”

Dr. H. C. Porter.—H. C. PORTER, Secretary.

362 The American Naturalist. [April,

The Biological Society of Washington.—January 30, 1897.—

The following communications were made: “ Brief Informal Notes and

Exhibition of Specimens ;” C. Hart Merriam “ On the Pribilof Island

Hair Seal;” C. H. Townsend, “The Origin of the Alaskan Live

Mammoth Story ;” L. O. Howard, “ Parasites of Shade-tree Insects in

Washington ;” Frank Benton, “ The Giant Bee of India.”

February 27.—The following communications were announced :

“ Brief Informal Notes and Exhibition of Specimens ;” C. H. Town-

send, “The Distribution and Migration of the Northern Fur Seal ; ”

Lester F. Ward, “ Description of Seven Species of Cycadoidea from the

Iron Ore Deposits of Maryland ;” Charles Louis Pollard, “ What Con-

stitutes a Type in Botany.”

March 13.—The following communications were made: W. T.

Vaughan and R. T. Hill, “The Lower Cretaceous Grypbeas of the

Texas Region;” Chas. F. Dawson, “ The Dissemination of Infectious

Diseases by Insects;” William Palmer, “The Type (?) of a New-old

Species ;” Sylvester D. Judd, “ Sexual Dimorphism in Crustacea.”—

FREDERIC A. Lucas, Secretary.

Anthropological Society of Washington. — February 27,

1897.—The following program was presented : 1. “ The Language Used

in Talking to Domestic Animals,” Dr. H. Carrington Bolton ; 2.“ Pre-

historic Musical Instruments,” Mr. Thomas Wilson— Weston FLINT,

Secretary.

The Academy of Science of St. Louis.—January 18, 1897.—

Professor H. S. Pritchett presented some results of observations on the

recent sun-spots, prefacing his remarks by a general account of our

present knowledge of the constitution of the surface of the sun, and of

sun-spots in general, and illustrating his remarks by the use of lantern

slides,

Two persons were elected to active membership.

February 1, 1897.—Professor L. H. Pammel read a paper embody-

ing Ecological Notes on Some Colorado Plants, observing that botan-

ists who have studied the Rocky Mountain flora have frequently

commented on the interest attached to the plants from an ecological

standpoint, but most perplexing to the systematist. It is not stange

that this should be the case, since there are great differences in altitude

and soil, and the relative humidity of the air varies greatly. This is a

most prominent factor in the development of plant life. A cursory

glance at the plains flora of eastern Colorado shows that there are rep-

resentatives of a flora common from Texas to British America, and east

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 363

to Indiana. We should not for a moment suppose that the species are

identical in structure, since the conditions under which they occur are

so different. Attention was called to the great abundance of plants dis-

seminated by the wind, as Cycloloma, Salsola, Solanum rostratum,

Populus, Cercocarpus, “ Fire-weeds,” (Epilobium spicatum and Arnica

cordifolia), Hordeum jubatum, Elymus sitanion, ete. Plant migration

may be studied to better advantage in the irrigated districts of the

west than elsewhere, partly because the water carries many seeds and

fruits in a mechanical way, and partly because the soil is very favor-

able for the development of plants. Instances were cited where several

foreign weeds are becoming abundant, as Tragapogon porrifolius and

Lactuca scariola. The latter, known as an introduced plant for more

than a quarter of a century, is common at an altitude of 7,500 feet in

Clear Creek Cafion. Once having become acclimated it is easy to see

how Prickly Lettuce is widely disseminated.

Collectors appreciate the great importance of giving more attention

to conditions under which plants thrive, such as phases of development,

soil, climate, and altitudinal distribution. Structures of plants are pro-

duced to meet certain conditions. Under extreme conditions, protective

devices are more pronounced. In discussing some of the plants,

Warming’s classification into Hydrophytes, Xerophytes, Halophytes,

and Mesophytes, was adopted. The Mesophytes of eastern Iowa were

compared with some of the Xerophytes of western Iowa, such as Yucca

angustifolia, Mentzelia ornata, Liatris punctata, ete. These increase

in abundance in western Nebraska, and attain a maximum development

in northern Colorado. In the foot-hills and mountains the Metophytes

constitute a large class, although Xerophytes are common in dry, open,

sunny places. The photosynthetic system is reduced to guard against

excessive transpiration, which would otherwise take place at high alti-

tudes. The thick rootstock of Alpine plants in dry, open places is an

admirable protection against drouth and cold. In cafions where snow

remains on the ground plants do not need this protection. Halophytes

are not numerous in species and genera. Hydrophytes are abundant at

higher altitudes, where they occur in marshes and along streams.

February 15, 1897.—Professor J. H. Kinealy presented a prelimi-

nary discussion of the Poley air-lift pump, a device for pumping water

from artesian wells by injecting into the pump tube, at a considerable

depth below the surface of the water, bubbles of air from an air com-

pressor.

Mr. Trealease exhibited two hair balls removed from the stomach of

a bull in Mexico, and showed that they were composed of the pointed

364 The American Naturalist. [April,

barbed hairs of some species of prickly pear upon which the animal

had unquestionably fed. Attention was called to similar balls from the

stomachs of horses, which had been described in 1896 by Mr. Coville,

of the United States Department of Agriculture.

March 1, 1897.—Mr. William H. Rush presented a demonstration

of the formation of carbon dioxide and alcohol as a result of the intra-

molecular respiration of seeds and other vegetable structures in an

atmosphere containing no free oxygen. The theory of the dissolution

and reconstruction of the living nitrogenous molecules was explained

in connection with the experiments, and the different behavior of these

molecules when supplied with or deprived of free oxygen was indicated.

r. H. von Schrenk briefly described certain edematous enlarge-

ments which he had observed at the beginning of the present winter,

near the root tips of specimens of Salix nigra, growing along the edge

of a body of water. The speaker compared these with the cedemata of

tomato leaves and apple twigs, which were studied some years since at

Cornell University.

Professor J. H. Kinealy exhibited a glass model illustrating the mode

of action of the Poley air-lift pump, the efficiency of which he had dis-

cussed at the preceding meeting.

One name was proposed for active membership.— WILLIAM TRE-

LEASE, Recording Secretary. i

Torrey Botanical Club.—January 27, 1897.—The scientific

onn was as follows: Dr. H. H. Rusby, “ Remarks on some Solana-

cee;” Mr. A. A. Tyler, “The Origin and Functions of Stipules ; ”

Dr. J. K. Small, “Aster gracilis Nuttall ;” Mr. George V. Nash, “ New

and Noteworthy American Grasses.”

Dr. Rusby exhibited a number of solanaceous plants and remarked

upon their relationships. It was pointed out that the general appear-

ance and chemical and physiological characteristics of these plants fre-

quently fail to indicate their structural affinities. Cestrum and Sessea,

Atropa and Datura, were cited as illustrations of the separation of

otherwise naturally related groups through their possession respectively

of baccate and capsular fruits. Wicotiana was referred to as connect-

ing those tribes having a radial symmetry with the tribe Salpiglossidæ,

having a bilateral symmetry, and thus connecting the family with the

Labiales. The Androcera and Andropeda sections of the genus Solanum

were instances of the appearance of this bilateral symmetry in a widely

separated part of the family, where radial symmetry is the peta

‘invariable rule.

1897]. Scientific News. 365

Dr. Britton discussed the subject, and remarked upon this instance

of development of two divisions of a group along different lines, in this

case through baccate and capsular fruits. He cited similar parallelisms

in other families, tending to produce different resulting characters—as

in Capparidacee ; and remarked that an indication of the lines along

which these genera have been derived may be read in these characters.

The second paper by Mr. A. A. Tyler, on “ The Nature and Origin

of Stipules,” presented conclusions derived from studies extending

through several years. The subject was treated at length in the light

of geological, morphological, anatomical and developmental evidence.

Discussing Mr. Tyler’s paper, which will shortly be published in full,

Dr. Britton remarked that “ the outcome of this very important paper

is most interesting; it emphasizes the significance of basal scales and

those of buds and root stocks; and it is the more convincing, from the

nicety with which it accords with the seemingly haphazard distribution

of Stipules widely but irregularly here and there through the vegetable

kingdom.” 5

Mrs. Britton discussed the paper further, referring to the different

phases presented in Fissidens.

Of the remaining papers, that by Mr. Nash was read by title, and

will appear in the Bulletin ; and that by Dr. Small was, on account of

the lateness of the hour, deferred till the next meeting—Epwarp S.

Burcess, Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The New Westminster Daily Columbian (B. C.) informs us of the

death of Mrs. Arce Boprneron, wife of Dr. G. F. Bodington, Medi-

cal Superintendent of the Provincial Asylum for the Insane. Even

the comparatively few who were aware of Mrs. Bodington’s illness,

from pneumonia, had no idea of there being any immediate danger.

In fact, her illness was very brief, scarcely five days, and no dangerous

symptoms were developed until Sunday. All that loving care and

medical skill could do was unavailing, and, on Monday, February 15th,

death released a noble soul from its bodily sufferings.

The deceased lady, who was a native of Suffolk, England, came to

the Province, with her husband, about ten years ago, and, after a short

residence in Vancouver, they removed to Hatzic, where the doctor en-

gaged in farming, in connection with a country practice. About two

366 The American Naturalist. [April,

years ago, on receiving his appointment to the asylum, Dr. Bodington

removed to New Westminster with his family.

In the comparatively short. time since, Mrs. Bodington made many

friends in New Westminster, and helped on many a good cause. Be-

sides being an energetic worker in Church of England circles, she was

instrumental in forming a local branch of the Botanical Society of

Canada, and was a warm friend of the Public Library and of the Art

and Scientific Society, before which she read able papers on more than

one occasion.

For many years Mrs. Bodington had been well-known in the world

of letters. Widely read and a profound thinker, she wielded a strong

pen, which was always ready to defend those principles of which she

was so able an advocate. Among other works, Mrs. Bodington was the

author of “ Studies in Evolution and Biology.” She was also a regular

contributor to TAE AMERICAN NATURALIST, The Popular Science Re-

view and the International Journal of Microscopy. Mrs. Bodington

also frequently contributed vigorous articles on various subjects to the

Provincial and local press.

Socially, the deceased lady will also be greatly missed, while, as wife

and mother, her death is a sad bereavment, and Dr. Bodington and his

family have the kindliest sympathy of the community in their irrepar-

able loss. Of the many children of Dr. and Mrs. Bodington, but two,

Miss Winnie Bodington and a young son, are at home. Of the others,

all grown up, one son is at Plymouth, another also being in England,

one is a barrister in Paris, France, another physician on one of the

Empress liners, and two daughters, Miss Bodington and Mrs. Hamil-

ton, reside in Winnipeg.

The Goode Memorial Meeting.—On the evening of February 13th,

the various scientific, patriotic and historical societies of Washington

met in joint session at the U.S. National Museum to commemorate

the life and services of the late Dr. George Brown Goode. The meeting

was held under the auspices of the joint commission of the scientific

societies of the city. After a few introductory remarks by the presi-

dent of the commission, Hon. Gardiner Hubbard, there followed a brief

address from Dr. S. P. Langley, who spoke of Dr. Goode in his rela-

tions as a friend and official of the Smithsonian Institution ; from Post-

master-General W. L. Wilson, who spoke of him as a citizen and his-

torian ; from Professor H. F. Osborne, who spoke of him as a natural-

ist; and from Professor W.H. Dall, who eulogized him in his relations

to the advancement in general of American science. Finally, a set of

1897.] Scientific News. 367

eulogistic resolutions were offered by Hon. O. B. Wilcox, President of

the society of the Sons of the American Revolution, which were

adopted.

Dr. S. L. Schenk has been advanced to the position of ordinary pro-

fessor of embryology in the University of Vienna. Dr. J. Blaas has

had a similar advancement to the chair of geology and paleontology in

the University of Innsbruck, and S. Bianchi to the chair of anatomy

in the University of Siena.

Dr. K. Mobius has been appointed director of the Museum in Ber-

lin, in the place of Dr. H. E. Beyrich, deceased. Prof. W. Dames has

been placed in charge of the geological and paleontological collections.

Dr. Th. D. Pleske has resigned as director of the zoological collec-

tions of the Academy of Science of St. Petersburg. Dr. E. Büchner

has charge of the collections for the present.

Dr. K. Müller, of Halle, founder and, until recently, editor of the

German periodical “ Natur,” has received the title of Professor from

the German Government.

Dr. Carl Claus has resigned the professorship of zoology in the Uni-

versity of Vienna, and Dr. B. Hatschek, of Prague, has been called to

the position.

Dr. A. Spuler, known for his studies of the wings of Lepidoptera,

has qualified as silos in anatomy in the University of Er-

langen.

Mr. B. Waite, PES of the Department of Agriculture at Wash-

ington, has been appointed professor of botany in Georgetown Univer-

sity.

Dr. D. Robertson, who devoted himself in past years to the Fauna of

Scotland, died Nov. 20, 1896, at Millport, Scotland, at the age of 90.

Dr. G. Boceardi has been advanced to the position of professor ex-

traordinarius of microscopical anatomy in the University of Naples.

Dr. S. Goto, who studied at Johns Hopkins and Harvard, has been

appointed professor of biology in the First High School of Tokyo.

Dr. E. Baumann, professor of physiological chemistry in the Uni-

versity of Freiburg, i. B., died November 3, 1896, aged 49 years.

Dr. F. Czapek, of Vienna, has been called to the position of profes-

sor extraordinarius in the Technical High School in Prague.

Dr. L. E. Shore has been appointed tutor, and Dr. A. Eicholtz dem-

onstrator, of physiology i in the University of Cambridge.

368 The American Naturalist. [April,

$ »

” Dr. R. M. Bolton, of Philadelphia, goes to Columbia, Mo., as in-

structor in: bacteriology in the University of Missouri.

Dr. H. Trimen, director of the Botanical Gardens at Peradeniya,

Ceylon, died October 18, 1896, at the age of 53

Prof. M. Raciborski and Mr. H. Möller, of Lund, are spending the

winter at the Buitenzorg Botanical Station.

Dr. J. Szideczky has been appointed professor extraordinarius of

geology in the University of Klausenburg.

Dr. Chas. Julin has been appointed professor of comparative anat-

omy in the University of Liége.

Dr. F. Noack has been placed in charge of the phytopathological

laboratory at Campinas, Brazil.

The African traveler, E. D. Young, died at Hastings, England,

Nov. 4, 1896, aged 65 years.

Dr. F. Westhoff, a well-known student of the Diptera, died Nov. 12,

at Miinster,i. W., aged 36.

Mr. O. F. Cook has been appointed curator of the Cryptogamic

Herbarium at Washington.

A. Dorrsett, ornithologist and entomologist, died at Reading, Eng-

land, November 6, 1896.

- Dr. L. Serrurier has resigned the director of the Royal Museum of

Ethnology at Leiden.

_A. A. Heller has been appointed instructor in botany in the Uni-

versity of Minnesota.

Dr. H. J. Posselt, assistant in the Zoological Museum at Copenhagen,

died July 10, 1896.

Dr. A. Pestalozzi has been appointed assistant in the Botanical Mu-

seum at Ziirich.

Prof. A. Hénon, entomologist, died at Passy, France, Oct. 6, 1896,.

aged 74 years.

F. Benseler, of the Botanical Garden at Vienna, died Oct. 7, 1896,

aged 67 years.

Dr. A. Dürmberger, botanist, died at Linz, Austria, Oct. 26, 1896,

aged 59.

- Prof. E. Wenzel, anatomist, of Leipzig, died Oct. 25, 1896, aged 56

years.

~H. D. Van Nostrand, conchologist, of New York, died Oct. 9, 1896.

M. Chaper, conchologist, of Paris, died J uly 5, 1896.

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CON TENSES:

PAGE

THE OPTIC LOBES or THE BERS BRAIN mi ius —Recent Changes in the Nomenclature of

LIGHT OF Recent NEUROLOGICAL MET North American, Trees—Note on Lysimae

SaaS ye Ga pipina 369 | nummularia L. —Another Ponia Bo iea ;

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXXI. May, 1897. 365

THE OPTIC LOBES OF THE BEE’S BRAIN IN THE

LIGHT OF RECENT NEUROLOGICAL METHODS.

By F. C. KENYON,

WASHINGTON, D. C.

While studying the central mass of the brain of the common

honey bee, which I have already described with some detail,

there was abundant opportunity offered for noting the finer

structure of the so-called optic lobes. From the casual obser-

vations then made I take the following notes.

The general form of the optic lobes, as well as the cellular

and fibrillar masses composing them, have been fairly well de-

scribed by Berger, Viallanes and others for other hexapods,

and what one finds in the bee does not differ materially from

these early descriptions, so far as the inner two fibrillar masses »

are concerned (f.m.2 and 3). In the bee I note that there are

three of these fibrillar masses, all easily recognized in frontal,

but less so in horizontal sections (f. m. 1). The outer mass

presents a lunar appearance in frontal sections, and lies close

inside the basement membrane of the retina, being separated

from it by sufficient space for the entrance of large tracheal

sacs and a thin layer of cells commingled with the fibers from

the retina.

1 The Pi of the Bee. Journ. Comp. Neurology. Vol. VI. Fase. 3, 1896.

pp. 133-21

370 The American Naturalist. [May,

Earlier authors, from the time of the first good description of

the finer structure of the optic lobes by Berger, to Carriére and

Viallanes, evidently did not understand the significance of this

outer fibrillar mass. Berger and Carrière considered it as form-

ing a portion of the retina, and Viallanes found in it, in the

case of the dragon-fly, structures that he denominated neuro-

matidia—structures unrecognizable in the bee, and really with-

out existence in any of the arthropoda. The earlier de-

scription given by Hickson much more nearly approaches the

truth, but this author erred in supposing what he saw to be`

protoplasmic reticuli. The first correct understanding of this

body was arrived at by Parker, in his application of methylene

-blue to Astacus. But between the crustacea, as noted by Parker,

and the hexapoda, there are certain differences of detail that

are readily apparent upon a comparison of the figure accom-

panying this paper and that given by the author mentioned.

Somewhat inside of this mass is the first or outer chiasma

(x)—to be distinguished as such only in horizontal sections.

Concerning the two inner fibrillar masses it is to be noted that

each is composed of two lenticular finally granular, or better,

in the light of the new neurology, finely fibrillated masses

separated by a loose mass of fibers that never assume so dark

an appearance in the ordinary stains. Each body would, if it

were a perfect segment of a sphere, form a meniscus lenticular

mass whose convex surface is directed outward.

From the middle or second fibrillar body two tracts of fibers

pass into the central cerebral mass as noted in my earlier paper.

Each arises from the inter-lenticular mass of loose fibers and

emerges at nearly the same spot with its fellow on the anterior

side of the body. One passes inward and upward, becoming

what I have called the antero-superior optic tract, which finally

terminates among the dendritic fibrils of the cells of the adja-

cent mushroom bodies (a-s o. ¢.). The fibers of this tract origi-

nate, as has previously been pointed out, from a group of cells

lying above the optic body (op. b) and below the anterior surface

of the calyx of the outer mushroom body.

The cells and their processes passing inward towards the

stalks of the mushroom bodies can be readily distinguished in

1897.] The Optic Lobes of the Bee’s Brain. 371

preparations by von Rath’s platino-aceto-picro-osmic acid, or

by my formalin-copper-l toxylin, method, and in one in-

stance I was able to follow through consecutive sections, in a bi-

chromate of silver preparation, the entire course of the fibers

from the cells in their antero-superior position in the central

cerebrum to their T-like branching before the outer stalk, and

thence into the inter-lenticular portion of the second fibrillar

body.

The other group of fibers, after passing inward and slightly

downward for a short distance, turns and passes backward

between the inner fibrillar body and the central cerebrum,

entering the latter posteriorly at a level below the roots of the

mushroom bodies. This I have described as the antero-posterior

optic tract (a. p. o. t.). $ ;

Just where the cells of origin of this tract of fibers are

situated has not yet been determined. It may, however, be

mentioned, that I have found in preparations by the bichro-

mate of silver method, cells, situated near the anterior edge of

the second fibrillar mass sending, in several cases, their pro-

cesses into the loose inter-lenticular mass. It may be that

these are the cells of origin of the tract (4).

Tracts of fibers are likewise found issuing from the inter-

lenticular space of the inner or third fibrillar body. They are

not, however, restricted to one spot in finding egress, but issue

along the entire hinder margin of the body; and it is rather

difficult to distinguish them otherwise than as the posterior

optic tracts. Their number varies according to the plane of

sectioning, and, it may be, also with different individuals.

There are chiefly to be noted, however, first, an upper tract

that seems to pass over the median line of the brain to the

inner body of the opposite lobe. This tract undoubtedly gives

off branches by the way, and it is possible that the cells of

origin of its fibers are to be found on the posterior side of the

brain below the inner mushroom bodies. At a level somewhat

below the inner roots of the mushroom bodies there is another

tract that takes a nearly straight course from one inner body

to the other on the opposite side of the brain. From this tract

Viallanes was unable to find evidence of lateral fibrillar

372 The American Naturalist. ` [May,

branches in the central cerebrum, and, after all the methods

employed by me, I am compelled to say that I have been able

to do little better. In one preparation by my formalin-hema-

toxylin method there seems to be evidence of such branches ;

but I have found no such evidence in bichromate of silver

preparations. Finally, there are several small tracts below the

last that terminate in the adjacent region of the central portion

of the brain, and in the neighborhood of the terminations of

the antero-posterior optic tract.

The situation of the cells of origin of these tracts has not.

been definitely determined, but some of them no doubt may be

found in the neighboring posterior mass of cells (5 and 6).

Two other tracts of fibres leave the inner fibrillar body.

From the inner or concave surface of this there issue a large

number of fibers that appear to be gathered up into two

bundles. One of these passes forward as the anterior optic tract

and terminates in the optic body (a, 0, t; op. b), a small oval

mass of fibrillar substance just above the antennal lobe. The

other passes upward as the postero-superior optic tract. It joins

the antero-superior tract for a short distance, and then passes

behind the stalks and apparently into the calices of the mush-

room bodies.

To this description and the one I gave in my former paper

one might object, basing the objection upon the course and

peculiarities of the fibers of the antero-superior tract, that

since there is a tract of fibers connecting the inter-lenticular

space of the second fibrillar body with the calices of the mush- .

room bodies, one would expect to find this posterior tract

making similar connections with the inner body. The point

was a difficult one to decide, and caused me an expenditure of

considerable time in coming to a conclusion ; but the evidence

of my sections, both those by the formalin-copper-hematoxylin

and those by the bichromate of silver, especially the latter,

method, appears to be in favor of the description that I have

given.

Considering now the denser mass of the fibrillar bodies it

may be said that in sections treated by the formalin-copper-

hematoxylin method one may find evidence of fibers passing

1897.] The Optic Lobes of the Bee’s Brain. 373

through them ina direction nearly at right angles to their two

surfaces. But such evidence is always fragmentary, and it is

not until one employs the bichromate of silver method and

thick sections that one is able to. find unbroken individual

fibres passing thus from one side’to the other. Such fibers

always show short arborescent branches in the outer and also

in the inner lenticular mass. From the inner surface of the

second fibrillar body they pass inward to the outer surface of

the third body, which they enter, terminating arborescently a

little below the surface. In this passage from one mass to the

other they form, as seen in horizontal sections, a chiasma; so

that a fiber emerging from the anterior side of the middle body

enters on the posterior side of the inner body.

In many instances cellular connections were seen with the

fragments of fibers crossing the masses and presenting the short

lateral branches mentioned. In such instances the impreg-

nated cells were found in the groups of cells lying anteriorly

and posteriorly near the fibrillar bodies (2, 2’, 2’’, 3, 3’, 3”).

Their processes do not always enter the fibrillar bodies imme-

diately upon reaching them, but run along the surface, curving

around the fibers that do enter, and altogether presenting a

somewhat lattice-like appearance when viewed at right angles

to the surface of the body.

From the inner mass such crossing fibers have frequently

been readily traceable into the anterior tract going to the optic

body, but not into the postero-superior tract, which I was

obliged to make out in heavily impregnated specimens.

From the outer surface of the middle body individual fibres

have often been traceable nearly to the basement membrane of

the retina, each posterior fiber crossing to the anterior side,

forming with the anterior fibers the outer chiasma, and outside

of this the peculiar palisade-like appearance that has been

noted by the earlier authors.

Such fibers terminate proximally in the outer Aecitioatar

portion of the middle body in fine branchlets. Now and then

a fiber entering this mass apparently from the palisade-like

group of fibers gives off a few lateral branchlets and continues

to the i ata side. Such cases I have interpreted to be the

374 The American Naturalist. [May,

processes of the cells belonging to this middle body, but which

have not been impregnated.

In other instances than those showing the fibers throughout

their course nearly to the basement membrane of the retina,

one finds fibers, or fiber Sroups, entering from each retinal

element and continuing for some distance in through the pali-

sade of fibers.

In some cases cells belonging to the group just inside of the

basement membrane, which were described by Berger as the

cells of the granular layer, are found impregnated and with

their processes connecting with the fibres just described. In

other instances fibers with short lateral branchlets are to be

noted, the branchlets occurring in the region of the outer fibril-

lar body.

From the details noted it appears that the elements from the |

retina terminate each in a small tuft of fine branches in the

outer fibrillar body, and come in contact with the fine lateral

branchlets given off in the same region by fibers originating

from the cells in Berger’s granular layer. These latter fibers,

forming elements No. 1, then continue:on through the outer

body, forming the palisade-like arrangement of fibers and the

outer chiasma, and finally terminate arborescently in the

outer lenticular mass of the middle body. The reasons that

fibers from the retina seem to cross the outer body, forming a

continuous passage between the basement membrane and the

middle body is, it seems, that the lateral branchlets of elements

No. 1 are very short, and the two small fibers are so closely

applied together as to appear as one where they are heavily

impregnated with bichromate of silver.

From the elements forming the optic lobes of the higher

erustucea, as described by Parker, these and the elements be-

longing to the middle and the inner fibrillar bodies, noted in

the figure as elements 2 and 3 respectively, differ in not form-

ing a T-like figure, or in having a group of short lateral den- '

drites rather than one dendritic branch. This difference, it is

plain, depends upon the location of the cell-body of the element.

In the crustacea the latter, as shown by Parker, is situated

between the fibrillar bodies that the two branches of its process

1897.] The Optie Lobes of the Bee's Brain. 375

connect. In the bee it is situated outside of the outer of the

two bodies that are connected.

In summarizing the matter as just described, and as shown

in my drawings and sections, it appears that, setting aside the

outer or retinal elements, there are concerned in the trans-

mission of visual stimuli to the central portion of the brain

some six or seven neural elements, and that such stimuli

may reach (1) the optic body, (2) the mushroom bodies, and

(8) the hinder lower portion of the brain, and that they

may pass over one or the other of the optic commissures—

provided the upper one is a real commissure—to the inner

fibrillar body of the opposite lobe, and thus indirectly reach

the mushroom bodies, the optic body, and the posterior

region of the brain on the opposite side. Further, it may be

seen that there may be either three or four, or possibly more

—but at least three—neural elements concerned in the trans-

mission of a single stimulus. Thus, a stimulus may reach the

optic body, the mushroom bodies, and the lower posterior por-

tion of the brain as follows:

The mushroom bodies, —

By three elements, 1 a—2 b—(a.-s.ot.r.) or

1 a—2 b—3 d.

The optic body,

By three elements, ~ 1 a—2 b—3 d.

The lower-hinder brain,

By three elements, 1 a—2 b—(a.p.t).

By four elements, 1 a—2 b—3 d—(p.o.t.).

Further it appears that a single stimulus might reach all

three cerebral centers.

This explanation seems to accord best with the existence of

two sets of fibrillar branchlets upon one element (b.c. and d.e.) ;

but it must be held to be hypothetical, since I have not been

able to ascertain definitely whether the terminals of the fibers

of the posterior, the antero-superior, and the antero-posterior

optic tracts connect only with the secondary branchlets (c and

e). If connections are made with the primary sets (b and d)

then the matter becomes much more complicated.

376

b.m.

dell

a eon

The American Naturalist. [May,

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

(DIAGRAMATIC.)

Outer fibrillar connections in the outer fibrillar

body

Anterior optic tract.’

Antero-posterior optic tract.

Antero-superior optic tract.

Fibrillar connections in the outer lenticular

mass of the middle body.

Basement membrane of the retina.

Fibrillar connections of the inner lenticular mass

of the middle body.

Fibrillar connections of the outer lenticular mass

of the inner body.

Dorso-cerebrum.

Fibrillar connections of the inner lenticular mass

of the inner body.

Fibrillar bodies 1, 2 and 8, or outer, middle, and

inner.

Lower optic commissure.

Posterior optic tracts.

Postero-superior optic tract.

Stalk of the outer mushroom body.

Upper optic commissure.

Supposed location of the cells of origin of the

fibers of the a.—p.o.t. and ers o.t.

The outer chiasma.

The inner chiasma.

? The tract to the optic body (op. b. )

"UWAG 8aagq ayy fo aqo'T dO ay,

XI ALV Id

1897.] Flora and Fauna of Mammoth Cave, Ky. 377

SOME NOTES ON THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF

MAMMOTH CAVE, KY!

By R. ELrLsworTtH Catt, Pa. D.

In 1889 there was published by the general government

Dr. A. S. Packard’s “Cave Fauna of North America, with Re-

marks on the Anatomy of the Brain and the Origin of the

Blind Species,” which constitutes the most complete treatise on

cave animals which has appeared in this country. In that

work there were listed eight genera and nine species of Infu-

soria, three genera and species of Vermes, four genera and

species of Crustacea, eight genera and species of Arachnida,

one of Myriopoda, twelve genera and fourteen species of Insecta,

and two genera and species of fishes, all from Mammoth Cave.

Dr. Packard also adds a list of seventeen forms said to be liv-

ing temporarily in the cavern, most of which are listed on the

authority of others. Of these one, Spelerpes or cave salamander,

is listed on the uncertain authority of one of the guides. Ex-

cluding this list of seventeen, which includes three forms of

felix which most certainly came in from without, after death,

and in floatwood, there remains a total of forty-one species.

Seven of these are uncertain either in their generic or specific

relations, as appears from the mark of doubt which is added

to them. Of many of the forms concerning which there is no

manner of doubt there are excellent descriptions and figures.

It is not my present purpose to speak of the forms which

were known from Mammoth Cave prior to my own period of

study, except in the most incidental manner. On the contrary,

it is designed only to speak on the additions which more care-

ful investigation has brought to light.

In the study of this new material the writer has been assisted

by the following gentlemen, whose names are mentioned both

that the fullest credit may be given them and that their high

authority may attach to the determinations of the several forms

‘Read before Indiana Academy of Science, December 30, 1896.

378 The American Naturalist. [May,

as being new. For the Diptera, Mr. D. W. Coquillett, of the

Department of Agriculture, Washington; for the Acarinz,

Thysanure, Therididæ and related forms, Mr. Nathan Banks, of

Sea Cliff, New York; for the microscopic plants, Dr. Roland

Thaxter, of Harvard University. It is quite sure, therefore,

that the determinations in these groups are quite accurate and

authentic. For the single mollusk and the larger fungi the

writer is alone responsible.

The conditions under which collections are made in Mam-

moth Cave are not of the simplest character. The cavern itself

is very great, and the forms of life neither large, as a rule, nor

abundant. Hours may be spent by a novitiate without any

success attending his efforts, and it is only after much search

and repeated failures that he begins to realize that the distri-

bution of life within the cave obeys certain laws. Animals are

not found everywhere; nor are they found in association, except

in a few instances. Visitors frequently spend hours in the

cavern and fail to see any evidence of life; but one who is

somewhat familiar with the habits of insects soon discovers

that the same principles which govern their distribution in the

realms of light prevail in the subterranean world. In a short

time one soon learns where not to look for life, a fact of as great

importance to one whose time is limited as to know where to

look. The darkness is inconceivably great, and hangs like a

great burden on one who seeks the smaller forms. The crude

methods of illumination avail to lighten but a small area at a

time, and most of the forms appear to be sensitive to light while

not possessing organs of vision ; such, at least, is my conclusion

after some years of collecting, though, it is true that the heat

of the lamps may be the prime cause of the haste which many

species evince when disturbed. From my experience in Mam-

moth Cave I have learned that it is practically useless to hunt

for insects where the cave is very dry ; regions of wet soil or

sides are the most favorable localities for all the insecta. The

smaller rills and springs in the cave usually contain an abund-

ance of small crustaceans, but mainly of two forms; aside from

these but one form of life is common in the water, or fairly so,

1897.] Flora and Fauna of Mammoth Cave, Ky. 379

and that isthe small white leech. An undetermined nematode

worm, two specimens in all, has been found by the writer in a

small rill which furnishes the water to Richardson’s Spring, in

the Labyrinth. On the walls about such places the “ cave

crickets ” abound, and under the flat stones along the way may

be found the very small and white spiders, associated with the

small white and delicate Campodea cookei. Occasionally a

brownish beetle, Anophthalmus, scurries across the over-turned

stone, or may be seen running rapidly over the moist sands.

In a few localities, where decaying toadstools are found, or

where decaying vegetation of other sorts occurs, small flies

occasionally appear fluttering in uncertain way about the lamps

or run rapidly over the wet sand. In a single locality appears

the minute mollusk, which we herein describe, the only known

form which is a true cave mollusk in this cavern.

To the list of cave animals which appears in Packard’s mono-

graph must now be added seven forms, which are new to science,

and several forms which, while known, have not before been

definitely reported from Mammoth Cave. Without exception

the new forms are very minute, and this fact is in itself suffi-

cient to explain their late appearance in lists of the cave fauna.

Without attempt to arrange them into strict systematic groups

it will be enough to say that there is one new mollusk, one new

dipterous insect, two new thysanurids, one new psocid, one new

pseudoscorpionid, two new acarinids, among the animals; while

several others have been collected in sufficiently great num-

bers to settle doubts connected with their affinities, or to make

absolutely certain previous doubtful records or their occur-

rence. This is true of the two dipterous forms hitherto listed

as Sciara and Phora, without specific names.

The descriptions which follow are prepared from the mate-

rial collected by me by the gentlemen whose names are ap-

pended to the several forms, and the species are to be quoted

with their names in authorship. This paper for the first time

presents these new forms to science; their authors should have

the fullest credit in citations. These new forms may be de-

scribed as follows:

380 The American Naturalist. [May,

THYSANURA.

“ Entomobrya cavicola Banks. Nov. sp. (Plate X, Fig. 2.)

“Length 2mm. Whitish hyaline, intestine showing through

darker; clothed with rather long scattered bristles and finer,

shorter hairs; head not broader at tip in side view; no eyes;

antennz one-third longer than the head, first joint very short,

second twice as long, third shorter, fourth longest; legs short,

two claws at tips; mesothorax no longer than metathorax ;

first abdominal segment indistinct, fourth longer than third

or second, fifth apparently entire, blunt at tip; furcula rather

slender, mucrones curved. Several specimens. Mammoth

Cave, Kentucky.” (Banks.)

This minute species occurs in very great numbers in a 1 single

locality, a side avenue which leads over the narrow passage

called the Labyrinth to the top of Gorin’s Dome, in the older

portion of the cave. In collecting it I had to lie on my face

with the lamp close to the ground, and on turning over a frag-

ment of an old wheel-barrow, that had been in the cave for two

score or more years, and was so rotten that slight effort only

was needed to tear it to bits, these little insects would be seen

running about in every possible direction and in great haste. `

They were both on the under surface of the fragments of wood

and also on the earth under them in equal numbers; when dis-

turbed in the attempt to secure them the characteristic jump-

ing movement of the group availed here to make collection

difficult. It was noticed that many of them in springing up

in the air would rise to an extraordinary height for so small

an insect, frequently two or even three inches from the board.

Others would land in nearly the same place as that from which

they started, having a kind of boomerang movement that was,

at least, curious. A paper bag would have secured hundreds

by taking stick and all; but, as is usual on such occasions, the

paper bag was not at hand. It is interesting to note, that while

they represented a generation that must have been along way

from their beginning in the cave, introduced, of course, from

the outside world originally, they still retained the habits of

their earlier ancestors and of the group, and sought, in the

1897.] Flora and Fauna of Mammoth Cave, Ky. 381

densest darkness, the security of the under surface of their

shelters. It would seem.that this habit, which is quite general

for all the cave species observed by me, would be a strong argu-

ment in direct proof of the outside origin of the fauna as a

whole. While many generations have passed these forms hide

in the regions of perpetual darkness as completely and system-

atically as do their cousins and nearer relatives of the surface.

It is further interesting to note that this species is eyeless, a

fact to which Mr. Banks calls attention in his description.

“Smynthurus mammouthia Banks. Nov. sp. (Plate X, Fig. 1.)

“Length 1mm. White hyaline. Eyes distinct; antenne

have the first joint very short; second twice as long; third

equal to second; fourth much longer, divided into five parts,

the basal one long, the following three short, subequal, and a

longer, slender one at tip; all, except the last joint, with hairs

at tip. Legs are moderately long, two claws at the tip, each

with a tooth above, the outer claw as long as the width of the

tibia. There is a small tooth below on the dentes before the

tip, and a larger one on the outside at tip over the insertion of

the mucrones; the latter are shorter than the dentes, finely

serrate below and with curved tip. Quite a number of short

hairs on the posterior half of the abdomen, and on the anal

tubercle. Three specimens, Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.”

(Banks.)

Of these specimens one was found in association with the

form described above, while two were found under damp stones

near Richardson’s Spring, in the Labyrinth. The form moves

slowly about, under the influence of the heat from the lamps,

but springs very like the Entomobrya when the attempt is made

to take it. The white color alone enables one to detect it

during its slow crawling movements; a considerable number

escaped before they could be seized, dirt and all, by the forceps.

I judge the species to be fairly common, since one of my note-

books records the form as oceurring in some numbers as fol-

lows: “Small mite-like forms abundant under sticks near

Richardson’s Spring; with them are rare examples of Anthrobia

mammouthia Telkpf.” Mr. Banks’ figures are very character-

382° The American Naturalist. [May,

istic, and well illustrate the hairy character of the animal. It

has only occurred to me in this single locality, but may be

found at other places in the cave where there are similar con-

ditions of moisture.

PSOCIDÆ.

“Dorypteryx (?) hageni Banks. Nov. sp. (Plate X, Fig. 4.)

“Length 1.5 mm. Wholly pale, except reddish-brown eyes

and mandibles. Head, thorax, legs and hind segments of abdo-

men clothed with fine short hairs. Ocelli sometimes distinct,

sometimes not; basal part of antenne of three joints, rest miss-

ing; maxille plainly trifid; legs slender, tibie much longer

than femora, tarsi three-jointed, basal joint longest ; wings rudi-

mentary; second segment of the abdomen very long and

smooth, subcylindric, forming the greater part of abdomen, on

the venter it is prolonged by a median triangular piece over

the next segment; other segments much shorter, and tapering

to the tip.

“Several nymphs from Mammoth Cave, Ky. This may be

the species to which Hagen refers in Packard’s Cave Memoir,

but it certainly is not the Dorypteryx pallida Aaron, which

differs in broader nasus, more prominent eyes and larger

thorax.” (Banks.)

A number of specimens were found under wet and decaying

fragments of boards in the Labyrinth in a small pit under the

way leading to the top of Gorin’s Dome. In this locality are

the accumulations of many years of replacement of old bridges

and steps which lead up the steep declivity which is so near

the Dome, and the debris, well decaved and crumbling, affords

the richest collecting ground in the cave. Spiders, flies, beetles,

crickets, myriopods, mites all are here and the largest series

to be found at any single place may be obtained. The particu-

lar forms which are the subject of this description find abund-

ant food in the microscopic fungi which here abound.

ACARINA.

“Rhagidia cavicola Banks. Nov.sp. (Plate X, Fig. 3.)

“Length .7 mm. Whitish, legs hyaline. Cephalothorax

pointed behind, and with a distinct segment behind it and be-

1897.] Flora and Fauna of Mammoth Cave, Ky. 383

fore the abdomen, cephalothorax plainly longer than broad,

truncate in front, no eyes; the abdomen rather narrow at base,

broadest toward the middle and broadly rounded at the tip,

showing above faint transverse marks or sutures; legs rather

stout, with scattered bristles; mandibles large, chelate, a little

shorter than cephalothorax, directed slightly downwards; palpi

a little longer than the mandibles, second joint three times as

long as broad, third fully twice as long as broad, and with two

bristles at the tip, fourth about as long as broad, with five or

six bristles at the tip arranged in a somewhat radiate fashion.

“ Several specimens, Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.” (Banks.)

This mite is a somewhat common species, and is found on

the under side of stones in damp stations; especially may it

be found under stones on which the egg masses of the cave

spider, Anthrobia mammouthia Telkpf, occur. I do not know

whether it attacks these masses in any way, but the association

„is suggestive of that conclusion. The species is one of the

smallest of the living forms found in the cavern, being exceeded

in that particular only by the following one. It has only

occurred in collections from near the bottom of the Bottomless

Pit and in Blacksnake Avenue, in which Richardson’s Spring

is located. More than two-thirds of all the species known from

Mammoth Cave came from near this station or at it.

“ Linopodes mammouthia Banks. Nov. sp. (Plate X, Fig. 5.)

“Length .6 mm. Pale yellowish, legs paler. Body oblong,

rounded in front and behind ; cephalothorax as broad as long,

a shining eye on each side distinct; abdomen globose, above a

silvery T mark, dorsum with a few hairs above, longer ones at

the tip, and small ones each side of anal opening; leg I very

long and slender, femur I as long as body, tibia shorter, meta-

tarsus much longer than body, tarsus shorter, apparently not

divided, femur IV thickened; the mandibles form a rather

elongate cone; palpi plainly longer, joints two and three and

subequal, smallest at base and rather clavate in form, fourth

smaller and shorter.

“Several specimens from Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.”

(Banks.)

384 The American Naturalist. [May,.

In all I have secured some fifteen specimens of this little

acarinid, which is the smallest form yet discovered in the

cavern. It occurs on the underside of damp stones and sticks,

in association with the thysanurids, which are described herein,

and is easily distinguished i in collecting. The very long first

pair of legs give it a most peculiar aspect, and as they are al-

ways in somewhat rapid motion they serve to discover the

little insect to the observer. Then, too, the species has the

curious habit of raising itself up so that it stands on the first

and fourth pair of legs when disturbed. It is exceedingly slow

in its movements. Vision is impossible in the cave, notwith-

standing its bright eyes, and possibly the bristles or hairs of the

posterior abdomen, on dorsal surface, have a certain tentacular

function—using the word in the sense of organ of touch. It

may be said that the species was originally detected, and subse-

quently always found, by lying prone on the ground and with

the lamp as close as possible to both face and soil. The heat .

appears to disturb the minute specks of pale yellowish color,

and they appear to move; then dirt and all were collected and

transferred to the alcohol vial, and the microscope eventually

discovered the animal. At the first and several following trials

it was a matter of serious question whether I had really seen

anything move, so small are the objects. Like many another

form the original discovery of this one was an accident.

DIPTERA.

‘Limosina stygia Coquillett. Nov. sp.

“ Male and female specimens. Black, subshining, the palpi,-

front coxæ, apices of femora and bases of the tibiæ (most ex-

tended on the front pair), also bases of the tarsi and of the

halteres, yellowish. Middle tibiæ each bearing a bristle on the

outer side above the middle, a pair at the apex on the outer

side and a single one on the inner side at the tip; hind tibiæ

destitute of a spur at the tips; first joint of hind tarsi one and

one-half times as thick as, but only two-thirds as long as, the

second, twice as long as broad; second joint one and one-half

times as broad as, and one wid one-third times as long as, the

third; remaining joints slightly broader than but only two-

PLATE X.

Fig. 1. Smynthurus mammouthia Banks. Fig. 2. Entomobrya cavicola

Banks. Fig. 3. Rhagidia cavicola Banks. Fig. 4. Dorypteryx (?) hageni

Banks. Fig. 5. Linopodes mammouthia Banks. Figs. 6-7. Carychium

Stygium.

PLATE XI.

Coprinus micaceus,

1897.] Flora and Fauna of Mammoth Cave, Ky. 385

thirds as long as the third. Scutellum bare, except for the four

marginal bristles. Wings grayish hyaline, tip of second vein

nearly midway between the apices of the first and third veins,

third vein nearly straight, terminating close to the extreme

wing-tip, fourth vein subobsolete beyond the discal cell, fifth

vein continued beyond the hind cross-vein over one-half of the

length of the latter, second basal and anal cells wanting.

Length 1.5 mm. to 3 mm. Fifteen specimens, collected in

alcohol, from Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.” (Coquillett.)

A considerable number of additional specimens have been

secured since the original lot which was forwarded to Mr.

Coquillett, representing both sexes. These specimens and the

original ones all came from the same parts of the cave, in which

the species is fairly common. The number of individuals ap-

pears to be quite considerable, and many more could have been

secured with a good net and proper appliances. The localities

are allin River Hall, one near the Cascade, which is to the right

of the visitor who crosses the Styx ; the other is near the head

of Echo River. In both localities the floor of the cave is cov-

ered with a thick coating of rich mud, which contains enough

dead organic matter to permit the rank growth of clumps of

large hymenomycetous fungi of the genus Coprinus. In the

decaying specimens of this fungus the flies are found, both

in larval form and in imagos. They run about over the wet

earth and clay rather briskly, or, if disturbed, fly a short dis-

tance and again settle down. The species is the smallest that

is found in the cave. The body is, however, considerably

heavier than that of the Phora which is herein described.

The two forms next following have been reported only by

generic name from Mammoth Cave. The material collected by

me was somewhat abundant, and definitely places these forms

in the cave fauna. The original descriptions are given together

with the bibliographic references ; these are followed by a new

description prepared by Mr. Coquillett, based upon the males,

in the first case, and upon specimens of both sexes in the de-

scription herein newly made.

Sciara inconstans Fitch?

* First and Second Reports on the Noxious, Beneficial and other Insects of the

State of New York, p. 255, 1856.

386 The American Naturalist. [May,

“Tt measures 0.08 in length, and is black, with the thorax

smooth and slightly shining, the thighs pale and whitish, and

the wings pellucid and glassy, with an iridescent violet and

red reflection.” (Fitch.)

This very brief and incomplete description, without access

to the types, would hardly enable recognition of this form. To

it may be added the following :

“Male. Brownish-black ; bases of the halteres, coxee, femora

and tibiæ, yellow. Antenne as long asthe body. Each apical

joint of the hypopygium bears a cluster of short spines on the

apical third of the inner side. Wings grayish hyaline, strongly

iridescent, veins brown, fourth vein more slender than the

others, forking at a point beyond the tip of the first vein, equal-

ing the greatest width of the marginal cell, the anterior fork as

long as the preceding section of that vein ; last section of the

first vein about as long as the preceding section; costa gently

convex on the basal half.

“Female. Same as the male, except that the antenne are

only half as long as the body. Last joint of the ovipositor

nearly one-third longer than broad. Length 2 mm. to 4 mm.”

(Coquillett.)

A number of specimens, over twenty in all, were obtained at

several points in Mammoth Cave. One locality is in the small

dome in the Labyrinth, near the Bottomless Pit ; another, is

the Mammoth Dome, in another part of the cavern ; a third is

at Richardson’s Spring, in Black-snake Avenue; and another

is at the bottom of Gorin’s Dome. At Richardson’s Spring was

found an apple quite decayed in which hundreds of the larval

forms of this species were found, and nearly a hundred secured.

Careful search in suitable localities failed to disclose the pu-

parium of this form. It appears to be quite abundant in the

damper portions of the cavern.

Phora rufipes Meigen *

(Translation.) “Black, halteres white, legs reddish-yellow,

wings hyaline. It differs from the foregoing [annulata’ Meig.

* Klassifikazion und Beschreibung der europaischen zweifliigligen Insekten,

p- 313, 1804. (Work not accessible.

Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten europaischen zweifliigligen In-

sekten, pp. 216-217, 1830.

1897.] Flora and Fauna of Mammoth Cave, Ky. 387

=rufipes Meig.] only in lacking the white sutures on the abdo-

men. The male hasa nearly conical, long haired body. One

line.”

Mr. Coquillett has prepared the following description from

my specimens:

“ Phora rufipes Meigen. Male and female. Brownish-black,

palpi, halteres and legs yellowish. The four lowest median

frontal setæ directed downward. Legs destitute of bristles ex-

cept a pair at tip of inner side of each middle tibia and a single

bristle at tip of inner side of each hind tibia. Abdomen of the

male covered with rather long and nearly erect bristles. Wings

hyaline, costa from base to tip of second heavy vein fringed

with rather long bristles, second heavy veins forked at the

apex, first slender vein arcuate at the base, then nearly straight

to the tip. Length 2mm. to 3 mm.” (Coquillett.)

This species appears to be less abundant than either of the

other dipterous forms. It occurs in Mammoth Dome and in

the Labyrinth, in association with the Sciara inconstans. It

flies about more freely, and when disturbed does not again

light near by. In the Mammoth Dome I found the species

running about among the masses of Rhizomorpha, which are so

abundant on very old and decayed timbers in that portion of

the cave.

MOLLUSCA.

Carychium stygium. Nov. sp. (Plate X, Figs. 6-7.)

Shell minute, white, pellucid, shining; whorls 5 to 5.5 in

number, convex above and rather flattened below, apical whorl

blunt-rounded in most specimens, occasionally more acute ;

Suture deeply impressed, quite regular; aperture a little less

than one-fourth total length of the shell, rather sharply angu-

lar above and broadly rounded below, with its plane forming

a very acute angle with axis of the shell ; lip reflexed in mature

Specimens; many examples, but not all, with a sharp, white,

and long denticle on the parietal wall near the junction of the

upper portion of the apertural boundary ; the spire is generally

quite regularly and narrowly conical, but the body whorl is

388 The American Naturalist. [May,

somewhat turgid. The length of the shell is 1.5 mm. to 1.85

mm. The aperture is nearly as broad as long. (Call.)

About 150 examples of this minute mollusk were secured

during various visits to Mammoth Dome, in Mammoth Cave.

They were found on the wet surfaces of the old bridge timbers,

in that portion of the cavern, which have remained undisturbed

for fifty or more years. Growing on these in great tufts or

masses, forming a shaggy mantle that enveloped the great tim-

bers throughout their length, was a species of Rhizomorpha, a

peculiarly modified and sterile form of basidiomycetous fungus ;

in the midst of this fungous growth occur numerous examples

of this shell. Occasional specimens are found on the under

surfaces of the wet rocks of this part of the cave, but none have

ever been taken in a dry situation in the Dome. The constant

dripping of water, which in the wet season is a stream falling

from the roof 150 feet above, keeps the rocks and old timbers,

with their fungous growths, all continually wet, and, except

the utter darkness, makes the pae a desirable home for “a

well brought up’ ” Carychium.

This species is much smaller in ih relative size of the aper-

ture and length of shell than its nearest ally Carychium exiguum

Say. But it isa much heavier shell, far more rounded and

shining than that form. Carychium exiguum from Indiana and

and New York, with which I have compared it, is a much

slenderer shell. Compared with the doubtful Carychium exile

Lea it has a broader body whorl, is more conical, and has no

striations, which are marked features of that form. Compared

with the so-called Carychium occidentale the shape and size of

the body whorl are different, the form of the lip and the curva-

ture of the outer lip above are distinct. Since our form seems

to be constant in all these differences it has been decided to

present it under the name of Carychium stygium. Specimens

may be seen in the Academies of Natural Sciences of Philadel-

phia and Cincinnati, and in the United States National Mu-

seum. The types are in the Call Collection at the Indiana

State University, Bloomington.

The remainder of the new forms are plants, and but a brief

mention will be made of them. Several of the lower fungi

1897.] Flora and Fauna of Mammoth Cave, Ky. 389

have been reported from Mammoth Cave, but most of them

with doubt. Among the larger fungi Hovey has reported a

species of Agaricus, which, however, seems to have been wrongly

determined, since the form is a Coprinus. Collections were

made at various localities; indeed, at all places in the cave

where plant life occurs at all. While these have not all been

carefully studied certain facts of interest have been gleaned.

These now follow.

The largest form known in the cave is Coprinus micaceus

(Plate XI). This occurs only in River Hall, near the Cascades

and at various points between them and the head of Echo

River. The last locality seems to be extremely well suited to

them, for they grow in some numbers, and in clusters of several

individuals. As is well known, the pileus of the Coprini is de-

liquescent. The particular form from the cave has black and

rather large spores, and when, in maturity, the form deliquesces,

it runs over a considerable area of the wet soil surrounding it

and makes large black patches of sticky or gelatinous matter.

In the midst of this black area, for some two or three days, the

stipe will remain standing and afford attractive bits for Adelops

and Phora, the first a beetle, the second a fly. In the pileus,

before deliquescence is completed, the beetles and flies alike

may be found in the: burrows which the former have made.

Many larvee were obtained through a close examination of fifty

or more specimens, at one time or another. The fungus itself

thrives in the rich mud of the river banks, where sufficient

organic matter is buried, and specimens have been seen with

long and curled stipes of more than thirteen inches length. A

locality where the species may always be found is at the third

arch or landing on the Echo River, on the steep muddy banks

of the river near the bridge.

On the old timbers in Mammoth Dome and on those of the

little pit near Gorin’s Dome, in the Labyrinth, occurred in

great numbers a small Peziza, very light reddish-brown in color

and thriving well, though growing in absolute darkness. In the

Mammoth Dome the form must have long sustained itself, for

it has been many years since timbers were placed there ; unless,

indeed, the spores were introduced in a very likely manner, on

390 The American Naturalist. [May,

the smaller tree timbers, which are used in the construction of

the railings and walks along the Styx and the Dead Sea. These

are taken into the cave by way of Little Bat Avenue, and Mam-

moth Dome, being let down from the top, and thence taken by

Spark’s Avenue to River Hall. Whether this be the real manner

of spore introduction matters little ; it is important to note that

a form which almost commonly needs the light and warmth of

sunshine to develop well here apparently thrives in absolute

darkness and at a temperature which averages 54°.

In this same locality occurs the problematical form of basi-

diomycetous fungus, which is called Rhizomorpha molinaris ?,

living in the greatest profusion on the old sticks and timbers

which here abound. Some specimens of beams that have re-

mained in the lowest and wettest portion of the Mammoth

Dome for many years are covered from one end to the other

with the long root-like filaments of this plant. The greater

number of the living filaments were of a deep brownish color,

shading into a very light red tip, which became colorless at

the extreme end. They appeared to be covered with a“ bloom”

which was lost after touching them. Opportunity to again

examine them might disclose the phosphorescent phenomena

for which these forms are celebrated in mines, a fact not known

to me at the time of their original collection. The species occurs

in no other part of the cave.

At numerous localities, where there is some moisture, occur-

ring on dead specimens of Hadenwcus subterranea, the so-called

“ cave cricket,” is Isaria (Sporotrichum) densa Link. This fungus

is one of the most beautiful when growing in suitable stations,

the mass appearing as a flocculent bunch of cotton clinging

to the walls or lying on the damp earth. I have found the

form in many localities, but most abundantly in El Ghor and

along River Hall. Associated with it is the yellow form to

which the name of Isaria (Sporotrichum) flavissimum Link has

been given. But the yellowish form grows less luxuriantly

and is found on other decaying matter, while the first named

occurred to me only on dead Hadenwcus.

A number of moulds and other low forms have been collected

by me at different times, and been studied by Dr. Thaxter, of

1897.] Flora and Fauna of Mammoth Cave, Ky. 391

Harvard University, to whom I am indebted for their deter-

mination. Among them are Microascus longirostris Zukal,

Zasmidium cellare Fr., Gymnoascus setosus Eidam, Gymnoascus

uncinatus Eidam, and several others that were indeterminate.

There were collected also a probably new Cemansia and Papu-

lospora, a new Bouderia and two “apparently new species of

Gymnoascus.” It will be observed at once that many of these

forms are well known ones, and in explanation of that fact it

is sufficient to say that all came from the great hall beyond the

Echo River, which is called Washington Hall, and which is the

favorite lunch-station of parties on the “long route.” On the

debris of the lunches, on the chicken bones and half-filled egg

shells, occurs a wealth of these minute forms. lt would seem

to be quite clear that they are introduced to this part of the

cavern with lunches. Their internal distribution is mainly

effected by means of the “cave rat,” Neotoma magister Baird,

which is abundant at this locality. These animals drag the

bones and other remains of lunches to great distances, and

the spores of the fungi are correspondingly widely distributed.

One of the most characteristic and marked forms that the

casual visitor will notice is the widely spreading patches of

snow-white fungus which covers the boards of bridges and

hangs in beautiful festoons from timbers, or which spreads over

a large area of wet earth from some water-soaked board as a

center, especially in the Labyrinth and in River Hall. Thisis

Mucor mucedo Linneeus, and is quite abundant. I have seen

patches extending from an old timber that covered two square

yards and others which quite covered the walls in some favored

places. This plant is the most conspicuous fungus in the

cavern. The others must be looked for especially to be seen.

At two places in the cave occurs a very abnormal species of

Fomes ( Polyporus) applanatus Pers., which is certainly introduced

rom the outside on the timbers on which it is found. The

original form is illustrated by specimens which, on comparing

it with the cave specimen, one may note the wide divergence

from the typical form. Dr. Charles H. Peck says of this speci-

men: “It is, of course, very imperfectly developed, having no

hymenium, as is usual when it grows in damp, dark places, as

392 The American Naturalist. | [May,

in caves, old mines, wells, ete. I have specimens from the coal

mines of Pennsylvania in which the growth is much larger

than this. I suspect it is an effort on the part of the plant to

get to the light, and instead of the usual sessile pileus it makes

an elongated stem-like growth. It grows on wood; and it is

possible, in some cases at least, that the wood may contain the

mycelium when it is carried into the cave or mine.”

This great difference of form, in the light of the suggestion

of Dr. Peck, is one of the most interesting botanical facts of the

cave. The specimens, when fresh, had, at the reddish tip, a

white, powdery bloom that gave a bleached appearance to the

last inch or more of the specimen. It was found growing in a

damp station not far from the Bottomless Pit.

These main new facts in the occurrence and distribution of

cave insects and plants have been presented as a contribution

to a knowledge of the life of the most interesting cave on the

continent. Its great expanse renders likely additional discov-

eries on complete study.

METHODS IN ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY, WITH

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CATBIRD.

By SYLVESTER D. Jupp.

The determination of the food habits of birds is of vast import-

ance in rural economy. Owing to the ignorance on this sub-

ject, such a grave mistake as the introduction of the English

sparrow- was made. In order to ascertain the food of any

bird, and to determine its relation to agriculture, a definite

scheme of investigation must be followed. Until recently the

method employed was that of observing birds while feeding ;

but this gave such fragmentary knowledge that distorted con-

clusions were drawn, and many innocent birds suffered, par-

ticularly the hawks and owls, until Dr. A. K. Fisher,’ by the

careful examination of stomachs, showed that of the 49 species

of our hawks and owls, only 6 are injurious to agriculture.

1 Hawks and Owls of the United States, Bull. 3, U. S. Dept. Agriculture.

1897.] Methods in Economie Ornithology. 393

The method of field work, which requires the united efforts

of a botanist as well as an entomologist, yields results which

must not be considered a final solution to the problem, but

only a contribution to our knowledge. Nevertheless, field

work is indispensable, since many interesting facts may be

learned by going to fruiting trees or shrubs and watching the

birds that visit them. This sort of work can be done toa

limited extent in a field where grasshoppers are abundant;

but with small insects this method of observation is almost

impossible. Even if all the different kinds of food eaten could

be ascertained in the field, the result would still be unsatis-

factory, for the proportions of the various constituents would

be unknown, consequently any economic conclusions would

be impossible. The examination of the contents of the stom-

ach is the “court of final appeal,” because here the propor-

tions of the different elements of the food can be determined.

In researches in economic ornithology, under the direction of

Dr. C. Hart Merriam of the U. S. Department of Agriculture,

I have examined the stomachs of some 200 catbirds, and found

that about half of this bird’s food is fruit, while the other half

is insects. Beetles and ants form the most conspicuous part

of the insect food, and grasshoppers and smooth caterpillars

rank next in importance, while spiders, myriapods and bugs

are frequently eaten.

Although this method of stomach examination shows con-

clusively what has been eaten, it neither tells what has been

refused nor does it give the preferences of a bird for one kind

of food over an other. The reason for this is that the different

elements of the food supply where the stomachs were collected

is unknown. To obtain such a knowledge of the accessible

food supply, and to learn just what insects and berries the

birds had an opportunity of eating, I took an excursion on

July 30, 1895, to one of the many gullies which intersect the

bluff overlooking the estuary of the Potomac, to make obser-

vations on the feeding habits of the catbirds, and to collect

data and material of the available food supply. The particu-

lar gully chosen was about eighty yards wide by twice as long,

* Prof. F. E. L. Beal.

394 The American Naturulist. [May,.

and extended back at right angles to the river until it rose to

the level of the bluff. On the slanting sides of this depression

a belt of catbriars (Smilax) afforded excellent cover for cat-

birds. Just above the catbriars and concentric to them was a.

belt of locust trees. The part of the gully next the river was

swampy and supported a forest of willows, while the upper

part was drier and afforded an abundance of ripe elder and

blackberries upon which birds were seen feeding. The cat-

birds seemed to devote most of their time to berrying, though

some were seen way up in the tops of the locusts, which had

been browned as by fire by the locust leaf miners (larve of

Odontota dorsalis), the adult beetles of which were swarming

in myriads over the leaves. Several catbirds sang sweetly in

the sassafras trees, which were sparingly intermixed with the

locusts, while others were seen hopping on the ground where

they had a chance to pick up grasshoppers, millers or ants..

In all, 15 catbirds were seen in the little gully, and 13 of these

were shot. Their entire digestive tracts were examined ; 9 of

them contained the destructive locust beetle, 18 of these orange

and black pests having been taken from one bird. This is

surprising, because beetles of this family (Chrysomellidx) secrete

a substance which is supposed to be distasteful to birds. Every

one of the birds had eaten elderberries, and all but two black-

berries. Five of the 13 had taken sassafras berries, and 3 wild

cherries. Both of these fruits were bright green and very

hard. The eating of such apparently unsavory fruit, when

there was a plenty of luscious blackberries seems, to say the

least, a whim of aviam epicurianism. In the insect food of

these birds there were no ants or grasshoppers, but, on the

other hand, the supposedly distasteful locust leaf mining

beetles. The countless number of these beetles, and conse-

quently the ease of obtaining them, seems to be the only circum-

stance to account for the rejection of such favorite food as ants

and grasshoppers. Not one of the false caterpillars ( Tenthre-

dinide) that were observed stripping the cornel bushes under

the willows was to be found in the catbirds, thus showing that

these larve are not eaten when the locust beetles are obtain-

able. From the knowledge gained by the study in this little

1897,] Methods in Economie Ornithology. 395

gully, one would, with a fair degree of accuracy, be able to

predict what kind of food catbirds would eat in another gully

that had absolutely the same food supply. And so one might

perfect this line of research until he could tell just which of

the objects a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h in the accessible food supply of a

locality a given bird would select.

Let this suffice for the combination of the field work method

with that of the examination of stomach contents. Very often

birds that are too shy to be watched in the field may be kept

in captivity and then offered various kinds of food. Such ex-

perimentation has proved a profitable adjunct to stomach ex-

aminations. Among the birds that I have experimented with

were four catbirds, which had been recently trapped in the

vicinity of Washington, D. C. Among the first insects offered

to my birds were a dozen spiny black caterpillars (Huvanessa

antiopa). The birds, though hungry, refused these repulsive

looking creatures. By the next morning the caterpillars that

had crawled out of the cage had pupated. I put one of these

pupe on the floor of the cage. It was eyed for some moments

by a hungry bird and then devoured. Several days later the

pupe hatched into the brown butterfly which is so common in

early spring, and one of these having been given to the birds,

they fought over it and each finally obtained part of the in-

sect. Beetles and ants were next tried. In order to prevent

them from escaping from the cage, they were put on a piece

of cork, which was anchored in a large drinking bowl. The

birds soon became accustomed to the cork island with its cargo,

and when all the insects had been eaten, often rapped on the

cork for more. Bad smelling beetles (Carabidx), which have

been supposed to develop their stench to protect them from

birds, were snatched as soon as they were put on the cork.

Ants, which are highly flavored owing to the large quantity

of formic acid which they contain, seemed te be regarded as

choice food. Stink bugs (Pentatomidx), whose nauseating

odor is familiar to every one who has been berrying, were

eaten by the catbirds, even when they had been well fed with

other food. Large hard shelled beetles, such as Passalus cor-

nutus, were refused by the catbirds, but soft insects, such as

396 The American Naturalist. [May,

grasshoppers, spiders and smooth caterpillars were greedily

devoured. Plant lice were not eaten, but the ants which

tended them were quickly disposed of.

In making experiments with stinging Hymenoptera, I found

that my catbirds refused to take honey bees; but a chewink

ate one of these insects and died within fifteen minutes. King-

birds, as a rule, eat only drone bees, but an instance is recorded

of a bird that was found with a bee’s sting implanted in its

tongue. My catbirds regarded slugs (Gasteropods) as unsavory,

but ate small snails. The birds relished thousand legs and

earthworms.

By experiment it was demonstrated that beetle larve are

regarded as dainty tidbits, but, owing to the fact that they live

in such secure places as under sod or in rotten wood, they are

seldom found by the catbirds, who has not the bill of the

woodpecker to chisel them out, nor the sagacity of the grackle

in following the plow.

Having ascertained what insects were eaten by caged cat-

birds, it will now be instructive to compare the results obtained

by experiment with those arrived at by stomach examinations.

Beetles formed, in the 200 catbird stomachs examined, the

most important part of the animal food, and among these

beetles strong scented Carabidx were found oftener than any

others. This family is very numerous in individuals, and

consequently its members would be the insects which the cat-

bird would most often have an opportunity of picking up. It

was first supposed that they were eaten because of the ease of

obtaining them and in spite of their offensive smell, until ex-

periment demonstrated that catbirds regard Carabide as very

. palatable articles of food. None of the hard shelled beetles,

which were refused by captive catbirds, were detected during

stomach examinations; on the other hand, such soft animals

as spiders and grasshoppers were found in large quantities,

thus further showing the coincidence between the results of

experiment and stomach examination. Both methods of in-

vestigation show that ants are much relished, and that smooth

caterpillars are preferred to hairy ones.

1897.] Development of the Vertebral Column. 397

Beside experimenting with insects, a series of experiments

was conducted with the hope of ascertaining what fruits are

preferred by catbirds. Equal volumes of cherries and mulber-

ries were placed on the cork island, and at other times the ex-

periment was repeated with strawberries in place of the cher-

ries, and invariably the mulberries were selected. When there

were any hopes of getting mulberries, the birds never touched

strawberries or cherries. In the next experiment red and

white mulberries were both put into the cage; the birds

always took the red ones first. This last experiment showed

that catbirds can distinguish colors. The whole series of ex-

periments showed mulberries are preferred to cherries or straw-

berries, hence it may be inferred that these two latter crops

can be protected from catbirds by planting mulberries. This

preference for mulberries could not be deduced from stomach

examination alone, for the reason that mulberries are not com-

mon in many places where catbird stomachs were collected.

Experiments with other fruits would have been performed, if

my birds had not been killed by a cat.

In recapitulation I would say that in investigating the food

of a bird, the first thing to be done is to examine enough

stomachs to obtain a general idea of the bird’s food. After

this has been done, one can intelligently go into the field and

watch birds feeding. The different kinds of available food

should be noted before collecting stomachs, then it will be

possible to ascertain what the bird will eat, its preferences,

and what it will refuse.

DR. ALEX. GOETTE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ma

VERTEBRAL COLUMN.

By O. P. Hay,

In “ Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie,” Vol. LXII,

pp. 348-394, Dr. Alex. Goette has published a paper entitled

“ Ueber den Wirbelbau bei den Reptilien und einigen anderen

398 The American Naturalist. [May,

Wirbelthieren.” In this paper, besides detailing the results of

his studies on certain lizards, the author considers views held

or supposed to be held by Dr. E. D. Cope, Dr. G. Baur, and my-

self concerning the morphogeny of the vertebral column. In

the present paper I shall endeavor to vindicate the position I

have taken on the subject. Drs. Cope and Baur are capable of

making their own defense.

My conclusions regarding the mode of development of the ver-

tebral column were reached after a careful study of the young

of Amia and a comparison of the results with the vertebral

structures of other animals, living and extinct. These con-

clusions were set forth in “ Publications of Field Columbian

Museum,” Vol. I, pp. 1-54; and it is to this paper that my dis-

tinguished critic refers. That paper really consists of two

parts ; the first part dealing with the structures of the adult

axial skeleton, the second, beginning with page 25, treating of

the development of the vertebral column in the young fisb.

The views expressed in the first part are somewhat modified in

the second.

It may be well first of all to correct some errors into which

Dr. Goette has fallen regarding statements made by myself. On

page 381 of his paper he affirms that I found in the embryo of

Amia, between the bases of the arches and the notochord, a

dense layer of connective tissue, which later disappeared. I

really found nothing of the kind, and I know of no expression

in my paper which suggests it. A statement somewhat to this

effect is, however, made by Dr. Gadow and Miss Abbott in

“Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London,” Vol. 186, p. 202; but there is

no indication given that Goette had seen this publication.

On the same page of Goette’s paper occurs the statement that

I discovered that in dorsal region of Amia the upper intercal-

ated cartilages push themselves under the succeeding dorsal

arches, lift the latter away from contact with the notochord,

and then fuse with them. Goette also refers to figure 10 of my

paper as representing such a condition. The assertion indi-

cates a complete misconception of both the text and the figure.

What I said was that at a very early period these intercalated

cartilages may have been fused with the arches. After they

1897.] Development of the Vertebral Column. 399

have once become distinct they never again fuse with the

arches, and my figure represents them as being entirely dis-

tinct.

It is also to be noted that I disclaim holding the view that

the intervertebral menisci of the Amniota have anything to do

with the degenerated hypocentra.

A considerable portion of Goette’s essay is devoted to a de- .

fense of a publication by Dr. Ludwig Schmidt, on which I

made some remarks. Iam unable to find anything in my

former paper to the effect that Amia calva, being the most re-

cent fish of the group, cannot possibly retain the embolomer-

ous structure in case this were the older. It requires only a

cursory perusal of that paper to discover that, after a study of

the young of Amia, I did not regard the embolomerous condi-

tion as more recent than the rhachitomous. I need here only

to call attention to page 41 of that paper.

Furthermore, I leave it to unprejudiced readers to decide

whether or not I did Dr. Schmidt injustice when I affirmed

that he had given two irreconcilable explanations of the way

in which the simple vertebree of the dorsal region had resulted

from the embolomerous condition of the tail. Schmidt's first

effort is plainly directed toward showing that the dorsal verte-

bre have originated through the direct union of two such disks

-as occur in the middle of the tail. He describes and figures

an abnormal vertebra which had been produced by the fusion

of a “centrum” and an “intercentrum.” He figures a section

of this vertebra and calls attention to the “ rudimentary arch ”

of the “centrum” and to the double-cone-shaped cavity be-

tween the two disks. Then, referring to the dorsal vertebre,

he notes their close resemblance to the united disks of the tail,

the presence of the rudimentary arch, and then endeavors to

explain the absence of the notochordal cavity on the ground

of the very early union of the elements. This is a procedure

wholly without point, in case one of the elements has become

wholly or almost wholly reduced. Dr. Baur had already sug-

gested this very natural explanation, and the only fault that

‘Schmidt found with Baur’s idea was that the latter regarded

400 The American Naturalist. - [May,

the “intercentrum ” as the enlarged base of the lower arches,

instead of a complete vertebral body.

From the consideration of the vertebrae of Amia from this

point of view Schmidt turns to the discussion of its fossil rela-

tives; and here he gives a different solution of the problem,

the one that Goette endeavors to have us accept as the only one

proposed by his pupil. The “intercentrum” is regarded as

increasing at the expense of the “ centrum,” until in Megalurus

and Amia the latter element is reduced to a mere vestige, the

“rudimentary upper arch.” The first method of union is that

of two nearly equal elements, the latter the union of the lion

and the lamb—with the lamb inside of the lion.

So far from being open to the charge of opposing the view

that the dorsal vertebre are constituted of elements homolog-

ous with those found in the somites of the tail, with reduction

of some of them and expansion of others, that is the very pith

of the embryological portion of my former paper.

I may remark here that in Amia the pleurocentral element

can hardly be regarded as vestigial, since it appears to furnish

the foundation for the upper half of the vertebral centrum.

Not merely the small portion of the cartilage which is seen in

front of the upper arch, but the whole of the cartilage in the

upper half of the dorsal centrum, belongs to the pleurocentrum.

The figures of Callopterus reproduced by Goette are very inter-

esting, inasmuch as they show to what extent in that form the

above element had become reduced. When the reduction be-

comes complete, the vertebral centrum becomes a hypocentrum,

a condition affirmed by Cope to be that of the higher fishes in

general.

Aside from any misunderstandings, there exist between

Goette and myself certain differences which are fundamental.

He holds that there is to be found in most vertebrates a spe-

cialized sheath which, composed of cells, surrounds the noto-

chord and becomes segmented to form the “primary vertebral

centra.” This sheath, called in other publications “äussere

oder zellige Chordascheide,” is now named the “ perichordal

sheath.” In some of Goette’s writings it appears to be certain

-that he has in mind the elastica externa of other writers; in

1897.] Development of the Vertebral Column. 401

other papers it is evident that he refers to a somewhat special-

ized layer of cells belonging to the skeletogenous tissue. Ac-

cording to Goette, the arches, upper and lower, are formed in

the skeletogenous sheath outside of this perichordal sheath,

and only later become applied to it. The primary vertebra

thus consists of the arches, upper and lower, and the ring

around the notochord. Furthermore, Goette contends that,

primitively at least, two such vertebre belong to each somite.

In few or no animals do we find both vertebre present in all

their parts, but the author referred to finds vestiges of them in

even the highest vertebrates. I cannot subscribe to these

views.

Without desiring to detract in the least from the merits of

Goette’s embryological labors, I believe that I am not wrong

in saying that the importance, even the existence, of this peri-

chordal sheath has not been recognized by vertebrate embryo-

logists. Most writers deny that the alleged sheath is anything

more than a portion of the general skeletogenous layer and

hold that it graduates into the latter. Hasse appears to come

nearer than others in recognizing a special layer of the skele-

togenous tissue ; but his “ innere Zellschicht” does not appear

to correspond wholly with Goette’s perichordal sheath, since

the former invests also the spinal cord. Furthermore, Hasse

finds his layer of cells in Acipenser, to which genus Goette has

denied the perichordal sheath.

It is very apparent too that in one great group of vertebrates,

the Elasmobranchs, Goette’s theory of the origin of the primary

vertebral body has been demonstrated to be erroneous. Instead

of there being, in these fishes, an “äussere Chordascheide”

which has arisen as a distinctly specialized layer of the cells of

the skeletogenous tissue, and which is a little later cut off from

the less modified portions of this tissue by the elastica externa,

it has been demonstrated by Klaatsch and Gadow and Abbott

that the layer of cells called by Goette “ äussere Chordascheide ”,

takes its origin from migrating cells which, starting from the

bases of the arches, have pierced the elastica externa and made

their way into the fibrous mass of the elastica interna. The

“primary vertebral centrum” of the sharks must then be a

402 The American Naturalist. [May,

thing very different from what it is in the other groups of ver-

tebrates.

Considering that the limits of the “äussere Chordascheide,”

its significance, and even its existence, are not yet agreed upon,

the alleged product of its transformation, the “ primary verte-

bral body” is a thing too intangible to be long considered in

the presence of manifest realities.

Goette claims that in the tail of Amia the two disks belong-

ing to each somite are two nearly equally developed vertebre ;

it happening that only the arches of one of them are in a

vestigial condition. I do not betieve that the elements which

give rise to the two rings are equivalent. The arches, basi-

dorsals and basiventrals of Gadow, arise at a later period than

do the intercalated cartilages; at least they do so in Amia.

The arches occupy a position essentially different from that of

the intercalated elements, the former being placed intermyo-

merically, the latter myomerically. The arches have prob-

ably been evolved as a means for the fixed attachment for the

muscular segments: the intercalated cartilages as a system of

stop-gaps. Later these subordinate pieces have in many cases

assumed a more important role.

I have been able to discover no reason for supposing that

there is, in each somite of Amia, either one or two “ primary

vertebral centra.” For, if by “ perichordal sheath” Goette

possibly refers to the elastica externa, this in Amia is certainly

homologous with the structure so-called in the Teleost fishes

and which, according to ail recent observers, is not cellular.

If by perichordal sheath Goette means a distinct layer of cells,

which lies against the outside of the elastica externa and

passes beneath the arches, then there is no such sheath. In

my smallest specimens, 10 mm. long, a delicate layer of cells

surrounds the notochord, but it does not show itself as a special

layer under the bases of the arches, although the latter are not

yet distinctly chondrified. Nor is there at any stage any such

a well defined layer of tissue under the cartilages. Conversion

of the arches into hyaline cartilage begins at a little distance

away from the elastica, but when the process is completed, the

cartilage comes into immediate contact with the elastica. Nor

1897.] Development of the Vertebral Column. 403

is there any modified layer of cartilage next to the elastica.

Furthermore, when ossification begins, the layer of bone does

not pass between the base of the arch and the elastica, but over

the sides of the arch and against the elastica from an upper

arch to one below it and to its fellow piece.

For the original duplication of vertebrae Goette finds evi-

dences in the Urodeles, lizards, ete., in what he regards as the

occurrence of vestigial upper arches, transverse processes, and

ribs. These, it seems to me, are as yet of too uncertain nature

for us to base on them any such serious conclusions as does Dr.

Goette. They are probably susceptible of being otherwise homo-

logised. Goette has reproached the paleontologists for deriving

their theories from their paleontological, rather than from em-

bryological, studies. But, are the embryological materials any

more to be relied upon to furnish safe conclusions than are the

materials used by the paleontologist? Under the strata of

what countless generations the primitive structures have been

buried! How many elements that once were prominent and

perhaps all-important have been totally suppressed, or if

vestiges of them remain in the embryo, how difficult it is to

detect and to interpret them! How many adaptive modifica-

tions have been introduced into perhaps every species! Among

the embryologists themselves there are many who declare that

ontogony offers little reliable evidence regarding phylogeny.

This I am not ready to admit. The paleontologist must not

despise the embryologist ; nor must the latter scorn the former.

We shall do well if we succeed in SAP amag nature after we

have made use of all her aids.

As regards the duplication of ribs, a denteies of Goette’s, one

set for each supposed vertebral centrum, one pair must, so far

as I see, have fallen in the intermuscular septum, the other in

the middle ofthe myomere. The latter is a condition unknown,

hardly conceivable. Two ribs placed at different levels in the

same intermuscular septum might belong easily to the same

vertebral body, as in the case of many fishes. How fortunate it

is that the shad has not inherited a full complement of ve

bræ and their appendages !

404 The American Naturalist. [May,

Goette objects to the views entertained by Cope, Baur and

myself, since they lead to the conclusion that the vertebre are

not homologous throughout the various groups of vertebrates.

They do not need to be homologous and are not so. The ver-

tebral centra of the sharks, arising as they do from the inva-

sion of cells into the elastica interna, cannot be homologous

with those of the Teleostomes, which originate in a skeletogen-

ous tissue outside of the elastica externa. An abnormal ver-

tebra of the tail of Amia formed by coalescence of the two disks

of asomite, is not homologous with one of the disks, even if

we were, with Goette, willing to regard the latter as vertebra.

Nor is a simple vertebra of the dorsal region, made up as it is

of parts of two alleged vertebree, homologous with anything

that we find in the tail.

Of course, Goette holds that the “ primary vertebral centrum”

is found in all the Digitata, and is developed wholly independ-

ent of the arches. So far as the Amphibia are concerned, I

believe that the centrum is primitively derived from the arches,

even in the fossil Branchiosauride. We do not need to sup-

pose that cartilage has, in all cases, surrounded the notochord

where bone is now found. Asin Amia, the ossification may

spread from the bases of the arches into the soft connective tis-

sue lying against the notochord. It may even beso precocious

in its appearance as to suppress the cartilaginous stage of the

arches, as is the case with many fishes.

I find that in the young Amia a thin layer of cartilage is

formed under the bone of the centrum, lying close against the

elastica. It appears to spread from the bases of the arches,

and is developed later than the bone. Possibly the ancestors

of Amia possessed a more exstensively developed condition of

this cartilage. .

A comparison of the early condition of the vertebral column

of the Urodeles with that of Lepisosteus brought me to the con-

clusion that the intervertebral cartilages of both are homolog-

ous with the “intercalated cartilages” of Amia, and Dr. Gadow

in a recent publication has adopted the same view. Without

attempting to explain all of Hasse’s and Field’s results, I

believe that they are entirely in error when they affirm that

1897.] Development of the Vertebral Column. 405

the earliest rudiment of the vertebral centrum is a segment of

the elastica externa, and that the cells of the skeletogenous tis-

sue which develop into the intervertebral cartilages first make

their way through the elastica. Whatever that earliest rudi-

ment may be, it has nothing to do with the elastica externa.

This is present, as it is in fishes, in close relation with the

elastica interna. In the tail of young Necturus, where the

bone is already well developed, the externa may be plainly

seen as a highly refractive line between the interna and the

centrum. But this is nothing new, since other observers have

seen the externa distinct from the centrum.

As regards the lizards and other Amniota, I am willing to

concede that there intervenes between the bases of the arches

and the sheath of the notochord a distinct cartilage on which

rest the bases of the upper arches. Goette’s “ primary verte-

bral centrum ” found in the lizards I regard as the pleurocen-

trum, which has been pushed under the bases of the arches. [fit

is such, we might expect to find it starting in its development

on the upper side of the notochord ; and Goette’s figure shows

at least that it is thinner on the lower side than elsewhere. I

am ready to admit that in the Amniota the basalia, to use

Gadow’s terms, have formed unions with the interbasals behind

them, instead of with those in front of them. The possibility

of this was considered in my former paper, p. 51. Conse-

quently, in the vertebra figured by Goette Figs. 1, 2, 7, the

centrum has been pushed forward under the arch in front of

it. It is quite possible that its original myomeral position is

no longer reproduced in the embryo.

If our minds can once be freed from the idea of a primary

centrum we shall probably find little reason for disagreement

about the development of the vertebra in the different groups.

It seems to me beyond doubt that the rhachitomous vertebre

of the dorsal region of Eurycormus (Zittel, Handbuch, vol. 3,

p. 230) must have been developed from the embolomerous

vertebre of the tail. We have seen how the rhachitomous

vertebree of the dorsal region of the young Amia unite to pro-

duce the definitive vertebra. Thiollidre’s figures of Callopte-

rus, reproduced by Goette, show us how, by the reduction of the

406 The American Naturadist. [May,

pleurocentrum, the vertebral body becomes a hypocentrum.

Tf now the pleurocentrum should grow at the expense of all

the other elements, we would have such a vertebra as Cope

and others find in the Amniota: And considering what we find

in the temnospondylous Stegocephali, in the Clepsydropide,

and in Sphenodon, I cannot refuse to believe that such a course

of development.has been pursued.

It appears to me unnecessary to suppose that the embolomer-

ous condition has at any time resulted from the rhachitomous.

In some cases probably the latter has grown out of the former;

but it is by no means a necessary course. Probably in most

cases the lower intercalated cartilages have suffered reduction

before codésification has united them with the upper intercal-

ated pieces.

THE SEVENTH SESSION OF THE INTERNATIONAL

GEOLOGICAL CONGRESS.

This will probably eclipse any previous session in many

respects and will enjoy the distinction hitherto conceded to the

second, or that of Bologna, of being the most notable con-

course of geologists, and of making the most important contri-

bution to geological knowledge, both practical and theoretical, `

in the history of this Congress. Many circumstances conspire

to produce this result. In the first place Russians share with

Americans the reputation of being lavish in expenditure and

prodigal in hospitality ; it may be added of both nations also,

that this extravagance is not diminished because it furthers

some important project.

When at the London session of 1888, it was decided to hold

the fifth session of the Congress in Philadelphia in 1891, the

geological world was prepared to be astounded at the profusion

of the hospitality and the generosity exhibited in the general

‘management and especially in the long excursions. That the

bacillus of Officialism infected this egg before it was laid in the

wrong nest, and broke hope’s promise as to its hatching, only `

1897.] International Geological Congress. 407

has increased the zeal of the Russians to outdo their most

dangerous rivals.

The next Congress was that of 1894 in Ziirich, Switzerland,

where there were rocks of the world’s crust enough, but those

of commercial value were not superabundant. While

Switzerland did herself credit, therefore, nothing was done

which deprived the Bologna Congress (1881) of the right to be

considered the most successful and brilliant thus far held.

The Russians thereupon secured the favor of the Tsar and of

his Ministers and called to their aid all the official and other

geologists of the Empire.

The large cities and towns, the wealthy syndicates and pro-

prietors, all united in the efforts to draw to Russia the largest

possible number of scientific men, and to conduct them over

the maximum of Russian territory in order that the resources

of that enormous realm (or rather of its European part) might

become known as they never have been known before.

By imperial decree the Consuls in all foreign countries have

been notified to facilitate to the utmost degree the viséing of

passports upon presentation of the card of membership of the

Congress. This same card entitles the owner to gratuitous

transportation over the entire system of Russian railways. It

will also enable the possessor to pass his baggage and effects

through the frontier, with the minimum amount of embarrass-

ment from Custom House regulations. Finally objects marked

for the Geological Congress may be sent without being opened

at the frontier to St. Petersburg, and there opened in the pres-

ence of an officer of the Congress. The business to be transacted

at the meeting of the Congress will be referred to hereafter.

Equally important are the opportunities for the masters of the

branch of science to meet each other and discuss face to face

the problems which hitherto have been debated at long range

and through the desultory and uncertain medium of scientific

journals or comptes rendus in different languages, the illus-

` trations and nomenclature of each party to the controversy

being drawn from his own land.

But most instructive of all the customs has grown that of

bringing the students from other lands face to face with the most

408 The American Naturalist. [May,

striking geological phenomena of the country where the Con-

gress is held. To do this excursions are arranged and con-

ducted by the best geologists of the nation acting as host and

the foreign members are furnished with a “livret guide” or

pamphlet containing maps, sections and a digest of the litera-

ture bearing upon the regions to be examined. This was done

in Switzerland and the little book is one of the most valuable

of the souvenirs of the Congress.

These Congresses have grown out of a resolution presented

by the late Dr. T. Sterry Hunt in a meeting of the A. A. A.S.

in Buffalo in 1876 to the following effect: “ Resolved, That a

Committee of the Association be appointed to consider the

propriety of holding an International Congress of Geologists

at Paris during the International Exhibition of 1878, for the

purpose of getting together comparative collections, maps and

sections, and for the settling of many obscure points relating

to geological classification and nomenclature.” The above

Committee instead of “reporting on the advisability,” etc.,

went to work, and with the assistance of numerous foreign

members actually organized a central bureau in Paris, where

the first Congress was held in 1878. After laying down the

plan for future work, this Congress fixed the dues of mem-

bership at 12 francs, and created two Committees; one for the

unification of the conventional geological symbols, and one for

the unification of the nomenclature.

The next Congress was held in Bologna in 1881, and thanks

to Prof. (now Senator) Capellini and his influence with the

Italian Government, the most important progress up to the

present time was made, and the proceedings were perpet-

uated in a volume which is a monument of good taste in

typography and illustrations, and of scientific research in its

contents. It decided to produce under the direction of the

Congress a geological map of Europe, confiding its execution

to Profs. Beyrich and Hauchecorne of Berlin.

The third Congress was held in Berlin in 1885, the year

1884 which would have been the next date for the Triennial

' About the same time and entirely independently, Prof. Giovanni Capillini

made an almost identical proposition to certain influential geological friends.

1897.] International Geological Congress. 409

Congress, having been allowed to pass without ono wing to the

fear of the cholera which had invaded Southern France.

The fourth Congress was held in London in 1888, the fifth

in Washington in 1891, and the sixth in Zürich, Switzerland,

in 1894.

At the latter a special committee was appointed to select

the topics which should occupy the attention of the members

of the Congress. These topics have not yet been announced,

but the reports of the committees on the unification of

nomenclature, that of the committee on the production of a

geological map of Europe (of which several parts have been

issued since the Zürich Congress), and: the special committees

appointed by the last Congress; one under Prince Roland

Bonaparte, on glacial phenomena, another under Prof. Michel

Levy on petrography, and a third under Emm. de Margerie on

bibliography (which has issued a valuable volume) will furnish

plenty of material to occupy the five days of the meeting from

the 28th of August to the 4th of September.

Preceding the session three contemporaneous excursions

will be made. One of about 350 miles from St. Petersburg

into Finland, one a little shorter into Esthonia, and a long

excursion of 2300 miles lasting twenty-eight days over a most

interesting part of the Ural Mountains on the borders of Asia

as far as Ekaterineburg on the sixtieth degree of east longitude

(east of the entire continent of Africa and about on the merid-

ian of Mauritius).

After the Congress another choice of excursions will be made

from Moscow SE., S., or SW. through Southern Russia in

Europe to Wladikavkaz, where the three parties reunited

will pass over the military road crossing the great Caucasus,

and after visiting Baku, Batoum and other places, and travers-

ing the Black Sea to Kertch and Yalta dismiss at Sebastopol

on October 5th. The longest of these attractive excursions will

not be less than 2700 miles.

Such a stupendous scale of entertaining visiting geologists

is without precedent, and if the war clouds of the Levant but

disperse, a long stride will have been gained by western

savants in an understanding of the geological enigmas of

European Russia. PERSIFOR FRAZER.

410 The American Naturalist. [May,.

THE PICTURES OF PROF. E. D. COPE IN THIS NUMBER.

The picture which occupies the frontispiece of this number was painted

by Mr. George W. Pettit of Philadelphia asa labor of love, and the study

of the head of aremarkable man. Without at all compromising its accu-

racy as a portrait, Mr. Pettit has succeeded in imparting to it a great deal

of the intellectual force which was familiar to all those who knew Prof.

Cope intimately. As a representation ofthe man it illustrates the advan-

tage which a faithful painting has over a photograph. The latter is an

accurate reproduction of the object as it was at a given minute. l

appearances have equal value during this short time; the accidental and

transitory as well as the permanent and characteristic. Indeed some ofthe

latter may and usually are masked by the former and possess less than

their true significance in the resulting image. On the other hand the

portrait by an artist is a composite of a great number of pictures preserved

in his memory, in which the salient characteristics survive and the tran-

sient and adventitious expressions disappear.

This is well illustrated by the present portrait which was begun tem

years ago or more, and has been so gradually evolved that it may be said

to embody the essence of the original’s aspect during that period. The

beard is shown as it was worn during the greater part of the subject’s life,

and as most of his friends will remember it. During the last two years he

had dispensed with it entirely as is manifest from the picture which has

accompanied the greater number of the sketches of his life in newspapers

and journals. This picture while pleasing in its expression, enforces what

has been said of the advantage which a portrait study by an artist has

over even the most agreeable photograph. The intellectual expression im-

plying alertness and activity which is so manifest in the painting (as it was

in the face of Prof. Cope himself) is in this photograph subordinated to a

general expression of content and repose of all the faculties. The painting

has been purchased for the American Philosophical Society, and will be

added to those of the distinguished men which adorn its halls.

It should be added in justice to Mr. Pettit, that since the photograph

was taken from which our illustration was made, he has improved his

original work very notably, thanks to the suggestions of the relatives and

personal friends who have viewed the painting, and to the inspiration due

to his realizing the importance of his task. The late Russell Smith has

also painted a portrait of Professor Cope which it is understood has

been presented to the Academy of Natural Sciences.

The picture which follows is of a plaster bust of Prof. Cope by Mr.

Eugène Castello of Philadelphia. It is naturally difficult to do justice to

a statue in a half tone print, but it is easy to recognize in this work also the

superior result which is obtained when a faithful artist interprets nature

for the public. The expression, like that in the painting, is ip. oo and

1897.] Editor’s Table. > 41i

thoughtful. Professor Cope gave five sittings for this bust from Nov.,

1896 till January, 1897; and as Mr. Castello says “ he assisted in the work

of modelling by carefully indicating to me what he considered the char-

acteristic points of his head from the position of an anatomist.”

Like Mr. Pettit, Mr. Castello undertook this work ‘‘ as a study artistic-

ally and personally,’ and found ‘‘ opportunities of making himself famil-

iar with the expressions of that unique face which have been valuable

indeed.”

The likenesses of Professor Edward D. Cope on the succeeding pages.

represent him at various times and probably in various moods during the

last eighteen years. They are from photographs taken in the years indi-

cated under the pictures ; the earliest (1879) by Shew of San Francisco ;

those of 1884 and 1892 by W. Curtis Taylor; and that of 1889 by Scholl,

both of Philadelphia.

These photographs are not all equally successful as pictures, but they

represent the gradual change which has been taking place during the last

period of his useful life in the vital force of one of the most persistent work-

ers for science, and in this respect they will be of interest to those who

know their subject only by name.

If it be asked why so many representations of Professor Cope are given

in this, the first number of his journal issued since his death, the answer

is that his temporary successor desires to make this, in so far as it is pos-

sible, a memorial number. But inasmuch as it would not be possible in so

short a time to present a history worthy of the man and his work, only the

superficial parts of such a history to wit : his appearance and the emotions

which his death have cams are here attempted. A proper necrological

memoir of such a man lin haste, and should require the

same painstaking care which its object bestowed on his investigations, for

there is a useful lesson to learn from such a work, although one might

judge from a remark which Professor Cope made to the writer a few days

before his death that he was indifferent on the subject of a proper history

of his life.

Being reminded of a promise he had made to the speaker many years

ago to prepare a full autobiography, or notes from which a detailed

account of his life could be written, he replied that he had published in a

certain journal all that could be needed on the subject. A reference to

the indicated publication resulted in finding four or five lines chiefly

taken up with the statements of his birth, parentage and marriage. For-

tunately for those of us who are proud of the achievements of the scien-

tific man of the United States, the records of his career form part of his

country’s history. They are therefore carefully preserved and may be

consulted by those whose interest or duty it is to use them.—P. F.

EDWARD DRINKER Cope, the Editor-in-Chief and sole

l proprietor of this journal, died on Monday morning, April 12,

1897, shortly before 8 o’clock.

What this simple announcement means to the world of

science we shall only begin to appreciate when the notices of

his life in the scientific journals of Europe reach us, for highly

as he was honored by some of the leaders of scientific thought

in this country there is not so general an appreciation here as

abroad of the services he has rendered to Natural History.

Those who were nearest to him, and who witnessed the growth

of his own knowledge of a particular subject from the few iso-

lated facts, with which his study began, to the complete develop-

ment of his monographs, in which the object stood out from the

honestly and easily won. These were quick, and accurate pow-

ers of observation and discrimination, a marvelous memory em-

bracing the minutest details of what had been done in the same

direction before, and tireless perseverance and industry amount-

ing to a complete forgetfulness of self and neglect of mere

personal comfort when in quest of accurate data. But the

great world of readers and workers did not need this personal

knowledge to judge of how he worked. It is scarcely credible

that the monument which he has unconsciously reared to him-

self by his unceasing additions to human knowledge has been

created in his short lifetime of fifty-six years, and the larger

part of it in the face of difficulties which alone would have

crushed et other man.

Nor was “species making” his only or even his chief con-

tribution to the world’s knowledge. With his power of instan.

aneously extracting from the well-filled treasury of his mind

that group of facts which he needed, and his systematic inspec-

tion of the salient characters of an object, it was as easy for him

to designate what was new to science in a mass of material just

unpacked as for the ordinary naturalist to indicate the parts

which were new to himself. In Cope’s case the two were usu-

ally synonymous.

But his great and crowning faculty was that of recognizing

the significance of each of his brilliant discoveries to the whole

structure of science. His keenness in this, the highest mani-

festation of thought, was incomparable; and though his gener-

alizations were often startling, they were never made rashly,

and they have usually secured the acceptance of a steadily

increasing body of scientific men.

Nor was it alone in the natural or biological sciences that

he left the impress of histhought. Psychical phenomena, which

are as far as possible removed from zoology and paleontology,

enlisted a large part of his interest. Singularly enough for one

who dealt so much in the concrete, his tendency was strongly

towards idealism and against materialism.

He possessed definite views on all subjects, from metaphysics

to politics,and was hopeful and optimistic in all. No amount

of discouragement would prevent him from striving and hoping,

He always saw a gleam of promise ahead that things would

change, no matter how hopeless they seemed to others.

His power of dissociating his personal feelings from his

actions on a given subject was so remarkable as to be almost

unique.

This ethical side of his character was not generally under-

stood, though his principles were always frankly announced

and rigorously followed. No amount of personal liking or

repugnance would change his vote on a question which ought

to be decided by the qualifications of an individual or the pro-

priety of a course of action, the sole points considered by him

were fitness and justice.

Their most devoted friends were not fairer in estimating the

true value of those whom Cope considered his bitterest oppo-

nents than he. His views and convictions on all subjects

were impersonal, and were raised far above the malarial

atmosphere of jealousy and malice.

ese lines are traced by one who has been for twenty-five

years his intimate friend, as a spontaneous tribute to a great

master in science at the moment of his death, and may strike

a responsive chord in the hearts of those who enjoyed the

privilege of .close acquaintance with Edward Drinker Cope.

April 12, 1897. PERSIFOR FRAZER.

Al4 The American Naturalist. [May,

EDWARD DRINKER COPE.

Professor Edward Drinker Cope died at his home in Philadelphia,

April 12, 1897. He was born in Philadelphia, July 28, 1840. His

family belonged to the Society of Friends, and was one of the old-

est in the State ; his ancestor, Oliver Cope, being one of the associates of

William Penn in the establishment of the colony. His gree:

Thomas Pym Cope, was one of the merchant princes of the city.

He received his early education at the hands of a private tutor and

inthe Westtown Academy. In these early years he had a great love for

nature ; soon it grew into an overpowering passion, and he fairly haunted

the museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences, and here he began his

investigations. We cannot here catalogue the long series of papers—

nearly a thousand in number—which followed, but it may be of interest

to know that the first one was published when its author was not nine-

teen years’ old, and dealt in a masterly way with the classification of

the salamanders. |

In 1859 he studied the reptiles in the Smithsonian Institution, re-

turning the next year to Philadelphia to work again for three years in

the Academy. Then followed for one year study in Europe; not the

study of to-day under the direction of a professor, but study of the speci-

mens in the greater museums from London to Vienna.

Upon his return to America in 1864 he accepted the professorship of

«Comparative Zoology and Botany” in Haverford College, where, he

remained until compelled by ill-health to resign in 1867. It is interest.

ing to look over the Haverford Catalogues of those years and to see how

thoroughly his courses were comparative, or what to-day is called

morphological; and how little they had in common with the descriptive

zoology and the analytical botany then taught in almost every Amer-

ican college.

During these early days his spare moments were devoted to the

reptiles, and to the very last these forms held a prominent place in his

work. Unlike his American predecessors he realized that there was

more in a snake, a lizard or a frog than scales and color pattern; he

knew that they had brains and viscera and skeletons, and even before

he was twenty-five he had worked out a classification of the Anura,

which is still the basis of all subsequent work.

It was this study of the skeleton which fitted him, in 1866, to take up

the reptiles found in the marl pits (greea sand) of New Jersey, and this

1897.] Editor’s Table. 415

was his introduction into the field of Paleontology, in which, for years,

even to his death, he stood facile princeps in America, if not in the

world. From this time on he was primarily a vertebrate paleontologist.

At times, it is true, he turned to other fields and studied recent forms.

He classified the snakes and lizards of North America; published a

masterly synopsis of our frogs and toads, salamanders; he studied the

fauna of our caves; he classified the fishes; and his work in each of

these lines alone would have given him a reputation which many might

envy. They were with him but side issues; hestudied the recent forms

for the light which they could throw on the forms of the past. And it

was just this knowledge of forms both living and fossil—a knowledge

which was wonderful in its detail and its accuracy, and even more sur-

prising in the ease with which its minutest points were called forth when

needed—it. was just this knowledge which placed him asa peer of Hux-

ley and Owen in the paleontological field.

From the New Jersey Dinosaurs he turned next to the Miocene fauna

of Maryland and Virginia, and in 1868 he undertook the study of the

air-breathing vertebrates of the Ohio Geological Survey. Here his

studies showed that labyrinthodons and other huge monsters of the past

must be grouped together as a distinct order Stegocephali, a generaliza-

tion which has obtained world-wide acceptance.

In 1870 began bis studies of the wonderful fauna buried in the rocks

of our territories west of the Mississippi. Some little was known of these

strange forms through the labors of Owen and Leidy, but Cope was in

reality to open up a new field. In the year just mentioned he visited

the Cretaceous of western Kansas and brought to light the huge reptiles

so characteristic of that region. In 1872 the Bad Lands about the

head waters of Green River, in Wyoming, were investigated; and in

1873 Colorado was the scene of his labors. Then followed his appoint-

ment as Vertebrate Paleontologist of the U. S. Geological and Geo-

graphical Survey of the Territories, under the direction of the late Dr.

F. V. Hayden; and a year later (1874) the appointment to a similar

survey, under the direction of Lieutenant Wheeler, of the lands west of

the 100th meridian. Both of these positions were held by Cope con-

tinuously until all the surveys were merged in the present organization.

ring these years Cope was in the field every summer, and in his

investigations he visited and collected in every State and territory west

of the Missouri. Not only did he collect himself, but he organized

parties at his own expense, which were also almost continuously in the

eld. Asa result he amassed a collection of vertebrate fossils from our

416 The American Naturalist. [May,

western territory probably unequalled in extent and in variety. To

this he was constantly adding by purchase from other parts of the

world. Another result was an unparalleled series of papers from the

pamphlet of three or four pages up to his huge quarto “ Tertiary Verte-

brates,” and what was the more remarkable about this whole series was

that the whole of these contributions to science were entirely his own

work. He had no patience with the view that it is honest, that it is

honorable, to hire others to do intellectual work, and that when pay-

ment is made for these services all title to the labor passes. Another

characteristic of these same papers lies in this: that whether we have

before us a hasty preliminary or a well-matured volume we are not in

doubts as to what the author had before him. He at once seized upon

the saliant and diagnostic features of his specimen, and described it

clearly and intelligibly. There were no slovenly descriptions which

might cover a dozen different things, and which might later be invoked

in a dispute over a question of priority, and be made to fit the most

desirable form.

It is not yet time to summarize all of these geological discoveries, to

discuss the attempts to correllate the strata of the West with those of the

Old World, to enumerate all the lines of descent worked out; but we

may be pardoned if we mention a few, which, at the moment of writing,

come to mind as of great interest. Here should be mentioned the rep-

tilian giants Camarasaurus and Clidastes; Anaptomorphus, recently

brought into such prominence in connection with Hubrecht’s views

upon the origin of the Primates; Phenacodus, the central stem of the

higher mammals ; the classification of the Theromorphous Reptilia, and

the recognition of this group as the diverging point of Reptilia and

Mammalia. This list might be easily extended almost indefinitely, as

will readily be seen when we recollect that Professor Cope described

nearly a thousand species of fossil vertebrates, and that, with every

description there was an accurate conception of the position and rela-

tionships of the form described. ~

In lines other than paleontological his work was of the greatest

value. The purchase, some thirty years ago, of the Hyrtl collection of

skeletons of fishes—embracing some six hundred specimens—opened the

way for a study of the fish-like vertebrates such as no other man has

made. As aresult he issued in 1871 a classification of the fishes, based

upon structural characters, not on external form, which has been the

foundation of all subsequent work in this direction, and which is rapidly

replacing the older and more artificial systems of Cuvier and of Günther.

1897.] Editor’s Table. 417

Cope’s classification of the fishes is the only one that can be used by the

student of paleontology. Besides this central work Cope published

numerous papers upon the fresh water fishes of North and South

America, and, wherever he touched the subject, he left his mark.

In the Batrachia and the Reptilia his work was of the greatest value.

His synopsis of the Batrachia, based as it is on the entire structure of

these animals, will long remain a standard for the American student ;

but in studying this work one must remember that its foundations were

laid in its broader features, when the author was but twenty-five years

of age. His small pamphlet on the osteology of the Lacertilia is a mine

of structural facts, while his studies of the snakes, structural and sys-

tematic, cannot be ignored.

In the Invertebrates, Cope did but little ; but one must not forget his

studies of cave faunz and his papers on the myriapods.

There was another side to Professor Cope’s scientifie work, that which

dealt with theories of evolution. Professor Cope maintained in his

earliest essays that the principle of Natural Selection, the very basis of

Darwinism, could not be invoked as a causa vera to account for the

origin of species and of higher groups. It did not explain the origin of

variations, but could only act after variations had been produced to

perpetuate and preserve those most advantageous to the organism. The

cause of variation must be sought elsewhere, and he rehabilitated for

this purpose Lamarck’s early principle of the effect of use and disuse of

parts. In this way he became the founder of the school of Neo-

Lamarckians, in which his efforts were ably seconded by others, nota-

bly by Hyatt and Packard. He remained, however, until his death,

the foremost advocate and exponent of this distinctively American

school of philosophical biology.

His work in this line was not experimental, but rested rather on the

evidence presented by fossil forms. In this way he could bring to his

support a wealth of facts, accessible to no one else. His mechanical

explanations were thoroughly and carefully worked out, and his views,

like those expressed in his able paper on the homologies and origin of

the types of molar teeth, were so cogently expressed that they made

numerous converts to his theories,

This neo-Lamarckian view was first set forth in 1868, and was sup-

ported by numerous subsidiary theories advanced then and at later

dates. Among them were the theory of “ acceleration and retardation,”

the principle of “ exact parallelism” so strikingly exemplified in the

Anurous Batrachia, “ homologous groups” and “ consciousness in evo-

lution.” Later he turned to those more difficult evolutionary problems

418 The American Naturalist. [ May,

—the origin of intelligence, the evolution of the ethical side of man,

etc.—and expressed his views thereon in a series of essays which have

attracted wide attention. These evolutionary essays were collected in

a volume issued in 1887 under the title “ The Origin of the Fittest.”

Later still (1896) these essays, together with his later contributions to

the theory of descent, were summarized in a volume, “The Primary

Factors of Organic Evolution ;” a volume which several followers of

Weismann have recognized as the ablest expression of anti- Weismann-

ian views.

Scientific organizations the world over have expressed their appre-

ciation of the attainments of Professor Cope. He has been elected

an honorary or a corresponding member of many societies. In 1872

he was elected a member of the National Academy of Science; in 1879

the Royal Geological Society of Great Britain bestowed upon him the

Bigsby gold medal, in recognition of his labors in the advancement of

paleontological knowledge. In 1883 he was elected vice-president of

the Biological Section of the American Association for the Advance-

ment of Science, and in 1896 he was elected to the presidency of the

same organization. In 1886, at the celebration of the four hundredth

anniversary of the foundation of the University of Heidelberg, he

received the honorary degree of Doctor of Philosophy, the highest honor

the University could bestow. In 1889 he was elected Professor of

Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Pennsylvania, and he

held this position at the time of his death. He became the owner of

THE AMERICAN NaTuRALIsT in 1877, and since that time has been the

senior editor of the magazine.

Professor Cope was a man of quick decision and of strong convic-

tions. He did not believe in temporizing or acting from motives of

policy. There were with him only two conclusions: a thing was either

right or wrong, and when his decision was made, his course was clear.

Compromise was foreign to his nature. These facts readily explain

many things in his history. Personally he was a delightful companion.

Gifted with facility and felicity of speech, and with experiences far be-

yond the run of the ordinary man, an hour in his presence was an hour

not easily to be forgotten. How he enjoyed telling of his adventures

and his battles ; and if the joke were against him, its narration afforded

him the more pleasure. Those who have heard him tell of the purchase

of the skin of the long-tailed cat in Oregon will never forget the story-

Then how helpful he was. The treasures of his collection and the

greater treasures of his intellect were open freely to all. If it would aid

a fellow student or would solve a question, his most valuable specimens,

1897.] Recent Literature. 419

even those as yet undescribed, were freely offered, and their bearings

fully explained ; a helpfulness often acknowledged by most of his fellow

paleontologists in their published papers, and all the more noticeable

from its rarity in other quarters.

Another characteristic of Professor Cope was his readiness to admit

a mistake or to correct an error when shown the truth. Instances of

this are numerous. In the pages of this journal, to cite a single exam-

ple, he severely criticised the late H. B. Pollard, for his theory that the

Batrachia had arisen from the Crossopterygian Ganoids. Scarcea year

later he accepted the same view, and advocated it in his later publica-

tions.

He was a most indefatigable student, and his capacity for work was

astonishing. His house was his workshop, and his collections fairly

crowded the family out, so that they had to seek other quarters. Every-

where there were either books or specimens. The cellar was filled with

alcoholic collections, the upper floor with skins and skeletons, while the

other floors were almost solidly filled with fossils. Some years ago his

mammalian fossils passed into the possession of the Americah Museum

of Natural History, in New York City. At the time of his death he

was engaged in working up the fossils found in the Port Kennedy bone

cave.

Professor Cope was married to Annie, the daughter of Richard Pym,

who, with their daughter Julia, now the wife of William H. Collins,

Professor of Astronomy in Haverford College, survive him.

. KINGSLEY.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Surface Features, Missouri Geological Survey.—Charles R.

Keyes, State Geologist, vol. X, 543 pages with 22 plates and 24 figures.

Clay Deposits, Missouri Geological Survey, Charles R. Keyes, State

Geologist, vol. XI, 622 pages with 39 plates and 15 figures.

Volume X, contains a report on the Physical Features of jiju

by C. F. Marbut, one on the Formation of the Quaternary Deposits

by J. E. Todd and a Bibliography of Missouri Geology by R. Keyes.

The report on Physical Features is the first work of the kind under-

taken by any State Survey with the view of covering the entire com-

monwealth. The different surface features are described and their

origin traced by the application of the principles of physiography.

A broad gently undulating upland plain forms the most conspicu-

ous feature of the surface. It is divisible into the Prairie region and

420 The American Naturalist. [May,

the Ozark region. The former has an elevation ranging from 800 feet

along the Mississippi to 1200 feet in the northwestern corner of the

state. The Ozark region originates in a centre distinct from the Prairie

district of elevation. It forms a large part of southern Missouri and

portions of adjoining states with a maximum elevation within the former

of 1700 feet.

The upland plain is broken by a number of escarpments formed by

outcropping edges of hard strata underlain by softer rock. A number

of these escarpments are described and the more pronounced are shown

on a sketch map. Between successive escarpments lie platforms or

belts each with their peculiar, surface features depending on the char-

acter of the underlying rocks. The report concludes with an excellent

account of the development of the streams, the subject of river mean-

derings receiving special attention.

In the report on the formation of the Quaternary deposits the author

gives the distribution and limits of the surface formations of Missouri.

The general character and relations of the several classes are thoroughly

described. The quaternary deposits of the state are divided into (1)

the Bowlder Drift, (2) the Loess and Gray Loamy Clay, (3) Terrace

_ Deposits, (4) Alluvium. The characteristics of each class are clearly

set forth and their limits shown on a sketch map. As the drift does

not extend, beyond the Missouri river the formations treated in the re-

port lie almost wholly north of that stream. The report concludes with

a summary of the quaternary history of Missouri.

The Bibliography of Missouri Geology is very full and complete, the

plan being that of a dictionary catalogue or bibliographic index. There

are included an author’s list, a title index and subject entries and cross

references. The advantage of this plan is that it is unnecessary to turn

back from one title to another to obtain a full bibliographic reference.

Volume XI, is devoted entirely to a report on the clays of Missouri

by H. A. Wheeler. Such thorough and complete treatment of its clays

has never been undertaken by any state. The physical and chemical

properties of clays receive especially full treatment. Thus consider-

able space is devoted to the subject of the plasticity, fusibility and

shrinkage of clays, one chapter being devoted to each. A microscopi¢

study of the clays was also undertaken with interesting results. A sur-

prising variety of deposits are found throughout the state. Each

variety is treated separately and its physical and chemical properties,

distribution and adaptability to particular uses described. A chapter

that will prove of much practical value is the one devoted to the tests

and analyses of clays. Not only are the analyses of Missouri samples

1897.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 421

given but also a very complete list of analyses of American and foreign

clays. The report concludes with a brief working bibliography.

Both volumes are illustrated with many full page half tones and

present a fine appearance.—A. G. L.

AMERICAN NATURALIST LIST OF RECENT BOOKS

AND PAMPHLETS.

Administration of the Madras Government Museum for the year 1893-96.

Madras, 1896.

Batuer, F. A.—On Uintacrinus; a Morphological Study. Extr. Proceeds.

Zool. Soi: London, 1895. From the author.

Bulletin, No. 40, 1896, Hatch Exper. Station. From the Station.

Bull, Nos. 96-97, 1895 and 98-99, 1896. New York, Agric. Expr. Station.

Bulletin 37, 1886, Agric. Exper. Station, Rhode Island.

Circular, No.9. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. From the Dept.

CLARK, W. B.—The Eocene Deposits of the Middle Atlantic Slope in Dela-

ware and Virginia. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 141, 1896.

——The Geology of the Sand Hills of Mase Jersey. Extr. Johns Hopkins

Univ. Cir., Vol. XVI, 1897. From the author,

CoHE N, S. S.—Some Thoughts d Recovery, in their Rela»

tion to nianie Address delivered in , Baltimore, 1896. From the author,

Eighth Annual Report of the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station,

1895. Pt. II. From the Station.

ELLiorTT, D. G.—On Sundry Collections of Mammals. Field Columbian Muse-

um, Pub. II. Chicago, 1896. From the Museum

FerGusson, A. W.—Spanish Translation of Cisenler 14. Dept. Agric. Div. En-

tomol. U.S. From the Translator.

A URURINGER, M. —Sejneger’s Missie und Th. ipri Untersuchungen

ü Vögel. Aus. Journ. f. Ornith.

1892. From the author

HAGUE, A.—The Age of the Igneous Rocks of the Yellowstone Park. Extr,

Amer, Journ. Se., Vol. I, 1896. From the author.

Horm, TH.—The Earliest Record of Arctic Plants. Extr. Proceeds. Biol. Soc.,

Washington, Vol. 10, 1896. From the author.

-HYATT, A. AnD J. M. AnMs,—The Meaning of Metamorphosis. Extr. Natural

Science. Vol. deny 1896.—From the author.

Keyes, C. R.—An Epoch in the History of American Science. Extr. Ann,

Towa Hist. Quart. (3) II, 1896.

——tThe Bethany Elaubone of the Western Interior Coal Field. Extr. Amer.

Journ. Sci. II, 1896. From the author.

LINELL, M. L.—New Species of North American Coleoptera of the Family

Searabeide. Extr. Proceeds., U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1896. From the

422 + The American Naturalist. | May,

Lucas, F. A.—Osteological and Pterylographical Characters of the Procniatide.

Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. X VIII, 1896. From the Mus

Mac, E.—Popular Scientific Lectures, Chicago, 1896. From the author.

Mason, O. T.—Introduction of the Iron Age into America. Extr. Amer, An-

thropol., 1896. From the author.

G. §.—The Beach Mouse of Muskeget Island. Extr, Proceeds.,

Boston, Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XX VII, 1896. From the author

Montcomery, T. H., JR.—Organic Variation as a Criterion of Development.

Extr. Journ. Morph., XII, 1896. From the author

PoLLARD, C. L.—The Purple-flowered Stemless Violets of the Atlantic Coast. |

Extr. Proceeds. Biol. Soc., Washington, Vol. 10, 1896. From the author.

RIcHMonD, C. W. Catalogue of a Collection of Birds made by Dr. Abbott in

Kashmia, Baltistan and Ladak, with Notes on some of the Species, and a Descrip-

tion of n New Species of Cyanecula. Extr. Proceeds., U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol.

XVIII, 1896. From the Museum

Ripcway, R.—Characters of anew American Family of Passerine Birds. Extr.

Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1896. From the Mus.

SCHAFFNER, J. H.—The Embryo-sac of Alisma plantago. Extr. Bot. Gaz.

Vol. XXI. From the author.

SIEBENROCK, F.—Das Skelet der Agamidæ. Aus Sitzungsb. k. Akad, Wiss.

Wien Bd. CIV, 1895. From the author.

SMITH, J. B.—Contributions toward a Monograph of the Insects of the Lepido-

pterous Family Noctuidæ of Boreal North America. A Revision of the Deltoid

Moths. Washington, 1895. From the author.

SMYTH, C. H. neh ai Genetic Relations of Certain Minerals of Northern New

York. Extr. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., XV, 1896.

—Noteon canal discovered Dikes of Alnoite at Manheim, N. Y. Extr.

Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. II, 1896. From the author.

- Tenth Report of the Injurious and other Insects of the State of New York.

Extr. nie Pe zs Rept. on the New York State Museum. Albany, 1895.

From J. A Lint

Thirty tenth. Annual Report of the are gate Society of Missouri, 1896.

Jefferson T 1896. From the Societ

TILTON, J. L.— Geology of Warren pa i Extr. Iowa Geol. Surv., Vol. V,

1896. From the Surv.

VALENTIN, J.—Los Criaderos del Espato Fluor de San Roque en la Provincia

de Cordoba. Extr. Ann. Mus. Nacional Buenos Aires. T. IV, 1895. From the

Museum

Vico. LI, 8. —Intorno a un Problema Morfologico sui vertebrati ee

Extr. Sa Ital. F.LXV, 1896. From the author.

Vossion, L.—Notice sur la culture du Ver à soie et la Production de la Soie

en Dimna, Paris, 1893.

—Le Commerce de l ivoire a Khartoum et an Soudan Egyptien. Paris,

1892. From the author.

WoLTERSTORFF, W.—Die Conchylienfauna der Kalktuffe der Helix cauthensis

Beyr. Stufe des Altpleistociin, von Schwanebeck bei Halberstadt. Aus Zeitschr.

d. Deutsch. Geol. Gesell., 1896. From the author.

1897.] Petrography. 423

General Notes.

PETROGRAPHY.'

Petrography of the Bearpaw Mountains, Montana.—A

second paper’ by Weed and Pirsson? on the rocks of the Bearpaw

Mountains describes several intrusive masses in this mountain group,

a leucite-lava from Bearpaw Peak and a series of the dyke rocks

occurring so abundantly throughout the region. One of the intrusive

masses is just north of Wind Butte. It consists of an augite-syenite

composed of segirite-augite, microperthite and a few accessories, among

which is sodalite. At the post-office of Lloyd is an intrusive mass of

trachyte, that has altered the argillites through which it cuts. The

rock consists of orthoclase phenocrysts in an aggregate of feldspar,

hornblende, augite in two generations and biotite in two generations.

The Structure of this groundmass is allotriomorphic, hence the rock is

as closely allied to the syenite-porphyries as it is to the trachytes. An-

other intrusion near the trachyte is a nephelite-basalt containing biotite

and sodalite. The highest point of the mountains, Bearpaw Peak, is

composed of leucite-basalt lavas, breccias and tuffs. In the midst of

these rocks is an intercalated flow of leucitite, in which occur pheno-

crysts of biotite, augite and leucite in a groundmass of the thickly

crowded leucites in a glass base. An analysis of the rock gives the

following result :

SiO, AlO; FeO FeO MgO CaO NaO K,O H,0 gh a POs m MnO BaO SrO Total

46.51 11.86 7.59 4.39 4.73 7.41 2.39 8.71 3.55 .83 04 22 50 .16—99.73

The dykes of the region comprise syenite porphyries, leucite basalts,

tinguaites and minettes. The tinguaites are mainly porphyritic rocks,

but their phenocrysts are limited to the interiors of the dyke-masses,

being absent near the peripheries. A tingauite porphyry from near

Wind Butte is composed of aegirite, augite, alkali-feldspars, nepheline,

cancrinite and small quantities of apatite, sodalite and fibrous horn-

blende. The pyroxenes present are made up of cores of an aggregate

of colorless augites, surrounded by alternate zones of ægerite and augite.

The large sanidine phenocrysts in the rock are surrounded by mantles

of xgerine prisms, lying parallel to the banding planes of the feldspars.

! Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

? Cf. AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1896, p. 741.

* Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. II, 1896, p. 136 and 188.

424 The American Naturalist. . [May,

This fact, together with the absence of phenocrysts near the peripheries

of the dyke indicates to the author that the large feldspars are not of

intratelluric origin, but that, on the contrary, they were formed in place.

The paper closes}with descriptions of a quartz tinguaite-porphyry and

_ several pseudoleucite-sodalite-tinguaites.

Rocks of the Laurentian area north of Montreal.—Adams*

has examined carefully the geology of the Southern portion of the

Archean protaxis of North America that lies in the western portion

of the Province of Quebee. The rocks occurring in the area studied

belongjto the Grenville series and to the Fundamental gneiss. The

former are present in a series of bands of alternating gneisses, quarzites,

limestones and anorthosites, with occasional bands of pyroxene amphi-

_bolites, pyroxene-gneisses, etc. All these rocks have been described? in

other papers, but not as fully as they are described in this one.

The Rocks of the Leucite Hills.—Kemp* describes the Leucite

Hills in southwestern Wyoming as the remains of a volcanic crater

formed in later Tertiary time. These hills and several of the buttes in

their vicinity are composed of flows of what was once a very fluid lava

followed by upwellings of a more viscous magma. The rocks of the

different flows vary in character. Some are extremely rich in leucite.

In others sanidine replaces this mineral, and in specimens obtained from

Black Rock butte phenocrysts of augite and olivine are plentiful. The

rocks in which leucite is most abundant consist almost exclusively of

this mineral and biotite. In the feldspathic rocks the quantity of

leucite decreases as the sanidine increases. Augite is also present in

these varieties sometimes as inclusions in the sanidine and at other

times as large colorless crystals surrounded by rims of biotite. The

rock of Pilot Butte, about 22 miles southwestern of the Leucite Hills,

consists of large colorless crystals of augite and plates of light brown

mica in a groundmass composed of a felt of augite microlites and a few

leucites in a glass matrix. It is evidently closely related to the leucite

rocks (leucite-phonolites) though mineralogically an augitite.

The Rocks of the Columbretes, Spain.—The rocks forming

the little group of islands off the east coast of Spain, known as the Col-

umbretes, are trachytes, trachytic-phonolites, tephritic trachytes, bas-

alts and palagonite tuffs according to Becke.” The feldspar of the tra-

* Geological Survey of Canada. Ann. Rep., Vol. VIII. Pt. J.

5 AMERICAN NATURALIST. 1897, p. 564, 1896, p. 300 and 579.

Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 8, 1897, p. 169.

7 Min u. Petrog. Mitth., XVI, p. 157 and 808.

1897.] Petrography. 425

chytes is sanidine mixed with a plagioclase rich in calcium. The horn-

blende is a yellowish-brown basaltic variety with a positive anglee v C,

the only instance of a basaltic hornblende with this orientation. The

different phases of the trachyte vary in composition as noted below and

in structure. The basalts and tuffs present no unusual features. The

rocks offer a good illustration of a petrographical province, the basalts

representing the most basic members and the phonolites the most acid

ones, The tephritic trachytes, with their small percentage of leucite

are intermediate rocks. Analyses of the phonolitic (I) and the tephritic

(II) trachytes and of the basalt (III) follows:

SiO; TiO, AlO FeO, fe MgO CaO NaO K,O H:O P.O; SOs CO, Cl Total

I. 65.93 42 21.83 3.62 61 2.54 7.84 6.01 .72 22 08 .03 .51= 101.17

TI. 53.12 .25 20.48 5.13 hps 1.88 429 6.20 4.88 2.25 .43 .14 28 — 100.59

III. 47.54 tr 17.70 75.19 6.20 5.94 9.12 4.01 143 .72 62 tr 10 07 — 98.64

The chemical relations of these rocks to one another are represented

graphically by means of a triangle whose angles represent 100 per cent.

each of Na, Ca and K. The discussion upon which this method of rep-

resentation is based cannot be entered upon in this place.

The dykes associated with the tonalite of Meran in the

Tyrol.—Grubenmann* gives brief descriptions of the dyke rocks con-

nected with the tonalites near Meran. These are quartz-mica porphr-

ites, tonalite-porphyrites, tonalite-pegmatites, diabases and hornblende-

kersantites. The pegmatites consist of plagioclase, microcline, quartz

and muscovite. Where in contact with gneiss, this rock has developed in

it andalusite and garnet.

Petrographical Notes.—The correctness of the analyses of the

‘granular rock of Rongstock in the Bohemian Mittelgebirge having

been called into question by Lang a new analysis has been recent pub-

lished by Hibsch.? The results of this confirm the analysis first pub-

lished.

Lyons” has analyzed a large number of specimens of the soils orig-

inating from the decomposition of Hawaiian lavas, and a series of the

lavas from which they were derived. The results show that in the

incipient weathering of the lavas there is a loss of silica, titanic acid,

manganese, soda, potash and copper. The quantity of calcium present

remains unchanged, while the percentage of magnesiaincreases. Upon

further alteration magnesium, calcium and phosphoric acid are almost

8 Ib., XVI, p. 185.

*Ib., XV, p. 487.

Hd Asher: Jour. Sci., Vol. II, 1896, p. 421.

426 The American Naturalist. [May,.

completely lost. In the soils, however, there is a larger proportion of cal-

cium and potassium present than in the ‘ rotted’ lavas. This increase

is ascribed to the action of plants and animals.

In an article in the Ponza Islands Schneider" describes the geological,

relation of the rhyolites, the trachytes, the pitchstones and the tuffs of

the first two named rocks occurring there. His conclusions are ques-

tioned by Sabatini.”

BOTANY.”

New Species of Fungi from Various Localities.—(Con-

tinued from p. 343.)—HyroxyLoN vERNICOSUM E. & E. On dead ~

wood. Sent from Ohio by Mr. A. P. Morgan as Hypoxylon margin-

atum (Schw.).

Stroma flattish-pulvinate, 2-3 x 1 cm. and 3-4 mm. thick, black and

varnished outside and the uneven surface pitted all over by the papil-

liform ostiola, surrounded by an annular depression as in H. mar-

ginatum. Perithecia cylindrical, extending down nearly to the bottom

of the stroma and about mm. diam. Asci cylindrical, 75-80 x 4v,

short stipitate, 8-spored. Sporidia oblong-elliptical, 6-7 x 3-34. Dif-

fers from H. marginatum (Schw.) in its varnished stroma and cylindrical

perithecia.

PEzIzA (Humarra) TRACHYDERMA E. & E. On decaying wood

partly buried in the soil, Valentine, Nebraska, May, 1896 (Rev. J. M.

Bates, No. 416).

Sessile, shallow cup-shaped, 2-4 mm. diam., carnose, thinning to the

acute, spreading margin, wood color when fresti, the furfuraceo-verru-

cose exterior remaining so when dry, but the hymenium becoming

nearly liver color. Margin spreadıng when fresh, narrowly involute

when dry. Asci cylindrical, 200 x 12-14», truncate above. Paraphy-

ses thickened at the lips. Sporidia uniseriate, oblong-elliptical hyaline,

smooth, 14-18 x 10-12%.

Resembles somewhat a diminutive Peziza vesiculosa, but more open

and shallower.

PHIALEA ARENICOLA E. & E. On sandy ground near “ Blackbird

Landing Bridge,” Delaware, June, 1896 (Commons, No. 2784).

Stipitate, concave, becoming plane or even slightly convex, disk dull

orange, 2-3 mm. broad, outside lighter, uneven, subpruiose. Stipe

1 Min. u. Skeie Mitth., XVI, p. 65.

33 Tb., p. 530.

» Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

1897.] Botany. 427

stout, 2-4 mm. long, substriate, gradually enlarged above, same color

as the disk. Asci narrow, linear, straight, short-stipitate, 60-65 x 4%,

paraphysate, 8-spored. Sporidia sub-biseriate, oblong, hyaline, continu-

ous, 6-8 x 1łx.

Differs from P. epigaea Karst. in its larger ascoma and much smaller

sporidia.

TRICHOPEZIZA COARCTATA E. & E. On dead branches of Vaccinium

myrtilloides, Mountains, Skamania Co., Wash., July, 1894 (Suksdorf,

No. 507).

Scattered, superficial, sessile, hemispheric cup-shaped, smoky-white,

300-400 diam., thin membranaceous, margin contracted quite strongly

at first, so as to leave only a small, round opening, and fringed with

short, fasciculate, smooth hairs about 25 or 30x 2-23y. Asci clavate-

oblong, 30-35 x 5-6». Sporidia biseriate, ovate, hyaline, 2—nucleate,

4-5} x 23-3p.

Closely allied to T. confusa Sacce. (T. punctiformis Rehm.), but dif-

fers in its longer asci and different character of the hairs.

ScLERODERRIS ABIETINA E. & E. On bleached bark of fir trees,

Newfoundland, September, 1896 (Waghorne, No. 61).

Erumpent-superficial, black, obconical, about } mm. diam., hymen-

ium discoid or convex, areolate, with a very narrow, thin, almost obso-

lete margin. Asci clavate-oblong, sessile, rounded above, 70 x 15y,

8-spored, overtopped by the filiform paraphyses. Sporidia fasciculate,

clavate-cylindrical, multinucleate, becoming multiseptate, 50-65 x 3-44,

hyaline.

HOLWAYA TILIACEA E. & E. On bark of dead Tilia, Canada

(Macoun).

Ascomata gregarious or solitary, subcupulate, expanding to plane,

thin (when dry), margin subundulate, 2-4 mm. across, black, with a

short, thick stipe. Asci cylindrical, short-stipitate, 120-150 x 7-8.

Paraphyses? Sporidia fasciculate or subbiseriate, narrow fusoid-cylin-

drical, nearly straight, multinucleate, hyaline, 40-62 x 3-33 n.

Closely resembles outwardly Bulgaria inquinans. Coryne ellisii

Berk. (Stilbum magnum Pk.) is found with this, and may be its conid-

ial stage.

Uromyces rosicota E. & E. On leaves of Rosa fendleri? Craw-

ford, Nebraska, June, 1896 (Rev. J. M. Bates, No. 438).

III. Sori hypophyllous, chestnut-brown, confluent over the entire

lower face of the leaves, at first covered by the epidermis, soon naked.

Spores globose or obovate, 20-35» in the longer diam., epispore thick

and coarsely tuberculose. Pedicels stout, about as long as the spores.

428 The American Naturalist. [May,

PUCCINIA SPHAERALCEAE E. & E. I and III. On Sphaeralcea

angustifolia, Mesilla, New Mexico (Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell).

I. Aecidium sphaeraleeae E. & E., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, August,

1895, p. 364.

II. Sori hypophyllous, minute, arranged in a circle, 2-4 mm. across,

confluent, at first covered by the epidermis and pale chestnut color,

soon naked and dark chestnut color. Teleutospores elliptical or ob-

long-elliptical, 30-35 x 19-22», nearly hyaline at first, becoming pale

brown, slightly constricted at the septum, mostly regularly rounded

and only slightly thickened at the apex, mostly also rounded below but

often slightly narrowed at the base; epispore smooth. Pedicels stout,

persistent, reaching 150% long, hyaline:

Differs from P. malvacearum Mont. in the presence of an Aecidium,

in its smaller, more obtuse and comparatively shorter teleutospores. ,

AECIDIUM SCLEROTHECIOIDES E. & E. On leaves of Senecio lu-

gens? Golden, Colorado, May, 1896 (E. Bethel, No. 5).

Pseudoperidia amphigenous, subepidermal, buried in the substance

of the leaf in pale yellowish, slightly swollen orbicular spots 2-4 mm.

diam., slightly prominent in pustules } mm. across, at first closed, then

irregularly open at the apex revealing the mass of reddish-brown

spores which are globose 20-27», ovate 20-27 x 15y, or subangular

from compression ; epispore smooth or nearly so, rather thick.

Differs from A. selerothecium Speg. in its smaller, inseparable pseu-

doperidia.

PHYLLOSTICTA HEUCHERAE E. & E. On leaves of Heuchera cylin-

drica near Lake Waha, Idaho, June, 1896 (A. A. & E. G. Heller, No.

3265).

Perithecia amphigenous, hemispherical, suberumpent, broadly per-

forated above, 110» diam., crowded in orbicular patches, }-1 cm. diam.

Sporules abundant, cylindrical, hyaline, 5-6 x 1-1 }y.

Probably the spermoginal stage of some dothideaceous fungus.

Asreroma IVAECOLUM E. & E. On stems of Iva xanthiifolia, Den-

ver, Colorado, September, 1896, E. Bethel, No. 28).

Fibrils feather-like, appressed, radiating, forming dark brown spots

2-3 em. across. Perithecia seated on and among the fibrils, depressed-

hemispherical 110-130» diam., perforated above. Sporules oblong,

hyaline, 4-6 x 14-2y.

SPHAEROPSIS CELTIDIS E. & E. On dead limbs of Celtis occidentalis,

Phillips Co., Kansas, 1896 (Bartholomew, No. 2348).

Perithecia gregarious or scattered, subseriate, about } mm. diam.,

covered by the epidermis which is slightly raised and barely pierced by

1897.] Botany. 429

, the conic-tuberculiform ostiolum. Sporules oblong-elliptical, brown,

18-21 x 8-10»

SPHAEROPSIS PHLEI E. & E. On bulbous base of dead culms of

Phleum pratense, Newfield, N. J., December, 1896.

Perithecia densely gregarious, erumpent-superficial, black, ovate,

about } mm. diam., with a papilliform or sometimes conical ostiolum.

Sporules oblong-elliptical, brown, 18-22 x 7-10.

PHLYCTAENA ALBOCINCTA E. & E. On dead stems of Rhus toxico-

dendron radicans, Newfield, N. J., September, 1896.

Perithecia buried in the bark, 400-700, diam., the short ostiolum

barely perforating the epidermis. Sporules linear, curved, narrowed

and curved above, 12-15 x 1-13». A horizontal section shows the peri-

thecia surrounded by a white ring.

ScHIZOTHYRELLA BOREALIS Ell. & Sacc. On dry, decorticated

(beech)? wood, Potsdam, N. Y., June, 1896.

Perithecia superficial, scattered or subseriate, orbicular or elliptical,

4-4 mm. diam., ovate-globose, at first with a papilliform ostiolum, soon

broadly open and cup-shaped, glabrous, black. Sporules cylindrical,

hyaline, occasionally dichotomous, separating into segments 6-15 x 14—

2u, 1-3 septate.

Differs from S. australis Speg. in the dehiscence of the perithecia (not

laciniate) and the shorter narrower sporules.

CYLINDROSPORIUM SPIRAEICOLUM E. & E. On leaves of Spiraea

betulifolia, near Lake Waha, Idaho, June, 1896 (A. A. & E. G. Heller,

No. 3303).

Acervuli innate, on small, light yellow, irregularly shaped spots 1-2

mm. diam., few (1-7) on a spot. Conidia clavate-cylindrical, straight,

rounded and obtuse above, gradually attenuated below, 3-5 septate,

40-70 x 34-5», hyaline, erumpent above in orange-yellow masses.

Differs from C. filipendulue Thiim. in its epiphyllous acervuli and

larger clavate conidia.

MARSONIA CALIFORNICA E. & E. On leaves of Juglans californica,

Santa Monica, California, August, 1896 (Prof. A. J. McClatchie).

Spots amphigenous, angular, 1-3 mm. diam., subconfluent, ferrugin-

ous becoming grayish above, border narrow, slightly raised, dark.

Acervuli innate, visible on both sides of the leaf. Conidia cylindrical,

mostly straight, but sometimes slightly curved, hyaline, uniseptate, 20-

27 x 3», obtusely rounded at the ends.

Differs from M. juglandis (Lib.) in its smaller, definite spots and

cylindrical conidia.

430 The American Naturalist. [May,

ASTRODOCHIUM E. & E., nov. gen.

Sporodochia innate-superficial, formed by the transformation of

brown, appressed, branched, radiating fibers. Conidia oblong, contin-

uous, hyaline, borne singly and terminal on simple basidia.

ASTRODOCHIUM COLORADENSE E. & E. On fallen leaves of Quercus

undulata, Morrison, Colo., December, 1896 (E. Bethel, No. 170).

Epiphyllous, forming round brown spots 3-1 cm. across and having

the general aspect of Asteroma. The adnate fibers abundantly and sub-

oppositely branched towards their extremities are soon transformed into

round or elliptical, subdiscoid, light amber-colored sporodochia }—3 mm.

diam. consisting of closely packed obclavate, 12 x 24, hyaline basidia

bearing at their tips the oblong hyaline, 4-6 x 11—-13y, conidia.

Belongs in Fam. Tubercularieae, Mucedineae.

SEPEDONIUM TUBERCULIFERUM E. & E. Parasitic on Peziza hemis-

pherica Wigg. and P. fusicarpa Ger., Nuttallburg, W. Va., July, 1896;

alt. 1800 ft. (L. W. Nuttall, No. 883).

Hyphae effused, forming a thin, white layer on the surface of the

hymenium, becoming pulverulent and yellowish at maturity ; fertile

hyphae with the ultimate divisions di-trichotomously or verticillately

branched, the branches lanceolate, 20-30 x 2-23, bearing at their ex-

tremities the globose conidia 15-18» diam., bearing at symmetrical

distances on their periphery 8-10 depressed globose, hyaline smooth

tubercles 6-7» diam. and sometimes separable from the central spore.

ToruLA ERUMPENS E. & E. On decorticated, weather-beaten wood

(poplar)? Morrison, Colo., December, 1896 (E. Bethel, No. 166).

Erumpent in flat, discoid, orbicular or elliptical tufts 3-? mm. diam.

Conidia cylindrical, 2-5 septate, concatenate, 10-20 x 34-4», dark

brown, nearly opaque.

Macrosporium ricr Ell. & Kelsey. On leaves of Ficus elastica,

Oberlin, Ohio, September, 1896 (Prof. F. D. Kelsey, No. 1076).

Hyphae amphigenous, very dark brown, fasciculate, septate and

more or less constricted at the septa, 70-125 x 4-5» forming olivaceous

tufts as large as a small pin’s head thickly scattered over the large (1-

2 cm.), dirty white spots with a dull purplish-red border. Conidia

club-shaped, 3-7 septate, with a more or less complete longitudinal sep-

tum, 40-50 x 10-16, with a pedicel 20-30,» long.

Quite different from M. torulosum Pass. on limbs of Ficus.

J. B. ELLIs anD B. M. Eversarrt.

Botanical Notelets.—Dr. R. E. Call publishes, in the Journal of

the Cincinnati Society of Natural History (March, 1897), an interest-

1897.] Botany. 431

ing note on the Flora of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. The species ob-

served are all fungi, as follows, viz.: Coprinus micaceus, Fomes ap-

planatus, Rhizomorpha molinaris, Microascus longirostris, Zasmidium

cellare, Mucor mucedo, Gymnoascus setosus, Sporotrichum flavissimum,

Laboulbenia subterranea, Coemansia sp., Papulospora sp., Bouderia sp.

and Peziza sp.

The Annual Report of the State Botanist of the State of New York,

for 1894, just issued, is of more than usual interest, since it contains a

comprehensive paper on the “Edible and Poisonous Fungi of New

York,” illustrated by 43 colored plates. Included in the report is a

paper by Dr. E. C. Howe on the “ New York Species of Carex,” in

which one hundred and thirty-three species are described at length.

The Report of the Botanical Department of the New Jersey Experi-

ment Station for the year 1896 indicates that Dr. Halsted has been

very industrious in his studies of fungicides. The many half-tone re-

productions of photographs add much to its value.

Mr. F. L. Stevens has reprinted from the Journal of the Columbus

(Ohio) Horticultural Society (Vol. XI, No. 4) a convenient reference

index to Dr. Halsted’s bulletins and reports on plant diseases. It will

be very serviceable to botanists and horticulturists. The same writer

published, in the journal cited, an account of the parasitic fungi on

Ohio Weeds. Some of these have proved very destructive to their

hosts. |

Ascherson’s “Synopsis des Mitteleuropiiischen Flora,” of- which

parts 1 and 2 have been received, promises to be interesting and use-

ful, but its use will be greatly lessened by the failure of the author to

properly indicate the authority for each species. The sequence of

families in these parts is as follows, viz.: Hymenophyllaceae, Polypodi-

aceae, Osmundaceae, Ophiogl , Salvini , Marsili , Equise-

taceae, Lycopodiaceae, Selaginaceae.

Recent Changes in the Nomenclature of North Ameri-

can Trees.—In looking over the pages of Sudworth’s “ Nomencla-

ture of the Arborescent Flora of the United States,” the writer noted

the following changes which are not yet generally found in manuals

and lists of species, and which it may be well to reprint here for the

benefit of those who do not have access to the most recent literature.

It is not thought necessary to repeat the list of hickories (Hicoria spp.

formerly Carya spp.), since the changes in nomenclature which they

have undergone are now well-known to every tyro. Nor is it neces-

sary to repeat Torylon (Maclura), since it is eighty years since this

432 The American Naturalist. [May,

name was proposed (1817). In the following list the name accepted

by Sudworth appears first, while the name which is still commonly

used in the manuals is placed within brackets.

- Pinus radiata Don., Monterey Pine (P. insignis Doug].)

Pinus attenuata Lemmon, Knobcone Pine (P. tuberculata Gordon).

Pinus virginiana Mill., Serub Pine (P. inops Solander).

Pinus echinata Mill., Shortleaf Pine (P. mitis Michx.).

Pinus divaricata (Ait.) Gordon, Jack Pine (P. banksiana Lambert).

Picea canadensis (Mill.) B.S. P., White Spruce (P. alba Link.).

Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Poir.) Britton, Douglas Spruce (P. douglasii

Link.).

Sequoia washingtoniana (W insl.) Sadek, Bigtree (S. gigantea De-

caisne).

Chamaecyparis thyoides (L.) B. S. P., White Cedar (C. sphaeroidea

Spach).

Chamaecyparis nootkatensis (Lamb.) Spach, Yellow Cedar (C. nut-

kaensis Spac

Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Murr.) Parl., Port Orford Cedar ( Cu-

pressus lawsoniana Murr.).

Tumion taxifolium (Arn.) Greene, Florida Torreya (Torreya taxi-

folia Arnott).

Tumion californicum (Torr.) Greene, California Torreya (Torreya

californica Torr.)

Hicoria laciniosa (Michx. f.) Sargent, Shellbark Hickory (H. sul-

cata (Willd.) Britton.

Salix fluviatilis Nutt., Sandbar Willow (S. longifolia Muehl.).

Salix bebbiana Sargent, Bebb Willow (S. rostrata Rich.).

Populus deltoides Marsh., Cottonwood (P. monilifera Aiton).

Fagus latifolia (Muenchh.) Loudon, Beech (F. ferruginea Aiton).

Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh., Chestnut (O. vesca americana

Michx.).

Quercus minor (Marsh.) Sargent, Post Oak (Q. obtusiloba Michx.).

Quercus plantanoides (Lam.) Sudworth, Swamp White Oak (Q. bi-

color Willd.).

Quercus virginiana Mill., Live Oak (Q. virens Aiton).

Quercus velutina Lam., Yellow Oak (Q. tinctoria Bartram).

Quercus digitata (Marsh.) Sudworth, Spanish Oak (Q. falcata

Michx.).

Quercus pumila (Marsh.) Sudworth, Bear Oak (Q. ilicifolia Wang.)-

Quercus marilandica Muenchh., Black Jack (Q. nigra Wang.).

Quercus nigra L., Water Oak (Q. aquatica Walter).

1897.] Botany. 433

Quercus brevifolia (Lam.) Sargent, Blue Jack (Q. cinerea Michx.).

Ulmus pubescens Walter, Slippery Elm (U. fulva Micbx.).

Sassafras sassafras (L.) Karst., Sassafras (S. officinale Nees.).

Gymnocladus dioicus (L.) Koch, Kentucky Coffee-tree ( G. canaden-

sis Lam.).

Cotinus cotinoides (Nutt.) Britton, American Smoke-tree (Rhus cot-

inoides (Nutt.) T. & G.

Rhus hirta (L.) Sudworth, Staghorn Sumach (R. typhina L.).

Rhus vernix L., Poison Sumach (R. venenata DC.).

Acer saccharum Marsh., Sugar Maple (A. saccharinum Wang.).

Acer saccharinum L., Silver Maple (A. dasyearpum Ehrhart).

Acer negundo L., Box Elder (Negundo aceroides Moench. ).

Acer negundo californicum (T. & G.) Sargent, Californian Box Elder

(Negundo californicum T. & G.).

Nyssa sylvatica Marsh., Black Gum (N. multiflora Wang.).

Nyssa ogeche Marsh., Sour Gum (N. capitata Walter).

Nyssa aquatica L. Tupelo Gum (N. uniflora Wang.).

Mohrodendron carolinum (L.) Britton, Silverbell-tree (Halesia tetra-

ptera Ellis).

Mohrodendron dipterum (Ellis) Britton, Snowdrop-tree (Halesia

diptera Ellis).

Fraxinus nigra Marsh., Black Ash (F. sambucifolia Lamarck.).

Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh., Red Ash (F. pubescens Lamarck.).

. Fraxinus lanceolata Borkh., Green Ash (F. viridis Michx. f.).

Catalpa catalpa (L.) Karsten, Common Catalpa (C. bignonioides

Walter).—CHARLES E. BEssEY.

Note on Lysimachia nummularia L.—This plant is found

escaped from cultivation near Decatur, Ill. It started from a ceme-

tery, where it is cultivated, and now runs wild over an unused part of

the cemetery, and for a distance of half a mile along a little stream

running from it. The seeds float down and extend its habitat every

year. When it once takes root it drives out all other vegetation ex-

cept Nepeta glechoma and a few tall plants as Lobelia syphilitica, Im-

patiens pallida, etc. It spreads very rapidly, rooting at every node

and forming long parallel stems, three to five feet long, making a mat-

ted growth. When not in flower it resembles, at a distance, Nepeta

glechoma. It blooms from June to August. It is often called “ wild

myrtle.””—ALLAN GLEASON, Secy. Agassiz Asso., Chapter 56.

Another Popular Botany.—In a pretty little book by Mrs.

Dana—“ Plants and their Children ”—we have an illustration of the

434 The American Naturalist. [May,

mixture of fact and fancy which the children of the near future are

destined to read and pore over in their “ Nature Study.” The author

well says, in her preface: “A child’s reading book, it seems to me,

should secure for the child three things—practice in the art of reading,

amusement and instruction.” She has certainly secured the first and

second of these objects, and not a little of the third. Had she taken

counsel of some good botanist her book might have been more instruct-

ive and less misleading. Her description of the bean (on page 81) and

her figure 88 are either absolutely incorrect, or, at the least, quite mis-

leading. Similarly misleading is figure 119, the mistletoe (by which

the author means the American mistletoe), for it illustrates not the

American plant (Phoradendron) with which the child is supposed to

be familiar, but the Europen (Visewm). Figure 136, which is said to

show “a seed cut across, and so magnified that you can plainly see its

many cells,” is a reduced copy of a figure in plate 80 in Grew’s Anat-

omy of Plants, published in 1682! We can not blame old Nehemiah

Grew for making such an inaccurate drawing: we may rather give

him some praise for doing so well when we consider his tools and en-

vironment, but certainly an author must be severely censured who,

more than two hundred years later, reproduces it without saying a

word as to its incorrectness.

While much of the text is good, some of it is as bad as the cuts we

have mentioned. The plant physiology is sometimes ridiculous, often

worse, The chapter on “ How a Plant’s Food is Cooked,” is particu-

larly bad. What can we say of a sentence like this: “ When the

watery broth [in the leaves] is cooked in the sun, the heat of the sun’s

rays causes the water to pass off through the little leaf-mouths!” Or

of this: “ There is a tree, called the Eucalyptus, whose leaves perspire

so freely that it is planted in swampy places in order to drain away

the water!”

Mrs. Dana writes so fluently that what she writes is likely to be

read with pleasure, and it is her duty to attend much more carefully

to her facts. This book must be revised before it can be commended

as a reading hook for children—Caarues E. Bessey.

1397,] Vegetable Physiology. 435

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

Ecological Plant Geography.'—Plant geography can be con-

sidered from two standpoints. First, floristic plant geography, which

treats of the flora of a region, a list of the species growing within certain

geographical limits, the relative proportion of certain species, the rela-

tion of an insular flora to that of the mainland, or of a mountain flora

to that of the adjacent valleys; that is, facts concerning distribution.

Secondly, ecological plant geography, which treats of plant communi-

ties as resultants of all the forces working upon them.

The ordinary observer has no difficulty in noting that the plants over

one area are different from those over another. He distinguishes the

swamp, the meadow, the scrub, the pine-barren, the prairie, and other

equally well-marked plant communities. What he notices, however,

may not be that certain species of plants grow in one area and certain

other species in another, it is rather the general appearance of the area,

that is, its physiognomy. It is not a difficult matter to determine the

species which are associated to form a certain plant community with its

corresponding physiognomy. A more difficult question to answer is,

however, “ Why do these species unite into certain communities, and

why have they the physiognomy which they possess?”

It is the task of the author in the 382 pages of the book before us to

solve these questions. The author lays down a few geueral principles,

some of which I cannot refrain from giving. “ Every species must con-

form, both in inner and outer structure, to the natural conditions under

which it lives, and if, when those change, it cannot adapt itself to them,

it will be crowded out by other species, or become entirely eliminated.

It is, therefore, one of the first and most important problems of ecologi-

cal plant geography to understand the epharmosis [die Epharmonie,

epharmonie] of the species, or what can be called its life-form [ Lebens-

form]. This is shown especially in the configuration of the plant and

in the duration of the [so-called] organs of assimilation (in the structure

of the leaf and of the entire sprout, in the life period of the individual,

etc.), and to a less degree in the reproductive orgaus. This problem

leads one far into morphological, anatomical and physiological studies ;

it is very difficult, but very attractive. It cannot be entirely and satis-

factorily solved, but much can be done in the future.

1 Lehrbuch der Ockologischen Pflanzengeographie. Dr. Eugenius Warming.

Translated from the Danish by Dr. Emil Knoblauch, 1896, Berlin, Gebriider.

Borntreger.

436 The American Naturalist. [May,

“ What increases the difficulty of the problem is, for example, the fact

that besides the conforming power of many external factors, and besides

the adaption of species to these factors, there are innate, hereditary dis-

positions, that from inner unknown causes produce structures which

we cannot bring into any relation to the surrounding natural condi-

tions, at all events not to those present, and which we cannot therefore

understand. These inner dispositions, different according to the natural

relationship, bring along with them this, that the development of the

species under the influence of the same factors can lead to the same

result in entirely different ways. While, for example, one species adapts

itself to a dry habitat by means of a thick coating of hair, another

species under the same conditions cannot bring forth a single hair, but

choses, for example, to cover itself with a layer of wax, or to reduce its

foliage and become a stem-succulent, or becomes ephemeral in its de-

velopment.” This paragraph explains fairly well the scope of the

problem which the author endeavors to solve.

The term “ Lebensform ” is further explained. The cactuses, fleshy

euphorbias and the succulent stapelias, though belonging to widely

different families all possess the same life-form,

In a certain area or habitat, certain species have adapted themselves

to the conditions there present, and so form a plant community (Pflan-

zenverein). Of course these plant iti tal e sharply

divided, and the same species may occur in more than one community.

But, nevertheless, each community possesses its peculiar physiognomy.

“ Ecological plant geography must deal with the following : |

“1. The factors of the outside world that play a rôle in the economy of

plants, and the action of these factors upon the external and internal

structure of plants, upon the life-period and other ecological relations,

as well as upon the topographical limits of the species.

“2, Grouping and characterizing of the classes of communities

(Vereinklassen) present upon the surface of the earth.

“3. The conflict between the communities.”

The first section of the work deals with the ecological factors. The

atmospheric factors are light, heat, moisture and air currents. The

terrestrial factors are composition and physical condition of the soil,

air and water in the soil, and other physical characters ; the effect of

dead or living mantle (snow or fallen leayes) upon the surface, of ani-

mals (earth-worms, moles, etc.), or plants (fungi, bacteria) beneath the

surface of the soil, and finally, the effect of the direction and height of

mountain chains, angle and direction of slope, and similar considera-

tions.

1897.) Vegetable Physiology. 437

But plants must adapt themselves not only to the physical conditions

mentioned, but also to animals and to other plants. Man is far from an

insignificant factor. The interdependence of plants and animals, such

as flowers and pollinating insects, plants and ants, etc., though not

discussed at length, plays a more or less important part in the battle.

The greatest struggle, however, is that which takes place between the

plants themselves. A more or less stable equilibrium has been estab-

lished in several ways. Parasitism, helotism (applied by the author to

the relation of organisms in the lichen thallus), mutualism (root tuber-

cles, etc.), epiphytes, with all their curious adaptations, saprophytes,

lianas, are carefully considered. Over a given area where the various

factors are comparatively constant, certain species are found which have

adapted themselves to these conditions and to each other. These

together make the plant community and present to the eye a certain

physiognomy. Two plant communities living under similar conditions

may present similar physiognomies, but may consist of widely different

series of species. With the exception of subglacial and desert regions

there is a conflict among individuals, those inherently less hardy and |

those accidentally unfavorably placed being first to succumb.

Hence, we have a kind of association known as commensalism. This

term is sometimes used in the sense of mutualism (symbiosis) ; but, as

used by the author, it means rather an established equilibrium between

individuals struggling for the same food. It is to be noted that the

strife between individuals of the same species is much greater than that

between individuals of different species, since, for example, they may

use different materials in the soil.

The first 120 pages of the work is taken up with pakaa dis-

cussions, as briefly outlined. The author gives a classification of the

various plant communities. They are grouped in four classes, depend-

ing upon the relations of these to water. “ The regulation of transpira-

tion of plants appears to be the factor which influences most profoundly

the forms of plants, and which imprints upon them most markedly their

external characters. If the evaporation is greater than the water supply,

the plant wilts, and this influences the most important life processes,

even if it does not go so far that death results.”

The classes are as follows:

“I. HYDROPHYTE-VEGETATION. —This is an extreme vegetation

whose plants are either wholly, or, for the most part, surrounded by

water, or grow in soil well filled with water (the per cent. of water

amounts to probably more than 80).

438 The American Naturalist. [May,

“II. The XEROPHYTE-VEGETATION is the opposite extreme, whose

plants grow upon stony soil, or, at least, during a greater portion of the

year, in soil scarcely supplied with water, and in dry air. The water

content can, indeed, if it is at a minimum amount, be less than 10 per

“III. The HALOPHYTE-VEGETATION is closely related morphologi-

cally to the foregoing, but merits a separate consideration, an opinion

that is confirmed, among others, by the investigations of Stahl. It isa

very extreme vegetation, that is limited to salty soil and whose morpho-

logical peculiarities appear likewise to be caused by the regulation of

evaporation.

“TV. The MESOPHYTE-VEGETATION includes the communities that

are adopted to a soil and air of medium moisture, and to a soil also

which is not particularly salty. The plants form a morphological and

anatomical standpoint, are not especially extreme in their characters.”

Space will not allow even an outline of the interesting chapters fol-

lowing, but for illustration we will glance at the xerophytes.

In the xerophytes adaptation has taken place along two lines, reduc-

tion of the transpiration during the critical period, and a development

of especial means for gathering or storing water. Regulation of tran-

spiration may be accomplished by reducing the evaporation in the

following ways: 1. Periodical reduction of evaporating surface; de-

ciduous trees dispense with their leaves in winter, bulbous plants

relinquish the exposed parts in the dry season, annual plants pass this

season in the seed stage ; the leaves, especially of grasses or the thallus,

may roll up in various ways. 2. The leaves change their position so as

to regulate the amount of light, and consequently the amount of heat

which they receive from the sun; many Leguminose place their leaflets

in a vertical position during the heat of the day (para-heliotropism).

Even our much-despised purslane shows this on a hot day ; the common

impression being that it is wilting—it knows better than that. 3. A

permanent vertical position of the foliage organs. If the leaves arè

upright they tend to throw their surface into a meridional plane (com-

pass plants). The leaves may be directed outwardly and twisted on

their petioles (Eucalyptus), or hang on slender petioles (cotton-wood).

The petioles may be laterally flattened and take the function of foliage

(many Acacia). 4. The surface may be reduced in proportion to the

volume, such as the needle-like leaves of the pine, the succulent leaves

of the sedums, or where the stem acts as foliage and the leaves are re-

duced to scales, as in the cactus or asparagus. 5. The evaporation mey

be hindered by a coating of hairs, a common contrivance in dry region

1897.] Vegetable Physiology. 439

giving usually a gray color to the physiognomy. The hairs must be

dead and filled with air. 6. Anatomical structure. The epidermis

may be cutinized, or encrusted with various substances; the stomata

may be sunken or otherwise protected. The contrivances for this

purpose are legion. 7. The author calls attention to the frequent pres-

ence of etherial oils in xerophytes, and, though the use is not clear,

suggests that the leaf becomes coated with a layer of the vapor of this

volatile oil ; and, since this layer is much less diathermous than air,

the evaporation is lessened.

Under adaptations for absorbing water may be mentioned certain

glandular hairs of desert plants and air-roots of epiphytic orchids.

Some kinds of glandular hairs secrete hygroscopic salts, such as calcium

chloride, which readily absorb water. “ Volkens thinks that the plants

take up water in this way. Marloth, however, regards this salt coat

only as a covering to hinder transpiration, and even thinks that the

plants thus free themselves from a part of the salts taken up.”

Under storage of water we have various kinds of water tissue, succu-

lent plants with sap which does not readily part with its water, and

fleshy underground parts.

An outline of the xerophite classes may be of interest.

“A. Rock vegetation, that of the subglacial and temperate regions :

that of dry tropics.

“B. Subglacial vegetation upon loose. earth. Stony plains sparsely

beset with plants, due often to lack of warmth rather than lack of

moisture ; moss heaths; lichen heaths.

“C. Dwarf-shrub heaths (mostly Ericacec).

“D. Sand vegetation, Strand flora, discussed more at length under

Halophytes ; vegetation of shifting dunes; vegetation of permanent

dunes ; sandy scrubs and timbered barrens.

“E. Tropical deserts.

“F. Xerophilous, herbaceous vegetation. Steppes and prairies; .

savannahs,

“G. Stony heaths (Felsenheiden) such as the Asiatic steppes cov-

ered with thorny shrubs.

“H. Xerophilous scrubs (Gebiische). In arctic and temperate

regions; in Alpine regions; tropical thorn-, palm-, fern-, bamboo-

scrubs, ete.

“I. Xerophilous forests. Evergreen conifers; deciduous conifers ;

xerophilous, deciduous forests; leafless forests (Casuarina).”

The other three primary divisions are discussed in a similarly

thorough manner. Swamp plants frequently possess xerophilous char-

440 The American Naturalist. [May,

acters. Many suggestions are made to explain this, such as: in regions

of high latitude or altitude, xerophilous characters lessen evaporation

early in the season, when the roots are inactive, due to cold soil; or

the activity of the roots is hindered by the difficulty of aeration, hence

the need of lessened eporenens or, sin since = stomata remaining

open, cannot regulate necessary-

The most probable explanation of the presence of peiertprs char-

acters in halophytes is that the roots have difficulty in obtaining water

from the strong solution of salts in which they are placed, hence the

necessity of lessened evaporation.

The closing section treats of the struggle between the various plant

communities.

he book should be read by every student of ecology ; but more, the

general reader would be amply repaid by its perusal. It is to be hoped

that the book may be translated into English.*—A. 8. HITCHCOCK.

ZOOLOGY.

The Gas of the Natatory Vessels of Physalia and of Fishes.’

—As a result of a search’ for argon in the natatory vessels of Physalia

and of fishes there were found in the vessel of the former (Physalia

pelagica Lk) from 85-91 per cent. of nitrogen, and from 9-15 per

cent. of oxygen, but no other gas. Intheswimming bladder of surface

fish (Polyprion cernium Val.) there was found about 80 per cent. of

nitrogen, 18 per cent. of oxygen, and 2 per cent. of carbonic acid gas,

while in deep sea forms, such as Murena helena, taken from a depth

of 88 meters, and Synaphobranchus pinnatus Gr., taken from a depth of

1385 meters, 3-6 per cent. of carbonic acid gas and oxygen in the large

amount of 73-85 per cent. were found.

The Genus Ascaris.—In his monographic work? devoted to this

genus of worms, Stossich considers 218 species. Of this number 35

*An English translation of this book is now in preparation and will be pub-

lished by Macmillan.—Eb,

1 Richard A. (96). Sur les gas de la vessie natatoire des poissons et des physa-

lies. Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat., Paris, 41-3.

2 Schloesing, Th., and Richard J. (96). Recherche de l'organ dans les gas de

la vessie natatoire des poissons et des physalies. Compt. Rend. Ae. P., cCxxII,

615-7.

Zool. Centralbl., IV, 1

3 Bull. Soc. Adriat. te Nat., Trieste, XVII (1896), pp. 7-120. Zool. Cen-

tralbl., IV (1897), p. 20.

1897.] ` Zoologi. 441

occur in mammals, 47 in birds, 29 in reptiles, 5 in amphibians, 98 in

fishes, 1 in an insect, and 1 in an unknown host: 117 of the lot, are

‘doubtful forms... The remaining 101 Stossich divides into groups:

(1) those with a dentated fold and no median lip; (2) those with both

dentated fold anda median lip; (3Y those with the median lip but not

the dentated fold ; and (4) those with three simple lips. 32 of the lot

are larval forms mostly from fishes. ` -

The Excretory Organs and the Blood-Vascular System

of Tetrastema grecense Bohmig.'—The small fresh-water ne-

mertine that was first discovered by Böhmig in 1892 has since then been

found in sufficient numbers to enable its discoverer to give a brief de-

scription of the excreto-genital and the vascular systems. The former

is easily recognized in compressed animals, and appears as a system of

coiled and anastomosing tubes along each side for the whole length of

the animal. The tubes of opposite sides do not unite, although their

very close contact sometimes causes them to seem to do so. At the

anterior end of the animal near the brain there is only one canal, which

is large, coiled, and looped, and ends finally in a meshwork-like system

of smaller canals. Nothing like it appears at the opposite end of the

animal, Into the larger, as well as into the smaller canals, empty

numerous fine canals, which arise from the end-organs.

In the organs, he distinguishes three portions: (1) the terminal

‘canals, (2) the connecting canals, and (3) the end-organs. The first

lie mostly between the external muscle layer and the intestine, and are

formed by cells unprovided with cilia. They connect with the exere-

tory pores, of which there may or may not be an equal number on each

side of the animal. In one case there were 5 pores to a side ; in another,

6 on one, and 3 on the other side.

The connecting canals are distinguishable from the others by their

greater thickness and the nature of their bordening cells, which bear

cilia. The rounded, superficially smooth end-organs are provided at

their free ends with two (seldom only one) flame cells, and seem to be

formed by 3-5 cells resembling those of the terminal canals in appear-

ance. In general it may be said that they communicate with the ter-

minal canals only through the mediumship of the connecting canals.

Yet, a direct connection between the two has been seen.

The vascular system consists of 3 branches, 2 lateral vessels, and a

‘dorsal vessel. Near the brain the last communicates with the right

*Bohmig (97). Vorlanfige Mittheilung iiber die Excretionsorgane und das

Blutgefiissystem von Tetrastema grecense Béhmig. Zool. Anz., XX, 33-6. `

442 The American Naturalist. [May,.

lateral vessel, and posteriorly with both the right and left vessels

through an anal commissure. The walls of the vessels are formed of

(1) an inner endothelial, (2) a circular muscular layer, and (3) an outer

layer of mesenchymal cells arranged like an epithelium. Between the

endothelial and the muscular layers are large cells of a hemispherical

form and peculiar structure, which, at the moment of diastole, stand out

from the wall of the vessel, and at the time of systole plunge into it..

They appear to guide the flow of the blood.

A connection between the nephridia and the vascular system, such

as Berger has described for marine nemertines, especiallly for Drepa-

nophorus, does not occur.

The Existence of Epitokic Forms in the Annelid Family

Cirratulidz.’—Two members of this family, namely, Dodecacerca

concharum Orst. (= Heterocirrus ater Qfg.) and Heterocirrus flavoviridis

St. Jas. have been found in an epitokic stage, which differs from that of

certain of the Licoride and Syllidæ: (1) in the possession of very long

swimming processes in the dorsal branch of the parapodia, (2) in hav-

ing two highly developed eyes on the cephalic lobe, (3) in the short-

ness of the feeler of the first segment, (4) in the slightly spatula-form

of the end of the body, (5) in the irregular coloring, (6) in a different

musculature, and (7) in the possession of mature sexual products. The

individuals are of different sexes. In August atokic and epitokic forms

as well as connecting forms are found side by side.

A Study of the Form of the Crop of the Libellulide and

their Larve.’—Recently a number of anatomical observations made

by the author cited, on the form of the crop, the distribution of the

“teeth,” etc., in the same, have been made use of for systematic and

phylogenetic purposes. A series of the larvee and imagines of the

genera, Calopteryx, Agrion, Pyrrhosoma, Erythromma, Enallagma,

Ishnura, Platyenemis, Lestes, Gomphus, Æschna, Anax, Corduligaster,

Diplaz, Libellula, Epophthalmia, Cordulia, and Orthetrum, were

studied, and as a result the conclusion arrived at that the crop of Colop-

teryginæ represents the primitive form. This shows sixteen areas irregu-

larly covered with teeth. A perfection of this form appears in the

Agrioninæ, in which there is a greater supply and a more regular ar-

rangement of the teeth. In the case of the genus Lestes there are but

eight longitudinal folds, a number that in the gomphininæ and æschnin®

5 Mesnil, F., and Caulbry, M. Compt. Rend. Ac. Sc. Paris, 1896.

F, Ris. Untersuchung über die Gestalt des Kaumagens bei den Libellen und

ihren Larven. Zool. Jahrb. Abth. Syst., IX (1896), 596-624.

1897.] Zoology. 443

is reduced to four. While the Condulegaster show a striking concen-

tration of the armature, which is limited to two pairs of teeth. In fact,

the original radially symmetrical arrangement is seen to have been

transformed to a bilateral one. The structures are best studied in the

larvee, for they become considerably reduced and obscured in the imago.

Summarizing his results in the form of a phylogenetic tree the author

considers the agrioninze and the petalurinæ to have arisen from the

primitive form, calopteryginz. Then from the petalurinz there arose

three branches, two of them terminated by the eschnine and the gom-

phinæ respectively ; the third passed off to one side as a low branch

that formed the cordulegastrine. From this form there arose one

branch that soon divided and finally gave rise to the corduliinz and the

Libellulinz, the highest of the dragon-flies. The author’s conclusions

differ from those of Calvert in that the cordulegastrine form a link

between the two forms represented by the subfamilies corduliine and

Libellulinz, and that represented by the petularinz, instead of an inde-

pendent branch.

The Regeneration of an Antenna-like Structure Instead

of an Eye.—The regeneration of a structure very much resembling

that animals antennula on the stump of an eye stalk of Sicyonia sculpta

is well worth recording along with the regeneration of a well-formed

lens from the iris in Triton, as described by Wolff and also by Müller

whose paper was noted in the NATURALIST some time ago (p. 72).

The regeneration of such a structure is described by C. Herbst’ in ©

several out of eighty-five specimens from which he cut the eye. Only

six of the eighty-five remained alive at the end of five months after the

operation, but all but one of these showed evidence of a regenerated -

structure. Some seven other cases were secured during the five months

by fixing the animals recently dead, or about to die, so that he lad

twelve good cases showing a regenerated structure. Similar experiments

had previously been performed upon the eye stalk of Palæmon, with like

resuits.

The accompanying figures represent the three groups into which

Herbst divides the regenerated structures according to their degree of

perfection. In the first (fig. 1) there is shown only a small protuber-

ance (n) having little evidence of segmentation. In the second group

(fig. 2) there is developed a large process provided with two hairy areas

and a secondary two-jointed lobe that Herbst likens to a crustacean

flagellum (fr). In the third group (fig. 3) a large antenna-like struc-

1C. Herbst. Festschrift der Naturf. Gesel. Zurich, 1896, pp. 435-54.

444 The American Naturalist. [May,

ture is developed, having, like the last structure, two hairy areas

(which do not normally occur on the eye stalk), and, in addition, two

Fig. 1.

several jointed processes. This last figure scarcely needs the detailed

argument that Herbst devotes to it to prove that it is antenna-like, and

en- Ao}

S |

frs.. as :

SO Ay

Fig. 2 f i

to show that the endopodite (en), exopodite (ex) and protopodite (pr)

are represented. Sh T

1897.] Zoology. 445

The occurrence in crustacea of an antenna-like organ in the place of

an eye was noted as early as 1864 by Milne-Edwards’ in the lobster,

Palinurus penicillatus, and later (1894) by Hofer’ in Astacus. To ask

what bearing these cases and the results of Herbst’s experiments have

upon the general question of arthopod segmentation is but to repeat the

query made by Milne-Edwards. He thought that he had found new

evidence of the truth of Savigny’s law. Later, writers have not gener-

ally considered the eye or optic stalk as the homalogue of a segmental

appendage, nor have they considered the protecerebral lobe, from which

the eye is innervated, as evidence of a segment. It may bea hasty

conclusion, but the cases of an antenna-like structure certainly seem

to indicate that Milne-Edwards was right, and that one may in the

future be obliged to consider the arthopod head as having one more

segment in it. than we have till now supposed it to have. Further

experimentation is necessary to show what internal structures are

regenerated, for Herbst seems to have made no sections whatever

of the structures that he describes. One would like to know to just what

extent the muscles are developed, and what happens to the stump of the

optic nerve. Experiments should also. be made to determine what, if

8 Hofer. Ein Krebs mit einer Extremitit statt eines Stielauges. Verh. d.

Deutsch. Zool. Gesel., 1894.

? A, Milne-Edwards. Comp. Rend. Acad. Sci.. Paris (1864) LIX, pp. 710-12.

446 The American Naturalist. [May,

any, differences are to be noted when the stalk is cut through at differ-

ent distances from the eye so as to leave intact different portions of the

optic ganglia.—F. ©. Kenyon.

Variability of External Sutures in the Skull of Chelone

mydas L.—In a paper entitled Bemerkungen über die Systematische

Stellung von Dermochelys Blainb.,” Baur quotes from Boulanger, as

follows :

“ The lower border of the post-frontal joins the jugal and the squamo-

sal, and cantrary to what exists in the Cheloniidx is separated from the

quadrato-jugal by the two latter bones.” Baur then adds that he finds

the same relation in two specimens of Chelone mydas L.

I have before me three skulls of Chelone mydas L. from the Atlantic

coast, one from an animal weighing about thirty pounds, and two of

quite precisely the same size from specimens which weighed from sixty

to seventy pounds. In the first, or small skull, I find the squamoso-

jugal separation, as well as in one of the larger skulls. In the third

there is a distinct squamoso-jugal union. Internally the skulls all agree.

Further differences in these skulls are slight. There is apparently no

order for the junction right and left of parietals and frontals, and

frontals and parietals. These, with the squamoso-jugal union or non-

union should be recognized as altogether variant characters in the

osteology of Chelone mydas L.—Gro. R. WIELAND.

Lists of Mammals of Raleigh, N. C.—The following list of

the mammals found near Raleigh, N. C., is based on twelve years of

mammal collecting in this vicinity, and observations made since 1880

on the mammals of this locality by my brother and myself. We

have preserved some 1,500 or 2,000 specimens as skins, or alcoholics, -

besides catching in our- trapping a number of others which were not

preserved. A number of specimens have been bought from the farm

hands employed in ploughing, or cutting hay, thus adding considerably

to our knowledge of several species, notably Zapus hudsonius. The

country lying immediately southeast of Raleigh, where most of the

collecting was done, is mostly rolling country, except along Walnut

Creek, where there are considerable tracts of wet meadow and some

good sized cat-tailswamps. The drier portion of the country collected

over is about one-half cultivated, and the other half woodland.

The commoner mammals are distributed as follows: Sciurus caroli-

nensis and Seiuropterus volans in woods, the third arboreal species, Pero-

10 Biologische Centralblatt, Dec., 1889, Erlangen.

1897.] Zoology. 447

myscus aureolus, being an inhabitant of damp thickets. Lepus sylvaticus,

Peromyscus leucopus, Blarina carolinensis and Scalops aquaticus are

found nearly everywhere in woods and fields both, except in the more

watery situations, where only aquatic species occur ; Microtus pinetorum

is found in the drier woods and fields; Sigmodon hispidus in the drier

fields, but notin woods. Mus musculus, Reithrodontomys lecontei, Blarina

parva and Microtus pennsylvanicus occur in open fields and the edges

of the marshes, the last species penetrating the marshes much farther

than the others. Oryzomys palustris, Fiber zibethicus, Lutreola lutreo-

cephalus and Lutra hudsonica are all more or less aquatic, being found

mainly or entirely along streams, or in the wet marshes. Of the bats,

Vesperugo carolinensis is the common bat of the low grounds, and

Atalapha borealis of the uplands.

The species observed here, are as follows:

1. Didelphis virginianus. Opossum. Tolerably common. I once

took a litter of fourteen young ones, August 4, 1891.

2. Lepus sylvaticus. Cotton-tail Rabbit. Common. The young of

this species are blind at birth.

3. Mus alexandrinus. Roof Rat. The long-tailed, white-bellied Roof

Rat is common here, around houses and farm buildings, but is not found

away from such places (Mus decumanus and Mus rattus I have never

observed at Raleigh).

4. Mus musculus. House Mouse. Common in houses, and irregu-

larly distributed throughout all open fields.

Sigmodon hispidus. Cotton Rat. Abundant in the upland fields,

particularly in gardens and in grain and clover fields. By far the most

diurnal in its habits of any of our mice.

6. Peromyscus aureolus. Golden Mouse. Common in damp thickets.

Nests in reeds, bushes or vines. Our only arboreal mouse.

7. Peromyscus leucopus. White-footed Mouse. Abundant every-

where, except in the wet marshes. Nests in the rotten roots of old

stumps below ground, or in hollows of dead stumps above ground.

8. Oryzomys palustris. Tolerably common in the wet marshes and

cat-tail swamps. The nest is built in a bush or bulrush tussock often

fifty yards from land.

9. Reithrodontomys lecontei. Harvest Mouse. Abundant in the open

fields and on the edges of marshes, but is not found in woodlands. The

few nests I have found have been in bulrush tussocks in rather damp

situations.

10. Microtus pinetorum. Pine Mouse. Fairly common, found in the

drier parts of woods and fields, and is more subterranean in its habits

448 The American Naturalist. [May,.

than any other of our mice, and also, I think, more so than any of our

Shrews. .

11. Microtus pennsylvanicus. Meadow Mouse. Found to a.greater

or less extent in all open fields, but reaches its greatest abundance in

the wet meadows, where its habitat overlaps that of Oryzomys- It is

not found in the woodlands.

12, Fiber zibethicus. Musk Rat. Common in marshes and along the

larger streams. A black color phase or variety occurs which is black

above with lighter under-parts and cheeks than the common form. The

black form is one-fourth or one-third as common as the ordinary brown

phase.

13. Scurius carolinensis. Southern Gray Squirrel. Tolerably common

in all woodlands (Although I have made very careful inquiries I have

been unable to find any evidence that the Fox Squirrel ever occurred

here). es

14. Sciwropterus arei Flying Squirrel.. Common. Strictly noc-

turnal. a

15. Tamias striatus. Chipmunk. They are fairly common about

six miles west of Raleigh, but are totally absent from my immediate

neighborhood.

. Zapus hudsonius. Jumping Mouse. Rare. The one or two

dozen specimens we have secured here come from upland, lowland,

woods and open fields. An adult female and eight young were caught

in a nest by some field hands, and brought to me, June 13, 1895.

17. Sorex longirostris. Rare. Only seven specimens obtained so far.

This species is found on comparatively high ground, not in swamps nor

on the edges of them ; it has not so far been taken in woods, though one

specimen was caught just on the edge of some woods. This i is the small-

est of our mammalia.

. 18. Blarina parva., Little Kivine Tolerably common. Is either

only abundant in particular sitnations, or else it has become much

scarcer in the last few years. Is found in open fields (and the edges of

the more upland marshes to some extent).

19. Blarina carolinensis. Carolina Blarina, Abundant, This species

I believe to have become more abundant of late years; its distribution

here is the same as that of Peromyscus leucopus, namely, everywhere,

except in the wetter marshes, where Oryzomys palustris and Microtus

pennsylvanicus are the only small mammals. ,

20. Sealops aquaticus. Common Mole. Abundant sree pi

21. Vewpertilie siit Little Brown Bat. Rare. arene two mee

mens so far. .

1897.] Entomology. 449

22. Lasionycteris noctivagans. The Silver Black Bat is rather rare

here. I have several times had specimens Wope to me in winter that

were captured in hollow trees.

23. Vesperugo carolinensis. This and the Red Bat are our two most

abundant bats. Very common.

24. Adelonycteris fusca. Large Brown Bat. Rare. Only about a

dozen specimens taken.

25. Nycticejus humeralis. The Twilight Bat is fairly common here,

but never occurs in half the numbers of the Red Bat, or Vesperugo

carolinensis.

26. Atalapha borealis. Red Bat. Abundant. This bat flies laterin

the autumn and earlier in the spring than any other of our bats. The

number of young at birth is usually three, whilein Vesperugo carolinen-

sis and Nycticejus crepuscularis two is the normal number.

27. Lutra hudsonica. Otter. Occurs on all the larger streams. My

brother, H. H. Brimley, has caught eight specimens at various times.

28. Mephitis (sp). A Skunk was killed near Raleigh a few years

ago, the only one we ever heard of.

29. Lutreola vison lutreocephalus. Southern Mink. Common along

water-courses. The females (and sometimes the males) are not infre-

quently brought to me as “ Weasels.”

Putorius noveboracensis. Weasel. One male caught by my

brother, when trapping, January 13,1888. I have heard of others, but

have-never been successful in getting them.

31. Procyon lotor. Raccoon. Quite rare in the immediate vicinity

of Raleigh.

32. Urocyon ecinereo-argentatus. Grey Fox. Not infrequently caught

by fox-hunters in this vicinity. The Red Fox is said to occur in adjoin-

ing counties.—C. S. BRIMLEY.

ENTOMOLOGY.’

Insects Affecting Domestic Animals.—In the last issue of

the new series of Bulletins of the U.S. Division of Entomology (No.5),

Prof. Herbert Osborn devotes nearly 300 pages to a treatment of this

subject. The bulletin is an important and extremely useful one, with

170 illustrations. In the introduction there is a general discussion of

parasitism from which we extract the following regarding the origin

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

450 The American Naturalist. [May,

and results of parasitism. The problems of the origin of parasites, or

the adaptation of certain forms to a parasitic life, are among the most

interesting met with in biological investigation, but we can suggest

merely some of them here.

It may be said from the biological standpoint that all parasites have

been derived primarily from non-parasitic forms—a proposition which

is supported by innumerable facts in their morphology and embryology,

and which may also be argued deductively. Since many species are

confined absolutely to certain animals as hosts, it is evident that they

could not have existed as parasites upon such species at least before

the occurrence of the host. Unless, therefore, we claim an independent

origin for them subsequent to the origin of the host we must allow an

adaptation from some free-living species or from a parasitic species

on some other host, and following this back for its origin, we must ulti-

mately arrive at a free form as the source.

In many cases the line of evolution is very apparent, as, for instance,

the gradation between comparatively free and fixed Mallophaga,

Acaride, Pulicide, ete.

RESULTS OF PARASITISM.

It is also interesting to inquire as to the effect of the parasitic life

upon the parasite itself.

The natural tendency of an animal once started in the direction of

parasitism will be to become more and more parasitic in habit, and with

this habit a greater and greater specialization of parts with reference

to this habit will be observed. The disuse of certain organs, as wings

for flight and feet for ordinary locomotion, results in reduction or modi-

fication of these organs, and hence we find almost invariably that para-

sitic species are wingless, and that they have the feet adapted specially

for locomotion among the hairs or feathers of the hosts. This adapta-

tion is often looked upon as degradation ; but it seems to me preferable

to consider it as a limitation in certain directions with specialization of

certain organs. We consider the foot of the horse highly specialized,

and we must admit that the animal is limited in its use, as it cannot

climb trees, but we do not call the horse degraded. :

It is true that the limitations. for many parasites are so great that

they are absolutely dependent upon certain hosts, and the presence of

certain conditions for their existence—there is reduction or degradation

of certain organs, but progressive specialization of those organs which

remain functional. Often such specialization assumes a parallel char-

acter in widely divergent groups, as the clasping organs developed 1m

1897.] Entomology. 451

pediculids, mallophagids, hippoboscids, and sarcoptids. In other cases

the same effect is attained by a different process, as the flattening of the

body vertically in fleas and horizontally in most other permanent para-

sites. Modifications of the mouth-parts, eyes, and antennz are very

great, and furnish most striking examples of the modification of struc-

tures for the adaptation to special conditions.

Life-History of Coleophora malivorella.—In an admirable

Bulletin (124 of Cornell Experiment Station), Mr. M. V. Slingerland

discusses the Pistol Case-bearer, summarizing its life-history thus:

The insect spends about seven months (from September Ist to April Ist)

of its life in hibernation as a minute, half-grown caterpillar in a small

pistol-shaped case attached to a twig. In the spring the caterpillars

attack the swelling buds, the expanding leaves, and especially the

flowers. About May Ist the cases are fastened to the twigs, where they

remain for four days, during which time the caterpillars shed their

skin or moult. They do not make any complete new suit as they grow,

but are content with making additions to the ends and side of the old

suit. They are not miners, but feed openly, eating irregular holes in

the leaves, often skeletonizing them. They are most destructive on the

flowers, where they eat the petals and stems. In the latter part of May

they cease feeding, securely fasten the cases to the branches, and in

about two weeks change to pupæ within. The moth emerges in two or

three weeks, and soon glues its minute, pretty, cinnamon-colored, in-

verted cup-like eggs to the surfaces of the leaves. The egg-stage lasts

about a week, the little caterpillar emerging about July 22d. They

begin eating little holes in the leaves, and during their first meal con-

struct of silk and excrement a small case or suit for themselves. They

continue feeding on the leaves, adding to their suits from time to time,

until about September 1st, when they begin to migrate to the twigs, and

there fasten their little pistol-shaped cases to the bark. The winter is

passed in these snug, warm, secure quarters.

Studies of Mimicry.—Col. C. Swinhoe, after studying and think-

ing over the general theory of protective mimicry, conceived that the

subject should be advanced by the study of a small group of widespread

mimetic species throughout the different countries included in its range.

While the Bolina group of Hypolimnas contains according to system-

atists a number of species, they can all be merged into two, and it was

these that he selected for his purpose. He describes in detail the ap-

pearances of these widely spread forms, and comes to the conclusion

that the facts afford the strongest support to the theory of mimicry as

452 The American Naturalist. [May,

originally suggested by H. W. Bates; a variety of changes which occur

are explained by this theory and by no other yet propounded. Local

changes may be explained in many ways; but that they should invari-

ably be in the direction of a superficial resemblance to one butterfly,

and that one a specially defined species, is only to be explained by the

theory of mimicry. Although much support has been afforded to this

theory since Bates propounded it in 1862, Col. Swinhoe states that no

evidence is so complete and convincing as that supplied by the genus ~

Hypolimnas. If we are right in believing that the results are deter-

mined by the range and abundance of mimetic forms, it is clear that

selection, rather than unguided variation, is the essential cause of the

phenomena.—Journ. Royal Microscop. Society.

Remarkable Vitality.—Early in September, 1896 I collected

two forms of life from Great Salt Lake, one was the brine shrimp Ar-

temia fertilis, the other the larva of a fly, the Ephydra gracilis.

After keeping these in salt water for ten days I washed them in fresh

water, and then placed them in a small vial filled with a 3 per cent.

solution of formaline.

After they had been in this solution for ten days I had occasion to

examine them, and on taking them from the vial I found that three of

the Ephydras were still living and active. The vitality of the Ephydra

seems to be fully equaled by the vitality of the Stenophelmatus fasciatus

order Orthoptera. Some fragments of this insect were sent to the

University of Utah for identification. Among the fragments was the

prothorax bearing the head. This piece lived for nine days, and dur-

ing that time when ever it was irritated would attempt to bite with its

powerful jaws. It would also turn over into its natural position when

placed on its back —C. A. WHITING.

EMBRYOLOGY.

Two animals from one egg.—To the many known cases in

which two animals may be obtained from one egg by experimental >

interference, may now be added the amphibian Triton cristatus. BY

the aid of a simple piece of apparatus Amedeo Herlitzka’ succeeded 1D —

1 Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and

preliminary notes may be sent. ‘

2 Archiv f. Entwicklungsmechanik. IV, März 2, 1897, pps. 624-654, pl. 27.

1897,] Embryology. 453

isolating the first two cells of the egg and ultimately obtained from

each cell a perfect, symmetrical, free-swimming larva.

Contrary to what has often been stated for the result of similar ex-

periments upon other animals these larve are not half the normal size,

though each arises from half an egg.

Each larva is larger than half a normal larva. ‘There are also cer-

tain remarkable facts concerning the size of the organs and the number

of cells in these half-egg larve. Thus while the intestine and the

muscle segments appear on transverse section much smaller than in the

normal larva, the medulla and the notochord are equal in transverse

section to the normal. In the medulla and in the muscle segments the

nuclei have the same size in the half-egg larve as in the whole egg

larvee.

The number of cells seen in cross section is half as great in the mus-

cle segments of the half-egg larva while the number of cells in the

medulla is the same in the half-egg larva as in the whole-egg larva!

It seems that certain structures may be formed with less than the

normal number of cells while others have the normal number.

Do the Astral Rays pull or push ?—Ludwig Rhumbler’ con-

cludes that the radiations often seen as star-like figures during cell

division are probably lines of pulling or drawing and not lines of ex-

tension or pushing. He thinks the only adequate explanation of cell

division is one based upon Biitschlis’ theory of the foam-like structure

of protoplasm and in deciding in favor of a contractile rather than an

expansive action along the astral rays he thinks he brings support to

the foam theory of protoplasm.

In a previous paper* he began the first of a series of attempts to ex-

plain cell division upon a physical basis; he assumed a vesicular or

foam-like structure for protoplasm and also certain chemical changes

in the centrosomes leading to periods of great absorbtion of liquid.

The withdrawal of liquid from the vesicles round about leads to ten-

sions and, if rapid enough, to the appearance of radiating lines of

vesicles. Based then chiefly upon phenomena of surface tension in the

constitutent vesicles of protoplasm, each a viscid bag with more liquid

contents, this hypothesis seeks to reduce all the complexities of cell

division to a very few physical laws.

The present paper gives a few noteworthy figures of sections of snail’s

` eggs showing a marked vacuolated or vesicular appearance in the pro-

* Archiv f. Entwicklungsmechanik. IV, März 2, 1897, pps. 659-725. PI. 28.

*See AMERICAN NATURALIST for January, 1897, p. 84-6.

454 The American Naturalist. [May,

toplasm around the centrosome and also representing the astral radia-

tions not as mere lines but as flat ribbons or plates. In the author's

mind this means that the rays are not muscle-like fibrils, but the fused

walls of alveoli or vesicles—hence their flat appearance. __

The main part of the paper is taken up with the consideration of cer-

tain interesting experiments devised to illustrate the action of a set of

contractile elements. Modifying the model of Heidenhain the author

constructed a schema to illustrate cell division as follows: a circle of

rubber tubing is made more or less rigid by steel rods inserted inside it

or by means of a spiral spring—this represents the periphery of a cell ;

from the periphery to the center are stretched elastic bands of rubber

which represent the astral rays; these are attached to two masses

(forming the hub in this wheel) which may be at the centre or separ-

ated like the foci of an ellipse, when they represents the two centro-

somes. According as the rim of the wheel is stiff or limp and the halves

of the hub united or apart and according to the strength of the radiat-

ing bands various forms will be assumed by the system when at rest.

By this scheme the author makes clear that a system of radiating con-

tractile elements in conjunction with a somewhat resistant periphery

can make various diagrams that. show resemblances to phases of cell

division in the behavior of the cell periphery, the length of the astral

rays and the movements and positions of the centrosomes.

Besides emphasizing the part played by the cell periphery the author,

by ingenious contrivances, estimates the amount that this periphery

must grow or enlarge during cell division and here again seeks to bring

in the assumed nuclear loss of liquid as a factor in the new formation

of cell surface. :

Though in the main adopting much of the conception of Heidenhain

as to the part played by a system of contractile elements, the author

does not suppose these elements are persistent cell structures handed on

from one cell to another to do the work of cell division. Moreover he

does not regard such radiations, when they are present, as anything

like muscle fibrils but merely as indications of a rapid extraction of .

liquid leading to linear arrangements of vesicles and indicating lines of

pulling force.

Continuity of Cells in Eggs.—August Hammar of Upsala hav-

ing previously found? that the cells of cleaving eggs of echinoderms arè

connected by a superficial film of material, presumably protoplasm, has

extended his observation and now claims that such intercellular con-

5 See AMERICAN NATURALIST, July, 1896, p. 597.

1897,] Psychology. 455

nections are of universal occurrence. In the present paper® he describes

and figures thin lines* connecting the outer ends of all the cells of the

cleavage and blastula stages of eggs from the following groups; Ceelen-

terates; Annelids; Mollusca; Tunicates; Mammals; Arthropods.

In life each cells has a faint outer periphery that is clearer than the

rest; but it is only in sections that this layer, now seen as a stained

line, passes over from one cell to the next so that the outermost con-

tour of the entire egg is one continuous line of material.

In his method of preparation the cells split apart save for this peri-

pheral line which thus becomes evident.

The author assumes that this connecting membrane is protoplasm,

but it is unfortunate that he has no observations on living material to

support this important claim and considering the remarkable effects

often brought about by fixatives the question as to the true nature of this

intercellular communication may well remain an open one. But the

possibility that these connections may prove to be of similar nature to

those described in the “spinning” of echinoderm eggs (AMERICAN

NaruRA.ist, March, 1897) seems to the reviewer to add much to the

probability that they are actual connections in the living egg.

From the author’s point of view the blastula is one mass of proto-

plasm with a hole in the centre of it. He also points out the import-

ance of the surface connection as a mechanical band ; in fact he would

ascribe to this many of the effects often attributed to surface tension of

the individual cells. But regarding the connection as protoplasmic he

emphasizes its importance as a living band and indicates its value as a

basis for some of the assumptions of experimental embryologists as well

as for the criticism of the cell theory by Whitman and by Sedgwick.

PSYCHOLOGY.’

Notes on Child Psychology—Some Recent Literature—The

past year has been one of remarkable activity in the sphere of

Child Psychology everywhere, but especially in this country.

Child-Study Monthly, which was started in 1895, has published several

articles of real value to the scientific investigator. The Pedagogical

Seminary has been established upon a firmer footing. Education, The

Inland Educator, The Northwestern Journal of Education, and other

ê Archiv f. Mik. Anat. Miirz 4, 1897, pps. 92-102, pl. 6.

1 Edited by H. C. Warren, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.

456 The American Naturalist. [May,

educational journals have devoted considerable space to child study.

The works of Prof, Baldwin (Mental Development in the Child and the

Race) and Miss Shinn (Notes on the Development of a Child) belong to

the previous year ; but two new studies of individual child development

have appeared within the past twelve months. Mrs. K. C. Moore’s

monograph (Mental Development of a Child) is a very full record of the

growth of her own child during its first two years; the author shows

considerable judgment in her selection of material, as well as in its

classification and discussion. Mrs. W. 8. Hall has a similar study in

hand, in a series of articles in the Child-Study Monthly, entitled The

First Five Hundred Days of a Child’s Life; five papers have already

appeared ; they are thorough and extremely suggestive. In connection

with the statistical method, Dr. J. W. David, of Warsaw, reported at

the Psychological Congress the results of a syllabus on the growth of

ideas in children ; he compared these results (on Polish children) with

similar studies by other investigators in Germany and America. Mr.

J. C. Shaw gives in the Pedagogical Seminary a statistical test of

memory in school children. Prof. Sully’s Studies of Childhood, while

not statistical in method, contains a fund of material, new and old, on

almost every topic of child study. Besides these general works, valu-

able contributions have been made by other writers to various branches

of child psychology during the year.

Language.—It is interesting to compare the observations of Mrs.

Moore (M) and Mrs. Hall (H) regarding the child’s progress in learn-

ing to speak. The first sound observed by M was the short a uttered

in crying ; other sounds were made from the 36th day on, and ten days

later responsive sounds were habitually made. Norecord was kept by

H of the earliest babbling, except that the child began about the 47th

day to “talk back” with the word “goo.” H noted a distinction be-

tween the cries of hunger, pain, impatience and appeal by the ninth

week, to which a cry of pleasure was added in the eleventh week. M

noted different sounds for hunger and distress in the 12th week ; these

became real words by the 29th week. H observed the lip-movements

corresponding to the words “ mama,” “ papa” and “ bye-bye” in the

32th week. The child’s spoken words were first associated by him with

definite objects in the 42nd week in both cases. The growth of vocabu-

lary differed somewhat in form and rapidity. H records 3 words

learned at the end of the 10th month, and 12, 24, 38, 58, 106, 199, at

the end of the succeeding months ; at the end of the 500 days the child

was familiar with 232 words. M does not mention the progress by

1897.] Psychology. 457

months, but records ‘a vocabulary of 5 words at the end of the 12th

month, 384 in the 22d, and 570 in the 24th.

Nouns and interjections were in each case the first parts of speech

used: the verb appeared next, in the 11th (H) and 16th (M) months.

Since the number of interjections (acquired first, H) remained practi-

cally stationary, while the nouns increased rapidly, and since the num-

ber of verbs began to increase rapidly only during the 16th month

(from 8 to 28 in this month, H), the difference between the two cases

is not so great as might appear. If we bracket together (1) nouns and

interjections, (2) verbs, (8) adjectives and adverbs, and (4) prepositions,

pronouns and conjunctions, the order of acquisition of the parts o

speech was the same. The order of relative importance, according to

H, at the end of the 17th month, was (1) nouns, (2) verbs, (3) adjectives,

(4) adverbs, prepositions and interjections (equal), (5) pronouns, ete. ;

the same order is given by M at the end of the 24th month, excepting

that pronouns had risen to fourth place.

The first sentence (in each case, “ Papa, gone,”) was formed in the

48th (H) and 66th (M) weeks respectively. The interrogative form

appeared in the 69th week (H), and between the 66th and 79th weeks

(M). As one record closes with the 72nd week, it is impossible to follow

the progress further in this direction.

The comparison of these records suggests the desirability of a more

uniform classification of data, as well as the need of extreme care in

interpreting them.

Drawing.—One number of the University of California Studies is

devoted to four studies, by careful observers, of the progress of indi-

vidual children in learning to draw. Prof. E. E. Brown summarizes

the results in a supplementary paper. In the first stage (scribbling),

he finds the chief element to consist in the pleasure in producing (mak-

ing marks, changes); the interest is in the process rather than the

product. Later, comes the notion of representing something; there is

now a mingling of visual with the earlier motor images; the latter pre-

dominate at first, but in the course of time the visual picture comes to

control the motor presentation. These observations, says Prof. Brown,

agree with those of Prof. Baldwin, except that in the California investi-

gations the children were generally not provided with a copy, and the

advance was consequently not so rapid. Prof. Brown is unable to set

any time for the first appearance of tracery imitation, and believes

that this idea must be present in some dim form from the start. He

emphasizes the importance of imitation as a stimulus to drawing, as

well as an aid to progress in the art.

458 The American Naturalist. [May,

In the Pedagogical Seminary for October, Prof. H. T. Lukens con-

tributes an interesting series of drawings by several children, beginning

with the earliest attempts, at two years three months of age. He suggests

a classification of the progressive steps in learning to draw, parallel to

those in learning to speak. In language: I. Automatic cries and reflex

or impulsive sounds. II. Imitation of sounds, but without meaning

(babbling). III. Understanding of words, but no speaking beyond

“mama,” “ papa,” “no,” ete. IV. Repetition of words as mere sounds.

V. Use of words to express thoughts. VI. Study of grammar and

rhetoric. In drawing the corresponding stages are: I. Automatic

scribbling. II. Seribbling localizations and imitation of movements

of other person’s hands. III. Understanding of pictures; only

simplest localization of features, by scribbling. IV. Copying from

others to see how to get the right effect in the use of lines. V. Picture

writing, illustrated stories, etc. WI. Study of technique ; perspective,

proportion, shading, etc. The central point, however, in the develop-

ment of drawing, according to Prof. Lukens, is the elimination of

scribbling and simplification of the drawings into a few telling lines.

Prof. Sully discusses children’s drawings at considerable length in

his book, and reproduces a large number of attempts to draw a man.

These drawings are mostly of a comparatively late period of develop-

ment, and show the growth of the ideas of features, proportion, relation

of full face to profile, ete. ; the earlier scribbling is scarcely touched

on. Prof. Sully gives three stages of progress in drawing: (1) vague,

formless scribble ; (2) primitive design ; (3) a more sophisticated treat-

ment of the human figure.

The observations of Mrs. Moore and Mrs. Hall close with the 17th

and 24th months, a period too early to furnish any data on the subject

of drawing.

Intellectual Work and Fatigue.—Two interesting papers on this sub-

ject were read at the Psychological Congress. Prof. Ebbinghaus reported

a series of tests on school children, in which it was sought to determine

the relative capacity of different ages and sexes for intellectual work,

as well as the effects of fatigue. Dr. J. Friedrich’s paper, since pub-

lished in full in the Zeitschrift f. Psychologie, gave tests of a single

school class at intervals of an hour during the entire school day. The

methods used by the two observers were different. Prof. Ebbinghaus

used three tests. 1. Calculation. The method of Burgerstein was

employed; pairs of figures were given to add and multiply, and the

number of such operations completed in ten minutes was taken as test.

2. Memory. A series of figures was dictated rhythmically, and after

1897.] Psychology. 459

the list was read the subject wrote the numbers down as he re-

membered them. The series consisted of from 6 to 10 figures. The-

number of errors was taken as inverse measure of memory capacity.

3. Combination. Prose sentences were given (in writing), with words,

Syllables and groups of letters here and there omitted; the pupil

was told to fill in the omissions. The number of syllables supplied

within five minutes and the number of errors made in filling in were

both taken into account. (The latter is open to criticism, since a false

filling in of the text might, in certain cases, make as good sense as the

óriginal.) Prof. Ebbinghaus’s tests were made on 15 classes of boys

and 11 of girls of all grades ; the same hours and days of the week were

used in every case. The results showed in general an increase in exact-

ness and capacity for work, corresponding to the increase in average

age of the class; but this was subject to individual variations, a lower

class being in some cases better than the next higher, although about

a year younger on the average. The Combination method gave greater

differences according to age than the Calculation method ; the Memory

method, in the application of which the individuality of the instructor

played considerable part, showed irregular results. Dividing each

class into three parts, according to scholarship, the methods gave quite

different results. The memory tests showed no marked difference be-

tween good and bad scholars—if anything, it favored the latter; calcu-

lation showed a slight decrease from higher to lower; the combination

tests, on the other hand, showed a marked difference in favor of the

better scholars, as regards both the number of syllables supplied and

the freedom from error. Comparing boys with girls, the latter were

found to be inferior in the lower classes, but were somewhat superior in

the highest classes; from which was argued a more rapid mental de-

velopment among girls from the 12th to the 15th year. As to fatigue,

the results agreed in general with those of Burgerstein and Laser. The

capacity for work increased steadily to about the end of the third school

hour, and then decreased somewhat, rising sometimes at the end of the

school day. But the number of errors increased steadily throughout

from the start.

Dr. Friedrich employed two methods in his tests. 1. Dictation.

Twelve sentences were given, of about the same number of letters and

signs, and about the same degree of difficulty. 2. Caleulation. This

consisted of five sums of two 20-place numbers, and five multiplications

of 20-place by 1-place numbers. Each test was made at the beginning

of the school day and at intervals of one hour. Some days a recess of

8 or 15 minutes was allowed between the hours, on others the lessons.

460 The American Naturalist. [May,

following without intervening rest. Comparing the two cases, it was

found that the intellectual capacity of the scholar diminished as the

length of the lesson increased. The recesses proven efficient in remedy-

ing this, especially the longer intervals of 15 minutes. The author

concludes that the one-hour lesson period is too long for the best results,

and that a recess of at least 10 minutes should be allowed between each

period.

Fear.—Prof. Binet’s study of Fear in the Année Psychologique has

already been noted in these pages. Stanley Hall treats the same sub-

ject exhaustively in a recent number of the American Journal of

Psychology. Of 1,701 individual cases which he reports, nearly all are

minors. 6,456 separate causes of fear are recorded: thunder aud

lightning was feared by the greatest number, 603; reptiles (483),

strange persons (436), and darkness (432) follow next ; then fire (365),

death (299), domestic animals (268), disease (241), wild animals (206),

water (205), insects (203), ghosts (203), rats and mice (199); a large

number of other causes were confined to a few individuals. This classi-

fication is, perhaps, too minute for practical use. Combining the causes

into larger classes, animals are found to be the cause of fear in 1,486

cases, celestial phenomena in 996, ghosts, ete., in 799, fire, water and

drowning in 627, persons in 589, death or disease in 540. Pres. Hall

points out the deep rooting of fears in human nature, and insists that

the investigator must go far back in the organic series to reach any satis-

factory ground for explanation.—H. C: W.

On the Effect of Music on Caged Animals.—Some time ago

the writer was induced to experiment upon the animals in the Zoolog-

ical Garden in Lincoln Park, with respect to the effect of music upon

them, and the result may be of some interest to others working on

psychological lines. The experiments were made at 6 o’clock P. M.,

two hours after feeding, and the instrument used wasa violin.

Felis concolor Linné. Puma Panther. When the music first began

two specimens of this species were resting in the back of the cage half

asleep. At the first sound of the violin they started up, and could not

for a time locate the sound, the writer being some distance from the

cage. They showed, however, that they liked the sound, and when the

player came as close as he could to the cage, they manifested their

appreciation by lying down at full length and placing their heads be-

tween their paws. During this time the music had been of slow and

sweet pieces, such as “ Home, Sweet Home,” “Annie Laurie,” ete., ete.

Suddenly, the player changed “ Home, Sweet Home” to the “ Irish

1897.] Psychology. 461

washer-woman.”” At this change the panthers worked their tails nerv-

ously, and twitched their ears, and as it was kept up fora time, they got

up and began pacing up and down the cage. From this action the

writer judged that either the jig music, being sharp and piercing, hurt

their ears, or that it was distasteful. After playing several jigs of this

kind the player again relapsed into soft strains, when the animals

slowly settled down in their old positions.

Felis onca Linné. Jaguar. This animal behaved much as did the

panthers. While the jigs were being played he acted in a very nervous

manner, jumping from a shelf to the floor of the cage and back again.

Soft music seemed to quiet him. As the writer was leaving the jaguar’s

cage, having ceased playing for the time being, the animal walked up

to the corner and reached out with his paw toward the player as far as

he could. Whether this action was intended to call the player back,

or was simply done to catch hold of him, as many animals will do if a

person gets too near to the cage, the writer cannot say. It was a cur-

ious fact that when the paw was extended the claws were all retracted.

Felis leopardus Linné. Leopard. Two specimens of this species did

not seem to notice the music to any extent, except at first, as a matter

of curiosity.

Felis leo Linné. Lion. The lioness Juno, with her three cubs, occu-

pied a large cage and the player’s attention was next directed to these.

While the music was being played to the other animals the lioness and

cubs had been listening and watching, the cubs playing about their

mother’s haunches. As the violinist drew near the cage the cubs scam-

pered behind their parent, the latter greeting the player with a gentle hiss

As the music struck up a lively jig the cubs stood upon their hind legs

and peeped at the player over her haunches. They appeared very

curious and much puzzled, hearing these sounds for the first time. De-

siring to test their appreciation, the player slowly backed away from

the cage, playing all the time; as he retreated, the cubs gradually came

to the front of the cage, and the mother crawled to the front and placed

her two fore-paws between the bars and stuck her nose through as far ©

as she could. After retiring to the side of the hall the player again

moved toward the cage, but the family did not move, nor evidence any |

displeasure when he came very close to them, in fact, so close that he

almost touched the great paws of the lioness. As he played the soft

strains of “ Home, Sweet Home” the cubs and mother sat motionless.

in rapt attention, the former turning their heads from side to side. A

jig played very rapidly caused the cubs to prance about in a lively

manner.

462 The American Naturalist. [May,

Felis tigris Buff. Bengal Tiger. The music had a peculiar effect on the

pair of animals in this cage. The male paid absolutely no attention to it,

save glancing in the direction of the player and giving a vicious snarl.

‘The female, however, acted as though she liked it, for she jumped upon

a shelf and placed her paws and nose through the bars as described

under the last species. A second experiment with the male, later, when

he was stretched out upon the floor of the cage, caused him simply to

look at the player, twitch his ears, and viciously spit and snarl at him.

The female, however, on all occasions showed that music was not dis-

tasteful to her and that it was, on the whole, pleasing.

Hyena vulgaris Buff. Hyena. This animal is probably the most

cowardly of all the mammals, and the only effect which music had upon

two individuals was to cause them to retreat to the farther end of the

cage and try to squeeze out between the bars. A lively jig frightened

them nearly to death, and made them tremble in every limb. Strange

to say, however, they did not howl or make the least noise.

Quadrumana. The Monkeys. (Genus Cynocephalus.) The mon-

keys evidenced great curiosity at the music, but did not seem to show

either pleasure or displeasure at the sounds. A South American Sooty

Mangabey, however, seemed to be rather pleased with the strains, par-

ticularly the jigs. This animal is of a quarrelsome disposition, and is

therefore kept separate from the other monkeys. It was thought by Mr.

Sweeney, the keeper, that the sounds might awaken a feeling of anger

in him, but such was not the vase. As the violinist drew away, he fol-

lowed as far as his cage would allow. A spark of reason was observed

in this animal. His cage is of glass all around, and in order to hear the

music better he placed his ear to a crack inthe door. ‘This he did sev-

eral times as the player drew near or went farther from the cage. The

monkeys confined in the larger cage, also of glass, formed themselves in

a broken semi-circle about that part of the cage nearest the violinist,

and looked at him in apparent wonder. As he moved away from them,

they arose from their sitting posture with one accord and followed him

along the side of the cage. This was probably simply curiosity, although

the music may have given them some pleasurable sensations. On the

whole, the monkeys did not show as much intelligence as might have

been expected from their high position in the scale of nature.

Pilecanus fuscus Linné and P. erythrorhynchus Gm. Brown and

White Pelicans. The pen containing these birds is situated next to the

monkey cage, and the music was next tried upon them. The effect was

somewhat startling, for they all began to jump about, flap their wings,

and snap their huge beaks; this might, perhaps, be called dancing.

1897.] Psychology. 463

When the violinist drew near the cage they snapped at him with their

aks.

The other birds in the animal house paid very little attention to the

music, partly, perhaps, because they were sleepy. Several varieties of

parrots, herons and smaller birds were tried in turn, but without pro-

ducing any results worthy of mention.

Canis latrans Say. Coyote. The last experiment tried was upon a

den of coyotes in the park. When the playing began all the animals

were in their holes, but. the first note had hardly been struck when they

came running out, and raced up and down their den until they had

located the sounds. When this was done they all squatted in a semi-

circle about the violinist, he having approached the bars of the den as

near as possible, and sat in silenge listening to the music. When it

ceased they ran up to the player and pawed at him through the bars,

indicating as plainly as possible that they wished to hear more. When

he began to play again they again silently formed in a semi-circle.

~ This experiment was tried a number of times, but always with the same

result. During this time not a sound was uttered by the coyotes, but a

wolf in the den adjoining howled lustily. Here, as in the other cases,

soft, sweet music seemed to be better appreciated than loud, harsh music.

Besides music made up of regular pieces, all sorts of sounds were

made by the violinist—screeches, piercing notes, imitations of a cat, cow-

rooster crowing and pig squealing, but these did not seem to have much

effect. The loud, harsh and piercing notes seemed to affect their ears,

for they moved them about nervously as though the noise hurt the

sensitive nerves. To sum up general impressions, slow and soft

music was received, as a rule, with more signs of pleasure than the

lively jigs. The females, also, seemed to pay more attention to the

music, and to be more pleased with it, than were the males. The noc-

turnal mammals were more interested than were the diurnal birds,

This was probably due to the fact that the experiment was tried after

dark, when the animal house was lighted only by electricity. It was a

curious and interesting fact that the whole performance was conducted

without any noise other than an occasional grunt from the lions. The

experiment is worthy of repetition, and should be made at different

times during the day, as in the early morning and at noon, just before

and after feeding, etc., to see whether or not these conditions have any

effect upon the result. The writer is convinced that many interesting

and valuable facts may be learned by experiments of this character.

—Frank CoLLINsS Baker.

464 The American Naturalist. [May,

MICROSCOPY.

The Proper Angle for the Razor in Paraffin Sectioning.—

In a discussion between Dr. M. Heidenhain and Dr. B. Rawitz relative

to section cutting and the staining of microscopic preparations, the

latter person’ upholds the advice that he gave in his “ Leitfaden,” and

adduces experimental proof to show that the microtome knife should

be placed at an acute angle to the stroke rather than at a right angle.

When placed at the latter angle the sections according to their thick-

ness, are always more or less crowded together, thus distorting the finer

structures of the tissue cut. The @xperimeatal proof consists of the

measurement of sections cut with the knife at a right angle, and with it

at an angle of 45°. The sections were from a block of paraffin measuring

203 x 113 mm., and had a thickness of 15, 10» and 5y. With the knife

at the acute angle they all measured 11 mm. in breadth, while with the

knife at a right angle they measured 94 mm. for the 15x, 9 mm. for the

10⁄4, and 8 mm. for the 5y sections, thus showing a shrinkage of 2, 22,

and 33 mm. respectively. In the case of the thinnest sections there is

a loss in breadth of almost a third of the surface of the block, and

such are somewhat incorrectly denominated ‘sections’. They might be

called “ Quetschen.”—F. ©. KENYON.

Formol, not Formal.—The paper by Bert B. Stroud in the

January number of this Journal, induces me to make a few remarks

regarding the nomenclature of the method of hardening by formol in-

troduced by me into histological technique. Though I agree with the

author that the terms formalin.and formalose are bad and meaningless,

I cannot agree to the objection to the denomination of the original

fluid as “ formol.” To call the solution by the name of formaldehyde

is not to be recommended, as formaldehyde, C,HO, isa gas. The term

formol is opposed by Stroud because the terminal syllable “ol” sug-

gests an alcohol; but formaldehyde dissolved in water is no longer to

be regarded as an aldehyde, but as a double alcohol, methylenglycol.

z >C—O=Formaldehyd. |

OH,0+-8,0=F noT Meth ylengl yen.

1 Bemerkungen über Mikrotomschneiden und über das Färben mikroskopischer

Präparate. Anat. Anz. XIII, 65-80. Separat from the author.

1897.] Microscopy. 465

Another reason for naming the original fluid “formol” might

be that this is the oldest name for the watery solution of formalde-

hyde (Trillas) and that on its introduction into microscopic and pre-

serving technique by my father and myself it was called “formol. ”

The law of priority therefor supports “ formol.” .

The term “ formal” is suited only to increase confusion.

In regard to Stroud’s observations which are often contradictory of

those of European workers—which he seems to have overlooked—I

wish to remark that the behavior of formol towards egg albumen was

a long while ago thoroughly studied by me, and that in a series of pub-

lications I have demonstrated that egg or sero albumen is not only not

coagulated by formol, but on the contrary is, in a sense, rendered more

fluid, since a compound, methylen-albumen, is formed that never coag-

ulates even upon the solution being heated. This non-coagulating

methylen-albumen I have designated “ protogen,” and have described

its behavior in the test tube as well as in the organism.

To avoid the bad effect of formol on some tissues, which Stroud

describes, it is only necessary to employ a more concentrated solution.

To the 10 per cent. (formol 1., water 9) solution originally recommend-

ed by me a small addition of alcohol may sometimes be made advant-

ageously.—Dr. F. BLUM.

The Name of Formal.—To THE Eprror.—In answer to “A

Protest,” on pp. 267-268 of the March, 1897, number of THE AMERI-

CAN NATURALIST, against my use of the terms Formal, ete., as given

in the January number, if “A Comparative Anatomist ” will consult.

an elementary text-book on Organic Chemistry he will learn :

1. That there is a good precedent for applying the term Formal to

the compound H-CHO, and the very best authority for applying the

suffix -al to any aldehyde, e. g., Chloral CCl,,CHO, Trichloracetic

aldehyde, ete. .

2. That the very example he quotes disproves the point he seeks to

make,

` The term acetal is derived “ from acetic and aldehyde (Foster’s Ency-

clopedic Medical Dictionary, Vol. I, p. 22). In the article,“ Chemical

Nomenclature,” Dictionary of Chemistry, by Henry Watts, London,

1866, Vol. IV, p. 133, this statement occurs: “ -al abbreviation of

aldehyde. Ex. Butyral=Butyric aldehyde ; Valeral=Valeric alde-

hyde.” To this it may be added that the highest authority in the world,

namely, The Geneva Congress of Chemists, adopted the following :

“Resolution 32. Aldehydes will be designated by the suffix -al (Me-

466 The American Naturalist. | May,

thanal, Ethanal).” (See abstract of their proceedings in The American

Chemical Journal, Vol. 15, 1893, p. 58.) In view of the action of this

Congress, the term Methanal would be the preferable one. But the

term Formal is equally correct, and less likely to trouble persons already

familiar with the substance.’

The writer’s aim was to avoid confusion by the use of a term short,

convenient, and correct; and he insists that Formal fulfils these re-

quirements.

Respecting the strictly anatomic terms, ‘‘ Comparative Anatomist ”

is referred to the article, “ Neural Terms, International and National,”

in the last number of the Journal of Comparative Neurology. Axon

was proposed in 1884 for the skeletal axis, whether a membranous tube,

a cartilaginous rod, or a series of osseous vertebral centrums. Alba

could hardly be mistaken for anything but substantia alba. Tela read-

ily, if not inevitably, suggests the tela vasculosa of Huxley (Zoological

Proceedings, 1876, p. 30), and the tela chorioidea ventriculi of Schwalbe’s

“ Neurologie ” (pp. 404 and 464), and the Report of the Nomenclatur

‘Commission of the Anatomische Gesellschaft, 1895. All three terms are

defined in recent English and medical dictionaries. Is not “ Compara-

tive Anatomist ” needlessly magnifying his difficulties ?—B. B. STROUD.

Ithaca, N. Y., March 13, 1897.

Formol or Formalin.—With reference to the present discussion

over the proper name to be used for the 40 per cent. aqueous solution

of formaldehyde, it may be said that had the author of the criticised

paper that appeared in the January number looked up the chemical

side of the question more carefully he would have found that there is

another and much stronger reason for not using the term that he sug-

gests than the very good one of priority, or the equally good one refer-

ring to the condition of the dissolved gas, cited by Dr. Blum. Had he

read the account of formaldehyde given by Ladenburg in his “ Hand-

wörterbuch der Chemie ” (Breslau, 1882), Vol. 1, on page. 195, para-

graph 2, he would have found the following : :

“Zu den sogen. Acetalen (Vergl., pag. 191) des Methylen-oxydes,

welche als Alkoholither der Aldehyde aufzufassen sind, gehören das

Methylal oder Formal, CH, (O. CH,),, Methylither, und der Methy-

lendiaither, CH, (O. CH,),.” The italics are mine.—F. C. KENYON.

* As has been previously stated, (This Journal, January, 1897, p. 92) con- —

fusion has arisen from the indiscriminate use, by various writers, of the terms

Formalin, Formalose, and Formol,

Correction—F oot note 1, p. 92, should read “—— Formal from Formaldehyde,

is a good scientific contraction”

1897.] Proceedings of Seientific Societies. 467

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Boston Society of Natural History.—The general meeting

was held Wednesday evening, April 7, 1897.—The following papers

were read: Prof. J. Eliot Wolff, “The occurrence of Tourmalines at

Mt. Mica, Paris, Me.;” Dr. C. B. Davenport, “The rôle of water in

growth.” Wednesday evening, April 21, 1897.—The following paper

wasread: Mr. Herbert Lyon Jones, “Some biological adaptations of

our seaside plants.” Stereopticon views were shown.—SaAMvuEL HEN-

SHAW, Secretary.

New York Academy of Sciences.—Biological Section.—March

8, 1897.—The papers presented were: H. E. Crampton, “On the Asci-

dian Half Embryo.” Hisexperimental studies on the egg of Molgula

manhattensis showed that the isolated blastomeres segment in a strictly

‘partial’ manner, but that a gradual passage to a total development

ensues. As far as the early stages were concerned Chabry, Roux, Bar-

furth are entirely correct in arguing for a half or ‘partial’ develop-

ment. But Driesch, Hertwig and others are also correct in considering

the end results a ‘total’ larva of less than the normal size. The paper

will be published in full.

N. R. Harrington, “On a Nereid from Puget Sound (Pacific Coast)

which lives commensally with the Hermit crab, Eupagurus alaskensis.

A variety of the Western European species N. fucata is known to in-

habit deserted whelk shells with Eupagurus bernhardus and a careful

comparison of the Old and the New World forms brings out resembl-

ances in structure due to the operation of the same physiological fac-

tors. These are notably (1) the degeneration of the muscular and

cuticular layers in the posterior two-thirds of the body, (2) loss of the

pigment in the same, (3) physiological factors may explain why only

females have been found (as yet) in this comfortable and nutritive

habitat. The author surmises that the commensal form is the female

Epitocous type of some free living nereid.

This apparently undescribed species from the Pacific differs from N.

fucata, B. inquilina of Wirén in the arrangement of the paragnathi,

respiratory lobes of notopodium and transverse pigment stripes.

Bashford Dean, “ A Posthumous Memoir of Prof. J. S. Newberry.

This paper described new species and a new genus of North American

fossil fishes, and.discussed the genera Oracanthus, Dactylodus, Poly-

rhizodus, Sandalodus, and Petalodus.

468 The American Naturalist. [May,

Among the types were species of Cladodus, Oracanthus,’ Ctenacan-

thus, Stettacanthus, Asteroptychius, Dactylodus,|Deltodus, Sandalodus,

Psephodus, Heliodus, Ctenodus. Dinichthys corrugatus|was taken as a

type of a new genus Stenognathus.

At the conclusion of the papers, an election of sectional officers was

held. Prof. E. B. Wilson was elected chairman for thefensuing year,

Prof. C. L. Bristol, Secretary —Basurorp DEAN, Secretary.

New York Academy of Sciences.—Section of Geology.—

March 15, 1897.—The first communication of the evening was by Mr.

Hienrich Ries entitled “ Mineralogical Notes.” Mr. Ries spoke of some

Allanite crystals with new faces ; also of some large crystals of fibrous

gypsum from Newcastle, Wyoming; also exhibited some large Children-

ite crystals from Maine and some Amphibole crystals with many

terminal faces from Virginia. He also spoke of some Pseudomorphs of

gold after Sylvenite from Cripple Creek, Colorado, The finding of a

new Beryl crystal with an unusually large number‘of terminal faces in

New York City was also noted.

The second paper of the evening was written by! Mr.}Herbert Bolton,

entitled “ The Lancashire Coal Field of England ” and read in abstract

by President Stevenson. The paper spoke of the geographic conditions

of the Lancashire voal field and its neighborhood, of the extent and

quality of the coal and of the age of the structural movements which

had caused the present geological characteristics in the coal area. A

careful correlation was made between the coal measures of this field

and the deposits of the United States. Distribution of the fauna and

flora and their character was taken up in some detail and it was shown

that in the lower coal measures the life is mostlytmarine, in the middle

coal measures of fresh and brackish origin, and in the upper coal

measures that the fauna was scarce. When published this paper will

be a valuable contribution to the literature of coals and will be of great

assistance to workers in America in their endeavors to correlate the

deposits on the two side of the water.

The third paper of the evening was by Stuart Weller, of Chicago

University, entitled “The Batesville Sandstone of Arkansas,” ab-

stracted by Mr. Gilbert Van Ingen. The paper entered into some

detail regarding the Batesville section and the fauna of the Batesville

sandstone in that section. Of the invertebrates thirty species have been

found, of which eleven point to the St. Louis age of the sandstone, six

to the Kaskaskia age, while thirteen are of indeterminate value. On

account of the greater abundance of the numbers of specimens of the

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 469

second group and from stratigraphic evidence as well, it is probable

that the sandstone belongs in the base of the Kaskaskia group and is

the same as the Aux Vasa limestone of Southern Illinois. This paper

gives the data wherein to correlate the Mississippian section with the

section about the Ozark Hills.—A pril 19, 1897—The evening of the

monthly meeting of the Section was devoted to a reception by the

whole Academy to Sir Archibald Geikie, Director-General of H. M.

Geological Survey of Great Britian, who has just returned to this

country for a brief visit after an absence of eighteen years. After

an informal reception the meeting was called to order and addressed

briefly by the President of the Academy, Prof. J. J. Stevenson, who

extended a most hearty welcome from the scientists of New York to the

guest of the evening. Prof. Stevenson was followed by Prof. J. F.

Kemp, the Chairman of the Section, who reviewed in. a few words the

greater contributions of Sir Archibald Geikie to the cause of Geol-

ogy. He spoke of his early work in Seotland, in France and in the

Western United States in the study of vulcanism, and paid particular

attention to the work that had been done in Scotland on the metamor-

phic rocks. Prof. Kemp concluded with a tribute to Sir. Archibald

as a naturalist and spoke of the superior quality of work that is given

the world by the man who is in love with nature and finds in the

solitude of the wildness of nature his greatest company and inspiration.

The next speaker was the Secretary of the Section who spoke partic- .

ularly of the work of Sir Archibald Geikie as looked at from the stand-

point of the teacher and physiographer. He reviewed hastily the char-

acter and quality of Geikie’s Text Book and Class Book of Geology

and spoke more especially of the example this distinguished geologist

has set in physiography in the masterly analysis of the physical features

of Scotland given in his Scenery of Scotland.

The last address of welcome was given by Prof. Angelo Heilprin of

Philadelphia who spoke as a traveler and contrasted the knowledge of

the geology of the world now with our knowledge at the time of Hum-

boldt. He spoke of how much we owed to the guest we were welcom-

ing for his work in bringing together the shreds of knowledge from all

parts of the world and in building up a great mass of geological informa-

tion, which is a vast help to all workers in geology and a stimulus to

all.

In reply Sir Archibald Geikie expressed his thanks to the Academy

for the very cordial reception that had been tendered him in New

York. He contrasted the appearance of the city eighteen years ago

and now, and spoke of the great growth of New York vertically as well

470 The American Naturalist. [May,

as horizontally. He paid a brief word of tribute to his friends of his

former visit, particularly Newberry, Leidy, Dana, Cope and Hayden,

whose help and good will have ever been a great inspiration to him.

In reviewing the work of world wide reputation that the American

geologists are producing, Sir Archibald Geikie paid a warm tribute to

their industry, their perseverance, their breadth and to their scientific

acuteness. He contrasted in a very favorable way to the United States

the policy of the British and United States Governments in regard to

the printing, publishing and distribution of government reports.

After these brief addresses an opportunity was given for meeting the

guest of the evening for personal social meetings among the members

of the Academy, and for greeting the guests from a distance including

several well known geologists—Ricuarp E. DODGE, Secretary.

Torrey Botanical Club.—At the regular meeting of Feb. 9th,

about 200 persons present, the scientific program consisted of a lecture

by Mr. Henry A. Siebrecht, entitled “ Orchids, their habitat, manner

of collecting and Cultivation”; handsomely illustrated with lantern-

slides by Mr. Cornelius Van Brunt, colored by Mrs. Van Brunt.

Mr. Siebrecht in his paper referred to the hardships undergone by

the orchid-collector, and paid a tribute to the energy displayed by

three friends of the speaker, Carmiole, an Italian, who had come to

New York when the speaker was a boy; Féstermann, who died about

‘two years ago, the victim, like most collectors, of disease contracted in

that enterprise; and Thieme, who had made three trips for Mr. Sieb-

recht, and who went last to Brazil in search of the Cattleya autumnalis

but was never heard from.

Mr. Siebrecht referred also to three trips of his own in quest of or-

_ chids, to the West Indies, Venezuela, Brazil and Central America. He

then exhibited the lantern views, which were of remarkable beauty and

evoked frequent applause. They included numerous representatives of

the chief tropical genera cultivated, also with views of interiors showing

the Cattleys house in full blossom, ete. Slides showing numerous

species native to the Eastern United States, followed.

Mr. Siebrecht then described the culture of orchids and classed their

diseases, as chiefly because too wet, when the “ spot ” closes the stomata,

or too dry, when they collect insects, He referred to their insect

enemies at home, the “ Jack-Spaniard ” which eats the marrow from the

- bulb, and the Cattleya-fly, now introduced into English houses. He

mentioned the ravages of Cladosporium, and the great difficulty with

which orchids of the genus Phalenopsis are preserved from fungal

diseases.

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 471

The subject was further discussed by the President, Dr. Britton, Mr.

Samuel Henshaw, and Mr. Livingston, the latter referring to his recent

experience as an orchid collector. <A slide was exhibited, made from

a photograph taken by Mr. Livingston showing his orchids packed

upon oxen and so carried down from the mountains to Magdalena.

Mr. Henshaw spoke of his visit to Mr. Siebrecht’s nursery in Trinidad,

and of the growth made there by Crotons, as much in one year as here

in four or five. In those gardens they divide their plants by rows and

edges of Crotons which are sheared off as we would trim a privet-hedge.

Mr. Henshaw also paid a deserved tribute to Mrs, Van Brunt for the

wonderful success of their coloring of the orchid slides.

February 24, 1897.—The first paper was by Mr. Arthur Hollick, “A

fossil Arundo from Staten Island.”

This paper, which is to appear in the Bulletin, was presented by Dr.

Britton, with prefatory remarks referring to this discovery. Its occur-

rence was in yellow sand of Staten Island belonging to late Tertiary or

early Quaternary; the locality, a pit near Fort Wadsworth. The pre-

liminary reference to Phragmites is now changed by Mr. Hollick to the

tropical genus Arundo.

A paper followed by Mr. E. O. Wooten, “ Remarks on some of the

rarer Plants of New Mexico.”

Mr. Wooton sketched briefly the botanical regions of New Mexico,

dividing the territory by differences in the flora into (a) the river val-

leys, (b) the table-lands or mesas; (c) the dry, rocky and narrow moun-

tain ranges, and (d) those areas which are of uniformly high altitude

and have numerous mountain ranges closely associated and more or

less timbered. He also traced upon a map the routes trasvered by

most of the botanical collectors who have visited New Mexico, begin-

ning with Pike and including Long, Gregg, W islizenus in 1846, Emory,

Marcy, Sitgreaves, and Woodhouse, with the work of the Mexican

Boundary and other surveys, 1849 and after. Mr. Wooten was himself

practically the first to make collections in the south-east section of the

territory, a very interesting, botanical region, with high mountains,

some of which were illustrated by photographs. Specimens of Mr.

Wooton’s collecting were then shown exhibiting about 35 flowering

plants and ferns, and including among those familiar in the east, Pel-

lea atropurpures, Cystopteris fragilis, Pteris aquilina and Cheilanthes

tomentosa.

Discussing Mr. Wooton’s presentation, Dr. Rusby spoke of his own

former travels in New Mexico, and of various incidents of that journey,

as of the discovery of Primula Parryi on the top of Gray’s Peak (cen-

472. The American Naturalist. [May,

tral Arizona) blooming on July 2d under three or four inches of snow -

which had just fallen.

Mr. Rydberg compared some of the features presented by the sand

region of Central Nebraska; referred to Muhlenbergia pungens and

other so-called “ blow-out grasses” of the sand-hills; and described the

formation of the characteristic “ blow-outs” or hollows, originating in

spots where the grasses had died out, and deepening rapidly, sometimes

to 300 feet, producing a country where the hills are moving every year,

‘and where when camping he could find no fuel except roots of sand-

cheeries exposed along fresh “ blow-outs.”

Discussion by Dr. Allen, Mr. Wooton and Dr. Rusby followed rela-

tive to the loco-weed poison. Mr. Wooton said that species (formerly

Oxytropis) lambert. is the chief loco-weed about Flagstaff (Arizona);

that cattle men claim that the well fed animal. will not touch it, but

that those which have formed the taste will not eat anything else.

Reasons were urged by the speakers for the belief that the results of the

loco-weed are due simply to mal-nutrition, or to effect of seeds alone, or

to a posion (as extracted by Sheldon) diffused in git minute quantities

throughout the plant.

The next paper was by Dr. H. M. Richards of Barnard College, “ On

some of the Reactions of Plants toward Injury.”

Dr. Richards spoke on certain effects of wounding upon the func-

tions of various plant organs as shown by his own experiments in

Germany last summer. Diagrams illustrating the effect of injury upon

both respiration and’temperature were shown. In the former case it

was seen that the respiration is greatly increased by wounding, attain-

ing its maximum about 24 hours after the injury was inflicted ; this

increase depending both on the stimulus of the wound itself and upon

the access of atmospheric oxygen to the tissues. The occurrence of a

corresponding rise in temperature, of a local nature, was also briefly

referred to; the temperature curve corresponding closely to that de-

scribed by the increased respiratory activity. The thermeelectric ap-

paratus used was described ; its delicacy is such as to indicate a differ-

ence of ¢}5 of a degree; the result with potatoes showing a maximum

rise of temperature of a little over y of a degree at the end of the second

day, falling to the end of the 5th day. A remarkable temperature rise

in the onion of nearly 3} degrees was explained by the fact that here the

rise was not local but affected the whole onion, in accordance with its

morphological structure, and with the fact that metabolism is carried

on very fast in the onion.

1897,] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 473

The paper was discussed by Dr. Jelliffe and by Dr. Britton, especially

with regard to the sudden escape of CO, after wounding, Dr. Richards

considering it to be due largely to contents of intercellular spaces, but

partly to solution within the cells; potatoes contain a very considerable

amount of enclosed CO,, a quart of it being obtained from a pound of

potatoes. Dr. Richards distinguished carefully the coincident but inde-

pendent escape of a slight amount of CO, always aires off, even in pure

hydrogen ; to be called “ intermolecular respiration.”

The next paper was a contribution read by title, from Dr. Alexander

Zahlbriickner of Vienna, a corresponding member of the club, entitled,

“ Revisio Lobeliacearum Boliviensium hucusque cognitarum.” The

paper, which is in Latin, enumerates all the species, giving synonymy

and references to the literature, and cites collectors and their numbers.

There are 39 species, as follows: 9 in Centropogon, 2 new; 20 in Sipho-

eampylos, T new; 1 in Laurentia; 2 in Rhizocephalum ; 3 in Hypsela;

4 in Lobelia. The paper will be printed in the Bulletin.

Tuesday evening, March 9, 1897.—The ev ening was devoted to ferns

with papers as follows:

1. Mrs. Elizabeth G. Britton, “ Notes on some Mexican Ferns;”

presented in Mrs. Britton’s absence by Dr. Rusby, with exhibition of

numerous specimens, including species of Pellzea, Polypodium, Cysto-

pteris and Cheilanthes. Dr. Rusby, having been himself present at

their collection, described vividly the tongue of hard, black lava on

which the collectors walked, and which was filled with large cavities

often forming caves, containing some accumulation of soil and crowded

with a luxuriant growth of ferns although in November and practically

the winter season.

2. Mr. Willard N. Clute, “The New York Stations for Scolopandr-

ium.” Mr. Clute contrasted the wide distribution of the Hart’s tongue

fern in the old world, from the Azores to Japan, with the extremely

local North American occurrence, in five areas only, Mexico, Tennessee,

‘Central New York, Owen Sound in Ontario, and New Brunswick.

The Central New York locality was made known early in the present

century through John Williamson, and was visited by Pursh in July,

1807, who found it five miles west of Syracuse on the farm of J. Ged-

des, where it has recently been rediscovered. About 1827, Wm. Cooper

discovered it at Chittenango Falls where Mr. Clute found hundreds of

plants growing last summer. Mr. Clute described the Chittenango

ravine and its ferns. On sunny exposures of the limestone walls of the

ravine grow rue spleenwort and purple cliff-brake in quanities ; in shady

places, the slender cliff-brake; on the talus, upon the larger bowlders,

474 The American Naturalist. [May,

the walking fern, and in the shade of these bowlders, the Scolopendrium,

chiefly ‘in clusters of 2 to 6, at first erect, finally somewhat drooping,

and ripe in September. Mr. Clute added that the species seems to be

increasing at present, being now under the protection of an association.

Prof. Burgess remarked upon the former scarcity of the fern in that

locality as reported to him by Dr. Torrey of Chittenango about 1874,

and by Dr. Morong who could find none at his visit about 1876.

Prof. Underwood spoke of the Jamesville locality, also on the corni-

ferous limestone in Onondaga Co., where 20 years ago he found it quite

common about two small lakes, but becoming soon exhausted at the one

most frequently visited. He queried why it should not occur at other

ledges of the corniferous limestone throughout Western New York, and

why it should confine itself to that rock here while in England it fre-

quents sandstone, shale and limestone indifferently. Dr. Britton then

remarked that in Europe (and Nova Scotia) Campanula rotundifolia

grows in meadows, but here on rocks; Cerastium arvense also grows in

Europe in fields, but here on rocks.

Dr. Britton said that Scolopendrium is probably a case like that of

Sequoia and Brasenia of originally much wider distribution, where the

isolated plants owe their survival to favorable conditions. He cited

Epipactis among orchids as a parallel in distribution, confined here to

Central New York and Ontario, but wide-spread in the old world.

Mr. Benj. D. Gilbert added an interesting comparison of the growth

of Scolopendrium at stations where he had collected it at Jamesville

and Chittenango Falls, also in southern France, northern Italy, and.

Undercliff in the Isle of Wight. In the warm shelter of the latter

place, it is more luxuriant than anywhere else, showing great tendency

to sport, displaying forking tips and deeply cordate bases as at Chiten-

ango Falls.

3. The third paper was by Mr. B. D. Gilbert, of Utica, N. Y., en-

titled, “ New and interesting Ferns from Bolivia,” with exhibition of —

specimens of two new ferns, Blechnum nigro-squamatum and Nephrod-

ium villosum inæquilaterale Gilbert, the first peculiar in being fully

pinnate, the second in being a one-sided dwarf persistently under a foot.

and a half high, instead of 4 or 5 feet as its type.

4. The fourth paper, also by Mr. Gilbert, “Jamaica, the Fern-Lov-

er’s Paradise, described the abundance of species and of individuals

which the speaker had collected there, illustrating the subject by numer-

ous specimens. He remarked that Swartz in his Species filicum, 1783-

’86, enumerating all then known ferns, described 709 species; of which

149 were from Jamaica; the Jamaican number was raised to 300 by

1897.] Proceedings of Scientifie Societies. 475

Grisebach and now to 500 by resident botanists there, an estimate con-

firmed by Mr. Gilbert. Probably no other equal area produced half

that number. Among reasons which account for this are the warm

latitude of Jamaica, its south shore sheltered from coolor breezes by a

mountain-wall, its mountains themselves rising to 7,000 feet and reach-

ing into a cool temperate climate, and its great variation in moisture,

with daily rains in the mountains and sometimes but twice in six

months on the plain. Mr, Gilbert described in particular his experi-

ences with the tree-ferns reached by a long journey on foot, high in

the Blue Mountains, there forming unmixed groves, their stems supply-

ing the only wood readily obtainable. One, Alsophila armata, reaches

50 feet in height, though its slender stem is but a few inches in diameter.

No class of ferns is as yet so poorly described, as the tree-ferns ; descrip-

tion should be from the living specimen and at the locality ; the only

such in English are those in Thwaites’ Flora of Ceylon. Jamaica is

remarkable in particular for its numerous Filmy Ferns, 26 species

(out of 280 known); these are all in the three eastern parishes. In

the east part Blochnum occidentalis is the common fern of the road-

sides; Polypodium reptans was seen everywhere, now growing erect ;

one bank 30 x 25 feet was completely covered with Gleichenia pectin-

acea. The great number of endemic species is surprising ; as if the

work of differentiation had gone on there with greater activity and

vital power than anywhere else in the world; every genus in Jamaica

shows one or more endemic species.

Mr. Gilbert closed by exhibiting specimens of three new species from

Jamaica, belonging to Asplenium, Dryopteris and Polypodium, and also-

of a number of rare species as Entomosora campbellii, Gymnogramma

schizophylla and Adiautum candollei. His paper was discussed by

President Brown, Prof. Underwood and Dr. Rusby, the latter referring

to the uses made of tree-ferns in New Zealand, as compared with the

use for timber and for posts in Jamaica.—Epwarp S. BURGESS, Secre-

tary.

The Chicago Academy of Sciences.—The spring course of

lectures for 1897 were as follows: March 12. Amelia Weed Holbrook,

“ The Antiquity of (so-called) Modern Inventions.” March 19. Alja

Robinson Crook, Ph. D., Professor of Mineralogy and Petrology,

Northwestern Livesey. “ Some Geological Causes of the Scenery of

Yellowstone National Park.” Illustrated with stereopticon. March 26.

Frank Collins Baker, B. S. Secretary and Curator, Chicago Academy

of Sciences. “ The History of Creation as Revealed in the Rocks.” In

476 The American Naturalist. [May,

this lecture, ideal landscapes and curious animals of prehistoric

ages was shown by the stereopticon. April 2: A. W. Hitt, M. D.

“ Leprosy, its Causes and Prevalence.” Illustrated with stereopticon.

- This lecture was a popular talk upon this little known subject. April

9. Frank Collins Baker, B. S. ‘‘ Types of Animals.” This lecture

was a repetition by request, with some modifications, of the lecture

given in February on the Evolution of Animals. The school children

were particularly invited, as it was intended more for their instruction,

than for the older members of the audience. April 16. H. H. Brown,

M. D., Professor of Didactic and re Ophthalmology, Illinois Med-

ical College. “ The Eye.”

The Biological Society of Washington.—The 274th regular

meeting was held on Saturday evening, March 27, 1897, in the Assem-

bly Hall of the Cosmos Club, after Brief Informal Notes and Exhibi-

tion of Specimens, the following communications were read: M. B.

Waite, “ Factors Governing Pear Blight”; Theo. Holm, “ The Grass

Embryo and its Constituents”; E. A. De Schweinitz, “ Some Methods

of Generating Formaldehyde aed its use as a Disinfociant. —FREDERIC

A. Lucas, Secretary.

Anthropological Society of Washington.—The 263d Regular

Meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, on Tuesday, April 20. “Scopelism,” Dr. Robert Fletcher ;

“ Unusual Frequency of Wormian Bones in the Coronal Suture of

Artifically Deformed Kwakiutl Crania,” Mr. George A. Dorsey ;

“‘ Measurements and Indices of the Long Bones of the Kwakiutl and

Salish Indians,” Mr. George A. Dorsey —Wesron Fuint, Secretary

Board of Managers.

N. S. I. S.—The Ordinary Monthly Meeting of the Nova Scotian

Institute of Sciences were held in the Legislative Council Chamber,

Province Building, Halifax, on Monday, the 12th of April. The fol-

lowing papers were read: “ A Note on our Calcareous Algæ,” by A. H.

MacKay, Esq., LL. D., F. S. Sc., F. R. S. C. Superintendent of Educa-

tion; “Zoological Notes,” by Harry Piers, Esq Harry PIERS,

Secretary.

The Association of American Anatomists.—March 30, 1897-

—The next meeting of this Association will be held in Washington city

in connection with the Congress of American Physicans and Surgeons,

Tuesday to Thursday, May 4 to 6, 1897.

The meetings of the Congress will be held in the Columbia Theater,

corner of Twelfth and F Streets, N. W., from 2 to5 P. M. daily. Those

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 477

of this Association accordingly will be held in the mornings, from 9 to

12.30, unless otherwise ordered by the Association, and in the Physical

Laboratory of Columbian, University, corner Fifteenth and H. Streets,

N. W.

The titles of but four papers have thus far been received, to wit: by

Dr. Wilder, “ Notes on the Biceps ” and “ The definite encephalic seg-

ments and their designation ;” by Dr. Stroud, “ Comparative anatomy

of the cerebellum” and “On Brain Preservation ;” all of them illustra-

ted by specimens, photographs and charts.

Members who intend to read papers or present specimens will please

send titles to the Secretary as soon as convenient, that they may appear

on the printed program

The statue of Prof. Sane D. Gross will be dedicated during the

Congress.

Blank forms of application for membership will be sent on applica-

tion.— D. S. Lamp, Secretary and Treasurer.

The Academy of Science of St. Louis.—At the meeting of

the Academy of Science of St. Louis held on the evening of April 5,

1897, Professor Frederic Starr, of the University of Chicago, briefly

addressed the Academy on the functions of such organizations, with

especial reference to the local problems. Mr. H. C. Irish presented a

paper on the relations of the unfolding of plants in spring to meteroro-

logical conditions, in which were embodied deductions drawn from a

series of observations made at the Missouri Botanical Garden, and those

by other observers, extending back to the time of Stillingfleet, in the

last century. Mr. Charles Robertson presented for publication a paper

entitled North American Bees—Descriptions and Synonyms.—W m.

TRELEASE, Secretary.

The Botanical Seminar of the University of Nebraska.—

February 27, 1897.—The Periodicity of Flowering, Mr. F. E. Clem-

ents; Herbaceous Vegetation-Forms, Mr. Roscoe Pound; The Karyo-

logy of the Ascomycetes; a Review, Mr. C. L. Shear; Organogeny of

the Genus Prunus, Mr. A. T. Bell. March 27, 1897.—Chimney-shaped

Stomata in Greatly-thickened Epidermis, Dr. C. E. Bessey ; Seed Pro-

duction and Disseminations as Accessory Characters, Mr. F. E. Cle-

ments ; Statistics Ecological and Distributional of Nebraska Grasses,

Mr. Roscoe Pound ; The Origin of the rudimentary Ovules in Clematis,

Mr. Ernst A. Bessey.

478 The American Naturalist. [May,

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Prof. Edward D. Cope died in Philadelphia, April 12, 1897, aged

56 years.

Among the recent calls and advancements in position we note the

following: Karl Futterer to the professorship of mineralogy and

geology in the Technical School at Karlsruhe ; Peter August Pauly to the

head of the zoological institute of the experiment station recently estab-

lished in connection with the University of Munich ; Dr. Erich Wernicke

to be professor extraordinarius of hygiene in the University of Marburg ;

Dr. Alexander P. Anderson to the professorship of botany in Clemson

College ; Dr. Fritz Noll to be titular professor of physiology in the Uni-

versity of Heidelberg ; Dr. Carl Burckhardt, of Basel, to the position of

geologist in the Museum of La Plata; Dr. Leo Webrli, of Zürich, to be

mineralogist in the same institution; Dr. Lugni Buscalioni, of Turin,

to the assistantship in the Botanical Institute of the University of Rome ;

Dr. Pietro Cannarella to be assistant in the Botanical Garden at

Catania; Anton Pestalozzi, assistant in the Botanical Museum of the

University of Ziirich; Dr. Johannus Petruschky to the directorship of

the Hygienic-Bacterological Institute in Danzig; Dr. Hermann Ross,

of Palermo, to the position of custodian of the Botanical Gardens of

Munich ; Wladimir Iwan Palladin, of Charkoff, to the professorship

of Botany in Warsaw; Dr. Siedentopf, of Göttingen, to the position of

assistant in mineralogy in the University of Griefswald; Dr. Karl

Eckstein to be titular professor of zoology in the Academy of Forestry

at Eberswalde ; Dr. Ludwig Plate to be titular professor of zoology

in the University of Berlin; Dr. William E. Castle to the instructor-

ship of biology in Knox College; Dr. Romeo Fusari to the professor-

ship of human anatomy in the University of Modena; Dragutin

Gorjanovish-Kramberger to the professorship of geology and paleon-

tology in the University of Agram ; Anton Heinz to the professorship

of botany in Agram; Dr. Mijat Kishpatish to the professorship of

mineralogy and petrography in Agram ; Dr. Hans Lenk, of Erlangen,

to the professorship of geology and mineralogy in the University of

Würzburg; Dr. Giulio Valente, of Perugia, to the professorship of

human anatomy in the University of Catania; A. Engler to the pro-

fessorship of forestry in Ziirich; Dr. Walter Felix to be professor

extraordinarius of osteology in Ziirich; Dr. Siegfried Mollier, of

Miinich, to be professor extraordinarius of anatomy in Göttingen ;

Dr. Umberto Rossi, of Florence, to be professor extraordinarius of

human anatomy in Perugia; Dr. Joseph Kriechbaumer to be con-

servator of the Zoological Collections in Munich; J. J. Luehmann to

1897]. Scientific News. 479

the directorship of the Herbarium of Melbourne; Johannes Riichert to

the professorship of descriptive and topographical anatomy in the

University of Munich; Pasquale Baccarini to the professorship of

botany in the University of Catania; Prof. Alexander Fischer von

Waldheim, of Warsaw, to the position of director of the Botanical

Gardens in St. Petersburg; Dr. Oswald Kruch to the professorship of

botany in the Agricultural Institute in Perugia; Isaac H. Burkell, of

Cambridge (Eng.), to a position as assistant in the Kew Herbarium;

Emilio Chiovenda to the conservatorship of the Botanical Collections

of the University of Rome; Dr. Biagio Longo as assistant in the Botan-

ical Institute of the University of Rome; Dr. Achille Terracciano as

assistant in the Botanical Institute of Palermo; Dr. Beckenkamp, of

Mülhausen, to the professorship of mineralogy at Wiirzberg; Dr.

Gaupp to be professor extraordinarius of anatomy at the University

of Freiburg.

Recent Deaths :—Dr. Emile Moreau, ichthyologist, at Paris, Septem-

ber 11, 1896; Joseph Chappell, entomologist, at Manchester, Eng.,

October 3, aged 67; Dr. Rudolf Raimann, botanist, as Vienna, Decem-

ber 5, aged 33; Joseph Ullepitsch, botanist, at Wilfersdorf, Austria,

December 16, at the age of 68 ; Professor Joseph von Gerlach, anatom-

ist, of Munich, December 17, aged 76; Ferdinand Morowitz, Vice-

President of the Russian Entomological Society and a student of

Hymenoptera, December 17, aged 70; Lugui Calori, professor of

anatomy in the University of Bologna, December 19, aged 90; Dr.

Theodor Lickfett, director of the Bacteriological Institute in Danzig,

December 28, aged 49; Heinrich Gaetke, ornithologist, of Helgoland,

January 1, aged 83; Franz von Baur, Professor of Forestry, at Munich,

January 2, aged 66; Dr. August Streng, professor of mineralogy, at

Giessen, January 7, aged 67; Dr. A. A. van Bemmeln, director of the

Zoological Garden at Rotterdam, January 9; Dr. Karl Heitzman,

anatomist, at Rome, aged 61; Sven Anders Bernhard Lundgren, pro-

fessor of geology in the University of Lund, January 7, aged 53; Alois

Rogenhofer, student of Lepidoptera, at Vienna, January 15, aged 65;

Salvatore Trinchese, professor of comparative anatomy in the Uni-

versity of Naples, January 18; Hermann von Nordlinger, formerly

professor of forestry in the University of Tiibingen, at Stuttgart, Jan-

uary 19, aged 78; Frederick Isaac Warner, botanist, at Winchester,

Eng., November 8, aged 54; Antonio Cecchi, African traveller, killed

by the natives in Somali Land, November 26 ; Dr. Paul Taubert, botan-

ist, at Manaos, No. Brazil, January 1; C. F.Wiepkin, for nearly 60 years

director of the Museum at Oldenburg, January 29; Constantin, Baron

480 The American Naturalist. [May,

of Ettinghausen, phytopaleontologist and professor of botany in the

University of Graz, February 1, aged 76; Dr. Otto Buchner, in Gies-

sen, February 5, aged 68 years; Dr. Filippo Togrini, conservator of

the Botanical Institute at Pavia ; Ernst Georg Dannenberg, lichenolog-

ist, at Fulda, Germany, December 4; M. Thollen, botanist and chief of

the exploration of the French Congo, at Libreville, January; Jean

Baptiste Barla, director of the Natural History Museum in Nice; Dr,

Berthand, professor of geology in Lille; Georg Gercke, student of

Diptera, in Hamburg; Jaroslar Koshtal, assistant in zoology in the

Technical School at Prague.

Veteran Scientist Honored.—The Kansas Academy of Science

at its recent annual meeting at Topeka placed the name of Chaplain

John D. Parker on the roll of life members, as a recognition of his

effective services in organizing science in the west. During the last

thirty years he has originated the following scientific associations, viz. :

Kansas Academy of Science, Kansas City Academy of Science, and

California Science Association. The Indiana Academy of Science and

the Ohio Academy of Science were organized on the plan of the Kan-

sas Academy of Science, and under the scientific impulse derived from

it, and the Ohio Academy of Science was originated by one of its former

members. The field occupied by these academies contains a third of

a million square miles, and about 10,000,000 people, whose opportun-

ities for scientific knowledge have been greatly increased by these soci-

eties. About 1,000 men and women are connected with these associa-

tions, representing every branch of science, and many of these scientists

have become distinguished in their various departments.

Chaplain Parker says he has pursued this life work most assiduously,

but at times under great financial discouragements, and sometimes in

sickness and pain and feebleness, still it has been the joy of his life, and

he has great satisfaction in knowing that his associates and fellow work-

ers have accomplished such a noble and enduring work for science.

When Chaplain Parker came to San Diego five years ago, his physi-

cian despaired of his life. Now, under the magical influence of this

climate, his health is nearly recovered, and he looks forward hopefully

to future years of usefulness.— The San Diegan Sun.

Mr. Lawrence Bruner, of the University of Nebraska, has sailed to

Argentina to study the ravages of the locusts, which have recently

developed into a terrible pest, certain regions being completely devas-

tated by them. The Argentine Government has appropriated $400-

000 for relief while a syndicate of business men have raised funds to

1897.] Scientific News. 481

employ an entomologist to study the question. Mr. Bruner will remain

a year at their expense. His labors as an economic entomologist have

especially fitted him for this work. His place at Nebraska will be filled

by his assistant, Mr. Hunter, during his absence.

The National Academy of Science has appointed Dr. Theodore N.

Gill to prepare the biography of the late Professor Cope. Professor

Cope was to have delivered the address as retiring president before the

American Association for the Advancement of Science at its Detroit

meeting. Dr. Gill as first vice-president will be the acting president

and will deliver a memorial address upon the scientific work of Pro-

fessor Cope.

The following persons have recently qualified themselves for the posi-

tion of privat-docent : Dr. Alfred Bergeat for geology in the University

of Munich; Dr. René Du Bois Reymond for physiology in the Uni-

versity of Berlin; Dr. A. Landauer for physiology in the University

of Budapesth ; Dr. Franz Nissl for anatomy in the University of Hei-

delberg ; Dr. Heinrich Sachs for anatomy in the University of Breslau.

Professor Johannes von Kries, of F reiburg, who was called to the

chair of physiology in the University of Berlin, as successor to the late

Professor Du Bois Reymond, has decided to remain in Freiburg.

Dr. Henri Filhol, professor of anatomy in the Museum of Natural

History of Paris, has been elected to membership in the Academy of

Sciences of Paris, as successor to the late Professor Sappey.

Dr. F. Saccardo, professor in the enological school at Avellino, and

known for his studies of lichens, died Oct. 6, 1896, aged 27 years. He

was a nephew of Dr. P. A. Saccardo, the mycologist.

Dr. W. A. Rothert has been advanced to the position of professor ex-

traordinarius of botany in the University of Kazan, and Dr. O. Seeliger

to the chair of zoology in the University of Berlin.

Dr. Beer has qualified as privat-docent in comparative physiology in

the University of Vienna, and Dr. R. Krause as privat-docent in an-

atomy in the University of Berlin.

Among other recent deaths we notice those of S. Scholz-Rogozinski,

African traveler; P. Briard, mycologist; A. S. Smith, ornithologist,

and Dr. G. W. Child, botanist.

Professor Karl Alfred von Zittel, professor in paleontology in

Munich, has been elected corresponding member of the Academy of

Sciences in St. Petersburg.

33 `

482 The American Naturalist. [May,

Dr. J. A. Oudemanns has resigned his position as director of the

Botanical Gardens at Amsterdam, and Dr. Hugo de Vries has been ap-

pointed as his successor.

The government of the Transvaal, South A frica, is about to establish

a University at Pretoria. Instruction will be given in the Dutch

language.

The Royal Academy of Sciences, in Berlin, has elected Professor E.

H. Ehlers, of Göttingen, to associate membership in the class of zoology.

Prof. B. C. Brühl, for nearly forty years professor of anatomy in the

University of Vienna, has resigned and removed to Gratz.

S. Flower, the son of Sir W. H. Flower of the British Museum, has

gone to Bangkok as director of the Royal Museum of Siam.

Dr. O. Penziz, professor of botany in the University of Genoa, has

gone on a long trip for botanical study in the East Indies.

Miss A. M. Claypole has been appointed instructor in zoology, and

Miss J. Evans instructor in botany in Wellesley College.

Dr. G. Dewalque, professor of physical geography and geology in

the University of Liege, has resigned on account of age.

The Academy of Sciences of Paris has elected the mineralogist Gustav

Tschermak. of Vienna, to corresponding membership.

Dr. H. G. Hallier has resigned his position in the Botanical Station

at Buitenzorg, Java, and has returned to Germany.

Prof. M. Schiff, who occupied the chair of physiology in the Univer-

sity of Geneva, died Oct. 6, 1896, at the age of 73

The director of the Bacteriological Institute of the University of

Vienna, Dr. R. Kerry, died Oct. 19, 1896.

W. Whitaker, for forty years district surveyor of the Geological Sur-

vey of England, has resigned his position.

Dr. Rudolf Schäfer has resigned his position as custodian of the

paleontological Collections in Munich.

Professor Alfred Hughes, of the chair of anatomy in the University

College, Cardiff, Wales, has resigned.

Professor W. Kühne, of Heidelberg, has refused a call to Berlin, as

a successor to Du Bois Reymond.

1897,] Scientific News. 483

Dr. F. Graeff, of Freiburg, i. B., goes tothe University of Breslau as

professor extraordinarius of mineralogy.

Dr. F. von Miiller, government botanist at Victoria, died at Mel-

-bourne, Oct. 9, 1896, aged 71.

Dr. Müller has resigned his position as director of the Zoological

Gardens at Königsberg, i. P.

Dr. J. A. Moloney, the African traveler, died in Surtiton, So. Africa,

Oct. 5, 1896, aged 36 years.

F. A. Hazslinsky de Hazlin, the nestor of Hungarian Botanists, died

in Eperjes, Nov. 19, 1896.

Dr. Teodoro Caruel, professor of botany in the University of

Florence, has retire

Prof. A. Negri, Hii and paleontologist of Padua, committed sui-

cide Dec. 11, 1896.

Prof. A. Batalin, director of the Botanical Garden at St. Petersburg,

died Oct. 15, 1896

Sir B. W. Richardson, histologist, died in London, Nov. 21, 1896,

aged 68 years.

E. C. Thurber, ornithologist, died September 6, 1896, at Alhambra,

‘California.

Thomas Egleston, Professor of Mineralogy in Columbia College, has

resigned.

A. Trecul, botanist, of Paris, died Oct. 17, 1896, at the age of 70.

The following important announcement is extracted from a private

letter just received by the Managing Editor pro tem. of this journal

from Prof. Th. Tschernychew, and relates to regulation of the Com-

mittee of Organization of the International Geological Congress by

which it would be well for all universities and scientific societies to

profit. The translation follows:

International Geological Congress,

7th Session, 1897.

Honored Sir :—In answer to your letter of the 25th of March I have

the honor to announce that all Scientific Societies which inscribe them-

selves members of the Congress will receive its publications. The bu-

reau considers it a duty to thank you for having distributed its circu-

lars to geologists in America, and to inform you that from this time

Sr. PETERSBURG, April 3, 1897.

484 The American Naturalist. [May,

on the number of persons who have inscribed themselves is so great—

nearly 700—that it will be absolutely impossible to enable them all to

take part in the excursions.

As to the delegates of the different scientific institutions, the Com-

mittee of Organization, desiring to follow the precedent established by

former Congresses, hopes that each of those institutions which desires to

have itself represented by a delegate will not fail to announce his name

in advance.

Accept the assurance of my most distinguished consideration.

SCHERNYSCHEW.

Dr. PERSIFOR FRAZER,

Room 1042 Drexel Building,

Philadelphia, U. S. A.

Learned societies and other similar bodies which desire to profit by

this permission, should address Mr. A. O. Michalski, Comité Géolgique,

St. Petersburg, Wassili Ostrow. 4™° ligne, enclosing a draft for twenty-

two franes and specifically stating the name of the Society which

wishes to be inscribed a member of the Congress, and also that in

addition to the twelve francs which are sent as membership dues, ten

francs are added for the livret guide (which will contain very valuable

information).—P. F.

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AE TE T

Vol. XXXI. JUNE, 1897. No. 366

PAGE PAGE

TOXODONTTA. es E. D. Cope. 485 of the sie ee er Syren of the Serra

Monthique—Note . 520

ON THE Os OF MACROPETALICHTHYS,

(Illustrated.) C. R. Eastman.

THE GoLDEN-EYE oR LACE-WING FLY.

(Illustrated. )

BIOLOGICAL STUDIES IN MASSACHUSETTS,

(Ilustrated.) G. C. Wi

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£: Cope.

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4 ECENT Books AND PAMPHLETS. . .’« + »

| GENERAL Nores.

LE Ea Enclosures in Triassic

i En gland mas t } D k

near rae opami Ga oep ophyre Dyke

ros near Rons

Clarence Moores Weed. §

503

509

. 510

. o18

rg,

mia —Exotic Blocks i in n the Eocene Schists

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AMAR E RAR paradoxa. (Ilustrated)

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- THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXXI. June, 1897. 366

TOXODONTIA.

By E. D. Copr.

In this order of Ungulates the carpus is partly diplarthrous,

while the tarsus is taxeopodous. The carpus is quite like that

of the Amblypoda, the scaphoid bone not extending external

to the trapezoides, while the lunar has a well-marked articula-

tion with the unciform. The tarsus, on the other hand, is

like that of the Taxeopoda in general, but adheres strictly to

the Ungulate type in the truncate and non-moveable articula-

tion of the astragalus with the succeeding element, the navi-

cular. The ungues vary from broadly to narrowly ungulate ;

as in Toxodon they resemble those of a rhinoceros, and in Ty-

potherium those of some of the subungulate Glires, as the

Capybara. The known members of the order are plantigrade,

or nearly so. In all of them the fibula articulates with the

calcaneum. In some of them there is no clavicle, while in

others it is present. The dentition is lophodont, becoming

ptychodont in some of the later forms; quadri- and tritu-

bereular forms being unknown. In details the families and

genera differ much among themselves. I therefore consider

the further characters under the respective heads. I adopt

the system of Ameghino, which seems to express their affini-

ties very closely.

486 The American Naturalist. [June,

. Some or all of the molars rooted.

Last inferior premolar at least with four roots.

Incisors with simple closed roots ; Atryptherude.

> m

AA. Inferior premolar with two roots.

Incisors with simple closed roots, and no enamel ;

Interathervide.

Several incisors with open roots and an anterior enamel

band as in the Glires; other incisors with closed roots;

Protoxodontide.

II. Molar teeth with simple open roots.

A. Inferior molars curved outwards.

Enamel covered by cement; Typotheriide.

Enamel exposed ; Xotodontide.

AA. Inferior molars curved inwards.

Enamel not covered by cement; Toxodontiide.

The skeleton is best known in the typical genera of the

families Typotheriide and Toxodontide. In Typotherium

there is a clavicle, and the femur has a third trochanter.

The sacrum is elongate, including nine vertebrae, and the

ischium articulates with the posterior of these, as the

ilium does with the anterior. In Toxodon there is no

clavicle, the femur has no third trochanter, and the ilium

only articulates with the sacrum, which consists of five verte-

bre. In both genera there is a central bone of the carpus.

According to Ameghino, the families with rooted molars

are of prior geologic age to those with the prismatic type

with open roots. This succession is parallel to the history

of the families of the Glires and the Diplarthra. The fol-

lowing table of affinities and phylogeny is given by Ame

ghino :—

Typotheriidee Xotodontidee Toxodontide

Protoxodontide

Interatheriide Atrypotheriide

1897.] Toxodontia. 487

The molar teeth in this order are furnished with enamel

over the summit of the crown, and in bands on its shaft, when

present. In the superior molars there is a longitudinal ex-

terior wall, and from one to three more or less oblique trans-

verse crests running inwards from it, when the crowns are not

entirely simple. The summit of the crown is soon worn away

and the tooth then displays the pattern of a transverse section.

The inferior molars are much narrower than the superior, and

have several lobes on the internal side (in section). The in-

cisors are more or less specialized towards gliriform types in

the later genera. The canines are always small when present.

There are but two certainly known genera of ATRYPTHER-

11D&, which differ as follows :—

Pm. x with four roots; two molars with open roots; an infe-

rior canine; Atryptherium Amegh.

Pm. ; and ; and m. ; with four roots; m. and m. with open

roots; no inferior canine ; Scopotherium Amegh.

Each of the above genera contained but a single species of

about the size of a tapir, from the Eocene beds of Patagonia.

The genus Nesodon Owen from the same region and horizon

may be identical with Scopotherium, according to Ameghino,

but the structure of the roots of the inferior molar is unknown.

Two species are known, N. ovinus, the size of a sheep, and N.

imbricatus Ow. as large as a tapir. In all of these forms the

incisors are not much specialized, but are subequal.

In the ĪNTERATHERIIDÆ the incisors are still unspecialized

in the gliriform direction, and ‘their roots are conic and closed.

The four genera differ as follows :—

I. Pms. 2 and y with distinct roots. Incisors diminishing in

size externally ; Interatherium Moreno.

II. All molars rootless and open.

Pm.s and z consisting of two subequal columns; incisors

diminishing outwards; Icochilus Amegh.

Pm. s and ; of two columns, the anterior much larger

than the posterior; external incisor with expanded

crown, which is bilobate on the internal side;

Protypotherium Amegh.

488 The American Naturalist. [June,

Like Protypotherium, but all the inferior incisors with ex-

panded crown, which is bilobate on the internal side;

Patriarchus Amegh.

All the genera and most of the species of this family have

been derived from the Eocene beds of Patagonia. One species

of Protypotherium has been found in the Oligocene of the

same region, and another species of the same genus in the

Miocene of Buenos Ayres.

There are two species of Interatherium which were about

the dimensions of hares and rabbits. The four species of Ico-

chilus and the five of Protypotherium ranged from the size of

our Lepus silvaticus up to that of a fisher weasel or a little

larger. The single Patriarchus, P. paluridens Amegh., rather

exceeded the latter animal. Its incisor teeth are peculiar in

their expanded crowns, with a deep longitudinal groove on

the internal side.

The genera and species of the PROTOXODONTIDÆ are all from

the Eocene beds of Patagonia, with one uncertain exception.

The former differ as follows, according to Ameghino :—

I. Molars with base more or less rooted, and with crown with

unequal lobes.

œ Superior incisors regularly diminishing outwards.

Molars with imperfect roots and open base ;

Adelpbothevitim Amegh.

aa Second incisor largest and with open base; I. 3 rudi-

mental or small.

ß I. 1 present.

Eight superior molars ; Acrotherium Amegh.

Superior molars 7 ; first inferior premolar one-rooted ; .

Adinotherium Amegh.

Superior molars 7; Pm. } and 2 one-rooted ;

Protoxodon Amegh.

221.1 wanting.

I. 2 triangular in section; Phoberotherium Amegh.

II. Inferior molors rooted and with opposite lateral grooves.

Anterior column of molars smaller than posterior ;

Calpodon Burm.

1897.] Toxodontia. 489

III. Inferior molars rootless and with open base, and with op-

posite lateral grooves. Anterior columns smaller than

posterior ; shaft curved inwards; Gronotheriwm Amegh.

Where the feet are known in this family, they exhibit three

digits anteriorly and three posteriorly, which is remarkable in

genera of such early age (Acrotherium, Adinotherium and

Protoxodon). The possession of eight molars by Acrotherium

is a remarkable fact, and one which reminds us of the Sirenia,

to which Owen thought the Toxodontia to be allied. Ame-

ghino regards them as representing five premolars and three

true molars.

The species of the above genera were of various dimensions,

but generally exceeded those of the Interatheriide. The

smallest is the Colpodon limitatum Amegh., which does not ex-

ceed a rabbit, but other species equaled deer in dimensions,

and the Protozodon sullivanii of Owen and Acrotherium rusticum

Amegh. reached the size of the ox.

In the increased development of the second incisor an ap-

proach to the Toxodontide is seen, and the same tendency is

exhibited in the open rooted and incurved crowns of the true

molars in Gronotherium. Fifteen species of the family are

known, of which four belong to Protoxodon and five to Adino-

therium.

Taking up another line of departure from the Interatheriidæ,

we reach the TYPOTHERIID®, one of the two principal types by

which the order Toxodontia was represented at the time of its

extinction at the end of the Pliocene. We find here a great

specialization of the first incisors in both jaws, and a gradual

extinction of the third and second, so that in Typotherium

this part of the dentition is decidedly gliriform, so much so

that some authors have placed this family in the order Glires.

In the oldest genus (Hegetotherium Amegh.) the molars are

simple and of oval section, while in the latest forms they are

lophodont with an external longitudinal and internal trans-

verse crests, as in most other forms of the order. The genera

differ as follows :—

I. Superior molars without folds or columns.

Incisors ;3; molars 4 Hegetotherium Amegh.

490 The American Naturalist. [June,

Incisors }; molars $; Pachyrhucus Amegh.

II. Superior molars with three internal lobes.

Incisors 2; molars 2; Trachytherus Amegh.

Incisors 4; molars 3; Entelomorphus Amegh.

Incisors }; molars 3; Mesotherium Serres.

These genera are distributed as follows :—

Hegetotherium: two species from the Lower Eocene.

Pachyrhucus: five species Lower Eocene, four species Mio-

cene, one species Inferior Pliocene.

Trachytherus: one species Lower Eocene.

Entelomorphus: One species Inferior Pliocene.

Mesotherium: four species Upper Miocene, four species

Lower Pliocene, three of them found also in the Upper Mio-

cene.

A clavicle is present in Pachyrhucus and Mesotherium, and

may be expected to be discovered in the other genera of this-

family. The dental canal sends out a branch which issues

from the ramus posteriorly on the external side. According

to Ameghino this character is not present in other families of

the Toxodontia. i

Most of the species were of small or medium size, and prob-

ably resembled the conies in their appearance and habits.

‘Mesotherium cristatum Serres, and Trachytherus spegazzianus

Amegh. reached the size of the tapir.

In the XoropoxntIDÆ of Ameghino we have a family which

presents characters of both the families Mesotheriidæ and

Toxodontidæ. As in the former, the inferior molars turn out-

wards below, but they are not covered with cementum as in

that family. The known genera have the dental series unin-

terrupted, thus displaying a more primitive character than

most of those of the two families mentioned.

The genera are as follows :—

I. Incisors entirely covered with enamel. Incisors and molars

with open base; latter not plicate; Entomodus Amegh.

II. Incisors with enamel bands only.

« Molars z and ş trilobate internally and bilobate externally.

All inferior premolars curved outwards; Xotodon Amegh.

1897.] Toxodontia. 491

Inferior molars turned inwards and true molars turned

outwards ; Stenostrephanus Amegh.

aa Molars + and y bilobate externally and internally. M.

z trilobate on internal side, Lithops Amegh.

Of the six species of this family one of Lithops and one of

Stenostephanus are from the Lower Eocene of Patagonia; and

one of Entomodus, one of Xotodon and one of Stenostephanus

are from the Lower Miocene of the same region ; and one spe-

cies of Xotodon is from the Upper Miocene of Buenos Ayres.

The Toxopont1p includes the latest of one of the two lines

of descent of this order. The genera differ in the forms of the

molar teeth, and some of them show a decided simplification

of structure which must be regarded as a degeneracy. Most

of the species are of large size. Toes three, both in front and

behind. The genera differ as follows :—

I. Seven superior molars.

Superior molars with internal groove and column of mod-

erate size ; Toxodon Owen.

Superior molars with internal groove and very large in-

ternal column ; Toxodontotherium Amegh.

Superior molars without internal groove or column ;

Haplodontotherium Amegh.

II. Six superior molars.

Pm. 4 and true molars with two internal grooves ;

Dilobodon Amegh.

Pm. all simple; m. with one internal groove;

Trigonodon Amegh.

Seventeen species of this family have been determined up

to the present time, eleven of which belong to the genus Tox-

odon. Two species each are referred to Toxodontotherium

and Dilobodon, and one each to the two remaining genera.

The geological distribution of these species is as follows :—

Oligocene. Miocene. Pliocene.

Toxodon, ` 1 7

Toxodontotherium,

oe ANE deen au eae

m bo Co

Dilobodon,

Trigonodon, 1

[S]

o |

492 The American Naturalist. [June,

The incisor teeth display an increased specialization in the

genera commencing with Trigonodon and ending with Toxo-

don. The dental formula in Toxodon is I. 3; C.~; Pm. 3;

M. 3; in Trigodon it is I. .3; C.1; Pm.3; M. 3. In Trigono-

don the median (4 2) incisors are smaller and have closed

roots, while the external is large and has open roots. In Tox-

odon the I. + has disappeared, and the I. 2 is extended trans-

versely and has an open root. The I. 2 is narrower and more

elongate and has an open root. The species of Toxodon differ

as to the transverse extent of the I. 2; it being wider in the T.

burmeisteri Gieb. than in the typical species, T. platensis Owen,

and widest in the T. expansidens Cope from Brazil.

The skull of Toxodon is wide and elevated posteriorly and nar-

row anteriorly. The occiput slopes anteriorly and is notched on

each side by a large mastoid foramen, somewhat as in the

Sirenia. The nostrils have a posterior position. For these

reasons it has been suspected that there may be some affinity

between the Toxodontia and the Sirenia.

The species of Toxodon were, according to Ameghino, heavy

animals with rather. short legs, the anterior the shorter. He

imagines that they were shore dwellers or semi-aquatic, in some

degree like the Hippopotamus in their habits. The 7. platen-

sis Ow. is about the size of the Rhinocerus unicornis; the T.

burmeisteri is somewhat larger, while the T. ensenadensis is of

still larger dimensions. The Toxodontotherium compressum

Amegh. was of about the size of the typical Toxodons, while

the species of the other genera of the family are of successively

smaller size, those of Dilobodon being the least.

PLATE XII.

my 425°)

J. W. Folsom.

Macropetalichthys sullivanti Newberry.

1897.] On the Characters of Macropetalichthys. 493

ON THE CHARACTERS OF MACROPETALICHTHYS.

By C. R. Eastman.

Although crania of Macropetalichthys have been known for

more than sixty years, and have been frequently figured and

described, the genus remains one of the most enigmatical of

Palaeozoic fishes. Notwithstanding its abundance and gener-

ally excellent state of preservation, circumstances which are

conducive toward a comparative investigation, we have as yet

only a superficial knowledge of itsstructure. In fact, it would

not be exaggerated to assert that none of our Devonian fishes

have been so completely misapprehended and erroneously de-

scribed as Macropetalichthys. This will hardly be disputed when

we recall the disagreement concerning the number of species,

and the fact that they have been described under no less than

five different generic titles. It is further true that sensory

canals have been almost invariably mistaken for sutures, and

comparisons essayed on the basis of an imaginary osteology ;

a structure altogether distinct from the head shield, and sepa-

rated from it by a bony wall, was mistaken for the “ cerebral

chamber” (Newberry); a pineal foramen is stated by all ob-

servers to be absent; and the osteology of the most familiar

species, M. sullivanti, is still a regio incognita.

The only species in which the arrangement of cranial plates

has been worked out with any degree of accuracy is that rec-

ognized as the type of the genus, M. rapheidolabis. The origi-

nal description of this species by Norwood and Owen! is very im-

perfect. Newberry? who examined a cast of the type specimen,

elicited no new information regarding it; and it was reserved

for Cope, as late as 1891, to redescribe thë type specimen as

satisfactorily as its mutilated condition would permit. This

historic fossil, it is sad to relate, has since been destroyed by

fire. Cope also described in the same article a specimen of M.

1 Amer. Jour. Sci. [2], Vol. I, feed pp. 367-371.

1 Ibid, Vol. XXXIV, (1862), p.

3 Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum, Vol. pel (1891), pp. 449--456.

| 494 The American Naturalist. [June,

sullivanti, which was weathered in such a manner as to reveal

the under surface of the head. Reference will hereafter be

made to this description, which is in every way a notable one,

and the cranium on which it was based. For an opportunity

of studying the latter, together with other valuable specimens

preserved in the museum of-Ohio State University, the writer

is greatly indebted to Dr. Edward Orton.

Besides these specimens, the writer has examined a large

amount of material belonging to different public and private

collections, and is thus enabled to supply certain deficiencies

in our knowledge of the leading species M. sullivanti. Only a

brief exposition of the cranial characters can be attempted

within the limits of the present article, a more detailed discus-

sion being reserved until another time.

The cranium of Macropetalichthys is to be conceived as a

comparatively thin, flexible box or capsule, capable of with-

standing a good deal of distortion without rupture. It is com-

posed of plates united by squamosal sutures, and traversed

centrally by the sensory canal system. The posterior bound-

ary of the cranium is deeply concave in the middle, and its

postero-lateral angles are produced backwards for a consider-

able distance, over-riding a structure called by Cope the

“nuchal plate.” The elements taking part in these cranial

prolongations are probably homologous with the epiotic and

marginal plates of other Coccosteids; although no definite

sutures have been observed between them, a marked depres-

sion occurs, extending from the extremity of the posterior

angle forwards toward the centre of the squamosal plate,

and this depression may represent the natural boundaries of

the epiotic and marginal plates. This depressed line corre-

sponds with the externo-lateral suture of Newberry’s “ parietal?

plate,” as represented in his diagram. The externo-lateral

boundary of his so-called “squamosal ” is only the outer mart-

gin of the cranial prolongations just described; their inner

margins have not been previously shown, but are represented

in Pl. XII, fig. 4.

* Palaeozoic Fishes of North America, (Monograph U. S. Geol. Surv., Vol. XVI

1889), p. 43.

1897.] On the Characters of Macropetalichthys. 495

Two facts furnish additional corroboration of the view that

the posterior cranial angles are formed by plates homologous

with the epiotic and marginal of other Coccosteids: first, the

course of the sensory canal system, which traverses the center

of the epiotic in a straight line backward until it emerges upon

and penetrates into an element called by Cope the “nuchal

plate; ” and second, the reception of the postero-lateral angles

of the cranium into a concavity on either side of the nuchal

plate so that the latter becomes firmly articulated with the

head shield. This mode of union between cranium and

nuchal plate is, we believe, equivalent to the hinge-joint

formed by the epiotic and antero-dorso-lateral in other Arthro-

dires. The logical conclusion of this view is that the “nuchal

element” represents collectively the dorsal plates of the body,

and is homologous with the dorso-median and dorso-laterals

of other Coccosteid genera; hence it is more properly styled the

dorsal plate.

The dorsal plate, as it will hereinafter be called, occurs as a

distinct element immediately behind the cranium, from which

it is partitioned off by a thin osseous membrane that forms a

vertical wall in front, and slopes away under the posterior

angles of the cranium on the sides. A thin layer of bony tis-

sue covers the entire upper surface and also the posterior face,

the latter’ corresponding to the cranial process in the Dinich-

thyids. The existence of this element was known to New-

_ berry, who regarded it as a “cerebral chamber.” Cope demon-

strated the fallacy of this notion, and considered it as a pro-

longation of the median occipital region backward in order to

protect the anterior part of the vertebral axis; and it was held

that “such a structure would indicate the presence of a num-

ber of fixed vertebral elements, such as exists in the chimaeras,

the rays and the sturgeons.” This author correctly observes

that there are “ two angular elements on each side of the pos-

terior region, which are also shown to be distinct. . . -o One

of these is wanting in the specimen, showing its junction with

the median element is by a smooth squamosal suture.” These

angular eleménts he calls the “ lateral nuchal plates;” but it

8 Loe. cit., p. 453.

496 The American Naturalist. [June,

is patent from the specimen that they are only the posterior

cranial angles, produced in the manner already described.

One of them is preserved in its natural position, and the other,

that belonging to the right side, has become dismembered and

lost. The supposed “articular glenoid cavity, possibly for the

condyle of a mandible,” which is stated to be “one-half in the

cranium and one-half in the nuchal element,” pertains entirely

to the head shield, and abuts directly against the cranial roof.

Turning now to the osteology of the back of the head, very

peculiar conditions are encountered. The boundaries of the

Fig. 5. Macropetalichthys sullivanti Newb. X 4.

large central plate are readily determinable, and are about the

same as Cope has shown for M. rapheidolabis.® Epiotic and

marginal presumably constitute the postero-lateral angles.

But superimposed upon the dorsal plate and hinder part of

the cranium is a system of tuberculated derm plates which are

arranged independently of the bones beneath. There is first

of all a median superficial element which covers the same

space as the central, but in addition to this ‘it preserves its

® Loc. cit., pl. xxix, fig. 4.

1897.] On the Characters of Macropetalichthys. 497

continuity backward, gradually tapering as far as the hinder

margin of the dorsal plate. That this is a coherent element

by itself is proved by its occurrence in the detached condi-

tion; of several examples that have been met with, one is

represented in Pl. XII, fig. 2. To distinguish it from other

structures it may be called the dorso-central. On either side of

the dorso-central is an apron-like expansion, which covers the

remainder of the dorsal plate as far as its lateral margin, and

incidentally conceals the posterior cranial angles. It is united

with the dorso-central by sutures, and also with the plates in

front of it in like manner. It, too, occurs in the detached

condition, as is shown in fig. 3 (DL), and is worthy of being dis-

tinguished by a separate name. We propose to call it the

dorso-lateral.

From the foregoing, it will be seen that portions of the

cranium and also the dorsal element, to be regarded as a unit

by itself, are covered by superficial scutes which are incapable

of correlation with derm plates in other Arthrodires. Possibly

they were originally coextensive with the underlying elements,

which are now greatly reduced in thickness; afterwards they

may have coalesced with one another and acquired a simpler,

although still symmetrical arrangement. This condition is

unparalleled among fishes, but a resemblance to it may be

found in the corneous layer covering the carapace of tur-

tles. The fact, however, that some of the tuberculated scutes

no longer correspond with the subjacent elements, arouses a

suspicion that the remaining scutes may present more or less

modified conditions. It is to be noted that their arrangement

differs from the pattern of most Arthrodires; but inasmuch as

a separate system of plates has not been observed except in

the posterior region, we may presume that in advance of this

area each derm plate was covered by its own tuberculated

coating.

The problem of determining homologies among the cranial

plates is by no means an easy one. It is certain that the plate

termed for convenience the “central” corresponds to much

more than the like-named element in other Coccosteids; in it

are included at least the median occipital, the parietals and

498 The American Naturalist. [June,

frontals, as these are recognized in Dinichthys, and the infer-

ence is that fusion has taken place more or less extensively

among the remaining plates. That the median series should

consist of but two plates, central and pineal, appears quite

remarkable. As names have already been applied to the

system of paired plates by Cope, it appears advisable to retain

them, not because all of them express undoubted homologies,

but merely for convenience of distinction. If this author

has delineated the boundaries of the maxillary plate correctly

in M. rapheidolabis, we have here a marked difference between

the type-species and M. sullivanti.

A small pineal foramen occurs at a point about half-way

between the frontal lyra formed by the sensory canals and the

extremity of the muzzle. Its position is indicated in the cra-

nium figured by Newberry,’ although no significance was at-

tributed to the structure there shown. The opening appears

to be capped by a small operculum as in Titanichthys. Traces

of a pineal foramen are also observable on a weathered speci-

men for which von Koenen’? has established a new genus, Holo-

petalichthys ; but as the configuration of the cranium agrees

essentially with that of Macropetalichthys (cf. fig. 4), and is from

an equivalent horizon, we venture to regard H. novaki as per-

taining to the latter genus.

A description of the osteology in detail, including the in-

ferior structure of the cranium, is beyond the scope of the

present paper. It is hoped, however, that the diagrams given

herewith will suffice to show the general arrangement of the

cranial bones as they appear on the dorsal surface. The

writer desires in conclusion to acknowledge his especial in-

debteduess for the loan of specimens to the following persons:

Dr. Edward Orton, Director of the Ohio Geological Survey ;

Prof. A. A. Wright, of Oberlin College ; Prof. R. P. Whitfield,

of the American Museum of Natural History ; Prof. J. F. Kemp,

of the Columbia School of Mines; Prof. C. H. Hitchcock, of

Dartmouth College; and Mr. F. K. Mixer, Curator of the Buf-

falo Society of Natural Sciences.

cae ice of ee Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.

of a America (Monograph U. S. Geol. Surv., Vol.

XVI D 180) Pi evii

i enid Gecsllech. Wissen., Vol. XL, (1895), pl. iv, fig. 2.

1897.] On the Characters of Macropetalichthys. 499

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

PLATE XII.

Fig. 1. Fragment showing plates surrounding the left orbit,

seen from the inside. Original in the American

Museum of Natural History, New York (Cat. No. * ).

Corniferous limestone, Delaware, Ohio.

Fig. 2. Detached dorso-central plate, from Lime Rock, Genesee

County, New York. Original in Agassiz Museum,

Cambridge, Mass. (M. C: Z., Cat. No. 1428).

Fig. 3. Fragment showing three detached plates of the left

side, seen from the visceral aspect. Original in Museum

of Oberlin College (M. No. 10). Corniferous limestone,

Sandusky, Ohio.

Fig. 4. Diagram showing posterior cranial angles after removal

of the dorsal (“nuchal”) element and superjacent

scutes.

Fig. 5. Diagram showing arrangement of plates and course of

sensory canals in Macropetalichthys sullivanti, X $. Vas-

cular canals indicated by radiating lines on the right

side only (ef. Newherry's wood-cut, Annals of Science,

1852, No. 1, p. 12).

Plate figures reproduced two-thirds natural size. Sensory

canals in figs. 1 and 3 are rendered more conspicuously

than they appear on the specimens.

Lettering for all figures as follows:

C, Central. P, Pineal.

DC, Dorso-central. PeO, Preorbital.

DL, Dorso-lateral. PtO, Postorbital.

EO, Epiotic. ~ Sq, Squamosal.

M, Marginal. St, Supratemporal.

Mz, Maxillary (“malar” Cope;

“ suborbital ” Newberry).

500 The American Naturalist. [June,

THE GOLDEN-EYE OR LACE-WING FLY!

By CLARENCE Moores WEED.

Throughout the summer there may commonly be found

upon the leaves of a great variety of plants, especially those

infested by aphides of plant lice, groups of peculiar little verti-

cal stalks tipped with small, oval, whitish bodies (Fig. 1 a).

Should you be able to watch one of these groups for some time

you would be likely to see a curious little larva hatch from

each of the eggs—though the time of hatching is likely to vary,

some emerging from the eggs considerably before the others.

The larvee that have thus been cradled in the air are called

aphis-lions, from their habit of feeding upon aphides. Soon

after hatching they wander over the plant in search of prey,

for which purpose almost any small insect will serve, but

aphides generally form the principal item in the daily bill of

fare. The aphis-lion has a formidable pair of jaws projecting

forward from the head, so constructed that each jaw is a hol-

low sucking tube as well as an organ for seizing and piercing

the victim.

Like other larve the aphis-lions cast their skins occasionally

as they increase in size. They become fully developed after a

few weeks, and are then nearly an inch long, and of the form

shown in b and d of the figure. The different species vary con-

siderably in color, but most are of more or less mottled shades

of blue, brown, black and white. The presence of the suck-

ing-tube in the jaw is explained when one examines the insect

under the microscope, and finds that the mandible or jaw

proper is grooved longitudinally on its inner surface, while the

maxilla or secondary jaw is grooved longitudinally on its outer

surface: these fit together so that the groves form a tube,

through which the juices of the victims may be sucked into

the stomach.

The fully developed larva prepares for the change to the

pupa by rolling itself together compactly, and then spinning

1 From Stories of Insect Life, Grim & Co., 1897.

1897.] The Golden-Eye or Lace- Wing Fly. 501

from the posterior end of its body aspherical silken cocoon, so

small that one can but wonder how so large a larva stays in-

side it. The completed cocoon (c) is about the size of a small

DEA

7 roine mUa PEI: PD wee.

— CEE ASA E Vee,

sa NI Ba titan T Ai MRA

Fıc. 1. Chrysopa oculata. a, eggs; b, full-grown larva or aphis-lion; d, larva —

devouring an adult psylla ; e, cocoon; f, adult insect ; g, front view of the head

of the adult—all enlarged. (Reduced from figure by U. S. Dept. of Agr. )

smooth pea, of a pearly white color, generally mottled in places

with black (e). Within this tiny ball the larva becomes a

pupa, and a short time afterwards changes into an adult, which

gnaws out a circular cap and escapes.

The adult is a very different insect from the larva. It isa

delicate-looking creature, a little over half an inch long, of a

pale green or bluish-green color, with beautiful golden eyes

standing out prominently on the sides of the head, which bears

too long slender feelers or antenne, that under a lens are

seen to be furnished with numerous fine hairs. The first’ seg-

ment behind the head—called the prothorax—is wide and

flattened ; it bears a single pair of legs. The two following

segments—the mesothorax and metathorax—are much larger —

and closely united ; each bearsa pair of wings above and a pair

of legs below. The legs are rather long and slender, of much

the same color as the body; the feet are tipped with two re-

curved claws. The wings are very large in proportion to the

502 The American Naturalist. [June,

body ; they consist of a thin, transparent membrane, stretched

between a beautiful net-work of delicate greenish veins, which

bear rows of brownish hairs. The front and hind wings are

quite similar in shape, the hind ones being somewhat smaller;

when at rest the insect folds them in a nearly vertical position

(f), so that they project some distance beyond the end of the

abdomen, which is slender and sparsely covered with hairs.

The female Lace-wings deposit their eggs on the long stalks

already mentioned. The stalk is drawn out from a liquid

secretion which hardens on exposure to the air, and the egg is

then glued on to the tip. By thus placing the eggs up above

the leaf surface the insect prevents their being eaten by lady

bird beetles and other predaceous creatures, including the

aphis-lions themselves. A week or more later the eggs hatch

into young aphis-lions, which, like their namesakes of the

desert, go about seeking what they may devour.

While the beauty of the color and structure of the Lace-wing

appeals strongly to the eye of the nature-lover, the insect has

a very different effect upon his nose; for these delicate crea-

tures emit probably the most disagreeable odor of any insects.

It is worse, to many minds at least, than that given off by the

bedbug and its allies, or even the -noisome pestilence of the

carrion-beetles. How so small an insect, reared from infancy

upon a cleanly diet of the juices of just-killed animals, spend-

ing its resting period in a “glistening, white cocoon, which

looks like a large seed-pearl,” and deriving nourishment as an

adult from cleanly sources, can develop so disagreeable a stench

is indeed a wonder. But this is only one of many similar

marvels that have been produced in the age-long struggle for

existence through which the countless generations of insect

life have passed. The purpose of the odor is doubtless to pro-

tect the Lace-wing from the attacks of birds and other enemies.

The Lace-wings belong to the family Chrysopide of the order

Neuroptera. Most of the species are placed in the single genus

Chrysopa. The stages of C. oculata are illustrated in the ac-

companying figure, for the loan of which we are indebted to

the Cornell University Experiment Station.

1897.] Biological Studies in Massachusetts. 503

BIOLOGICAL STUDIES IN MASSACHUSETTS, No. 1.

By G. C. WHIPPLE.

Within recent years the subject of sanitary biology has be-

come one of great importance. The marvelous discoveries and

practical applications of bacteriology have been of benefit to sur-

geon and sanitarian,and the people of the world to-day are better

able to fight disease than ever before. Scientists all over the

world are assisting in the work of establishing proper relations

between man and his microscopic neighbors. Admitting, as

we must, that the most important and far-reaching discoveries

have eminated from the continent of Europe, we ought not to

overlook the work that is being done on this side of the Atlan-

tic, which is by no means insignificant or second-rate. To

prove this it is not necessary to mention the names of men who

have already acquired a reputation beyond our own borders,

their work is evident in our improving water supplies, our

better methods in all departments of sanitation, and the in-

creasing popular appreciation of cleanliness.

There is one branch of sanitary biology that has been carried

on more extensively in Massachusetts than anywhere else,—

namely, the microscopical examination! of drinking water;

and it is, therefore, perhaps not undeserving of the brief de-

scription here to be given.

It is unnecessary to relate the early history of the subject in

this state, for, although the work of Nichols, Farlow, and others,

was most interesting and valuable, it was not until the State

Board of Health began its investigations in 1887 that much

attention was given to the quantitative determination of the

microscopical organisms. The method of examination first

used was the “cloth method” of G. H. Parker. Two hundred

cubic centimeters of the water was poured through a funnel

over the neck of which a piece of fine cloth was firmly tied, and

1 The microscopical examination deals only with the comparatively large forms

of micro-organisms, such as the alge, infusoria, etc., and is not concerned with the

bacteria, the study of which forms an entirely distinct branch of sanitary biology.

504 The American Naturalist. [June,.

the organisms caught by the cloth were subsequently trans-

ferred to a small quantity of water, and placed under the micro-

scope for identification and enumeration. In June, 1889, the

“cloth method ” was superseded by the “sand method ” devised

by A. L. Kean, and improved by Prof. Sedgwick. The water

was filtered through sand instead of cloth, after which the sand

with its collected organisms was washed into a deep cell and

placed on the stage of the microscope. To assist in the enu-

meration the bottom of the cell was ruled in squares. This.

method was used until November, 1890, when the Sedgwick-

Rafter method, hereafter described, was adopted. This method,

with but slight modifications, has been used to the present

time. In the course of the whole series of investigations by

the State Board of Health it is estimated that upwards of

16,000 samples of water have been submitted to microscopical

examination—2,000 by the cloth method, 2,000 by the sand

method, and 12,000 by the Sedgwick-Rafter method. The

samples cover all parts of the state, and include almost all possi-

ble sources of water supply—lakes, ponds, artificial reservoirs,

brooks, rivers, springs, wells, filter galleries, etc.

Next in importance to the work of the State Board of Health,

and in some respects surpassing it, is the biological work of the

Boston Water Supply Department. These investigations have

involved the examination of more than 20,000 samples of water,

collected chiefly from the various portions of the city supply.

The Sedgwick-Rafter method has been used from the start,

though from time to time several improvements bave been in-

troduced.

In the summer of 1893 the Public Water Board of the City

of Lynn fitted up a biological laboratory in the basement of the

city hall for the weekly microscopical and bacteriological ex-

amination of the water supply. The bacteriological work was

not continued long, but the microscopical examinations are

still being made. The total number of examinations by the

Sedgwick-Rafter method now exceeds 2,000.

The grand total of the number of microscopical examina-

tions made in these three laboratories added to a large number

made by F. F. Forbes in his studies of the Brookline water,

and by others interested in the subject, is not far from 40,000-

1897.] Biological Studies in Massachusetts. 505

As the biological laboratory of the Boston Water Works is

typical of the methods and nature of the work under discussion,

a description of it will occupy the remaining portion of this

paper. It was established in the fall of 1889 by Mr. Desmond

Fitz Gerald, C. E., Supt. of the Western Division of the Water

Works, and since then the work has been carried on under his

general direction. Prof. James I. Peck had charge of the

laboratory during the first few months of its existence; but

since January 1, 1890, it has been in charge of the writer. The

working force consists of one biologist, two (sometimes three)

assistant biologists, and a number of attendants at the various

reservoirs who devote a portion of their time to the collecting

of samples, the observation of temperature, etc. The laboratory

building is situated upon the shore of the beautiful Chestnut

Hill Reservoir. (Plate XIII.) It isnear the high service pump-

ing station,from which it receives steam heat and electric light.

A gas machine supplies it with gas.

The object of the laboratory work is to ascertain and keep

record of the condition of the water in all parts of the supply

at all times. Reports are made weekly to the Superintendent

and Water Commissioner. These enable the supply to be man-

aged in the best possible manner so far as the quality of the

water is concerned, and they have more than once prevented

water of inferior quality from being sent into the city.

The work of the laboratory may be considered under the

following heads: 1. Environmental and Physical; 2. Micro-

scopical ; 3. Bacteriological; 4. Photomicrographical; 5. Ex-

perimental.

1. Environmental and Physical—Samples of water for exam-

ination are collected weekly from all parts of the supply,

namely, from Lake Cochituate, the Sudbury Storage Reservoirs

- and their inflowing streams, the aqueducts, distributing reser-

voirs and service pipes, and sent by express to the laboratory.

Glass-stoppered, one-litre bottles are used, thoroughly packed

in felt-lined boxes. In all the reservoirssamples are collected

at the surface, mid-depth, and bottom. The following appara-

tus (Plate XIV.) has been found the most convenient for secur-

ing samples from beneath the surface. The frame for holding

506 The American Naturalist. [June,

the bottle consists of a brass wire (A) attached to a weight (B) —

from which strips of brass extend upwards terminating in clips

(C). These brass strips have considerable spring, and serve to

hold the bottle in place. The frame is supported by the spring

(F) attached to the sinking rope (E). A flexible cord (G) extends

from the top of the spring (E) to the stopper (H) of the bottle.

The length of this cord and the length and stiffness of the

spring are so adjusted that when the apparatus is suspended

in the water the flexible cord will bea little slack. In this

condition it is lowered to the required depth. A sudded jerk

given to the sinking rope stretehes the spring, produces tension

on the flexible cord, and pulls out the stopper. A slack safety

cord (not shown in the figure) extends from E to J to prevent

too great a stretching of the spring and to guard against loss

of apparatus in case the spring should break. For great depths,

where the pressure is too great to allow of the stopper being re-

moved, a smaller aperture is used.

The temperature of each sample is iat as at the time of

collection, and additional series of observations upon the tem-

perature of the water at various depth are carried on, using for

this purpose the newly invented Thermophone. These obser-

vations give useful information regarding the circulation of

the water. When the samples reach the laboratory, record is

made of the color (using the platinum-cobalt standard in a

colorimeter of special design), transparency, amount of sedi-.

ment, taste, and odor.

Environmental studies are carried on by personal inspection ~

of the watershed, and the collection of numerous extra samples

from the small brooks and feeders. These inspection trips are

made whenever anything abnormal appears in the condition

of the water.

2. Microseopical.—The microscopical work is the most import- -

ant part of the laboratory routine. It consists chiefly in the

quantitative determination of the various micro-organisms

(except the bacteria) in each sample of water by the Sedgwick-

Rafter method. At the present time this is carried on as fol-

lows: 500 c.c. of the water to be examined is filtered through

a thin layer of quartz sand supported at the bottom of a cylin-

1897.] Biological Studies in Massachusetts. 507

drical glass funnel upon a perforated rubber stopper, covered

with a disc of bolting cloth, the filtration sometimes being

hastened by the use of the aspirator. The sand with whatever

organisms have collected upon it is then washed into a test

tube with 5 or 10 c.c. of distilled water, thus concentrating the

organisms. This tube is shaken, and the water decanted to a

second tube, the sand being left behind. 1 c.c. of this fluid

containing the concentrated organisms is next placed in a cell,

50 x 20 mm. and 1 mm. deep, covered with a thick cover glass

and placed under the microscope. A ruled square in the mi-

crometer ocular covers one square millimeter on the stage, 7. e.,

one-thousandth of the area of the cell. Theorganisms seen with-

in this square are then counted, and the cell is moved so that

other portions come into view. Having counted a definite

number of these squares the determination of the number of or-

ganisms in the original sample is a matter of calculation. On

account of the great variety in size which the different organ-

isms present it has been found expedient to adopt a standard

unit of size (400 square microns) in terms of which all organ-

isms are recorded. The organisms are classified according to

the following convenient grouping: 1. Diatomace ; 2. Chloro-

phycee; 3. Cyanophycee; 4. Fungi; 5. Rhizopoda; 6. In-

fusoria; 7. Rotifera; 8. Crustacea; 9. Miscellaneous.

Occasionally microscopical examinations are made in the

field, in order to study the sample while fresh and before the

organisms have begun to break up. For this purpose a conve-

nient portable outfit is provided. Another feature of the micro-

scopical work consists of the examination of material from the

shores and bottoms of the reservoirs, the organisms growing in

the swamps, along the streams, and upon the walls of the

aqueducts and distribution pipes.

3. Bacteriological—The bacteriological work is chiefly the

weekly determination of the number of bacteria in the water

of the aqueducts, distribution reservoirs and service pipes by

means of the ordinary methods of culture. More or less study

is given to the various species observed, and a careful watch is

kept for the presence of Coli communis, whose presence to a

certain extent is considered an index of pollution. At some-

508 The American Naturalist. [June,

what longer intervals samples for bacteriological examination

are collected from the brooks in the more thickly settled por-

tions of the watershed and from the various filter beds. Sam-

ples from beneath the surface of the reservoirs are collected

in sterilized vacuum tubes, lowered to position in heavy lead

tubes; the seal is broken by an arrangement of spring and

flexible cord in a manner similar to that described above. On

account of the uncertainty which surrounds the methods of

bacteriology at the present day comparatively little of the

bacteriological work has been published.

4. Photomicrographical—For some time after the establish-

ment of the laboratory much attention was given to the subject

of photography, and excellent photomicrographs of most of the

important organisms have been secured. Of late the time re-

quired for this work has been given over to the more important

bacteriological investigations.

5. Experimental—In addition to the routine work many

experiments of a practical and scientific nature have been

carried on. Of the subjects investigated the following may be

given as illustrations: The cause of the seasonal distribution

of the various classes of organisms. The effect of temperature,

light and air upon the growth of diatoms. The cause and

extent of the taste produced in water by organisms. The effect

of swamps upon the quality of a water supply. A study of

“stagnation phenomena” in a deep pond. The bleaching ac-

tion of sunlight. The efficiency of sand and mechanical filtra-

tion in the purification of water.

Comparatively little chemical work is done in the laboratory,

as this branch of the subject is deemed sufficiently treated in

the monthly examinations of the State Board of Health.

Taken together, all the biological work of the character de-

scribed that has been done in Massachusetts during the past

ten years is of great value from a purely scientific as well as

from a sanitary standpoint; and the increasing importance of

the subject and the growing interest in limnological studies in

other countries make it desirable that this work should be

better known. It is the intention to bring together in this

series of articles an outline of the work done, and some of the

most important of the results obtained, treating the subject

not so much from a sanitary as from a biological point of view.

PLATE XIII.

Battery of Filters. Sedgwick-Rafter Method.

PLATE XIV.

APPARATUS FOR

COLLECTING SAMPLES

OF WATER.

1897.] Editor’s Table. 509

EDITOR’S TABLE.

That the human mifd works similarly under similar circumstances,

is well known. That the tendencies of thought are similar at similar

periods of life and experience, is also well known. The scientific mind

presents such phenomena no less than the minds of other men, but

modified by the conditions necessary to its peculiar occupation. What

naturalist does not know that the young investigator has a tendency to

exaggerate the defects and errors of his predecessors, and that he takes

great delight in exposing the same? This tendency generally disap-

pears as success in research rewards his own exertions. Who does not

know with what lofty scorn the anatomist and histologist regards the

discoverer of previously unknown species, and him who arranges the

same according to their characters in systematicorder. And yet, after

he has made a good record of errors in capital questions for want of

systematic knowledge, he is at last glad to have the taxonomist identify

his specimens for him. That any one should think the describing of

cells or nuclei more scientific than the describing of feathers or scales,

is only due to the respect for thaumaturgy which still lingers in the

scientific mind, while it runs riot in the populace. It will not be long be-

fore it will be as scientific to see a thing with the naked eye, as to see it

through a brass tube furnished with lenses. If to such merit be added

the further one of publishing beautifully colored pictures, a higher

flight for scientific thought has been attained. While an important

adjunct of biologic research, section cutting is not the only guide to a

knowledge of biology, as may be readily derived by a reading of the

remarkable hypotheses put forth from time to time in matters of phylo-

geny, by the cultivators of this fine art. It is time that managers of

educational institutions in America knew that to learn how to cut and

stain sections in Germany does not necessarily make a man either a

knower or teacher of biology. And this brings us to the question of

scientific fads or fashions. We have no fault to find with them, but

cite them in further proof of the truism that human minds are at basis

very much alike. An able investigator of popular personality, can

easily create a fad, especially among his patriotic countrymen.

1 This short essay marked by our late lamented Chief Editor “ Editorial ” is one

of the last from his pen which will appear in that column. It is appropriately

general in theme and untechnical in treatment : nevertheless it contains wise coun-

sel to the budding naturalist, and is from a master who has had great experi-

ence. We heartily commend it to young students.—P. F.

510 The American Naturalist. [June,

National characteristics are often reflected in the scientific men of

different nations. This is seen in the varied manner of reception of the

new candidate for scientific recognition in different countries. If he

have money and proper social endorsement, ‘our English speaking

cousins receive him without question. If he have neither of these

things, he is received with tail in air, the hairs of the median dorsal

line elevated, a tremulous movement of the upper lip of one side;

especially if he have discovered many new species. In France he is

received with open arms. In Germany he is received on his merits.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Life in Ponds and Streams.'—Considerable labor was evi-

dently spent in compiling this collector’s hand-book, which, in spite of

several very bad blunders, will doubtless be of much use to the British

amateur collector. Americans would prefer a hand-book dealing with

the fauna of their own ponds and streams. However, the general plan

of the work is a good one; the animal kingdom is briefly passed in re-

view, directions are given for the construction of apparatus, for the con-

struction and care of aquaria, and then the different animal groups

treated somewhat in detail. Keys are given that will enable the Brit-

ish collector to readily identify his discoveries.

It 1s unfortunate that in several instances the work is marred by

some very glaring blunders. A figure of a species of Scolopendra is

given with the legend, “ The centipede (Lithobius)”. Another equally

bad error occurs in the case of a figure of one of the most ordinary

three lens pocket magnifiers, which is called “ The Coddington lens.”

Further, those familiar with the group of insects and related forms

will be astonished to find that the author begins with the Hemiptera

and follows them with the Thysanura after saying that he will begin his

enumeration of the orders with the lowest. Exception also may

taken to the use of the adjective “gellatinous” in speaking of the

amoeba.

Such an exhibition of carelessness or indifference considerably deters

one from giving the recommendation that one might otherwise be in-

clined to give.—F. C.

1 W. Furneaux, 12 mo., 399 PP» 311 figs., 8 pls. (colored). Langmans, Green &

Co., 1896; price $3 50.

1897.] Recent Literature. 511

Year Book of the U. S. Agricultural Department for 1895.”

—It has been the aim of the Department of Agriculture to make this

report for 1895 a concise reference book of useful information for all

who are interested in agricultural pursuits. It consists of (1) a general

report of the operations of the Department, (2) a series of popular

well-illustrated essays discussing the results of investigations in agricul-

tural science, or new developments in farm practice, (3) an appendix

containing information compiled from miscellaneous government pub-

lications. The volume is especially adapted to the farmers of the

country.

Mach’s Popular Lectures.’—A series of twelve popular scien-

tific lectures delivered by Herr Mach during the years 1864-94, are

here published in collected form for the first time. The volume at

hand is an English translation by T. J. McCormick, whose version is

endorsed by Herr Mach. The subjects are chosen from the field of

Physics. In all, twelve lectures are given, four of which are of a

philosophical character, and deal with the methods and nature of

scientific inquiry.

Martin’s Human Body.‘—We have here the seventh edition of

the well-known text-book, originally issued in 1880. The present edi-

tion has been brought up to date by revision and correction of the old

text, and by the addition of new matter, especially in connection with

the cardiac and vascular nerves, and the physiology of the brain. In

its present form it stands close to the ideal text-book. The facts are

stated simply and concisely, repetition avoided, and, in general, its aim

seems to be to present what is known as such, but at the same time to

suggest opportunities for further discoveries in physiological science.

The illustrations are numerous and well-chosen. About thirty,

chiefly diagrammatic, were drawn especially for the work.

Geology of Pennsylvania.'’—This work constitutes Vol. III, Pt.

1 of the Summary Description of the Geology of the State. It con-

tains Prof. Lesley’s chapters on the subconglomerate measures, Mr.

2 Year Book of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1895. Washington,

1896.

3 Popular Scientific Lectures. By ~~. Mash. Translated by T. J. McCor-

mick. Chicago: Open Court Pub. Co.,

*The Human Body. By H. Newell Mia. Seventh edition, revised. New

York, 1896 : Henry Holt & Co., Pub.

5 Summary Final Report Pennsylvania Geological Survey, Vol. III, Pt. I,

1895. Carboniferous.

512 The American Naturalist. [June;

d’Invilliers’ report on the Mauch Chunk red shale and Pottsville con-

glomerate series, outside of the anthracite region, and the results of

w. Smith’s studies of the anthracite coal measures.

From the report upon the Mauch Chunk shales we find that geolo-

gists still have before them the problem of the abrupt transition from

the finest red mud to the coarsest pudding stone or gravel rock which

is observed throughout the eastern part of the State, a transition which

does not conform to any theory yet devised.

Mr. Smith’s paper is a detailed account of the comparative quantity

and quality of the coal basins in the different “fields” of the anthra-

cite region.

The illustrations include 190 page plates showing maps, sections and

diagrams, and figures of the representative fossil forms found in the

beds under discussion.

U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Pt. XX.'—This

volume contains the reports of the Commissioner and his assistants for

the year ending June 30, 1894. The subjects to which attention is

directed are the propagation and distribution of food-fishes and the ex-

plorations of fishing-grounds. More than half of the volume is de-

voted to appendices comprising papers by specialists based on the work

of the Commission.

The summary of distribution shows that during the year 33 species

of fish and 1 crustacean, the lobster, were sent to various parts of the

United States and to the following foreign countries : Canada, Mexico,

United States of Columbia, Belgium, France, Scotland, Switzerland,

and Japan.

Animals at Work and Play.’—This little volume, of some 320

pages, comprises a series of papers dealing with the general activities

and emotions of animals in their every day life. The author points

out their little fads in bed-making and in house-keeping generally ;

their social instincts, fondness for play and consequent sense of humor;

their delight in personal cleanliness and the different methods of mak-

ing their “ toilettes;”” how they resort to herbs for ailments, and a va-

riety of other interesting customs among what we are pleased to term

“the lower creatures.” In fact, he so “humanizes” his birds and

beasts that the reader finds them most companionable. One chapter

ê Report of the U. S. Commissioner Fish and Fisheries for the year ending June

30, 1894. Washington, 1896.

TAnimals at Work and Play. By C. J. Cornish. Macmillan & Co,, New

York, 1896, 8vo., $1.75.

1897.] . Recent Literature. 513

of especial interest is “ Homes for Wild Birds,” offering suggestions for

enticing migrating birds to establish themselves in places where they

are needed either as insect-catchers or where they are wanted to fulfil

their mission of song and beauty.

Annual Report for 1894, Geological Survey of Canada.’—

This volume includes, besides the summary report of the Director of

the Survey, a series of seven systematic, detailed reports on special

work in particular regions of the Dominion. These several reports

have been previously issued, as completed, and may be obtained sep-

arately.

The Director’s report includes extended notices of the preliminary

results of the various scientific investigations and explorations in the

field, notably those of Mr. A. P. Low in Labrador and Mr. J. B. Tyr-

rel in a second expedition to the country west of Hudson Bay and

north of the Churchill River. Attention also is called to the import-

ance of the investigations of the petroleum fields of Athabasca and

northern Alberta, as all indications favor the existence of a great oil-

bearing region in the northwest.

The volume comprises 1206 pages. It is accompanied by eleven

maps and illustrated by fifteen plates and diagrams, besides a number

of figures in the text.

Thaxter’s Laboulbeniacez.’—In a stately quarto volume of

two hundred and forty-two beautifully printed pages and twenty-six

plates crowded with six hundred and seventy-two elegantly drawn fig-

ures, Dr. Thaxter makes a notable addition to botanical science. Be-

ginning his studies in 1890 when the known species in the world were

but fifteen, of which but one was known to be North Americah, the

author has brought to light so many new species that to-day there are

no less than one hundred and fifty-eight known, and he estimates that

when all the species throughout the world are discovered, the total

number may be from five hundred to one thousand. Thus there is

injected into our system of the fungi a group of no mean importance in

point of numbers, which hitherto has been so little known as to be

pretty generally ignored. Hereafter, even a general survey of the

fungi must include some notice of this group.

8 Annual Report for 1894 (new series), Vol. VII, Geological Survey of Can-

ada. Ottawa, 1896

? Contribution Towards a Monograph of the Laboulbeniacee. By Roland

Thaxter. Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, XII. Pre-

sented May 8, 1895, published December, 1896.

514 The American Naturalist. [June,

The Laboulbeniacese are minute, stalked and commonly bristle-bear-

ing parasites occurring upon beetles and, to a less extent, other insects.

They are so small that only the keenest eyes can detect them without

the aid of a good pocket-lens. They are most common upon insects

living in moist places, although by no means uncommon upon those

living in other situations. A close examination of any entomological

collection of beetles is almost certain to be rewarded by the discovery

of many specimens. Dr. Thaxter recommends examining the beetles

suspected of harboring these parasites first over a dull white and then

over a black surface, using a hand-lens magnifying from eight to ten

diameters. ‘Every portion of the insect should be examined in differ-

ent positions, and when the parasites have been discovered, they should

‘be removed by means of a dissecting-needle inserted in a match far

enough to give it the requisite stiffness, while its apex should have been

ground on a fine oil-stone until a sharp, slightly oblique chisel-point

has been obtained. With such a point, the individuals are scraped off

without much difficulty, and should be transferred to a very small drop

of water on the slide.”

Structurally, these tiny fungi have the following characteristics: “A

main body, or receptacle, is fixed by means of a blackened base, or foot,

to the integument of the host, and consists, in most cases, of a very

small number of cells differently arranged in different genera. This

receptacle gives rise above to certain peculiar appendages of very vari-

able form, commonly connected with the production of the male sex-

ual organs; while from the same individual, with few exceptions, in

which the plants are dicecious, female organs are also variously pro-

duced, from which perithecia are eventually developed. In the peri-

thecif, which may arise, singly or in considerable numbers from a

given individual, and which are quite remarkable in structure, are pro-

duced the reproductive bodies or ascospores that are formed in asci

identical in all respects with the organs thus named in other membat

of the great group of ascomycetous fungi.”

A close study of the structure of these minute plants shows clearly

their relationship to the Rhodophyceæ, and since they are also, without

doubt, true Ascomyceteæ, we have here a strong suggestion as to the

origin of the asco-fungi. The author’s guarded remarks that such a

supposition “is not unworthy of consideration,” and that such a theory

“is more probable as well as more logical than that which is usually

held,” are quite justified by the structure which he so clearly describes

and figures. This work is therefore a welcome confirmation of the

views of those who, like the present reviewer, have heldjon theoretical

1897.] Recent Literature. 515

grounds that the Ascomycetex are modified and degraded Rhodophy-

cee.

The genera are disposed as follows by Dr. Thaxter :—

Family LABOULBENIACE®.

Group I, EnpoGEN&#, with antherozoid produced endogenously.

Order Peyritschiellez.

Genera Dimorphomyces, Dimeromyces, Cantharomyces, Haplomyces,

Eucantharomyces, Camptomyces, Enarthromyces, Peyritschiella, Dicho-

myces, Hydreomyces, Chitonomyces.

Order Laboulbeniez.

Genera Amorphomyces, Helminthophana, Stigmatomyces, Idiomyces,

Corethromyces, Rhadinomyces, Rhizomyces, Laboulbenia, Tetratomyces,

Diplomyces, Rhachomyces, Chastomyces, Sphaleromyces, Compsomyces,

Moschomyces.

Group II, Exocen#, with antherozoids produced exogenously.

Order Zodiomycetezx.

Genera Ceratomyces, Zodiomyces. —CHARLES E. Bessey.

Recent Text-Books.—Some years ago we noticed the first part of

an Introduction to Entomology by Professor Comstock, and we thought

when we received the present volume’ that we at last had the completed

work ; but a moment’s examination showed that we had instead an en-

tirely new work, somewhat smaller than the other would have been.

It is essentially a work for the beginner in entomology, and contains

just those things about species which the beginner wants to know. It

begins with an essay on classification, etc., and then passes to a consid-

eration of the Arthropoda, in which the Crustacea and Myriopodp are

dismissed with short shrift and the Arachnida are treated with a little

more detail, and then begins the discussion of the insects proper (i. e., -

Hexapods). The general account of these is rather short, but is clear

and accurate as a whole. These subjects already mentioned occupy 77

pages, the rest is devoted to classification. Professor Comstock divides

the insects into the Orders:—Thysanura, Ephemerida, Odonata, Ple-

coptera, Isoptera, Corrodentia, Maliophaga, Dermaptera, Orthoptera,

Physopoda, Hemiptera, Neuroptera, Mecaptera, Trichoptera, Lipidop-

tera, Diptera, Siphonoptera‘ Coleoptera, Hymenoptera—and these are

treated in the order given. The author, however, disarms critisism of

this arrangement by his words on p. 77. Among the specially notice-

‘A Manual for the Study of Insects. By John Henry Comstock and Anna

Botsford Comstock. Ithaca, N. Y.: Comstock Pub. Co., 1895, 80 pp. x+-701.

516 The American Naturalist. [Jnne,

able features may be mentioned the uniformity which pervades the

whole work, and this extends to a uniform notation of the veins of the

wings, a thing which has long been lacking. We cannot dismiss our

notice of this work without mention of the beautiful illustrations from

the graver of Mrs. Comstock. For years the illustrations of Flint’s

edition of Harris have been the standard for wood-cuts of insects, but

in not a few instances has Mrs. Comstock surpassed Mr. Marsh. We

have no doubt about the sale of the present work ; every entomologist

will want it, and we know of no better book to put in the hands of

those youth who persist in bringing all sorts of bugs into the house.

Yet we regret certain features in the work, for which, doubtless, there

was good reason. Thus the lack of reference to the literature of the

different groups, a feature found in the part of the “ Introduction”

already published is a serious omission. Then, too, we could have

wished more morphology and a little outline of the development of

insects, while we could have wished for portions on geographical distri-

bution, mimicry and other means of protection, etc. But we forget all

these lacks when we look at Fig. 190, which ought to have appeared in

_ the “ Fliegende Blatter.”

The Cell.’—The want of a good comprehensive account of the

Anatomy and Physiology of the Cell has induced Dr. H. J. Campbell

to edit an English translation of Dr. O. Hertwig’s valuable treatise on

this subject. In the author's preface Dr. Hertwig states that in this

work he has endeavored to fix the standpoint occupied at present by

the doctrines of cell and tissue formation, ahd to delineate the histori-

cal course of the development of the more important theories. The

points discussed in the several chapters are: the chemico-physical and

morphological properties of the cell, the vital properties, vital phe-

nomena, metabolic changes occurring between protoplasm, nucleus and

cell products, and theories of heredity. Each of these topics is ex-

haustively considered, and a very full bibliography is given of the sub-

ject under discussion.

The work abounds in cuts illustrating the text.

Elementary Text-Book of Entomology.’—This book, of which

the recent edition has just been issued, is intended as an introduction to

2The Cell: Outlines of General Anatomy and Physiology. By Dr. Oscar Hert-

wig. Translated by M. Campbell and edited by H. J. Campbell, M.D. New

York, 1895, Macmillan & Co., $3.00.

3 Elementary Text-Book of Entomology. By W. F. Kirby, F. L. S., F. E. S.

Second edition, revised and augmented, with 87 plates, containing over 650 fig-

ures. London : Swan, Sonnenschein & Co. New York: Macmillan & Co., 1892.

1897.] Recent Literature. 517

the study of insects in general. For convenience the author adopts

the following system of classification, viz.: Coleoptera (including Strep-

siptera), Orthoptera (including Euplexoptera and Dictyoptera), Neurop-

tera (including Trichoptera, Thysanura, Collembola, Mallophaga and

Thysanoptera), Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera (including the

sub-orders Hemiptera-Heteroptera and Hemiptera-Homoptera, and the

Anoplura), and Diptera (including Aphaniptera, and possibly Achrei-

optera).

After an introduction concerning insects in general, Mr. Kirby

takes up each Order in turn, giving an account of its principal Famil-

ies, with observations on their habits and economic importance. Many

typical species are described and figured, so that it is comparatively

easy for the student to identify the principal divisions.

A complete index adds to the usefulness of the book.

The work is necessarily of a very general character, and is well-

adapted to serve as an introduction to a fascinating science.

Birds of Illinois.‘—The Natural History Survey of Illinois has

published its second volume, part I, a continuation of the descriptive

catalogue of the birds of that State, by Robert Ridgway. The Orders

treated of in the present volume are the Gallinz, Limicole, Alector-

ides, Herodiones, Anseres, Steganopodes, Longipennes and Pygopodes.

Thirty-three full page plates give the heads, feet and legs of charac-

teristic types of the Orders

Mr. Ridgway’s well- known competency in this field insures the value

of the work.

The Forces of Nature.’—A small octavo, of some 150 pages, in

which are briefly stated the fundamental principles of the laws which

govern the operations of nature. Part I contains five chapters treat-

ing respectively of the solar system, sound, structure of matter, radiant

energy and electricity. Part II comprises a series of disconnected

paragraphs, giving the latest discoveries in the physical sciences. This

-volume is at all odds the most semontary treatise on the subject that

could have been devised.

* The Ornithology of Illinois. By Robert Ridgway. Natural History Survey

of Illinois, Vol. II, Pt. I, Springfield, 1895. :

5 The Forces of Nature. By H. B. Harrop and L. A. Wallis. Columbus, Ohio,

1895.

518 The American Naturalist. [June,

AMERICAN NATURALIST LIST OF RECENT BOOKS

ND PAMPHLETS.

Acassiz, A.—A Visit to the Great Barrier Reef of Australia. Extr. Amer.

Journ, Sci., II, 1896. From the author

BALDWIN, J. M.—Consciousness and Evolution. Extr. Science, 1895. From

the author.

Boute, M.—Les glaciers reat et ee de l'Auvergne. Extr.

Comptes Rendus, 1895. From the a

BRAIsLIN, W.—A Case of Living ppan in the Ear without Suppuration.

Extr. Arch. of Otology, Vol. XXV, 1896. From the author.

Bulletin Nos. 26, 1895, and 27, 1896, Wyoming Exper. Station.

Bulletin No. 36, 1896, Rhode Island Agric. Exper. Station.

Bull. No. 1, Petroleum Series, School of Mines, University of Wyoming.

CALL, R. E.—The Unionide of the Ohio River.

—— The Strepomatide of the Falls of the Ohio. Extr. Proceeds. Ind. Acad.

Sci., No. IV, 1894. From the author

CaLMAN, W. T.—On the Genus Anaspides and its Affinities, with Certain Fos-

sil Crustacea. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, XX XVIII, Pt. IV, 1896. From

the author.

CARLSSON, A.—Ueber den Zahnersatz bei Agama colonorum. Extr. Anat.

Anz., Bd. XI, 1896. From the author

~ Clark, W. B.—The Eocene "‘Depasiis of the Middle Atlantic Slope in Dela-

ware, Maryland and Virginia. Bull. U. S. Geol. stich! No. 141, 1896. From

the Survey.

' DEPERET, C.—Résultats des fouilles palé dans le miocé érieur

de la colline de Montredon. Extr. Comptes eka. 1895.

——Sur les phosphorites quaternaires de la région d’ Uzès. Extr. Comptes

Rendus, 1896.

——Sur l’existence de Dinosauriens, Saurorodes et Théropodes dans le Cré-

tacé supérieur de Madagascar. Extr. Comptes Rendus, 1896. From the author.

Dames, W.—Plesiosaurier der Siiddeutschen Trasformation. Aus Abhandl. K.

Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1895. From the author.

GES, A.— Description d’ un Axtol des Se aC de Las Cruces ( Amblystoma

ilkidin; Mexico, 1895. From the author.

FuLLER, M. L.—A New Occurrence of Carboniferous Fossils in the Narragan--

sett Basin. Extr. Proceeds. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 27, 1896. From the

author.

Guppy, R. J. L. anb W: H. Datt.—Descriptions of Tertiary Fossils from oe

Antillean Region. Extr. Proceeds: U. S. Natl. Mus., XIX, 1896. From

Museum

ep T. H.—On the Acicular Inons in Indian Garnets. :

——On the Origin and Growth of Garnets and of their Micropegmatitic inter-

growths in pyroxenic Rocks. Extrs. Records Geol. Surv. of India. From the

author.

1897.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 519

. R.—Orotaxis : A Method of Geologic Correlation. Extr. Amer.

iia pe, 1896. From the author

Lacks, W.—Zur titbickianaiauaghichie des Zahnsystems der Siugethiere,

zugleich ein Beitrag zur Stammesgeschichte dieser Thiergruppe. I Theil. Onto-

genie. Bibliotheca Zoologica, Heft., 17,1895. From the author

LEONARD, A. G.—Lead and Zine Deposits of Iowa. Iowa Geol. Surv., Vol.

VI. From the Survey.

LEVERET, F.—The Glacial Deposits of Indiana. Extr. Inland Educator, Aug.,

1896. From the author.

LONSDALE, E. H.—Upper Carboniferous of Southwestern Iowa. Extr. Pro-

nije Iowa Acad. Sci. (1894), 1895. From the author

Mitsuxuri, K.—How Many Times Does the Snapping-Turtle Lay Eggs in One

Season ny Extr. Zool. Mag., Vol. VII, 1895. From uthor.

Nuttine, ©. C.—Notes on Plymouth Hydroids. “aes nner Marine Biol.

Assoc. (n.s.), IV,1896. From the author.

OrpoNEZ, E.—Las Rocas eruptivas del S. O. dela Cuenca de Mexico. Bol,

Inst. Geol. de Mexico, No. 2, 1895. From the Inst.

Press Report No. 3, 1895, Iowa Agric. College Exper. Station.

Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1895. From the Dept. A

Roun, O.—Catalogue of Rock Specimens Illustrating Lake Superior Geology.

From the author.

Saissury, R. D.—Report on Surface Geology of New Jersey for 1894. Extr.

Ann. Rept. Geol. Surv. New Jersey. Trenton, 1895. From the author.

SCHIRMAN, A.—A Case of Unilateral Ephidrosis of the Face. Extr. N. Y.

Med. Journ., eg From the author.

SCHAEFFER, T. W.—The Poisonous Sting of the ‘‘ Electric Light Bug” or

iaia a as it is called by entomologists. Reprint Medical Index, no date

given, From the author.

Second apie Rept. of the Maryland State Weather Service for the years

1894 and 1895.

_ SHUFELDT, W. —F omil Bones of Birds and Mammals from Grotto Pietro

Tamponi pi Grive St. Alban. Extr. Proceeds. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1896.

From the author. :

SPENCER, a —Report on the Work of the Horn Scientific Expedition in Cen-

tral Ausieeta Part III. Geology and Botany. London and Melbourne, 1896.

From Melville, oe & Slade, Publishers.

STANTON, T. W. AND T. WAYLAND VAUGHAN.—Section of the Cretaceous at El

Paso, Texas. Extr. pre Journ. Sci., Vol. I, 1896. From the authors.

authors

TALMAGE , J. E.—Notes concerning a a oni eS marked Sedimentary Rock

from the vicinity of Glen Canyon, Arizona. Extr. Utah Univ. Quart., 1895.

From the author.

Thirteenth Annual Report, 1894-95, of the Board of Trustees of the Public

Museum of the City of Milwaukee.

520 The American Naturalist. [June,

Warp, D. J. H.--What is God? Dover, 1896. From the author.

WHITE, C. A.—Memoir of George Engelmann, M. D., 1809-1884. Extr.

Biog. Mem. Natl. Acad., Vol. IV, 1896. From the author

WIELAND, G. R.—Archelon ischyros: A new gigantic Cryptodire Testudinate

from the Fort Pierre Cretaceous of South Dakota. Extr. Amer. Journ. Sci.,

Vol. I, 1896. From the author.

General Notes.

PETROGRAPHY.

Mud Enclosures in Triassic Trap of New England.—

Emerson,’ in an interesting and well illustrated paper, gives an account

of tuff deposits at Granby and Holyoke, Mass., and of a sandstone con-

taining fragments of a diabase very rich in feldspar existing a few feet

above the Holyoke trap sheet in the valley between Tom and Little

Mountains. At Dibbles and at other places the normal ‘trap’ of the

region is filled with enclosures of a calcareous mud, which are so related

to the enclosing rock as to leave no doubt that the mud was forced into

the trap before solidification took place. In its advance the rolling lava

sheet carried some of the mud beneath it, so that it now contains a muddy

lower layer as well as a muddy upper layer. In places, especially near

Greenfield, Mass., the trap, which is mainly a diabase, solidified as

pitchstone, as a result probably of the action of the steam generated by

the heating of the lower mud stratum. In these places the lower por-

tion of the sheet is a mixture of sand, fragments of sandstone, frag-

ments of diabase and of pitchstone, all cemented together by glass,

which is cracked and shattered. In the crevices thus formed albite,

diopside and other minerals have been deposited. Elsewhere, sand-

stones and diabase glass, trap and breccia are intermixed in great con-

fusion. The petrographical description of all the types of breccia and

pitchstones are faithfully given by the author. The glasses in the glass

breccia of Meriden, analyzed by Stokes, is composed as follows:

SiO, TiO} CO, P,0; F Al0O3 FeO; FeO MnO a CaO MgO K,O NaO H,O Total

2.19 15 tr 13.96 5.23 467 tr .08 9.42 7.69 2.02 1.85 4,72 — 99.92

The lava sheet is supposed to have moved over the bottom of a water

basin blending with the mud and sand with which this bottom was cov-

ered. The mud was drawn up into the liquid lava by currents, an nd

the great amount of water thus introduced caused it to solidify locally

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, rane agen an Waterville, Me.

? Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 8, p

1897.] Petrography. 521

as a spherulitic glass with the composition indicated above. Explo-

sions of steam took place before the glass had completely cooled, form-

ing a breccia of mud, sand, solidified lava, partially solid glass. At

one place this mixture broke through the trap sheet forming a mud

volcano. A large number of handsome plates illustrate the descrip-

tions.

A Keratophyre Dyke near New Haven.—Hovey’ declares

that a keratophyre dyke cuts the Triassic sandstones near New Haven,

Conn. It is one of seven dykes, the remaining six being diabases. The

keratophyre contains two sets of feldspar phenocrysts. One set con-

sists of large crystals of albite and the other of acicular crystals of

anorthoclase. The matrix in which these lie looks like a devitrified

glass. Analysis gave:

SiO, TiO, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO Mno MgO CaO Na,O K,O Ign Total

60.13 tr 20.47 1.04 .72 tr 1.15 2.59 9.60 1.06 3.44—100.20

The loss on ignition is largely CO,. Thisisthe first acid dyke reported

in the Triassic sandstone of the Atlantic border.

The Gabbros near Ronsperg, Bohemia.—A group of rocks

belonging to the gabbro family is described by Martin‘ from the vicin-

ity of Ronsperg, Bohemia. Gabbros and olivine-gabbros are the prin-

cipal rock types met with. They constitute intrusive layers between

pegmatite and amphibolite. Near the amphibolite the gabbros grade

into quartz diorites. At Hoslau a smaragdite gabbro occurs in scattered

ledges, and between these, near a granite with which the basic rock

may be in contact, are ledgesof norite. Wehrlite ledges are also found

in the same vicinity. These are believed by the author to be basic in-

clusions in the intrusive rock. The olivine of the olivine-gabbro is

often surrounded by arim consisting of orthorhombic pyroxene, brown,

green and colorless hornblende, and spinel, all of which are thought to

be secondary. Diallage and orthorhombic pyroxenes, and this mineral

and olivine, are often in parallel growths when all are original. The

smaragdite-gabbro is much decomposed, its diallage having been

changed to smaragdite and its plagioclase to cloudy grains filled with

zoisite and clinochlor.

Exotic Blocks in the Eocene Schists of the Alps.—The

Eocene schists of the Alps have long been known to include exotic

* Amer. Jour. Sci., III, 1897, p. 287.

t Min u. Petrog. Mitth., XVI, 1896, p. 105.

522 The American Naturalist. [June,

blocks or boulders, that are different in character from the blocks and

boulders found in the glacial drift of the district. König’ has recently

described those occurring in the schists near Stockerau as micro-gran-

ites, granophyres, granites, gneisses and mica schists, but has not suc-

ceeded in tracing them to their origin.

The Eleolite-Syenite of the Serra Monchique.—Kraatz,’

Koschlau and Hackman give a very thorough account of the well

known eleolite-syenites of the Serra Monchique, Portugal... Two prin-

cipal types of the rock are distinguished. One is the coarse grained

type from Picota and the other a finer grained type from Foia. These

are crossed by streaks (Schlieren) of fine grained rock, and in them are

basic concretions. The eleolite-syenite has produced marked contact

effects in the surrounding sedimentaries and has suffered corresponding

changes on the periphery of its mass. A system of dykes cutting the

syenite comprises bostonite-porphyry, leucite-tinguaite, vitrophyre,

eegirine-tinguaites, eleolite-syenite porphry, camptonitic-tinguaites,

nepheline-tephrite, monochiquite and camptonite.

The Picota rock may be a deeper facies than the Foia rock. It con-

sists essentially of eleolite and feldspar, with a few dark colored com-

ponents forming a granitic or atrachytic aggregate. The dark colored

components are diopside, often with an ægirine or an sgirine-augite

border, sphene, biotite and lavenite. Except the first named they are

all in small quantity. Analyses show the presence of 37.44% soda-

orthoclase, 24.34% albite, 14.43% nepheline, 11.6% augite, 10.21%

lepidomelane and .22% sphene. The Foia rock differs from the Picota

type in the presence of but a small quantity of nepheline and in its

finer grain. In some of its varieties it resembles strongly the pulaskite

of Arkansas both in appearance and in composition. An analysis 0

the Portugese rock yielded :

a TiO, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO MnO MgO CaO K,O Na,O-H,O Total

60.4 19.23 .63 3.19 .67 1.73 6.88 6.99 1.74 = 101.48

Near the village of Monchique a pegmatitic pulaskite or eleolite-sye

nite was met with, the only instance of a pegmatite discovered in the

district.

The streaks (Schlieren) i in the Picota rock are more acid than the

body of the rock, one in the Foia area contains a hornblende of the

katophorite-arfvedsonite series, otherwise they present no unusual feat

ures.

age u. none Mitth., XV, p. 109.

*Ib.,

1897.] : Petrography. 523

One of the basic concretions in the Picota area has the composition of

teschenite. Its analysis gave :

SiO, TiO, AlO% Fe.0; FeO MgO CaO NaO KO CO, PO; H:O Total

49.67 4.14 14.56 6.09 6.41 4.66 14.87 4.25 1.94 .40 .52 1,18 = 100.82

Another is an essexite with the composition :

SiO, TiO, AlO, FeO, FeO MgO CaO Na,O K,O H,O Total

Vianan yaaani

49.67 not det. 17.99 13.06 3.06 6.63 6.21 2.62 .86 =— 100.10

The contact products formed in the surrounding slates, graywackes and

quartzites are hornstones, knotty schists and other contact schists like

those so frequently found around bosses of granite. Diabase horn-

stones (cordierite-bearing and cordierite-free) are contact facies of

igneous rocks in the vicinity of the syenite intrusion.

Notes.—Jaggar’ has constructed a simple instrument to use on the

microscope stage for inclining a thin section in such a manner that

optical axial angles may be observed in sections cut at random.

Merrill® continues his contributions to the study of rock weathering

in a paper on the weathering of micaceous gneisses in Albemarle Co.,

Virginia. The results communicated confirm those obtained in pre-

vious investigations. The red color of the residual soil in this case, as

well asin the south generally, is thought to be purely a superficial

phenomenon. It is accounted for by the accumulation of the coloring

matter distributed through the rock in the residue left by the weather-

ing processes. Brilliant colors in residual soils are thus regarded as

evidences of long continued weathering action. The author would

limit the use of the term ‘weathering’ to the alteration “ processes

going on within the zone of oxidation and resulting as a rule in the

destruction of a rock mass as a geological body.” The deeper seated

changes resulting in the alteration of the rock constituents without

changing the character of the rock as a whole, he would term hydro-

metamorphism. ;

7 Amer. Jour. Sci., IJI, 1897, p. 129.

8 Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 8, p. 157.

524 The American Naturalist. [June,

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The International Congress returns to its proper mission.

—The iollowing is part of the last circular of the council of the Inter-

national Geological Congress. One of the two specific objects which

the Congress originally set out to accomplish was the modification of

the nomenclature, but the meetings gradually drifted away from the

work to the more entertaining occupation of listening to lectures by

distinguished savants on various themes. The Council of the coming

Congress recalls that body to its duty with abruptness, and reproduces

the essential parts of the reports of the Committee employed to study

the subject made at the Committee’s sessions at Geneva and Manches-

ter in 1886 and 1887.

If half of the questions here enumerated but receive the approval

of the coming Congress, a boon will have been conferred on long suffer-

ing students

Third Ohi International Geological Congress, 7th Session, Rus-

sia, 1897 :

The Committee of Organization of the 7th International Geological

Congress has decided at its session of February 21st (March 5th) to

dispose in the following manner of the time which the members of the

Congress will pass at St. Petersburg between the 17th (29th) of Aug-

ust and August 23d (September 4th).

From 9 to 10 A. M., will be held the session of the Council of the

Congress.

From 10 to 2 P. M., discussion [in the Congress Ed.] of the questions

which will be proposed in the programme of the Committee of Or-

ganization.

From 2 to 3 P. M., visit to the museums and the exposition.

From 3 to 5 P. M., communications of a general character an-

nounced in advance to the Committee on Organization.’

It has been decided to group these communications in such a man-

ner as not to embrace in a single day more than one of the branches of

geological science.

After the session of the Congress it is proposed to make excursions

in the environs of St. Petersburg. In the interval between August

1 Up to the present time several Geologists have expressed the desire to make

communications of this kind.

1897.] Geology and Paleontology. 525

17th (29th) and August 23d (Septemher 4th) an excursion of one and

a half days will be made to the cascade of Imatra.

As to the scientific questions which it is proposed to elucidate at the

7th Session of the Congress, the Committee on Organization has put it-

self in communication with Professors Capellini and Dewalque, Presi-

dent and Secretary of the permanent commission of the Congress (a

commission charged with elaborating preliminarily the questions which

it will be desirable to submit to the discussion of the Congress) as well

as with several geologists of Western Europe and America.

In consideration of the answers received, the Committee on Organi-

zation has the honor to propose the following programme of the labor of

the Congress.

On reviewing the work of the preceding Congresses, the Committee

on Organization has observed that all the sessions which have followed

that of London have lost sight of the propositions of the commission

for the unification of the nomenclature, elaborated in the meetings at

Geneva (1886) and at Manchester (1887), and announced by the Sec-

retary of this commission in these terms :

“The commission on the uniformity of nomenclature thought it of

importance before going further, to adopt certain principles of a

mature to serve as a guide in the discussion of systems of classification,

and it adopted the following theses.”

“I. The divisions of the first order should have an universal value,

and should be based upon Ae ant characters sufficiently gen-

eral to be applied to the whole ear

“ II. The sub-groups which are aad will be necessarily defined

by the characters which are common to the systems of which they are

formed. They should have an almost universal value.’ [In the

thought of the commission these sub-groups were the Jurassic and the

Cretaceous. The meeting at Manchester having rejected these sub-

groups, this thesis II disappears from the programme].

“ III. Besides the systems shall have a very general value. Their

paleontological characters should indicate an organic evolution, partic-

ularly characterized by the study of pelagic animals.”

“TV. In order that a division should be erected into a system, it is

desirable that the succession of pelagic fauna show itself susceptible of

well marked sub-divisions.”

“V. The divisions of a system ought to have an European or equiv-

alent value. Each stage ought to be characterized by a pelagic fauna

sufficiently distinct.”

526 The American Naturalist. [June,

“ VI. The sub-stages can have but a regional value. (The commis-

sion thinks that the International Congress has not to concern itself

with the final divisions which have only a local value).”

“ VII. The divisions of the same order ought to present as much

equivalence as pessible from the point of view of the paleontological

evolution which they represent.”

“N. B. The commission recognizes that the geographical variations

ought to be taken into serious consideration in the establishment of

divisions of different orders; but on account of the frequently local

character of the variations, and above all of the actual imperfection of

our knowledge so far as relates to the old beaches, it thinks that the

stratigraphical argument needs to be confirmed by the paleontological

criterion.”

At the Manchester meeting M. Hughes called attention to the nec-

essity of discussing principles before the applications; on his motion

the commission decided to ask the Congress to determine primarily the

rules of stratigraphic terminology, such as the rules to follow in the

historical and stratigraphical criticism, above all from the point of

view of the law of priority.

The commission concludes its report with the following sentence:

“ It seems evident that it would considerably shorten the discussions

if the Congress proceed in this way.”

Unfortunately the Congress of London could not profit by the sen-

sible ideas enunciated at Geneva and Manchester, and was obliged to

continue its labors in the direction imposed by the session at Berlin.

Similarly the questions put by the commission for unifying the nomen-

clature were neglected at the Congresses of Washington and Ziirich.

Consequently it would be desirable that the Congress of Russia return

to the questions having an international character, and that the decis-

ions of the commissions of Geneva and Manchester that we have just

cited (to which could be added some general theses) should become the

basis of the questions to discuss.

The Committee on Organization of the Congress of St. Petersburg is

of the opinion that before taking up the other questions, the Congress

should decide primarily which of the two classifications it wishes to re-

tain in the science, the artificial classification based solely on historical

data, or the natural classification which bases itself as much on i

general physico-geographical changes, common to the whole terrestrial

globe, as on the faunal data, and not on the accidental limits of the

different divisions called after the name of the region where they have

been established for the first time.

1897.] Geology and Paleontology. 527

The data actually at the disposition of science are sufficiently num-

erous to sketch the principal features of the great physico-geographical

changes, such as the invasion of the oceans, the relations which exist

between these and the general oscillations, ete. The reconciliation of

these data with the faunal data could doubtless accomplish the admis-

sion of a new grouping of geological systems, and put an end to the

continual fruitless polemics, which ensue from the efforts one is obliged

to make in order to bring into the frame work of the actual systems

all the peculiarities which the various regions offer. It goes without

saying that the discussion of this question of a general nature does not

exclude the necessity of examining the propositions of the commission

for the unification of the nomenclature ; but a satisfactory preliminary

understanding would certainly contribute much to prepare the success

of the deliberation on the propositions suggested by the commissions

of Geneva and Manchester.

After the examination of the first points it would be very desirable

that a second question of principle should be cleared up, that of the

rules to follow in the introduction of new terms in stratigraphic nomen-

clature. Each of us knows how many new denominations appear in

the literature to designate different geological divisions. Frequently

the authors of the new terms introduce them without any argument,

either batrological or faunal, which might serve to distinguish clearly

the sediments to which they apply these denominations from the adja-

cent deposits; it happens even sometimes that the authors themselves

have very vague conceptions of what they call by anew name. Such neo-

logisms appear not only in the special literature, but quite frequently in

the manuals, whence they pass into the general literature. These new

terms being evidently but a useless burden to the science, it is in the

highest degree desirable that the Congress, which has already estab-

lished rules to follow in the paleontological nomenclature, assert itself

also on the question of the stratigraghic nomenclature, and that it

establish data which may authorize the application of new denomina-

tions to certain deposits. baht

Another question of not less absolute necessity in the opinion of the

Committee on Organization, is that of petrographic nomenclature, of

which it is more than urgent to-day to establish the principles.

The inundation of new terms in the science has attained such dimen-

sions that very soon no human memory will be able to retain the whole

mass of new denominations, and the reading of each memoir will neces-

sitate the employment of a special glossary. The labors undertaken in

‘this direction could be made simultaneously with the deliberations on

528 The American Naturalist. [June,

the principles of petrographic classification, of which the elaboration

has been confided by the Congress of Ziirich to a special commission

under the presidency of M. A. Michel-Levy.

The Committee on Organization of the Congress of St. Petersburg

does not flatter itself that the single session from August 17th (22d)

to August 23d (September 5th) will suffice to exhaust this programme,

but if it be only a part which can be submitted to discussion from

all points of view—a discussion which would offer to the Congress the

possibility of expressing itself in a definite sense, the 7th Session of the

International Geological Congress would still have the merit of having

directed the labors of the meeting in the right road, abandoned since

the session at Washington.—P. F.

On the Laramie and Related Formations in Wyoming.

—Various questions that have arisen in regard to the contents of the

Laramie formations have been investigated by T. W. Stanton and F.

W. Knowlton. They show that the Black Buttes (Wyoming) beds

are true Laramie, and correlate with them the Ceratops beds of Con-

verse County. The plant forms confirm the Laramie age of the Cera-

tops beds. It is also demonstrated that the coal-bearing series of the

Laramie plains in large part if not wholly, are older than the true

Laramie. The facts stated by the writers lead them to follow the ex-

ample of King, Hayden and many other geologists in placing the base

of the Laramie immediately above the highest marine Cretaceous beds

of the Rocky Mountain region. They include in the Montana forma-

tion or division intercalated non-marine beds that at some localities

yield land plants and brackish and freshwater mollusks as well as

coal.

The discussion of the upper limit of the Laramie is replete with in-

terest and is here given in full :—

“ Until a few years ago it was the custom to include in the Laramie

all of the beds between the Fox Hills and Wasatch formations. In

the Denver region the detailed studies of Cross and Eldridge,’ have

resulted in the recognition of the Arapahoe and Denver beds separated

from the Laramie and from each other by unconformities and distin-

guished by marked lithologic features. A revision of the fossil floras

of that region has also shown that the Denver beds contain a flora

composed of species, a large proportion of which are not found in the

' Proceeds. Colo. Sci. Soc., Vol. III, pt. I, pp. 86-133; Amer. Jour. Sci., 3d

Ser., Vol. XX XVII, 1889, pp. 261--282; Monograph, XX VII, U. S. Geol. Sur-

vey (in press).

1897.] Geology and Paleontology. 529

underlying Laramie. Cross,’ Hills’ and others have observed that beds

lithologically resembling the Denver bed and ina similar stratigraphic

position above the Laramie, occur at several widely separated localities

in western and southwestern Colorado. In southern Montana Weed*

has defined the Livingston formation as a very thick series of strata

lithologically comparable with the Denver beds, resting unconformably

on the Laramie and yielding a small flora more closely related to the

Denver flora than to any other. The same geologist’ also finds beds

that he refers to the Fort Union, overlying the Livingstone. All these

formations are older than the Wasatch, and we should naturally ex-

pect to find them in eastern and southern Wyoming, or, if they are

absent there, their places should be indicated by unconformities.

“ The Denver and Arapahoe beds have yielded representatives of a

remarkable reptilian fauna consisting largely of horned dinosaurs of

the family Ceratopside. The presence of this family in the Ceratops

beds of Converse County and probably at Black Buttes has suggested

the very reasonable query whether the beds containing them at these

places also are not younger than the true Laramie. The facts we have

presented relative to the stratigraphy and paleontology of the Black

Buttes dinosaur horizon seem to us convincing that it is in the Laramie

and near the base of that formation. It is less than 200 feet above the

marine Cretaceous, and there is no evidence of a break® nor any abrupt

lithological change. The character of the flora and of the invertebrate

fauna also, so far as the species have a distribution in recognized hori-

zons elsewhere, favors its reference to the Laramie. If the Dinosaur

bed of Black Buttes is not Laramie, then the Laramie is either absent

or is represented only by about 100 feet of sandstone. The overlying

beds up to and including strata with a Fort Union flora seem to form

a continuous series that is indivisible either structurally or lithologi-

cally, and we can see no reason for placing the top of the Laramie

lower than the base of the lowest bed with a Fort Union flora.

“ Closely similar conditions are seen in Converse County, the princi-

pal difference being a greater development of the beds. The sand-

stones at the base overlying the Fox Hills are a few hundred feet

? Amer. Kaas Sci., Vol. XLIV, 1892, pp. 19-42.

8 Proceeds, Colo. Sci. Soc., Vol. III, pt. III, 1890, pp. 390-397.

* Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 105, po

5 Amer. Geol., Vol. XVIII, p pp- 201-211, 1

ê The mappini unconformity between nai Point of Rocks and Bitter Creek

groups has no bearing on this question, since it is below marine beds belonging to

the Fox Hills,

530 The American Naturalist. [June,

thick, and the variable, more argillaceous higher: beds, with a fresh-

water fauna in large part identical with that at Black Buttes and a

flora that also indicates the same horizon, have a much greater thick-

ness. Here again there seems to be no break in a series that has Fort

Union plants in its upper member. The abundant occurrence of such

a species as Campeloma multilineata throughout all but the lowest por-

tion of the series argues strongly for continuous sedimentation.

“The difficulty of recognizing unconformities in beds so little dis-

turbed has not been overlooked, and the possibility that there may be

such undiscovered breaks in these two areas is freely admitted, though

it does not seem to us probable. From the facts now available it seems

most probable that in Converse County, and in the Bitter Creek Val-

ley, the time representatives of the Denver and Arapahoe beds are

undifferentiated portions of a continuous series, and cannot be sepa-

ted from the Laramie. The Fort Union beds are apparently distin-

guishable by means of their flora, and these mark the upper limit of

the Laramie in the areas in question.” (Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol.

8, 1897).

A Comparison of European and American Lower Creta-

ceous Flora.—In comparing the fossil floras of the Lower Cretaceous

beds of America with those of Europe, Dr. Lester Ward finds some

close analogies existing between them. The European beds examined

are the Wealden of England, the Scaly Clays of Italy, and the Lower

Cretaceous of Portugal; the American floras used for comparison are

those of the Older and Middle Potomac, the Trinity of Texas, and the

Kootanie of the northwest. The table of the distribution of the Weal-

den flora compiled by Dr. Ward shows that the paleontological rela-

tions between the Wealden of England and the Potomac formation of

America are as close as are the geological relations.

In regard to the Scaly Claysof Italy, the author is inclined to favor

their Lower Cretaceous age from the general resemblance of the Cycad

remains of the formation in question to those of America. Both the

stratigraphy and the faunal remains confirm this view.

Lastly, the author finds that the Lower Cretaceous of Portugal is,

botanically speaking, a close repetition of that of America. - (Extr.

Sixteenth Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. Surv., 1894-95. Washington, 1896).

Geological News.—ArcHEAN.—The iron ore bodies in and near

Mineville, N. Y., constitute the third largest single group developed

east of Lake Superior. They occur on the contact between gabbro

and gneiss. A study of the relations of the rocks leads Mr. J. F-

1897.] Geology and Paleontology. 531

Kemp to the conclusion that the gabbro was intruded as one or more

sheets which pierced the gneisses parallel with the present direction of

foliation. Subsequent to the intrusion and to the ore deposition came

the dynamic metamorphism which developed the gneissoid foliation.

The ore deposition, the metamorphism and the folding are of pre-

Cambrian date, but some faulting is probably later. The author re-

gards the ores as contact deposits. formed by the influence and stimulus

of the gabbro intrusion. (Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., 1897).

Pa.eozoic.—The affinities of the perplexing genus Vertebraria

have been finally settled by M. R. Zeiller. Among the collection of

plants obtained by M. de Launay from the permo-triassic deposits of the

Transvaal, were a number of specimens of Vertebraria, which upon

minute examination showed not only the rhizome structure, but also

that the rhizome consisted of a central axis with a variable number of

longitudinal wings anastomosing two by two from placeto place. This

suggested to the investigator that Vertebraria belonged to the Glos-

sopteris. Other specimens verified this conjecture by permitting the

tracing of a group of bundles starting from the anastomosis of longitu-

dinal ridges into the midrib of a Glossopteris leaf. Vertebraria is,

therefore, the rhizome of Glossopteris. (Records Geol. Sury. India,

Vol. XXX, 1897).

Mrsozoic.—A small collection of plants from the Cretaceous marl

at Cliffwood, N. J., is reported upon by Professor Hollick. The re-

mains number 26 species, of which 10 are new ; the latter are described

and figured. Conifers are the most abundantly represented. This col-

lection is of interest as supplementing our previous knowledge of the

Cretaceic flora of eastern North America. (Trans. New York Acad.

Sci., 1887).

Cenozorc.—Dr. George Dawson reports the finding of Globigerina

cretacea and Textularia globulosa, as well as other forms of marine or-

ganisms in the boulder clays of the Great Plains which appear to be

contemporaneous with the deposition of the clays. This fact corrobo-

rates the author’s previous suggestion that the water covering the

western plains at this time may have been at the level of that of the

sea and in more or less direct communication with it. (Journ. Geol.,

Vol. V, 1897).

The evidence thus far gathered concerning the petroleum yielding

rocks of California leads to the following conclusions :—

(1) That the Oligocene and Eocene formations contain a primary

deposit of petroleum.

532 The American Naturalist. [June,

(2) Secondary deposits consisting of asphaltum, have a vertical

range from Miocene to Pleistocene. (Calif. State Min. Bur. Bull. 11,

[1896] 1897).

BOTANY.

A Scientific Dictionary of Plants.—Of unscientific diction-

aries of plants we have had many, but at last we have one which may

be consulted without fear by the scientific botanist. It is so useful that

we may well call attention to it here. Its author, J. C. Willis, is the

Director of the Royal Botanic Garden in Ceylon, and the book, which

he calls “A Manual and Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and

Ferns,” is the outgrowth of his experience in garden, museum and field.

In the first volume are given summaries of Morphology, Ecology, the

Principles of Classification, Geographical Distribution, and Economie

Botany. The second volume, which is double the size of the first, con-

sists of an alphabetical arrangement of classes, orders and genera, each

with valuable descriptive and numerical data.

In the preparation of the work the author has made use of Engler

and Prantl’s Pflanzenfamilien, thus insuring a modern treatment. The

fact that it is brought out by the Cambridge University Press as

one of the Cambridge Natural Science Manuals, is a sufficient guaran-

tee of the mechanical excellence of the work.

—Cuarrs E. Bessey.

Order and Family in Botany.—It has been a well-recognized

law in Zoology that “Family” is a subdivision of “ Order,” and in

many botanical publications an effort has been made to recognize the

same relation. It is very unfortunate that in the ordinary English

books both of these terms have been applied to the same groups. Thus

we have Order Ranunculacee and Family Ranunculacee, Order Com-

posite and Family Composite. Here we throw away a much needed

group-term, and are obliged to bring in the term “ Cohort” to replace

it, to say nothing of “ Series” and “ Division.” Some of the German

botanists have wisely followed the zoological practice of using “ Order”

for a group above “ Family.” Thus Luerssen (Handbuch der System-

atischen Botanik), Sachs (Text-book of Botany), Goebel ( Outlines of

Classification and Special Morphology of Plants), Schumann (Lehrbuch

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

1897.] Botany. 533

der Systematischen Botanik) Winter, Luerssen, Limpricht and others

(Rabenhorsts’s Kryptogamen Floravon Deutschland, Oesterrich und der

Schweiz), Schroeter (Die Pilze Schlesiens) and Engler and Prantl (Die

Natiirlichen Planzenfamilien) group the families (Familien) under

orders ( Ordnungen, Reihen). Over against this commendable prac-

tice we may contrast the common English and American manuals, as

Hooker’s Students British Flora, Bentham’s Handbook of the British

Flora. Gray’s Manual of Botany, Coulter's Manual of Rocky Mountain

Botany, Watson’s Botany of California, and Bentham and Hooker’s

Genera Plantarum, in all of which Order and Family are treated as

synonymous terms. Now and then we find a work in which these

terms are treated as not synonymous, but, curiously, Family is placed

above Order. Twenty or more years ago, Cooke, in his Handbook of

British Fungi, used these terms in this reversed relation ; but little was

thought of it since he never paid much attention to such details. Re-

cently a work has appeared (Warming’s Handbook of Systematic Bot-

any, translated by Potter) which is so useful in many ways that it must

be widely used, in which the orders are made secondary to the fami-

lies. Thus we find the “Family” Gasteromycetee containing the

* Orders” Tylostomacece, Lycoperdacee, Sclerodermat , Nidulariacee

and Hymenogastracee, the “ Family” Sazifraginae containing the

“Orders” Crassulacew, Saxifragacee, Ribesiacee, Hydrangeacee, Pitto-

sporacee, Hamamelidacee, Platanacee and Podostemacee. We hoped

that this confusion would find no foothold in America, but we observe

that Thaxter in his great Monograph of the Laboulbeniacee follows the

undesirable ee by subdividing the Family Laboulbeniacee into

three “ Orders

It should not be necessary to argue for uniformity of practice in the

two branches of Nature-study, Botany and Zoology ; that appears to be

almost self-evident ; but these later exceptions show that there is danger

that we shall have more and more cases of violation of the rule. It is

not a matter of small moment. It is not true that botanists may be a

_ law unto themselves in such matters. Every man, however much he

may have deepened his work until he may be said to have mastered

some particular field of the science, must remember that to a large ex-

tent his work must be followed and reviewed by men who, for a time,

at least, work in more than one field. Every biological student has a

right to demand that specialists shall not add needlessly to the difficul-

ties which confront him in his attempts to gain a knowledge of the

rine grouping of plants and animals. So long as the botanists

“Order” and “Family” indifferently for the same groups, the

534 The American Naturalist. (Sala

student had little difficulty in remembering the curious fact that while

botanists have as great a need as the zoologists for group-terms, they

have thrown away “ Family” by making “ Order” synonymous with

it and then using both terms for the same groups. When, however,

he faces the fact that in zoology the sequence is Class, Order and

Family, and in botany Class, Family and Order, he may well become

indignant at the want of agreement between the workers in these nearly

related fields of science——CHARLEs E. Brssry.

Botanical Notelets.—Frank Vincent’s “Plant World” is a

pleasantly written book in Appleton’s Home Reading Books. It con-

sists of selections, prose and poetic, relating to plants. In general these

selections are judiciously made, but there is one at least written by I.

Platt in “ The World’s Encyclopedia of Wonders and Curiosities”

which should at once be suppressed by the publishers. How Dr. Har-

ris, the editor of the series, could have allowed such arrant nonsense to

go into this otherwise excellent book is quite inexplicable.

Of some botanical interest is the pretty little book, “ The Dahlia,”

edited by William Cuthbertson, and published by Macmillan & Co.

While primarily intended for gardeners and florists, there is not a lit-

tle of value in it for the scientific botanist who is interested in the ques-

tion of the pliability of plants under man’s hand.

J. B. Leiberg’s report of his botanical survey of the Coeur d’Alene

Mountains, Idaho, in the summer of 1895 (Contrib. U. S. Natl. Herb.,

Vol. V, No.1), brings to light many interesting facts about a relatively

little known region. It contains many suggestions as to the policy 0

forest preservation in which so many scientific men are now interested.

It is interesting to note that in spite of the fact that this report has a

marked economic flavor, all measurements are metric throughout.

Certainly if the United States Department of Agriculture can safely

use the metric measurements in a builetin dealing with topography,

drainage, climate, mineral deposits, agricultural capacity, agricultural

products, grazing lands, native food plants, utilization of water supply,

forest resources, forest destruction, forest preservation, etc., botanists

need no longer fear to make use of such measurements in their books,

even of the most popular character.

The last number of Pringsheim’s Jahrbiicher fir wissenschaftliche

Botanik (Bd. XXX, 2 and 3), now edited by Pfeffer and Strasburger,

is remarkable for the richness of its contents, the whole being devoted

to cytological studies from the Botanical Institute of Bonn. After an

introductory note by Strasburger there are papers on the karyokin-

1897.] Zoology. ? 535

atic spindle of Equisetum (Osterhout), nuclear division in the pollen-

mother-cells of certain Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons (Mottier),

nuclear division in the pollen-mother-cells of Hemerocallis fulva (Juel),

nuclear division in Chara fragilis (Debski), nuclear division and free-

cell-formation in asci (Harper), nuclear division and fertilization in

Basidiobolus ranarum (Fairchild), nuclear- and cell-division in the

Sphacelariacee (Swingle), nuclear division and fertilization in Fucus

(Strasburger), cytoplasm-structure and nuclear- and cell-division

(Strasburger), fertilization (Strasburger). It is encouraging to observe

the names of the American botanists, Osterhout, Mottier, Harper, Fair-

child and Swingle in this list—Cuar.es E. Bessey

ZOOLOGY.

Stichospira paradoxa.—Nov. gen. and sp. of Ciliata Infusoria

with plate—Body, when extended, much elongated, consisting of a

bulbous posterior part, a long, slender neck, and an anterior part with

the peristome and a long corkscrew-like anterior extension curved dor-

salward and to the right, bearing the prolongated adoral zone of cilia.

When contracted, it is obovoid with the anterior end rather pointed.

The substance of the body is slightly yellow. One contractile vacuole

is situated in front of the peristome, somewhat to the left and dorsal-

ward, another near the posterior end of the body. Two almost globu-

lar endoplasts were seen not very distinctly. In the posterior part

there are, as a rule, numerous food-balls and small, strongly-refracting

particles. On the right margin of the rather deeply excavated peris-

tome is a broad, thin, hyaline membrane, standing out perpendicularly,

ventralward ; it appears to be rather stiff and is undulating very

slightly (u m in fig. 2.). The anus is in the anterior part, to the left

of the peristome, and constant. Of cilia there are the following :—

1, The adoral zone with about 30 to 50 transverse series of fine, long

cilia from the peristome-angle to the anterior end of the processus, of

which this zone is occupying the outer side.

2. One single, stronger, shorter cilium at the anterior end of the

zone, and sometimes a smaller one in front of it.

3. A series of about 20 “ paroral” cilia just inside of the membrane

on the right peristome-margin ; they are long, bristle-like, crowded,

appearing stiff, but slightly vibrating, longest in the middle of the

series, their ends forming a regular curve.

536 The American Naturalist. [June,

4, “ Endoral” cilia lining the gullet from the peristome-angle through

the neck to the posterior part.

5. A right marginal series extending from the anterior end to and

over the neck; the cilia are rather short and somewhat remote from

each other.

6. A left marginal series, beginning to the left of the peristome and

extending backward, somewhat oblique; the cilia are short and

crowded,

7. Two series of ventral cilia on the neck, betwenn 5 and 6, and pos-

terior to the peristome.

8. A short, oblique group or series of about six long, hair-like, stiff

cilia, to the left and somewhat behind the peristome-angle, directed

ventralward obliquely.

9. A longitudinal series of cilia of the same kind along the left side

of the neck.

10. A similar series on thè right side ; in both these series the cilia

are directed slightly backward when the animal is extended, and for-

ward when it retracts.

11. Fine, stiff, hair-like dorsal cilia or “tactile hairs,’ in several .

series of various length ; quite short on the anterior processus, longer

from the peristome backward; Nos. 9 and 10, and possibly, also, 8,

may be of the same category.

12, Some cilia near the posterior end of the body, whose exact group-

ing and significance are yet to be ascertained.

The size is subject to considerable variation ; long. of extended speci-

mens 0:15-0:25 mill.

It seems that the anterior part and neck are made up wholly of

ectosarc, and the softer endosare fills the posterior bulbous part.

The food consists of smallest particles, so far as observed, most bac-

teria, etc., carried along with the current of water and gathered in the

gullet at some distance from the peristome-angle, to a smaller or larger

ball (fig. 1 f b) which is then passed backward. By the large membrane

and the long, dense series of long “ paroral” cilia at the right margin

of the peristome (fig. 2, um and par), standing out perpendicularly, a

very effective wall is formed for conducting the current with the minute

food particles to the peristome-angle. Larger objects are usually ex-

pelled when driven into the peristome, by the posterior adoral cilia

directed rather towards the right. But occasionally larger morsels, up

to 0°01 mill. diameter, are swallowed. After digestion, the balls (fig.

1, db) are passed forward through the neck, on the left side, to the

anus (fig. 1, a) situated to the left of the peristome. While passing

1897] wee Zoology. 537

along the neck they project considerably over the general level, and

seem to be covered only by the cuticula. The anus has its constant

place, but is marked by a slight irregularity of the surface only for a `

short. while after the waste ball is ejected.

- The animal lives, as a rule, in a cavity of some plant, a living or

dead leaf, ete., from which it projects, straight, or curved, at any suit-

able angle. Very often this dwelling is extended forward by the ad-

dition of a tube (fig. 1, ¢) built by the animal itself with small particles

of different materials carried along by the current, connected, prob-

ably, by some mucus secreted from the body. Sometimes these tubes

are rather hyaline and transparent, containing few foreign bodies.

Occasionally a specimen is seen in a tube made up entirely by itself.

From the cavity or tube, the anterior part of the body is projecting,

when extended, to a short distance behind the peristome-angle (usually

less so than in fig. 1), while the posterior part is, as a rule, not or very

indistinctly visible.

en the animal is emerging from the tube, its anterior part is quite

straight, the adoral cilia along the ventral side laid together, directed

. backward, and resting or vibrating very slightly, as a rule (fig. 4).

Then, all at once, they spread out and begin vibrating vividly, and at

the same time the anterior processus suddenly turns into the corkscrew-

shape, like a spring. Thus extended the animal will keep for a shorter

or longer time, in the way of Vorticellide, often swaying to and fro, or

turning around its axis, and then as suddenly it will retreat deep into

its cavity, where it may remain for a few seconds, or minutes, up to

several hours, and sometimes probably more. At times an animal may

be seen slowly advancing in its tube, about to the aperture, then

slowly retreating, and continue doing so for a good while, with the

cilia, especially the posterior adorals, slightly vibrating. Possibly this

is done for the purpose of respiration.

As already stated, there is considerable variation in size. Each in-

dividual is growing, but slowly, even with abundance of food. With

the growth of the animal is connected a considerable increase in the

number of adoral cilia, as well as probably of some other groups. This

is a fact not sufficiently noticed, so far, as to my knowledge, and with

it we meet a question of highest interest concerning not only the form

under consideration, but all Oxytrichidee and related groups.’ It is

‘Tt should be borne in mind that in Oxytrichide, Euplotide, Halteria, etc., in

the Heterotricha of Stein, in Amphileptus and some others (which should range

with the Heterotricha), the adoral zone does not consist of a spiral or longitudi-

nal series of single cilia, but of transverse rows of such, each one in the shape of

538 The American Naturalist. [June,

more than probable that the new rows of cilia are formed at the ante-

rior end of the adoral zone, which is corresponding with the right or

aboral end in other groups, for the following reasons: 1. The trans-

verse rows in the adoral zone are always equal and equidistant, so that

a new formation between the existing rows is excluded. 2. The fore-

most rows are short, bearing only a few cilia each ; with the increasing

size of the animal they become longer, bearing also a greater number

of cilia, i.e., the adoral zone grows wider, while at the same time the

number of transverse rows is increasing from about 25 or 30 in all,

about 18 in front of the peristome, to about 50, or 30 respectively.

Thus the foremost rows in a small specimen will be about in the mid-

dle of the processus when the animal has become large. 3, In several

instances it seemed that the single, shorter, stronger cilium in front of

the adoral zone (c) was split into two or three filaments, at its end, and

so it is probable that it represent and grow out into a newly added

transverse row, the more so as a smaller cilium was often seen in front

of it, which subsequently would take its place (c’, fig. 4).

A group of rather crowded, short cilia is at the anterior end on the

right and dorsal sides, evidently the new additions to the right mar-

ginal series and the fine, stiff dorsals or “ tactile hairs ” (see figs. 1, 2, 4,

5, 6).

Binary fission has not been observed directly. To all probability it

is going on during retreatment. Many specimens have been rather

closely observed during several—up to four—days in succession with-

out any changes indicating fission being noticed on the anterior part,

except in size and the number of adoral transverse rows. Lately two

animals were seen, side by side, growing to a large size, during three

to four days. Both of them were in normal shape, at noon, one day;

when seen again, about an hour and a half later, both had changed :

the anterior part was shorter and smaller, the end looked as though

chopped off, the number of transverse adoral rows was only about 18 in

front of the peristome; the cilia were short and showed that peculiar,

slow vibration always seen on new cilia during and just after fission in

Oxytrichide and all ciliates bearing an adoral zone. Evidently they

had undergone transverse fission, On the following day both specimens

again presented a different appearance (fig. 6): the anterior end was

a fan when spread out,- In innumerable instances this was distinctly seen in

many species of the different groups named, while the animals were living andin

normal condition. Whether the cilia in the transverse series are always separ

ated down to the base, or are coherent so as to forma kind of short ‘‘ mem-

branelles,” may still be an open question.

1897.] Zoology. 539

somewhat club-shaped without any adoral cilia for some distance, but

with the single, larger cilium (e, No. 2, above) and a group of rather

crowded, short, fine cilia on the back. Later, both were of normal

form, and again, two days later, the same club-formation was noticed

on one of them. These were the only instances where this form w

seen, and it is impossible to judge, at present, whether it was an inci-

dental, abnormal formation, or one occurring regularly during growth ;

yet the former is more probable.

There is one somewhat peculiar and interesting feature about the

fission in our species: In almost all other ciliates the two newly formed

individuals are of about equal value, even in the Peritricha. In Stich-

ospira the anterior animal evidently leaves as soon as separated, while

the posterior remains in place in its dwelling. Here, then, fission

seems to approach, in a certain degree, gemmation.

Several times specimens were seen free and contracted in the shape

shown in fig. 3. Whether they were anterior individuals formed by

fission, or such that had been thrown out of their cavities, accidentally,

remained in doubt. Both assumptions may be true. On such animals

a few cilia, of common form, were seen near the posterior end of the

body (see No. 12, above, and fig. 3, cp).

From the description and figures it is apparent that Stichospira is a

ciliate of very peculiar organization. In the formation of its anterior

part it resembles the Oxytrichids, with which it is to be ranged, but

representing a group of its own, owing to the formation of its middle

and posterior parts and the mode of life. With the latter moments it

resembles, to a certain degree, some heterotrichous and peritrichous

ciliates. It may also be said that the highly differentiated apparatus

of cilia in the anterior are in a strange contrast with the simple, sack-

like posterior part produced by and adapted to the animals’s living in

a cavity or tube; that is to say, for a form of Oxytrichide, And in this

connection, the situation of the anus, in the anterior part of the body,

is also very significant. This is an exceedingly illustrative example,

and rare to such a degree among ciliates, of the mutual impressions of

organization and mode of life.

It must be added, however, that the organism under consideration is

not without its analogies and homologies. On the one hand, it has

much in common with Freya, and in a similar way with Amphileptus,

etc., by the forward extension of the anterior part with the adoral zone in

front of the peristome. On the other, it is nearly related with Stichotricha

acuminata Pty., for which species the first examples seen were errone-

ously taken, and in allusion to which the generic name was given to our

540 The American Naturalist. [June,

form. Later I had a chance to observe the two species side by side. In

Stichotricha, likewise, the anterior part is much prolonged, the hair-like

cilia are highly developed, and, as it seems, they serve not only for

“tactile” purposes, but rather, at least in Stichospira, and very prob-

ably also in Stichotricha, for guiding and directing the various parti-

cles passing along with the current of water, partly to be arranged to

the tube built by the animal itself, as Stichotricha has also the inclina-

tion to, at least temporarily, live in cavities or self-made tubes. Sticho-

spira must be regarded as a very much differentiated form of the same

type, representing a different genus and even group.

The animal was first noticed in March, 1894, when about a hundred

specimens were seen, from a Small but healthy aquarium kept since

early fall. Yet some points of the organization and life-history re-

mained in doubt, and thus publication was deferred. Since May of

that year, none were seen until recently, when again several dozen

came under my observation, also in an aquarium, in company with

many other ciliates, mostly living on, or rather in, small, old stems of

Riccia. The observation and examination of this Infusorium presents

its peculiar difficulties, as is apparent from the description. Thus, of

conjugation and the forming of cysts, nothing has been seen; yet a

publication seemed to be not out of place.

EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES.

t tube.

ev contractile vacuoles.

-e endoplasts, or “ nuclei” (fig. 3).

p peristome.

rpm right-peristome- a8

` tpm left

g gullet, lined with endoral cilia.

fb food-ball in the gullet.

-b food-balls in the posterior part of the body.

db digested and waste food-ball passing to the

a anus.

um undulating membrane.

ad adoral cilia. ¢

c single cilium at the anterior end.

‘é additional smaller cilium.

par paroral cilia (fig. 2) in a dense series.

rm right marginal series of cilia.

Im left “

-v ‘ventral’’ cilia.

PLATE XV.

Stichopiva paradoxa Sterki,

4897.] Zoology. 541

>H ` group of long, hair-like cilia to the left of the peristome:

rh series of such cilia along the right side of the neck.

dh the same on the lest side.

d “dorsal” cilia, or “ tactile hairs,” short on the anterior part of

the body, longer from the peristome backward.

cp some cilia near the posterior end of the body.

Fig. 1. Specimen seen from the ventral side, with indication of the

tube built by the animal, from which it is projecting more

than usually ; the cavity in which the posterior part rests is

omitted. On the right margin of the peristome (rpm) the

membrane and the paroral cilia (um and pa r in fig. 2) are

not, or very indistinctly, visible in this position. The adoral

cilia are only indicated by one at the end of each transverse

row (conf. figs. 5 and 7).

Fig. 2. Anterior part viewed from the left side. The adoral zone is

seen directly in front of l p m, through the projecting margin

behind Zp m.

Fig. 3. Contracted specimen, not in cavity; sketch. Others seen were

of somewhat different shape.

Fig. 4. Anterior end of animal just emerging from its tube. Adoral

cilia laid together and directed backward, resting; the lines

indicate not the cilia, but the spaces between the transverse

rows.

Fig. 5. The same, with the adoral cilia somewhat diverging.

Fig. 6. The same, as seen in specimens sometime after fission, the adoral

cilia are only indicated.

Fig. 7. Single transverse row of adoral cilia, more magnified.

Seale of figs. 1 to 6, X 500. —Dr, V. STERKI.

New Philadelphia, Ohio, March, 1897.

The “Urnes” and the Enigmatic Bodies in the Body-

Cavity of Sipunculus.?—For some time the existence of certain pecu-

liar bodies in the body-cavity of Sipunculus has been known. What

their nature is has been a disputed question. Vogt and Young and

Fabre-Domerque, influenced by the mobility of the bodies, have thought

them autonomous, and have compared them with parasitic ciliated in-

fusoria. Others, among whom must be mentioned Brandt, Ray-Lank-

ester and Cuénot, have considered them as epithelial elements that have

* J. Kunstler and A. Gruvel. Recherches sur I’évolution des Urnes. Comp.

Rend., CX XIV, 309-12. we

542 The American Naturalist. [June,

become free, and as belonging to the organisation of the animal. They

have thought that all the transition stages between the simple ciliated

epithelial cells of the intestine and the free urnes may be found.

Kunstler and Gruvel assert that the bodies have a different history,

and, if the correctness of their observations be granted, we must give

up the conclusions that we have supposed well-founded and return to

the ideas of Vogt and Young and Fabre-Domerque and consider the

bodies as autonomous organisms. But, if they are such, the question

arises, What can be their history in the eavity of the young Sipunculus,

how did they gain entrance, and from whence did they come?

According to these authors the urne is the final stage in a series, and

represents the form of the organism or element that is most common.

This element becomes flattened and enlarged in its ciliated: region,

while its hyaline vesicle looses its spherical form. As a result of the

change of form, there is produced a large disc having waving move-

ments. While these changes are taking place there appear in the lower

side of the disc numerous cellular elements that soon become free and

function as reproductive bodies.

The latter have been known under the name of amcebocysts. They

are generally provided with numerous long and thin pseudopodia, and

sometimes structures resembling undulating membranes. Their granu-

lar protoplasm contains two bodies, one colorless, the other dark, that

resemble nuclei. In the course of growth the colorless body increases

in size faster than its dark companion, and finally escapes from its con-

taining element. There is thus left an element having pseudopodia, and

containing a small dark colored body. The pseudopodia become more

numerous and smaller, and somewhat later some of them become

flagellate at the peripheral zone. They are then minute urnes that

soon, by the simple process of growth, become urnes of the normal size.

Besides the urnes and their reproductive modifications, there may be

found, in the liquid of the body-cavity of Sipunculus, certain bodies

that, evidently for want of a better term, the authors call enigmatic

vesicles. To a certain extent, these resemble the urnes. By the sim-

ple process of fission they produce large cellular plaques composed of

two layers of cells or elements. An application of staining reagents to

these brings out marked differences. Some of the elements stain readily

and deeply, others appear to be scarcely stainable.

In the course of time the clear elements become isolated, repeat the

process of division and in their turn produce plaques. The other ele-

ments give rise to buds that are nucleated and provided with a hyaline

vesicle. The attaching pedicle of the bud becomes greatly lengthened

and finally breaking away the bud becomes a free, large ameboid body,

1897.] Loology. 543

with waving pseudopodia and within which one may recognize clear and

dark colored vesicles in different stages of development that later funct-

ion as reproductive elements.

Sometimes the normal urnes may reproduce by the simple process of

fission, the two halves drawing apart. At such times one may find

buds developing upon the large clear vesicle that seem analogous to

those just described.

The authors promise a memoir accompanied with micro-photographic

plates.

Biological Observations on Peripatus.'—The observations

which Mr. Steel makes upon a large number of specimens of Peripatus

leuckarti var. orientalis Fletch. are of considerable biological interest.

Some 579 specimens, 390 of which were females, were collected in New

South Wales during the seasons 1894-5-6. He found that the color

of individuals is quite variable, but that the variations are such that

they may be arranged in four groups: first, those which are blue-black

or black, of which the total number of specimens contained 77.5 per

cent. ; second, black specimens, speckled with brown, which numbered

6.5 per cent.; third, brown specimens with black antennæ, which

amounted to 10 per cent.; fourth, specimens entirely brown, of which

there were 6 per cent. These colors, he states, seem to be more or less

fixed, for, as a rule, the larvze follow the color of the mother; for ex-

ample, brown specimens with black antennz will produce young with

the same color characteristics.

Considerable difference was noted between the sizes of the specimens

collected in the season of 1894-5 and of those collected in the season of

1895-6. The latter were very small in comparison with the others.

The specimens were also rarer during the latter season. The author en-

deavors to account for these differences by citing the fact that the first

season was moist and the second very dry. . But whether the large

specimens of the first year had died off, or whether the unfavorableness

of the second season had decreased their size, he is unable to say.

The food of Peripatus consists entirely of insects such as those found

on and beneath decayed logs, and of these the Termites seem to form

the animal’s favorite food. The animals are sociable and gather in

groups and give no.evidence whatever of being cannibalistic. The au-

thor has fed the animals in vivaria upon dead insects, but has never

been able to induce them to eat raw meat.

When surprised by a quick exposure to light, they sometimes eject

slime from their cephalic glands, and when seeking prey, if the latter

3 Thos. Steel. Observations on Peripatus. Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales.,

XXXI. 97-104.

544 The American Naturalist. [June,

struggles considerably or is likely to eseape, the slime is ejected upon

it for the purpose of quieting its struggles. In doing this the animal

raises its head and the anterior portion of its body from the ground

and ejects the slime strongly in two small streams for some distance.

The slime is not acrid, is tasteless, and in is no way irritating to human

mucous membranes; but it is very viscid.

The animals cast their skins at regular intervals, very much as do

insect larvee, and the cast skins are usually worked over with the jaws

of the animal and swallowed.

__The young are born at all times from the middle of November to

the middle of March, and are about five millimeters long at birth.

Growth takes place at the rate of about one millimeter per month, and

from the latter fact the author concludes that the animals must be

about two years old when full grown, and from other observations he

thinks they must be three years old when they first give birth to young.

External parasites have not been found.

A Myrmecophlous Mite.—The brief note by ©. Janet‘ on the

Mite Antennophorus uhlmanni, recalls, one noted some time ago on the

relations of Lepismina polypoda to ants. This mite is found living as

an epizootic parasite on Lasius mixtus. Often there is but one parasite

to a worker ant, but sometimes there are more, as shown in the figure.

\-27t ©

TET POPPE

In any case the mites arrange themselves on the host with reference to

the median plane of the latter so as not to disturb its equilibrium.

there are two parasites, they occupy opposite sides. The mite lives en-

tirely upon the food disgorged by the ant, which, strangely enough,

seems to take pleasure in feeding its parasitic burden whenever called

upon by the latter to do so.

The Effect of the Poison of Centipedes.’—From several ex-

periments performed by Mr. Norman upon mice and snakes, it Appear?

that the poison of centipedes is so virulent that, if it gets well into the

*Sur les rapports de P. Antennophorus uhlmanni Halber avec le Lasius mixtus

‘Nyl. ©. K. Acad. Sc. Paris, CXXIV, 583-5. i i

5:W..W. Norman, Trans. Texas Acad. Sci., I (1896), 118-119.

1897.] Zoology. \ 545

circulation of such small animals as mice, they quickly succumb to its

action. In the case of one experiment the mouse died within a few

seconds after it was bitten; in another, the animal did not succumb

until four days had elapsed. The two snakes experimented upon did

not seem to be affected. They died, but this appeared to have been due

to lack of proper care.

The results of the experiments are so varying that it would be well

worth the while of some one to undertake a series of experiments with

the poison of centipedes that would result in more definite knowledge

as to its effect upon the blood, tissues, etc., as well as to the rapidity of

its action when injected into the circulation in different degrees of con-

centration.—F. ©. Kenyon. » |

An Organ on the Femur of Phlcothrips Resembling the

Auditory Organ of Locusta.°—During his physopod studies Try-

Figs? 1-3. Phiæothrips tibialis Reuter 9. Mig. 1 . The base of the —

fig. 2. he "s of the meddle, and fig. 3. The base of the Meeps a fem

Fig. 4 setinodis Rent, Base of the posterior fem

°F. Sse Entom. na 17, 1896, No. 2-3, pp. 102-4, fig. 4.

546 The American Naturalist. [June,

bom found near the base of the femur in all three pairs of legs, in all

of ten species of Phlwothrips studied, a peculiar area covered by a

thin, transparent layer of chitin. Generally the areas are curved, but

sometimes they are straight. In a specimen of Phlwothrips tibialis

there was found on the left middle femur a straight area, and on the

opposite femur a curved one. Through the thin chitin one may dis-

tinguish several dark bodies measuring from three and one half to four

microns in diameter, which recall the round structures in the audi-

tory organs of Locusta as described by Hensen. The organ is also

found in Thrips salicaria.

‘“ Delarvation’’ as a translation of the French ‘“ Echenil-

lage.’’—When one considers the thousands of words to be found in

that enormous list of English words, the Century Dictionary, and also

the hosts of technical words constantly being proposed, one should hesi-

tate before burdening the language further. But now and then one

feels that it will be a conservation of energy to reduce a sentence or &

phrase to asingle word. How often is this the case in translating

foreign words! The German “ Anlage” is an example. Some authors

have endeavored to introduce it bodily into English, and others to

translate it by the old word “fundament,” a term that to many 4

speaker of English recalls to mind something ludicrous. The French

“échenillage ” is another example.

The word is not uncommon in French literature relating to economic

entomology, as the author learned a couple of years ago when collecting

and translating literature relative to the gypsy moth. It means to

remove larvæ from trees, bushes, fields or from wherever they may be,

whether it be by hand picking, by treatment with an insecticide or any

other method. There is but one word in English that can be used to

express this, and that is the verb “to worm.” But there are difficulties

involved in its use that are very apparent. One can speak of worming

one’s cabbages or of sending some one to worm them, without involving

any misunderstanding. But when one desires to speak of the process

of worming cabbages, i. e., to use the verbal noun, one encounters

trouble. First the verbal noun does not seem altogether euphoneous;

second, one is, or rather the reader may be, puzzled to know which of

the eleven meanings of the verb “to worm” given by the Century Dic-

tonary i is meant. He may ask, does it mean the action (1) of moving oF

squirming like a worm, or (2) of acting slowly and secretly, or (3) of

affecting something slowly, or (4) of removing by underhand means, OF

1897.] Entomology. 547

(5) of subjecting something to a stealthy process, or (6) of worming out

some ones secrets, or (7) of freeing something from worms, or (8) of

removing the charge from a gun, or (9) of removing the beard of any

oyster or mussel, or (10) of giving something a spiral form, or (11) of

winding rope-yarns, ete. ?

Some other word seems necessary. One cannot use the term “ larvate,”

for that is already in use, as a past participle in speaking of certain

peculiarities of diseases that physicians meet with, and as an active

verb in expressing the idea of masking.

The term “ delarvate,” the etymology of which is evident, is not to

be found in the dictionaries and is here proposed as an English equiva-

lent of the French échenillage. In his notes and manuscripts the

author has used it constantly to avoid paraphrasing, and has gained

time in so doing. Is the word not of sufficient value for general use?

—F. C. Kenyon,

ENTOMOLOGY.’

Dr. Smith’s Study of the San Jose Scale.—At the 1896 ses-

sion of the New Jersey Legislature, $1000 was appropriated to the

State Experiment Station for the study of habits and enemies of the

San José scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus) with a special view to the use-

ful introduction of the latter into New Jersey. Dr. J. B. Smith was

commissioned to make the investigations. In the Station report for

1896 Dr. Smith gives a full account of his studies and an admirable dis-

cussion of the subject. He visited Californiain May and found a great

division of opinion regarding the usefulness of ladybird beetles as

‘destroyers of this scale. ,But he found that “ there is absolutely no dis-

agreement concerning the beneficial effects of the Vedalia cardinalis

(Fig. 1) as against the Cottony Cushion scale Icerya purchasi. There

is no doubt that this insect, once so destructive, has been almost com-

pletely exterminated by the Vedalia. We do find that occasionally

the scale reappears; but a colony of the beetles sent from the office of

the local commissioner usually clears them out in a few weeks there-

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

548 The American Naturalist. [June,

after.’ - But this is an exceptional and extraordinary case. The con-

ditions regarding the San José species are different; there is little hope

of a similar extermination by Coccinellids, and Professor Smith sum-

marizes his results in these lines: “ We have no good basis for believ-

ing that any of the insects introduced into New Jersey from California,

or which can be introduced from that State, will become sufficiently

abundant in a measurably short time to be of use in keeping the perni-

cious scale in check. The two species which have done the most effect-

ive work in California are already natives of New Jersey and require

no introduction. Climatic differences make them less effective with us

than they are on the Pacific Coast. We can probably count that both

the Aphelinus and the’ Chilocorus will in time become increasingly

abundant. Our most active species is Similia (Pentilia) misella, which

Ps |

Fig. 1. The Vedalia Lady Beetle. a, larva, back view; b, larva, side view; ©

pupa; d, beetle. Magnified. (From Insect Life).

thus far offers the best chance of an effective enemy. We cannot hope,

however, that it will increase sufficiently to become an important aid

for a considerable number of years to come, and it does not seem as if

our fruit-growers could afford to wait for this or the other species to in-

crease without taking active measures for the destruction of the scale.’

; LARENCE M. WEED.

The Spruce Gall-louse.—Professor Chas. H. Fernald has pub-

lished an excellent account of the Spruce Gall-louse, Chermes abietis

Linn. The insect forms twig-galls on spruce, each gall containing from

three to thirty or more cavities, each cavity inhabited by from ten to

thirty small yellow lice. About midsummer the galls dry, and ‘the

young gall-lice crawl upon the leaves where they moult and become

winged. These so far as observed are all parthenogenetic females

which lay eggs and die, the dead bodies protecting the eggs. 1wo

1897.] Entomology. 549

weeks later the eggs hatch into young, which crawl upon leaves and

buds. Some of those on the buds survive until the following May to

lay eggs for the summer brood which develop in the galls. No males

were found during the two years study. Concerning the formation of

the galls the author writes: “That this insect by its own operations is

able to cause a young twig to develop into such an abnormal form is

very interesting. Physiological botany teaches that all such growths

as galls caused by insects, and callouses which grow over wounds

inflicted on trees, are the result of what is known as stimulation. The

stimulation or irritation in this case is the puncture of the setz of the

hibernating female into the bud, as previously described. Botanists

agree that stimulation of this nature sets up a division of the plant cells.

Each cell divides in the middle, producing two, which after reaching

full size divide as did the parent cell, thus producing four. As this

goes on, a swelling is naturally produced, and this swelling is the gall.

It is not necessary that the insect should sting or poison the plant ; the

piercing of the setz is sufficient cause for the formation of the gall.

Essentially the same thing occurs when a limb of a tree is sawed off.

The inner bark, the growing part of the tree, is injured or stimulated,

and the cell division begins, causing a swelling or callous, which grad-

ually grows over the end of the limb. Why the gall should take on

its characteristic form and color has not been explained.

“As a result of thestimulation, there may be in addition to the cell

divisions a deposition of material in the cells, as starch, proteids, resin,

etc., which appear as minute granules of definite character. The plant

cells of the gall produced by the insect are abnormally large, with thin

walls, and contain more starch than those of the unaffected parts of the

same stem. It may be that this starch is the food on which the young

lice subsist.”—C. M. W.

Hemiptera.—Mr. Elmer D. Ball finds’ that all the forms of the

genus Clastoptera hitherto described from North America with the pos-

sible exception of C. brevis (Walk.), may be referred to four species,

viz., C. delicata Uhl., O. proteus Fitch, C. xanthocephala Germ., and

C. obtusa Say. The species are well figured and described.

Willis Grant Johnson, A. M., has described’ and figured five new

species of scale insects belonging to the genera Aspidiotus and Chio-

naspis, with notes on their habits and parasites.

Dr. Philip R. Uhler has published‘ a summary of the collection of

? Proc. of the Iowa Acad. of Nat. Sci., 1895, ITI, 182-194.

* Bull. Ill. State Lab. of Nat. History, IV, 380-395.

* Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum, XIX, 255-297.

550 The American Naturalist. [June,

Hemiptera of Japan exhibited at the Chicago Exposition and after-

ward presented to the U. S. National Museum by Dr. K. Mitzukuri of

the Imperial University of Tokio. Numerous new species are de-

scribed.

In a lecture before the Société Zoologique de France M. Charles

Janet quoted with approval Biisgen’s views regarding the cornicles of

Aphides. Büsgen believes that the cornicles are especially useful to

the plant lice which do not excrete a sweet liquid, and which on this

account are not protected from enemies by ants. The Aphides defend

themselves against Ichneumon flies, Coccinellid larve, and Aphis

lions (Chrysopa larve) by means of the cornicles which are movable

and produce a secretion of a waxy nature which is smeared upon the

head and antennz of enemies.

Professor J. M. Stedman has discussed’ at length the wooly aphis of

the apple (Schizoneura lanigera). The subterranean form is said to do

great damage to the apple in Missouri and is best kept in check by the

application of tobocco dust around the base of the tree at a cost of but

two cents per tree per year. In extreme cases the insects may be

killed by the use of carbon bisulphide, but this method is not recom-

mended, as a little carelessness may prove fatal to the tree, and it is

also necessary to treat the trees with tobacco dust in order to keep the

insects away.— W. F. Fiske.

Coleoptera.—Dr. John Hamilton records? observations on the

habits of the blind beetle, Pinadytes hamiltoni Horn, from which “ it is

evident that the species is gregarious and carnivorous, apparently occur-

ring oftener in the winter than in summer, and in woody, hilly, uncul-

tivated places. Conjecturally, from its pallid color, absence of eyes,

and conditions under which found, it seems in habit either subterranean

or semi-subterranean, its presence under bark being that of a scavenger.

The larve are probably wholly subterranean, subsisting on the dead

larve and pups of the numerous insects which live beneath the

ground during immaturity, and when discovered will probably prove

to be eyeless.”

Wm. G. Dietz, M. D., has monographed’ the North American species

of the tribe Ceutorhynchini of the family Curculionids. All the spe-

cies are described and part of them figured. Many species and a few

genera are new.

5 Bull. Missouri Agric. Exp. Sta. No. 35.

*Ent. News, VIII, 34.

1 Transactions American Ent. Soc., Oct,—Dec., 1896.

1897.] Entomology. 551

Mr. A. L. Quaintance has made interesting notes? concerning the

life history of Brachytarsus alternatus. He finds that instead of feed-

ing on scale insects as had previously been supposed, the adults and

larva feed on corn, beans and cow-peas.

Mr. C. W. Piper records’ some interesting notes on the sembling

habits of a certain ladybird ¢ Coccinella transverso-guttata) in Washing-

ton. He finds that they are in the habit of collecting in large num-

bers on the summits of mountains with no apparent object. In one

-case this was so noticeable as to give the name ladybird mountain toa

certain peak.

Dr. John Hamilton is unable to follow Captain Casey “ in splitting

Anthicus into ten genera with meaningless barbaric names; these so-

called genera are simply groups convenient for the purpose of analysis

and nearly all previously recognized by various authors. In a cata-

logue these groups may properly be noted by XXX, or, as in the

European, designated by numerals.’”® Most entomologists will agree

with Dr. Hamilton in his criticism ; unnecessary divisions into genera

are not to be encouraged.—C. M. W

Diptera.—Mr. E. Porter Felt has contributed" to the knowledge

of the structure of the antennz of certain male diplosids. He confirms

the observations of Kieffer” concerning certain novel structures which

he describes as follows: ‘The arched filaments differ widely from

ordinary sets, though they occur in whorls in the same manner. They

arise from pits in the chitine in much thesame way as do the set, but,

instead of remaining single and tapering to a point, they divide at

their base into two equal branches which diverge to the middle of their

length, where they recurve sharply as a rule and turn to unite with the

base of the adjoining filaments in the whorl. Thus by means of the

anastomosises these arched filaments, which from their designation one

would expect to be free from each other, are in reality continuous, and

form a looped thread around the segment with anchoring branches at

regular intervals.”

In a later article,” M. Janet has figured in detail the peculiar inser-

‘tion of the arched filaments and presented a theory of their develop-

ment. He suggests “that they may have arisen as hypodermic lamel-

3 Ent. News, VIII, 1, 2.

? Ent. News, VIII, 49-51.

Ent. News, VIII, 35.

" Psyche, VIII, 3-5.

` 12 Bull. Seances, Soc. Ent. Fr., 1895, p. CXCII.

13 Bull. Seances, Soc. Ent. Fr., 1896, pp. 37, 183-185. .-

552 The American Naturalist. [June,

le, and that the edges may have become thickened and chitinized

while the inner membranous portion gradually shrank from the out-

lining edges and disappeared. He holds the opinion that the chitiniza-

tion of the thickened edges and the shrinking of the membrane at the

apical portions of the lamellz would in all POONA begin before they

had attained their full growth.”

Claude Morley, F. E. S., has described and figured” certain peculiar

dipterous larvæ (Metriocnemus fuseipes Mg.) inhabiting rotten stumps.

The figures and descriptions apply well to certain American species in-

habiting similar localities —W. F. F.

General Notes.—Under the title of Biological Notes on Certain

Towa Insects,” Messrs, H. Osborn and C. W. Mally describe the pre-

liminary stages of the ground cherry seed moth (Gelechia sp.) with

notes on a parasite, the early stages of the imbricated snout beetle

(Epicerus imbricatus Say); and give notes on the Cosmos weevil

(Baris confinis Lec.), and on the early stages of a dipterous insect.

( Chironomus sp.) occurring in large numbers in water tanks and reser-

voirs.

The insects affecting the cotton plant have recently been discussed’ ê

by Dr. L. O. Howard. Especial mention is made of the cotton worm

(Aletia argillacea) and several of its parasites ; the boll worm (Helio-

this armiger) and the cotton boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis Bob.),.

which are described and figured in all stages. Many other species are

mentioned.

M. Charles Janet records?” some interesting studies which show that

the mite Discopoma comatais a true external parasite of the ant Ladius

mixtus, attaching itself firmly to the body of the host and sucking the

blood

Mr. Wm. H. Ashmead has described’* over forty new species of

Cynipidous galls and gall wasps in the National Museum. One new

genus is also described.

Miss Alice M. Beach catalogues!® the Thrips of Iowa and describes

five new species of Thrips proper, and one species doubtfully referred

to Sericothrips. Professor Herbert Osborn in an accompanying paper

describes a new species of Phlothrips.

14 Entomologists Monthly Mag., VIII, 49, 50.

15 Proc. Iowa Acad. Nat. Sci., 1895, Vol. III, 203-213.

16 U, § Dept. of Agric., Bull. 33, Office of Experiment Station.

17 Comptes Rendus, 1897, p. 102.

18 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIX, 113-136.

19 Proc. Iowa Acad. Nat. Sci., III, 214-227.

1897.] Psychology. 553

Mr. Samuel H. Scudder has prepared?” a table for the determination

of the genera of North American Melanopli, and gives notes on the dis-

tribution of species.

Part V of the Bibliography of American Entomology prepared by

the U. S. Division of Entomology has recently been issued. It con-

tains 1679 entries. We are glad to note that Dr. Howard expresses

his intention to bring the work down to date, and to continue it here-

after. It is extremely serviceable to all working entomolugists.

At a meeting of the Birmingham Entomological Society?! Mr. W.

Wilkinson exhibited a collection of insects made in the Madeira and

Canary Islands in February, March and April, 1896. Among the

most interesting species were Pararge xiphia from Madeira and P.

xiphiodes from Grand Canary, two closely allied but distinct species

peculiar to the Madeiras and Canaries respectively. Mr. Kenricks

said that the most curious feature in the Canary Island fauna was the

occurrence of American forms. Vanessa huntera occurs only in the

Canaries and America, and Anosia plexippus (=Danais archippus)

which is common in the Canaries is also an American species. Mr.

Bethune Baker said that in working on the moths he noticed American

affinities in several groups, especially in the genus Phlogophora, which

wes much more closely allied to American than to European forms.

PSYCHOLOGY.’

Mr. Spencer’s Psychology.—The following letter by Professor

J. Mark Baldwin, President of the American Psychological Associa-

tion, was read before the Philosophical Club of Bryn Mawr College, on

the occasion of the celebration of the completion of Mr. Spencer’s

“Synthetic Philosophy.”

To the Club:

In speaking briefly of Mr. Spencer’s psychology, perhaps I can do no

better than throw the impressions which I have into the form of infor-

mal pros and cons. I should premise what I have to say, however,

with the remark that one of my reasons for not accepting your kind

20 Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., XXXII, No. 9.

21 Entomologist, XXX, 93, 94.

l Edited by H. ©. Warren, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.

Princeton, March 9.

554 The American Naturalist. [June,

invitation to be present and speak on this occasion, was that I could

not just now find time to put in exact form such a detailed apprecia-

tion as the proper attitude toward so great a subject requires. Yet I

feel unwilling to allow the occasion to pass without bringing a trifle of

some kind to add to your fuller tribute to Mr. Spencer. I beg, there-

fore, that you will consider what I say as impressions left on my mind

from the study of Mr. Spencer’s psychology—my personal reaction to

his work—rather than as a well-formed opinion which I should in any

way wish to commend to others.

First, then, for the pros.

1. Of course, the great and evident service rendered by Mr. Spencer

in this department, as in others, has been his deliberate and argued

advocacy of evolution. In all the spheres of the application of evolu-

tion doctrine, there was a prejudice to overcome; in none, such preju-

dice as here. It is not overcome yet. Spencer’s is to-day, the name to

refute, to pulverize, to anathematize, to ridicule, by the opposition

which in Darwin’s case spoke through the Bishop of Oxford, and which

has used Spencer for its fulcrum ever since in raising the resistance

with which science loads the other end of the lever. Fire a gun at

the “First Principles,” put to flight feelings and representative feel-

ings, and re-representative feelings, and the cosmos is safe. In all this

Spencer has borne the brunt. But all the while Herbart and Wundt

and James—may the last-mentioned forgive me, but he more than

others has ridden rough-shod over the pages of Spencer—have been

getting the credit which they deserve for the coming of a naturalistic

era in psychology.

In this matter of naturalism, our ship has had to change her course

one hundred and eighty degrees ; Spencer set the compass true in the

new direction, and through all the buffetings, and breastings, and

poundings, and creakings we are only just now getting her head to

bear after his compass.

2. It is to me also a great thing that Mr. Spencer did not draw too

sharp a line between biological and psychological evolution. All the

talk about the boundary lines of science, the divisions of this Gebiet -

from that, this “ point of view” here and that there—all this to the

contrary, the objective science of mind is practically the great science

after all. Of course, lots of qualifications are necessary here, an

philosophers will demur, but I for one feel somewhat more secure when

I have behind me the methods of objective science. Darwin’s way of

studying the emotions was more fruitful than that of his predecessors.

Our knowledge of memory has been most advanced by research in

1897.] Psychology. 555

pathology and brain localization. Once discover pain-nerves, and we

refute a theory academic from the year I. Now the credit of tak-

ing this objective point of view generally and of using so deliberately

biological data and even biological explanations belongs to Spencer.

What is the use trying to complete a psychology simply as such?

What is the good trying with Wundt to abstract “ pure feeling” from

“pure sensation’ when really both are pure mythology? Isn’t it

the defect of biology also that it tries too much to complete a biology

merely as such, without the help of psychology? When two sciences

are ripe enough to fall together and be one, that is good; but there is no

earthly use in trying to keep them as far as possible apart in the mean-

time. In this, I think, Spencer was right. There is only one evolu-

tion, let us keep an eye on both sides of it.

3. As to Mr. Spencer’s positive contributions to psychology, these I

may not discuss in detail. They are mainly incidental to the ideas in

the service of which his speculations were made. His theories have

nearly all been disproved; I mean his particular theories. But

his contributions by the way are of very great importance. And

even the disproved theories, they have been leading-strings for thought

and motives for research to countless workers. You cannot open a

competent book in any of three or four great departments of thought,

but you find the most fruitful discussions turning about the hypotheses

of Spencer. I take it that this is one of the greatest possible services

of a great man—to produce definitely directed effort, even though his

private views go down in the result.

And now for the cons.

Here what there is to say seems to me to be mainly a statement of

the limitations incident to the very qualities which we have found to

be Mr. Spencer’s principal claim to our admiration. Every great idea

seems in its first blush simpler than it is. Natural selection, for ex-

ample, is proving itself by giving ground. But the fame of its author,

Darwin, does not suffer from that, even apart from the fact that Dar-

win was wiser than are his disciples. We are now saying “back to

Darwin,” and although we can never say “back to Spencer,” yet

Spencer has his place fixed for all that. The real limitations of Spencer

are evident just in this contrast with Darwin.

1. Spencer’s genetic Psychology was an idea, just as his genetic

Biology and Sociology were ideas, and the same idea. But he could

not prove this idea in all these departments. He could only see the

evident and surface facts which his idea was likely to explain. This

he did in a very remarkable way in the “System of Synthetic Philoso-

556 The American Naturalist. [June,

phy,” the completion of which yon are celebrating to-day. It is mar-

velous that a single mind should have been able to make so many

happy hits in so rapid and, in a good sense, superficial survey of all

these fields. But it was, I think, rather that he had a stupendously

great idea than that he had a stupendously great mind. He was armed

with the thought which all the natural sciences are tending to prove

true; but the same sciences are showing that almost all the ways in

which he took this idea to work were not true. This means that Mr.

Spencer’s personal tendencies were in the direction of his gifts, toward

a deductive, hypothetical, inexact way of treating scientific details.

2. Then as to his method, that too is a great limitation. It has al-

ways seemed to me that Mr. Spencer was a great example of the cost-

liness of analogy. Analogy, analogy everywhere! It is not a part of

the interconnection of the sciences that the facts of one should be ex-

lained by analogies from another. Yet such a procedure Spencer

constantly falls into. Chemical analogies in biology, biological anal-

ogies in psychology and sociology, mechanical analogies—dissolutions,

integrations, ete., of foree—all the way through. In psychology this

is especially deplorable, since it leads to a general tendency—also ap-

parent in the sociology—to be satisfied with inadequate analysis; and

inasmuch as the analogies are drawn from spheres of simpler activities,

it is just the refinements which characterize the higher as higher that

escape it. Everybody knows the flat sterility which results when the

association theory is applied to the higher reaches of thought and con-

duct. It is like proving a bed of tulips to be mere onions by going

through them and nipping off all the blooms. So to solve the prob-

lems of psychology by biological or chemical analogies, is to make use

of a weapon which figuratively speaking nips off all the blooms. But

this is only part of another and deeper limitation, to wit:

3. Mr. Spencer’s view of evolution is not what we are coming to-day

to consider the true thoughe of natural genesis. Herein is the real and

essential limitation of Spencer’s work considered from a philosophical

point of view—and possibly I am departing from the topic assigned me

in mentioning it. He believes, I think, that the new not only comes

out of the old, but that it is explained by the full statement of the old.

Now this isa philosophy; and it is a leveling-down philosophy—what-

ever we say to the question as to where it finally lands us. It tends to

state the tulip in terms of its roots. Now this is all right as science,

but when it is made a philosophy and a presupposition to science, then

it is baleful. For besides rendering it excessively difficult to be a good

scientist—not to judge it as a philosophy—it makes the thinker liable

1397,] Psychology. 557

to continual “ illusions of simplicity ”—(thus to designate the fallacy of

taking things to be too simple). So with Mr. Spencer’s psychology: it

impresses one as a series of great illusions of simplicity. Many of his

generalizations depend each upon just one fact of striking and easy

interpretation from his point of view. The “surplus energy theory ”

of play, the “dream theory ” of spirit, the “ dance theory,” the “ vocal

theory.” And many of the more important principles which are not of

so easy an interpretation seem nevertheless to owe their place as corner

stones in the system to this same tendency to simplification. Such are

“ utility,” “ use inheritance,” ete.

4. The same thing is seen in the ease with which difficult places are

glossed over. A bridge of analogy or often of mere vagueness of ex-

pression covers a yawning gap sometimes at a most critical place.

This, however, is so common a criticism of Mr. Spencer, that I need

not take it farther.

In conclusion I may say that the balance to the good in any fair

estimate of Mr. Spencer’s work is so enormous, that we should not hes-

itate to recognize as correct the verdict of all the world to the effect

that he is one of the main factors in the main movement in the history

of modern thought.—J. Mark BALDWIN.

Involuntary Movements.—The manner in which ideas present

in consciousness determine involuntary movements, especially of the

hands, has already received considerable experimental attention from

Lehmann, Féré and Jastrow. Their results have lately been supple-

mented in two important particulars by Mr. M. A. Tucker, of Stan-

ford University The object of Mr. Tucker’s investigation was to

determine, first, any general tendencies to motion in the hand, apart

from the spatial influence of thought; and second, the comparative

value of these involuntary movements in adults and children. The

apparatus used was similar in its essential features to Jastrow’s auto-

matograph. To prevent the attention taking on a directional charac-

ter, in the experiments where this was to be avoided, the subject recited

the multiplication table, conjugated French verbs, etc. —

As regards the first point of investigation, there was found to be a

“tendency for the handsand arms resting in front of the body to move

inward toward the median piane of the body.” There did not appear

to be any necessary tendency for the hands to move toward a visible

object to which the attention was directed, if that object was thought

of simply as at rest; but the sight of moving objects, or the remem-

? Amer. Jour. of Psychol., 1897, VIII, 394-404.

558 The American Naturalist. [June,

brance of them, caused an involuntary imitation of the direction of

the moving stimuli, not only by the hands, but also by the whole body ;

this tendency manifested itself in a distinctly observable swaying of

the head. As to the second point, the investigation brought out the

general fact that “children are governed by and subject to the same

laws as adults, but to a less extent.” Individual variations were wider

in them than in adults. No differences were found in children due to

age or sex,

These experiments seem to substantiate the views of Féré and Leh-

mann, while they disagree with those of Jastrow, who reported a ten-

dency of the hands to move toward stationary objects whenever the

attention was directed towards their locality.

Contraction of the Field of Vision.—lIt has been questioned

for sometime whether the contraction of the field of vision after repeated

tests of the periphery (attributed to fatigue) is limited strictly to patho-

logical cases. Of recent years it has been generally assumed that this

phenomenon appears frequently in normal life as well, and in conse-

quence it has lost much of its former value as a psychiatrical symptom.

Dr. Erdmann Mueller, however, has recently published? the results of

an investigation undertaken upon 102 normal subjects which show the

contrary to be true. The tests were made without a perimeter, the ob-

ject of vision being a small, white ivory ball of the size of a cherry-

pit, which was fixed to a thin, translucent piece of fish-bone.

Out of the entire number of subjects tested, but two showed any

unusual contraction of the visual field. In three separate trials

apiece, with each eye, these two subjects showed a contraction varying

from 10° to 30° in the course of a single trial, but each showed no

contraction whatever in one of the tests. The subjects in question

were found to be suffering from slight neurasthenia, but exhibited no

severe neurotic symptoms whatever. Of the remaining 100 subjects,

three showed a contraction of 5°, and thirty a contraction of from 2—-

4° only; but in seventeen of these cases a contraction of the field on

one side was accompanied by a widening on the other, so that the ap-

parent change may easily have been due toa slight shifting of the

position of the head during the progress of the experiment. The other

sixty-seven subjects showed a contraction of 1° or less, which was be-

low the threshold of experimental precision.

As a result of these tests, Dr. Mueller concludes that the contraction

occurs among healthy persons, if at all, only in the very slightest de-

3 Arch. f. Psychiat. u. Nervenkr., 1896, XXIX, 225-230.

1897,] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 559

gree; where it isobserved to any marked extent among the apparently

healthy, it is shown to be accompanied by other neurotic symptoms.

The test requires considerable attention on the part of the subject, and

an apparent contraction of the field on the first trial often proves to be

due to a lack of adjustment of the attention. The existence of genuine

contraction can be affirmed only after repeated trials when the subject

has become accustomed to the methods and haslearned to maintain his

attention properly.—H. ©. W. .

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Zoological Society of London.—The sixty-eighth anniversary

meeting of this Society was held at their offices,3 Hanover Square, W.

In the absence of the President, the Chair was taken by Dr. Edward

Hamilton, Vice-President, who was supported by Lord Medway, Sir

Hugh Low, General Trevor, Dr. Henry Woodward, F. R.S., Lt.-Col.

H. H. Godwin-Austen, F. R. S., and many other Fellows of the Society.

After the Auditors Report had been read, and a vote of thanks ac-

corded to them, and some other preliminary business had been trans-

acted, the Report of the Council on the proceedings of the Society during

the past year was read by Mr. P. L. Sclater, F. R.S., the Secretary. It

stated that the number of Fellows on the 1st of January, 1897, was

3,098, showing a net increase of 71 members during the year 1896. The

number of new Fellows that joined the Society in 1896 was 207, which

was the largest number of elections that had taken place in any year

since 1877.

The total receipts of the Society for 1896 had amounted to £27,081-

.10.4, which was £123.1.3 more than the very successful year 1895.

The ordinary expenditure in 1896 had amounted to £23,788.1.2, which

was an increase of £327.4.4 over that of the year 1895. Besides this a

sum of £2617.15.0 had been paid and charged to extraordinary ex-

penditure, of which amount £2600 had been paid on account of the

construction of the new house for ostriches and cranes. A further sum

of £1000 had also been transferred to the Deposit Account, leaving a

balance of £1066.15.4 to be carried forward for the benefit of the present

year. The usual scientific meetings had been held during the year 1896,

and a large number of valuable communications had been received

upon every branch of zoology. These had been published in the annual

volume of “ Proceedings,” which contained 1110 pages, illustrated by 52

560 The American Naturalist. [June,

plates. Besides this Parts 1 and 2 of the 14th volume of the Society’s

quarto “ Transactions” had been published in 1896. A new edition of

the List of Animals, containing a list of all the specimens of the verte-

brated animals that had been received by the Society during the past

12 years, had been published and issued to the subscribers to the publi-

cations in November last. The 32d volume of the Zoological Record

(containing a summary of the work done by zoologists all over the

world in 1895) edited by Dr. David Sharp, F. R. S., had been also

published and issued to the subscribers in December last.

The Library, containing upwards of 20,000 volumes, had been main-

tained in good order throughout the year, and had been much resorted

to by working naturalists. A large number of accessions, both by gift

and purchase, had been incorporated.

The number of visitors to the Garden in 1896 was 665,004, being 322

less than the corresponding number in 1895. This slight decrease was

easily accounted for by the unsettled state of the weather in the latter

part of the past year.

The number of animals in the Society’s Gardens on the 31st of De-

cember last was 2,473, of which 902 were Mammals, 1,132 Birds, and

439 Reptiles and Batrachians. Amongst the additions made during

the past year 18 were specially commented upon as of remarkable

interest, and in most cases new to the Society’s collection. Amongst

these were a young male Manđtee from the Upper Amazons, a young

male Klipspringer from N. E. Africa, a young female Gorilla from

French Congoland, a pair of lettered Aracaris from Para, a young

Bragga’s Monkey from French Congoland, a Loder’s Gazelle from the

Western Desert of Egypt, three Ivory Gulls from Spitzbergen, and three

Franklin’s Gulls from America. A serious loss was occasioned to the

Society’s menagerie by the sudden death in March last of the male

Indian Elephant (Jung Pasha), deposited in the Gardens by H. R. H.

The Prince of Wales, on his return from India in 1876, and for the past

20 years well known to all visitors to the Gardens.

A vote of thanks to the Council for their report was then moved by

Dr. Henry Woodward, F. R.S., seconded by Lord Medway, and carried

unanimously.

The report having been adopted the meeting proceeded to elect the

new members of Council and the officers for the ensuing year. The

usual ballot having been taken, it was announced that William Bate-

son, Esq., F. R.S., Col. John Biddulph, Dr. Albert Günther, F.R.5.,

Osbert Salvin, Esq., F. R. S., and Joseph Travers Smith, Esq., had been

elected into the Council in the place of the retiring members; and that

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 561

Sir William H. Flower, K. C. B., F. R. 8., had been re-elected President ;

Charles Drummond, Esq., Treasurer; and Philip Lulley Sclater, Mat.,

Ph. D., F. R.S., Secretary, to the Society for the ensuing year.

The meeting terminated with the usual vote of thanks to the Chair-

man, which was proposed by Sir Hugh Low, G.C. M. G., seconded by

W. E. Lord Phillips, and carried unanimously.

Boston Society of Natural History.—The Annual Meeting

was held Wednesday evening, May 5, 1897.

Business: Reports of the Curator, Librarian, Treasurer, and Trustees ;

announcement of the award of the Walker Prize for 1897 ; election of

officers for 1897-98.

The following paper was read : Dr. R. T. Jackson, “ Some Principles

of Invertebrate Paleontology.”

The following officers were elected: President, Charles Sedgwick

Minot; Vice-Presidents, Nathaniel S. Shaler, Charles P. Bowditch,

Edward S. Morse ; Curator, Alpheus Hyatt; Secretary, Samuel Hen-

shaw; Treasurer, Edward T. Bouvé; Librarian, Samuel Henshaw;

Councillors for Three Years, S. L. Abbot, William S. Bryant, Miss

Clara E. Cummings, William M. Davis, James H. Emerton, Edward

G. Gardiner, Henry W. Haynes, Miss Catharine I. Ireland, Benjamin

Joy Jefferies, Nathaniel T. Kidder, Edward L. Mark, William H. Niles,

F. H. Peabody, Charles P. Putnam, Alfred P. Rockwell, William F.

Whitney.

By the courtesy of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology the

General Meeting was held,in Huntington Hall in the Rogers Building

of the Institute, Wednesday Evening, May 19th, at 7} o’clock. Paper:

Mr. James Edwin Lough ; The Phenomena ot Telepathy. Mr. William

Eliot Davis exhibited his dog, “ Dodgerfield” whose actions are sup-

posed to be governed by telepathic influence—SamurL HENSHAW,

Secretary

National Andes of Sciences.—The following officers were

elected on the 21st: Prof. Asoph Hall, Vice-President ; Prof. I. Rem-

son, Home Secretary ; Prof. A. Graham Bell, Treasurer.

The new members elected are: Dr. C. S. Minot, of Boston; Prof.

Morley, of Cleveland; Prof. Gooch, of New Haven; and Dr. W. H.

Dall, of Washington.

The next or November os will be held at Boston, beginning on

Tuesday, November 16, 1

University of cbse a Biological Club.—A meeting of

the Biological Club was held at the Biological Hall, Monday, March 15,

562 The American Naturalist. [June,

7.45 P.M. Demonstrations: “ Demonelix, a Fossil Plant of N. E.

Nebraska,” Mr. G. R. Wieland. Original Communications: “ Sum-

mary of Lamarck’s ‘Philosophie Zoologique, ” Dr. P. P. Calvert;

“ Humming-Birds,” Mr. H. Heath. Reviews: “ Vertebrate Paleon-

tology,” Dr. E. D. Cope; “ Botany,” Dr. John W. Harshberger—H.

C. Porter, Secretary.

Anthropological Society of Washington.—April 3, 1897.—

The 262d Regular Meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly

Hall of the Cosmos Club, on Tuesday, April 6. Program :—“ One-

Sided Bodies Produce One-Sided Brains,’ George M. King, M.D. ;

“ The Zuni Harness-Batten, a Study in the Geographic Distribution of

Weaving Apparatus,” Prof. Otis T. Mason.

May 1, 1897.—The 264th Regular Meeting of the Society was held

in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, on Tuesday, May 4, at 8

o'clock, P. M. Program :—“ Progress and Achievements of Hygiene,”

Dr. George M. Kober; Discussion by Surg.-General George M. Stern-

berg, U. S. A.; General Discussion upon Sanitation among Primitive

Peoples, George R. Stetson, Lester F. Ward, Wm. H. Dall, Otis T.

Mason, Thomas Wilson, Cyrus Adler, J. Ormond Wilson, Weston

Flint, and others—Weston Fin, Secretary.

The Biological Society of Washingt The 278th regular

meeting was held on Saturday evening, May 22d, 1897, at eight

o'clock, in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, 1520 H street, north-

west. Communications: Brief Informal Notes and Exhibition of Speci-

mens. Erwin F. Smith, “ A Bacterial Disease of Cruciferous Plants” ;

B. T. Galloway, “‘ The Effects of Environment on Host and Parasite in

Certain Diseases of Plants; V. K. Chestnut, The Poison of the Com-

mon Black Nightshade—Freperick A. Lucas, Secretary.

The Academy of Science of St. Louis.—At the meeting of

the Academy of Science of St. Louis, on March 15, 1897, President

Gray in the chair, present also thirty-five members and guests, a portrait

of Enno Sander, who, for the last thirty-five years bas served uninter-

ruptedly as its Treasurer, was presented to the Academy. Dr. Ham-

bach spoke entertainly and instructively on what a geologist may find

of interest about St. Iouis, exhibiting specimens of the principal

fossils and minerals characteristic of the local deposits, and indicating

the best localities for the collection of certain specimens. One person

was admitted to active membership.

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 563

May 3, 1897-—Twenty-one persons present. Mr. H. Von Schrenk

spoke of the respiration of plants, with special reference to the modifi-

cation of those growing with their roots submerged in water. The

lecture was illustrated by a demonstration of the liberation of carbon

dioxide in respiration, from the roots of an ordinary flowering plant and

freshly gathered fungi, and the more usual aerenchyma structures were

made clear by the use of lantern slides.

Professor F. E. Nipher described a simple means of measuring the

resistance of a tube to the flow of a current of air, when compared with

an accepted standard, by the use of a tubular device similar in princi-

ple to the Wheatstone bridge used in electrical instruments, the appa-

ratus, in the present instance, consisting of parallel tubes filled with air,

connected by a tubular bridge, in the middle of which a drop of water

was placed, so as to change position with the variations in the flow of

air on the one hand or on the other— WILLIAM TREALEASE, Secretary.

Society of Natural History of Delaware.—At the regular

meeting of the Society, held Monday, February 1st, Edward Tatnall

presented eleven volumes of botanical works,—these included “An In-

troduction to the Science of Botany,” by the late James Lee, published

in London in 1810; “ Manual of Botany for North America,” by Prof.

Amos Eaton, published in 1833; “An Introduction to Systematic and

Physiological Botany,” by Thomas Nuttall, published in 1830. Miss

Sarah M. Fell gave a collection of the ferns of New Castle County,

Delaware.

Mr. Walter D. Bush, of the Ornithology Committee, reported having

seen no black-birds as yet. They are usually here at an earlier date.

He had not been able to find any blue-birds this winter.

Edward Tatnall reported having found hepatica, sanguinana and

violets in bloom December 8th, and Symplocarpus in full bloom Jan-

uary 13th.

Mr. John T. Pennypacker gave an account of the researches of Prof.

E. D. Cope among the debris in the rock-cleft at Port Kennedy.

Dr. Wm. C. Pierce read a valuable paper on “ Night Lights of

Insects.” .

The Fourth Triennial Congress of American Physicians

and Surgeons.—The Fourth Triennial Congress of American Physi-

cians and Surgeons was held in Washington, D. C., May 4th, 5th and 6th.

The first general session was held on May 4th, at the Columbia Theatre,

where the members were welcomed in an address by Dr. L. C. Gray,

the Chairman of the Executive Committee. After the address the sube

564 The American Naturalist. [June,

ject, “ The Gouty and Rheumatic Diathesis, and their Relation to Dis-

eases of the Eye,” was discussed in papers by Doctors C. S. Bull, S. O.

Richey, S. D. Risley, Robert Sattler, and R. A. Reeves. The subject

was further discussed by Doctors J. M. DaCosta and H. M. Lyman.

The triennial banquet was held in the evening at the Arlington

Hotel.

The second general meeting was held May 5th,in the New National

Theatre, under the direction of the Association of American Physicians,

the American Physiological Society and the American Pediatric Society,

The subject for discussion was,“ Internal Secretions Considered in their

Physiological, Pathological and Clinical Aspects,” on which Dr. W.

H. Howell and Prof. R. H. Chittenden of the American Physiological

Society, Dr. George Adams, Dr. J. J. Putnam and Dr. F. P. Kinni-

cutt of the Association of American Physicians, and Dr. W. Osler of

the American Pediatric Society, read papers.

At 5 P. M. the members of the congress and their invited friends met

in the auditorium of the Army Medical Museum (on account of the

weather) with the American Surgical Association and the Alumni

Association of the Jefferson Medical College for the unveiling of the

bronze statue to Dr. Gross, physician, surgeon and teacher, standing in

the grounds of the Smithsonian Institute. After a prayer by Rev. B.

L. Whitman, President of the Columbian University, the statue was

presented to the United States in an address by Prof. Claudius H.

Maston. This was to have been followed by the unveiling of the statue

by the granddaughter of Dr. Gross, Miss Adele Horwitz, but on occount

of the inclemency of the weather already mentioned this portion of the

ceremony was omitted. There followed then the address of acceptance

by Brig.-Gen. G. M. Sternberg, M.D., as representative for the govern-

ment. This was followed by an address, of which the character and the

work of Dr. Gross was the subject, by Dr. William Keen. After the

benediction the meeting adjourned for the evening meeting of the

congress.

At 8.15 P. M. the evening session of the congress was begun in the

Columbia Theatre, where the retiring President, Dr. William H. Welch,

delivered an address on “Compensatory and Protective Pathological

Processes.”

At the first meeting Washington was chosen as the permanent place

of meeting of the congress.

The affiliated societies were the American Otological Society, the

American Neurological Association, the American Gynecological

_¢iety, the American Dermatological Association, the American Laryn-

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 565

gological Association, the American Surgical Association, the American

Clinatological Association, the Association of American Physicians,

the American Association of Genito-Urinary Surgeons, the American

Orthopedic Association, the American Physiological Society, the Asso-

ciation of American Anatomists, the American Pediatric Society, and

the American Ophthalmological Society. At the meetings of these,

held in various places, some three hundred and forty-one papers were

read—obviously too many to be noted here.

New York Academy of Sciences.—Section of Geology.—May

17, 1897.—The first paper of the evening was by Mr. D. H. Newland,

entitled “ Occurrence and Origin of the Serpentines near New York.”

Mr. Newland spoke of the occurrence of the Serpentines in the vicinity

of New York, and classified them according to origin intotwo probable

divisions; one including those from New Rochelle and Hoboken, possi-

bly derived from metamorphosed igneous rocks; and second, those

from the other localities more probably derived from some form of

sedimentary rock.

The second paper of the evening was by Professor J. F. Kemp, enti-

tled “ Notes on Butte, Montana, and it#Ore Deposits.” Professor Kemp

described the geological position of the copper and silver bearing ore

rocks of Butte, and illustrated his talk with a number of lantern slides

made from photographs in the region last summer. He spoke particu-

larly of the geological succession enhibited in the relationship of two

forms of granite, an earlier basic and a later acitic, cut by later rhyolite

flows.

The third paper was by Professor Kemp, entitled “ Notes on the

Geology of the Trail from Red Rock to and beyond Leesburg, Idaho.”

This paper brought forth the first account known of the geology of

about 100 miles of the trail mentioned, where the rocks are very varied

in character, but mostly early Cambrian quartzites, together with many

igneous rocks, including Tertiary rhyolites. The ore producing region

is found in the valleys where the gravels are washed in some places by

hydraulic force, and some gold obtained therefrom.

The last paper of the evening was by Professor C. A. Doremus, and

was illustrated by a series of specimens recently received from France

from M. Moissan, representing certain of the metals and carbides

formed by the electric furnace. Some of these were very interesting

geologically, because af their peculiar properties ; particularly the car-

nates of aluminum, calcium and cerium, which latter, when treated

with water, produces all the gaseous series from marsh gas to the heavier

566 The American Naturalist. [June,

petroleum products. The specimens exhibited are for final deposit

in the National Museum, at Washington, D. C.

This being the last meeting of the Geological Section before the

summer vacation, adjournment was made till October.—Ricuarp E.

DODGE, Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

A bill before the Michigan legislature to change the name of the

Michigan Mining School to the Michigan College of Mines became a

law early in April, and the latter is now the proper name of the institu-

tion. The students and the people of the Upper Peninsula generally

have accepted the new name gladly, considering it much more appro-

priate for the character of the work done in the institution.

Another bill which has been pending for some time regarding the

charging of tuition has been passed, fixing the rate at $25.00 for resi-

dents of Michigan, and not less than $50.00 or more than $200.00 for

those residing outside of Michigan. The exact rate has not yet been

determined by the Board of Control of the College. The question is

under consideration, and in all probability will be fixed at $150.00 for

non-residents of Michigan. This amount of tuition fee will correspond

with that charged by other first grade technical schools in America,

such as Columbia College School of Mines, the Rensselaer Polytechnic

Institute, the Stevens Institute of Technology, and the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology.

When the school was working out its policy, trying to solve its edu-

cational problems, it was thought wisest to charge no tuition, but to

collect as wide a constituency as possible in order that there might be

all possible chance to make the methods as broad and thorough as could

be done. It was also deemed hardly just to the students educated here

to demand tuition until the institution was much better equipped for

its work than the appropriations granted during the first decade of its

‘existence permitted. Now that success has been attained in edycating

men for practical work, as is evidenced by the positions which its eighty-

six graduates hold, a list of which is given in the last catalogue, the

institution s seems fully warranted in charging hereafter for its instruc-

tion.

The new law goes into effect immediately after August 19, 1897, and

will therefore not apply to students entering previous to that time.

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 567

A prospectus will soon be issued by the College, giving the details

of the regulations finally adopted by the Board of Control—FRanNcEs

H. Scorr.

In addition to the excursions already proposed for the geologist mem-

bers of the coming International Geological Congress the Committee of

Organization finds itself in position to propose a visit to the glacier

Tséisky, which will have for its starting point the station Darg-Kokh

of the railway Rostow-Wladikavkaz. The trip will occupy two days,

Sept. 4th (16th)—Sept. 8th (18th), and will be made under the direc-

tion of K. Rossikow. The expense is estimated at 20 francs in addition

to that of the principal excursion.

As has been stated before in the NATURALIST, arrangements have

been made for excursions to the Urals, to Esthonia, to Finnland, to the

Crimea, and to the Dnieper. As the number of participants in these

excursions is necessarily limited, geologists who are expecting to take

advantage of these opportunities for research are advised to communi-

cate their wishes to the Committee.on Organization at an early date.

On April 14th the Zoological Station at Naples celebrated the

twenty-fifth anniversary of its foundation. The German government

has recognized the value of the station by voting, in 1880, to contribute

$7,500 a year to it, which sum was increased in 1890 to $10,000. For

$500 a year anyone can secure a “ table” in the laboratory with all the

privileges and conveniences it affords. Germany and her universities

have 10 tables, Italy 9, Austria and Russia 2 each, Holland, Belgium,

Hungary, Switzerland, Roumania, Bulgaria, 1 each, while others are

held by the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Columbia, the British

Association, and Smithsonian Institution. The only state which ever

gave up its table was Spain, which no longer felt able to pay for it.

Work will soon be in full progress on the erection of a portion of the

new Museum of Archeology and Paleontology, for the University of

Pennsylvania. The architecture will be simple and of Italian renais-

sance style. Salmon brick will be the main feature in the building,

although there will be plenty of stone trimming. A botanical garden,

covering ten acres, will be laid out around the museum. The site of

the structure was ceded to the University by the city on condition that

a museum of art and science, surrounded by a botanical garden, be

erected on it. The portion to be erected immediately will cost not less

than $500,000, while the cost of the whole building will foot up to

$4,000,000.

568 The American Naturalist. [June,

Doctors Maxwell and Swan, of Monmouth (Ill.) College, propose to

organize a summer school of biology in connection with the college. The

trustees have approved the plans, and the school will probably be lo-

cated on the Mississippi River not far from Monmouth. The term will

consist of a six weeks’ course, and the tuition will be $15.00. The

college will furnish the necessary collecting apparatus, microscopes,

laboratory necessaries, and boats for conveyance. The students will be

directed by Drs. Maxwell and Swan.

Dr. Persifor Frazer has been appointed to represent the Academy of

Natural Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and the Uni-

versity of Pennsylvania at the International Congress of Geologists

at St. Petersburg. He has been commissioned by the Academy to

present the Hayden Memorial award, consisting of a bronze medal

and the interest of the special endowment, to Prof. A. Karpinski, the

Chief of the Geological Survey of Russia, in recognition of the value

of his contributions to geological and paleontological science.

The American Philosophical Society held a meeting followed by a

conversazione in honor of Sir Archibald Geikie, on the evening of May

7th, at which the eminent geologist gave a rapid resumé of the recent

geological work in the Hebrides and Faroe Isles. Previous to the read- —

ing of the paper the Society was presented by a few of its members with

a portrait of the late Professor E. D. Cope, painted by Mr. George W.

Pettit of Philadelphia.

Mr. H. Wilde, president of the Manchester Scientific and Literary

Society has given the Paris Academy of Sciences the sum of $27,000 to

be used in giving an annual prize of $800, for a discovery or publica-

tion in physical science, the prize to be made international. Mr.

Wilde states that this gift is made in return for the benefit which he

has derived from French science.

In accordance with the will of the late Prof. E. D. Cope, his fossil

collection is to be sold and the proceeds devoted to establishing a chair

of paleontology in the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, whose occu-

pant must be approved by the National Academy, and whose duty

shall be chiefly that of original research. `

The Constantine Medal has been awarded by the Russian Geograph-

ical Society to Th. Tschernyschew, for his many years’ work on the

geography and geology of Russia.

Joseph F. James, M. D., Died March 29, 1897.

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THE

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Vol. XXXI.

JULY, 1897.

CONTENTS.

ON = wong OF TARSIUS:

E PHYLOGENY OF THE PRI

IERT Earle,

BIOLOGICAL STUDIES IN MASSACHUSETTS

George C. Whipple.

NATURAL IMPULSES W. Bernhardt.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO AE —II.

H D

THE SEVENTH SESSION oF THE ess bie

ESS,

—A Te: ext t-Bo bk cot Rupert:

1 Embryology — Miocene Mollusca

rea I Ce of New Jersey—Sixteenth

Annu preh t U. S. Geological Survey,

Ppi arts IHI and IV — Glaciers i No sh

merica Rye 5

RECENT Books AND PAMPHLETS. j

GENERAL NOTES

„Mineralogy ssa ee tee and

Zirkelite — Epidote and Zoisite—The Mono-

clinice Eby tpr p New York State—On the

Notes. rears of Crystals — Miscellaneous

P graph y Ancient Volcanic Rocks in

en st a AA Associated with the

r. Port Henry, N. — The

i etites nea N ;

__Basalts of Kléch in Steiermark «The Volcanié

Rocks near Bensen, Bohemia — The

Governing an Production m "Zonal Cr ma

Petrograph a É

. A. Cockerell, $

PAG

A rope dare

TES.

Geology and eE arenae papie Pak of Alaska x

Origin of the Eedoritates“Gyps oS

cansas—Geolog 8y of the Funafuti ti Coral R iets a

seca ‘

anical Society ‘of Ameri rica

Botany in she "National Educational Associa-

Chester Co., Pennsylvania —On the Use of the

Heredit Rare Mester oe

cane ig id OCIETIES. . -

Screntiric News. . wip ets ie

PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.

MISLLOL.

ATURAL SCIENCE:

| : | A MONTHLY REVIEW OF

SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ae ged eee es

2 FOLLOWING ARE A FEW FACTS AS TO THE WORK

OF “NATURAL SCIENCE” DURING 1895.

TURAL SCIENCE for 1895 has published contributions from

t distinguished writers.

AL SCIENCE for 1895 has published 63 speciai contrib-

_ Articles in all branches of Zoology, Botany, and Geology:

des the large July number, ere the results of the a

allenger” ‘Expedition. oe

R AL SCIENCE for 1895 has E 24 fullepage P Plates r

ustra ng the above-mentioned articles. ae

AL, ‘SCIENCE for 1895 has reviewed 100 Books, and no

1 340 Papers, Pamphlets and Periodicals. Rae

‘SCIENCE for 1895 has contained 45 Text-figures, a A

SIENCE for 1895 has given Obituary Notices of 53

a ements can be verified by a anyone who will buy the . Vol

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. KAAL July, 1897. 367

ON THE AFFINITIES OF TARSIUS: A CONTRIBU-

TION TO THE PHYLOGENY OF THE PRIMATES.

By CHARLES EARLE.

In order to form a just estimate of the zoological rank of an

animal in the system we must take into consideration its

whole organization and development. Any system of classifi-

cation which only considers one set of organs at the exclusion

of the others will probably lead to false ideas as to the system-

atic position of the animal in question. In endeavoring to

determine the relationship of Tarsius to the other members of

the Primates, we are met at the outset with that great diffi-

culty in morphological enquiry to decide between characters

due to inheritance and those arising from convergence. The

phenomenon of homoplasy is being recognized more and more

by naturalists, and it is only by a complete knowledge of the

palzogenetic history of a phylum that we can decide surely

whether certain characters of the skeleton, common to it and

‘to other phyla, are homogenetic or homoplastic in their origin.

Tarsius stands preéminently among Mammals as one of the

most interesting of generalized types, for in this genus we have

an animal whose assemblage of characters relates it on one

hand to the Apes, and on the other surely to the Lemurs.

The question arises, is the position tenable if I maintain that

as Tarsius exhibits many fundamental structural peculiarities

570 The American Naturalist. [July,

only found in the Apes and Lemurs, as a result the Anthro-

poids and Lemuroids may be considered genetically related.

I may add that the paleontological evidence supports this

conclusion.

I find on further study that Mivart’s views concerning the

relations of the Lemurs and Apes are most unsatisfactory. He

considers that the question of genetic relationship in classifi-

cation should take a subordinate place, and if two groups of

animals exhibit characters in common, it makes little differ-

ence whether the characters be due to convergence or were in-

herited from a common ancestor which gave origin to the two

aggregations in question. In short, to Mivart classification is

merely a convenience, and may or may not denote genetic re-

lationship. Applying these principles to the arrangement of

the Primates, Mivart merely placed the Lemurs and Apes to-

gether because they exhibit some characters in common, and

not that he considered these two suborders of the Primates

closely related. Since Mivart’s important paper on “ Lepile-

mur and Cheirogaleus ” was written in 1878, great strides have

been made in arranging some of the Mammals based on the

true scientific principle of community of descent. A good ex- “

ample of the determination of adaptive versus essential char-

acters is the case of the Carnivora, where the important dis-

coveries of vertebrate paleontology clearly demonstrate that

the Bears and Dogs are related, but the Mustelines, instead of

being connected with the Bears, are related to the Civets.

Again, the Hyenas came off the same stem as the Mustelines,

and are related also to the Viverrines and not to the Cats, as

supposed by Flower.

Burmeister, the monographer of Tarsius, considered this ani-

mal to be a Lemur, but with characters relating it to the Apes

and also to the Insectivora. Burmeister’s views as to the re-

lationship of Tarsius is shown in the following passage from

his Memoir: “Aber Tarsius ist nicht mal ein Affe, er ist viel-

mehr nur ein Halbaffe, ein Mitglied jener Gruppe, innerhalb

welcher die frugivore oder zugleich omnivore Nahrung der

hochsten Séugethiere in die ausschliesslich animalische zun-

ächst insektivore, uberspringt.” That Burmeister fully appre

1897.] On the Affinities of Tarsius : 571

ciated the essentially lemurine characters of Tarsius, and which

I should like to emphasize, do not occur in any other Mam-

malian group except in the Lemurs, is evident from his paper.

Hubrecht, who has recently written an important paper on

the placentation of Tarsius insists on the close relationship be-

tween this genus and the Apes. Because Hubrecht finds that

the histological structure of the placenta and the stalk con-

necting it with the embryo in Tarsius is structurally like that

of the Anthropoids, he proposes to overthrow our present sys-

tem of classification of the Primates, dividing this group into

two distinct orders, and placing Tarsius, also the fossil genus

Anaptomorphus, among the Apes. I believe that Hubrecht, in

his discussion of the systematic position of Tarsius, has not

taken into consideration the whole organization of this genus,

and furthermore I am of the opinion that any classification of

the Mammalia depending solely on the structure of the pla-

centa and its connections will prove to be unreliable.

I am aware that there are many difficulties in the way of

claiming that Lemurs and Apes are genetically related, but if

one eliminates some of the highly adaptive and specialized

` characters of the Lemurs, which appeared late in their evolu-

tion, then these two groups of Mammals approach each other

very closely and on osteological characters alone, we are un-

able at present to surely separate the early Lemurs from the

Apes. In other words, the extinct Lemurs possess certain

characters which are now found widely separate in the two

suborders of recent Primates.

In order to allow the reader to form an unbiased opinion of

the affinities of Tarsius, I will briefly review Hubrecht’s im-

portant contribution to the placentation of Tarsius, and follow

him in his comparison of the placental connections ef Tarsius

with that of Erinaceus, a typical Insectivore, and also compare

both with what is known of the placentation in the true

Lemurs.

In the early as in the later stages of Tarsius, the yolk sac

only takes up a small portion of the cavity of the blastocyst,

and there is never present an omphaloide placentation as in ~

Erinaceus. In this character of its development Tarsius

strictly follows the plan of the Anthropoids.

572 The American Naturalist. [July,

A very important point in the early development of Tarsius

is that the surface of the chorion never becomes entirely vil-

lous asin man. In Cercocebus the villosities of the chorion are

limited to dorsal and ventral areas. The fact that Tarsius has

omitted this diffuse stage of the placenta found in the true

Anthropoids, clearly shows that this is a specialization in the

development of this genus. Hubrecht remarks in referring to

this completely villous stage of the chorion of the Anthropoids:

“Ich halte den Zustand welcher beim Menschen und Anthro-

poiden sich erhalten hat, tur sehr primitive.” Again, he says:

“Somit neige Ich zu der Ansicht hin, dass in diesem ununter-

brochenen Zottenpelz ein primitiver charakter erhalten, und

dass die partielle Zottenbildung von Niederen Affen, wie der

Fig. K giebt; eher als ein abgeleiterer Zustand zu betrachten

sei”! The reference he gives to Fig. K is the condition found

in Cercocebus, where the villous areas of the chorion are re-

stricted to patches above and below the fetus. In Erinaceus

the amniotic cavity is formed by a splitting of the epiblast, so

that the portion of this membrane below the amnion is the

only part directly concerned in the growth of the embryo;

accordingly Hubrecht designates this as the epiblast proper, ©

whereas the remainder of the epiblast not used in the forma-

tion of the embryo he calls the trophoblast. Prof. Hubrecht

considers the development of the amnion as occuring in Eri-

naceus the primitive one, whereas the more ordinary way by

folds growing over the embryo and uniting, as a secondary

process. Tarsius follows the more normal formation of the

amnion by the folding off of the embryo.

In an early stage in the development of Tarsius, there occurs

a thickening in the external epiblast or trophoblast, and on

the opposite side from the embryonic area, this is the placental

“anlage” or rudiment. It is important to notice that the first

indication of the placenta is situated ventrally in relation to

the embryo, as in the Apes it is dorsal. Again, the origin of

the placenta in Tarsius has no connection whatever with the

allantois, and the latter organ never becomes directly con-

nected with the placenta as will be shown later. At the time

1 Die Keimblase von Tarsius, Leipzig, 1896, pp. 171 and 172.

1897.] On the Affinities of Tarsius : 573

of the origin of the placental “ anlage” in Tarsius the whole blas-

tocyst is lined by the mesoblast and in the portion of the latter

which connects the placental anlage with the posterior end of

the embryo, originates a very important structure, highly char-

acteristic of the Anthropoids; this is the bauchstiel or ventral

stalk. Prof. Hubrecht explains the genesis of the bauchstiel

very clearly, and shows that as the embryo becomes folded

off from the yolk by the development of the amnion, that this

mesoblastic strip is carried with the embryo until the latter is

really suspended in the cavity of the blastocyst, its only attach-

ment to the wall of the same is by means of the bauch- or

haftstiel as he calls it. Vascularization of the ventral stalk

soon takes place by blood-vessels arising in it, and thus em-

bryo and placenta are brought into vascular connection.

Another very important point shown by Hubrecht is that the

portion of the bauchsteil next to the embryo is permeated by

two tubes, the dorsal is a prolongation of the amnion and the

lower is the rudiment of the allantois. The latter is one of

the most important discoveries made by Hubrecht in connec-

. tion with the development of Tarsius, as he demonstrates that

in Tarsius, as in the Apes and Man, the allantois is rudimen-

tary and does not hang freely in the coelomic cavity as in the

rest of the Mammalia. Prof. Hubrecht shows that the allan-

tois rudiment takes no share in the vascularization of the

bauchstiel as the following quotation proves:-“ Finden wir in

dem Haftstiel eine verhaltnissmiissig langen Restbestand dies-

es Allantois rohres, welches aber, wie bereits auseinander gesetzt

wurde, an der Vaskularisation des Haftstiels keinerlei antheil

hat.” Professor Hubrecht compares an early stage of Erinace-

us, before the splitting of the mesoblast (see his paper, stage

2), with that of Tarsius (fig. 7), in order to prove that Erinace-

us has a sort of bauchstiel, connecting the rear end of the

embryo with the trophoblast. In this stage of Erinaceus the

extent of the mesoblast is very limited, but in Tarsius the

whole blastodermic vesicle is lined by mesoblast.

Turning now to the foetal membranes of the Lemurs, we find

there is apparently little in common between the placentation

of these animals and Tarsius. In Tarsius the placenta is dis-

574 The American Naturalist. [July,

koidal-deciduate, whereas in the Lemurs it is diffuse and nearly

the whole surface of the chorion is villous. It appears then

that we are dealing with two types of placentation fundament-

ally different in structure and origin; however, the early de-

velopment of the placenta in the Lemurs is totally unknown

so far as I have been able to learn. Turner has described the

placentation in the genus Lemur, and Alphonse Milne-Ed-

wards in the Indrisine Lemurs. In all known forms of

Lemurs the allantois is a huge sac enveloping the embryos,

and often having numerous diverticule. Milne-Edwards calls

attention particularly to one point, that the external layer of

the allantois has no intimate connection with the chorion,

and moreover it is not vascular. The question then arises, if

the allantois takes no share in the formation of the placenta

in the Lemurs, the latter organ probably originates from the

chorion as in the Apes. This point is not yet proven, and it

remains for further research to find out how the connection

between fœtus and chorion is brought about in the Lemurs.

Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot, to whom I am greatly indebted

for an important letter on the question of the placentation of

the Primates, in his great work on “ Human Embryology,”

divides the placentation of the Mammalia into two types, in

the first group the allantois is large and supplies the chorion

with its blood-vessels; this is the condition occurring in the

majority of the Mammalia, excepting some of the Primates.

In the more highly differentiated Anthropoidea, the allantois

takes no part in the formation of the placenta, and the blood-

vessels arise in the chorion and bauchstiel in situ. Dr. Minot

designates this type as chorionic placentation. I quote two

passages from his letter which have an important bearing on

the question of the relations of the placentation of the Apes to

that of the Lemurs: “ Unfortunately, nothing satisfactory is

known of the early stages of Lemurs, which are the critical

ones for placental homologies, but as far as our fragmentary

knowledge goes, I fail to recognize any impossibility of regard-

ing the placentas of Monkeys and of Lemurs as of one funda-

mental type.” Again Dr. Minot says: “ Whether a placenta

is diffuse or not cannot decide as to its homologies, for the

1897.] On the Affinities of Tarsius : 575

human placenta is diffuse to start with, yet has nothing in

common with the Ungulates, though it may be compared, ap-

parently, directly with that of the Lemurs.”

I am not, at present, in a position to discuss the whole organ-

ization of the Lemurs, and will merely refer to the brain and

female reproductive organs. In regard to the structure of the

brain in the Lemuroidea, it may be said that the genus Lemur

has a lower type of encephalon than is found in the Indrisine.

As compared with the Jnsectivora, the brain of the Lemurs is

in a much higher stage of development, and approaches

nearer that of the Cebide than any other group. In Lemur

the frontal lobes of the cerebrum are narrow, and the olfactory

lobes are plainly visible in front; however, in Propithecus, the

frontal portion of the cerebrum is quite highly developed,

being as broad as in the American Monkeys, and contains

secondary convolutions not seen in the lower forms of Lemurs.

Again it is to be noted that in the Lemurs as in the Apes, the

sylvian fissure is largely developed and extends a good ways

superiorly on the hemispheres, and this character is particu-

larly noticeable in the Indrisine. The antero-temporal sulcus

is also well-marked in the Lemur’s brain, and resembles this

fissure in the Anthropoids. The posterior lobes of the cere-

brum remain in a primitive condition, and the cerebullum is

exposed as in the lower Mammalia. Prof. Flower calls par-

ticular attention to the presence in the brain of the Lemurs of

the calcarine fissure which is so characteristic of the higher

Primates, and speaking in general of the sulci of the inner

part of the cerebrum of the Lemur’s brain, Prof. Flower re-

marks that they follow also those of the Anthropoidea. The

general configuration of the frontal lobes in Nyctipithecus

among American monkeys is like that of Propithecus, but in

the former the surface of the hemispheres is smoother and

lacks the smaller convolutions seen in the Indrisinæ. Again,

in Nyctipithecus the olfactory lobes project considerably beyond

the cerebrum. In conclusion it follows from the above that

the brain of the Lemurs is much more primitive than that of

the Apes, but may represent a stage in the evolution of the

brain which leads to the higher differentiated encephalon of

the Anthropoids.

(To be continued.)

576 The American Naturalist. | [July

BIOLOGICAL STUDIES IN MASSACHUSETTS.

By GrorGe C. WHIPPLE.

MICROSCOPICAL ORGANISMS.

The examination of nearly forty thousand samples of water

in Massachusetts collected from water supplies differing in

locality and character, and extending through all seasons for

a long term of years serve to give us a good idea of the micro-

organisms inhabiting the fresh waters of this region. But, in

studying them it must be remembered that the examinations

were made from a sanitary standpoint, and that from the

. manner in which the samples were collected they include only

such forms as are found floating in the water: the littoral

forms are not represented except as they have become de-

tached and accidentally carried into circulation.

The following table gives the names of the genera thus far

observed. They are arranged according to the usual system

of classification, and each class is divided into groups, accord-

ing to abundance and frequency of occurrence. The first

group includes those genera which, in their season, are often

found in large numbers; the second group includes those

which are only occasionally found in large numbers; the third

those which often occur in small numbers; the fourth those

which are rarely observed. This division, while not wholly

satisfactory, enables us to separate the important from the un-

important forms. As observations multiply, the list will doubt-

less be extended and many genera will be changed from one

group to another. The names printed in heavy type indicate

that the organisms so marked have been the cause of trouble

in a water supply.

DIATOMACE&.

Commonly found in large numbers. Asterionella, Cyclotella,

Melosira, Synedra, Tabellaria.

Occasionally found in large numbers. Diatoma, Fragilaria,

Nitzschia, Stephanodiseus.

Commonly found in small numbers. Epithemia, Gomphon-

ema, Navicula, Stauroneis. ite

1897.] -Biological Studies in Mussachusetts. 577

Occasionally observed. Achnanthes, Amphiprora, Amphora,

Bacillaria, Cocconeis, Cocconema, Cymbella, Diadesmis, En-

cyonema, Eunotia, Grammatophora, Himantidium, Isthmia,

Meridion, Odontidium, Orthosira, Pinnularia, Pleurosigma,

Schizonema, Striatella, Surirella, Tetracyclus.

CHLOROPHYCE.

Commonly found in large numbers. Chlorococcus, Protococcus,

Scenedesmus.

Occasionally found in large numbers. Coelastrum, Cosmarium,

Palmella, Pandorina, Polyedrium, Raphidium, Staurastrum,

Volvox. |

Commonly found in small numbers. Closterium, Conferva,

Desmidium, Euastrum,Eudorina, Gonium, Micrasterias,Ophio-

cytium, Pediastrum, Sphaerozosma, Staurogenia, Tetraspora,

Ulothrix, Xanthidium.

Occasionally observed. Arthrodesmus, Bambusina, Botryo-

coccus, Characium, Chaetophora, Cladophora, Dactylococcus,

Dictyosphaerium, Dimorphococcus, Draparnaldia, Gloeocystis,

Hyalotheca, Mesocarpus, Nephrocytium, Penium, Selenastrum,

Sorastrum, Spirogyra, Stigeoclonium, Tetmemorus, Zygnema.

CYANOPHYCEEH

Commonly found in large numbers. Anabaena, Clathrocystis,

Coelosphaerum, Microcysti

Occasionally found in targe numbers. . Aphanizomenon, Chro-

öcoccus, Oscillaria.

Commonly found in small numbers. Aphanocapsa.

Occasionally observed. Gloeocapsa, Lyngbya, Merismopedia,

Microcoleus, Nostoc, Rivularia, Sirosiphon, Tetrapedia.

FUNGI.

Commonly found in large numbers. Crenothrix.

Occasionally found in large numbers. Cladothrix.

Commonly found in small numbers. Beggiatoa, Leptothrix,

Moulds.

Occasionally observed. Achlya, Leptomitus, Saprolegnia, Sar-

cina, Spirillum.

RHIZOPODA.

Commonly found in small numbers. Actinophrys, Amoeba.

DS st ht observed. Arcella, Cyphodera, Difflugia, Eugly-

INFUSORIA.

Commonly found in large numbers. Cryptomonas, Dinobryon,

Peridinium, Synura, Uroglena.

578 The American Naturalist. [July,

Occasionally found in large numbers. Bursaria, Chloromonas,

Glenodinium, Mallomonas, Raphidomonas.

Commonly found in small numbers. Anthophysa, Ceratium,

Cercomonas, Codonella, Epistylis, Monas, Tintinnus, Trachelo-

monas, Vorticella.

Occasionally observed. Acineta, Chlamydomonas, Coleps,

Colpidium, Euchelys, Euglena, Euplotes, Glaucoma, Halteria,

Heteronema, Nassula, Paramaecium, Phacus, Pleuronema,

Raphidodendron, Stentor, Synerypta, Trichodina, Uvella,

Zoothamnium.

ROTIFERA.

Commonly found in small numbers. Anuraea, Conochilus,

Polyarthra, Rotifera, Synchaeta.

Occasionally observed. Asplanchna, Colurus, Eosphora, Flos-

cularia, Lacinularia, Mastigocerca, Microcodon, Monocerca,

Monostyla, Noteus, Sacculus, Triarthra.

CRUSTACEA,

Commonly found in small numbers. Bosmina, Cyclops,

Daphnia.

Occasionally observed. Alona, Cypris, Diaptomus, Sida.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Occasionally observed. Acarina, Anguillula, Batrachosper-

mum, Chaetonotus, Gordius, Hydra, Macrobrotus, Meyenia,

Nais, Spongilla ; besides spores, ova, insect scales, pollen grains,

vegetable fibres and tissue, yeast cells, starch grains, ete.

An examination of the following table, a numerical sum-

mary of the preceding list, brings out some interesting facts :—

It will be observed that 186 genera have been reported, 108

plants and 78 animals. Of these only 18 are commonly found

in large numbers, 13 plants and 5 animals. Twenty-one more

are occasionally found in large numbers, 16 plants and 5 ani-

mals. Forty-one genera are frequently seen in small numbers,

while 106 genera, or more than one-half of all are seen occa-

sionally, some of them but rarely. The most important classes

are the Diatomacee, Chlorophycee, Cyanophycex and Infu-

soria, as shown by the large number of genera and by their

greater abundance. Furthermore, these classes include all but

one of the 23 troublesome genera that have been found in large

numbers. Eleven genera may be said to be very troublesome,

because of their wide distribution, the frequency of their occur-

1897.] Biological Studies in Massachusetts. 579

TABLE No. 1,

Number of Genera.

Classification. Common-| Occasion- | Common- | Occasion

ly found jally found) ly found | ally ob-

in lar, large small | served Total.

numbers. | numbers. | numbers.

Jiatomaceæ 5 4 4 92 35

Chlorophycew. ...sesosesrees ee | 3 8 14 21 46

Cyanophycee...... ...sseseeeee 4 oe 8 16

Fungi 1 1 5 10

q <hizopoda 0 0 4 6

nfusoria 5 5 ) 20 39

Rotifera 0 0 12 17

rustac 0 0 ; 4 7

Miscellaneous. ............... 0 0 ) 10 10

Total 18 21 41 106 186

rence, and their unpleasant effects. They are Asterionella,

Anabaena, Clathrocystis, Coelosphaerium, Aphanizomenon,

Oscillaria, Dinobryon, Peridinum, Synura, Uroglena and

Glenodinuim. This list seems like a short one when one con-

siders the annoyance that the micro-organisms have caused in

the various water supplies of the State.

The following tables, compiled from the examinations of the

State Board of Health, serve to give one an idea of the distri-

bution of the various classes of organisms in ground waters

and surface waters. In most cases the numbers given are the

averages of monthly examinations extending over one or

more years. They were selected with a view to showing the

greatest range in the number of organisms in the classes of

water tabulated, and they illustrate in a striking manner the

comparative absence of organisms (except Fungi) in springs,

wells and filter galleries: the presence of a variety of organ-

isms in small numbers in rivers, and the abundance of micro-

scopic life in the more quiet waters of ponds and artificial

reservoirs. It is only in waters of the latter class that the

microscopical organisms occasion much trouble by their ex-

cessive growth, and hereafter they alone will receive our con-

sideration.

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582 The American Naturalist. (July,

NATURAL IMPULSES.

By W. BERNHARDT.

There is a mystery existing in nature, inaccessible to human

reasoning, as scarcely another one, although the phenomena

connected with it are amòng the best known to us and of daily

occurrence. When comparing a grain of mustard seed and

one of poppy seed we even with the help of a magnifying

glass cannot detect anatomical differenges of any concern.

Each of them eneloses two cotyledons, i. e., the first leaves de-

veloping in germination ; moreover, it contains a radicle and

the beginning of a stem, both located between the cotyledons.

Structure and appearance of these primitive organs are very

similar in both seeds, and yet what a difference between a

grown mustard anda poppy plant! Not only flower and fruit

but the whole plant assumes a particular shape and character

differing externally as well, as in chemical constituents. We

are forced to believe, that the cells, from which both plants

originate, are endowed with a disposition forcing the growing

organs to assume certain forms in accordance with a certain ex-

change of matter.

Such a disposition or plan of structure is inherent to every

germ of plant andanimal. Not the strongest microscope, nor

any other means of observation have enabled us to ascertain

the matter and processes upon which variation of development

depends; only this much has been established, that the faculty

is particular to the germ itself, the forms resulting from the

growth of a certain kind of germ invariably manifesting the

same characters, independent from external influences. Soil,

climate and light certainly modify the thriving of a plant, and,

when unfavorable, can even prohibit growth, but the plant re-

sulting nevertheless invariably shows the characters of the

species to which it belongs. Neither in animal nor in plant,

has domestication or horticulture ever generated a new spe-

cies.

1897.] Natural Impulses. 583

The author by these remarks does not intend to dispute the

possibility and even probability, that new species have sprung

from former ones in the course of unmeasurable past times ;

on the contrary, there are numerous geological, botanical and

zoological facts known, which irresistibly point in that direc-

tion, but in historic time, i. e., during the last 5000 years, no

evident change is known to have happened. Plants, animals

and people represented on old Egyptian and Assyrian sculp-

tures are exactly the same as those existing nowadays. The

time, when linking forms between lizards and birds, as the

pterodactylus, were living, lies in a remote past, and the origin

of existing transient forms, as ornithorhynchus, lepidosiren

and amphioxus may without scruples be dated back to periods

preceding the appearance of man. Perfectly agreeing to the

view adopted by most naturalists of our time, that plants as

well as animals are the results of gradual evolution originating

from monocellular organisms, we find it supported by the con-

vincing argument of the descent of every single being from a

minute fertilized cell, the embryo of man itself in its first

stages closely resembling those of other animals, differences in

the accomplishment of organs appearing in the advanced

periods of growth.

By the comparison of any forms of higher animals including

insects, evidence is given of a principle or type of symmetric

structure common to all of them. There is a head provided

with partly bilateral organs for the reception of objects and

impressions from the outside and ending in a chord of nervous

substance, the spine, located on the back or front side of the

body, and dividing it into two longitudinal halves, to which

the organs of movement are attached equally distributed on

both sides, one side being the reverse of the other one. Simi-

lar pervading principles of structure are found in lower ani-

mals, more or less varying according to the classes and families

_ to which the beings belong. The structural principles per-

vading the vegetable world are different, but not less evident

and striking ones. One of the chief features in higher plants

is the constant repetition of the same number, or a multiple of

it in the parts of the flower and the fruit. . In many families

584 The American Naturalist. [July, i

the number 5 is the predominating one, in others 6, or another

amount in the parts of the calyx as well, as in the petala,

stamina, stigmata and carpella. Perfect symmetry in the ar-

rangement and division of organs also is frequently found in

plants and beautifully exhibited in many forms of ferns.

Pursuing the enforcing faculty, the impulse or will in ani-

mals or plants to conduct the formation of organs in certain

unvariable ways, independent from external influences, we

find it concealed in the minute embryo from which all creat-

ures originate. But we have to admit at the same time, that

the researches hitherto performed on this subject were but lit-

tle successful, inasmuch as our knowleege in this respect is not

much beyond that of our predecessors a century ago. They

knew as well as we, that it is the germ or embryo, which is

endowed with this power. The only apparent progress made

is a hypothetical one, and consists in the prevailing opinion

that in germination and growing, two different kinds of cells

are active, some of them, the vegetative cells, being chiefly en-

gaged in nutrition and growth, the others, or reproducing cells,

for transferring to young individuals and preserving the char-

acter of the parents, family, tribe, etc. It is upon the presence

of this last kind of cells—most frequent in reproductive organs

—that the resemblance in members of families and nations

and of genera and classes is believed to depend. Scientists

attribute the reproductive faculty to the nucleus of proto-

plasma or albuminous matter found in these cells.

The growth of cells is a limited one. When a certain store

of food has been taken up and a certain amount of protoplasma

has been formed, the latter, forming the kernel or nucleus of the

cell, receives a gradually increasing stricture, dividing it into

two halves, which finally separate; the stricture extends to the

whole cell, which by division gives rise to two new cells per-

fectly resembling the mother cell as to form, organization and

general characters.. In this way multiplication of all repro-

ducing cells takes place, including that of micro-organisms ; it

is the simplest and primitive way of generation of new individ-

uals. We see, that the progress of our knowledge in this

question is limited to the fact, that while formerly the embryo

-1897.] Natural Impuilses. 585

as a whole was regarded as the agent at once reproducing and

preserving the original form, these functions nowadays are at-

tributed to a certain class of its constituting cells, or rather to

the protoplasma which they contain.

But a scanty comfort it is, that this theory affords to our

mind eager to penetrate into this apparently unfathomable

secret of nature, intimately connected with the question for the

origin of life itself; but notwithstanding its deficiencies, the

hypothesis of reproducing cells well explains the resemblance

commonly existing between members of one family, its increas-

ing in nearly related individuals and its diminishing by the

interference of strange elements.

If permitted to consider the “ cell” as the elementary organ

in animals and vegetables, we are as well justified to attribute

the same roll in the mineral world to the “ crystal.” There is

no mineral substance existing which is not known to crystal-

lize under certain circumstances, and the formation of cells in

plants from the constituents of their juices, the secretion of

muscular fibre from albuminous matter in blood, stands in

closer relation to the separation of crystals from solutions,

than is generally imagined. Who, when on a cold winter

morning, finding the panes of his windows covered with ice-

crystals shaped like luxurious ferns, mosses or twigs of pine

trees, was not impressed with the conjecture of a relation be-

tween the phenomena of organization and crystallization of

some common occult force giving form to organic as well as to

nonorganic matter? Indeed, thereare no strict limits existing

between organization and crystallization. The curved lineand

surface may be regarded as particular to and characteristic of

organic matter, the straight line and surface of mineral sub-

stances, but there are innumerable exceptions exhibiting the

former in well defined crystals, while crystals of minerals fre-

quently occur having curved surfaces. Thus the crystals of

pyromorphite, chiefly consisting of phosphate of lead, are poly-

hedra with curved planes, and compounds of hydroxylamine

with certain oxides of metals have hemispheric forms. The

starch grain may be considered as the connecting link between

both morphological classes, the round form on the one hand

586 The American Naturalist. [July,

indicating a cell like character, its growing by attachment of

layers on its outside on the other hand, perfectly agreeing with

the way in which crystals are observed to grow.

It is in three states that solid matter is known to occur, in

the amorphous, the crystalline and the organized states. The

amorphous seems to be the original one, since the others are

generally found to originate from it, the reverse but exception-

ally taking place. The best known amorphous substance is

glass, in which in its perfect state no crystalline particles can

be discovered. Resins, such as colophony and copal, and

Indian rubber are amorphous, as well as glue and molten

sugar in its fresh state. In sugar the liability to pass into the

crystalline state is very prominent; sometimes a few minutes

after its cooling the transparent mass becomes opaque by the

separation of minute crystals of sugar. Crystallization fre-

quently sets in in some varieties of glass, particularly when

rapidly cooled. Albumen -is the principal amorphous sub-

stance in living animals from which organized matter is

derived.

A striking difference of amorphous and crystalline matter is

manifested in the behavior of their solutions. Amorphous

matter soluble in water, when dissolved gives viscid or gela-

tinous liquids, their thickness increasing with the lessening

amount of water present. No compounds with water in defi-

nite proportions seem to be existing. Solutions of crystalline

matter, on the contrary, are thin as water; when concentrated

to a certain point crystals of solid matter begin to separate.

Crystallization sometimes sets in suddenly, the whole liquid

turning into a magma of small solid particles suspended in the

fluid. The solution contains compounds with water in defi-

nite proportions. When evaporating a solution of red cobalt

chloride, it suddenly turns blue, which happens in the moment

when more water has been removed, than the red salt needs

for its existence.

Having tried to explain the resemblance in the features of

related organisms by the prevailing of particular cells repro-

ducing by unknown impulses the same character in every new

individual, we feel induced to look for the cause of the well

1897.] Natural Impulses. 587

known fact, that mineral matter is subject to similar con-

straints, being forced, when crystallizing, to assume certain in-

variable forms. Every crystalline body has its peculiar shape

varying only by the addition of planes belonging to forms of

the same system. Compounds of different ingredients, but of

similar constitution, are frequently found to appear in the

same forms, as is seen in the class of compounds comprised by

the name of “alum.” Whenever a body is found crystallizing

in several systems, a chemical difference, although perhaps a

slight one, may generally be assumed. But in identical bodies

polymerisation, or multiplication of atoms in a molecule, is a

frequent cause of variationsin form. It is one of the merits of

the new doctrine of stereo-chemistry to have given the hint,

that molecules of compounds as well as of elementary bodies,

contain their atoms arranged in certain directions given by the

prevailing chemical attractions. In accordance with this view

every molecule may be represented by a certain stereometric

form, be it a tetrahedron, an octahedron, a cube, etc. The

attractions diverting accumulation of atoms in a molecule also

govern the attractions uniting the molecules to visible crystal-

line individuals. The effects of such attractions are even fre-

quently extended to the position of the crystals to each other.

Every snow flake represents a system of symmetrically ar-

ranged numerous hexagonal ice crystals, the hexagonal form

not only dominating in the single crystals, but being evidently

noticeable in the whole beautiful arrangement. Common

salt, when crystallizing from saturated solutions, is seen to

separate in amphitheatrical square combinations consisting of

single cubical salt particles. In the single crystals, as well as

in their congregations, we observed the square predominating

as the elementary form. :

Neither in the manifold features of animal and plant life,

nor in the crystalline formations of mineral matter, are exter-

nal influences deciding as to the forms to be adopted. Indi-

viduals of different natural character of different species, grow

up and become differently shaped, although exposed to the

same external conditions. A slight transforming influence of

temperature, light, food and contact cannot be denied, but the

588 The American Naturalist. [July,

preservation of existing types of species and genera in all three

natural worlds is the effect of unknown forces independently

acting in reproductive cells and organs, as well as in mineral

atoms and molecules. If we may expect ever to notice the

formation of a new species under our eyes, this event will not

depend upon external conditions, but upon a change in the

nature of protoplasma, or of the chemical structure of a min-

eral molecule. The author does not doubt that such changes

are continually going on in nature, but they are too slow and

subtile to be accessible to our observation. The chief part in

such changes will always be due to agents or forces peculiar to

the elementary organs and exerting impulses, by which per-

manent forms are resulting.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO COCCIDOLOGY.—II.

By T. D. A. COCKERELL, MeEsILLA, New Mexico.

_ No. I appeared in American Natura.ist, Aug., 1895, pp.

725-732.

(1). Icerya rileyi Ckll. In September, 1893, I bred a Letilia

from a larva living on J. rileyi on mesquite at Las

Cruces, N. M. The Rev. G. D. Hulst informed me that

it was “ different from coccidivora and from L. ephestiella, a

good variety at least.” It may, therefore, be as well to

put its characters on record :— .

Letilia coccidivora var. hulstii, n. var—Palpi ascend

ing; fore wings gray, brownish at extreme base and be-

yond the first band. The first band, at end of basal

third, double, consisting of a gray line bordered with-

out by a white band. A wavy band consisting of two

blackish lines not far from the exterior margin. Hind

wings shining white; abdomen above whitish, banded

with gray. It would seem to connect coccidwora with

ephestiella, and so, perhaps, all are varieties of one.

(2). Rhizococcus (?) devoniensis Green, Ent. Record, 1896, p. 260.

I should certainly prefer to call this Eriococcus devonien-

1897.] Contributions to Coecidology. 589

sis. We know already several species of Eriococcus with

7-jointed antenne ; the subgeneric name Thekes ae

ford ms., is available for them.

(8). Phenacoccus comari (Kunow). Coccus comari Kunow, Ent.

1880. Near Königsberg. See also Douglas,

Ent. Mo. Mag., xvii, p. 90. The description appears to

indicate a Phenacoccus, but it is very short.

(4). Dactylopius edgeworthix, n. sp—? about or hardly 2 mm.

long, pale gray, with light brown legs and antenne.

Form oval, back so thickly dusted with white meal as

to appear white with a grayish tint; no distinct lateral

or caudal appendages; extremely short, hardly notice-

able thick caudal tufts. The white secretion on the .

back forms three more or less distinct longitudinal rows

of small protuberances, giving the insect an obscurely

tricarinate appearance. Immature ¢ similar, but not

so mealy.

ọ boiled in KHO turns very dark lake-red, but does

not stain the liquid. Antenne 7-jointed, formula 7

(82) (41) 65. 3 is perhaps a little longer than 2; 7 is

considerably longer than 5+6 ; 5 is very little shorter

than 6; 4 is conspicuously shorter than 2 or 3. Legs

ordinary, femur quite stout, its upper edge convex ;

tibia a little shorter than femur, stout; tarsus a little

shorter than tibia. Claw moderate, with a minute den-

ticle on its inner side. Digitules of claw slender, some-

what curved, extending a little beyond tip of claw, with

fairly distinct knobs; no tarsal digitules. Anal ring

with the usual six bristles. Caudal tubercles very low,

ordinary, each with a large bristle, some short ones,

round glands and a pair of conical spines. The insect

throughout is very little hairy. The skin exhibits

numerous gland-dots.

3 sac ordinary; a 3 with wings expanded taken

from a sac. Length of body about 1% mm.; head to tip

of wing about 2mm. Wings white, the nervures very

distinct, costa not at all darkened. Antenne pale och-

reous, head pale olivaceous, prothorax dark slate gray,

The American Naturalist. [July,

mesothorax pale ochreous, strongly contrasting. Abdo-

men dark olivaceous, legs white, with a yellow tinge.

` The pale ochreous color of the middle of the thorax is

continued beneath, contrasting with the parts before

and behind; eyes red. ¢ hatching at the end of

March.

Hab.—Japan, on stems of Edgeworthia papyrifera ;

found by Mr. Alex. Craw in the course of his horticul-

tural quarantine work. While the antenne are but 7-

jointed, the legs are those of a Phenacoccus.

(5). Erium, Crawford, ms. This name will stand for the sub-

genus of Dactylopius without lateral cottony tufts, form-

ing complete separate cottony sacs. The type is D.

globosus Maskell. The species are found in America,

the Sandwich Islands, New Zealand, Australia and S$.

Africa.

(6). Asterolecanium bambuse var. bambusulæ, v. nov.— 9 scale

elongate-oval, 2 mm. long, 1 broad, dullish, not at all

keeled, barely narrower behind than in front, where it

is broadly rounded. Color very pale sulphur-yellow,

dark at one end from the body of the ọ showing through.

Fringe short, pinkish, the pairs of rods mostly diverg-

ing at tips. @ turns in orange in KHO. Part of mar-

gin with a single row of glands, in pairs, but not actu-

ally touching, all very close together ; and part with in

addition a row of very small single glands, about three

to each two pairs of the larger paired glands. Scattered

glands elsewhere, not numerous.

Hab.—On stems 13. mm. diam. of a small cultivated

bamboo. Botanic Gardens, Grenada, West Indies, col-

lected by Mr. W. E. Broadway, Nov. 16, 1895. One

specimen is attacked by a dark brown fungus.

(7). Pulvinaria simulans Ckll.—Monterey, Mexico (C. H. T.

Townsend). New to Mexico. Antenne 7-jointed.

(8). Lecanium ceratonize Gennadios, 1895.—Found in Cyprus.

The few words of denctijption indicate L. hesperidum, to

which this species must be referred, unless its author

can show some reason to the contrary.

1897.] Contributions to Coecidology. 591

(9). Lecanim flaveolum Ckll.—From the original type lot I

bred Coccophagus flavoscutellum, Ashm., identified for

me through Mr. Marlatt.

(10). Lecanium persice (Fab.)—Montrose, Colo., sent by Prof.

Gillette. New to Colorado. The material is poor, but

I think my identification is correct.

(11). Lecanium quadrifasciatum Ckll.--The newly hatched larva

is dark gray with a pale margin, and two longitudinal

dark, dull pink bands. The larger stigmatal spines

are quite large and stout, blunt, but not so long as the

third joint of antenna, and so nothing to compare with

those of mirabile. The species has never been found

except at the type locality in the Organ Mts., N. M.

(12). Physokermes insignicola (Craw).—Mr. Alex. Craw kindly

sent me ¢ scales of this. No @ scales came with

them, so the determination rests with Mr. Craw. The

males hatched at the end of March. Alive, they are

black, or so dark brown as to seem so. Legs and an-

tenne brown, rather pale, especially the antenne.

The two white caudal filaments very long, nearly

twice as long asbody. Wings broad, reddish-hyaline,

little colored, with a broad, very distinct pink subcos-

tal stripe. Other particulars concerning this male

have been given by Miss Tyrrell, and need not be re-

peated.

(18). Pseudoparlatoria parlatorioides (Comst.) and Aspidiotus

personatus Comst., were both found by Mr. Alex. Craw

on leaves of a cocoanut palm from Acapulco, Mexico.

Both are new to Mexico.

(14). Parlatoria thes var. euonymi Ckll., n. var.— 9 scale circu-

lar to oval, dark brown ; exuviæ greenish-black ; sec-

ond skin circular, with an extremely narrow but well

defined ochreous margin, hardly projecting beyond

scale ; first skin only slightly projecting beyond sec-

ond. Scales removed from twig leave an obscure

whitish mark. @? boiledin KHO turns green. Three

pairs of distinct pale brownish lobes. Lateral groups

of glands well apart, as in theæ. Plates between

592 The American Naturalist. [July,

median lobes as in viridis ; lobes and other plates as

in thee very nearly. The following table of the grouped

` ventral glands in Parlatoria may be useful :—

euonymi thee viridis calianthina pergandu

caudolaterals, 12-18 7 16-17 19 4-10

cephalolaterals, 21-23 20 9-16 16 4-10

median. none 1 41-4 4 none

In P. calianthina Berlese, the median lobes are only

notched without; in euvonymi they are very strongly

and about equally notched on each side, and pergandiu

has them nearly the same.

(15). Aspidiotus juglans-regix v. albus Ckll.—In fair quantity on

an osage orange bush (Maclura) in Mesilla, March, 1897.

Some showed parasite holes. The food plant is new.

(16). Chionaspis citri Comst.—On oranges from Samoa; found

by Mr. Craw. A new locality, until reported last year

by Mr. Craw. It was earlier known from Tonga.

(17). Chionaspis braziliensis Sign—On a fern (seems to be a

Polypodium) in a California green-house, largely para-

sitized ; mostly 3 scales. Sent by Mr. Craw. A new

locality. It is probable that brazilensis, aspidistre and

latus are varieties of one species. These, with C. minor,

form a distinct subgenus, in which the females resem-

ble Pinnaspis, while the ¢ scales are those of Chionas-

pis. It may be termed Hemichionaspis, with C. aspidis-

tre as the type.

THE SEVENTH SESSION OF THE INTERNATIONAL

GEOLOGICAL CONGRESS. ioe

(4TH CIRCULAR).

Russra, 1897.

As we have had the honor of announcing in our third circular

addressed to all the members of the Congress, the number o

participantsin the excursions of the Ural, of Esthonia, and of

the Volga has been necessarily limited. The committee of

organization has found itself obliged to adopt this measure as

1897.] International Geological Congress. 593

much in consequence of the inadequate number of hotels as

because of the necessity of having recourse to private houses

for lodgings, or having to offer nothing but the cars for pass-

ing the night. This applies especially to the Urals where

there will be great distances to be traversed in carriages in a

region little populated and where the mining establishments

have but few carriages to put at the disposition of excursion-

ists. The participants in the excursion to the Ural will do well

to take with them a pillow, a wrap (plaid), warm clothing,

good boots, and an impermeable overcoat.

Actually the number of geologists desirous of taking part in

these excursions considerably exceeds the number to which we

must limit ourselves. The committee of organization finds

itself in consequence, very much to its regret, in the sad

necessity of not being able to admit all the requests, and (in

the impossibility of satisfying every body) of giving preference

to the persons who were the first to present themselves in an-

swering the first circular of last year as well as the second.

The persons to whom participation in these excursions must

be refused are notified of the fact by a special letter.

In order to avoid that geologists who have inscribed them-

selves conditionally for this or that excursion and who wish to

abandon it, should deprive their fellow geologists of the pos-

sibility of taking part, the committee of organization begs them

to notify it definitely whether or not they maintain their wish

to participate in the excursions to be made before the Congress

(to the Ural or to Esthonia).

From the 15 (27th) to the 18th (30th) of July delegates of

the committee will be stationed at the Stations in Moscow of

the Moscow-Brest, and Nicholas railways, to direct geologists

coming from foreign countries to the place of meeting of the

excursionists going to the Ural.

In sending the ticket giving the right to transportation in

the first class on the Russian railways, the committee of organ-

ization permits itself to remind the geologists that the gratui-

tous tickets for the Russian railways will be good from the

10th (22d) of July to the 5th (17th) of October.

594 The American Naturalist. [July,

These tickets give the right to go from the frontier to the

starting places of the excursions (St. Petersburg, Moscow, etc.),

and to take part in all the parts of the proposed itinerary.

Similarly the tickets will be good for the return of the

excursionists to the frontier starting from any point where they

wish to leave the excursions of the Congress.

Conformably to the laws in force on the Russian railways

the holder of gratuitous tickets are required :

1. Not to transfer them to other persons.

2. To present the ticket on request of the conductor of the

train or of the management.

3. Each ticket gives the right to the gratuitous transporta-

tion of 1 pound (16 kilograms). `

The committee of organization begs each possessor of a ticket,

to sign it himself on the back near the bottom, at the line

marked by a red point.

Persons who do not make use of the railway ticket sent them,

are requested to return it to the committee by registered letter.

To the persons arriving by Finland, the tickets for trans-

portation on the Finnish railways will be delivered by Mr. I.

Sedorholm, Director of the Geological Survey of Finland, and

member of the Committee of organization.

In the name of the general committee of organization.

THE BUREAU.

A. Karpinsky, President.

Tu. TSCHERNISCHEW, General Secretary.

RECENT LITERATURE.

A Text-Book of Experimental Embryology.'—Professor Mor-

gan, of Bryn Mawr College, has made the first attempt to bring the

results of the labors of German and American experimental embryolo-

gists into such form as may serve as an introduction to this rapidly

growing branch of biology. The scattered and too often inaccessible

1 The Development of the Frog’s Egg. An Introduction to Experimental

Embryology, by Thomas Hunt Morgan. The MacMillan Co., New York, 1897,

pps. 186, 51 figs. in text. Price, $1.60.

1897.] Recent Literature. 595

notes and papers put forth by the enthusiasm of workers in this field

are here brought to the hands of the student in a form at once intelligi-

ble and available; grouped about a concrete case, the development of a

well known animal, the frog. But the book is less a compilation than

the entire statement of the author’s own researches on this subject com-

plimented and illuminated by facts taken from other authors, having

a direct bearing upon the frog’s development, though sometimes going

into wider fields for more definite illustration. It is an account of the

development of the frog as seen from the point of view of the experi-

mental embryologist, who desires to understand as well as to record his

facts, and seeks information by direct, more or less pertinent, questions

put to nature in the form of experiments. With the exception of cer-

tain treatises upon comparative embryology, we may regard this as the

first attempt at a truly scientific text-book of embryology—as some-

thing more than a history of developmental stages—and it is note-

worthy that America and not Germany has produced this as well as

the two other important biological text-books recently issued by the

same publishers.

_ The book will serve as a useful manual for advanced students and

welcome reading for the many biologists who have not the time for

direct study in this special field. How far it may lead to the gradual

substitution of the life history of the physiologist’s pet, the frog, in

place of the development of the ever accessible chick in elementary

biological instruction remains for time to show.

A brief summary of the leading chapters may convey some idea of

the ground covered and the treatment of the subject. The first deals

with the making of the egg and sperm, and is largely a compilation

with free use of phenomena better known in other animals. The sec-

ond describes the formation of the polar bodies and the process of fer-

tilization. The third briefly reviews experiments upon cross-fertiliza-

tion in frogs of different species. The fourth treats of cleavage and

shows the author’s special intimacy with this phase of the subject;

there is not only a detailed description with excellent original figures,

but also a most interesting comparison of the arrangements of cells in

the cleaving of frog’s eggs with possible combinations of oil drops as

arranged in Roux’s experiments. The author says: “ It seems highly

probable that surface tension is also an important factor in the seg-

menting egg, but other conditions present prevent its free play.”

The fifth and sixth take up in detail the formation of the blastopore

and the associated phenomena of conerescence and germ-layer forma-

tion; intricate problems clearly elucidated in the frog’s case by aid of

596 The American Naturalist. [July,

the author’s own research. Additional evidence is presented in the

next chapter which considers the abnormal embryos made in salt solu-

tions in the experiments of Hertwig and of Morgan.

Two chapters discuss the effects of gravitation acting upon cleaving

frog’s eggs; first in the series of experiments of Pflüger and then in

those of Born and of Roux. The tenth takes up the cleavage of eggs

under pressure and concludes that in early cleavage the nuclei are all

equivalent. The next throws additional light upon the nature of cleav-

age in presenting the work of Roux, Morgan and others, who have

reared larve from eggs in which one of the first two cells has been in-

jured. The intricacies of “ post generation ” are also set forth here.

The interpretations and conclusions of the twelfth chapter conclude

that part of the volume dealing with experimental work, save that a

short sixteenth chapter briefly gives the effect upon frog’s eggs of liem

and of temperature.

Two added chapters continue the account of the frog’s growth, and .

describe the formation of mesodermal and of entodermal organs, so that

the book may serve as a substitute for Marshall’s text-book, besides be-

ing an introduction to a new method of study.

In the twelfth chapter we find a very clear statement of Roux’s

mosaic theory and its modifications, a brief account of the conceptions

of Driesch and of Hertwig, and the remarkable facts observed upon the

Ctenophore egg. From experiments upon these eggs the author con-

cludes that “in the protoplasm and not in the nucleus lies the differ-

entiating power of the early stages of development.”

The Roux-Weismann hypothesis of qualitative nuclear division is

rejected as having “no known histological facts in its favor.”

To reconcile the prevailing conception of the power of the nucleus

with the idea that the differentiating power resides in the egg proto-

plasm outside the nucleus, the author suggests that the nucleus partici-

pates in determining form only so far as it controls the special charac-

ter of an organ, while the main determination as to what part shall be

one organ rather than another, is made by the non-nuclear part of the

egg or cell. “After cleavage, the cytoplasm of each part differentiates

into this or that organ, but the kind of differentiation of each part is

determined by the nucleus of that part.”

Touching the fundamental question as to the cause of differentiation

the author says: “ Driesch has pointed out that the egg seems to act

like an intelligent being.” If so, are the causes of differentiation and

of regeneration the same in kind as physico-chemical causes, or do they

belong to the category of intelligent acts, and can these latter be ac-

1897.] Recent Literature. 597

counted for by known principles of chemistry and physics? The plain

answer is, we do not know.—E. A. A.

Miocene Mollusca and Crustacea of New Jersey.’—This

important work is published in the Monograph (Vol. X XIV) Series of

the U. S. Geological Survey. Very little attention had been given to

the Miocene molluscan fauna of New Jersey when Mr. Whitfield began

a systematic study of it. A list published by Mr. F. B. Meek, a few

species described by different writers, and the work done by Prof. Heil-

prin summarizes all the knowledge concerning this fauna up to 1887.

The present work is based on the collections in the U. S. National

Museum and the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. One

hundred and four species are recognized and described, which, with the

four species given in Prof. Heilprin’s list and two species of Bryozoans

in Meek’s list would carry the number to one hundred and ten species.

The species described are distributed as follows: Brachiopoda 1,

Lamellibranchiata 61, Gasteropoda 39, Crustacea 1. All the species

are figured on 24 page-plates.

Sixteenth Annual Report U. S. Geological Survey, Parts

III and IV.'—This report forms the eleventh in the series Mineral

Resources of the United States. Part III treats of metallic products

containing the usual summary of recent developments in the knowledge

of the mineral deposits, the amount produced, its value, ete. in this coun-

try, etc. and also in other countries which trade with the United States.

Part IV embodies the latest information concerning the non-metallic

products. The illustrations consist of maps, diagrams and figures in

the text.

We are informed that the cost of printing and binding is no longer

charged for this book, and that by making prompt application to a

Senator or Representative the volume may be obtained, as the Congres-

sional distribution of the book will soon ensue.

Glaciers of North America.‘—In an octavo volume of some 210

pages Mr. Russell has condensed the existing knowledge of North

* Monographs of the U. S. Geological Survey. Vol. XXIV. Miocene Mol-

lusca and Crustacea of New Jersey. By R. P. Whitfield. Washington, 1894.

* Sixteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey. Part III,

Mineral Resources of the United States, 1894, Metallic Products. Part IV Non-

metallic Products. Washington, 1895.

t Glaciers of North America. By I. C. Russell. Boston and London, 1897.

Ginn and Co., Pub.

598 The American Naturalist. [July,

American glaciers, besides giving brief descriptions of glacial phenomena

in general. The closing chapter presents a view of the life history of an

alpine glacier, of which representatives occur in abundance and in great

variety in North America. The author instances the Seward glacier,

Alaska, as the largest of this type that has ever been discovered.

The Malaspina glacier, the great ice sheet which intervenes between

Mt. St. Elias and the Pacific, represents a second or Piedmont type, and

the still larger, or Continental glacier, is typified by a single example

in Greenland.

The work is abundantly illustrated by maps, page plate pictures re-

produced from photographs, and cuts in the text.

AMERICAN NATURALIST LIST OF RECENT BOOKS

AND PAMPHLETS.

ALLEN, J. A.—Descriptions of New North American Mammals.

some Mammals from the Santa Cruz Mountains, California.

——List of Mammals collected by Mr. W. W. Granger in New Mexico, Utah,

Wyoming and Nebraska, 1895-96, with Field Notes by the Collector. Extrs.

Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1896. From the author.

BALINnoKAND.—The Priceless Gem. Sahore, 1896. From the author.

Banos, O.—An Important Addition to the Fauna of Massachusetts. Extr.

Proceeds. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 27,1896. From the author.

M.—Beitriige zur Kenntnis der Anatomie und Physiologie der Athem-

werkzenge bei den Vögeln. Aus Tübinger Zool. Arbt., 1896. From the

author.

BATCHELDER, C. F,—Some Facts in Regard to the Distribution of Certain

Mammals in New England and Northern New York. Extr. Proceeds. Boston

Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 27, 1896.

——An Undescribed Shrew of the Genus Sorex. Proceeds. Biol. Soc. Wash-

ington, Vol. X, 1896. From the author.

Brewer, Wm. M.—A Preliminary Report on the Mineral Resources of the

Upper Gold Belt. Bull. No. 5, 1896, Geol. Sury. Alabama. From the Survey.

Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs, Vierter Bd. Vermes. Leip-

zig, 1896 u 1897. Sechster Bd, Mammalia. Leipzig, 1897.

CARLISLE, J. G.—Letter transmitting, in response to the House Resolution of

the 22d instant, a copy of the Report of Henry W. Elliott on the Condition of

the Fur Seal Fisheries of Alaska. Washington, 1896.

Cassino, S. E.—The International Scientists’ Directory. Boston, 1896. From

the author.

1897.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 599

CATTANEO, G.—Le Gobbe e le Callosita dei Cammelli in rapporta all questione

dell’erenitarieta dei caratteri acquisiti. Estr. Rendicanti R. 1st Lomb. di se. et

- lett. Ser. II, XXIX, 1896. From the author

CHUDZINSKI, TH.—Quelques observations sur les Muscles Peauciers du Crane

et de la Face dans les Races humaines. Paris, 1896. From the author.

CornisH, C. J.—Animals at Work and at Play. New York, 1896. From

John Wanamaker.

Ditmars, R. L.—The Snakes found within fifty miles of New York City.

Abstr. Proceeds. Linn. Soc. New York, 1896. From the author

DuMERIL, A. ET F. B court.—-Etudes sur les Reptiles et les Batraciens, Pt.

III. Miss, Sci. au Mexico et dans l’Amerique Centrale, 1895. From the

Brin H. G.--On the Larve of the Higher ae (Agrotides grote).

Extr. Proceeds. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist From the Soc

FLETCHER, A. C.—Address before the Section of seg ead Amer. Assoc.

Adv. Sci., 1896. Extr. Proceeds. A. A. A. S., 1896. From the author

GILL, TH.—On the Nomenclature of Rachicentron or Elacate, a Genus of

Acanthoplerygian Fishes. (No reference given.

GREEN, I, M.—The Peritoneal Pere of some Ithaca Amphibia. Extr.

Trans. Nineteenth Ann. Meet. Amer. Micros. Soc., 1896.

HAECKEL, E.—Systematische Phosas der Wirbellosen Thiere (Inverte-

brata ) PARER Theil. Berlin, 1896. From the author

Hatch Experiment Station, Mask Agri. College Bulletins No. 41, 1896. From

the Station

Hesse R. —Die Organe der secre eeane dei den Lumbriciden. Extr.

Tübinger Zool. Arbeit., II, Bd. No.

Howe, L.--Art and Eyesight. Pas fe: Pop. Sci. Monthly, Aug.,

1895. From the author.

ILes, G.—The Appraisal of Literature. Address before the Amer. Library

Assoc., 1896. From the author

Ketiocc, V. L --New Mallophaga from Land Birds, together with an Ac-

count of the Mallophagous Mouth parts. Contrib. to Biol. from the Hopkins

Seaside Laboratory, VII. Palo Alto, 1896. From the author

Keyes, C. R.—Review of Zittel’s Text Book of AR DEEN Val.d, Pt. 1;

Extr. Journ. Geol., Nov., 1896. From the author.

AZENBY, W. 4 Addie before Section I, Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1896.

Extr. Proceeds. A. A. A. S., 1896. From the author.

Lintner, J. A.—-Report of the State Entomologist for the year 1893. Albany,

1894. From the author.

Marvin, F. 0.—Address before Section D, An: Asso. Ady. Sci., 1896.

Extr. Proceeds. A. A. A.S , 1896. From the aut

MILEs, M.~—Relative Efficiency of Animals as Mackie Extr. Amer. Nat.,

1896. From the author.

MLLER, G. I., JR.—The Beach Mouse of Muskeget Island. Extr. Proceeds.

Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 27, 1896. From the author.

Miter, S. A. AND Wm. F. E. GURLEY.—New S Species of Crinoids from Illinois

and other States. Bull. No. 9, Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist., 1896.

600 The American Naturalist. [July,

MITSUKURI, K.—On the Fate of the Blastopore, the Relations of the Primitive

Streak, and the Formation of the Posterior end of the Embryo in Chelonia,

together with Remarks on the Nature of Meroblastic Ova in Vertebrates.

eel ee Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ., Toky6, Vol. X, Pt. I, 1896. From the

pone E. W.—Addresss before the Amer. Asso. Adv. of Sci., 1896. Extr.

Proceeds. Amer. Assoc. Ady. Sci., 1896. From the author.

Newe 1, F. H.—Report of Progress of the Division of Hydrography for the

Calendar Years 1893 and 1894. Bull. No. 131, U. S. Geol. Surv., Washington,

1895. From the Survey.

Peracca, M. G.—Rettili ed Anfibi raccolti à Kanzungula a sulla strada da

Kazungula à Buluwaio, dal Rev. Luigi Jalla Missionario Valdese nell’alto Zam-

bese. Extr. Boll. Mus. di Zool. ed Anat. Comp. R. Univ., Torino, Vol, XI,

1896. From the author.

PuiLLirs, W. B.--Iron Making in Alabama, Bulletin Alabama Geol. Surv.,

1896. From the Survey.

SmitH, H. I.—Certain Shamanistic Ceremonies among the Ojibwas. Extr.

Amer. Antiq., Sept., 1896.

TRELEASE, WM.—Botanical Opportunity, Address before the Bot. Soc. Amer.,

1896. Extr. Bot. Gaz., Vol. XXII, 1896.

Washington Philosophical Society Bulletin, Vol. XII, 1892-94. Washington,

1895. From the Society.

WERNER, F.—Beiträge zur Kenntniss der om wa Batrachier yon Cen-

tralamerika und Chile, sowie einiger seltenerer Aus Verhandl. k.

k. zool.-bot. Gesell. Wien, 1896. From the author

Wicxson, E. J.--Dair pile in pores Bull. N o. 14, 1896, U. S. Dept.

Agric. Bur. An. Indus. From the

Woopwarp, A. S.—Note on a Metast Tooth of Galeocerdo from the Eng-

lish Chalk.

——On the Deep-bodied Species of the Clupeoid Genus Diplomystus.

——On the Devonian Ichthyodornlite, Byssacanthus. Extrs. Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist. (6), XV, 1895

——0On some Remains of the Pycnodont Fish, Mesturus, discovered by A. N.

Leeds, Esq., in the Oxford Clay of Peterborough. Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.

(6), XVII, 1896. From the author.

1897.] Mineralogy and Crystallography. 601

General Notes,

MINERALOGY AND CRYSTALLOGRAPHY?

Lewisite and Zirkelite.—Hussak and Prior’ have given these

names to two new Brazilian minerals. The lewisite, named in honor

of Prof. W. J. Lewis, of Cambridge, Eng., was obtained from the

cinnabar mine of Tripuhy in the gravel occurring on a hill-slope near

Ouro Preto, Minas Geraes, Brazil. Xenotime, cinnabar, monazite,

zircon, kyanite, tourmaline, rutile, hematite, pyrite, magnetite, gold,

lewisite and a new titano-antimonate of iron, not yet obtained in quan-

tity sufficient for accurate determination, constitute the heavy sand ob-

tained by washing the gravel with a “ batea.” Lewisite occurs in per-

fect honey-yellow to brown octahedra, seldom exceeding 1 mm. in

diameter. Twinning on the plane 111 is rare. Translucent, isotropic,

streak light yellow-brown, cleavage octahedral, hardness 5.5, lustre

vitreous to resinous, specific gravity 4.95. A pulverulent sulphur-

yellow decomposition product was sometimes observed on the surface

and in cavities inside the crystals. The results of an analysis and the

theoretical composition of 5 CaO, 3 Sb,O,, 2 TiO, are given as follows:

Sb,0, 67.52 68.42

iO, 11.3 11.70

CaO 15.93 19.88

FeO 4.55

MnO 38

Na,O 99

100.72 100.00

The lewisite is thus most closely related to Mauzeliite, an isometric

inineral described by Sjögren (Geol. Féren. Férhand. Stockholm,

XVII, pp. 313-318, 1895). Mauzeliite is brown, with Sp. G. 5.11, and

gave, on analysis, Sb,O, 59.25, TiO, 7.93, PbO 6.79, FeO .79, MnO

1.27, CaO 17.97, MgO .11, K,O .22, Na,O .27, H,O .87 and F 3.63 (by

difference ?). The Swedish ainal contains much more lead and

fluorine and less iron than that from Brazil.

The name zirkelite is given to a black, isometric, nearly opaque

titano-zirconate of calcium and iron which occurs in the form of octa-

! Edited by Prof. A. C. Gill, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

*Min. Mag., Vol. XI, Sept., 1895, pp. 80-88.

602 The American Naturalist. (July,

hedra with baddeleyite, perofskite, ete., in the decomposed magnetite-

pyroxenite of Jacupiranga, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Its density is 4.706, its

hardness 5.5, and an analysis gave ZrO,+-TiO, 79.79 (48.90+-30.89?),

FeO 6.64, CaO 11.61, MgO .49, loss on ignition 1.02, total 99.55.

Note of this mineral without proposal of a name was earlier made by

Hussak in Tschermak’s Min. Pet. Mitth., XIV, pp. 408-410.

Epidote and Zoisite.—In connection with a somewhat detailed

study of four alpine occurrences of epidote and zoisite, Weinschenk*

proposes the name celinozoisite for those monoclinic members of the

zoisite-epidote group which approach zoisite in chemical composition,

are optically positive, and have a less index of refraction and a less

double refraction than ordinary epidote. A beautifnl new occurrence

of clinozoisite at the Goslerwand in the Tyrol furnishes crystals of a

delicate rose-red color. Their crystal form coincides with that of epi-

dote. An analysis gave :—

SiO, 39.06

Al,O, 32.67

Fe,O, 1.68

FeO 29

MnO trace

CaO 24.53

H,O 2.01

100.14

The indices of refraction are œ—1.7176, 2-==1.7195, and y=1.7232.

Hence the double refraction y—œ=.0056, which is the lowest value

ever recorded for a monoclinic epidote. The optical angle is:—

2V u = 80° 50’, 2Vx, = 81° 40, and 2Vn = about 83°. Sp. G. 3.372.

The Monoclinic Pyroxenes of New York State.—These,

with the exception of wollastonite, are quite fully discussed by Ries,‘

who gives also an extended bibliography of the subject. The alumin-

ous augites of New York show more frequently an exception than an

agreement with Tschermak’s suggestion that Ca is less than Mg+Fe-

Most of the large mineral collections which were likely to contain much

material from New York were consulted in the course of these studies,

so that the list of localities is doubtless very complete.

3 Zeitsch. f. Kryst., XXVI, pp. 156-177, 1896.

* Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., IX, pp. 124-178, June, 1896.

1897.] Mineralogy and Crystallography. 603

On the Zonal Structure of Crystals.—Pelikan® discusses the

peculiarities of augite, barite, cassiterite, calcite, tourmaline and fluor-

ite as regards their growth in zones. Of these, the first two are espe-

cially interesting. The literature on the hour-glass and zonal structure

of augite is reviewed, after which are given the results of work on the

well-known “hourglass” augites of Nordmark. This structure has

been shown to be due to the varying conditions of deposition on the

various faces of a growing crystal. That portion of the augite sub-

stance which was deposited on the orthopinacoid is found to be darker

in color and to have a larger angle between ¢ and c than the material

which grew on the base or orthodome. In the darker portions this

angle is greater for violet than for red rays, while in the lighter parts

the reverse is true. Etched figures show a hemihedral symmetry for

some pyroxenes, thus confirming observations that have been made, in

rare cases, on the crystal form. In barite the crystal faces show a

selective force, so that hematite and cinnabar, for instance, are found

chiefly on the macrodome (101). So far as known, there are always

other than isomorphous molecules present in those cases where differ-

ent substances are deposited on different face.

After classifying the various causes of zonal distribution of color in

crystals, the conclusion is drawn that hourglass structure is never

caused by an intermixture of isomorphous substance, but by the pres-

ence of some differently crystallizing er matter, or by a “ dilute

color.”

Miscellaneous Notes.—With the close of the year 1896, came

the last brochures of the second volume of Hinze’s Handbuch der

Mineralogie, already referred to in the NaturA.ist, Vol. XXV, 1891,

p. 577. This second volume (the first has not yet been published)

treats only the silicates, devoting more than 1800 pages to the discus-

sion of these minerals alone. It is by far the most complete, as well as

the most recent, work of its kind. The appearance of the first volume

will be looked for with much anticipation by mineralogists. It is pub-

lished by Veit & Co., Leipzig.

A. P. Brown’ finds, on some unprecedentedly fine molybdenite

crystals from Frankford, Pa., the axial ratio a: c—=1:1.908. The faces

observed are: ¢ (0001, °P), o (1011, P), p (2021, 2P), q (3081, 3P),

and m (1010, œ P). The angle c: p=77° 13’. The pyramid p (2021)

* Tschermak’s Min. Pet. Mitth., XVI, pp. 1-64, 1896.

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1896, pp. 210-211.

604 The American Naturalist. [July,

is more common than the unit pyramid. The etched figures on the

base indicate hexagonal, or possibly rhombohedral symmetry.

In agreement with the observations of de Bournon, Bauer and others,

Judd’ considers the structural planes of corundum to be not true cleay-

ages, but simply planes of parting. Those parallel to OR (0001) and

æ P2 (1120) are thought to be normal solution planes, while the set

parallel to R (1011) are explained as gliding planes which, after the

gliding under pressure, have become secondary solution planes. Ob-

servations on the shape and crystallographic position of the solution

cavities are recorded. These are either empty or filled with the pro-

ducts of alteration.

epre gives a full list of the literature of enargite, as well as of its

es of occurrence. He cites for the first time the ten new planes,

(610), (520), (540), (230), (108), (207), (709), (301), (601) and (054).

Of these (610) and (601) are noted as doubtful. The mineral clarite

(Sandberger, N. J. B., 1874, p. 960 and 1875, p. 382) is considered to

be identical with enargite.

The relationships of the members of the humite series are reviewed

by Lewis,’ who brings the orthorhombic pyroxenes, as well as olivine,

into the discussion. Besides the well-known progression in the axial

ratios, the remarkable fact is noted that the twin face in all these min-

erals is parallel to the b axis, and in all except clinohumite it makes

an angle of about 30° with the base (001). In clinohumite it has a

position about at right angles to that in the other minerals. Another

common feature is the great predominance of forms lying in the zones

010, 110 and 210. The minerals are similar in density, hardness and

fusibility. The moleculare volumes are :—

Enstatite, $2.8.== $x 21.9

Olivine, fo oe Oe Oe

Chondrodite, 105.6 = 5x 21.1

Humite, lo = 7 x 21.4

Clinohumite, 182.1 — 9x 202

(Note—The molecular volume of clinohumite is probably too low,

as given here. From the first three minerals one might compute the

volumes of MgO (11.2), SiO, (21.6), and Mg,O (OH, F), (28.8). This

would give for humite the molecular yolume 149.6, and for clinohu-

mite, 193.6.)

1 Min. Mag., Vol. XI, Sept., 1895, pp. 49-55.

8 Min. Mag., Vol. XI, Sept., 1895, pp. 69-79.

* Min. Mag., XI, Oct., 1896, pp. 137-140.

1897,] Petrography. 605

PETROGRAPHY

Ancient Volcanic Rocks in Pennsylvania.—Reference has

already’ been made in these notes to the discovery of ancient acid and

basic volcanic lavas and tuffs at South Mountain, Pa. Miss Bascom!

has recently given an exhaustive account of all the types of these rocks,

which account is beautifully illustrated by reproductions of micro-

photographs and of colored drawings, and by a large scale geological

map. The volcanic lavas are partly devitrified rhyolites and partly

altered basalts. A brief notice of the former was given several years

ago.‘ The present report adds much of detailed information concern-

ing them to that already imparted, but nothing of general interest.

These lavas are pre-Cambrian, and are probably older than the basic

rocks with which they are associated in the Monterey district. The

basic lavas were originally diabases, augite-porphyrites and mela-

phyres. They have suffered extreme alteration in consequence of

weathering and also as a result of squeezing. Nearly all the rocks are

schistose, the most highly schistose ones being now practically slates.

Rocks Associated with the Magnetites near Port Henry,

N. Y.—The rocks associated with the non-titaniferous magnetites at

Mineville and near Port Henry, N. Y., are described by Kemp’ as

gneisses and gabbro. Four varieties of the gneiss are distinguished, of

which three are acid and one basic. One of the acid gneisses consists

of quartz and plagioclase exclusively. Another is composed of these

minerals and a large proportion of micro-perthite, and the third of

brown hornblende, green augite and rarely hypesthene, in addition to

the feldspars and quartz. The basic gneiss is a schistose gabbro. It

grades into the massive gabbro. In some phases hornblende and much

garnet are present. All the gneisses, as well as the gabbro, are thought

to be igneous in origin and to be pre-Cambrian in age. The ore de-

posits are on the contact of the acid and the basic rocks. While their

method of origin is not certainly known, it is believed by the author

that the ores may be contact products resulting from the action of the

intrusive gabbro upon the gneisses intruded by it.

! Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby Wri Waterville, Me.

? American Naturalist, 1894, pp. 515, 517 and 9

* Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, ie 136, gor eg 1896.

‘American Naturalist, p. 515.

* Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., 1897.

606 The American Naturalist. [July,

The Basalts of Kloch in Steiermark.—The main portions of

the Kléch Mountain mass are basalts and their tuffs. Sigmund’ de-

scribes these and the other rocks in their vicinity as nepheline basan-

ites, palagonite tuffs, nephelinites and nepheline basalts.

All the augites in the basanites have the “ hourglass form,” and all

the feldspars are bytomites. The augites are also zonal with a color-

less nucleus and a violet-gray peripheral portion. The extinction of

the nucleus is higher than that of the surrounding portion, and the ex-

tinction in the pyramidal zone of growth (Anwachs-Kegel) greater

than that in the prismatic zone. The nephelinite of the Hochstraden

contains two augites. The larger consists of colorless nuclei and green-

ish-yellow peripheral zones, while the smaller ones are composed entirely

of the greenish-yellow material. Hauyn is an essential component of

the groundmass. In some specimens it occurs in as large quantity as

the nepheline. An analysis of this rock gave:

SiO Tio. AlO3; FeO; MnO MgO CaO NaO KO POs SOs Cl. Loss Total

16.50 10.62 3.29 12.63 5.95 2.36 .89 64 .36 2.63 = 99.62

The basalt of Kléch and the nephelinite of the Hochstraden are

thought to have been produced by the differentiation of one magma.

The Volcanic Rocks near Bensen, Bohemia.—Hibsch,’ in

his description of the Bensen sheet of the Bohemian Mittelgebirge,

gives brief accounts of the basalts, augitites, tephrites, basanites, phono-

lites and trachytes occurring as lavas and tuffs, and of the camptonitic,

trachyte-andesitic and tinguaitie dykes so common in the district. The

basalts, which are the oldest lavas, form stocks, sheets and dykes; the

tephrites, which are the next older, occur in sheets and as tuffs, and

the phonolites and trachytes as bosses. The tinguaite dykes are con-

nected with the phonolitic intrusion at Miihlérzen, but the others are

more closely connected with the volcanic center at Rongstock. All the

eruptives are Tertiary or younger. The most interesting of these

rocks is in the trachyte-andesite dyke. The author describes it under

the name of gauteite, and regards it as the complementary form to the

monchiquites. It is a rock of a light color and trachytic habit. In

composition it differs from bostonite-porphyry in the possession of

phenocrysts of plagioclase. It consists of large porphyritic crystals of

hornblende, augite, plagioclase and occasionally biotite in a ground-

mass composed of the same dark minerals, sanidine and andesine,

cemented by glass. An analysis yielded:

ê Min. u. Petrog. Mittheilungen, XV, p. 361 and XVI, p. 337.

*Ib., B, AVEL, p. 1

1897.] Petrography. 607

SiO TiO POs; AlO; FeO, Feo CaO MgO K,0 Na: H,O l

54.15 tr 18.25 3.62 2.09 4.89 2.56 6.56 4.43 3.69 = 100.65 Density = 2.632

The basalts include feldspathic, nephelinic and magma basalts,

analysis of the first two of which are here given :

SiO, TiO, POs AlO; FeO; FeO CaO MgO KO NaO H,O CO: Total

42.75 2.13 tr. 17.24 810 588 1114 617 248 4.21 = 101.16

39.33 1.01 .93 15.26 636 5.99 1452 9.78 1.53 3.47 2.54 0.12 — 100.84

The tephrites are phonolitic and basaltic hauyne-tephrites, sodalite-

tephrites, nepheline-tephrites. and leucite-tephrites. The phonolite

contains great quantities of anorthoclase in large crystals. Some

phases of the rock are noticeable for their phenocrysts of sodalite and

others for their phenocrysts of nepheline. The other rocks possess no

special features.

The Law Governing the Production of Zonal Crystals. —

The law governing the occurrence of zonally developed crystals is as

follows, according to Becke*: In the zonally developed isomorphous

mixed crystals of igneous rocks the more difficultly fusible components

constitute the nuclei, and the more easily fusible ones the peripheral

zones of the crystals.

Petrographical Notes.—Diller’ has discovered a boulder of horn-

blende-basalt in Kosk Creek at the great bend of Pitt River in Shasta

Co., Cal. It is interesting not so much because of its features, but be-

cause of the rarity of the type in the district. An analysis yielded :

SiO, TiO, AlO, FeO; FeO MnO CaO MgO KO NaO H,O P,O; Total

44.77 53 17.82 505 6.95 tr. 10.36' 8.2292 2.18 264 :72 — 100.11

The Seychelles Islands in the Indian Ocean are described by Bauer’?

as being composed principally of hornblende, granite and of syenite cut

by dykes and covered in places by sheets of granite-porphyry, felsite-

porphyry; syenite-porphyry, hornblende-vogesite, diorite, quartz-diorite,

diabase, melaphyre and dolerite. The sedimentary rocks on the island

are in very small quantity. They consist mainly of andalusite-horn-

fels and other contact rocks.

ê Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., Vol. XVII, 1897, p. 97.

° Amer. Geologist, Vol. XIX, 1897, p. 253.

1 Sitzb. Ges. z Beford gesammnt. Naturw. zu Marburg, Feb., 1897.

608 The American Naturalist. [July,

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Geology of Alaska.—In a report on the Coal and Lignite of

Alaska Dr. Dall publishes some general notes on the Cenozoic geology

of the Territory. In general, the sequence of rocks along the south-

eastern coast where undisturbed is about as follows, in descending

order : ;

“1. Soil and Pleistocene beds.”

“2. Brown Miocene sandstones, with marine shells, cetacean bones,

and water-worn, teredo-bored fossil wood (Astoria group, Nulato sand-

stones, Crepidula bed).”

“3. Beds of conglomerate, brown and iron-stained, alternating with

gravelly and sandy layers, the finer beds containing fossil leaves of

Sequoia and other vegetable remains. (Kenai group, Nuga beds).”

“4, Bluish sandy slates and shales, with rich plant flora, interstrat-

ified with beds of indurated gravel, fossil wood, and lignitic coal (Kenai

group).” :

“5. Metamorphic quartzites and slaty rocks, with perhaps part of the

lower Eocene (Tejon).”

“6. Granite and syenite in massive beds, usually without mica and

apparently in most instances forming the “ back bone” of the mountain

ridges or islands, but occasionally occurring as instrusive masses, which

have thrust up the metamorphic rocks above them into arches, crack-

ing them, and filling the fissures. with the syenitic material. (“ Suma-

gin granite).”

The author correlates the Kenai group with the Oligocene of Euro-

pean geologists. The beds overlying the Kenai conglomerates and leaf

beds are undoubtedly Miocene. Mr. Dall concludes from a comparison

of their fauna with modern forms that in Miocene times the waters of

this region were warmer than at present. —

The Pleistocene epoch is marked in Alaska, as in California, by —

great changes of level, and by volcanic activity. To this period is

assigned the ground ice formation which has been recognized in many

places in the northern part of Alaska. This consists of solid beds of

ice of considerable thickness, functioning as rock strata, which are

covered by beds of blue clay containing remains of Pleistocene mam-

mals, or by beds of alluvium which sustain a layer of turf, with ordi-

nary profuse herbage of the region, or even small thickets of birch,

alder, and other small Arctic trees.

1897.] Geology and Paleontology. 609

The paleontology of the Territory is made the subject of special

papers by Knowlton, Schuchert, and Hyatt which appear as appendices

to Dr. Dall’s report. The fossil flora embraces 115 forms, the most of

which appear to be of Eocene or Oliogocene age. Mr. Knowlton con-

cludes from a comparison of the Alaskan fossil flora with that of Green-

land Spitzbergen and the island of Sakhalin that they are all so closely

related that they probably grew under similar conditions and were

synchronously deposited.

Faunal collections from Alaska are meager. As yet a few forms

only, representing Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Mesozoic

beds, are known. According to Hyatt, the existence of the Cretaceous

has not yet been demonstrated in Alaska, unless the Ancellæ described

by Eichwald are Cretacic species. (Seventeenth Ann. Rept. U. S.

Geol. Survey Pt. I, Washington, 1896.)

Phylogeny of Demonelix.—The strange fossil, popularly known

as Devil’s Corkscrew, has been of interest since its first discovery in

1891. During a recent expedition to the Loup Fork Tertiary Mr. E.

H. Barbour made a study of these fossils in situ where a succession of

them were exposed in a canyon. In passing from the lower beds to the

higher forms varying from simplicity and uniformity to those of ever-

increasing diversity and complexity are found, the climax being reached

in the topmost beds. The simplest form of the Demonelix series is a

hollow tubule or fiber, and the author’s belief is that it is according to

th t tion of these fibers that tl Itifarious forms

result.

The second form, for lack of a better name, is termed “ Dsemonelix

Cakes.” They are commonly circular in form, 5 to 10 centimeters

across, and form 4 to 2 centimeters thick. They lie in horizontal planes

through a vertical range of some six to eight meters. Overlying these

were “balls,” very similar to the preceding forms, but smaller in cir-

cumference and of greater complexity structurally.

The third form resembles cigars or fingers. In outward appearance

they have acquired a pronounced vertical habit and a noticeable tend-

ency to a spiral form. They are about the size of an ordinary cane.

These are succeeded by an irregular spiral form, found through a ver-

tical range of six to eight meters in the middle beds. This form, as

well as the preceding, ends in blunt rounded terminations sealed or

capped with fibers, leaving neither exit or entrance for supposed

occupants of so-called burrows. Lastly we have the “ Deemonelix reg-

ular.” A sheer wall exposes to view a section 40 to 45 meters from

610 The American Naturalist. [July,

bottom to top, with innumerable twisters at every level. Those at the

bottom are constructed upon smaller and more uniform lines and stand

in bold contrast to the large and diversified forms at the top.

Microscopic sections from all the five forms to the number of 120

demonstrate the fact that there is an apparent similarity of tissue in all

and that it is cellular, but not vascular. Mr. Barbour’s conclusions

relate only to the first three forms and the surface structure of the

great cork screws. The central spiral tube is under consideration. He

suggests that it may represent the root of some higher plant about

which the original Deemonelix fibers grew. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.,

Vol. 8, 1897.)

The Nature, Structure and Phylogeny of Dzemonelix.’—

Prof. Barbour brings forth in this, his latest paper on the peculiar

fossil popularly known in the region where it is found as the “ Devil's

corkscrew,” additional evidence to support his already well supported

conclusion that the fossil is that of an aquatic plant. The figures that

he gives of sections showing plant parenchymatous cells in cross and in

longitudinal section are much superior to any that he has previously

published. The evidence that they form, together with the evidence of

slides sent the writer, is conclusive. The fossil was a plant and is not

the mould of the roots of some plant

But in this and in a preceding paper’ Prof. Barbour goes further than

previously and cautiously claims to be able to make out the phylogeny

of the fossil. At the bottom of the beds in which Dzemonelix occurs

there are to be found irregular filamentous remains; above these, cake-

like masses; above these, large irregular root-like forms that gradually

metamorphose into regular screw-like forms. All present the same

parenchymatous cellular structure when viewed in carefully made sec-

tions beneath the microscope. The author’s idea is a bright, and it may

added, a daring one—daring in view of the tremendous change

that is claimed to have taken place within the brief interval of geolog-

ical time represented by the 250 to 300 feet of sediment forming the

fossil bed. According to ideas more or less generally accepted, if the

writer mistakes not, the waters of the great pliocene lake in which these

fossils flourished are suppused to have been comparatively heavily laden

with sediment, and as the structure of the beds shows, that it

i E. H. Barbour, Bul. Geol. Soc. Amer., VIII, 305-14. Reprint from the

author.

? History of the Discovery and Report of Progress in the study of Deemonelix.

University Studies, Lincoln, Nebraska, Jan., 1887., IJ, 81-125.

1897.] Geology and Paleontology. 611

was deposited rapidly, The change from the filamentous fossils to the

well formed Deemonelix is as great, or greater perhaps, than the differ-

ence between a simple infusorian and a sponge, or as that between a

simple Spirogyra and a Fucus. No where in the animal kingdom and

nowhere else in the vegetable kingdom is there to be found paleontolog-

ical evidence of so rapid a change.

Yet it must be admitted that, although the rapid change required

weighs heavily against Barbour’s suggestion, it does not form a con-

clusive argument. Both animals and plants are known to yield readily

to surrounding physical conditions, and great and anomalous changes

are known to occur at a single leap as it were in many of the cases that

fall under what we commonly call monstrosities. Granting that the

change indicated by the series that the author thinks he has demon-

strated is a possible one, there remains the greater and more important

task of showing the existence at the time that these fossils plants were

growing of causes adequate to produce it. This done the author’s hy-

pothesis will be practically unassailable.

In as much as the plants were aquatic one would not, judging from

the analogy of aquatic organisms in other instances, expect so rapid a

change as in the case of land plants. Climatic conditions could doubt-

less have had but little influence. One is, therefore, left to inquire

what changes may have occurred in the character and the quantity of the

salts that the water of the lake held in solution, or of the sediment that

it carried. As the writer remembers the fossil beds in question there

is no very apparent evidence of a change in the character of the sedi-

ment. The beds are not laminated. The structure from bottom to top

is throughout remarkably and uniformly of the same peculiar mixture

of fine, indurated, calcareous sand. And it seems, therefore, that, if any

cause is to be found, it must be looked for in the character or amount

of the salts tlat were poured into and remained in the lake. As yet

no one has shown that the silicious material of which the fossils are

composed is more abundant at one level in the beds than at another,

and the same may be said of the magnesium, potassium and other salts.

Evidently there is much work yet to be donein solving this Dæmon-

elix riddle notwithstanding the great amount of labor that Prof. Bar-

bour has already expended upon it, and it is to be hoped that he will

find the necessary time and t for continuing his work both

in the field and in the laboratory. “Besides an answer to the questions

implied in the foregoing remarks there are needed answers to other

questions regarding the structure of the fossil.—F. C. Kenyon.

612 The American Naturalist. [July,

: Origin of the Edentates.—Dr. Wortman has come into posses-

sion of material which, in his judgment demonstrates the genetic rela-

tionship of the Ganodonta to the later appearing American Edentata.

In considering the Ganodonta the author points out the features which

characterize the genera composing the family and which become more -

and more marked as the respective phyla advance into later time.

These features relate to the loss of the incisors, the weak development

and loss of the enamel, and the development of hypsodonty with its de-

pendent modification growth from a persistent pulp. Of one phylum,

viz. the Stylinodontid, Dr. Wortman has remarkably complete record,

beginning in the generalized type Hemiganus of Lower Puerco, and

continued into the Bridger, terminating in Stylinodon. In a compari-

son of this group with the Ground Sloths (Gravigrada) the author

enumerates 17 points of resemblance which he considers sufficient evi-

dence to demonstrate that the one has descended from the other. The

next inference then is that all the South American Edentates must

have been derived from the North American Ganodonta, since

their earliest appearance in South America does not antedate the Santa

Cruzepoch. But this necessitates a land bridge between North and

South America during Eocene times, which is contrary to the accepted

belief among geologists, In closing Mr. Wortman defines the order

Edentata and its three suborders, Ganodonta, Xenarthra and Nomar-

thra with their families, and distinguishes the genera of the Ganodonta.

(Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. IX, 1897.)

Gypsum Deposits of Kansas.—The following information con-

cerning the gypsum beds of Kansas was obtained by Mr. G. P. Grims-

ley during a field investigation of the region in which they occur:

“The gypsum beds of economic importance in Kansas are all Perm-

ian in age, ranging from middle Permian or Neosho to the close. They

cover a belt approximately 200 miles long, 10 miles in width at the

north, 20 miles in central Kansas, and 60 miles in the southern part of

the state. The deposit is 8 feet thick in northern Kansas, 14 feet in

the central area, 25 feet in the southern area, and even thicker further

south. `The northern and central rock gypsum was deposited in the

same gulf cut off from the western Permian sea, while the gypseous dirt

deposits are secondary and of recent age. The southern deposit was

formed in a shallow bay cut off from the Permian sea, not far from the

close of Permian time. Salt appears to have been deposited in these

bays, but now it is only found farther out in the old gulf.” (Bull.

Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 8, 1897.)

1897.] Geology and Paleontology. 613

Geology of the Funafuti Coral Reef.—The following summary

is given by Mr. Hedley of the geological results of his observations

while attached to the Funafuti Coral Reef Boring Expedition:

“(a) An elevation of Funafuti by at least 4 feet is proved by dead

sub-fossil reef-corals in the position of life near high water-mark. (b)

Darwin’s theory of coral reefs, as opposed to Murray’s, is favored by

these facts: (1) Soundings show the atoll to be planted, not on a bank,

but on a cone; (2) they also show it girdled by a precipitous sub-

marine cliff, explicable only on the subsidence theory ; (3) our observa-

tions and the experience of residents agree that the lagoon is filling up,

whereas Murray demands its excavation, (c) A peripheral growth at

present level is indicated on both sides of the islets.” (Mem. III, 1897,

Australian Museum.)

Geological News.—GeneraL.—-Two kinds of mountain ranges

are recognized by Dr. LeConte, classified by their generating forces.

The one is anteclinal, the other monoclinal. As to cause the one is

formed by lateral squeezing and strata-folding, the other by lateral

stretching, fracturing, block-tilting, and unequal settling. As to place

of birth, the one is born of marginal sea bottoms, the other is formed

in the land crust. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 8, 1897.)

The fossil phyllopod genera, Dipeltis and Protocaris, according to

Schuchert, are representatives of the Apodide family. The history of

this family, therefore extends throughout the time of the entire known

fossil-bearing rocks, as Protocaris occurs at the base of the Lower Cam-

brian. The fossil forms are generally marine, while all the recent

species are denizens of fresh water ponds and pools. (Proceeds. U.S.

Natl. Mus., Vol. XIX, 1897.)

Parozorc.—In a revision of the fossil sponges found in the Quebec

Group at Little Metis on the St. Lawrence River, Sir Wm. Dawson

describes 14 species all belonging to the order Silicea. Of these, one,

Lasiothrix flabellata, is new. Other animal remains from the same

deposit are a small brachiopod, Obolella pretiosa, trails and eastings of

worms, and fragments of triobites, cystideans and Graptolites. (Trans.

Roy. Soc. Canada, 1896-97.)

Some interesting vertebrate remains from the Kansas Permian are

recorded by Williston, representing the genera Cricotus and Clepsy-

drops Cope. The characters do not warrant specific distinction from

forms described by Cope from Danville, Illinois. The author calls

attention to the close resemblance of the two series of forms and con-

siders ita demonstration of the contemporaneity of the Illinois and

614 ` The American Naturalist. [July,

Kansas beds, as well as those of the Texas Permian, whence species of

these genera have been described by Cope. (Kan. Univ. Quart., Vol.

VI, 1897.)

Mesozorc.—For the full classification of the Cycadacee Dr. Lester *

Ward proposes to use that term to represent the entire family, both

living and fossil, and to subdivide it into the two subfamilies, the Cyca-

dex for the living forms and the Cycadeoideæ for the fossil forms.

Dr. Ward adopts this form of classification in his descriptions of species

of fossil Cycads from the iron ore belt, Potomac formation of Maryland.

In this collection seven species are recognized, of which six are new.

(Proceeds. Biol. Soc., Washington, Vol. XI, 1897.)

The Museum at Caen, France is in possession of four reptiles from

the Jurassic deposits of Normandy. These are identified by M. Bigot

as Steneosaurus roissyi E. Desl., S. intermedius (n. sp.), S. heberti

Morel de Glasville and Suchodus durobrivensis Lydekker. All the

specimens are fully described, and the new species figured. (Bull. Soe.

Geol. de Normandie, t. XVII, 1896.)

The University of Denver has come into possession of a fossil Mosa-

saurid found near Flagler, Colo. It is interesting from the fact that

there has been but one other Mosasaurid found in Colorado and also

from the fact that it seems to be a new species.

It was thought, until within a year, that the Mosasaurids did not in-

habit the ancient seas of Colorado, but existed only further toward the

east. A few months ago, some bones which were probably from a

Mosasaurid were found near Canyon city. These and the bones which

I have, prove that the reptiles lived in the seas of Colorado.

From all I am able to learn of the reptile, I must conclude that it is

a new species. It is possibly of the genus Clidastes. The description

of this genus corresponds fairly well, though there seems room for

doubt. The absence of characteristic parts makes the identification

uncertain.

The vertebral column is about five meters in length and is com-

posed of ninety vertebre. Some parts of the jaw and limbs are

also preserved. The authorities at the National Museum, Washington,

to whom I sent some of the bones, write that I “ probably have one of

the most complete vertebral columns of this group of marine reptiles

(Clidastes) in existence. The tail is particularly fine and gives me &

much better impression of the depth and compression of this part of the

body.” —W. T. LEE.

1897.] Botany. 615

Cenozorc.—The following is the history of Crater Lake, Oregon, as

worked out by Mr. J. S. Diller.

During the early glacial period Crater Lake did not exist, its site

being occupied by an active volcano, Mt. Mazama. During the final

great eruption of this volcano its summit caved in giving rise toa

caldera nearly six miles in diameter and four thousand feet deep.

Upon the bottom of the caldera volcanic activity continued. There

were new eruptions forming cinder cones and lava fields partially re-

filling the great pit. Volcanic activity ceasing, the conditions were

favorable for water accumulation and Crater Lake was formed in the

pit. (Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. II, 1897.)

From a study of parts of Labrador and Baffin Land Mr. R. S. Tarr

concludes that all of that region, except possibly, the highest parts, has

been buried beneath an ice sheet and there is evidence that the ice has

withdrawn from these regions in very recent times. Down cutting of

the surface by glacial action is more marked in Labrador than in Baffin

Land. Post-glacial weathering is very pronounced in both regions.

(Amer. Geol., Vol, XIX, 1897.)

BOTANY.

Botanical Society of America.—The Third Annual Meeting of

the Society will be held in Toronto on Tuesday and Wednesday, Aug-

ust 17th and 18th, 1897, under the presidency of Dr. John M. Coulter.

The Council will meet at 1 P. M. on Tuesday, and the first session of

the Society will begin at 3 P. M. The address of the retiring Presi-

dent, Dr. Charles E. Bessey, will be given on Tuesday evening at 8

o'clock, ,

The British Association for the Advancement of Science will meet in

Toronto, August 18th to 25th. The opening address is to be given on

Wednesday evening, August 18th. Professor A. B. Macallum, Presi-

dent of the Local Executive Committee, writes :

“A great many of the members of the Botanical Section of the

B. A. A.S. are booked to leave Liverpool August 5th. They will arrive

in Quebec and Montreal, if they make the usual time, by the 14th and

15th respectively, and will be in Toronto on Tuesday evening (17th)

at latest. Some may stay over at Montreal and Ottawa and possibly

l Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

616 The American Naturalist. [July,

Kingston, arranging to arrive in Toronto Wednesday morning. The

latter date will find nearly all of them here. Those who do not come

via Quebec will turn up in Toronto at an earlier date probably. We

expect a fairly large contingent, including some continental botanists

of note.”

It is expected, therefore, that this meeting will give unusual oppor-

tunities for renewing or forming acquaintances among British and con-

tinental botanists. By authority of the Council all foreign botanists

present will be invited to sit as associate members of the Society and

to read papers. This invitation will be addressed personally to all

whose intention to eome Toronto is known, and will also be published

in Nature and the Journal of Botany.

A later announcement will contain information regarding R. R.

rates, hotels, rooms for meeting, and other business to be submitted to

the Society —C. R. Barnes, Secretary.

Botany in the National Educational Association.—It is en-

couraging to notice that in the great gatherings of teachers modern

methods in science teaching are receiving attention. Last year in the

Buffalo meeting of the National Educational Association, Professor

Atkinson, of Cornell University, and Professor Spalding, of the Uni-

versity of Michigan, discussed the educational value of botany. This

year in the Milwaukee meeting Professor Barnes, of the University of

Wisconsin, is to read a paper on “ What can the High School do with

Botany?” It is to be hoped that the masters in botany will continue

to take part in these discussions. The teachers in the secondary schools

are quite generally ready to receive suggestions as to better methods

when given by those who are entitled to speak with authority.

CHARLES E. Bessy.

The Marine Biological Laboratory at Wood’s Holl, Mass.

—The tenth season of this useful laboratory is announced. The

botanical instruction will cover a period of six weeks from July 6th,

and will be conducted by Dr. Bradley M. Davis, of the University of

Chicago. Two courses will be offered, viz., (1) on Elementary Botany,

and (2) on the Morphology of the Algæ. In the first one week each

will be given to Algæ, Fungi, Bryophytes and Pteridophytes, and two

weeks to the Spermatophytes. There should be many students in at-

tendance. The botanical advantages of Wood’s Holl should attract

many of the teachers in the High Schools and smaller colleges.

CHARLES E. BESSEY-

1897.] Botany. 617

A New Beginner’s Botany.—In a neat little volume published

by The Macmillan Company, Professor Setchell has given us his ideas

of laboratory practice for beginners in botany. These successive vol-

umes from the professors of Botany in the universities are interesting,

since they show us what their authors think can be done in the sec-

ondary schools under present conditions. They are thus contributions

to the science of education, and ought to be judged accordingly.

In this book Professor Setchell puts before us his plan of presenting

elementary botany to beginners, resting it upon two general conclu-

sions reached after experience “ with a number of classes of beginners

both in the preparatory schools and the university ” as follows:

“ Botany in the preparatory schools should be taught—

“1. Asa science, to cultivate careful and accurate observation, to-

gether with the faculty of making from observations the proper infer-

ences; an

“2. As a means of leading the mind of the student to interest itself

in the phenomena of nature for its own further development and

profit.”

These are certainly sound principles, and we may welcome the book

as the author’sexposition of them. Upon opening it at page 1, we find

that the pupil is directed to “ take a ripened pod of a Bean Plant, and

splitting it open, notice:

“1. That the seeds (Beans) are attached along one edge of each valve

(or half) of the pod.

“2. That each bean is attached to the pod by a short stalk, the fun-

teulus

“g, Make a sketch of a valve of the pona pod with its enclosed

beans, representing and labelling the

In this way the separate beans are taken up and their details worked

out until the pupil has a knowledge of the pod, valves seeds, funiculus,

hilum, strophiole, seed-coats, raphe, micropyle, chalaza, embryo, coty-

ledons, caulicle, plumule, ete. Peas, Castor-beans, Morning-glory

seeds, Indian Corn, Onion seeds, and seeds of Pifion Pine are to be

taken in succession and studied in like manner. Then seedlings are

studied, followed by roots, stems, leaves, (including phyllotaxy) and

buds. Next follow chapters on protection,(thorns, spines, hairs, bitter

or acid juice), storage (in roots, bulbs, leaves, etc.), climbing plants,

epiphytes, parasites, saprophytes and insectivorous plants, in which the

pupil is made acquainted with these various subjects by a labor-

atory study of fresh examples. Thus the author leads the pupil on

through the structure of flowering plants, always by means of actual

examples,

618 The American Naturalist. [July,

The book thus emphasizes the principle that botany is the study of

plants, not the study of books. Books, however, are not to be ignored

or neglected, and short lists of desirable reference books are given. It

is significant of the spirit of the book that it is only “ when the student

shall have finished a careful study of the morphology of the more con-

spicuous plants, and has seen some of the more important modifications

of the different organs, to perform different services to the plant,” that

the author suggests the use of “a suitable manual of the botany of the

region, from which the name and relationships of the species may be

obtained.” But even after this cautious suggestion of the use of a

manual, the author is constrained to say that “the name should not be ,

the end for which the work is done,” and “ the teacher should prevent

this searching out of the name and the practice in the use of the analy-

tical key from absorbing the principal portion of the attention.” Thus,

although the book is distinctly “ phanerogamous,” it is as emphatically

a laboratory manual, as any of the text-books devoted to the minute

anatomy of plants.

The last stronghold of the old time text-book botanists is thus

assaulted from an unexpected quarter. Hitherto they have been able

to defend themselves with more or less success by crying out against

early study by the pupil of small and little known things, as cells,

nuclei, green slimes, pond scums, etc. (characterized by one educator

as “ recondite ”), and making a great ado over the difficulty (some-

times asserted to be an impossibility) of supplying the secondary

schools with compound microscopes. Professor Setchell has turned

flowering plant botany into a laboratory study, and has done so with-

_ out bringing in anything more recondite than seeds and embryos, or

more difficult of purchase than pocket lenses and dissecting needles.

It would be easy to find faults in this book (what book on botany is

free from them?) but we feel that it is likely to do so much good in

certain quarters that we will say no more than that in our opinion ele-

mentary botany should include a good deal about the simpler forms of

plants, so that the pupil may obtain some idea of types. It is as go

a principle in botany as in mathematics, that we must begin with sim-

ple things and proceed to the complex, in order to understand the lat-

ter. Then again we know from many years of personal experience,

and this not in an old and wealthy community, that the purchase of good

compound microscopes (duty free), and the installation of small but

efficient laboratories in secondary schools, is as easily accomplished for

botany as is the purchase of necessary apparatus and the fitting up of

proper laboratories for chemistry. In the new state of Nebraska

1897. Zoology. 619

nearly every accredited high school is now using the compound micro-

scope in the study of plants selected as types of all the greater groups

of the vegetable kingdom. We may be permitted to remark, also,

that in practice it will be found impossible to secure in nine-tenths of

the secondary schools, much of the material suggested by the author

for study. In many chapters the teacher may readily make substitutions,

but ın those relating to epiphytes, parasites, saprophytes and insecti-

vorous plants, this difficulty will prove quite embarrassing.

—CHARLEs E. Bessey.

ZOOLOGY.

The orientation of organisms by light.’—The problem that the

author undertakes to solve is whether the migration of organisms to-

wards or from a source of light is due to differences in intensity or to

the direction of the rays. According to Strasburger, whose views have

been more or less generally accepted, the determinant factor is the

direction of the rays. His conclusions drawn from experiments with

swarm spores of Botrydium and Bayopsis (78) were later (90) confirmed

by Loeb in experiments with the larve of Porthesia chrysorrhea. But

this view of the subject has been opposed by Oltmann (92) as the

result of certain experiments performed with Volvox minor and glob-

ator; and Oltman has been supported by Verworn (94). `

Davenport and Cannon criticise Oltman’s management of his appara-

tus and themselves attack the problem with what is essentially the

method of Strasburger, but use Daphnia instead of plants. A small

glass trough was painted dead black inside and out and placed on a

table at a distance, at its nearest end, of 51 cm. and of 66.5 cm. at its

further end, from the light of a gas lamp having a Welsbach burner

Which was raised 31 cm. above the table. A wedge shaped box with

glass bottom and filled with India ink solution served, when needed, as

a screen, the thicker portion of the wedge being placed nearest the

Source of the rays.

Experiments without the screen showed that the Daphnis when

introduced at the end of the trough farthest from the source of light

1C. B. Davenport and W. B. Cannon. On the Determination of the Direction

and Rate of movement of organisms by Light. Reprint from Journ. Phys. XXI,

22-32. From Dr. C. B. Davenport.

620 The American Naturalist. [July,

invariably moved towards the light. When the screen was interposed

and all other light than that from the lamp excluded the same result

was obtained. They were introduced into the trough at its middle

point, still the result was the same. Of 39 individuals introduced at

the end of the trough most distant from the light 54 per cent. passed

the middle line towards the light, 43 per cent made the entire trip of

the length of the trough. Only one of the 39 remained at the starting

int.

When introduced at the middle of the trough 57 per cent. of 58 —

Daphniæ made the entire trip in two minutes. In all 67 per cent.

moved towards the light, 12 remained at the starting point and three of

these were caught in floating bubbles, 6 individuals, or the remainder,

moved away from the light. But these scarcely affect the general

result. .

From the difference in the distances of the two ends of the trough

from the source of the light the authors calculate that the difference in

the intensity of the light at the two ends of a Daphnia .1 mm. long ex-

posed to the unobstructed rays is somewhere between .0027 and .0031

of the intensity of the light at one end of its body. But when the screen

is used the difference at the thicker end of the wedge will be as great.

as .0034 of the intensity at one end of the Daphnia and will increase to

about 17 per cent. at the edge of the wedge. Consequently, in as much

as the decrease in intensity an account of the increasing thickness of

the screen is greater than the increase due to greater proximity of the

light the authors conclude that the effect of variations in the intensity

of the light must be ruled out of court leaving as the only possible

cause of the movements of the animals the direction of the light rays-

The difference of opinion, it is pointed out, has been due to a failure to

distinguish between phototaxis, or the response to the direction of rays,

and photopathy, or the response to variations in intensity.

The relation between intensity of light and rapidity of

movement.—In the same paper these authors just mentioned endeav-

or to answer the question, “ Do positively phototactic organisms move

more rapidly toward their optimum intensity of light than toward an

intensity below the optimum ? ”

The method by which the authors attacked this problem was similar

to the one just mentioned. The trough was similarly placed at a

horizontal distance of 50 cm. from the burner. In order to guage the

intensity of the light an index was attached to the gas cock so that one

fourth and full light could be obtained immediately without the use of

1897] Zoology. 621

a photometer for each experiment. Diffuse light was cut off from the

trough by placing this in a second trough with high walls.

The Daphinz were introduced one at a time at the end of the trough

most distant from the light and the time noted when they passed a

point 2 cm. from the end of the trough, and again when they passed

another point two centimeters distant fromthe other end. The differ-

ence then equalled the time of the trip.

Six series of experiments were performed which were divided into

two groups. In the first group there was an alternation from full light

to one-fourth light to full light again, and in the second group, from one-

fourth to full to one-fourth light.

The distance travelled was 16 cm. The mean times in seconds found

in the three series of the first group was 48 (full light), 57, (4 light),

and 31 (full light). In the second group it was 36 (4 light), 28 (full

light), and 30.5 (4 light). The average time for the full light was 35.7

and for + light 41.2, or expressed as a ratio of the former to the latter

the time was 87: 100.

Sixty trips made in the order of the averages just given in experi-

ments with several individuals changed the ratio to 84: 100.

The Diaphniz acted differently when first put inthe trough. In full

light they started immediately, but in one-fourth light they evinced

hesitating movements. This together with the absence of any close

relation between the diminished intensity of light and the longer time

required for migration in such light than in full light as shown in the

averages obtained the authors conclude, and it seems justly, that the

longer time required to migrate in the smaller amount of light is due

not so much to the lower intensity as to diminished precision in orienta-

tion. And this leads to the further conclusion already reached in other

experiments that light acts chiefly through the direction of its rays.

The authors’ results bear out the conclusions of Nägeli (78) and

of Strasburger, who says that the course of swarm spores is straightest

in those areas that are brighest, as well as those of Loeb, who asserts

that “the orientation of an animal in ea direction of the rays is the

more precise as the intensity increases.”

The table of figures showing the time of the several trips brings out a

further fact, namely, that the rate of movement increases with each

Succeeding trip made by the same animal. The succession averages

for full light were 48, 31, and 28 seconds, and those for one-fourth light,

57, 36, and 30.5 seconds. The cause of this increase of speed the authors

say they must leave undetermined, but it would seem from common ex-

perience that it may have been and probably was due to the animals’

622 The American Naturalist. [July,

experience with the circumstances in which it was placed.—F. ©.

KENYON.

“ A List of the Birds of the Vicinity of West Chester,

Chester Co., Pennsylvania.—The following list of birds is based

upon the observations of a collecting period extending from 1885 to

1891, and again resumed in 1895. By far the greater part of my col-

lecting has been limited to the country within a five miles’ radius of

the town of West Chester, that is, principally to the higher ground of

the townships of West and East Goshen and West Whiteland to the

north and east, and to the west and south the valley of the Brandywine

Creek in East Bradford townships. All the species here annotated

have been shot and identified by myself, with the exception of a few

taken by collecting friends; but none are included in this list of which

I have not seen specimens in the flesh. For a considerable number of

the migratory species I have made notes on the time of their first oc-

currence in the spring, as well as of the time of arrival of the “ bulk”

of individuals for the given year, and for some species I have noted the

time of arrival or departure in the fall. Many of these dates will be

found to correspond very closely with those given by Witmer Stone in

his “ Birds of Eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey,” 1894. Further,

I have endeavored to note the comparative abundance of the species as

accurately as possible, and in this point my data would offer approxi-

mate correctness, since the area over which I have collected is com-

paratively limited in extent.

The rarest of the 145 species mentioned below are the following:

Aegialitis semipalmata Bonap., Ectopistes migratorius (Linn.), Zono-

trichia leucophrys (Forst.), Lanius ludovicianus Linn. and Dendroica

caerulea (Wils.).

1, Polilymbus podiceps (Linn.), Pied-billed Grebe. A not infrequent

migrant in the fall, along the Brandywine. ;

2. Sterna sp., Tern. I saw an individual of a small species of this

genus (perhaps S. hirundo Linn.) shot on the Brandywine near Lenape,

in the late summer of 1887. Owing to the rapid decomposition of the

specimen, I was unable to identify the species.

3. Anas discors Linn., Blue-winged Teal. On Aug. 8, 1889, I shot

an adult, and at the same time saw another individual, on the Brandy-

wine near Lenape.

4. Aix sponsa (Linn.), Wood Duck. An infrequent summer resi-

dent on the Brandywine

5. Erismatura rubida (Wils.), Ruddy Duck. I shot an ad ult female,

March 15, 1890, in a marsh by the Brandywine at Lenape.

1897.] Zoology. 623

(In addition to the three species of duck here mentioned, I have seen

two or three others, which I was unable to secure and identify.)

6. Branta canadensis (Linn.), Canada Goose. This species regularly

migrates over our district in the spring, fall and winter.

T. Botaurus lentiginosos (Montag.), American Bittern. Rare; I

have seen only two individuals, Aug. 3, 1887, and May, 1895, respect-

ively. Both of these I saw very closely, so that there was no possibil-

ity of a confusion with the Night Heron.

- 8. Ardea herodias Linn., Great Blue Heron.. An infrequent summer

resident, becoming rarer each year. I noticed a pair during two sum-

mers in East Bradford, and have observed a few in the spring.

9. A. virescens Linn., Green Heron. Common summer resident.

(I have never found the Night Heron, Nycticorax nycticoryx naevius

(Bodd.), in this neighborhood, though I have seen it frequently in ad-

joining parts of Delaware Co.),

10. Porzana sp., Rail. I picked up a badly decomposed specimen of

this genus on a country road in late summer—P. carolina (Linn.) ?

11. Philohela minor (Gmel.). American Woodcock. Infrequent

migrant during the early spring and late fall.

12. Gallinago delicata (Ord.), Wilson’s Snipe. A common migrant

in the early spring (March 16 to April 25) and late fall, in the marshes

along the Brandywine. It is to be found only occasionally in higher

localities (West Goshen).

13. Totanus solitarius (Wils.), Solitary Sandpiper. This species is a

regular migrant in the late spring, when it is often found in flocks of

considerable size. Though I have never seen it in the fall, I have shot

one specimen and seen others in the summer, 80 that it is quite prob-

able that it sometimes breeds here.

14. Bartramia longicauda (Bechst.), Bartramian Sandpiper. Com-

mon summer resident in the higher parts of West Whiteland township,

but I have never met with it elsewhere.

15. Actitis macularia (Linn.), Spotted Sandpiper. Common summer

resident, mainly along the larger streams.

16. Aegialitis semipalmata Bonap., Semipalmated Plover. I shot

two adult individuals in West Goshen, Sept. 12,1888. These are, I be-

lieve, the only specimens taken in this county.

17. Ae. vocifera (Linn.), Killdeer. Common summer resident; ar-

rives in the spring between March 2d and March 16th.

18. Colinus virginianus (Linn.), Bob-white. Infrequent resident in

this vicinity, though it was more abundant ten years ago.

624 The American Naturalist. [July,

19. Bonasa umbeilus (Linn.), Ruffed Grouse. I saw one May 10,

1890, in a thicket, a mile north of West Chester.

20. Ectopistes migratorius (Linn.), Passenger Pigeon. I shot onein-

dividual of this, now very rare, species, Sept. 1, 1886, in Birmingham

township, and a female in West Goshen, Sept. 9, 1887. Both speci-

mens were in immature plumage, and are now in the collection of the

Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia. I believe these to have been the last

specimens taken in eastern Pennsylvania.

21. Zenaidura macrura (Linn.), Mourning Dove. Abundant sum-

mer resident. (Earliest arrivals: March 16, 1885; Feb. 22, 1886;

March 3, 1887; March 24, 1888; March 14, 1889. Bulk arrived:

March 26, 1886; March 30, 1887; March 31,1888; March 29, 1889).

22. Cathares aura (Linn.), Turkey Vulture. Common through the

spring, summer and fall; in mild winters a few are to be seen.

23. Cireus hudsonius (Linn.), Marsh Hawk. Infrequent summer

resident.

24. Accipiter velox (Wils.), Sharp-shinned Hawk. Infrequent; I

have observed it only in the fall, winter and spring.

25. A. cooperi (Bonap.), Cooper’s Hawk. Rather infrequent resi-

dent.

26. Buteo borealis (Gmel.), Red-tailed Hawk. Common resident;

more abundant than any other hawk.

27. B. lattisimus (Wils.), Broad-winged Hawk. I shot an adult

male in West Goshen, April 22, 1891.

28. Falco peregrinus anatum (Bonap.), Duck Hawk. I saw a speci-

men in the flesh, shot in East Bradford, Feb. 14, 1886. This specimen

is now in the collection of Geo. W. Roberts, Esq., West Chester.

29. F. columbarius Linn. My brother shot a male in West Goshen,

Oct. 25, 1885.

30. F. sparvarius Linn., American Sparrow Hawk. Common resi-

dent, though not remaining through severe winters.

31. Pandion halicetus carolinensis (Gmel.), American Osprey. In-

frequent; I have noticed a pair on several occasions during the sum-

mer of 1888, along the Brandywine (East Bradford). This pair might

have been breeding in this vicinity. Is it not probable that many of

those seen in this county have crossed over from New Jersey ? (Earliest

spring date, April 4, 1888).

32. Asio acciptrinus (Pall.), Short-eared Owl. A not infrequent

visitant in the winter and early spring. I have never seen it in the

fall. During some years it is more abundant than in,others. I have

1897] Zoology. 625

met with it on the following occasions: Feb. 17 to April 13, 1888 ;

April 6, 1890; Jan. 8 to March 13, 1891.

33. Megascops asio (Linun.), Screech Owl. Common resident.

34. Nystea nyctea (Linn.), Snowy Owl, A few are seen or shot every

pas winter, and I have seen such specimens in the flesh.

. Coccyzus americanus (Linn.), Yellow-billed Cuckoo. Common

summer resident. Arrives about the third week in May.

36. C. erythrophthalmus (Wils.), Black-billed Cuckoo. Summer

resident, less abundant than the preceding.

37. Ceryle aleyon (Linn.), Belted Kingfisher. Common summer

resident, remaining until about December. Arrives in the spring be-

tween March 15 and April 6.

38. Dryobates villosus (Linn.), Hairy Wied ptalen: Infrequent in

the fall, winter and early spring. I have never observed more than

three or four in any one year. (Earliest fall occurrence: Sept. 10,

1887 ; latest spring occurrence: April 14, 1889).

39. D. pubescens (Linn.), Downy Woodpecker. Common resident.

40. Sphyrapicus varius (Linn.), Yellow-bellied Sapsucker. Rather

common, though somewhat irregular, migrant in the spring (April) and

fall (Sept. 28 to Nov. 21).

41. Melanerpes erythrocephalus (Linn.), Red-headed Woodpecker.

Common summer resident, especially in the valley of the Brandywine ;

much less abundant on higher ground. (Earliest arrivals: March 11,

1886 ; April 28, 1891).

42. Colaptes auratus (Linn.), Flicker. Common summer resident,

the most abundant representative of the family, with the possible ex-

ception of the Downy Woodpecker. (Earliest spring arrivals: March

7, 1886; March 23,1887; March 24, 1888; March 27,1889. Bulk

arrived: April 3, 1886; April 10,1887; March 31,1888; March 31,

1889; April 15, 1891). One was seen by me Dec. 22, 1885.

43. Antrostomus vociferus (Wils.), Whip-poor-will. I heard one very

plainly on April 27, 1891, in West Goshen township.

44. Chordeiles virginianus (Gmel.), Nighthawk. Rather common

summer resident in certain dry and rocky localities, as, e. g., the “ Bar-

rens” in West Goshen. (Earliest spring arrivals: March 15, 1886 ;

May 3, 1887; May 9, 1888; May 3, 1890. Bulk arrived: May 11,

1886; May 19,1887. Remains in the fall until nearly October),

45. Chaetura pelagica (Linn.), Chimney Swift. Abundant summer

resident. (Earliest spring arrivals: April 16, 1887; April 7, 1888 ;

April 19,1889: April 13,1891. Bulk arrived: April 24, 1886; April

30, 1887 ; April 25,1891. Leaves in the fall before Oct. 10).

626 The American Naturalist. [July,

46. Trochilus colubris Linn., Ruby-throated Humming-bird. Rather

common summer resident. (Earliest spring arrivals: April 14, 1886 ;

May 9, 1887; May 17, 1888; May 2, 1897).

47. Tyrannus tyrannus (Linn.), Kingbird. Common summer resi-

dent. (Earliest spring arrivals: April 2, 1885; April 7, 1886; May

4,1887. Bulk arrived: May 5, 1887; May 9, 1888).

48. Myiarchus crinitus (Linn.), Crested Flycatcher. Common sum-

mer resident, though not as abundant as the preceding. (Earliest

spring arrival: May 3,1890. Bulk arrived: May 7, 1887).

49. Sayornis phoebe (Lath.), Pewee. Abundant summer resident.

It arrives in the spring much earlier than the other flycatchers.

(Earliest spring arrivals: March 29, 1886; March 27,1887; March

23, 1889; March 16, 1890; April 8, 1891; March 23, 1895. Bulk

arrived : April 3, 1886; April 21, 1887).

50. Contopus virens (Linn.), Wood Pewee. Abundant summer resi-

dent, more numerous than the preceding species. (Earliest spring ar-

rivals: April 17,1886; April 28,1891. Bulk arrived: May 7, 1887).

51. Empidonax flaviventris Baird, Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. In-

frequent if not rare migrant in the fall. I have secured only three or

four specimens, but have seen others in the collections of local ornith-

ologists.

52. E. virescens (Vieill), Acadian Flycatcher. An infrequent mi-

grant in the spring.

53. E. minimus Baird, Least Flycatcher. Infrequent migrant.

shot three specimens and saw another in the month of May (1890, 1891),

but have never seen it in the fall.

54. Cyanocitta cristata (Linn.), Blue Jay. Common resident in thick

woods along the Brandywine, less frequent in higher localities. In the

winter it is also found in the open country.

55. Corvus americanus Aud., American Crow. Abundant resident,

though some appear to migrate in severe winters.

56. Dolichonyx oryzivorus (Linn.), Bobolink. Common, occasion-

ally even abundant, migrant in the spring and fall. In the former

season it is found almost exclusively along fhe Brandywine, but in the

fall is frequently met with also in the uplands, in clover fields. (I

have the following notes on its occurrence. Spring: May 11-20, 1896;

May 5-17, 1887; fall: Aug. 4-29, 1886; Aug. 8, 1889; Sept. 25,

890)

57. Molothrus ater (Bodd.), Cowbird. Abundant summer resident.

(Earliest spring arrivals: March 13, 1887; March 14, 1889; March

15,1891. Bulk arrived : March 24, 1887 ; April 4,1848; March 23,

1889).

1897.] Zoology. 627

58. Agelaius pheniceus (Linn.), Red-winged Blackbird. Abundant

summer resident. (Earliest spring arrivals: March 8,1887 ; Febru-

ary 22, 1888; March 12, 1889. Bulk arrived: March 13, 1887;

March 17,1888; March 28, 1889).

59. Sturnella magna (Linn.), Meadow Lark. Abundant resident.

During mild winters large numbers may be found in sheltered valleys,

while in severe winters, as was 1895, few are to be seen. I can corro-

borate the fact noticed by other observers that this species in the cold

season always migrates, to a certain extent, by leaving the higher

ground to collect in the valleys.

60. Icterus spurius (Linn.), Orchard Oriole. Rather common sum-

mer resident, but less abundant than the following species. (Earliest

spring arrivals: May 4, 1887; May 3, 1890. Bulk arrived: May 7,

1886; May 5, 1887; May 6, 1888).

64. I. galbula (Linn.), Baltimore Oriole. Common summer resident.

(Earliest spring arrivals: May 5, 1886; May 1, 1887; April 29, 1888;

May 9,1891. Bulk arrived: May 7, 1886; May 4, 1887).

62. Scolecophagus carolinus (Mill.), Rusty Blackbird. Saw a single

individual, Nov. 22, 1896 ;

63. Quiscalus quiseula (Linn.), Purple Grackle. Abundant summer

resident. (Earliest spring arrivals: Jan. 2, Feb. 10, 1887; Feb. 20,

1888 ; March 2, 1889; Jan. 29, 1890; Feb. 2, 1891. Bulk arrived:

March 8, 1887 ; Feb, 26,1888; March 1, 1890; Feb.24,1891. Latest

occurrences in the fall: Nov. 25, 1887; Dec. 20, 1889)

64. Q. quiscula eneus (Ridgw.), Bronzed Grackle. I have a single

Specimen in my collection, taken in East Bradford, April 30, 1889.

65. Carpodacus purpureus (Gmel.), Purple Finch. I have person-

ally observed this bird only in the year 1887, when I saw a number of

small flocks from April 26th to May 9th. According to West Chester

papers, they were observed also in the following spring. It would

seem to be an irregular spring migrant in this locality.

66. Loxia curvirostra minor (Brehm.), American Crossbill. Infre-

quent winter resident. I have found it on only two occasions, but Mr.

Josiah Hoopes has collected it quite frequently in the Hoopes’ Nurser-

ies, West Goshen.

67. Acanthis linaria (Linn.), Redpoll. Irregular visitant in excep-

tionally cold winters. I have seen it only once, on March 24, 1888,

when I noticed a flock of about a dozen

68. Spinus tristis (Linn.), American Goldfinch. Abundant resident,

though large numbers migrate in severe winters.

69. S. pinus (Wils.), Pine Siskin. Irregular winter visitant. I have

seen it twice, a single individual, on Feb. 5, 1888, and a small flock on

628 The American Naturalist. [July,

the 22d of the same month. I also noticed a flock of about 30 in our

apple orchard, from April 28 to May 7, 1897, and shot several individ-

uals.

70. Poocaetes gramineus (Gmel.), Vesper Sparrow. Abundant sum-

mer resident. (Earliest spring arrivals: April 5,1887; March 31,

1888 ; March 28, 1889; April 18, 1891; March 29, 1895. Bulk ar-

rived: April 6, 1887; April 1, 1888; April 4, 1889; April 19, 1890).

71. Ammodramus sandvichensis savanna (Wils.), Savanna Sparrow.

Abundant migrant in the spring and fall. (Spring occurrences noted :

April 8-13, 1886, March 28, 1889; April 19, 1890; April 18 to May

9, 1891).

(To be continued.)

On the Use of the Terms Heredity and Variability.—

Recent discussions of various biologie phases of evolution have become

so refined that our attention must be more critically given to the exact

meaning which each writer gives to the terms he uses. Each author,

having some special point to emphasize, gives his own particular defini-

tion to common terms, and so makes a direct comparison of his proposi-

tions with those of other writers impossible. A great deal of time-

patience-consuming controversy finds room in mere quibbles of words |

without essential disagreement of ideas. Even the terms “ heredity ”

and “ variability,” standing for the very foundation blocks of evolution,

suffer seriously from this duplicity of definition.

It has long seemed to the present writer that considerable polemic

friction could be avoided without a re-definition of these two important

terms if the relationship of the two notions were more accurately and

generally apprehended. Heredity and variability are so commonly

placed in antithesis that we unconsciously assume that they express

qualitative differences. But they do not. In relation to each other

their significance is purely quantitive. In the quantitive scale they

designate supplements. If one race manifests variability more than

another it manifests heredity by so much less. If variability increases

in a variety heredity wanes. If the inheritance of likenesses becomes

more marked we say that variation is growing less; our variety is be-

coming “fixed.” Thus heredity and variability really stand to each

other as heat and cold,—as positive and negative. Anda perfectly

accurate nomenclature could dispense with one or the other. But

while both terms are still conveniently retained, as are the terms heat

and cold, it is extremely desirable that their unity of application be

observed.

If this complimentary nature of hotelit and várisbility were more

keenly appreciated many evolutionary misunderstandings wouid be

1897.] Zoology. 629

forestalled at their very beginnings. Thus it has been usual for philoso-

phers, like Lamarck, Nägeli and Eimer, to assume that the exact repro-

duction of likeness was the original characteristic of organic reproduc-

tion, and that variability is an anomaly to be accounted for. This is

now met by Bailey’s contra-assumption that unlikeness marks all un-

sophisticated reproduction, and that “heredity is an acquired char-

acter.” Both are equally assumptions and equally gratuitous. What

we actually know is that among different races the average degree of

likeness between successive generations differs. We also know that the

degree of likeness fluctuates from generation to generation in the same

race. + We do not know of such a thing as absolute likeness, nor do we

know the complete absence of heredity. The only thing that we do

know is that similarity begets similarity. That like begets like, or

unlike begets unlike can be true only by a quibble of the terms.

In dealing with this subject in a very critical class of students we

have so much felt the need of more precise nomenclature that I have

given the name of the allophysical law to the formula “similarity be-

gets similarity.” Heredity is then retained in its absolute sense (the

sense in which it is actually most used) as a convenient zero-point from

which to measure variability. But the normal cause of reproduction

is not conceived to be the repetition of exact likenesses, nor of total un-

likenesses, but is understood to follow the allophysical law, —F. A.

Wavuaeu.

Zoological News.—<According to Mt. E. H. L. Schwartz, Spirula

is in its anatomy closely related to Sepia. As to its descent the author

finds that it has been derived from the Belemnites through Spiruliros-

tra, thus reversing the process set forth in an authoritative article

recently published. - Mr. Schwartz bases his conc] the study

of sections of the shell passing through all the whorls in a the plane of

coiling, whereby the structure of the walls and septa are well exposed.

(Journ, Marine Zool. and Micros., Vol. II, No. 6.)

Nineteen species and subspecies of Voles are recognized by Mr.

Bailey as inhabiting Canada and the United States. Of these, five are

described as new. Concerning the habits of these animals the author

states that they do not hibernate in winter, nor has he ever found evi-

dence of their storing provision. They make long tunnels under the

snow, through which they travel about in safety while they procure the

tender grass blades and ripe seeds as easily from the surface of the

ground as when the white blanket is not above them. (Proceeds.

Biol. Soe. Washington, Vol. XI, 1897.)

630 The American Naturalist. [July,

A late number of the Proceeds. Phila. Acad. contains an anatomical

description of Tarsius fuscus, by Dr. Harrison Allen. The author de-

scribes the superficies, auricles, rugee, bones and muscles and compares

them with the account of the corresponding parts in the allied species

Tarsius tarsius as given in Burmeister’s monograph. Dr. Allen goes

into some detail which is lacking in Burmeister’s paper, notably full

descriptions of the teeth, with figures ; and notes on the mechanism of

the limbs. (Proceeds., Phila., Acad., 1897.)

ENTOMOLOGY.

Miss Ormerod’s Report.—A perusal of Miss Ormerod’s recent

report on the injurious insects of Great Britain for 1896, shows that the

insect pests on the other side of the Atlantic differ but little from their

cousins here in their methods of attack. In fact, in many instances they

are identical, portions of the report treating of the codlin moth ( Carpo-

capsa pomonella), Asparagus beetle (Crioceris asparagi) and several

other only too common American insects. There are numerous injurious

insects, however, at present confined to the Old World, many of which

in time are likely to gain foothold here, and against the introduction of

which we cannot be too careful. Notice the devastation wrought by the

common cabbage butterfly (Pieris rape) which in a few years after its

introduction had spread from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and yet in

England it is usually considered as of minor importance compared

with its larger relative Pieris brassice. The gypsy moth is another

example of the alarming spread of an insect in a new country when

unchecked by its natural enemies. Hundreds of thousands of dollars

have been spent by Massachusetts in an endeavor to eradicate it after

it had gotten a strong foothold, all of which might have been saved

had the attempt been made in time.. And now according to the news-

papers another undesirable emigrant has arrived on the scene in the

form of the “brown tailed moth” and established itself in the. very

midst of the gypsy moth infested region in astrip a “ mile long by half

a mile wide ” in which it has “ stripped the most of the fruit and many

of the shade trees.” The insect from its life history would seem to be

an easy enemy to fight and should it be as dangerous as reported will

probably be stamped out with little trouble unless it has a greater

range than was supposed. But if the few people who noticed it in pre-

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

1897.] Entomology. 631

vious years had but had a knowledge of entomology, who knows what

might have been saved. ‘

The Twentieth Report shows the same painstaking care in its prepara-

tion that have characterized its predecessors. It has as a frontispiece

a half-tone portrait of the author’s sister, Miss Georgiana E. Ormerod,

who so long collaborated in the entomological work, and who died dur-

ing the year. American entomologists generally have felt much sym-

pathy for Miss Ormerod in this loss and will read with interest the touch-

ing tribute in this report.

A large number of insects are treated of by the author of the report,

and several new illustrations embellish its pages.

Lepidoptera.—Under the names Ptilodontidæ and Melalophide,

Mr. Harrison G. Dyar’ has made a generic revision of the North Ameri.

can, European and Indian members of that group of moths until recently

known as Notodontidæ. Heseparates the two groups or families on lar-

val characters. The lowest genera (e. g., Gluphisia) present “smooth

larva with simple sets ; others have variously humped or otherwise mod-

ified bodies. Then follows a group in which the moths tend to lose the

tongue although not sharply marked off by thischaracter. The larvae,

however, are hairy, that is they have developed warts and secondary

hairs. The wart formation is peculiar being characterized by three

warts above the stigmatical wart on the thorax, and thus contrasting

with the parallel wart formation in the Arctiid allies, another great

branch of the Bombyces. At first all the warts are in line but soon we

reach forms (e. g., Apatelodes) in which the central wart is moved back

out of line. At this point a large group of moths in India, has diverged

from the type losing one vein of the fore wings. These are the true

Eupterotide and form the highest group of the Ptilodont allies. The

line is, however, almost directly continued by the European genus

Lemonia (frenulum gone) into the Lachneide (cubitus 4-branched),

the larva remaining true to type but becoming gradually more special-

ized to culminate in the Lachneids.” The Eupterotide are not treated

of in the revision. As may beseen the first division is much the larger,

but the second contains such well known forms as Datana, Melalopha

(Ichthyura) and Apatelodes. ;

McNeill on Tryxalinz.—The Davenport Academy of Natural

Sciences, has just published in an octavo pamphlet of 96 pages and six

admirable plates, Prof. J. McNeill’s Revision of the Tryxalinz of North

* Transactions of American Entomological Society, XXIV, 1-20.

632 The American Naturalist. [July

America. It is one of the most important pieces of recent work done on

the North American Orthoptera by American entomologists; for the

Tryxalinz have been one of the least known though richest groups.

The classification is an independent one and does not follow very closely

Brunner’s general outline of the Tryxaline of the world given four

years ago, and which contains a relatively small proportion of the

genera recognized by McNeill. Altogether 75 species are entered,

referred to 31 genera of which 11 are proposed as new. Only ten new

forms are described which is an astonishingly small number for the

country since several new forms have been found in the East within

recent years and a great deal remains to be done even here. A full

figure, generally with considerable additional detail, is given for each

genus, but unfortunately the enlargement above nature is not indicated.

This memoir places our small grasshoppers on a very different basis

from that on which they stood before and the figures alone are a strik-

ing addition to our means of study and determination — Psyche, Vol.

VIII, No. 352.

John L. Curtis.—Mr. John L. Kellogg in the Entomological

News for April, 1897, in a sketch of the life of John L. Curtis says :—

“ The name of Mr. Curtis is not familiar to entomologists but I wish that

some particulars of the brave life of this student of entomology, may be

known to those whose attention may be arrested by the unknown

name.

“John L. Curtis, of Oakland, Cal., died at twenty-five. During the

twelve years preceding his death, his waking hours were passed in a

wheeled chair. A paralytic affliction deprived him of the use of the

muscles of body, legs and arms except those of his wrists and hands.

His consolation and delight were found in the study of Natural history.

After caring for and watching a solitary spider kept in confinement for

several years, he began with earnest zeal the careful study of spiders.

His friends sent them to him in such numbers that at times, he had sixty

or seventy species under observation. Wheeled by a companion along

hedge-rows he observed them in their natural homes and collected them.

After three years of delighting, absorbing study his eyes so failed him,

that he was limited during two years to one half hour a day to micro-

scopic or minute examination. In the last two years of his life, his

health failing constantly, he devoted himself exclusively to the observa-

tion of the new spider described elsewhere in the News. He devised

ingenious methods of feeding, housing and watering his spiders. He

made exhaustive observations of their every habit and recorded all in

1897.] Entomology. 633

notes and drawing. Untrained, inert, helpless, tortured, his patient en-

thusiastic devotion to his studies, has enabled him to add something to

our knowledge of os things and to gu for himself happiness in the

midst of affliction.”

The description of the new spider is given in the same number and

the substance of part of the author’s notes in the species. Probably

no species of insect has ever been described with such copious notes as

to its life history and habits as in this case.

Hemiptera.—Mr. B. M. Duggar* has made a study of a bacterial

disease of the Squash bug (Anasa tristis), and publishes a series of

experiments on the inoculation of other insects with the culture.

The toxic properties of the bacillus were very marked. From one

of the early isolation cultures several colonies of the disease bacteria

were removed, “ and diffused in a small quantity of distilled water to .

serve some inoculation purposes. On immersing young squash bugs

in this solution death followed almost instantly.

With nymphs somewhat older the effect was not so rapid but the

bugs soon suecumbed. Young chinch bugs, flies and other insects stiff-

ened as if dead on being immersed from one to several minutes. Many

of the hard shelled insects if removed immediately on becoming rigid

recover in a few minutes sufficiently to crawl away; but even these

die if immersed in the solution for a longer time.”

Messrs. Herbert Osborn and E. D. Ballt have published the results

of a study of the life histories of the grass feeding Jasside. The more

general results of their investigations show that so far as known all

species deposit eggs upon the stem under the leaf sheaths of the plants

used as food, and that the species have as a rule decided limitation as

to food plant, but that the adults are more general feeders. Some of

the species have but one brood, others two and still others three in a

season and the ordinary life of a brood does not exceed two months.

Some twenty-four species are noted as injurious to grass, several of which

are undescribed. Technical descriptions of hitherto undescribed forms

will appear in a forth-coming paper in the Proceedings of the Iowa

Academy of Natural Sciences.

Mr. J. B. Smith® has made notes on the life history of the harlequin

cabbage bug and melon plant louse (Margantia histrionica and Aphis

gossypii) with preventive and remedial measures.

* Bull. Ill. State Lab. of Nat. se IV, 340-379.

*Bull. 34, Iowa Agri. Expt.

* New Jersey, Agri. Exp. Sta., “Ball, 121.

634 The American Naturalist. [July,

Alternation of Generations in Cynips calicis.—A_ recent

paper by Prof. M. W. Beijerinck in Archives néerlandaises d. sci. ex. e.

nat. (tome XXX, livr. 5) brings to light a very interesting case of —

alternation of generations in the genus Cynips as restricted by Mayr.

Cynips calicis is a large agamic gall fly, produced from a rather large

irregular gall on the acornsof Quercus pedunculata. This gall is rich

in gallic acid and is of commercial importance in parts of southeastern

Europe. In begins to develop in May, falls to the ground in autumn,

and does not decay for several years. A portion of the flies come out

at the end of the first winter and the remainder at the end of the second

winter. The fly which emerges from this gall is incapable of produc-

ing it. The eggs of Oynips calicis are not deposited on Quercus pedun-

culata at all, but on another species of oak, Quercus cerris. Oynips

calicis emerges in March and at this time the acorns of Q. pedunculata

do not exist even in embryo, and are not in condition for eggs to be

deposited in them until fully two months later. The eggs of Cynips

calicis are deposited in the young anthers of Quercus cerris and from

this oviposition results a conical tiny, hasty gall, very-easily overlooked.

Out of these galls in about two months emerge tiny, smooth gall flies,

male and female, which belong to the genus Andricus. These flies im-

mediately pair and the females at once deposit their eggs on the now

ready young acorns of Quercus pedunculata, and around these develop

the large galls of the Cynips calicis. The author was led to these dis-

coveries by the fact that Q. pedunculata bears no galls of Cynips calicis

in the Netherlands except when an occasional tree of Q. cerris happens

to have been planted in the vicinity of the other species. His observa-

tions and experiments cover a period of several years, and there seems

to be no doubt of his having proved his points. It is suggested that

the galls of Cynips calicis might be made commercially important in

the Netherlands by generally planting Q. cerris in the groves of Q.

pedunculata. Of course, the thought lies very near that other species

of Andricus simply represent the sexual stage of species of Cynips—

Erwin F. Surra.

General Notes.—Mr. F. H. Chittenden? has prepared a collection

of articles on little known insects affecting stored vegetable products.

Notes are given on a number of insects, some of which are previously

unrecorded from America, and may prove decidedly injurious in the

future.

êU. S. Dept. of Agri., Div. of Entomology, Bull., No. 8—New Series.

[1897, Embryology. 635

Mr. Claude Fuller’ of the Technological Museum, Sydney, has de-

seribed and figured a very peculiar gall from a common Australian

plant, which bears a striking resemblance to a caterpillar with its head

and anterior parts of its body thrown back in an “ attitude of defense.”

Neither “ beetles nor inquilines seeking a suitable rearing ground for

their young would be attracted by a caterpillar,” thus protecting the

inhabitants from injury from that source and though “insectivorous

and predaceous birds might be attracted by it, they would at once be

repelled by its woodiness while small wood pecking species, which

might prey on its inhabitants would seldom be attracted by its appear-

ance.”

Dr. Otto Lugger* has prepared an extended report of the insects

injurious in 1896, and of the parasites of man and the domestic animals.

EMBRYOLOGY.’

Breeding Habits of the Spotted Salamander.—The instincts

and habits connected with the process of fertilization in the tailed am-

phibia are so remarkable, that even a few imperfect observations on

these processes in our common salamander (Amblystoma punctatum)

seem worth recording in the hope of aiding in some future comparative

study that may throw light upon this puzzling chapter in Natura

History.

Since Gasco? and Zeller’ showed that the European triton and several

other salamanders have an internal fertilization and yet no copulation,

Jordan,‘ and also Gage,’ have described much the same series of events

in our common newt (Diemyctylus viridescens), while Ritter has re-.

cently found similar phenomena in the western newt (J). torosus).

' Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, VII, 697.

ê Minnesota, Agr. Exp. Sta., Bull. 48.

l Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and

preliminary notes may be sent.

? Gli amori del tritone alpestre, Geneva, 1880, and Les amours des Axolotyls.

Zool. Anz., IV, 1881.

* Ueber die Befruchtung bei den Urodelen. Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., 1890, XLIX.

*Spermatophores of Diemyctylus. Journal of Morphology, V, 1891; and

Habits and Development of the Newt. Idem., VIII, 1893.

* Life History of the Vermillion-spotted Newt. Amer, NAT., Dec., 1891.

° Diemyctylus torosu. Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci. Zool., Vol. 1, Jin 18, 1897.

636 The American Naturalist. [July,

From the excellent and detailed accounts given by Jordan we learn

that during great sexual excitement the male clasps the female firmly

for a long time ; then the animals separate and a remarkable procession

follows, the male going in advance deposits sperm in special cases,

spermatophores, which are taken up by the female and subsequently

used in fertilizing the eggs before they are laid, that is, the sexual em-

brace does not lead to transfer of sperm directly, but to subsequent.

deposition of spermatophores that are gathered up by the female. These

spermatophores are small gelatinous masses containing sperm, and are

taken into the cloaca of the female as she walks over them.

Apparently much the same series of events takes place in the breed-

ing of Amblystoma. About Baltimore the eggs of this large salaman-

der are very abundant in March and even in February in small pools in

the woods, but the adults are then rarely seen. Since 1878 and’79 when

F. S. Clarke’ succeeded in obtaining a male and a female and saw the

eggs deposited in captivity, the adults have very rarely been taken at.

the breeding season. Even: whén small pools, but four feet wide and

nine inches deep, were thoroughly raked out before and after the eggs

appeared, no adults were found, so that it was inferred that the laying

takes place in the night and that the adults may even leave the water

every day to conceal themselves under stones, ete. But this spring

Mr. M. T. Sudler found a female moving away from a bunch of eggs

early in the morning. This specimen kept isolated laid many eggs,

and as these developed into normal larvæ, the existence of internal fer-

tilization was proven.

In these small pools the laying of amblystoma eggs was preceded by

24 hours or so, last year and this, by the occurrence of white specks

formed in lines on the dead twigs and leaves covering the bottom.

These objects were quite conspicuous when the water was clear, and

were at first thought to be some fungus growths from dead twigs, but

on examination proved to be gelatinous pyramids or irregular cones of

clear material bearing globoid, opaque, white enlargements at the tips.

Each was about one half an inch high and firmly attached to a dead

twig or leaf, generally at the edge of the latter as might be the case if

put down from the clasping lips of the cloaca of Amblystoma. Dis-

tributed at intervals of a few inches they formed lines of several to &

dozen. Microscopic examination showed the opaque tips to be a mass

of coiled, densely packed filaments, highly refracting and at first sight

apparently with no ends, yet appropriate stains differentiated the essen-

™The Development of Amblystoma punctatum. Studies Biol. Lab. J. H- U.,

Vol. I, Baltimore, 1879.

1897.] Embryology. 637

tial parts of spermatozoa and showed that these threads might well be

the very large sperms of Amblystoma, seen and measured by S&S. F.

Clarke. These masses thus agree essentially with the spermatophores

of other tailless amphibia; they are more slender and higher than those

of Diemyctylus, but built on the same general plan, and much less

complex in form than those of the European triton.

Though it is most probable that these bodies are the spermatophores

deposited by the male Amblystoma before the female lays the eggs, yet

it is, perhaps, possible that they may yet prove to be but preliminary

attempts at egg laying; the female depositing some sperm within such

secretion as is normally formed about the eggs. But this latter as-

sumption seems scarcely tenable.

We may conclude: (1). Fertilization in Amblystoma punctatum is

internal (at least in the case observed). (2). Sperm-containing masses

are often deposited before the eggs are laid; these are probably sperm-

atophores put down by the male. (3). We may infer that the female

gathers up the sperm from some of the spermatophores and that through

this act the eggs are fertilized —E. A. ANDREWS.

Cell Division and Nuclear Division.—Boveri® has repeated

his notable attempts to fertilize non-nucleated pieces of the eggs of one

species of sea-urchin (Echinus tuberculatus) with the sperm of another

(Strongylocentrotus lividus) and finds incidentally some remarkable

illustrations of the independence of nucleus and centrosome, and of the

connection between the nucleus and cell division.

In most cases where only one sperm enters such a non-nucleated

piece of egg of another species the first cell division results in forming

two masses—one with all the nuclear matter of the sperm the other with

one centrosome and no nuclear matter. The mass with the nucleus

continues to divide and forms a small blastula that may live three days.

The other does not divide but remains as a single mass adjacent to

the dividing cell; inside it, however, the centrosome does divide and

with the same rhythm as in the first mass, so that there are ultimately

a large number of centrosomes and stars in a single cell or non-nucleated,

undivided mass.

In fact the centrosomes go through all the phases they would in cell

division, though the nucleus is absent !

Various facts and considerations lead the author to think it likely

that the mitotic phenomena are started by conditions of the protoplasm

that affect both the centrosome and the nucleus and lead them to go

through their characteristic changes, independently of one another.

è Ph. Med. Verein, Wurzburg. Oct., 1896.

638 The American Naturalist. [July,

From the behavior of eggs that are entered by two or more sperms

the author concludes that cell division does not take place without

nuclear division. In these cases, at least, the egg divides into two, or

into four cells or partly divides according as the asters have a nuclear

spindle between them or not.

‘Moreover it is not the mere presence of the nucleus that is necessary

for cell division but the nucleus must be connected with the centrosomes.

Visible Complexity of Protoplasm in Certain Eggs.—The

great advances which have been made since the days when the nucleus

of an egg was spoken of as a mere vesicle with one or more “spots” in

it are well illustrated by the elaborate study made by the Abbé Carnoy’

with assistance of H. Lebrun.

With remarkable patience, skill and trained imagination M. Carnoy

has unraveled the complexities of structures seen in many thousands of

sections of the eggs of certain salamanders and gained by ten years of

labor a coherent conception of the successive changes these eggs under-

go. The beautifully executed drawings that accompany the memoir

show most remarkable arrangement of “ chromatin ” or staining material

within the nucleus; the nucleus appears as a sphere of most complex

and changeable structure—even the “ spots ” or nuclei within it having

more complexity of structure than can be seen in many whole nuclei.

The paper describes the appearance of the egg nucleus at successive

stages while it is growing ripe in the ovary. Chiefly Salamandra macu-

losa Laur. and Pleurodeles Waltlii Mich. served for material.

In the former, fertilization takes place about the first of July ; the

young are born alive the following Spring and leave the water towards

September. The eggs in these young are about 200» in diameter with

a nucleus 110% the end of the following May. The second May the

eggs are 500-600» and the third May, 1400. Not till the end of June,

of the following year are they ready for fertilization; then they are

3500-37001. The eggs then require more than three years to develop

and the females are about five years old when first ready for copulation.

As the egg enlarges during about three years the nucleus exhibits

the successive changes described in outline below.

In the young ovarian eggs 30 in diameter the large nucleus (18)

contains a conspicuous filament of chromatin, which appears as a close

loop with no free ends. Besides this the nuclear sap is also resolvable

into a very fine network of plastin (linin of some). This chromatic

filament breaks up and parts of it remain as nucleoli. The nucleoli are

thus all chromatic and not plasmatic in origin. |

° La Cellule XII. Feb. 1, 1897, pps. 191-292, pls. 6.

1897.] Embryology. 639

It is subsequent changes in these nucleoli that constitute the remark-

able, complex figures seen in the numerous illustrations.

The part of the original nuclear filament not concerned in forming

nucleoli becomes resolved into innumerable minute granules. These

granules arise from the filament in various ways somewhat as do similar

granules from the nucleoli, as described below. The granules disperse

in the nuclear sap, but not without reference to the pre-existing

structure of that sap, in fact they seem to travel out along the strands

of the plasmatic network. Ultimately. these granules dissolve and the

filament is henceforth represented only by the nucleoli.

We come thus to a stage in which the nucleus contains no visible

objects except the chromatic nucleoli and the fine plasma net. The

nucleoli, as they formed from the filament, went out to the periphery

of the nucleus to lie near its membrane. They next begin a migration

inwards towards the central part of the nucleus and enlarging become.

resolved into remarkable figures. These figures are different in succes-

sive years and even in different animals and much of the labor of the

authors has been the attempt to arrange the large mass of material in

some classified order.

These figures continue to be found all through the growth of the

egg ; successive generations of nucleoli arise and are resolved into figures.

Many of the figures would be taken for atrangements of chromatin

directly arising from the original loop—others seems strange and

bizarre.

Any continuity of chromatin seems here out of question, except as

the nucleoli first arise from chromatin and subsequently are continued

as successive generations of chromatic figures; any attempt to trace

continues chromatic bodies, chromosomes—seems most impossible.

We cannot attempt in the limit of a short abstract to mention the

numerous shapes the nucleoli assume in the process of resolution.

Starting from the form of a spheroidal, apparently homogeneous body

the nucleolus may swell up into a spongy mass that transforms into a

large network of complex strands, each composed of innumerable gran-

ules. Or the nucleolus may branch out into plume and brush-like

figures, often resembling a test-tube-or lamp-chimney-cleaner. Other

nuclei form branching trees, coiled filaments, groups of balls with

ora connections, stars and M masses looking like spat-

paint.

Bowi of the figures are found only at certain periods of the year

others in various stages of the development of the egg; some periods

are characterized by the occurrence of only one form of figures while

others have a prevailing form and others a mixture of many forms.

640 The American Naturalist. [July,

The time taken to form the figures cannot be determined, but appar-

ently the various generations of nucleoli follow rapidly, each being

resolved into the figures and the figures forming granules and the

granules dissolving into the material that presumably dissolves away

into the cell protoplasm to help form the yolk.

The successive generations of nucleoli arise from preceeding ones;

the first nucleoli come as stated above from the original chromatic

filament, the following generations arise from the granules, into which

the nucleoli disintegrate—some granules not dissolving but persisting ;

later some nucleoli arise from spherules or larger fragments of figures

that do not break down into the minute granules. In either case the

new nucleoli arise near the nucleolar membrane; in the first case from

many granules that become enveloped by a membrane in the second

case by the union of several spherules or else by the enlargement of a

single spherule.

Now the granules are arranged along the plastin network and when

many combine to form a new nucleolus that nucleolus is a structured

and complex body having in it a network with granules and an outside

membrane. Though the nucleolus looks homogeneous yet actual sec-

tions of nucleoli may show the outside membrane, the plastin network

and the granules or filaments of chromatin : in fact the nucleolus has the

same structure as the nucleus. This is seen in section and again when

the nucleolus passes into the interior of the nucleus to be resolved into

some complex figure; it may then even come out of its membrane —

and, as it were, grow out in a tree like net with chromatin on the

meshes.

Before speaking of the interesting descriptions of the formation of

yolk, outside the nucleus, we may venture to restate the above brief

outline of the process of resolution of nucleoli in comparing it with a

complex series of pyrotechnic displays. The nucleoli are like most

complicated fireworks arranged about the periphery of the nucleus—

apparently simple but complex in internal arrangement. They move in-

wards towards the centre of the nucleus—as if discharged and then un-

fold the most diverse stars, feathers, coils, nets, etc., that ultimately

burst into the smallest sparks, granules, scattering outwards through

the nucleus along the network of plastin that fills the entire area.

When most of these sparks are quenched some few are coming together

near the old point of discharge and fashioning a complex rocket,

Roman candle, or wheel that will in turn be set off at the succeeding

display of figures—and so on for several years.

1897.] Embryology. 641

Thus innumerable granules are formed and dissolved, few keeping

intact to form the next generation. One result of the great manufact-

ure of granules is, the author conceives, the formation of yolk in the

egg.

The yolk begins to appear when the egg is only 300» in diameter and

grows to be the large mass of crystal-like bodies familiar in the eggs of

Amphibia, The first perceived change in the egg protoplasm is the

occurrence of minute areas near the cell periphery ; areas which include

a considerable number of the spaces of the plastin network and become

recognizable from the rest of the network by a difference in refraction,

looking as if the spaces of the net were filled in by solid albumen.

Such changed areas ultimately fuse together to form a zone in periph-

eral part of the egg and as the yolk increases this zone extends in toward

the nucleus, more and more. In one of the small ayeas there appear

exceedingly minute granules along the lines of the net—these are the

young yolk granules that enlarge as if small crystals growing in a solu-

tion. This solution is thought to be furnished by the combined activity

of nucleus and egg protoplasm; the nucleus furnishing paranucleic

acid and the egg protoplasms the globulins ; these combining make para-

nuclein and then vitilline—the yolk granule. The generations of

figures in the nucleus form granules of nuclein that dissolve and by

hydrolosis the nucleic acid is set free—this becomes the paranucleic acid

that is supposed to soak out through the cell to the region where yolk is

to form. However this may be, the granules of yolk enlarge and appear

scattered in stout strands or cords of protoplasm that run amongst vacu-

lues or water aes in the eee. i Hitherto tuae have been no vacules

in the egg and the author denies tha to the

foam-structure of Büschli ; the vacules that naw appear aroha thinks,

due to the absorbtion of waer by the globulins. The vacules may be-

come large and be subdivided by strands of protoplasm going across

them. The water thus collected is later seen in deeper parts of the egg

towards the nucleus and the egg thus takes on a spongy structure as

the yolk develops. The minute yolk granules move centrally from this

first place of origins in the strands amidst the vacules and now get into

the spongy protoplasm; here each one may get into a watery vacule

and grow to its definition size and form. The yolk granules thus start in

the plastic net and end in a vacule; how this change is brought about

is not evident from the author’s account.

The interesting introductory statement and the author's views upon

the centrosome question cannot be reviewed here as they do not bear

directly upon the present subject.

642 The American Naturalist. [July,

PSYCHOLOGY.’

Rapid Calculators.—In 1894 Prof. Binet published an elaborate

series of tests made on two well-known “lightning calculators,” Diam-

andi, a Greek, and Inaudi, an Italian. A notable result of these tests

was to show that while one of the pair, Diamandi, was of a visual type,

like most professional calculators, the other, Inaudi, was exceptional

in being auditory. Thus while the former committed numbers to

memory more readily when they were written out, and was able to

repeat a square of figures, once memorized, by rows or columns with

equal facility, the latter learned numbers more rapidly when they were

given orally, or by speaking them himself, and found it difficult to

repeat them afterwards in any other order than that in which he had

committed them. Inaudi always accompanied his calculations by

slight lip and throat movements, and when asked to make a constant

and uniform sound during his work, declared himself wholly unable to

perform the required operations. i

These observations have recently been supplemented by a monograph

study by Sign. Guicciardi and Ferrari? of an Italian, Ugo Zaneboni,

who has lately been giving exhibitions of his skill as a calculator.

They found him to be visual in type, like Diamandi, with whom, how-

ever, he could not compare for speed and versatility.

The most noticeable point about Zaneboni is the wide difference be-

tween his power of acquisition and his power of retention. In the former

respect he is decidedly mediocre. Thus he required nearly seven min-

utes to memorize a series of 25 numbers, which he was told were to be

repeated by him the next day; the next day he was unable to give

more than the first four correctly. On the other hand, his power of

retention was extraordinary. Its material appeared to be supplied by

an automatic process of acquisition, since voluntary memorizing on his

part was possible only by a distinct effort of the attention. During his

years of military service, Zaneboni was frequently posted at a railroad

station. He spent his spare time there in reading and re-reading the

time-tables ; as a result he is now able to give correctly from memory

the distances between any two places in Italy, with the fares for each

class. At another period in his life he memorized a list of 227 cities,

Italian and foreign, with their population, which he uses in his public

1 Edited by Howard ©. Warren, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.

? Rivista Sperim, di Freniatria, 1897, XXIII, fasc. 1 and 2.

1897,] Psychology. 643

exhibitions; e. g., the figures representing the population of any iwo of

these cities being given him, combined into a single number and in any

order, he will give the names of the cities. He has also committed to

memory a large number of squares, cubes, etc., up to the fifth power, as

well as many products of two-place numbers; i. e., his multiplication

table extends with some breaks to 100 x 100, instead of 12x12. With

the help of these known solutions he is able to perform arithmetical

Operations with great rapidity ; he recognizes perfect squares, cubes,

etc., at a glance, and'in performing multiplications breaks up the given

numbers into parts with whose products he is already familiar. - His

power of retention is the sole source of this facility in calculation ; he

has no special aptitude for performing the operations themselves. This

was clearly demonstrated by a comparison of his time with that of

Diamandi and Inaudi, in the tests made on this point. In the simpler

operations, involving results with which he was familiar, his time was

but slightly longer than theirs ; but as the task grew more complex and

the numbers required more breaking up into factors according to his

method, his time increased to double and sometimes even four times

theirs. The tests of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division

given him were identical with those given to Inaudi by Prof. Binet, so

that their respective results admit of direct comparison here. The

other calculators seem to have had some natural facility in handling

new problems, or at least new examples of old problems: with Zane-

boni the only special gift was a memory for numbers, and that was a

retaining, not an acquiring aptitude.

Another point of interest in Zaneboni was his visual type. This

characteristic revealed itself in several ways. In his public exhibitions

he preferred to have the numbers written out on the board, rather than

spoken. His visual reactions were short from the first, and very con-

stant (2050). He was able to read eight figures shown by an instanta-

neous electric flash, while ordinary individuals were only able to distin-

guish three or four under the same conditions. Out of 50 words, selected

from widely different spheres as a test for association, 35 gave visual

associations in his case, and of the remainder 9 failed to call forth any

association whatever. All these tests combined to demonstrate the

essentially visual character of his ideational processes

Like most other professional calculators, Zaneboni’s interest centers

wholly jn his profession ; beyond it he has no tastes and little general

knowledge. “ He rises shortly before noon, walks a little, dines at two,

then walks again or goes to some café, and about seven o’clock goes to

the theater. After the performance he retires, on reaching his house,

644 The American Naturalist. [July,

shortly after midnight. He talks with few persons, shuns large gather-

ings, reads little, and is but little interested in what he reads, because,

to use his own expression, ‘ his memory is always in his calculations.’ ”

In short, while his memory for numbers is abnormally developed, all

other sides of his intellect are atrophied. The tests which Sign. Guic-

ciardi and Ferrari undertook along other lines than that of figuring

failed signally, because of his lack of interest and attention. He was

always inquiring what was the use of doing these—they were not in his

line at all. For this reason many of the usual tests had to be aban-

doned or altered so as to bring in merely numerical data. However,

these negative results are as truly indicative of his real nature and dis-

disposition as the successful tests, which they serve to conform.

Visual Perception of Depth.—Some experiments on the visual

perception of depth are reported by M. B. Bourdon in the “ Revue

Philosophique” for January, which, if they warrant the deductions

which he draws from them, will necessitate a modification of the ac-

cepted theories of space perception. The special object of the experi-

ments was to isolate the depth data furnished directly by monocular

and binocular vision, respectively, from the elements of judgment ordi-

narily attaching to them—such as known size, brightness, number of

intervening objects, etc. To accomplish this the tests were made in a

long hallway in the cellar of a large building and at night, when the

cellar was completely dark. Two lanterns were placed at different

distances, their light being of so small an intensity that the hall itself

was not illumined ; the effect was merely of two bright points of light.

In the monocular tests, the lights were first placed in position, and

the subject was then led with eyes blindfolded to the spot chosen;

one eye remained covered during the experiment. The subject was

asked to determine which of the lights was the nearer. The experi-

ment was tried with five subjects, and for distances ranging from 1 to

30 meters. It was found that even with the latter difference there was

no preponderance of right judgments, while a slight difference of in-

tensity between the lights led uniformly to a judgment in favor of the

brighter. The author concludes that the muscular sensations accom-

panying changes of accommodation play no part in the estimate of

depth, at least for distances greater than one meter.

For the binocular tests the author used two hallways at right angles

to one another, the subject being stationed at their point of intersection.

One of the lights was placed in each of the halls. When the further

light was 25 meters distant, right answers were generally given when

1897.] Anthropology. 645

the other light was 6 meters or less; if the nearer light was 10 meters

distant or more, the wrong answers predominated ; the threshold value

was about 7-8 meters, or a difference of 17-18 meters. Another

set of experiments was tried in which the subject was asked to estimate

binocularly the absolute distance of a single light. The results showed

no approximation to the truth, the estimates for 50 meters being in

several cases nearly the same as those for 5 meters. According to the

author, the muscle sensations—in this case of convergence—play no

appreciable part here ; it is only the bi-retinal assimilation of correspond-

ing points that determines our sensation of depth. Thus our percep-

tion of depth, in so far as it is a sensation at all, and not a judgment, is

really a visual function, and not a muscular one, as the commonly

accepted theories incline to believe. The results seem to show that the

visnal sensation horizon is about 220 meters from the eye. The spheri-

cal shape of the heavens is due to the practical parallelism of all objects

further than that distance, as determined by the minuteness of bi-retinal

localization, rather than to the absence of changes of accommodation

and convergence for greater distances. —H. C. W.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

On Fossil Bird-Bones Obtained by Expeditions of the

University of Pennsylvania from the Bone Caves of Ten-

nessee.—On the 20th of last June (1896) the writer received from

Professor E. D. Cope a small collection of subfossil bones obtained by

Mr. H. C. Mercer while in charge of explorations for the University of

Pennsylvania in the Bone Caves of Tennessee. These bones were

kindly sent to me for the purpose of having them identified if possible,

and eventually described and figured. As in the case of many cave

bones, they are not encased in any matrix, being to some degree pliable

rather than brittle and completely fossilized. They have a rather pale

clayey color, and not more than one in a dozen of them are perfect.

Indeed, it is unfortunate that so many of them are in too fragmentary

condition to be identified with any degree of certainty, and in the case

of a few mammal bones I found in the collection no attempt was made

at identification at all. Skulls and sternaare entirely absent from this

collection, nearly all the specimens being long bones, with the excep-

tion of the sacral portion of one pelvis; a few coracoids and portions

1 This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

646 The American Naturalist. [July,

of unidentifiable scapule, and some odd vertebra. Under these cir-

cumstances one is obliged to be extremely cautious and careful (espe-

cially in the case of birds) in coming to an opinion as to what species

the bones belonged, and whether these species are still represented in

existing avian faunæ or are now to be reckoned among the extinct

orms. An example of this is well exemplified in the case of a small

humerus from the right pectoral limb of a bird in this collection. It

is evidently passerine, and may have belonged to any average finch or _

sparrow the size of a Carpodacus, the bone being 2 ems. long and hav-

ing all the characters seen in the humeri əf that size and in that group.

It is practically impossible to identify such a specimen, especially in

the absence of all of the rest of the skeleton, and the fact moreover,

that it possibly belonged to some extinct finch, sparrow, or other small

passerine type. For these reasons too, I pass by quite a number of

fragments of avian ulnæ that belonged to various species, as well as

other bones of the skeleton, naming only those that can be pronounced _

upon with certainty.

PYGOPODEs.

Colymbus auritus—Represented in the collection by a perfect left

femur of an adult individual, as well as by the shaft of a left humerus,

and the distal end of a tibio-tarsus. These bones correspond exactly

with those found in examples of this Grebe now existing. I have com-

pared them with the skeleton of one of the species in the collections of

the United States National Museum (No. 17,873).

_ ANSERES.

A right coracoid ; a right humerus; and the proximal moiety of a

right ulna (all from adult birds) appear to have belonged to some spe-

cies of anserine fowl. Doubt may rest with the humerus and ulna, be-

cause they are somewhat fragmentary ; but the coracoid belonged to a

duck or else a Merganser ; it is about the size for Aix sponsa. Thus

far I have not identified it.

GALLIN2.

Colinus virginianus.—That the remains of the Common Virginia

Partridge occurred in these caves rests upon the discovery of the right

humerus of an adult individual of this species. It is found to agree

exactly with the corresponding bone in specimens of this bird now ex-

isting. There is also in the collection a left humerus of a Partridge,

that might easily have belonged to either a female of this species Or

1897.] _ Anthropology. 647

else to a subadult individual, or finally, to perhaps a different species.

It has all the characters however, of a colinine humerus, but is smaller

than the one just referred to above, and in the absence of other material

I believe it to be wiser not to pronounce upon it definitely at present.

Bonasa umbellus—Numerous bones of the Ruffed Grouse were dis-

covered in these caves. I find in the collection a left humerus and a

coracoid from the same side; two ulnæ, four carpo-metacarpi (one per-

fect, the others nearly so), and three tarso-metatarsi with the lower

half of another. These bones have each and all been carefully com-

pared by me with several skeletons of Bonasa umbellus in my private

collections, and I find that they agree in all their characters with the

corresponding elements of the skeleton as now found in specimens of

this Grouse of the existing avifauna.

The collection contains the right carpo-metacarpus of still another

Grouse, the specimen being nearly perfect. It is but a millimetre or two

shorter than that bone as it occurs in adult male individuals of Tym-

` panuchus americanus, being at the same time almost identical in char-

acter, in fact presenting only such very slight differences as might be

due to individual eaciation. This bone mey have easily belonged to

some form of thi d resented in the existing avifauna,

and in the absence of the balance of the skeleton, I am by no means

sure it did not. Possibly the former owner of it may have been a female

T. americanus, or a subadult specimen, or a male T, pallidicinctus and

so on; while in any event, without more material for comparison, it is

hardly possible to say with certainty as to what the species was, more

than it was a Prairie Hen (Tympanuchus).

Even still more puzzling is the presence in this coliection of the tar-

so-metatarsus of a Grouse—a perfect bone from the right limb. It does

not belong to any of the species I described from the Equus Beds of

Oregon, and it is too small, and at the same time, too stout for any ex-

isting species of Tympanuchus; too big for a Pediocetes; and too

small for a female Centrocereus, yet there is no question but what it is

the typical tarso-metatarsus of a true Grouse. I do not believe it be-

longs to the same species as the one to which the above described carpo-

metacarpus belonged, for the bone is not big enough for that quite, and

yet is just possible that it might have done so. It is far better to wait

for additional and fuller material to come to light from the locality

where this bone was collected, before either declaring it to be a new

species or not having belonged to one now abundantly represented in

our existing fauna.

648 The American Naturalist. (July,

Meleagrine: Meleagris gallopavo.—The presence of the remains of

the common Wild Turkey in this collection is well attested to by the

following list of bones :—

Sixth cervical vertebra and the fragments of two others.

Superior extremities of seven coracoids.

Proximal two-thirds of left humerus.

Distal end of right humerus.

Fragments of the proximal ends of two other humeri.

Proximal end of left ulna.

Fragments of four carpo-metacarpi largely complete).

Fragment of distal end of right fem

Distal extremities of two tibio-tarsi ( z and 9 ?).

Superior portions of six tarso-metatarsi and one distal end.

Three tarso-metatarsi (fragmentary), with calears developed there-

upon.

Upon comparing these bones and fragments of bones with the cor-

responding ones in the skeletons of M. gallopavo, it leaves no doubt as

to their identity. And, as in this last species, very considerable differ-

ence in size is seen to exist between the sexes, as well as between the

male and females when compared with the subadult individuals. Pro-

fessor Marsh at different times has described three species of alleged

extinct Turkeys, viz., Meleagris antiquus,' M. altus? and M. celer, but I

am very sceptical indeed in regard to the validity of the first named,

i. e., Meleagris antiquus, or in other words, I doubt the propriety of

basing a new species of fossil Turkey upon “ the distal end of a right

humerus,” as Professor Marsh has done in this case. Nor do the

characters he describes for this species, as being diagnostic, hold true.

It is a positive detriment to science, in my estimation, to create new

species of fossil birds upon the distal ends of long bones, and surely no

assistance whatever to those who honestly andeavor to gain some idea

of the avian species that really existed during prehistoric times.

far as M. altus and M. celei are concerned, I can only say that I know

nothing of them from a personal examination of the material upon-

which the species are based, and this has been refused me

In the case of Meleagris altus Professor Marsh says that the length

of the tarso-metatarsal is equal to 176.5 mm. (p. 261) and the present

writer says that it is by no means uncommon to find the same bones in

adult male specimens of M. gallopavo fully of that length, if not longer.

1Am. Jour. Sci., II, 1871, 126. :

2? Pr, Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1870, 11; and Am. Jour. Sci., IV, 1872, 260.

3 Am. Jour. Sci., 1872, 261

1897.] Anthropology. 649

The other characters Professor Marsh enumerates may each and all be

due to sexual and individual variations.

In the case of Meleagris celer this likewise holds true, and in regard

to the statement that the “ remains preserved indicate a bird about half

bulk of M. altus,’ may be said with equal truth of M. gallopavo, in

which species a similar discrepancy in size also exists between the sexes

and between old and young.

In other words I am of the opinion, so far as I am able to judge from

his descriptions, than when Professor Marsh described his three extinct

and new species of Meleagris, he had nothing more or less before him

than the very meagre and fragmentary remains of M. gallopavo.

Columbide : Ectopistes migratorius.—The Passenger Pigeon is repre-

sented in the collection by subfossil bones from several adult individ-

uals, viz. :—

Two left humeri (nearly perfect).

Four fragments of humeri.

One left carpo-metacarpi T

Three carpo-metacarpi (imperfec

Several coracoids (worn, and so aini.

One pelvic sacrum.

One left femur (perfect).

The several bones differ in no way with the corresponding bones as

they occur in adult specimens of Ectopistes as they exist at the present

times.

STRIGEs.

Megascops asio.—The Screech Owl is represented by a single speci-

men of a tarso-metatarsus—the bone agreeing completely with the cor-

responding one in the pelvic limb (of this species) of a skeleton in the

private collection of the writer.

Pici.

Ceophieus pileatus—A, right ulna with the extremities of the bone

imperfect represents the Pileated Woodpecker in the collection. The

specimen agrees exactly with the ulna of this species in the pectoral

limb of a skeleton in my own cabinets. Even the prominent papillæ

of the quill-butts of the secondary feathers down the shaft (and so

characteristic of the ulne of true Pici), agree in number and in their

*The relation of the specimens to the human culture layers discovered, the

associated remains of the Tapir, Mylodon and other mammals identified by Pro-

fessor Cope, and the shells identified by Professor Pilsbry is to be fully discussed

later in the forthcoming reports of the Tennessee Expeditions of the University.

650 The American Naturalist. [July,

several and corresponding distances apart, in the two bones when com-

pared.

Thus it will be seen that the subfossil bones of birds in this collection

from the several Bone Caves of Tennessee (so far as I have been able

to identify them with certainty), belonged only to species still abund-

antly found in our avifauna, or were found there. Of the species

enumerated below, it may be said that the Wild Turkey and the Pas-

senger Pigeon are on the high road toward total extinction.

Colymbus auritus. Colinus virginianus.

-Bonasa umbellus. Meleagris gallopava.

Ectopistes migratorius. Megascops asio.

Ceophlæus pileatus.

To these may be added a doubtful Duck aud a Grouse, while still

other bones represent species that cannot be satisfactorily identified

until the skeletons are made more complete by the discovery of addi-

tional material.—R. W. SHUFELDT.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Torrey Botanical Club.—Wednesday evening, March 31, 1897.

—The first paper, by Dr. Albert Schneider, “ The Phenomena of Sym-

biosis,” and a paper by Leonard Barron on “ Horticulture in Botani-

cal Gardens,” were read by title. `

The evening was occupied by a paper by Prof. Edward S. Burgess

on “ Aster macrophyllus and its Allies,” illustrated by chart of rela-

tionship and by numerous specimens. The speaker sketched briefly

the history of the species Aster macrophyllus, in which it has been the

custom of American botanists to include all large leaved Asters. He

showed how diverse these Asters are, and in what confusion their as-

signment toa single species results, and indicated the characters ac-

cording to which they form two groups each of several species and

varieties.

The paper which will soon appear in print, was discussed by Mr. E.

P. Bicknell, who confirmed the distinctions offered by the results of

his observations about New York, and by Dr. Britton, who paid a

tribute to the masterly manner in which Dr. Gray had treated the sub-

ject of the genus Aster so far as material was then available, and who

referred to the special need for extended field work and further collab-

oration which this genus had long presented.

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 651

Tuesday evening, April 13th.—Dr. Albert Schneider presented a

paper entitled “ Methods Employed in the Examination of Powdered

Drugs and their Adulterants,”

He described certain microscopic structural features which he had

investigated with a view to find characters by which to distinguish the

more important drugs, giving details of such characteristics determined

by him for mace, senna, leaves of Eucalyptus globules, ete.

Dr. Britton spoke of the utility of this work and of its objects in

behalf of the new edition of the U. S. Pharmacopeia.

Wednesday evening, April 28, 1897.—In the absence of officers,

Professor Underwood was elected Chairman of the meeting and Pro-

fessor Britton Secretary pro tem. There were 26 persons present.

The Chairman announced to the Club the recent death of Dr. Emily

L. Gregory, Professor of Botany in Barnard College, and remarked on

her life and works. Dr. H. M. Richards, Dr. H. H. Rusby and Miss

Alexandrina Taylor were appointed a committee to draw suitable reso-

lutions and report them to the Club at a subsequent meeting.

The scientific program comprised the following papers:

1. By Professor L. M. Underwood: “ Notes on the Ferns of Japan.”

(Abstract).

The immediate occasion of this paper was the receipt during the

past year of two separate collections of Japanese ferns of about 50 spe-

cies each, which, being from different portions of the island, scarcely

duplicated each other. Some of the more interesting were shown, in-

cluding Camptosorus sibiricus, Cystopteris japonica and Struthiopteris

orientalis.

The insular position of Japan together with a considerable range of

latitude, equalling that from St. Paul, Minn., to Mobile, Ala., gives

Japan a larger proportion of ferns than we have in the United States,

although the area of the islands is only that of the northeastern States

as far as the Virginias together with about one-half of Ohio.

The ferns are those of temperate climates and agree well with those

of the adjacent mainland so far as the latter are known. A few sub-

tropical forms enter the flora, but the really tropical species do not

reach the islands.

Many species are common inhabitants of Europe as well as the east-

ern United States, but the ferns of Japan offer very little support to

the once prevalent notion of the great similarity to the flora of the

eastern United States. In fact about as many Japanese species have

as many near allies in Pacific America as in other portions of the

country if we exclude the species quite generally distributed through

the North Temperate Zone.

652 The American Naturalist. [July,

Discussing the paper, Professor Britton cited a number of instances

among spermatophytes, in which species supposed to be common to

Japan and eastern North America, has been shown to be distinct. He

maintained that the theory of migration, as ordinarily accepted, was

insufficient to account for such similarity between the floras of the two

regions as actually exists. Mr. T. H. Kearney, Jr., remarked that in

comparing the grass-flora of the two regions, he had found that exclu-

sive of circumboreal species, only two species are in common.

The second paper was by P. A. Rydberg, entitled “ Floral Features

of Western Nebraska.”

It is a popular misconception that the country from Illinois to the

Rocky Mountains constitutes one undifferentiated region. In fact,

there are two entirely different regions, viz. :

1. The Prairie Region, with rich loam and a comparatively good sup-

ply of rain, extending to the Eastern Dakotas, Nebraska and Kan-

sas

2. The Region of the Great Plains, with dry, hard soil and scanty

rain-fall, comprising the western portion of said States, eastern

Colorado and Montana and the lower portion of Wyoming. In

Nebraska the prairie region includes the eastern and south central

portion of the State. The north central portion constitutes a region

unique to Nebraska, the Sand-Hill Region, spoken of in one of the

February meetings of the Club. Mr. Rydberg corrected a statement

made by him then, viz., that he had seen “blow outs” in that region

300 feet deep. He had intended to say 300 feet in diameter and 60 to

70 feet deep. :

The western portion of the State is made up of high plains, except &

small portion of the northwestern corner containing the * Pine Ridge”

and the “Bad Lands” of White River and Hat Creek. The plains

have very few rivers, and the drainage is mostly by means of “ sand-

draws.” Seen from a hill a sand-draw resembles a well beaten and

winding sandy road. It is a stream with no visible water. The water

is running from one to fifteen feet below the surface. Even the larger

streams as the Lodge Pole and South Platte sometimes sink down 10

the sand.

The plains are mostly covered by short grasses, the so-called Buffalo

grasses. In the hot, dry autumn, these become self-cured, and form an

excellent winter pasture for the stock. A little hay is cut on the low- :

lands and fed to the animals during snow-storms. Otherwise the cat-

tle and horses feed out during the whole winter. The Buffalo x

are: the original Buffalo grass Bulbilis dactyloides, Blue and Blac!

1897] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 653

grama Bouteloua oligostachya and hirsuta, and “ Nigger Heads,” Carex

filifolia.

In a region where the rain-fall is comparatively scant and distribu-

ted only during certain seasons of the year, the plants must be so con-

stituted as to be able to withstand a good deal of drought. In other

words, the evaporation must either be reduced to a minimum or the

plant must have special stores of water. The plants peculiar to this

region may be divided in the following groups:

1. Very hairy plants generally covered by thick pannose pubescence,

which retain the moisture, as species of Eriogonum, Astragalus, Euro-

tis, Senecio, Evolvulus and Artemisia.

2. Plants with glaucous foliage having a hard epidermis, as Yucca

glauca, Rumex venosus, Argemone alba, and several grasses.

3. Plants with white, often shreddy bark, as species of Mentzelia and

- Anogna.

4. Plants with very narrow and often involute leaves, as Lygodesmia

juncea and rostrata and several grasses and sedges.

5. Plants with fleshy stems in which the surface is reduced to a min-

imum and no leaves, as the Cacti.

6. Plants with a deep-seated, enlarged root, as the Bush Morning-

glory Ipomea leptophylla, and the Wild Pumpkin Cucurbita fætidissima.

Mr. Rydberg had seen a root of the former 3 feet long and almost 2

feet in diameter.

7. Plants covered with glands, containing essential oils, as Dysodia

papposa and Peetis angustifolia. The oil is supposed by some to have

a cooling effect, partly by taking up heat when evaporated and partly

by surrounding the plant by a cooler atmosphere, their specific heat

being much less than the air.

Numerous specimens were exhibited.

Three papers followed by Dr. J. K.Small, “ (a) The Sessile-flowered

Trillia of the Southern States,” (b) “ Notes on Epilobiacex.” Both

papers are published in the April issue of the Bulletin. y

Dr. Britton exhibited a specimen of Silene conica L., collected by

Mr. A. D. Selby at Clyde, Ohio. This species is a recent immigrant

from Europe.

N. L. BRITTON, Secretary, pro tem.

New York Academy of Sciences.—Biological Section. —April

5, 1897.—The Chairman, Prof, E. B. Wilson, in the chair. Twenty-

two persons present. Prof. Osborn moved that a committee be ap-

pointed to consider and take action on the question of postage on

654 The American Naturalist. [July,

Natural History specimens. The Chair appointed Doctors Dyar and

_ Dean and Prof. Stratford.

Professor Bristol offerred his resignation as Secretary. It was

accepted, and the election of his successor was laid over until the next

meeting.

Prof. Osborn reported upon the phylogeny of the early Eocene Tit-

anotheres, showing that they are divided into two distinct series in-

cluded under the genera Telmatotherium and Palosyops, both of

which independently acquired horns. The Telmatothere line begins

with T. boreale, a form which Cope referred to as Palzosyops. It is

distinguished by animals with long narrow skulls and high stilted feet,

and undoubtedly represented the upland types of the family. The

Palzosyops line, as suggested by Earle and Hatcher, passes through P.

laticeps and P. manteoceras and leads up to Dipladodon, the larger

species of which surpass in size the smaller Titanotheres of the Oligo-

cene. This main line gives off several collaterals, such as P. paludo-

sus. Lambdotherium does not belong in the Titanothere phylum at

all.

A second note related to a division of the two groups of placental

mammals, the Meseutheria and Ceneutheria. The former, since Wort-

man’s demonstration that the Ganodonta are ancestral edentates, must

now embrace this division, besides the Creodonta, Lemuroidea, Tillo-

dontia, Insectivora, Amblypoda and Condylarthra.

The third note related to the origin of the typical mammalian types

of teeth among the Theriodonta, Cynodontia and Gomphodontia of the

_ Triassic. It is especially noteworthy that the Gomphodontia afford a

demonstration of the origin of Multituberculate teeth from a trituber-

culate ground plan, as hypothetically assumed by the speaker some ,

years ago.

Mr. Bradney B. Griffin reported that in Thalassema (one of the

Echiurids) the spireme occurs in minute ova (3 micra in diameter)

floating clusters in the body cavity. The spireme segments into one-

half the somatic number of chromosomes, which by partial longitudinal

splitting pass into flattened ellipses. These elongate, and during the

growth period become twisted and distorted, and their true shape there-

by obscured. While entering the first polar spindle they appear as

loose open rings or compact rods (bivalent). These by concentration

and looping-up form crosses, opposite arms of which are attached to the

“ Zugfasern.” During metaphase the crosses become drawn out into

flattened ellipses which split across into two V’s with closely apposed

limbs. At telophase the latter separate at the angle and diverge in the

second polar mitosis. No longitudinal splitting of the V’s occurs.

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 655

In Zirhæa (Lamellibranch) the process is identical, although more

obvious by reason of the less close apposition of the halves of the rings

and V’s. The conclusion is that in both forms a reducing division

takes place.

Mr. J. H. McGregor offered a preliminary report on the develop-

ment of the Spermatozoa in Amphiuma.

Prof. F. E. Lloyd’s paper on Pholadidæa of the Pacific Coast was

read by title.

May 3, 1897.—The Chairman, Professor E. B. Wilson, in the chair.

Fifteen persons present. Mr. Gary N. Calkins, of Columbia Univer-

sity, was elected Secretary.

In the absence of Dr. Dyar, Chairman of the Committee appointed

to consider the question of postage on Natural History specimens, Pro-

fessor Stratford reported that the Postmaster General had been notified,

and that the matter had received due consideration.

Upon behalf of the Committee appointed to draw up a resolution

relating to the death of Professor Cope, Professor Osborn delivered a

brief eulogy of the great naturalist, pointing out the especial features

which have made his work famous and have given him such a high

position in the history of Natural Science. He dwelt especially upon

the fact that Professor Cope prosecuted five great lines of work simul-

taneously, and that in each he acquired a commanding position. He

also spoke of some of his generous qualities as a fellow scientific worker,

especially his liberality in the loan of collections and generous recogni-

tion of the work of others. Finally, he alluded to his remarkable inde-

pendence and fortitude of character, and persistent devotion to science,

even with limited resources. His death leaves a vacuum especially in

the line of able and accurate criticism of contemporary work. Pro-

fessor Osborn concluded by submitting the following resolution :

The members of the New York Academy of Sciences desire to record

their admiration of the noble services to Science of the late Professor

Edward D. Cope. Since 1859, when he offered his first contribution to

the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, at the age of nineteen, he has

been a devoted and brilliant investigator in five great branches of

Natural History, ichthyology, herpetology of the batrachians and

reptiles, mammalian paleontology, historical geology and philosophy.

In each he has long been an acknowledged leader, and his combined

knowledge of all has given his researches a philosophical breadth, grasp

and permanence, which place him among the great masters of Compara-

tive Anatomy, Cuvier, Owen and Huxley. We deeply regret that his

untimely death has cut short his life work, and feel that the loss of his

656 The American Naturalist. [July,

keen critical and productive faculty deals a blow to the cause of com-

parative anatomy of the vertebrata throughout the world which can

hardly be measured. We tender to the American Philosophical Society

and to the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, of which Pro-

fessor Cope was a life long member, an expression of our deep regret at

their loss, and of our readiness to codperate with them in the establish-

ment of some suitable memorial.

. Henry F. OSBORN.

Poe l de. Ponar

Mr. A. E. Crampton, Jr. gave a brief abstract of a paper by F. C.

Baker on “ Notes on Variations in the Apex of Gasteropod Molluscs.”

Professor Bashford Dean and Mr. F. P. Summer reported on the

spawning habits of Petromyzon wilderi at Van Cortlandt Pond.

Mr. H. E. Crampton, Jr. reported on some Coalescence-Experiments

with Lepidoptera.

A paper on the “ Vertical Distribution of Plankton in Deep-Sea-

Collections from Puget Sound” by Prof. James I. Peck and Mr. N. R.

Harrington was read by title.—Gary N. CALKINS, Secretary.

The Academy of Science of St, Louis.—At the meeting of

the Academy of Science of St. Louis on the 7th of June, 1897,

twenty-one persons present, Mr. Robert Combs, of Ames, Iowa, pre-

sented a paper entitled Plants Collected in the District of Cienfuegos,

Province of Santa Clara, in 1895-1896. The paper embraces the

results of a collection extending from the commencement of the rainy

season of one year until the close of the dry season the following

spring, the territory covered by the collection lying between the

entrance of the Bay of Cienfuegos, on the south coast of Cuba, up the

bay and the river Damuji to Rodas, and extending back from the

river to Yaguaramos and almost to the Cienega de Zapato, a region

including nearly all kinds of soil and condition found upon the island,

except those of the mountain regions and the mud swamps. A brief

statement was made concerning the origin of the Cuban flora and its

affinities with that of continental Central America, rather than the

geographically nearer Floridan region.

The paper comprised a full catalogue of the collections made, which

had been determined at the herbarium of Harvard University, and of

which several sets had been distributed to the larger herbaria.

Professor F. E. Nipher made some remarks on the difficulties yet

involved in the theories of the ether.

WILLIAM TRELEASE, Recording Secretary.

1897]. Scientific News. 657

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The following changes made by the Postal Congress will interest

naturalists generally :—

1. The principal treaty, the entry of Corea into the Postal Union,

the declaration of the Orange Free State, which had not yet sent a

delegate to Washington, that it hoped in a short time to enter into the

Union; the declaration of the empire of China, represented in the

cougresses, that it will adhere to the union as soon as the organization

of its service permits it.

2. Uniform colors have been adopted for postage stamps.

3. Postal cards unpaid are subject to a double tax, that is four cents

in place of a tax equal to that upon letters unpaid, which is 10 cents.

4. Circulars produced on a typewriter in quantities of twenty circu-

lars or more, all of the same character, are admitted-at same tariff as

are printed circulars.

5. Samples of merchandise are admitted up to 350 grammes, except in

the case of a contrary arrangement, when the maximum weight will be

250 grammes.

6. Objects of natural history, animals, dried plants or preserved

zoological specimens are admitted as samples.

7. The question of the creation of a universal postage stamp has been

negatively decided on account of the difficulties which will occur in

putting in practice that important innovation, and especially because

of the diversity of the units of money of the various countries.

The next session of the Congress, the sixth one, will be held at Rome,

Italy, in February, 1903.

In a letter to Forest and Stream, Mr. Bainbridge Bishop deprecates

the action of the U. S. Fish Commissioners in stocking the trout and

land locked salmon lakes with smelt. While it is true that adult trout

fatten on the smelt, the smelt can also fatten on the young trout and

salmon, the smelt being 1,000 to 1 in the majority. The absence of

trout in Lake Champlain from Westport to Cumberland Head, an

ideal lake trout water, he attributes to smelt which are found at all

times of the year in all the deeper parts of the lake, and in the identi-

cal depth of water that would naturally be inhabited by young and

adult trout. His observations go to show that the introduction of smelt

into the great lakes would be almost a national calamity, foretokening

the extinction of trout fishing, both commercial and y ra

658 The American Naturalist. [July,

Prof. G. O. Sars who has for many years been studying the vari-

ous groups of Crustacea has in preparation a complete account of the

Crustacea of Norway, and his work is now in course of publication by

the Bergen Museum. All the known Norwegian species will be de-

scribed and figured. Parts III and IV of vol. I, containing descrip-

tions and illustrations of five families of Isopods, viz., Anthuride,

Gnathiide, Aegidæ, Cirolanide, and Limnoriide, have just been issued.

Among recent deaths we notice: H. d’Achon, coleopterist, at Or-

léans; Dr. Maurice Teinturier, coleopterist, at Clayeures, France ;

Edmund Neminar, formerly professor of mineralogy and petrology in

Innsbruch, on April 10, 1897, at Vienna; Karl Kélbel, custodian of

the Natural History Hofmuseum at Vienna; Ludwig Juranyi, profes-

sor of botany at Budapest, February 27th ; Dr. A. Kumgott, professor

of mineralogy at Ziirich, March 15, aged 79.

Dr. W. H. Evans, of Washington, D. C., has gone to Alaska for

several months to investigate the agricultural resources and possibili-

ties of that portion of the territory lying south of the Aleutian penin-

sula. He will report to Congress as to the advisability of establishing

experiment stations there. Dr. Sheldon Jackson is to collect similar

information regarding the Yukon Basin.

Professor Nelson, the University of Wyoming botanist, will make

an excursion into the Red Sea Desert. This tract of land has never

received a botanical investigation, and the professor has planned to

make three other trips into the desert during the summer. He expects

to obtain many rare botanical specimens.

A proposition is under consideration in the English scientific socie-

ties fur the establishment, in commemoration of the sixtieth year of

Her Majesty’s reign, of a Victoria research fund, to be administered by

representatives of the various scientific societies for the encouragement

of research in all branches of science.

Professor Bruner, of the University of Nebraska, has sailed for

Buenos Ayres, where he will spend a year investigating the injurious

locusts which have, of late, increased enormously in three of the east-

ern provinces of the Argentine Republic.

Dr. Ludwig Heim goes to the University of Erlangen as professor

extraordinarius of bacteriology; Dr. Vladislaw Szymonowiez of Cra-

cow goes to Lemberg as professor extraordinarius of histology and em-

bryology in the university there.

1897.] Scientific News. 659

At its commencement exercises, on June 15th, Johns Hopkins gave

its first doctors’ degrees in medicine. One of the recipients is Miss

Mary S. Packard, the only one of her sex in the class.

The Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, has purchased from the

widow of Dr. Arthur Schott, the plants collected by him in Campeche,

Tabasco, Upper Mexico, Hungary, and elsewhere.

Dr. Edward Fischer has been advanced to the position of professor

of botany in the University of Berne; Dr. Gaupp to the professorship

extraordinary of anatomy in Freiburg.

The gold medal of the Linnean Society of London has been con-

ferred upon Dr. Jacob Georg Agardh, Emeritus Professor of Botany at

the University of Lund.

The endeavor, at Cambridge, to open a possibility for the reception

of degrees by women has been defeated by an overwhelming vote of

1707 to 661.

Drs. E. Barclay-Smith and F. C. Kempson have been appointed

senior and junior demonstrators of anatomy in the University of Cam-

bridge.

Johann S. Kubary, who probably knew the islands of the South Sea

as well as any one, died at Ponapé, Caroline Island, the last of October,

1896.

The general board of studies at Cambridge propose to establish a

lectureship in experimental psychology at a stipend of £50 per annum,

The degree of Doctor of Philosophy was conferred upon Mr. Roscoe

Pound by the University of Nebraska at its recent commencement.

Mr. Edward Dodson has left England for Morocco, with the object

of investigating the fauna of the country around the Atlas range

Dr. E. Fischer has been made full professor of botany in the Uni-

versity of Berne and director of the botanical gardens there.

Professors Biitschli and Weismann have been elected to correspond-

ing membership in the Academy of Sciences of Berlin.

Dr. Georges Ville, professor of vegetable physiology in the Museum

of Natural History at Paris, died February 23, 1897.

Professor Conway Macmillan goes to Europe for the summer on

business connected with the University of Minnesota.

660 The American Naturalist. [July,

The Royal Society of Edinburg has elected Professors Zirkel, Heid-

enhain and Cohn to honorary membership.

Mr. W. Garstang has been appointed naturalist to the Marine Bio-

logical Association at Plymouth, England.

Mr. Robert Douglas, well known in the line of arboriculture and

forestry, died June 1st at Waukegan, Ill.

Dr. J. S. Kingsley is to spend the summer in Jamaica, as also is Dr.

J. E. Humphrey and Dr. W. K. Brooks.

Dr. W. B. Pillsbury has been elected to an instructorship in psy-

chology at the University of Michigan.

* Dr. Johannes Martin has been appointed director of the Natural

History Museum in Oldenburg.

Miss Mary E. Pennington has been made fellow in hygiene at the

University of Pennsylvania.

Dr. P. Francotte has been elected professor of embryology at the

University of Brussels.

Prof. J. L. Prevost has been made professor of physiology in the

University of Geneva.

A gift of $100,000 was made McGill University by the will of the

late J. H. R. Molson

The Catholic University of America has received $5,000 as a founda-

tion for a fellowship.

Dr. H. K. Wolfe has resigned the chair of psychology at the Uni-

versity of Nebraska.

Dr. J. J. Zumstein has been made hee of anatomy at the Uni-

versity of Marburg.

Dr. J. H. Leuba has received a position in psychology at Clark Uni-

versity.

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Vol. XXXI. AUGUST, 1897.

CONTENTS

PAGE

New BOISERVATIONS ON THE ORIGIN OF T ienen A Region of Environmental Change—Geo-

PAGOS ISLANDS, WITH REMARKS logical News.

GEOLOGICAL Ack or THE en ae ; Oeax. 661 Botany—The Death of Sichs- Oppårtami a

ON THE AFFINITIES oF TARSIUS: A CONTRIBUTION for Research in the Missouri Botanical Garden.

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VoL. XXXI. August, 1897. 368

NEW OBSERVATIONS ON THE ORIGIN OF THE

GALAPAGOS ISLANDS, WITH REMARKS

ON THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF

THE PACIFIC OCEAN.

By G. Baur, Pu. D.,

ASSOCIATE-PROFESSOR OF PALEONTOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO.

In December, 1890, I wrote a paper, “On the origin of the

Galápagos Islands,’ which was published in the AMERICAN

Naruraist of March and April, 1891, one month before I left

for the archipelago. This paper opens with the following re-

marks: “All islands can be divided into two principal groups :

1. Islands developed from continents or larger bodies of land

through isolation or subsidence—Continental Islands. 2. Islands

not developed from continents, but from submarine coh a

of the earth— Oceanic Islands.

“The flora and fauna of the first group will be more or less

harmonic—that is to say, the islands will be like satellites of the

continent from which they developed, and the whole group

comparable to a planetary system. The flora and fauna of the

second group will be disharmonie—that is to say, it will be com-

posed of a mixture of forms which have been introduced acci-

dentally from other places. It is evident the first group of

! Baur, G. “On the Origin of the Galapagos,” AMERICAN NATURALIST, March,

1891, p. gm April, 1891, p. 307-326.

662 The American Naturalist. [August,

islands will be affected gradually in the same way ; there will

be immigrants from other localities besides the original in-

habitants. *

“Continental islands, therefore, may be composed of two floral and

faunal elements: first, an original (endogenous) one; and second,

a secondary (exogenous) one. Oceanic islands, however, will only

contain a secondary (or exogenous) floral and faunal element, they

never will show harmonic distribution.”

By the study of the Galápagos Islands I reached the con-

clusion that the distribution of the animals was harmonic, and

that the theory of the oceanic origin was therefore not correct.

This opinion I have sustained in the following papers: 1.

Das Variiren der Eidechsen-Gattung Tropidurus auf den Galá-

pagos Inseln., Biol. Centralbl, Vol. X, 1890, p. 475-483.

2. Account of my Trip to the Galapagos Islands, dated Chat-

ham Island, August 28, 1891, Amer. Nar., Vol. XXV, 1891, p-

902-907. 3. Ein Besuch der Galápagos Inseln., Biol. Centralbl.,

Vol. XII, 1892, p. 221-250, also H. de Varigny. Voyage scien-

tifique aux Isles Galápagos, Revue Scientif., Vol. 50, No. 13,

24 Sept., 1892, p. 391-400. 4. Das Variiren der Eidechsen-

Gattung Tropidurus auf den Galápagos Inseln. Festschrift zam

siebenzigsten Geburtstage Rudolf Leuckart’s, Leipzig, 1892,

p. 259-277, 4° (with variation curves). 5. The Differentiation

of Species on the Galápagos Islands and the Origin of the

Group, Biol. Lect. Marine Biol. Laborat. Wood’s Holl., 1894,

Boston, 1895, p. 67-78.

In this last paper I gave a table showing the distribution of

seven genera on the Galápagos Islands; I also gave a table of

the distribution of seven genera of birds on the West Indies.

Since the West Indies show harmonic distribution, and since

it is proved that they were formed by the splitting up of a con-

tinuous land area, the same must be true for the Galápagos.

This paper has been reviewed by Professor F. Ratzel in

Leipsic, Professor S. Günther in Munich, and Professor O.

Böttger in Frankfort. They all agree with my view. Ratzel

says: “ Baur concludes from the‘ harmonic distribution ’ of the

variations that the Galápagos, like the Antilles, originated by

sinking of the sea bottom, and were certainly not formed by

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 663

single volcanic islands, that they were formerly connected

through Cocos Island with Central America.” He correctly re-

jects the hypothesis of the consistency of continents and oceans,

(Dr. A. Petermann’s Mitteilungen, 1895, Heft 12, p. 184-185.)

Günther’ remarks: “It is known and generally admitted,

that for the solution of the question about the origin of a cer-

tain island, or a group of islands, the application of zoogeo-

graphy is of the highest value. The paper before me shows

how important it will be for physiography, if correctly applied.

Professor Alexander Agassiz had insisted that the Galapagos

Islands never had been in connection with the American conti-

nent, but were typical volcanic islands. But, if the single

islands are all of marine origin, if they were occupied only

later by organisms from the continent, fauna and flora ought

to show a pretty variegated aspect, making an impression of a

mixture of forms. There would be no reason, why one of the

islands, which are all closely placed together, should have been

preferred to another one, if really the currents of the air and

the sea alone effect the transportation of organic germs.

Baur’s detailed examination revealed a totally different pic-

ture. He showed that each, or nearly each islandghas peculiar

representatives of certain genera, Tropidurus, birds, etc. This

can only be explained by subsidence. The tables given by

Baur of the distribution cannot be misunderstood. The Galá-

pagos must be considered as the remains of a Miocene land—

connection with the continent, to which belonged probably also

the West Indian Archipelago.”

Böttger’ also agrees with me, and as his review with

the following sentence: “ Baur finally reached the conclusion,

that the lines of the continents of former geological periods do

not agree at all with those of the present continents, the more

we go back in geological time the larger are the differences.”

“ With this theoretical exposition he gives us an interesting ex-

ample, that by biological research deductions can be made for

geological problems.”

*Giinther, 8, Naturwissensch. Rundschau, 1895, No. 42, p. 542-543.

? Böttger, O. Zoolog. Centralbl., I, No. 15, p. 401-463, Sept. 2, 1895.

664 The American Naturalist. [August,

- Ortmann‘ is of the same opinion, and referring to my papers,

he says: “The Galápagos Islands may be considered a classi-

cal example of the influence of separation for the formation

of species.”

Meanwhile Mr. Townsend’s’ paper on the Birds of Cocos

Island had appeared, the results of which showed to be very

interesting for the question of the origin of the Galapagos.

Dendroica aureola Gould, Cocornis Agassizi Townsend, Neso-

triccus ridgwayi Townsend, and Coccyzus ferrugineus Gould were

found, the last species having only been known before. Den-

droica aureola Gould occurs also on the Galápagos, besides it

has been recorded on Gorgona Island, on the southeast coast

of Columbia, north of Tumaco; at Esmeralda, Ecuador; and

Posorja, north of the Island of Puna, in the Gulf of Guayaquil ;

in western Peru, at Santa Luciaand Tumbez. Cocornis Agassiz

Townsend is the representative of Cactornis (Gray) of the Gala-

pagos, and Nesotriccus ridgwayi Townsend very close to Myiar-

chus magnisostris. Coccyzus ferrugineus Gould is related to species

of Central America and the West Indies. Cocos Island is placed

between the Galápagos and the Cordillera de Veragua. The

1500-fathom line probably embraces Cocos Island and the

Galapagos from the Island of Coiba.

We shall now consider the botanical evidence.

During my visit of the Galapagos (June 10-September 6,

1891) I collected plants on Albemarle, Indefatigable, James,

Chatham, Charles, Hood, Gardner, Bindloe, Abingdon, Bar-

rington, Tower ard Jervis. These have been determined at

the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University by Mr. B. L. Rob-

inson and J. M. Greenman ê

‘Ortmann, Arnold E. Grundzüge der marinen Thieregographie, Jena, 1896,

p. 29; and “On Separation, and its Bearing on Geology and Zoogeography g

Amer. Journ. Science, Vol. II, 1896, p. 63-69. ;

$ Townsend, C. H. Birds from Cocos and Malpelo Islands, with Notes on the

Petrels obtained at Sea. Bull. Mus. Zool., Harvard College, Vol. xxVII,

No. 3, Cambridge, July, 1895, p. 121-126. _

ê Robinson, B. L., and J. M. Greenman. Contributions from Gray Herbarium

of Harvard University, New Series, No. IX, I. On the Flora of the Galapagos

Islands, as shown by the Collections of Dr. G. Baur, Amer. Jour. Science, Vol.

L, August 1, 1895, p. 135-149.

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 665

From this paper I quote the following: “It is well known

not only that the archipelago possesses a peculiar and remark-

able vegetation, but that the different islands exhibit in their

floras a striking individuality.” “While upon some of the

smaller islands Dr. Baur collected only a few species, enough

material is at hand not merely to confirm strongly the view

that almost every island has its peculiar species and varieties,

but to show clearly that even plants, which must pass as the

same species, often exhibit, when found upon several islands,

more or less striking racial differences. These facts, while in

other respects noteworthy, derive a special interest from their

relation to the probable origin of the flora of the group. Re-

garding the fauna Dr. Baur has in several recent articles called

attention to peculiar harmonic relations existing between the

forms of the different islands, and has argued from zoological

grounds that the islands must at one time been united, not only

with each other but with the mainland near Central America.”

“ This view has been severely criticised by several writers, but

no one has attempted to account for the peculiar distribution

of differing, yet closely related forms upon the islands, and as

the subject is one which merits further attention, it seems

worth while to present the botanical data in some detail.

Perhaps no species to be found upon the different islands

better illustrates the noteworthy racial divergence in related

forms than Euphorbia viminia Hook. fil. This species differs

markedly in foliage from any other known member of this

large genus, and is characteristic of the Galapagos Archipelago.

Being essentially a desert plant, it can subsist even upon those

islands of the group which are of low altitude and do not attain

the upper regions of moister atmosphere. It was first collected

by Macrae upon Albemarle, rediscovered by Anderson on

Charles, and has now been collected by Dr. Baur on the fol-

lowing islands: Barrington, Chatham, Southern and Eastern

Albemarle, James, Jervis, Bindloe, Tower and Abingdon.

Even the most cursory inspection of the forms from these dif-

ferent islands discloses marked variation in the contour, size,

thickness, rigidity, and color of the leaves, as well as in the

length of the intenodes, color of the stem, etc., while more

666 The American Naturalist. [August,

careful examination shows that these are not mere individual

differences, due to chance, state of development, or individual

environment, but each form appears in general to be restricted

to a single island. Some forms, such as those from Abingdon

and Tower Islands, differ rather strikingly from the rest, while

others present slighter differences, in a few cases too slight,

that a series of careful measurements is necessary to demon-

strate their existence. But the examination of considerable

number of specimens, such as those secured by Dr. Baur, shows

that the species as it occurs on each island differs in some

characteristics, slight or more considerable from the forms of

all or nearly all the other islands, and furthermore, each island

appears to have only one form of its own.

The question at once presents itgelf: If this archipelago is

composed of islands of elevation, built up from the sea-floor

independently by volcanic action, how has such a distribution

been effected? If the vegetation has been derived from the

mainland by the chance of transportation of seeds, it is quite

impossible to believe that each island has received a slightly

different form of the same species, and we are forced to the

much more natural assumption that racial and varietal diver-

gence has come about after the introduction of the species

upon the islands. Now, continuing the supposition that these

are islands of elevation, the seeds of Euphorbia viminea must

have reached them in one of two ways: either each of the nine

islands, where we know the species now to occur, must have

received its seed directly from the mainland ; or, what is much

- More natural, seed must have reached one or more of the

islands, and from there spread to the rest. That the same

species should have reached all these islands presupposes pe

considerable facility of transportation. But as soon as this is

granted it is impossible to understand the highly individual

development of the forms upon the different islands. For rela-

tive or complete isolation seems necessary to account for the

racially divergent floras of the islands; and especially for the

occurrence of only one form upon each island. It would thus

appear necessary, in accounting for the present distribution,

to assume that at one time in the remote past the islands were

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 667

either united, or at least that the channels which separate them

were less formidable barriers to seed transportation than at

present, so that general distribution of species could have been

effected ; and that subsequently, as the islands separated, or as

the channels through some change of currents, or other cause,

became less easily passed, an era of much greater isolation of

the floras of the different islands came about. The divergence

of character of the vegetation would then begin at once, and

the otherwise unaccountable existence of a single and peculiar

form upon each island would be readily intelligible.”

While not prepared to make any positive assertion regard-

ing the probable origin of the islands, the authors fail to see

in the hitherto generally accepted theory of elevation any

satisfactory explanation for the harmonic yet divergent floras

of the different members of the group. Upon Dr. Baur’s as-

sumption of a former union between the islands and subse-

quent separation by subsidence, not only is explanation

possible, but the existing flora of the archipelago is just that

which would most naturally result from such an origin. A

former union of the islands would account at once for the

occurrence of identicai ancestral species upon the different

members of the group, and the subsequent separation give the

needed isolation for varietal and racial divergence, while the

latter could not have come about if a continental interchange

of seeds were taking place from island to island.

Regarding a former land-connection with the continent,

which would certainly offer much greater geological difficul-

ties, the botanical evidence is still too vague to merit regard.

The affinities of the vegetation of the upper, moister portions

of the islands are doubtless, as has been assumed, with the

floras of Columbia, Central America, Southern Mexico, and the

West Indies, while much of the desert flora of the lower regions

has doubtless been derived from the arid regions of Chili and

Peru. But, so far as botanical data are concerned, this could

have come about either by migration by land or by transporta-

tion by oceanic currents, and, as the latter still exist, it seems

unnecessary to assume the former. However, on this point,

the evidence from the vegetation appears to be still wholly

indecisive,

668 The American Naturalist. [August,

The harmonic relation of the floras of the different islands,

which, as we have seen, appears to have such an interesting

bearing upon the former possible connection of the islands

with each other, is shown not only by Euphorbia viminea, but

by various other endemic species and groups of species of the

same and other genera and orders.

All the Galapageian species of Euphorbia for instance, with

the exception of E. amplesicaulis Hook. fil., form a closely re-

lated group, doubtless having a comparatively recent common

ancestry ; but most of these forms are characteristic of particu-

lar islands. The same is eminently true of the different species

of Acalypha. The Borreriz of the Galápagos Islands also form,

for the most part, a close group of very nearly related species,

or, perhaps, better varieties of one polymorphous species, all

of which have probably diverged from a uniform parent stock

after the separation of the insular floras from that of the main-

land and from each other. Here, however, we find in some

instances the same form upon two or more of the islands, as

though transportation of the seed had offered somewhat less

difficulties than in the case of Euphorbia viminea.” The forms

of Euphorbia viminea Hook. fil. are as follows:

Forma Albemarlensis (typica).-—Albemarle Island ; collected

first by Macrae, and again by Dr. Baur, on the southern end of

the island in July, and on the eastern side in August, 1891.

Forma Jacobensis.—Collected by Dr. Baur near Orchilla Bay,

Northern James Island, August, 1891.

Forma Castellana.—Collected on Tower Island, by Dr. Baur,

September 1891.

Forma Chathamensis—Collected on Chatham Island, lower

region, southwest end, by Dr. Baur, June, 1891.

Forma Carolensis—Collected on Charles Island, by Ander-

son, 1852.

Forma Barringtonensis.—Collected on Barrington Island, by

Dr. Baur, July, 1891.

Forma Jervensis—Collected on Jervis Island, by Dr. Baur,

August, 1891.

TI do not give here the description of these varieties, which may be looked up

in the original paper.

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 669

Var. Abingdonensis.—Collected on Abingdon Island, by Dr.

Baur, September, 1891. This form is so well marked as to

merit varietal rank.

In Amarantus sclerantoides Ands. a racial variation has been

noted similar to that in Euphorbia viminea. The type of the

former was colleeted on Charles Island by Anderson. Two

forms collected by Dr. Baur upon Chatham and Hood Islands

differ perceptibly in foliage :

orma Chathamensis.—Collected at Chatham Island, lower

region, southwest end, June,

Forma Hoodensis.—Collected on Hood Island, July, 1891.

We shall now see what Mr. W. Botting Hemsley, of the

Royal Kew Gardens, has to say, who is a specialist in insular

oras.

In 1894 the first part of a splendid series of papers appeared

in Science Progress under the title, “Insular Floras,” in which

some remarks about the flora of the Galápagos are made. At

the end the following sentence occurs:

“Concerning the origin of the fauna and flora of the Galá-

pagos, Agassiz vigorously attacks and ridicules Baur’s theory

of subsidence, put forward with so much confidence, and briefly

stated thus: ‘The Galapagos are continental islands, originated

through subsidence ; they all formed at a past period one large

island, and this island itself was at a still former period in |

connection with the American continent.’* It will be sufficient

“Hemsley, W. Botting. Insular Floras. Science Progress, Vol. I, No. 5,

Juy, 1894, p. 400- hig

° These words occur in my paper on the ‘‘ Origin of the Galápagos Islands,”

April, 1891, p. 307, ‘published before my departure. The sentence which ex-

eory is preceded by the following words: “I started with the sen-

tence that continental islands must have a harmonic flora and fauna. In the

Galápagos we found absolute harmony ; my conclusion, therefore, is,’ etc. I have

replied to the criticisms made by Prof. Agassiz in his, ‘‘ General Sketch of the

Expedition of the Albatross,” from February to May, 1891, (Bull. Mus. Comp.

Zool., Harvard Col., Vol. XXIII, No. 1, Cambridge, Feb., 1892) in Science,

Vol. XIX, No. 477, March 25, 1892, p. 176. From this I quote the following:

“Professor Agassiz has completely overlooked the main point of my argument.

This I considered the harmony in the distribution of fauna and flora, as will be

seen by referring to my paper. I tried to show that this harmony was absolutely

unexplainable by the theory of elevation. After this was done, I examined

whether our present knowledge of the soundings showed any serious obstacle to

. 670 The American Naturalist. [August,

to have directed attention to the discussion here. It is worth

adding, however, that Baur’s article is supplemented by an ex-

cellent bibliography.”

On October 24, 1895, Hemsley” published a review of Rob-

inson’s and Greenman’s Flora of the Galapagos Islands.

“ Dr. G. Baur’s theory of the origin of the Galapagos Islands

is too well known to need explanation here; yet, it may be

briefly designated the theory of subsidence. He argues that

the islands were formerly connected with each other, and at

an earlier period with the American continent. It is also al-

most needless to say that this theory has met with an exceed-

_ ingly hostile recognition. The publication of an account of

the botanical collections (Robinson and Greenman) affords an

opportunity of examining this theory from a botanical stand-

point. For the purposes of the ‘Botany’ of the Challenger

Expedition, and ever since that publication of this work, I

have collected all the data coming under my notice bearing

on the dispersal of plants to considerable distances by wind,

water, birds or other creatures, excepting human. The evi-

dence thus collected sufficiently accounts for the vegetation of

low coral islands, and the littoral vegetation of widely separated

countries ; but it in no way helps to explain the vegetation of

the enormously distant islands of the Anarctic seas, for exam-

ple, or that of the islands of the Galápagos group, to give an-

other instance.

“ But these are not parallel cases; they are the two extremes

in the amount of differentiation in connection with isolation.

“ The biological phenomena of the Galapagos Islands left a

deeper impression, probably, on the mind of Darwin than those

of any other part of the world he visited, and doubtless had

the theory of subsidence, and I found that it did not. Professor Agassiz did not

refer with one word to this harmony of distribution, which formed the basis of ™Y

whole ideas. When Professor Agassiz, or any one else, is able to explain this by |

the elevation theory, I shall be the first one to adopt it. But, until this has been

done, I believe in subsidence. The paper to which Professor Agassiz refers Ws

written before my visit to the islands. My investigations have only more con

vinced me of the insufficiency of the elevation theory.”’

Hemsley, W. Botting. The Flora of the Galápagos Islands. Nature, Vol.

52, No. 1356, October 24, 1895, p. 623.

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 671.

much to do with his later conception of the origin of species.

The fact on which he laid special stress was that the genera, to

a very great extent, were the same as in all the islands, and

the species different in each island. Dr. Baur’s much more

extensive zoological and botanical collections and observations

confirm and emphasize the correctness of the view of his illus-

trious predecessor of fifty years ago. Darwin especially refers

to the existence of different species or races of tortoises and

mocking-thrushes [Nesomimus] in many of the islands; and

Baur’s examination of the lizards of the genus Tropidurus, from

twelve of the islands, reveals the same condition of things. The

botanists bring forward Euplorbia viminea in illustration of this

phenomenon. This species was described by Sir Joseph Hooker

from a single specimen collected by Macrae in Albemarle

Island, and the author remarks that. he “knew of no species

with which to compare this highly curious one.” Dr. Baur

collected it extensively in eight of the islands, and the speci-

mens from almost every one of them [7] exhibit distinct racial

characteristics. Acalaphe, a genus of the same natural order,

presents somewhat more pronounced variation in the different

islands, which some botanists regard as of specific value; other

botanists, as of varietal value only. Whatever status we give

these forms, the flora asa whole is a most instructive and con-

vincing illustration of evolution.

“A remarkable peculiarity of the Galapagos flora as an in-

sular flora is the almost total absence of endemic genera, for

the two or three genera of the Composite restricted to the

islands are so closely allied to the American genera as hardly

to count as distinct. Indeed, the whole flora is so thoroughly

‘American that, apart from geological difficulties, it might be

regarded as a differentiated remnant thereof, rather than de-

rived therefrom, after the supposed elevation of the islands.

Analogous conditions and phenomena are repeated in the deep

valleys of the great mountain chains of northern India and

western China, where, in neighboring valleys, the genera are

to a great extent the same and the species different.

“Looking at the composition of the Galapagos flora, espe-

cially with an eye to the probabilities of the transport of the

672 The American Naturalist. [August,

seeds of its constituents, combined with present conditions, Dr.

Baur’s theory seems deserving of more serious consideration

than it has hitherto received. My slender knowledge of geol-

ogy alone prevents me from taking up a more decided position.”

The last communication of Hemsley" appeared in the June

number of Science Progress, 1896. He writes: “ When review-

ing the newer literature relating to the flora of the Galapagos

Islands I found little to add to what had been done by Darwin,

Hooker and Anderson; merely mentioning the visit of the

United States ship Albatross,and Dr. Baur’s theory of the origin

of the fauna and flora. Since then an account of Dr. Baur’s

botanical collections has been published, and the substance

has also appeared in an English journal, and Dr. Baur himself

has written and lectured in defense of his theory of the origin

of this group of islands. As previously stated, he contends

that the evidence points to the present condition being the re-

sult of subsidence, that the islands were formerly connected

with each other, and at a still earlier period with continental

America, Although this theory has been derided, I think the

biological data strongly favor its correctness ; and the soundings

given in the map accompanying Agassiz’s report of the Alba-

tross expedition show a relatively shallow area in which the

Galapagos Islands are situated, and which extends eastward to

the mainland of Veragua. Probably the segregation would

be greatly anterior to the segregation of the West Indian

Islands.”

It is seen that the subsidence theory has won very extensive

ground, in fact, there are only very few opponents left which

in the future might be converted. Besides Agassiz, whom I

have mentioned before, Stearns, Dall and Wolff. Dr. Stearns”

had only seen my paper published in the AMERICAN NATURAL-

1st (March, April, 1891), before my visit to the Galapagos. He

believes in the elevation theory and the accidental importation

of the fauna and flora by currents.

" Hemsley, W. Botting. Insular Floras. Part VI. Science Progress, Vol. V,

No. 28, June, 1896, p. 298-302.

“Stearns, Robert E. C., Ph.D. Report on the Mollusk-Fauna of the Galí-

pagos Islands, with Descriptions of New Species. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., Vol

XVI, p. 353-450, Pl. LI-LII, Washington, 1893.

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 673

W. H. Dall,’ who has written the most extensive work on

the landshells of the Galapagos Islands, also adopts the acci-

dental introduction of the fauna. He says, p. 403: “ Omitting

the Auriculide and Siphonariidx, we have, as supposed, pecu-

liar forms in each group of islands: twenty-one characteristic

of the southeastern, fourteen from the central, and one from the

northeastern group of islands, which agree well with the hypo-

thesis that the species originated with forms brought by winds

and currents which impinge first on the southeastern group.

On the other hand, itis certain that the southeastern islands

are much better known than either of the other groups, and

that the area and fertility of the central group are such

that there is every reason to suppose many more forms remain

to be discovered there, perhaps, including some of those so far

known only from the southeastern islands. Prudence strongly

urges, that we know too little of the mollusk fauna yet to in-

telligibly discuss its inter-island distribution.”

If the seeds of the different forms of Euphorbia viminea Hook.

fil. are not blown or floated from one island to the other, as

we have seen above, I cannot imagine that the landshells have

been transported from island to island, or even from the Ameri-

can continent. Why ought these animals form an exception

from the other ones? ;

Dr. Th. Wolf™ does not agree at all with the subsidence

theory. He says: “ Every geologist will stand up against Dr.

Baur’s hypothesis, until he shall have proved that it is abso-

lutely indispensable for the explanation of the organic creation

(organische Schdpfung) of the islands. The answering of the

question: How have the present species of animals and plants

been developed from the immigrated (or, according to Baur,

the remaining) South American” species? is very difficult.

Here opens, of course, an enormous field for speculation, and,

as long as the opinions on the fundamental causes of the origin

3 Dall, William Heally. Insular Landshell Faunas, Especially as Illustrated

by the Data Obtained by Dr. G. Baur in the Galápagos Islands. Introductory.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.. Philadelphia, August, 1896, p. 395-459, Pl. XV-XVII.

“Wolf, Dr. Th. Die Galdpagos-Inseln. Verhandl. Ges. Erdkunde. Berlin,

Bd. XXII, 1895, No. 4u. 5. Berlin, 1895, p. 246-265, Taf. 3.

13 I never said that they came from South America.

674 The American Naturalist. [August,

of species are so different, as to-day, the attempted explanations

will be different. Non nostrum inter vos tantas componere lites.”

Mr. Ridgway” does not reach a definite conclusion about

the origin of the Galapagos, but he says: “If the apparent re-

lationships of the fauna have any bearing on the question, I

believe Dr. Baur’s theory to be at least worthy of serious con-

sideration.”

* In regard to the question of relationship of the six peculiar

genera of the Galapagos, Ridgway reaches the following con-

clusion. Only two (Nesomimus and Nesopelia) are of evident

American relationship. The remaining 3 [4] haveso obvious

a leaning toward certain Hawaiian Diceeidine forms that the

possibility of a former land connection, either continuous or

by means of intermediate islands as ‘ stepping stones,’ becomes —

a factor in the problem. It may be that the resemblance of

Cocornis, ‘Cactornis, and Camarhynchus, to the above-mentioned

Hawaiian forms (Lorioides, Telespiza and Psittirostra) is merely

a superficial one, and not indicative of real relationship. I do

not by any means claim, on the strength of such evidence, a

common origin for them, but merely present the facts as‘ food

for reflection.’ Certhidea is also compared with Hawaiian genus

Oreomyza, of the chiefly Polynesian family Dicæidæ.

Since there is no relation whatever of the Galapagos fauna

and flora as a whole to fauna and flora of the Hawaiian Islands,

the similarities between these birds are certainly only superfi-

cial. A former connection between the Galápagos and the

Hawaiian Islands is entirely out of the question, these two

archipelagos are 7350 miles distant from each other, there is

not a single island placed between them, and the intervening

sea is 4000 meters deep.

For the opponents of the subsidence theory I give now a few

striking examples of continental islands.

The Solomon Islands are connected by the 2000 m. line with

New Guinea and the New Hebrides. The Solomon Islands

possess 12 species of Amphibia.”

16 Ridgway, Robert. Birds of the Galápagos Archipelago. Proc. U.S. Nat.

Mus., Vol. XIX, p. 465-467. Washington, 1896 [published April 1, 1897].

7 Boulenger, G. A. On the Reptiles and Batrachians of the Solomon Islands,

Trans. Zool. Soc. London, Vol. XII, part I, April, 1886, p. 47-62, pl. VIII-XII-

Second Contribution to the Herpetology of the Solomon Islands. Proc. Zool. Soc.,

1887, II, p. 333-338.

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 675

The family Ceratobatrachide Boulenger with Ceratobatrachus

günteri Boul. is only found there. The other species are:

Ranide.

Rana bufoniformis Boul., nearest to Rana kuhlii (Schleg.)

Dum. and Bibr. from the Indian Archipelago (Java, Borneo,

Celebes), S. China.

_ Rana guppyi Boul., as large as the bull-frog, nearest to Rana

gruniens Daud., Amboyna and Java.

Rana opisthodon Boul., near R. guppyi Boul. and R. gruniens

Daud. This form develane, in the egg without metamorphosis,

like Hylodes martinicensis Tschudi.

Rana krefftii Boul., related to R. erytraea Schleg., from the

East Indian Avehivelag and the Malayan Peninsula.

Cornufer dorsalis A. Dum., also found on the Fiji Islands.

Cornufer guppyi Boul., related to C. dorsalis A. Dum.

Cornufer solomonis Boul., near C. corrugatus A. Dum., from

New Guinea and Duke of York I

Batrachylodes vertebralis Boul., only known from the Solomon

Islands.

Hylide.

Hyla macropus Boul.

Hyla thesaurensis Peters.

Hyla lutea Boul.

The presence of this peculiar Batrachian fauna on the Solo-

mon Islands would be sufficient proof for their continental

origin, but this is also shown by the geology of the group."

18 Guppy, H. B. The Solomon sages iepr Geology, General Features and

Suitability for Colonization. London

There have been found aaa act ihanion serpentines and

old sedimentary rocks represented by quartzites and crystal-

line schists.

New Caledonia is surrounded by a deep sea of 2000-4000 m.,

but it is a typical continental island, as is shown by the geol-

ogy.” There are extensive primitive schists, gneiss and other

1° Bernard, Augustin. L’Archipel de la Nouvelle-Calédonie. Paris. Hachette

et Cie, 1895, p. XXIV, 458. Deux cartes et beaucoup de figures. This is a very

important work, not only for the geology of New Caledonia, but for the whole

western region of the Pacific Ocean.

676 The American Naturalist. [August,

erystalline rocks, and the Triassic and Cretaceous cover exten-

Sive areas.

The Fiji Islands are even more isolated, being surrounded

by a sea of 2000-4000 m. South of this group the soundings

show 4000-6000 m.,and east from the Tonga Islands even 6000-

8000 m. But on the Fiji Islands we find three species of frogs :

Cornufer dorsalis A. Dum., only known from the Solomon

Islands, besides two peculiar species, Cornufer vitianus A. Dum.

and C. unilineatus Peters.

The genus Cornufer Tschudi shows the following interesting

distribution (Boulenger: Catalogue Batrachia Salientia s,

Ecaudata, London, 1887, p. 107—111).

1. Cornufer unicolor Tschudi. New Guinea.

2. Cornufer guentheri Boul. Philippines.

3. Cornufer mayeri Günth. Philippines.

4. Cornufer jagorii Peters. Samar Island.

5. Cornufer corrugatus A. Dum. Philippines, New Guinea,

Duke of York Island. ;

6. Cornufer punctatus Peters & Doria. New Guinea.

7. Cornufer guppyi Boul. Solomon Islands.

8. Cornufur solomonis Boul. Solomon Islands.

9. Cornufer dorsalis A. Dum. Solomon and Fiji Islands.

10. Cornufer vitianus A. Dum. Fiji Islands.

11. Cornufer unilineatus Peters. Great Viti Island (Fiji I.).

A still more peculiar fact is the presence of a very large

Iguanoid Lizard Brachylophus fasciatus (Brongn.), also found on

the Friendly Islands. The nearest relatives of Brachylophus

Cuv. are Conolophus Fitz. and Amblyrhynchus Bell from the

Galapagos ; Iguana Laur., Tropical America ; Metopoceras Wag-

ler, San Domingo ; Ovehure Harlan, West Indies (Cuba, Jamaica,

Bahamas); and Ctenosaura Wiegm., Central America.

Of the 50 genera of Iguanide 47, with over 300 species, are

American; two genera, Chalarodon Peters, with a single species,

and Hoplurus Cuv., with three species, are found in Madagas-

car. This is certainly a very interesting case of distribution.

The genus Enygrus Wagler, a snake of the family Boidæ

(Subfamily Boinæ) is repreni by four species, which show

the following distribution :”

1 Boulenger, George Albert. Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum.

(Nat. Hist.) Vol. I, p. 104-109, 1893.

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 677

1. Enygrus bibronii Hombr. & Jacq. Fiji, Friendly or Tonga

and Solomon Islands (San Cristoval).

2. Enygrus australis Montrouzier. New Britain, Solomon

Islands, New Hebrides, Loyality Islands, Samoa.

3. Enygrus carinatus Schneid. Pelew Islands, Ternate,

Ceram, Amboyna, Timor Laut, Misol, New Guinea, Louisiade

Archipelago, Duke of York Island, Solomon Islands.

4. Enygrus asper Giinth. Misol, Salavatti, New Guinea, and

Duke of York Island.

The presence of Cornufer, Brachylophus and Enygrus can only

be explained by the continental origin of the Fiji Islands.

Here, also, the geological proof has been given.”

In 1862 and 1865 the Fiji Islands were visited by Graeffe,

and from 1876-78 by Th. Kleinschmidt, sent there by the

Museum Godeffroy in Hamburg. Griiffe collected rocks on

Viti Levu and on some small islands belonging to the Explor-

ing Islands; Kleinschmidt on Viti Levu, Kandavu, Ono, Vatu

Lele and Ovalau. The material has been worked up by Arthur

Wichmann.”

The most important result reached by the examination of

the Kleinschmidt-collection consists in the demonstration of

the existence on the Fiji Islands (Viti Levu) of old crystalline

massive rocks and crystalline schists in considerable extension.

The following rocks belonging to the chrystalline schists have

been found: Amphibolites, Eurites, Quartz-mika-schists, gran-

ular Limestone. Of the most important older massive rocks

occur Granite, Quartz Porphyry, Diorite, Gabbro, Diabase,

Foyaite, and a Sandstone similar to Itacolumit. These rocks

have been found partially in situ, partially they have been

picked up from the beds of different brooks and rivers. No

trace of paleozoic and mesozoic strata have been discovered.

The youngest massive rocks are represented only by Andesites

and Basalts, the former very much more developed. Their

31I have reached the conclusion about the continental origin of the Fiji Islands

before I knew of the geological proof by Wichmann. This paper I'saw for the

first time in June of this year in the Crerar Library. -

Piy Arthur. Ein Beitrag zir Petrographie des Viti-Archipels. Min-

Petragraph. spee herausgeg. von G. Tschermak. (Neue

Folge) 5. ai Wien, 1883, p. 1

678 The American Naturalist. [August,

tuffs and conglomerates are often fossiliferous, and form the

superficial cover. These fossils are of Tertiary age, and cer- ©

tainly not older than Miocene. Of minerals: gold, copper,

quartz, pyrite, heematite and others were found. All the other

islands visited by Kleinschmidt, Kandavu, Ovalau, Ono, Vatu

Lele and the Munia, Kanathia, Vanuna- palati of the Explor-

ing Islands, on which Gräffe collected, consist nearly entirely

of Andesites and Basalts and their tuffs. In some, for instance,

Ono, Vatu Lele, coral-rocks and silicified corals occur.

If we compare the results found on the Fiji Islands with the —

geological conditions of other islands of the Pacific Ocean, we

partly observe very surprising similarity. A very short time

ago it was considered as certain, and generally accepted, that

all islands of the Pacific Ocean originated through volcanic

activity. As exceptions were named New Zealand and New Cale-

donia. The investigations of the last years have brought for-

ward more light about several of these conditions. Drasche,

in 1879 (Neues Jahrb. Min. Geol., 1879, p. 265), stated that only

those groups of islands placed eastwards from a line extending

from Kamtschatka over Japan, the Philippines, New Guinea,

New Caledonia, New Zealand, Auckland, Macquarie to Arctic

Victoria, are either coral islands, or consist of young volcanic

rocks.

Outside of this line there are, besides the Fiji Islands, some

other groups. From the Pelew Islands Wichmann described

large blocks of a very coarse-grained hornblende-granite and

diabase, found at the seashore and at elevations of 400 m.

[Journal des Museum Godeffroy, 1875, VIII, p. 126.] Mar-

cou has reported granite and gneiss from the Marquesas Islands,

and Eichwald” has shown that the Aleutian Islands contain

Cretaceous strata.

Wichmann makes the following remarks at the end of his

paper: “No older massive rocks or sedimentary strata are

known from the other “ volcanic” groups of islands of the

Pacific Ocean, and on some of these, for example, the Galápa-

pos or Sandwich Islands, it seems really to be made out that

3 Eichwald, E. Geognostisch-palentologische Bemerkungen über die Hal-

binsel Magischlak und die Aleutischen Inseln. St. Petersburg, 1871.

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 679

they have been built up by younger and recent volcanic masses.

There is a possibility, and even probability, however, that

older formations served as fundament, the examination of

which is prevented by the extensive covering.”

From the facts mentioned, it follows that these islands in the

Pacific, which, so far as known, are merely of volcanic origin,

are not of much significance. Besides, various extensive re-

gions have been terra firma during long periods. On the

groups of islands which extend from the Philippines to the

Fiji Islands, all marine sediments are missing up to the upper

Cretaceous (New Britain), on the others even up to the Miocene.

It is remarkable that the northern islands (Japan) and the

southern (New Zealand) show the different formations very

much more developed. A complete representation of the strata

is not found in a single group of islands, therefore, we can sup-

pose that they, together with portions of the ocean, formerly

represented continental masses. Thus, it becomes probable,

that the Pacific Ocean cannot be considered of great age, that

it received approximately its present form only during the

time of the younger Tertiary (Wichmann).

From the peculiar fauna of the Fiji Islands we reached the

conclusion that they must be of continental origin. The cor-

rectness of this conclusion follows from Wichmann’s petro-

graphical studies of the rocks.

For the Galápagos Islands the correct geological proof can-

not be given, but the harmonic distribution of fauna and flora

can only be explained by their continental origin. The con-

nection must have been with Central America and tke West

Indies over Cocos Island. There are no geological difficulties,

since we know that the Fiji Islands, which are surrounded by

much deeper sea, are continental.

It is evident that the theory of the consistency of continents

and oceans since palæozoic times, or ever before, must be

‘abandoned completely. Edward Suess,” in his masterly

*Only by this theory many very peculiar cases of distribution in the Pacific

Region and the presence of Pacific and Asiatic forms on the coast of America can

“be explained.

Zweite unverinderte Auflage Wien, 1892.

680 The American Naturalist. [August,

work, “ Das Antlitz der Erde,” has fully demonstrated the

fallacy of this theory. If Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace” would

have studied this work and those of W. T. Blanford, O. Feist-

mantel, W. Waagen, Melchior Neumayer, and others, he could

not have accepted the theory of the permanence of the great

oceanic basins, which he still defends in 1892, quoting the late

Prof. Dana, Mr. Darwin, Sir Archibald Geikie, Dr. John Mur-

ray, Rev. O. Fisher and hunraslf as authorities, not mentioning

any of the names just given.

We know now that there existed a Lemuria or Gondwana

Land, an Antarctic Continent,” which extended to India, South

Africa, South America, and that the Pacific Ocean has not

been an ocean since paleeozoic or archzean times, but is proba-

bly even of recent (Tertiary) date.

In order to reach correct conclusions about these often very

complicated questions, it is necessary to use all the data offered

by modern geographical and paleontological distribution of

fauna and of flora geology.

(To be Continued.)

ON THE AFFINITIES OF TARSIUS: A CONTRIBU-

TION TO THE PHYLOGENY OF THE PRIMATES.

By CHARLES EARLE.

(Continued from page 575.)

The female reproductive system of the Lemurs recalls that

of the Anthropoids. It is interesting to note that in Lemur

Propithecus and Indris only one young is produced at a birth;

whether this ewes of young is typical of the whole suborder

2 Wallace, Dr. A. Russel. The Permanence of the Great Oceanic Basins.

Nat. Science, Vol. I, a 6, August, 1892, p- 418-426 ; and “ Island Life,” second

ed., 1892

* Seward, A. C. The Glossopteris Flora. Science Progress, New Series, Vol.

I, No. 2, January, 1897, p. 178-201. (This paper gives the Bibliography relat-

‘ing to the Anarctic continent. )

1897.] On the Affinities of Tarsius : 681

of Lemuroidea I am unable to discover. The form of the uterus

exhibits considerable variation in the Lemurs. Milne-Edwards

says: “ L’Uterus des Indrisines a la forme d’une poche median

dont le fond est bicorne les deux lobes ainsi constitués sont tres

peu saillants chez les Propithiques et les Avahis, ils le sont

davantage chez l’Indris.” In Propithecus especially, the cornua

are extremely reduced, and externally the uterus has the ap-

pearance of the uterus simplex of the Anthropoids. In the

gravid uterus, owing to the extremely small size of the cornua,

the single fcetus occupies one horn and all the body of the

uterus; in Lemur the non-gravid cornua is occupied as shown

by Turner by a prolongation of the chorion. It is not difficult

to imagine the derivation of the uterus of the Apes from the

condition found in the higher Lemurs, further constriction of

the fallopian tubes of Propithecus and obliteration of the slight

septum dividing the rudimentary cornua of this genus would

produce the pure type of uterus simplex found in the Apes.

I will now pass on to consider the paleontological history

of the Primates and the conclusion which may be drawn from

it. Prof. Hubrecht claims that throughout the whole Tertiary

period the Lemurs and Apes were perfectly distinct, and, more-

over, he concludes that we must go as far back asthe Mesozoic

to find the two stem forms of these suborders. I hold there is

absolutely no paleontological evidence to support this deduc-

tion, and all our knowledge of the fossil Primates show that

the Apes have arisen later than the Lemurs. Prof. Hubrecht,

following Ameghino, refers the Santa Cruz formation, in which

Homunculus occurs, to the Eocene. All paleontologists now

admit that the Santa Cruz beds are of much later date than

the Eocene, and it appears probable that they are not earlier

than the Lower Miocene. If there is anything in the biologi-

cal law that less specialized forms originate earlier than the

more modernized types, it is surely applicable to the Primates

where every one must acknowledge that an Ape is a much

more highly differentiated organism than a Lemur.

I will not consider the so-called Primates from the lower-

most Eocene, Puerco. We know little about these forms, but,

as far as our knowledge goes, such genera as Indrodon and

682 The American Naturalist. [ August,

Mixodectes appear to be related to the Lemurs, but in the case

of Indrodon the shape of the external cusps of the superior

molars are not at all lemurine, and resemble more those of the

Cheiroptera.

The Wasatch genus, Anaptomorphus, has been placed by

Hubrecht with Tarsius, among the Apes and for what reason?

It certainly has only one Anthropoid character, the presence

of an internal lobe to the third upper premolar. If Anapto-

morphus is an Ape, then I claim that this is absolute evidence

that the Apes have come from the Lemurs, for Anaptomorphus

is in all ofits characters a Lemur closely related to Tarsius. How-

ever, Anaptomorphus is an important type in connection with the

phylogeny of some of the Anthropoids, and may have given

origin to the American Monkeys, these latter having arisen in-

dependently from the Old World Apes. Numerous peculiari-

ties in the structure of the Cebide as compared with the Cerco-

pithecide support this view. Excepting Anaptomorphus it ap-

pears probable that none of American fossil lemurines can be

considered as ancestral to either the recent Lemurs or Apes.

In the Oligocene of France the primitive Lemurs were very

abundant, and they were represented by numerous genera

other than the well-known Adapis and Microchoerus. Conse-

quently, as far as we know, the recent Lemurs must have been

derived from some of the genera now found as fossils in North-

ern Europe. Mr. Lydekker is of the opinion that Apes occur

in the Oligocene of France, but I have not been able to find

any evidence for this view, as most of the supposed Apes from

the Phosphorites have been shown to be Suillines. The struc- —

ture of the upper molars of Adapis is very similar to that of

recent Lemurs, the external lobes being lenticular in section as

in recent forms, the protocone is placed well forward and the hy-

pocone is more primitive than in many of the Lemurine. As far

as I have examined, all recent genera of the subfamily Lemur-

ine have tritubercular superior molars with varying develop-

ment of the supplementary internal cusps. In the Indrisin®

the molars are truly quadritubercular and the internal cusps

are nearly selenoid in structure. It is strange that among —

American Monkeys, Mycetes has a type of superior molar which

1897,] On the Affinities of Tarsius : 683

closely resembles that of the Jndrisinx, whereas, in the other

Cebide, the upper back teeth are transitional in structure, be-

tween the tri- and quadritubercular types, and the cusps are

bunoid. The molar pattern of recent Lemurs and Old World

Apes is fundamentally different, but they may be brought into

closer relations by means of the primitive structure of the

molars of Tursius or Anaptomorphus. If Tarsius stands near

the common ancestor of both Apes and Lemurs, then we must

suppose that the teeth of the two phyla of recent Primates have

increased in complexity during geological time. Nevertheless,

in the Anthropoid Apes the molar pattern shows plainly a

process of degeneration from a higher type, more like that

found in the Cercopithecidex.

Until recently no known Primate, fossil or recent, possessed

a closed orbit as in the Apes and proclivous incisors and cani-

niform first lower premolar as in the Lemurs. This combina-

tion of characters is found in the Malagasy fossil lately de-

scribed by Forsyth Major under the name of Nesopithecus. The

skull, as far as known in Nesopithecus, is broad and short like `

that of the Apes, and as in the latter group the lachrymal fora-

men is within the orbit. Again, the structure of the true

molars is exactly like that of the Anthropoids. On the other

hand the form of the premolars is more like that of the Lemurs,

and, as far as I can learn from Major’s figures, all the upper

premolars have small internal lobes. The incisors of Nesopi-

thecus are not preserved, but from the oblique position of their

alveolii Major concludes that these teeth must have been hori-

zontal as in the living Lemurs. Moreover, as in the latter

group, the first lower premolar functions as a canine. The

collection of characters occurring in Nesopithecus completely

breaks down the differential characters of the skeleton which

is usually given as separating the Lemurs from the Apes.

Either these two groups should be united, or Nesopithecus must

be placed in a new suborder of the Primates. It remains now

to consider whether Nesopithecus clears up the problem of the

relation of the Lemurs to the Apes. Lydekker is of the opin-

ion that Nesopithecus is a form closely related to the stem type

which gave origin to both Lemurs and Apes. For my part, I

684 The American Naturalist. [August,

do not think that this explanation is probable, and for the

reason that no primitive ancestor of the Primates would have

had a closed orbit and proclivous lower incisors. At the time

the Apes and Lemurs diverged from a common stock, this stem

form would have had characters more like those of the Adapis,

and not until very late, geologically speaking, were the pecu-

liar incisors of the Lemurs developed. Primate with closed

orbits do not appear until the Middle Miocene. We are then

forced to the conclusion that one set of characters of Nesopithe-

cus is due to convergence. As Nesopithecus has so many pecu-

liar characters only found in the Anthropoids, including the

structure of the true molars, I conclude with Major that Neso-

pithecus is really an Anthropoid whose anterior dentition

through convergence has come to resemble that of the Lemurs.

Lastly I do hold that the discovery of Nesopithecus demonstrates

that Apes and Lemurs are genetically related.

The characters of the skeleton of Tarsius are nearly all those

of the Lemurs; the extreme specialization of the pes of Tarsius

* is clearly a lemurine character, and we can observe how this

elongation of the tarsus is produced. In Lepidolemur the

elongation of the caleaneum and navicular commences, the

extension of these bones is carried still further in Cheirogaleus,

and reaches its culmination in Tarsius. Of course this is not a

phyletic series, and I merely mention it to show how the elon-

gation of the tarsus in Tarsius is developed, and from a more

normal condition found in the typical Lemurs. Tarsius differs

from most of the Lemuroidea in not having the fourth digit of

the manus longer than the others, the extension of this digit

attains its greatest development in the most specialized group

of the Lemurs, the Indrisinæ. The Indrisines are clearly the

most highly differentiated division of the Lemurs; this is

shown in their more highly developed brains, reduction in the

length of the facial as compared to the cranial axis of the

skull, the pseudo-selenoid superior molars, and lastly the great

length of the posterior limbs in contrast with the anterior mem-

bers. In this connection it is interesting to note that the Indri-

sines are diurnal in their habits like most Apes, and that 1m

ndris the caudal appendage is much reduced in size.

1897.] On the Affinities of Tarsius : 685

Forbes pointed out the important fact that the structure of

the orbit in the Old and New World Apes differs; in most of

the Cebide there is a large articulation between the malar and

parietal, the broad plate-like alisphenoid is limited to the infe-

rior portion. In the Cercopithecide the alisphenoid is narrow

and prolonged above to the frontal, so as to separate the malar-

parietal contact. In the structure of its orbis Tarsius more re-

sembles the Old World Apes, for the alisphenoid articulates

with both malar and frontal as in the Cercopithecide. The

structure of the skull of Tarsius is of importance as showing

how the closure of the orbit of the Apes is brought about. It

is evident that the relations of the orbital bones found in the

Cebide is the primitive one, the broad and inferiorly placed

alisphenoid is characteristic of the lower orders of Mammals,

as the Rodents and Carniverous Marsupials. Coincident with

the increase in breadth of the frontal lobes of the cerebrum of

Tarsius as compared to other Lemurs, has taken place a reduc-

tion of the facial portion of the skull, and with it the near ap-

proach of the lachrymal foramen to the orbital border. Nesopi-

thecus represents another step in the evolution of the skull of the

Apes from that of the Lemurs, as in this form the facial axis is

still more reduced, and at the same time the lachrymal foramen

has been taken within the orbit. In Nesopithecus the orbits are

directed forwards asin the Apes, and Forsyth Major concludes

from the broken condition of the posterior orbital wall, that

this genus had a completely closed orbit. The skull of Tarsius

represents a stage in the evolution of the Primate cranium ex-

actly intermediate between that of the Apes and Lemurs.

Among the typical Lemurs the general form of the cranium

in the Indrisine is closely similar to that of Tarsius.

Although the structure of the molars in Tarsius is very

primitive, and may represent the ancestral pattern from which

that of the Lemurs and Apes has been derived, this cannot be

claimed for the anterior part of the dentition. The reduction

in size of the canines in Tarsius and the enlarged upper me-

dian incisors is certainly a case of specialization. We see this

same change in the Insectivora, and Flower concludes: “The

strongly marked distinction of the canines from the incisors

686 The American Naturalist. [August,

and.anterior premolars in the Mesozoic and most of the Terti-

ary Mammals (excepting some Ungulates) points, however,

very decidedly to the conclusion that the want of definition

between these teeth in many of the modern Jnsectivora is an

acquired feature.” I quote this passage from Flower and

Lydekker, because an important paper by Leche has lately ap-

peared in which he claims that the milk teeth represent an

earlier development phase than the permanent teeth. He ar-

rives at this generalization from a study of the milk dentition

of the Lemurs, including Tarsius. Leche finds, for example,

that in the anterior milk dentition of Adapis magnus the milk

canines are much reduced in size, and more resemble the form

of the premolars, and he also points out that the deciduous

dentition of this species of Adapis very closely resembles the

permanent condition of Adapis parisiensis. Leche concludes,

therefore, that A. parisiensis represents the most primitive and

ancestral form of Adapis known, and that the Ape-like form of

the incisors and canines of A. magnus is a secondary condition

derived from that of Adapis parisiensis. I feel confident that

paleontologists will not accept this dictum in regard to the

significance of the milk dentition as expounded by Leche. I

should like to notice one point that seems to contradict this

general law as deduced by Leche. In Tarsius, for example,

Leche’s figures plainly show that the upper milk canine

is larger than either of the milk incisors or the anterior

premolars. If the structure of the anterior milk teeth is to be

our guide in determining the evolution of the Lemurs, then

Tarsius has come from a type which had large canines and in

which these teeth were erect and of greater size than either the

incisors or premolars. This conclusion corresponds better with

the paleontological record.

One of the best examples of extreme specialization and re-

duction in the size of the canines is the case of the Anoplother-

idx, an extinct family of Artiodactyle Ungulates. In this

group the dentition is closed and the canines are of the same

size and structure as the anterior premolars. I am sure that

no paleontologists will claim that the dentition of the Anoplo-

theridæ is primitive, as the whole structure of this family de

1897.] ' On the Affinities of Tarsius : 687

notes that it is an exceedingly specialized group. I have en-

deavored to show elsewhere that Tupirulus is probably genetic-

ally related to the Anoplotheroids, and in this genus the

canines are fully developed. As far as I can learn it is a gen-

eral character of the milk dentition that the milk canines are

weakly developed and much smaller than their permanent

successors. It appears more likely that the milk dentition

represents a special adaption during the time that the young

animal is nourished by the mammary glands of the mother,

and that the detailed structure of the milk teeth do not accu-

rately recapitulate the ancestral stages in the evolution of the

race. However, in regard to the number of the milk teeth,

that is another question, for we know that in many types which

in the adult condition the permanent teeth are greatly reduced

in number, whereas in the milk series the lost teeth appear.

Among Lemurs Cheiromys is a good example in the reduction

of the teeth, where the milk dentition is more normal in regard

to the number of teeth than the permanent dentition, and

plainly shows that Cheiromys has been derived from some more

generalized type of Lemur, which had the normal number of

incisors and premolars.

In conclusion, the two principal objections in claiming that

the Lemurs are genetically related to the Apes are, first, in the

apparently great difference in their placentation, and secondly,

in the wide divergence in the structure of their dentition. In

regard to the evolution of the placenta, Dr. Minot remarks

that our conceptions are still very obscure. The views of

Balfour which I have lately quoted? as to placental evolution

in the Primates are clearly untenable, for the reason, as I have

* See Natural Science, May 1897.

emphasized before, that in the Apes the allantois is rudi-

mentary and the placenta arises in the chorion. It is most

important for the position which I maintain in regard to the

relations of the Lemurs to the Apes, to notice that in the early

stages of the development of the placenta in the Anthropoids

that this organ is completely diffuse and there is no decidua.

This stage is comparable to the diffuse placentation of the

Lemurs. On any theory of the evolution of the placenta in

688 The American Naturalist. [August,

the Primates we must first commence with the non-deciduate

diffuse condition as found in Man, the later restriction of the

placental area brings about complications in the relations of

the maternal to the foetal surfaces, resulting in the formation

of a decidua. Hubrecht himself admits that Tarsius is very

specialized in not exhibiting in its early stages the diffuse con-

dition of the placenta found in the Anthropoids. It seems to

me that it is a most difficult problem to attempt to derive the

typeof placentation of the Apes from that of Erinaceus. In

the latter genus the placenta is derived from the allantois,

which is a large free organ before it unites with the chorion.

Then, again, in Erinaceus there is no early stage where the

mesoblast lines the whole blastocyst as in Tarsius, and a por-

tion of which membrane takes a share in the formation of the

placental anlage. The Insectivora, however primitive they are

in many respects, are greatly specialized in their dentition and

placentation.

Huxley remarks: “If Gymnura possessed a diffuse placen-

tation, it would be an excellent representative of an undiffer-

entiated Eutherian.” Again, he says: “ The derivation of all

Eutheria from animals which, except for their placentation,

would be insectiverous, is a simple deduction from the law of

evolution.” That some Insectivora are highly degenerate in

their cranial and dental structures, I think must be admitted.

I refer particularly to Hemicentetes, whose supposed primitive

type of molars is clearly a case of degeneration from the more

normal form of tooth occurring in Centetes.

Until it is disproved by further investigations on the early

stages of Lemurs, I think it is most plausible to’ assume that

the diffuse placenta of the Lemuroidea is one of the ancestral

stages in the evolution of the Anthropoid placentation, and in

the case of Man this diffuse non-deciduate stage is recapitulated

in the ontogeny of Homo. ,

As far as the paleontological evidence goes it is decidedly

in favor of the view that Apes and Lemurs are closely related.

Beginning with the earliest known Lemur, Anaptomorphus, this

genus shows tendencies towards the Anthropoids, and when

we pass up into the Oligocene of the Old World, Adapis 1s 4

1897.] On the Affinities of Tarsius : 689

decidedly mixed type, and probably not far from the common

stem form, which gave origin to both suborders of the Pri-

mates.

In regard to Tarsius, it is evidently a type nearly between

the Lemurs and Apes, but with many essential characters be-

longing to the former group. Some of its Anthropoid charac-

ters are nascent, so to speak; they are just developing, and, as

in the case of the orbit of Tarsius, it is not yet fully differen-

tiated into the higher type of the true Anthropoids. It appears

most likely that the group of fossil Lemurs with reduced

canines and enlarged incisors, Mixodectes, Microcherus, were

not in the line leading to the Lemurs proper, but may have

been related to Cheiromys. These genera in.their turn arose

` out of a generalized insectiverous-like type with a normal den-

tition, which was also the ancestral form of the true Lemurs.

The Anthropoids diverged from a lemurine stock probably not

earlier than the Upper Eocene. This deduction is supported

by the fact that the first Lemurs to appear are insectivorous in

their affinities ; later, in the Upper Eocene, Lemurs are found

with quite Ape-like skulls and dentition, and, moreover, not

until the Miocene do true Anthropoids appear.

I shall conclude this paper with a quotation from a Memoir

of Sir Wm. Turner’s, whose extensive investigations on the

placentation of Mammals are well known to all morphologists :

“ In the case of the Lemurs it will, I think, be considered by

most zoologists that the characters of the teeth, the general

configuration of the skeleton, the unguiculate digits, the hand-

like form of the distal part of the extremities, the presence of a

calcarine fissure in the cerebrum and the pectoral position of

at least two of the mamma, are characters which indicate that

the Lemurs have much closer affinity with those mammalian

orders with which.it has been customary to associate them,

than with the Perissodactyla, Suina and Cetacea. Collectively,

these characters ought, I think, to be regarded as more valu-

able indications of structural affinity than should the presence

in the Lemurs of a non-deciduate diffused placenta with a large

allantois be regarded as indications of structural dissimilarity

from the Apes and Insectivora, though the placenta in the

latter is deciduate and discoid and the allantois aborted.”

690 The American Naturalist. [August,

THE SWAMPS OF OSWEGO COUNTY, N. Y., AND

THEIR FLORA.

By W. W. Row tee,

CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y.

POSITION OF OSWEGO COUNTY.

Oswego County lies in the extreme northeastern corner of

the Finger Lake Basin of central New York. Lake Ontario

makes, at this point, a great bend to the north after having its

shore line almost due east and west for upwards of one hun-

dred and fifty miles. The lake consequently forms the north- .

ern and a large part of the western boundary of the county.

On the northeast are the foot-hills of the Adirondacks, some of

which extend into the corner of the county. On the southeast

is Oneida Lake and Oneida River, which occupy the lowest

part of the general basin toward its eastern end, and south of

which lie the hills forming the divide between this and the

Susquehanna Basin. On the southwest there are no physical

boundaries separating this county from adjoining ones. The

county is part of the plain which extends west and southwest

through several counties, the lowest points in which are occu-

pied by Onondaga Lake, Seneca River, the Montezuma

Marshes and Cayuga Lake. The plain narrows rather ab-

ruptly to the southeast and leads over a very low divide into

the valley of the Mohawk River. A comparatively narrow

plain follows the lake shore north through Jefferson County.

DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF THE COUNTY.

The present drainage of Oswego County is peculiar. Os

wego River, flowing as it does directly through the county,

would naturally be expected to receive a considerable amount

of the drainage. It, however, receives very little. A low di-

vide extends from east to west through the central and west-

ern parts of the county, the summit of which is about half-

way between the north shore of Oneida Lake and the south

shore of Lake Ontario. The summit of this divide is well-

1897.] The Swamps of Oswego County, N. Y. 691

marked east of the river and extends through Fulton and

Palermo center. South of the divide the country is very level,

only occasionally relieved by gentle undulations. The streams

here are very sluggish and often very crooked, some of them

flowing through extensive swamps, as, for instance, the Peter

Scott swamp in the town of Schroeppel, which in extent rivals

the celebrated Cicero swamps in Onondaga County.

North of the divide the surface of the country is very differ-

ent. Parallel ridges separated by narrow valleys constitute

the distinctive features of the topography of the region. The

ridges, and more especially the valleys, have their longitudi-

nal axes at right angles to the shore of the lake and nearly

parallel with the river. To the ridges local names are applied

as “ Paddy Ridge” where an Irish settlement occurs, “ Ridge

Road” and “ The Hog Back,” the last name being applied to

at least two ridges in different parts of the county. The

streams of this northern slope follow the valleys between the

ridges and consequently flow into the lake rather than into

the river. Black Creek, the only stream of any size that

empties into the river from the east is deflected at one part of

its course several miles before it finds a break between the

ridges through which to flow. The ridges, technically known

_ to geologists as drumlins, are not continuous for any consider-

able distance, the longest being sometimes several miles, the

shorter often being less than a mile; they are, as a usual thing,

terminated much more abruptly at their northern than at

their southern end. Good examples of the abrupt termination

is afforded at Seneca Hill where the river passes so near the

hill as to cut away a portion and form a bluff. Another strik-

ing example occurs at the northern terminus of Jackson Hill,

about three miles north of the village of Fulton. Their south-

ern end usually flattens out gradually, and may be entirely

lost in the confluence of several hills.

THE SWAMPS AND LAKES.

The furrowed character of the northern slope just described

afforded exceptional opportunities for the formation of lakes

and swamps. The underlying drift of the whole region is a

692 The American Naturalist. [August,

blue hardpan, very impervious to water, and we may suppose

that as the water in post-glacial times receded, every depres-

sion was left full of water. Many were shallow and were soon

filled to the brim with vegetable mould; others were deeper

and are even now barely full, while some still contain lakes

which the invading plant-life is constantly making smaller.

There are presented here all gradations between wooded

swamps and open lakes. Some swamps, now mostly wooded,

as for example, the Wine Creek swamp near Oswego, still have

sphagnum persisting in them, and are, no doubt, lakes filled

only at a comparatively recent date, while the vegetable ac-

cumulations are so shallow in other wooded swamps as to lead

one to believe that the ponds which originally occupied them

were relatively soon displaced.

Not only does the contour of the country in the northern

part of. the county determine the flow of the streams, but it

likewise determines the form of the lakes‘and swamps. They

are, so far as I am aware, always elongated in a northerly and

southerly direction, some of them being several miles long and

less than a mile wide.

; TYPICAL SWAMPS.

I have selected three swamps from the score or more within

the limits of the county, not because they illustrate better than

others the observations to be recorded, but rather because they

illustrate swamps in different stages of maturity. I have

already hinted at what is meant by the maturity of a swamp-

The woodéd swamps with shallow accumulations of vegetable

material, sometimes called muck, matured early in the post-

glacial history of the region. Some are just coming to matur-

ity, examples of which have already been cited, and there are

still others which are maturing, but will still require many

years for their completion.

For want of a better term I have used the word swamp in

an extended sense to indicate the whole depression, whether it

be covered with water, woods or moor.

MUD LAKE.

Mud Lake is situated in the southwestern corner of the tow?

of Oswego. It is about eight miles southwest of Oswego City,

1897.] The Swamps of Oswego County, N. Y. 693

and perhaps four miles from the shore of Lake Ontario. The

depression in which it lies is one of the largest in the northern

part of the county, as indeed, the lake is one of the largest of

the numerous small lakes in that section. It is about a mile

long by somewhat less than three-fourths of a mile wide. The

lake lies in a region where the fluted character is not so pro-

nounced as it is in some other sections, nevertheless the lake

itself is elongated in a northerly and southerly direction, and

the whole depression of which the lake forms but a small frac-

tion is more than twice as long as wide. This lake has with-

stood the encroachment of the land-making forces better than

many of the lakes in the country, probably on account of its

greater depth, yet, if the testimony of old residents is to be

trusted, and in this respect at least I have no doubt it is, the

surrounding moor is encroaching upon the lake very fast. The

moor surrounding the lake is the most extensive one in that

section.

THE LILY MARSH.

The swamp known by this name is better known to the peo-

ple living in that vicinity than other moors as large, or even

larger, and probably for two reasons. One is that for many

years it has been a famous hunting ground for white rabbits

in winter; the other is because a highway was constructed

many years ago directly across the open part of the swamp, the

open, softer portion being bridged with a long plank bridge.

Few people in that part of the county but have had occasion

to drive across it, an experience not soon forgotten, at least by

a timid person. The Lily Marsh is situated in the southwest-

ern corner of the town of New Haven. It presents the phe-

nomena of a lake just disappearing. The lake in the center is

reduced to a mere pool not more than twenty rods long and half

as many wide. I have had very definite statements from men

who could remember well when the bridge was built, and they

assured me that at that time the lake reached to the bridge;

now it does not reach within fifteen rods of it. Notwithstand-

ing the fact that the lake in the Lily Marsh is almost over-

grown, the swamp itself is a very extensive one. The whole

depression in which it lies is very long and narrow. I did not

694 The American Naturalist. [Augusts

attempt to get actual measurements of its length and width.

From what I could see in it and from the highway I should

judge it to be not far from four miles long, and in no place |

more than three-quarters of a mile wide. In this, as in the

other swamps which are nearly mature, the wooded belt covers

by far the greater’ portion of the marsh. There is left here,

however, an open bog nearly, if not quite, a mile long, and

from twenty to thirty rods wide.

GRANNY’S ORCHARD.

This is the last of the three depressions selected for illustra-

tion. It isa marsh in which there is no lake, nor has there

been one in the memory of the persons living thereabouts. It

takes its name through the resemblance the open portion of it

bears to an orchard and a well-confirmed story that a man

known universally in those parts as “Granny” attempted at

one time to reclaim some of this land by draining it. It is in

the eastern part of the town of Palermo, and lies well up to-

ward the divide between Oneida Lake and Lake Ontario.

There are more large swamps in this vicinity than in any

other part of the county. To these some of the residents ap- _

ply indiscriminately the term Granny’s Orchard, but I feel

sure the name originated in the manner I have described, and

is restricted by a majority of the people to this single swamp.

Yet the appropriateness of the name might easily lead to its

more general use.

It is a very extensive swamp. In fact it must be confessed

that we had hard work to estimate distance in this place, the

view was so intercepted by trees and shrubs. The open por-

tion of the swamp is surrounded by a densely wooded belt, and

shrubs and trees of the most aggressive species have invaded

the moor until it presents the appearance of an orchard, the

trees of which are here represented by tamaracs and spruce.

The level openings between are carpeted with sphagnum. The

extent and nature of the wooded belt repels visitors even 1m

summer, so that it is seldom visited except by adventurous

huckleberry gatherers in August. The man who guided me

into the bog, the first time I visited it (himself an old resident),

1897.] The Swamps of Oswego County, N. Y. 695

thought it would be unsafe to venture in there in spring or

autumn. To the north of Granny’s Orchard proper the

wooded belt stretches away for several miles. Catfish Creek,

a small stream, flows through the northern end of the swamp,

flowing north into Lake Ontario. The small, sluggish stream

draining Granny’s Orchard flows south into Oneida Lake. It

is evident that the whole swamp was once a large lake, and

whether it drained into Lake Ontario or Oneida Lake remains

to be investigated. The gulf cut through the whole hill where

Catfish Creek leaves the swamp suggests that it may have been

cut through after the lake had partially filled. I have not yet

had an opportunity to study the outlet to the south.

ORIGIN OF THE MOOR FLORA.

If we may judge from the actual conditions existing now in

Arctic regions, immediately succeeding the glacial epoch this

whole region was clothed with a vegetation resembling that

now existing in our moors, indeed, resembling it much more

than does any other feature of our present flora with the pos-

sible exception of the Alpine plants still persisting on our

mountain tops. It is indeed an extraordinary circumstance

that our lowest (in altitude) regions and our highest regions

should have preserved to us a flora which is, for the most part,

extinct. Since the Alpine plants and many of the bog plants

draw nearer and nearer together so far as situation goes, as we

go northward, until finally we find them mingled, our state-

ment of the case is a correct one, and confirms the idea that

our moor floras are remnants of an Arctic vegetation once pre-

dominating here.

THE RAPID ACCUMULATION OF MATERIAL IN THE DEPRESSIONS.

Although such a condition may not have actually existed,

we may assume, for the purpose of illustration, that one of the `

depressions caused by the ice in this movement was left naked

by the sudden lowering of the water level in the region. A

lake would be left in the depression. The moisture held in

the soil of the surrounding hills would steadily gravitate to-

ward the lake and form springs. The water from these would

often more than offset the loss of water from the surface of the

696 The American Naturadist. [August,

lake by evaporation. On the shores of these lakes would be

afforded a congenial place for the first plants, among which, no

doubt, sphagnum was prominent. The available food supplies

in the soil of the hills around was washed and afforded food

for these plants. As plants grew upon the hills, vegetable

humus accumulated, and the wash from this further enriched

the soil at the shore. But while this washing contributed

something to the accumulations of the swamp, it, under no

circumstances, can be compared to the soil washed down upon

the flood plains of upland streams, and for the reason that

these streams are not rapid enough to carry much solid ma-

terial. The accumulations in the swamps are almost entirely

the decayed plants that have grown there.

ABILITY OF THE LAKE TO RESIST INVASION.

The factors which determine the ability of the lake to resist

invasion are its depth and the character of its shores. If the

conditions are right, a lake even of considerable depth will be

steadily encroached upon by vegetation. On the other hand

a shallow lake will grow over much more rapidly. There is

a popular notion that a cranberry bog may grow right over a

lake, and that the flexible turf is like a blanket spread over

the surface of the water. Walking on these places certainly

gives one that impression. I have never seen a case where

this was the actual condition of affairs. If you penetrate the

turf anywhere you will find the blackest and softest kind of

mud, almost as mobile as water, but as a plant food much

more nutritious. From a boat there sometimes appear deep

recesses far under the turf, but these are more apparent than

real. There are often recesses under the turf, just as there are

under harder shores, but these are not deep, and I feel reason-

ably sure that the floating moors float upon mud rather than

upon water.

THE EFFECT OF WIND UPON THE RELATIVE POSITION OF LAKE

AND BOG.

The position of the lake, with reference to other parts of the

swamp has attracted my attention for some time. The lakes

in the northern and western parts of Oswego County have, aS

1897.] The Swamps of Oswego County, N. Y. 697

a general rule, their eastern shore hard, while the others are

bordered by moors or by wooded swamps which are but ma-

tured portions of a moor. This is true of Mud Lake, Lake

Neatahwantah, Paddy Lake, and the small lake in the Lily

Marsh, all within twelve miles of Lake Ontario. At one time

I thought the scarceness of springs might account for the fail-

ure of moors to form. But further observation led me to think

their meagre occurrence on this shore the result, rather than

the cause, of the absence.

There is what seems to me sufficient evidence to show that

it is the action of the waves upon the eastern shore that pre-

vents the formation of bogs there. At Mud Lake I have seen

large masses of sphagnum and other plants from the west side

of the lake lodged upon the east shore. Instead of taking root

and growing they were soon washed to death by the waves.

The action of the waves is very vigorous on the east shore of

all the larger lakes. It is true also that where lakes are well-

nigh filled up and the force of the waves is comparatively

slight, the moor will begin to build from the eastern shore, but

the belt constructed will be narrow compared with that on the

other shores. This is the condition now existing in the Lily

Marsh. Still another consideration points in the same direc-

ion. The small lakes in this particular region and the larger

ones more remote from Lake Ontario have bogs on all sides of

them. i

Anyone who has lived in the region need not be told that

prevailing winds are from the west. Their intensity, which,

by the way, is often considerable, depends upon the long

stretch of open lake to the west, and also, perhaps, somewhat

upon the saturated condition of the atmosphere as it is swept

in from the lake. The wind from Lake Ontario is so strong as

to produce a decided effect upon the trees growing near the

shore. They stretch their branches and often, indeed, lean

toward the southeast. Another striking illustration of the

power of the winds on the lake shore is seen in the great drifts

of sand along the shore, sometimes called sand-dunes. Nor is

the drifting of sand confined to the immediate shore of the

lake. There is a sand hill in the town of Albion near a ham-

698 The American Naturalist. [August,

let called Dugway, quite as far from the lake shore as the lakes

we are discussing, where the wind drifts the sand very con-

siderably. Another one is said to occur between Sand Bank

and Centerville in the same town. A visit to the former

showed that the wind was actually moving a hill east, moving

it grain by grain, but nevertheless very rapidly. The high-

way running north from Dugway formerly passed along the

east side of the hill near its base. Old residents told me that

the hill was originally wooded. After being cleared away it

was cultivated and finally was seeded and used as a pasture.

The work of the wind began when it was used as a sheep pas-

ture. The sand drifted into the road until the people were

hardly able to haul loads over it. An attempt was made to

stop the sand by building a high board fence. The sand im-

‘mediately began to drift against the fence and finally drifted

over it, so that now only the tops of the boards can be seen.

Failing in their attempt to fence out the sand, the people have

bridged it over with planks for a distance of forty rods or more.

All this goes to show that the west winds in this region are

unusually strong, and produce a decided effect upon other

features of the region as well as upon the lakes.’

UNIFORMITY IN MOOR FLORA.

One of the strongest pieces of evidence to support the view

that the whole face of the country was once covered with @

vegetation much more like that in our moors than like that

upon our highlands, is the uniformity of the moor flora. The

sphagnous moors are isolated, but we find the same species of

plants in them all. It is impracticable for plants to migrate

from one to another at the present time. The moors remind

one of an island in the open sea—islands which preserve to US

a primitive flora.

So constantly are certain species present in the moors of the

whole eastern United States, that upon entering a moor one

begins to look for certain species, and at once misses any n°

that does not happen to occur in that particular moor. An

1 Since writing the above, Warming’s Oekologische Pflanzengeographic has Y

peared, and in it, p. 365, is described the effect of the wind upon the lakes and

moors of Denmark. The effect is the same as here described. .

1897.] Editor’s Table. 699

example: Kalmia glauca does not now occur in the Cayuga

Lake basin, but it occurs in many of the moors to the east and

north, even appearing in the adjoining county, i.e., Cortland.

THE ZONES OF A SWAMP.

The character of the vegetation enables us to divide a com-

plete swamp into three natural zones:

First, the lake in the center, which, although not a belt at

all, may, for convenience sake, be so designated.

Second, the moor comprising the open area surrounding the

lake and generally grown over with sphagnum. There are no

shrubs or trees here capable of casting extensive shade.

Third, the wooded belt comprising the remainder of the

swamp. It varies in width, and in this particular region is

apt to be of considerable width north and south of the lake.

In the maturing of the swamp these disappear in regular

succession from one to three. Local conditions bring about a

great variation in the relative extent of the several zones. At

Malloryville, Tompkins County, N. Y., is a swamp with a very

narrow wooded belt, due, no doubt, to the steepness of the

shores of the depression; the lake here has been completely

filled up, so that we really have a moor surrounded by high

ground. The wooded belt is, however, a marked feature of

the swamps in Oswego County.

(To be continued.)

EDITOR'S TABLE.

THE next issue of the AMERICAN Natura.ist will appear under

entirely new management. The magazine has been purchased from the

estate of the late Professor Edward D. Cope by a number of gentlemen

who are interested in the advancement of the natural sciences, and Dr.

Robert P. Bigelow, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Bos-

ton, has accepted the post of Editor-in-Chief. He will be assited by

an Editoral Committee and by an able board of Associate Editors,

700 The American Naturalist. [August,

whose names will be announced later. The general scope of the jour-

nal will remain unchanged, and a high standard will be maintained in

every department. It is hoped that naturalists in all parts of the

country will find the AMERICAN NATURALIST a convenient medium

for such of their communications as may be of general interest to

others working in the same general field, as well as to specialists in

their own lines. Intending contributors are invited to send manu-

` scripts directly to Dr. R. P. Bigelow, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-

nology, Boston, Mass.

THE meeting of the Association of Agricultural Colleges and Exper-

iment Stations at Minneapolis, in the month just past, cannot fail to be

productive of good. It brings out forcibly the endeavors of Ameri-

cans asa people to ameliorate the conditions of the agricultural classes,

reminding us, as it does, that some $1,890,000 were appropriated by

Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1898, for. agriculture. Of

this something like $1,170,000 is for scientific investigations under the

direct supervision of the Department of Agriculture, and the rest

($720,000) for maintaining the experiment stations. The departmen-

tal divisions falling within the domains covered by the American

Naturalist receive various amounts as follows: Botany, $23,800;

Agrostology, $18,100; Forestry, $28,520; Pomology, $14,500; Phy-

siology and Vegetable Pathology, $26,500 ; Biological Survey, $27,560;

Entomology, $29,500; the Bureau of Animal Industry, $755,640; and

for special investigations in nutrition under the auspices of the office of

Experiment Stations, $15,000.

At this meeting, among the important matters brought to light was

the relation between experimental and instructional work as it exists in

some of the institutions represented in the Association. The complaint

was made that experimental work suffers at the expense of instruc-

tional through the overloading of the workers. Many a teacher who —

should have some time to carry on original work is so crowded with

class work that neither energy nor time is left for anything else. The

result is that those whom he is supposed to teach are forced back, more

or less, into the old parrot methods of learning, lacking as they do that

best of incentive to a development of their own powers, namely, the

living example of an original worker constantly turning out

work.

Another matter of importance that was touched upon is the indexing

of literature relating to agriculture. So far as matter emanating from

the experiment stations is concerned, nothing better could be asked for

than the Experiment Station Record. But there is needed an index

1897]. Recent Literature. 701

that shall not be restricted to the immediately applicable—one that

shall index thoroughly the entire range of the sciences, any portion of

which appears at present capable of immediate use in agricultural lines.

The development of the agricultural colleges should be broad and

healthful and not the reverse.

Finally, there was a proposition, which was referred to the Execu-

tive Committee, to endeavor to obtain from Congress for the develop-

ment of mechanical schools and courses of instruction the same en-

couragement that has been accorded to agriculture. The proposition

is eminently a worthy one, for no class of the people, if one may judge

from census returns, needs such encouragement more than this.

RECENT LITERATURE.

The Coccidæ of Ceylon.^—The work by Mr. E. E. Green, now

to be reviewed, might seem from the title to possess very little general

interest. Ceylon is a long way away; and the Coccide are apparently

considered by most people to be unworthy of serious attention, except

with a view to their destruction. Now while the economic side of

Coccidology is highly important, it is maintained that the subject pos-

sesses also a strong Darwinian interest, and that the perusal of such a

work as Mr. Green’s will—or should—grealy profit any naturalist who

interests himself in general biological problems. We have in these

Coccide a strictly Homopterous type, but so modified that the family

falls outside most of the current definitions—not only of Homoptera,

but of Insecta! Combined with a remarkable reduction and even loss

of parts, is the development of new characters of the most diverse kind

to meet the several needs of the insects. We have here acase in which

the most extraordinary modification has taken place, without masking

the real affinities of the group ; and everything is made so clear by Mr.

Green’s descriptions and beautiful colored plates, that no intelligent

person could fail to understand the exact condition of affairs.

- Not only should the work be examined by naturalists, but it should

be shown to students of biology in our colleges. It ought to encourge

all those who aspire to do original work in biological science. For

* The Coccide of Ceylon, by E. Ernest Green, F. E. S , Part1. With 33 Plates.

London, Dulaw & Co., 1596.

702 The American Naturalist. [August,

very many years, naturalists have collected and observed in Ceylon ;

yet here comes Mr. Green, at the end of the nineteenth century, and

reveals a whole series of remarkable forms whose existence-had remained

unknown. Until Mr. Green began to study Coccidæ, the species of

this family had never been collected or studied properly in any part of

the great Oriental region, and for Ceylon only seven species had been

recorded. Mr. Green has found considerably over a hundred, most of

them new to science, and he estimates that over two hundred will

eventually be found in the island. Of the 30 forms described in the

part of the work now before us, 18 were first described by Mr. Green.

And there are innumerable other localities in the world, where the

Coccidologist may reap a similarly abundant harvest. There is a tra-

dition among Entomologists, that these insects are extraordinarily

difficult to study. The difficulty is much more imaginary than real ;

the methods of preparation for study are different from those required

for other insects, but they are easily learned, and the characters of the

species are readily determined with the aid of a hand lens and a com-

pound microscope. The method of procedure is fully explained by

Mr. Green in his prefatory remarks. There is one thing, however, to

be remembered: No one can intelligently study the Coccide of one

country or region alone; since through human means the distribution

of many of these creatures has become almost or quite world-wide, and

one never knows what may turn up at any place. In the first part of

Mr. Green’s work, there are recognized in Ceylon various species first

described from such diverse regions as Europe, America, Australia and

pan.

In Chap. III, Mr. Green gives a new classification of the subfamilies

of Coccide. He remarks himself, that it is doubtless imperfect ; but

it appears to the writer to be an improvement on all previous ones. It

is especially to be recommended for its clearness and consistency, and

while it must be admitted that on several points there still exists room

for legitimate differences of opinion, the expected changes must chiefly

depend on hitherto undiscovered facts. Mr. Green’s new subfamilies,

Conchaspine for Conchaspis, and Tachardiine for Tachardia, seem @n-

tirely justified. The writer regrets the suppression of the Asterolecant-

ine, which certainly form a very compact and natural group ; while as

to Porphyrophorine—he has never studied Porphyrophora, but Mar-

garodes surely belongs to a subfamily distinct from Monophleline. — It

is to be supposed that the Ortheziine, Monophleline and Margarodin®

(or Porphyrophine) are the most primitive of the Coccide. The writer

inclines to the view that the Conchaspine are related to the ancestors

of the Diaspine. :

1897.] Recent Literature. 703

Chap. IV, relates to the Conchaspine. On June 9, 1892, being the

first anniversary of our wedding day, my wife and I, then living in

Jamaica, celebrated the occasion by a trip to Hope Gardens. It was

on this occasion that Conchaspis was discovered. The next year, Mr.

Newstead reported the same genus (as Pseudinglisia) and apparently

the same species, in an English hot-house. Now Mr. Green describes

a very distinct new species (C. socialis) from Ceylon, and for the first

time makes known the ¢; and I may add that Prof. Townsend has

found in Mexico, on Phemicria at Vera Cruz, still another species, which

I shall publish as C. newsteadi.

Chap. V treats of the Diaspine, with a very admirable introduction.

The genera found in Ceylon are Aspidiotus, Aonidia, Mytilaspis, Dias-

pis, Fiorinia and Chionaspis. The absence of Parlatoria and Isehnas-

pis is noteworthy. In the writer’s opinion, two or three new genera

should be added to those listed by Mr. Green. The extraordinary

Aonidia corniger Green, is unquestionably the type of a new genus,

which may be called Greeniella, distinguished by the long radiating

processes of the scale, and the simple pygidium of the 9, armed, how-

ever, with long irregular terminal processes. Aonidia bullata Green,

and Fiorinia secreta Green, also obviously require new generic names.

Aspidiotus ficus is credited to “ (Riley) Comstock,” it should pro-

perly be credited to Ashmead, who first seenbed it. Riley expressly

disclaimed responsibility at the time. For A parens or latanie are

described and figured two different sabiei of 3, one reddish, the

other pale yellow with a reddish thoracic band. The latter is the

typical transparens. The species described as A. cyanophylli is appar-

ently not Signoret’s insect of that name; at all events, specimens sent

to me by Mr. Green are distinct. These are on Oycas from Kandy,

and will be published elsewhere as A. greenii. In Aspidiotus secretus,

Mr. Green describes for the first time the adult 9. Under }

amygdali, it is noted, among other things, that the females (not the

scale) on Callicarpa lanata are bright pink. Diaspis fagree Green, is

a very interesting species, for while the 9? is like an Aulacaspis, the 3

scale has no trace of carination.

One of the interesting facts developed is that of the gall-producing

propensities (if one may so speak) of Grevia orientalis. On this plant

are found three galls, outwardly almost identical, one due to Aspidio-

tus occultus, one to Fiorinia secreta, and the third to a fungus! And

what makes the case so extraordinary is, that these are the only true

‘gall-producing Diaspine known

704 The American Naturalist. [August,

I believe that what Mr. Green now calls Mytilaspis gloverii var.

pallida is a distinct species, as he at first held. Mr. Alex. Craw has

found on variegated Podocarpus from Japan a form which I propose

to call M. pallida var. maskelli, because it was discussed by Mr. Mas-

kell in Trans., New Zealand, Inst., XX VII, p. 46. The scale is too

broad for gloverii, but narrower than citricola; it is not far from the

color of citricola, not very pale as in typical pallida, though often whit-

ish at the broader end. There seem to be but four groups of ventral

glands, caudolateral four, cephalolaterals six.—T. D. A. CocKERELL.

Section Cutting and Staining.’—This is intended primarily for

students and practitioners who need a brief introduction to the ways

of the microscopist. It briefly describes the necessary apparatus, and

the various processes to which tissues are subjected for histological pur-

poses. In many respects it may be said to be fairly up to date, in

others, as for instance, in the case of bichromate of silver methods in

neurology, it is not. Formol is given as a histological reagent, but un-

fortunately it is given as formal, which is a synonym for methylal, as

has been previously pointed out in these pages, and as any one may

readily see by consulting German works on organic chemistry or by

consulting Gould’s “ Students’ Medical Dictionary ”* (1896, Phila.).

By reason of priority, and by reason of its expressing the probable

relations of the formaldehyde to the water in the so-called 40 per cent.

solution, formol is the proper word to use for this liquid. But as the

term Formalin has been forced into use in the commercial world and

will probably stay in spite of efforts to supplant it, one may as well sub-

mit and use the word that one must employ in buying one’s reagents.

It is obvious, that, if one calls for formal, one will get methylal.

Cambridge Natural History, Volume V.’—The high stand-

ard of this series as a reliable, popular scientific work is maintained in

this volume. Mr. Sedgwick contributes a paper on Peripatus, giving

its habits, manner of breeding, anatomy, development, and a summary

of distribution, the latter point being illustrated by a map. Mr. Sin-

clair treats of Myriapods in the same comprehensive manner, and in-

cludes a brief account of fossil forms and their distribution. Mr.Sharp

gives an introductory sketch of Insects embodying the latest observa

T Section Cutting and Staining. W.S. Colman. 12 mo. 160 pp.

8 Or any one of several other Medical Dictionaries. i

? Cambridge Natural History Series, Vol. V. Peripatus, A. Sedgwick. Myria-

pods, F. G. Sinclair. Insects, D. Sharp. London and New York, 1895. Mae-

millan & Co. $4.00.

1897.] Recent Literature. 705

tions as to their structure, the development of the individual, and the

characteristic features of insect life, followed by a discussion of four of

the nine orders of Insects, viz.; Aptera, Orthoptera, Neuroptera and a

portion of the Hymenoptera. In these ordinary descriptions Mr. Sharp

has incorporated a great deal of interesting information as to the habits

and life-histories of various insects, fully demonstrating that fact may

be as entertaining as fiction.

Aquatic Insects."—This little volume is intended by the author

to stimulate young naturalists in observing the habits and structures of

living animals, and to try to discover the way in which the machinery

of nature works. The writings of the old naturalists, Swammerdam,

Réaumur, Lyonnet and De Geer are quoted to show what patient

observation can accomplish. Eleven chapters are devoted to as many

groups of fresh-water aquatic insects, one to the insects of the sea-shore

and one to the peculiar contrivances of aquatic insects for locomotion,

for feeding, for respiration, for egg-laying, and for attack and defence.

The drawings are in most cases made direct from the Insects and are

a valuable feature of the book.

Bird-Craft.”

to ornithological literature, its author has certainly had about her that

“pocket full of patience” which she recommends to amateur students

of bird-life. The chapters on the Spring Song, Building of the Nest,

and Birds of Autumn and Winter show a long continued personal

acquaintance with the habits of birds. The “Biographies” also con-

tain notes from personal observation.

The illustrations, nearly all colored, add much to the attractiveness

of the book.

Some Elementary Botany.”—Four very pretty books for Child-

ren have been compiled by M. C. Cooke and published by T. epee =

Sons. The writer adopts the tional style and imparts

able information to his class concerning a few of the commoner English

wild-flowers, A corn-field, a copse, a lane and a marsh afford material

for the several books. Each volume is illustrated with a number of

figures and one colored plate, and they are altogether attractive addi-

tions to literature for children.

‘©The Natural History of Aquatic Insects. By L. O. Miall. London and New

York, 1895. Macmillan & Co. $1.75.

a Bird-Craft. By Mable Osgood Wright. New York, 1895. Macmillan &

$3.00

Sadani a Corn-field. A Stroll in a Marsh. Through the wn the

Lane and Back. By Uncle Matt (M. C. Cooke), London, enh oad. and New

York, 1895. T. Nelson & Sons, Pub.

706 The American Naturalist. [August,

The Senile Heart.”—In this small octavo of some three hundred

pages, Dr. G. M. Balfour states the causes for the enlarged heart fre-

quently found in adults past their prime, its symptoms, and the con-

comitants and sequele. He then suggests a general mode of treatment

for this widespread cardiac trouble followed by a chapter on the prog-

nosis of special symptoms and the treatment with special reference to

these symptoms.

Marginal synopses of the points touched upon in the several para-

graphs make the book a handy reference volume.

Sixth Annual Report of the Missouri Botanical Gardens.”

—This Report includes the following scientific papers: Revision of the

North American species of Sagittaria and Lophotocarpus, Jared G.

Smith ; Leitneria floridana, Wm. Trelease; Studies on the Dissemina-

tion and Leaf Reflexion of Yucca aloifolia and other Species, H. J.

Webber; Notes on new or little known Species, J. G. Smith ; Notes on

the Mound Flora of Atchison Co., Missouri, B. F. Bush.

All of these papers are well illustrated with page plates of excellent

drawings.

AMERICAN NATURALIST LIST OF RECENT BOOKS

AND PAMPHLETS.

ADAMS, G. [.—The Extinct Felide of North America. Extr. NA, Journ.

Sci., Vol. I, 1896. From the author.

ADLER, F.—The Monroe Doctrine and the War i in the United States.

Ethical Addresses, Ser. III, No. 1, 1896. From the

Acassiz, A.—The Elevated Reef of Florida, wey Notes on the Geology of

Southern Florida by Leon S. Griswold. Extr. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard

Coll., XXVIII, 1896. From the author.

Bancs, O.—On a small collection of Mammals from Lake Edward, Quebec.

a Proceeds. Biol. Soc. Wash., 1896.

scom, F.—The Structures, Origin and Nomenclature of the Volcanic Rocks

of ie Misiista. Reprint Journ, Geol., Vol. I, 1893. From the author.

Baur, G.—Der Schädel einer neuen grossen Schildkröte (Adelochelys) aus

dem Dasteginthens Museum in München. Aus. Anat. Anz., XII, Bd. 1896.

From the author.

Bauer, K.—Ein Fall von Verdoppelung der oberen Hohlvene und ein Fall

von Einmündung des Sinus coronarius in den linken Vorhof. Jena, 1896. From

the author.

13 The Senile Heart. Its Symptoms, Sequels, and their Treatment. By G. W.

Balfour, M. D. New York and London, 1894. Macmillan & Co. $1.50.

“Sixth Annual Report of the Missouri Botanical Gardes. St. Louis, 1895.

{897.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 707

BONAPARTE, R.—Une Excursion en Corse. Paris, 1891. From the author.

Bonney, T. G.—The Serpentine, Gneissoid and Hornblende Rocks of the

Lizard District. Extr. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1896. From the author.

Bout, M.—Les Glaciers oiae et quaternaires de l'Auvergne. Extr.

Comptes Toi 1895. From the autho

BRANNER, J. C.—- Decomposition of Rocks in Brazil. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc.

Amer., Vol. 7, 1896. From the Society

Dames, von W.—Ueber die Ichthyopteryier der A Panon: Sitzungsb. k.

in Akad. Wissen. Berlin, 1895. From thea ;

Davis, W. M.—Plains of Warine Subaerial Daia. Bull, Geol. Soc.

Amer., Vol, 7, 1896. From the Socie

Dawson, G. M.—Glacial Deposits F Séuth western ire in the Vicinity of

the Rocky Mountains. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 7, 1895. From the

author.

FowxE.—Discoidal Potsherds. Extr. Eth. Ann., Vol. 13. From the author.

GILBERT, G. K.—Presidential Address before the Hci Society of Wash-

ington, 1895. Washington, 1896. From the author

GROTE, A. R.—Die IRES ica ans aus ner Roemer. Mus. Hilde-

sheim, Nr. 6, 1896. From the a

Howes, G. B.—-Address rar before the ee ae Loa 1896.

Extr. Proceeds. Malacol. Soc., Vol. II, Pt. 2, 1896. From the t

Hivprecut, H. V.—The Babylonian Expedition of the Pje asam of Penn-

sylvania. Series A: Cuneiform Texts, Vol. I, Pt. II. Reprint Trans. Amer.

Philos. Soc. N. S., XVIII, No. 3, 1896. From the author.

Jupp, S. D.—Descriptions of three species of Sand Fleas (Amphipods) col-

lected at Newport, Rhode Island. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., XVIII,

1896. From the Museum

Keyes, C. R.—Geographic Relations of the Granites and Porphyries in the

eastern part of the Ozarks. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 7, 1896. From

the Societ

KINKELIN, Dr. F.—-Einige seltene Fossilien des Senckenbergischen Museum.

Aus. Abhandl. Senck, naturf. Gessell., Bd. XX, Heft 1, 1896. From the author.

LECONTE, J.—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth. Extr. Bull. Dept.

Geol. Univ. Calif., Vol. 1, 1895. From the author.

LYDEKKER, R.—On the Affinities of the so-called Extinct Giant Dormouse of

Malta. Extr. Proceeds. Zool. Soc. London, Dec., 1895. From the author.

Marcou, J.—The Jura of Texas. Extr. Proceeds. Boston. Soc. Nat. Hist.,

Vol. 27,1896. From the author.

McCarey, H.—Report on the Valley Regions of Alabama (Paleozoic Strata).

PEL The Tongas Valley Region. Issued by Geol. Surv. Alabama, 1896.

From the author.

MERRILL, G. P.—Disintegration and Decomposition of Diabase at Medford,

Massachusetts. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 7, 1896. From the Society.

MILLER, G. 8.—-Winge on Brazilian Carnivora. e Sci., Vol. ILI, 1896.

From the author

MorsELLI, E. Heviath analitica. Cope, E. D., Primary Factors of Organic

Evolution. Extr. Revue Critica (3), XIV, Num. 12. From the author.

708 The American Naturalist. [August,

Mosss, A. J., U. E. WEINScHENK.—Uber eine einfache Vorrichtung zur Mes-

sung der Brechungsexponenten kleiner Krystalle mittelst Totalreflexion. Aus

Zeitschr. f. Krystallog. Leipzig, 1896. From the author

OPPENHEIMER, ED.—Ueber eigenthümliche Organe in der Haut einiger Repti-

lien, Aus Morphol. Arbeit. Fünfter Bd., Drittes Heft., 1895. From the author.

PRIEM, F.—Sur les Poissons de la Craie phosphate des environs de Péronne.

——Sur des Dents de Poissons du Crétacé superieur de France. Extr. Bull,

Geol. Soc. France, 1896. From the author.

QUAINTANCE, A. L.—Insect Enemies of wie and Garden Crops. Bull. No.

34, 1896, Florida Exper. Station. From the Sta

SALTER, W. M.—The Venezuelan Question. nytt Address. Ser. III, No.

2, 1896. From the author

SAPPER, C.—La Geografia fiscia y la Geologia de la Peninsula de Yucatan.

Extr. Bol. Inst. Geol. de Mexico, Num. 3, 1896. F rom ne author.

SARDESON, F. W.—The Fauna of the Magnesian Ser

—The Saint Peter Sandstone. Extrs. Bull. iaria Acad. Sci., Vol. IV,

1896. From the author.

ScHMIDT, H.--Ueber normale Hyperthelie menschlicher Embryonen. Aus.

Anat. Anz., Bd. XI, 1896. From the author

Sc W. B.--The Structure and Relationships of Ancodus.

—— The Osteology of Hyaenodon. Reprints Journ. Phila. Acad., Vol. IX,

Pt. 4. From the author.

SHALER, N. S.—-Relations of Geologic Science to Education. Extr. Bull.

Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 7, 1896. From the Society.

SPENCER, J. W.—Geographical Evolution of Cuba. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.,

Vol. 7, 1895. From the Society.

UrHam, W.--Preglacial and Postglacial Valleys of the Cuyahoga and Rocky

Rivers. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 7, 1896 i

VAN DEN Brock, E.—Note préliminaire sur le Niveau stratigraphique et la

Region d’Origine de Certains des Blocs de Grés quartzeux des plaines de la

Moyenne et de la Basse Belgique. Extr. Bull. Soc. Belge de Geol., T. IX, 1895

From the author.

Warp, L. H.—Prof. Fontaine and Dr. Newberry on the Age of the Potomac

Formation. Extr. Sci. March, 1897. From the author.

——Descriptions of the Species of Cycadeoidea or Fossil Cycadean Trunks thus

far discovered in the Iron Ore Belt, Potomac Formation, ee Extr.

Proceeds. Biol. Soc. Washington, Vol. XI, 1897. From the Societ

WHITE, I. C.—Origin of the High Terrace Deposits of the Méooagebis River-

Extr. Amer. Geol., Vol. XVIII, 1896. From the author.

Wo terstorrr, W.--Ueber einer Fall von Neotine bei Triton marmorotus

Latr. Aus Blätter fiir Aquarien und Terrarien-Freunde. Madgeburg, 1896.

From the author.

Woopwarp, A. S.—A Description of the so-called Salmonoid Fishes of the

English Chalk. Extr. Proceeds. London Zool. Soc., 1894. From the author.

WortMan, J. L.-—Psittacotherium, a Member of a New and Primitive Sub-

order of the Edentata. Author’s Ed. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1896. From

the author.

1897.] Geology and Paleontology. 709

General Notes.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Hollick on Block Island.—The series of investigations carried

on by Mr. Arthur Hollick in Staten Island, Long Island, Martha’s

Vineyard and Nantucket now includes Block Island. For several

years Mr. Hollick has carefully recorded his observations, and has ac-

cumulated a vast amount of geological information, based on both

paleontologic and stratigraphic data. His latest views on the relations

these islands bear to each other are given in a recent paper as follows:

“ Block Island has been brought into a line geologically with Long

Island, Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket. They all had their origin

in one series of cause and effect. They manifestly represent remnants

of the former coastal plain which consisted of Cretaceous and Tertiary

sands, gravels, clays and marls. The glacier of the Ice Age squeezed

upward and pushed forward these incoherent strata into a series of con-

torted folds along its line of furthest advancement, depositing on top

the detritus of the moraine. The ridge so formed was at first contin.

uous, but with the gradual sinking of the coast, and the action of the

ocean, the less elevated portions have succumbed, and only the highest

parts, now represented by these islands, remain above water. All the

facts point to this conclusion, and even the most superficial observation

shows that the phenomena of submergence and erosion are in active

operation at the present time. Should they continue in the future it

requires but little prevision to appreciate that Block Island and the

islands to the eastward will continue to shrink in size, disappear, and

eventually form merely parts of the shoals which now connect and

surround them. Montauk Point will continue to recede, and, by the

submergence of the low, narrow strip of land in the vicinity of Canoe

Place, a new island will be formed from what remains of the Point.”

(Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., XVI, 1896.)

Age of the Himalaya.—In a discussion of the geology of Hazara,

India, Mr. C. S. Middlemiss again urges the great age of the Himalaya

as opposed to the more popular idea that they were the product of yes-

terday, geologically speaking. He states that “it has been gradually

becoming evident to all who really examine the question in detail that

the Himalaya are and have been in a constant state of change; a state

of elevation along the main axis and depression along the mountain-

foot, "N intermediate zones of crushing, crimpling, and over-riding

710 The American Naturalist. [ August,

along shear and thrust planes. Hence, in speaking of the Himalaya of

a past geological age or epoch I mean that old representative of them

which held about the same position, and acted functionally in the same

way as does the mountain range going by the name of Himalaya to-day.

It may sometimes have been represented by long parallel coast lines,

or by archipelagoes with chains of mountainous islands following simi-

lar parallel lines, but that it kept certain original features, and that a

core recognizable in its unity persisted throughout Tertiary, Secondary,

and possibly into Paleozoic times, I have no doubt.” (Mem. Geol.

Surv. India, XX VI, 1896.)

Geological History of the Bermudas.—Mr. Tarr’s field work

in the Bermudas results in the following conclusions in regard to the

history of these islands as revealed by the rocks. First, there was a

base rock, formed by the waves which ground up shell fragments upon

the beach. This was consolidated into a dense limestone, which was

elevated and denuded, and finally depressed and attacked by the waves.

During the last stage it was partly covered by a beach deposit. Then

came an uplift during which a wind-drift structure of consolidated

coral sand was formed on the beach rock. The last stage has been a

depression that carried the level down nearly to that of the beach which

was formed before the uplift occurred. This work of construction has

been done in recent times, the history dating back into Pleistocene time

only, or possibly early Cenozoic. (Amer. Geol., Vol. XIX, 1897.)

Canadian Paleozoic Fossils.—A systematic list of all the species

from the Galena-Trenton and Black River formations of the vicinity

of Lake Winnipeg, now in the Museum of the Canadian Survey, pre

pared by Dr. Whiteaves, is published by the Survey, with descriptions

and illustrations of 26 new species. According to the author, the most

striking feature of the fossils of the Winnipeg and Red River forma-

tions is the large size to which many of the specimens attain. Refer-

ence is made to one of the Receptaculitide (R. owenii) which is known

to be 12-20 inches in diameter. Orthoceratites have been found meas-

uring 44 to 6 feet in length. Rough casts of the interior of spirally

coiled discoidal shells, apparently allied to Barrandeoceras are nearly

or quite two feet across. A siphuncle of Endoceras crassisiphonatum,

which is also imperfect at both ends, is nearly 3 feet long, and the fin

cheek of a trilobate, Asaphus (Isotelus) gigas, indicates a specimen that

must have been twenty inches in length when alive.

A brief resumé of the exploration of the Lake Winnipeg limestones

prefaces the descriptions of the fossils. (Paleozoic Fossils, Vol. HI,

Pt, III Ottawa, 1897.)

1897.] Geology and Paleontology. 711

Kellaways Fauna in Baluchistan.—A monograph prepared

by Dr. Noetling, and the Geological Survey of India, deals with the

fauna of Kellaways from Mazár Drik, Baluchistan. The specimens

which have unfortunately suffered more or less from deformation by

pressure, have been carefully compared with the type specimens from

the Jurassic beds of Kutch, which were worked out by Professor

Waagen, and the following determinations have been made:

There are in all 22 species, of which 17 are determined specifically,

while of 5 only the genus could be determined. Of the 17 forms identi-

fied 16 have already been described, while one form, Perisphinctes

baluchistanensis is recognized as new.

The 22 species represent the following classes: Brachiopoda 2, Pele-

cypoda 3, Gastropoda 1, Cephalopoda 16. The character and distri-

bution of these fossils indicates that the Polyphemus limestonein which

they were found is the representative of the Macrocephalus beds of

Kutch, and is homotoxial with the lower Kellaways beds of Europe.

Six page plates of lithographed drawings illustrate the work.

Fauna of the Wombeyan Caves, N. S. W.—At a recent

meeting of the Natural History of Glasgow, Dr. Brown exhibited the

following series of fossils from the bone breccia deposit which he had

discovered recently in the neighborhood of the Wombeyan Caves in

New South Wales:

1. Two almost perfect jaws of Burramys parvus Broom, a Diprotodont

marsupial, chiefly characterized by its large grooved premolars. It is

regarded by Dr. Broom as being intermediate between the Phalangers

and the Macropodids. There is reason to believe that Burramys is the

nearest known relative to the extinct pouched lion Thylocoleo carnifex.

Owen.

2. Two lower jaws and a specimen exhibiting the almost complete

_ Maxillary teeth of Paleopelaurus elegans Broom, a small Diprotodont

believed to be intermediate between Petaurus and Gymnobelidens, and

probably the ancestor of both.

3. Premolars and molars of Pseudochirus antiquus Broom, an extinct

Ring-tailed Phalanger.

4. Lower jaw of Dromecia nana (Desm.), the small Tasmanian

Dormouse-Phalanger.

5. Lower and upper jaws of Phascologale flavipes Waterh, the exist-

ing yellow-footed pouched mouse.

6. Lower jaw of Phasacologale penicillata (Shaw), the existing

Brush-tailed Pouched Mouse. (Proceeds. Nat. Hist. Soc., Glasgow,

Vol. IV, Pt. III (1895-96), (1897.)

712 The American Naturalist. [August,

A Region of Environmental Change.—One of the most impor-

tant geological changes which has taken place along the Atlantic coast

in recent times was the closing up of the Currituck Inlet, North Caro-

lina, by drifting sands in 1828. Previous to that year this inlet formed

such a passage from the ocean through a narrow outer beach into the

waters of Currituck Sound as is formed by either the new or Ocracock

Inlet to Pamlico Sound now. With the closing of the Currituck Inlet

there was the conversion of upwards of one hundred square miles of

shallow salt and brackish. water to fresh water; and it is within the

memory of men now living that the resultant changes were immediate

and striking.

Previously the sound had been a valuable oyster bed. Within a

few years the oysters had all died out and their shells may now be seen

in long rows where they have been thrown out in dredging for a boat

way in the Coinjock Bay, a southwestern extension of the Sound. Fur-

ther there were such changes in vegetation as brought countless thou-

sands of ducks of species that had been only occasional before. The

salt water fishes were driven out and fresh water fishes took their place.

(Amer. Journ. Sci., IV, 1897, p. 76).

Geological News.—Grnrra.—Mr. J. C. Branner questions the

somewhat prevalent idea that rock decay is, like organic decay, a pro-

cess of bacterial growth. He cites a number of authorities who are all

agreed as to certain conditions favorable for the growth of bacteria,

and quotes experiments to show that these conditions do not exist below

certain limited depths of the soil. Since granites are often decomposed

to depths of more than 100 feet, it is not probable that bacteria are re-

sponsible for this deep;decay, or for any considerable part of it. (Amer.

Journ. Sci., Vol. III, 1897.)

Crenozoic.—The jaws of a true monkey have been found by Mr.

Forsyth Major in the Æpyornis beds of Madagascar. From their size-

M. Gaudy infers that the animal was about as large as a man. the,

molar teeth recall Mesopithecus and Semnopithecus. In general ap-

pearance the teeth resemble those of the Old World monkeys, but their

number corresponds with those of the New World. For this new fossil

Mr. Forsyth Major proposes the name Nesopithecus robertit. (Revue

Scient. (4) VI, 1896.)

Dr. J. C. Merriam notes the occurrence of marine Tertiary horizons

at two localities in Vancouver Island—Carmanah Point and at the

Sooke District. Thirty-three invertebrate species are identified from

1897.] Botany. 713

the first named place, and serve to correlate the formation with Conrad’s

Astoria Miocene. The fauna of the Sooke beds is quite different from

any of the Oregon or Californian Miocene or Pliocene faunas known to

the writer. His conclusion, however, from evidence in hand, is that

the Sooke beds are of middle Neocene age, and that the time of their

deposition was considerably later than that of the Carmanah Point

beds. (Univ. Calif. Bull., Dept. Geol., Vol. 2, 1896.)

_ A recent Palletin of the Soe. Belge de Geol. contains a figure of the

femur of th key found by Kaup in the Pliocene

beds (Rhenan) at Eppelsheim (Haut-Rhin). At first it was decided not

to separate this form generically from the Dryopithecus of Saint-

Gauden’s, but a recent critical comparison made by Pholig demonstrates

that such a distinction should be made. He therefore proposes the

name Paidopithex rhenanus for the Eppelsheim species. A comparison

of the Rhenan femur with those of modern allied forms shows it to be

more anthropomorphous, both in general and in many details, than are

those of the Gorilla or the Chimpanzee. (Bull. Soc. Belge de Geol., 7,

IX (1895), 1897.)

BOTANY.’

The Death of Sachs.—The death of Dr. Julius von Sachs, in

Wiirzburg, on May 28th, is announced. He was born in Breslau in

1832, and was therefore sixty-five years of age at the time of his death.

He was educated in the University of Prague, and in 1859 became

assistant in physiological botany in the Royal Experiment Station at

Tharandt, Saxony. In 1861 he became professor of botany in Bonn ;

in 1867 in Freiburg, and in 1868 in Wiirzburg. His most noted works

are Handbuch der Experimental-Physiologie der Pflanzen (1865) ; Lehr-

buch der Botanik (1st edition, 1868 ; 2d, 1870; 3d, 1873; 4th, 1874).

Geschichte der Botanik (1875), Vorlesungen über Pflanzen- Physiologie

(1882), and Abhundlungen über Pflanzen-Physiologie (1892). Of these

the third and fourth editions of the Lehrbuch, Geschichte and Vorle-

sungen über Pflanzen-Physiologie were translated into English, and

have been for years familiar to all classes of botanists in this country.

The appearance of Bennett and Dyer’s translation to the third edition

of the Lehrbuch in 1875 marked an epoch in botany in America. The

Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska,

714 The American Naturalist. [August,

German edition had been read just enough to prepare botanists for the

English volume, which was received with the greatest favor. It at once

became the great reference book in many a college department of

botany, and this place it has maintained in many cases to the present

time, although it is now nearly a quarter of a century since the author

wrote the German edition. In 1882, Dr. Vines brought out an English

version of the fourth edition, with additions and explanations of his

own, thus bringing the work forward practically to the date of its issue.

This, like its predecessor, has been extensively used as a work of refer-

ence. In 1887, Marshall Ward brought out the “Lectures on the

Physiology of Plants,” and in 1890, Garnsey and Balfour the “ History

of Botany.”

The unusual clearness with which he was able to express his ideas

contributed greatly to the popularity of Sachs’s writings, and this, added

to his power of discriminating between the less and the more important

factors in the problems which presented themselves, made him one of

the most helpful of modern botanists —CHARLEs E. Bessey.

Opportunities for Research in the Missouri Botanical

Garden.—A recent circular by the director calls attention to the

Garden as affording opportunities for certain lines of research*in botany.

He says, “ For this purpose additions are being made constantly to the

number of species cultivated in the grounds and plant houses, and to

the library and herbarium, and, as rapidly as it can be utilized, it is

proposed to secure apparatus for work in vegetable physiology, etc., the

policy being to secure a good general equipment in all lines of pure and

applied botany, and to make this equipment as complete as posible for

any special subject on which original work is undertaken by competent

students.

“A very large number of species, both native and exotic, and of horti-

culturists’ varieties, are cultivated in the Garden and Arboretum and

the adjoining park, and the native flora easily accessible from St. Louis

is large and varied. The herbarium, which includes over 250,000

specimens, is fairly representative of the vegetable life of Europe and

the United States, and also contains a great many specimens from less

accessible regions. It is especially rich in material illustrative of Cus-

cuta, Quercus, Coniferae, Vitis, Juncus, Agave, Yucca, Sagittaria,

Epilobium, Rumex, Rhamnaceae, and other groups monographed by

the late Dr. Engelmann or by attachés of the Garden. The library;

containing about 12,000 volumes and 13,000 pamphlets, includes most

of the standard periodicals and proceedings of learned bodies, 2 good

1897.] Botany. 715

collection of morphological and physiological works, nearly 500 care-

fully selected botanical volumes published before the period of Linnæus,

an unusually large number of monographs of groups of cryptogams

and flowering plants, and the entire manuscript notes and sketches

representing the painstaking work of Engelmann. A complete author’s

catalogue of the library, shelf-marked to indicate the principal subject

contents of the several works, is now in process of preparation, and will

shortly be published.

“These facilities are freely placed at the disposal of professors of

botany and other persons competent to carry on research work of value

in botany or horticulture, subject only to such simple restrictions as are

necessary to protect the property of the Garden from injury or loss.”

It has been the hope of the editor of this department of the NATURAL-

IsT that the Missouri Botanical Garden should become a great inland

laboratory for research in systematic, morphological and physiological

botany, to which duly accredited students might be sent from the uni-

versities of the Mississippi Valley. There are many problems for whose

solution botanists need tropical and sub-tropical laboratories, but there

are many more for which just such facilities as are being provided by

Dr. Trelease are far more useful; while the much milder climate of

St. Louis, to say nothing of the difference in travelling and living ex-

penses, still more fully justify the effort to establish this research labora-

tory. The returns for a certain outlay will be much greater than in

some distant laboratory, and it will be far more profitable for universi-

ties to endow tables here than in less accessible places.

—Cuar.es E. Bessey.

Botanical Notelets.—Mr. C. G. Lloyd has issued his Second

Report on the Lloyd Mycological Museum (Cincinnati, Ohio), from

which we learn that on the first day of January, 1897, it contained

1431 specimens, representing 760 species. From it we learn also that

the botanical library of the Museum contains 4387 bound volumes and

about 2000 pamphlets. In this connection we may mention again the

series of beautiful photogravures of American Fungi issued by Mr-

Lloyd, in which the species are represented with wonderful fidelity.

Dr. C. Hart Merriam has recently described (Proc. Biol. Socy.

Washington, 10: 115) a new species of fir tree from the San Francisco

and Kendrick Mts. of Arizona. It has hitherto been confused with

Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt., (Abies subalpina Engelm.) from which

it differs in its corky bark, longer leaves, smaller cones and broader

scales. He names it A. arizonica.

716 The American Naturalist. [August,

Mr. T. C. Palmer describes (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia,

March, 1897), a method of demonstrating the absorption of carbon

dioxide, and the generation of oxygen, by diatoms, by the use of inverted

test-tubes filled with water tinged with hematoxylin. On the addition

of carbon dioxide the rosy tint turns yellow, and, as the diatoms absorb

the acid, the rosy tint reappears.

The third of the “ Teachers’ Leaflets on Nature Study,” issued by

Professor Bailey, is entitled “ Four Apple Twigs.” Like its predeces-

sors, it is certain to be very helpful to both teachers and students.

Professor M. A. Brannon’s paper on the “Structure and Development

of Grinnellia americana,” in the March number of the Annals of

Botany, brings out a number of interesting facts about this beautiful

American red seaweed. He found this species to be particularly well

adapted to the study of the various phenomena of reproduction. The

plant, when cut into small pieces, reproduces vegetatively by prolifera-

tion. Carpospores and tetraspores germinate readily under favorable

conditions which are easily controlled. The antherozoids (which are

non-motile) are formed by abstriction. The trichogynes are often

branched, sometimes as many as five growing from a cystocary. The

pericarp is only two or three layers thick.

Mr. F. V. Coville publishes some interesting notes on the plants used

by the Klamath Indians of Oregon (Contrib. U. 8. Natl. Herb., V,

No. 2) as one of the results of a botanical survey of the plains of south-

eastern Oregon in 1896. The plants considered range from lichens

(Alectoria fremontii and Evernia vulpina) to grasses, lilies, knotweeds,

roseworts, umbelworts, and composites. These plants are used for food,

dyes, clothing, bows, arrows, baskets, buckets, medicines, etc.

Bulletin 9 of the Minnesota Botanical Studies maintains the high

standard of this unique state publication. It contains papers on the —

Lichens of Minneapolis (Fink), the North American Hyphomycetee

(Pound and Clements), Mosses at High Altitudes (Holzinger), Dorsi-

ventral Leaves (Day), the Genus Coscinodon in Minnesota (Holzinger),

the Ferns and Flowering Plants of the Hawaiian Islands (Heller),

Symbiosis (Schneider), the Distribution of Woody Plants at Lake of

the Woods (MacMillan), the Alkaloids of Veratrum (Frankforter).

J. Webber’s paper on the Water Hyacinth (Piaropus crassipes

(Mart.) Britton) in Bulletin 18, of the Division of Botany of the U. S,

Department of Agriculture, describes the rapid spread in Florida

rivers of a very pretty plant hitherto used for ornamental purposes,

until it has now become an intolerable nuisance. It often seriously

impedes, and, in fact, sometimes actually stops the progress of steam-

boats. The problem of its eradication is a very difficult one.

1897.) Vegetable Physiology. 717

The Asa Gray Bulletin for June appears in an enlarged and im-

proved form. The editors say in regard to it: “For some time it has

been felt that there is room in the United States for a botanical maga-

zine of a more popular nature than any which now occupy the field,”

and they hope to make the little magazine fill this place. G. H. Hicks

of Kensington, Md., the Editor-in-Chief, is to be aided by a number of

well known botonists. It should be widely circulated in the public

schools.

M. C. Fernald’s “Second Supplement to the Catalogue of Maine

Plants” appears in the Proceedings of the Portland Society of Natural

History (Vol. I], Part4). It contains 101 species and varieties, several

of which are described as new to science. Among the interesting addi-

tions are Prunus cuneata Raf., Lythrum alatum Pursh, Coreopsis tinc-

toria Nutt., Fraxinus viridis Michx. f., Solanum rostratum Dunal, and

Sassafras officinalis Nees.

A new book on fossil plants i is now appearing in parts from the pub-

lishing house of Ferd. Dummlers, Berlin. It is the work of Dr. H.

Potonié, and bears the title of Lehrbuch der Pflanzenpaleontologie. The

first lieferung contains 112 pages, and includes chapters on “ fossil

plants in general,” “ doubtful fossil plants,” and a “systematic discus-

sion of fossil remains.” It is freely illustrated.

Professor F. Lamson-Scribner, the ‘agrostologist of the Department

of Agriculture, in Washington, D. C., has made a valuable contribution

to our knowledge of the grasses of the United States by bringing out

an illustrated bulletin (No. 7) under the title of “American Grasses,”

consisting of excellent figures of three hundred and two species. Ac-

_ companying each is a brief description. It is to be hoped that larger

editions of these useful publications may be made in the future, so that

they may receive wider distribution —Cuar.es E. Bessey.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

Chemotropism of Fungi.—Manabu Miyoshi, a student of Pfeffer

in Leipsic, has considerably extended our knowledge of the behavior

of fungi toward particular substances, and has opened up a wide field

for speculation and experiment relative to the causes of parasit-

ism. He experimented at first with six common fungi, all usually

designated as Saprophytes, viz.: Mucor mucedo, M. oo Phy-

comyces nitens, Penicillium PER, Aspergillus niger and Sapro-

718 The American Naturalist. ; August,

legnia ferax. Subsequently he also experimented with Botrytis bas-

siana, B. tenella, Uredo linearis and with the pollen of Digitalis

purpurea and of some other Dicotyledons, the results being much the

same except that they are attracted by fewer substances. In brief,

he finds the germ tubes of the species experimented on to be indiffer-

ent to some substances, to be repulsed by others, and to be strongly

attracted by still others. In some cases the attraction is so strong that

an indifferent fungus-like Penicillium is converted into an active para-

site by simply injecting the living leaves on which the spores are sown

with a dilute solution of the attractive substance, e. g., 2 per cent. cane

sugar. The germ tubes bore through the epidermis or enter at the

stomata and ramify through the interior of the leaf, boring through

cells as well as passing between them, while they show no tendency to

enter leaves injected simply with water. The suggestiveness of this sort

of an experiment is certainly very great. The spores were separated

from the chemotropic substance by films of mica or collodium perfor-

ated with fine needle punctures, or by means of the epidermis of vari-

ous plants. Without entering into details, some of the main conclu-

sions reached by Mr. Miyoshi may be summed up in the following dia-

grams which I have prepared from his tables. These experiments

were made with layers of gelatin separated by thin films of collodium

containing fine needle punctures. The interrupted horizontal lines

represent collodium membranes separating layers of 5 per cent. gelatin,

previously washed in HCl to remove the disturbing, nutrient lime salts.

The dotted areas indicate the particular layer of gelatin containing the

spores to be tested. The diagonally shaded areas indicate the layers

of gelatin to which the chemotropic substance was added, in these cases

2 per cent. cane sugar. The vertical lines represent the walls of the

glass dishes. The arrows indicate the direction of the movement of the

germ tubes when there was marked chemotropism. Zero denotes that

there was no movement of the germ tubes into the compartment, and

* indicates that the germ tubes grew indifferently in all directions. In

the first diagram the experiments were with Phycomyces nitens and

Mucor stolonifer, in the second with M. stolonifer.

1897.] Vegetable Physiology. 719

Mr. Miyoshi finds that within certain limits it is the difference in the

concentration of the chemotropic substance in two layers rather than

rE ae ° e Nee , ~x ad S k A ` r “ne 2s s *

e ia par bs * mii tien T ee i 7 wa k" ` a he A at ure K

r SL eae of A fag EA p02 902 8 AS i Ta wS, ewt e.,]

ER Sa GELS 5 ‘Ge, Oe Ge pt g a Pi J "4 o Ove ey oe My

fate Ve ae GE C = me Ce le {wh ute ae th! vat t e “g t a aS “ot

ay oy at ee ee afr ` ’S BoE s` NE IR 2 ies y R eag 7°

' v ae ie = 4 © x Nig & a 7 = owe ae ae mil 4

SQ es

Fig. 2.

the amount of concentration which controls movement. Positive

chemotropism gradually disappears as diffusion renders the concentra-

tion slight. The concentration difference must be 1:10 or more to in-

duce decided turning. If the concentration is great, negative chemo-

tropism is apt to set in, e. g., Mucor mucedo shows strong, positive

chemotropism to 2 per cent. cane sugar solution, it is feebly positive

with 0.1 per cent., while with diluter solutions the fungus does not re-

act; with solutions stronger than 2 per cent. the positive reaction in-

creases up to 10 per cent., and then slowly decreases at 15, 20 and 30

per cent., becoming negative at 50 per cent. We reproduce one of

Mr. Miyoshi’s figures showing the movement of the germ tubes of

Saprolegnia ferax into a puncture in a collodium plate through which

2 per cent. meat extract was diffusing. Hyphae inside the circle of

diffusion always turned their growing point toward the zone of higher

concentration and finally entered the opening where it was strongest.

Identical results were obtained in light and dark rooms. The experi-

ments seem to have excluded heliotropism, geotropism and all move-

ments due to simple contact.

Pfeffer’s capillary tubes in water or

very dilute nutrient solutions under

cover glasses were also used, but this

method, while giving some interesting

results, is stated to be better adapted to

motile organisms. Many substances

were found to attract, and a long list is

given with the behavior of the six fungi

first mentioned toward different concen-

Fig. 3. trations. Among the strongly attract-

i e | GOs : Q

PAmMmNnaimIn

phosphates, meat extract, peptone, sugar, dextrin, asparagin, ete. The

720 The American Naturalist. [August,

following compounds caused repulsion: organic and inorganic acids,

alkalies, alcohol, calcium nitrate, magnesium sulfate, sodium chloride,

potassium nitrate, chlorate and chloride. The nutrient value of a sub-

stance, it is said, in no way corresponds to its chemotropic stimulus.

Glycerin is cited as example of a good food which has scarcely any

chemotropic action. The five molds were specially attracted by sugar,

while the Botrytis showed a special preference for meat extract and

peptone and no liking for grape or cane sugar. The pollen tubes were

indifferent to meat extract, peptone and asparagin, but were attracted

by grape sugar, cane sugar, dextrin and plum decoction. The title of

this paper is Ueber Chemotropismus der Pilze. It oceupies all of Botan-

ische Zeitung. 52 Jahrg. 1 Abt. Heft I., and is well worth reading by

all who are interested in the cultivation of fungi.

—Erwin F. SMITH.

ZOOLOGY.

Origin of Life.—The following interesting speculation as to the

origin of the organic forms of the earth is advanced by Mr. Charles

Morris. There was a time in the earth’s history, when chemical inac-

tion prevailed, on account of high temperature and unfavorable phys-

ical conditions, but, on the formation of an ocean of highly heated

waters, holding in solution a variety of elementary substances and simple

compounds, chemism grew active, and became more energetic as the

waters increased in depth and in variety and volume of their contents.

Many complex minerals were very likely then formed and deposited as

rock formations. As the ocean became freed from its abundance of

foreign material inorganic chemistry decreased, until now it has prac-

tically ceased, oxidation having reduced nearly all substances to a state

of chemical fixity.

As the waters of the primeval ocean slowly cooled, and inorganic

chemism declined in activity, organic chemism probably set in, aided

by the solar rays. The material for this new phase of action had been

prepared and existed abundantly in the water and air. It may have

had its origin in an early reaction between carbon dioxide and the

elements of water, yielding the hydro-carbons ; and subsequently be-

tween these and nitrogen, yielding the far more complex albuminous

compounds.

1897.] : Zoology. 721

Many of the preceding mineral molecules were qnis coupons in com-

position, and it is still molecules

arose under conditions restraining the activity of oxygen. Seed forms

of organic substance may have first appeared—simple carbon com-

pounds. These would serve as the basis of more complex molecules,

and there may have been a long-continued process of deoxidation and

formation of higher carbon and nitrogen compounds until true organic

matter appeared and the chemistry of life came fairly into play.

Further the author remarks that “ the conditions favoring the devel-

opment of organic material were transitory, and no longer exist. Or-

ganic chemistry emerged from a vitally active stage of inorganic

chemistry. It could not well arise from the existing passive stage of

inorganic chemistry.” (Proceeds. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1897).

The Life Cycle of the Coccidii of Arthropods.'—During the

course of his researches on the Sporozoa of Arthropods Liger came to

the conclusion that the form that has been described under the name

of Eimeria is not an independent animal but only a form in the life

cycle of Coccidium. In the intestine of myriopods and of insects, em-

bracing species of Himantarium, Stigmatogaster, Lithobius, Sapte

and Tipula, two forms of the parasites were always present. In the

myriopods there could be recognized, (1) cysts of Eimeria, growing and

mature, enclosing numerous sporozoids regularly disposed and envel-

oped in a delicate wall; (2) free active sporozoids, that might be seen

in the process of becoming detached from those just noted ; (8) intra-

cellular forms, among which one might recognize all the transitional

forms between the sporozoids just noted and the encapsuled form mark-

ing the end of the period of growth; (4) encapsuled forms, free or still

intra-cellular and showing the beginning of the division of their con-

tents into four granular masses; (5) these same cysts in a mature con-

dition with four oval spores each containing two sporozoids.

An examination of the excrement of a Himantarium that was later

found infested showed the existence there of the cysts of Coccidium,

which are to be considered as giving rise to Eimeria. The sporozoids

of Eimeria were found incapable of existing in water. As further sup-

porting his position he cites the fact that when Coccidium is present, so

is Eimeria, and when one is absent, so is the other. This coéxistence

of the two forms in the same animal has been long known, and it is

added that an arthropod has never been found containing a Coccidium

with lasting spores that did not also harbor an Eimerian form.

1 L. Liger. ©. R. Acd. Sci., CXXIV, pp. 966.

722 The American Naturalist. [ August,

Summarizing his facts he states that the cycle of the Coccidium is as

follows:

“ Eimerian sporozoid, encapsuled form, tetra-spored cyst (Coccidium),

Coccidian sporozoid (that enters the host), eimerian bud-group, and

then the Eimerian sporozoid.

In a promised paper the author expects to show the relation between

a coccidium and a gregarine, but not by an identification with a moro-

cystial as Mingazine has attempted to do nor by a doubling of the cycle

as Schneider did, but by considering the Eimerian sporozoid as equiva-

lent to the gregarine sporo-blast and the lasting tetra-spored cyst of a

Coccidium as the analogue of the gregarine spore.

The Nephridia of the Nemertine, Stichostemma eilhardi

Montg.—A brief paper on this subject by Dr. Montgomery contains

some very striking facts, which have a somewhat important bearing

upon the weight to be given nephridia in constructing phylogenetic

trees. Asa case in variation the worm described simply adds another

example to those that have been accumulated showing that the forms

of animals, of plants, the number of various portions of their anatomy,

ete. are much less fixed and regular than has been previously supposed.

This particular worm we are informed differs from all other known

nemerteans (1) in having several consecutive nephridia on each side of

the body instead of a single pair as is the case in others forms; (2) in

the fact that not all of the nephridia are provided with excretory ducts ;

(3) in the nephridia extending from one end of the body to the other ;

(4) in the great number of excretory ducts; (5) in the cavity of the

terminal bulbs being closed and hence not in open communication with

the lumen of the ductules ; (6) in the presence of a closed cuticular

structure surrounding the cavity of the bulb which may be produced

by the cells of the latter; (7) in the probable absence of a ciliary flame

in the bulb ; (8) in the comparative great length of the ductule con-

necting the bulb with the main duct; and (9) in the possession by the

epithelium of the main ducts of a cuticula of considerable thickness.

No evidence of a connection between the nephridia and the blood

vessels was found.

The peculiar features of the animal the author seeks to explain as due

to the adaptation of the ancestors of the worm from a marine to a fres!

water life. There is a question, however, as to whether such a cause 18

properly assumed for the peculiarity of consecutive nephridia instead

of the single pair found in all other nemertines, and for the irregular-

ities to be noted in the supply of exeretory ducts. As shown by the

1897.] Loology. 723

author’s diagram the nephridia look fragmentary ; there is no regular-

ity in their length, nor do the numbers of the fragments show evidence

of bilateral symmetry. But the author himself suggests that the spec-

imen may be a monstrosity, and that a study of other specimens might

show both bilateral symmetry and more regularity in the arrangement

on each side. Such a further study is certainly needed.. Until it is

made one might very reasonably suppose that it is possible that the

nemertine nephridia and their ducts are not stable in their arrangement.

And this supposition would be supported by the fact that in Pauropus,

—an animal much higher in the scale of life than the nemertine worm

in question and therefore, according to general opinion, probably less

likely to vary,—one finds the seminal ducts (metamorphosed nephridia)

coiled upon themselves and anastomased in a most peculiar, manner with

no evidenceof bilateral symmetry and showing no evidence of constancy

of arrangement or in the position of the three small ducts leading from

the testes in different individuals. Further one frequently finds that

portions of the large ducts have become cut off from the remainder and

left without communication with the exterior, very much as is shown

to be the case with the ductless nephridia in Dr. Montgomery’s figure.

Description of a Remarkable Japanese Cirripede.—Scat-

PELLUM SEXCORNUTUM n. sp. General form of capitulum triangular,

the ventral side nearly straight, dorsal convex ; upper

whorl of plates perfectly and normally calcified, lower

whorl with small, peculiar plates. Valves 13. Surface

everywhere densely and minutely pilose. Carina simply

bow-shaped, weakly arched, the apex or umbo terminal

above, roof strongly convex, with “eaves ” or projecting

caring at the sides, below which the side walls have some

radial strie. Tergum long, triangular, the carinal mar-

gin long. All margins rather straight, surface with some

n radial striation and a wide, but not well defined median

Scalpellum sex. Tid, the apex erect, pointed. Scutum convex, subtrian-

cornutum Pils, gular, decidedly less in area than the tergum, the occlu-

dent margin slightly concave, tergal margin straight, lateral and basal

margins convex, surface radially striated. Upper latus somewhat tri-

angular, the umbo above, at the apex; scutal margin long, concave,

carino-basal margin convex. Rostrum triangular, as wide as long, the

beak upturned and somewhat projecting. Rostral latus, carinal latus

and subcarina developed as curved, projecting spikes or horns, small at

their bases. No infra-median latus or subrostral plate. “Thorax”

724 The American Naturalist. [August,

largely unprotected, collapsed in the dry specimens described. Pedun-

cle rather short, not large, with small, sparse and separated conic scales.

Height of capitulum 18, breadth at base 11 mm.

_ The specimens described were collected by Mr. Frederick Stearns,

and one of the cotypes is in his noble collection of Japanese inverte-

brates in Detroit, Mich., the other being in the museum of the Academy

of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

The capitulum is covered with a soft dense pile, like S. villosum and

S. trispinosum; but these are Pollicipeo-like species, very unlike sez-

cornutum. From all other species of similar contour, the peculiar de-

velopment of the whole lower whorl of plates as projecting horns, will

readily distinguish this species, which is apparentiy nearer S. squamu-

liferum Weltner (S.-B. Ges. Naturforsch. Fr. Berlin, 1894, p. 80) than

any other described form. None of the forms described but not yet

figured by Aurivillius (Ofversigt Kongl. Vet. Akad. Förh. 1892) seem

at all similar.

It may be mentioned in this connection that the Japanese species

described by me in 1890 as Scalpellum Stearnsii was redescribed in 1891

as S. calewriferum by my lamented friend Dr. Paul Fisher (Bull. Soc.

Zool. de France, April, 1891, p. 117).

It is likely that these “ horns,” while certainly inefficient as an ar-

mour for the thoracic region, may be protective in function, as their

acute, projecting points probably could not be comfortably masticated.

ENRY A. PILSBRY.

. The Orthoptera classified according to the characters of

the Intestine.’—Continuing his studies upon the intestine and its

appendages in the group of Orthoptera Bordas has made use of the

facts in a classification of the group. The presence or absence of

cecal diverticula permits him to form two suborders, Colotasia and

Acolotasia, and the number and arrangment of the Malpighian tubules

allow him to decide each suborder into several families. Seven families

in all are recognized. Until the first suborder, Acolotasia, distinguished

by the absence of cæca the two families Phasmide and Forficulide are

placed, which under the second suborder, Colotasia, the following five

families are distinguished by the characters and in the order given:

(1) Blattidee by a well developed gizzard, eight cæca, and by the

Malpighian tubes being grouped in six fascicles.

(2) Mantide by a rudimentary gizzard and eight ceca, and by vol-

uminous salivory glands.

. Bordas. Classification des Orthoptéres d’aprés les caractères tirés de l'ap-

pareil digestif Compt. Rend., CXXIV, 821-3.

1897.] Zoology. | 725

(3) Acridiidze by six ceca each with a posterior diverticulum and by

the absence of a gizzard.

(4) Locustidæ by a voluminous gizzard with six rows of chitinous

teeth, by two large ceca, and by the numerous Malpighian tubes open-

ing at the summit of small conical tubercles.

(5) Gryllide by a large gizzard thickly armed with chitinous teeth,

by two cæca, and by the Malpighian tubules being grouped into large

fascicles that empty at the enlarged extremity of an efferent canal play-

ing the role of ureter.

A Preserve of Black Foxes.—aA few years ago a tourist, con-

vinced that the extermination of the Black Fox was but a question of

a few years at the most, purchased an island, Outer Heron, at the

mouth of the Maine, off the port of Boothbay, with the intention of es-

tablishing there a colony of the animals in which he was interested. He

imported from Alaska thirty individuals, only seven of which survived

the long voyage. These were liberated on the island, which is well

wooded and watered, and were provided with a guard, whose duty it

is to look after the increase of the original seven. They are fed on

horse meat, which is left in the forest for them, but they themselves

forage along the shore for fish and mollusks thrown up by the sea.

They live for the most part about the coast, seeking shelter in the clefts

of the rocks.

The owner finds his venture quite a profitable one, having arranged

with a London firm to dispose of the skins of the surplus of his pack.

(Revue Scientif., Avril, 1897.)

D. G. Elliott and his party obtained 125 species of birds during

their expedition through Somali-land. A list of these species has been

compiled by Mr. Elliott, who subjoins each species named with the field

note pertaining to it. The author gives much valuable information

concerning the habits of these African birds. A new Kestral is de-

scribed, Cherchwis fieldii, and 7 other new forms representing the famil-

ies Turdide, Sylviide, Alandide and Ploceidæ. The latter family,

however, has only a subspecies representative. (Pub. 17, Field Col.

Mus.. Ornith. ser., Vol. I, No. 2, 1897.)

A resumé of the species of known Costa Rican mammals is given by

J. A. Allen. The total number of species enumerated is 121, of these

10 species are domesticated animals, and 4 are introduced species of

Mus, leaving 107 as indigenous to Costa Rica, (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.

Hist. » Vol. IX, 1897.)

726 The American Naturalist. [August,

Metamorphoses of Leptocephalus brevirostris.—A descrip-

tion of the transformation of Leptocephalus brevirostris into Anguilla

vulgaris has been published by G. B. Grassi and Dr. Caulandruccio.

The reality of the metamorphoses described has been confirmed by the

characteristics of another specimen of L. brevirostris captured last

January by Dr, Silvestri in the Straits of Messina. (1) The head and

point of the tail has noticeably acquired the special characteristics of

the eel. (2) The larval teeth have totally disappeared, while the dis-

tinctive ones seem entirely absent. (3) It lacks all traces of pigment.

(Atti della Reale Accad. Lincei, VI, 1897, p. 239.)

ENTOMOLOGY:

An Ant-Inhabiting Mite.—M. Charles Janet continues his in-

teresting records of Myrmecophilous insects (Comptes Rendus, 1897,

p. 583-585). His latest study relates to the peculiar mite Antennopho-

rus uhimanni and its host Lasius mixtus. The mite lives on the ant as

an epizoon. “It fixes itself on the lower surface of the head or on the

sides of the abdomen of its host by means of the carunculs in which its

feet terminate, and which are furnished with a very adhesive sticky

substance.

These parasites are blind, but the first pair of feet is transformed in-

to long antenniform appendages provided with very sensitive olfactory

organs. They do not wander about in the galleries of the nest, but

walks over the bodies of the ants, passing from one to another. When

an Antennophorus, detached from the body of an ant, lies upon the soil

in one of the galleries of the nest, it raises and stretches forward its

first pair of ambulatory feet and at the same time it explores the space

around it with its long antenniform feet. These appendages are much

more agitated when an ant passes close by. If it pass near enough,

the Acarid glues itself on to its body by means of the cup of sticky

material on the end of one of its ambulatory feet, which it holds. up

ready for this operation, and it can in this way soon climb up and fix

itself in a good position on its host. This latter is surprised, and seeks

to rid itself of the new comer, but failing in this it becomes resigned

very quickly as soon as the Acarid has taken up one of its normal posi-

tions.

! Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

1897] Entomology. 727

Generally a working ant only carries a single Antennophorus, but

they may very often be seen carrying several. In all cases the para-

sites take up positions symmetrical with the sagittal plane of their

host’s body, and it thus comes about that the center of gravity of the

extra load is placed in the sagittal plane of the carrying ant.

The Acarids are also underjthe best conditions for not hampering

the movements of the ants, and, as a consequence, for being the more

readily tolerated by them. The Antennophorus directs its antenniform

feet toward the front of the ant if fixed upon its head, and in the re-

verse direction if fixed upon its abdomen. When an ant carries but

one Antennophorus, it is almost always placed on the head of the host.

The case of an ant carrying an Antennophorus under its head and one

on either side of the abdomen is very common. The presence of one

or more of the parasites on the body of a Lasius does not prevent the

latter from taking its share in the work of the colony and in particular

the carriage of the larve and rubbish.

The Antennophorus attaches itself freely to the naked nymphs, but

never to a nymph enveloped in a cocoon. Thus in an experimental

nest consisting of some fifty ants, all carrying a single Antennophorus

and accompanied by a certain number of nymphs, I found on the fol-

lowing day a newly emerged ant which bore seven Antennophori ar-

ranged symmetrically as follows: two (one on the top of the other) on

either side of the head and on the abdomen, one on the middle of the

dorsal region and one on either side. It would appear that the Anten-

nophorus is attracted to the young ants on account of the care with

which they are looked after and fed by their older. companions. These

latter do not seek to drive away the parasites which spread themselves ~

a little later. At the moment when a queen throws off ber nymphal

envelope the workers come to her assistance, and as the workers carry

the Antennophori, these latter generally take advantage of the position

to pass over to the body of the newly emerged queen.

The Antennophorus feeds exclusively on the nutritive fluid disgorged

by the ants. Fifty Lasii carrying Antennophori were placed in an ob-

servation nest and left without food. Eight days later the ants were

in perfect condition, but ten or more Antennophori had already died of

hunger. A tiny droplet of honey tinted with Prussian blue was al-

lowed to run over the lower face of the glass plate which formed the

roof of the nest. A large number of ants, nearly every one of which

carried an Antennophorus, ranged themselves as closely as they could

be packed all around the drop. The Antennophori had no share in

the meal, and they were obliged to retire a little because there was no

728 The American Naturalist. [August,

room for them between the heads of their hosts and the glass to which

they were applied. The ants of this brood had acquired the habit of

placing themselves, crowded one against the other, in one corner of the

nest, and there they came with their crops well filled after the meal of

blue-honey, and there they disgorged before the mouths of their com-

rades who had none. Now the ant in the act of disgorging opens its

mandibles wide. The peristaltic movements of the esophagus and the

movements of the pharynx brought up the globules of honey, the blue

color of which made them readily visible, and they formed a little drop

in front of the mouth. While the fasting ant was eating the honey

thus disgorged, the Antennophorus riding on its head took its share.

To do this it pushed itself forward and thrust its rostrum into the drop-

let. Generally, while holding itself in position by means of the two

hinder pairs of legs, it attached itself by means of the forward pair to

the head of the disgorging ant. Very often, when the fasting ant had

ended its meal and was retiring, one would see the Antennophorus try

to keep its hold on the disgorging ant. The two Lasii generally lend

themselves to this prolongation of the meal, and if they are slightly

separated from one another, the Antennophorus stretches itself to its

full length, and forms, back downwards a sort of bridge between the

heads of the two ants.—Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

The Spread of the Asparagus Beetle.—In the recent Year-

book of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Mr. F. H. Chittenden

describes the distribution of Orioceris asparagi in America. He writes:

From the scene of its first colonization in Queens County, New York,

the insect migrated to the other truck-growing portions of Long Island,

and may now be found at Cutchogue, toward the eastern end of the

island. It soon reached southern Connecticut, and has now extended

its range northward through that State and Massachusetts to the State

line of New Hampshire. Southward, it has traveled through New

Jersey, where it was first noticed in 1868, eastern Pennsylvania, Dela-

ware and Maryland to southern Virginia.

Its distribution by natural means has been mainly by the flight of

the adult beetles. Undoubtedly, also, the beetles have been transpo

from place to place by water, both up and down stream by rising and

falling tide, as the fact that it has not until recently deviated far from

the immediate neighborhood of the sea coast and of large water courses

near the coast bears abundant testimony.

Another reason for the present prevalence of this species in these a :

localities is that asparagus was originally a maritime plant and oe

1897.] Entomology. 729

escaped from cultivation and grown most luxuriantly in the vicinity

of large bodies of water. Itis well known that it is usually upon wild

plants that the insect first makes its appearance in new localities.

There is evidence also that its dissemination may be effected by what

Dr. Howard, who has made:a special study of the distribution of this

and other imported insect pests, has termed a “ commercial jump,”

either by commerce in propagating roots, among which the insect may

be present either as hibernating beetles or as pups, or by the acci-

dental carriage of the beetles on railroad trains or boats.

Only by some such artificial) means of distribution has it in later

years found its way to northwestern New York, in four counties be-

tween Rome and Buffalo, and to Ohio, where it now occupies a similar |

territory of four counties between Cleveland and the Pennsylvania

State line. During the past summer Dr. Howard traced its course

along the Hudson River above Albany. Inquiry instituted by Mr. F.

M. Webster concerning the Ohio occurrence disclosed the fact that the

plants in one locality were brought from New York. Its presence in

eastern Massachusetts in like manner may be due to direct shipments

of roots from infested localities to Boston and vicinity.

It is noticeable that its inland spread, except in the neighborhood of

water, has been extremely limited. It is present now in what is known

as the Upper Austral life zone, although in certain points in New Eng-

land it has located in what is considered the Transition zone. Its

course up the Hudson River lies within a rather narrow strip of

Upper Austral, and its location in the vicinity of Mechanicsville, about

twenty miles north of Albany, marks its present most northern location.

In all probability it is destined in time to overspread the entire Upper

Austral zone and to make its way to some extent into neighboring

areas in which it may find conditions for its continuance.

Notes.—In Bulletin 67, from the Kentucky Experiment Station,

Prof. H. Garman discusses the San José Scale.

The Colorado Potato Beetle in Mississippi is the title of Bulletin

41 of the Experiment Station of that State. It was prepared by Mr.

H. E. Weed, who shows that this pest is gradually approaching the

Gulf Coast.

Mr. M. V. Slingerland treats of “ The Army Worm in oe York”

in Bulletin 133 of the Cornell University Experiment Statio

W. M. Schéyen publishes (Entomol, Tedskrift, 1896, pp. in -112)

a short bibliography of Norsk Entomology for 1894-5.

Mr. Nathan Banks has described a number of new Neuroptera from

North America (Trans. American SEO Society, XXIV, 21).

730 The American Naturalist. | August,

EMBRYOLOGY.

Some Activities of Living Eggs.—R. V. Erlanger’ has pub-

lished a brief account of the fertilization and thelfirst cleavage stages of

the eggs of several small Nematodes found in decaying earthworms;

chietly Rhabdites dolichura and R. pellio.

Some of the phenomena seen in the living eggs seem of special inter-

est as adding to our knowledge of the ameeboid power of egg protoplasm

and at the same time furnish a welcome supplement to the results

obtained upon the same and other nematode eggs by aid of reagents.

The sperm removed from the receptacle exhibits active amceboid

movements at its conical end—the pseudopodia arise from folds that

branch and anastomose and are capable of sudden, sharp bending move-

ments at the free ends.

The egg shows active streaming currents in the protoplasm and

amceboid movements at the end where the polar bodies are forming.

_ The egg nucleus moves rapidly towards the centre of the egg, appar

ently owing to the energetic streaming movements of the egg proto-

plasm, seen chiefly at the polar body end of the egg. This same end

shows marked ameeboid changes of outline that result in a deep furrow

marking off from the larger end with the sperm nucleus a smaller blasto-

mere-like end of the egg with the egg nucleus. The movement of the

egg nucleus continues till it reaches the sperm nucleus lying at the pole

opposite to the polar bodies, :

A centrosphere appears and divides to form a spindle. The two nuclei

coming together are flattened against one another and look like vesicles,

each with a nucleolus. The spindle lies in the plane between the two

nuclei and accompanies them as they slowly move toward the centre of

the egg; the migration is accompanied by slow streaming throughout the

entire egg and an obliteration of the external furrow that had marked

off the egg into blastomere-like portions. In this migration toward

the centre, the two nuclei stagger and turn somewhat, without losmg

their mutual relations of position.

At the centre of the egg the spindle assumes a position

with the long axis of the egg and the two nuclei elongate para

astral rays become prominent from the ends of the spindle. ;

1 Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews s

preliminary notes may be sent, es

? Biologisches Centralblatt, XVII. No. 4, p. 152-160 and No. 9, P- 339-346:

to coincide

Jlel toit ;

The ots i |

[1897 Embryology. 731

trospheres swell and a swelling is conspicuous at the equator of the

spindle (where reagents show the equatorial plate dividing) while the

astral rays become very long aad curved, convex towards the egg sur-

face.

The egg protoplasm now begins to move actively again in streams

that set the spindle into slow pendulum-like movements. This stream-

ing takes place alternately in each end of the egg and consists of move-

ments from the pole toward the equator.

The cleavage plane appears suddenly as a groove on the surface of

the egg at one side, and the internal streaming of protoplasm coming

down from the pole towards this equatorial groove turns inwards and

then back towards the pole. The same takes place on the opposite side

of the egg, and the cleavage plane instantly cuts across through the

Amongst unusual cases the author mentions the interesting fact that

the movement of the protoplasm may temporarily bend the first cleay-

age spindle so much that its “ fibres ” become wave-like, while these

same movements may make‘the astral rays twist into spirals, as seen

by Mark in Limax. External pressure exerted on the eggs may bring

about the same bending of spindle and rays. The author concludes

that all the egg—spindle and astral rays included—is always plastic and

liquid, though the material of the spindle of the rays is more viscid

than the rest.

After the first division the larger of the two cells soon shows proto-

plasmic streamings again, and curious ridge-like pseudopodia rise up

from its surface near the edge of the cleavage plane. Blunt pseudo-

podia may form on other parts of the surface, but the amceboid move-

ments of the first two blastomeres are not as pronounced as those of the

fertilized egg.

In the second division each cell shows streaming movements from the

poles to the equator, and before the cleavage plane appears the spindle

is seen to vibrate from side to side.

When the four cells are forming they glide over one another into a

new arrangement, and in so doing they are much distorted by pressure—

even the spindle within them being distorted.

The paper contains many other interesting facts regarding the cleay-

age phenomena, both as seen in living and in preserved eggs, but we

will only note certain facts that speak for the view of Bütschli as to the

vesicular or foam-like structure of protoplasm. Besides all the above

facts that show the liquid and viscid state of even the most firm parts

of the egg—the fibres—the author sees an appearance of vesiculation at

732 The American Naturalist. [August,

times in the centrosomes, and the chromosomes may appear rather as

hollow vesicles than as solid bodies. The general protoplasm, filled

with yolk, showed in some cases a very fine net-alveolar structure in

places. On the surface the alveolar layer of Biitschli was always

present, and just after the cleavage a very plain cell-plate of Carnoy is

regarded and figured by the author as merely the appressed alveolar

layers of the two adjacent cells.

PSYCHOLOGY .!

Physiological Effects of Mental Work.—Within the present

decade the relation between mental work and the bodily processes has

been the subject of much study. Interest in the problem as a field for

practical inquiry was first aroused by a paper on the fatigue resulting

from intellectual work, published by Sikorsky in the Annales d'hygiène

publique for 1879. He was followed more than ten years later by

Burgerstein, Laser, Griesbach and others. In these investigations the

method used was that of testing school children in classes. Various

problems and exercises were set before them, during and after the

school session, and the percentage of errors committed in the operations

was taken as measure of the fatigue due to mental work. While some

individual errors might be due to other causes, the average percentage

of the entire class seemed a fair test of this factor. The latest instances

of this method are the investigations of Friedrich and Ebbinghaus de-

scribed in the May number of the Naturauist. At about the same

time Mosso and his pupils took up the question from another side.

They instituted a series of laboratory investigations upon single indi-

viduals by means of the ergograph, with a view to determining the

fatigue due to steady intellectual, as well as physical work. Kraepelin

and his pupils meanwhile undertook the same problem, varying it with |

tests of the influence of various stimulants and narcotics on the capac-

ity for mental work. They made use of the reaction time method, as

well as the percentage of errors. More recently, Binet and his pupils

have taken up the subject from a different standpoint, their object be- —

ing to measure the effect of mental stimulation and mental effort on the

bodily processes of breathing, heart action, ete. Several other investi-

1 Edited by Howard C. Warren, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.

1897.] Psychology. 733

gators have studied the problem in one or other of these forms, among

them may be noted Féré, Patrick and Gilbert, Frey, Bolton, Bergström

and Henri.

In an article in the Année psychologique for 1896, M. Henri gives a

résumé of the various investigations and the methods used in each. He

emphasizes the importance of distinguishing the different factors in-

volved in both mental and physical work, and of studying each one

separately by appropriate experimental methods. Among these fac-

tors he specifies in particular attention, voluntary effort, the psychic

processes of memory, and imagination. Little progress has as yet been

made in the way of investigating effort except in the study of patho-

logical cases such as aboulia. As for attention, while considerable

work has been done in this field, the investigations have generally had

for end to determine the mental effects of fatigue and other variations

in the conditions, rather than to measure the physical effects of varia-

tions in the attention. Memory has been, perhaps, more systematically

studied than any of the other factors.

The investigation of the effect of intellectual work on the pulse and

other functions which MM. Binet and Courtier have undertaken

seems most likely, of all methods so far devised, to furnish a measure

of psychical work in physical terms. A series of papers on the subject

by these authors has appeared in the Année psychologique, the first in

the issue for 1895, and four others in the last volume.? In approach-

ing the question it was first of all necessary to study the effect of

changes in respiration on the heart beat and blood supply. A large

part of the first paper is accordingly taken up with this and with an

examination of possible errors in the apparatus. The instrument used

was the plethysmograph of Hallion and Conte. This consists of a

rubber cylinder, which is grasped firmly by the hand. The outer sur-

face of the hand is covered with a tight-fitting glove, so that any ex-

pansion in volume of the hand (due to increased blood pressure) takes

effect on the inner surface, and results in diminishing the volume of

the rubber cylinder; the latter communicates by means of a tube with

a flexible drum. When the cylinder is compressed by the hand the

drum rises, and the effect is recorded by means of a pen attached to

the drum. The apparatus was found to be very serviceable, and was

remarkably free fromerror. In addition to the frequency and strength

of the pulse beat, the dicrotism, or break in the beat, was clearly

marked in the diagrams, and proved an important factor in the

results.

? Vol. III, 1896, published this spring.

734 The American Naturalist. [ August,

MM. Binet and Courtier note the existence of important individual

differences in the effects of mental work on the physical processes. In

some subjects these are confined almost wholly to changes in the res-

piration, in others to the action of the heart, while in others they are

felt more especially in the vaso-motor system. In general, the effect on

the respiration is to make it more rapid and at the same time more

superficial. The effects on the pulse curve most frequently observed

are: 1st, diminution of amplitude; 2d, diminution of amplitude with

change of form; 3d, diminution of amplitude, change of form and

lowering of the level of the curve. One or other of these effects appear

in almost all the subjects tested.

In their later papers the authors consider in turn the various causes

of change in the pulse. They confirm the well-known diurnal changes

by numerous observations with their own method, e. g., that the pulse

becomes more frequent and the dicrotism generally more marked im-

mediately after a meal. As regards physicial exercise, they lay spe-

cial stress on the changes that occur in the dicrotism according as the

exercise is local, general and moderate, or general and fatiguing.

The study of the effects of mental work is, of course, the most im-

portant from the psychological standpoint, and here the authors have

sought to combine tests of the heart and respiration with those of the

pulse. In addition to the more delicate tests, involving simple mental

operations, two of the subjects undertook a piece of severe and pro-

longed mental work ; they spent seven hours working steadily at this

task, merely resting at the end of each ‘hour for a time sufficient to

perform the necessary tests. Comparing the results with those of a

similar period passed under similar conditions but without work, the

pulse was found to be considerably retarded in the former case, as com-

pared with the latter, the retardation taking place especially in the

early part of the period. The authors sum up their results on mental

work as follows: “1. An energetic, but short mental effort produces

an excitation of function, vaso-constriction, acceleration of the heart

and of the respiration, followed by a very slight retarding of these

functions ; in some of the subjects a blunting of the dicrotism. 2. In-

tellectual work lasting for several hours with comparative immobility

of the body produces a retardation of the heart and a diminution of

the peripheral capillary circulation.”

As regards the relation between physical and mental work, the

authors are cautious in drawing conclusions. They observe a certain

parallelism, in that a single energetic effort produces an acceleration of ;

the heart and lungs, while a long-continued and fatiguing effort fre- 2 a

1897.] Psychology. 735

quently weakens the dicrotism. On the other hand, the excitation of

the heart is more marked and the acceleration of the respiration greater

in physical than in mental work ; again, in physical work the respira-

tion grows deeper, while in mental work it becomes more superficial ;

and finally, prolonged mental work tends to produce a weakening of

the peripheral circulation, an effect not observed in the experiments on

physical work.

The effects of emotion on the heart and pulse are the topic of the last

paper by the same authors. The experiments on this difficult problem

were contrived with considerable ingenuity. Some of the subjects were

children of from 8 to 10, in whom it was easy to excite fear, surprise,

pleasure, ete. With adults the tests had to be more carefully planned ;

a false alarm of fire was prearranged in one case, and resulted in real

fear on the part of the subject ; another subject after being blind-folded

had his hand placed on a pile of worms. A number of tests embodying

various emotions were successfully made. It was found that every

emotion tended to weaken the pulse; the quality of the emotion,

whether pleasurable or painful, had no marked influence—the contrast

was altogether between a state of mental rest and one of emotional dis-

turbance. The heart showed a tendency to accelerate when the excite-

ment was strong, and here too no difference was observable between

the pleasant and the painful. The influence on the respiration was

most marked of all; every emotional excitement produced an acceler-

ation, and at the same time an increase in depth and a shortening of

the pause.

The authors added a idal study of the effects of music on these

functions. Their experiments on this point were confined to one per-

son—a man of fine musical appreciation and with considerable of a

musical education ; they represent, therefore, merely a single type of

individual. There was found to be a distinct, though slight quicken-

ing of the respiration and heart in consequence of hearing the tones

themselves, and apart from any emotional “echo” aroused by them.

When a melody was played, whether sad or gay, the acceleration was

more marked, and it reached a climax when the piece was of a dramatic

character and particularly fitted to arouse emotion. This acceleration,

however, was not accompanied by any noticeable irregularity. There

was at the same time in general a weakening of the capillary circula-

tion, which was less when the sounds had merely a sensorial effect than

when they produced a distinct emotional disturbance.

In summing up the whole question of emotional effects on the bodily

functions, the authors’again lay stress on the differences among individ-

736 The American Naturalist. [August,

uals. From their own observations they are inclined to distinguish

three separate classes of effects. 1. In a majority of persons every

-emotion produces a vascular constriction, an acceleration of the heart

and of the respiration, and an increase of amplitude in the thoracic

cavity. 2. In some few cases a sensation of pain or an emotion of sor-

row may produce a slight retardation of the heart; and 3. It is pos-

sible, as observations made on one subject prove, that the form of the

capillary pulse may change with the quality of the emotion; this last

effect, they remark, may in time enable us to make a classification of

the emotions according to their physiological effects on the form of the

pulse.—H. C. W.

ANTHROPOLOGY.’

Observations on the Scapule of Northwest Coast Indians.

—Researches on the scapula since the time of Broca’s’ paper in 1878

have not been very numerous or conclusive in their results, and it seems

fair to say that the valuable ethnic results which it was expected would

be derived from extended observations on the scapula have not proved

entirely satisfactory. Nor does it yet seem possible to say whether this

is due to the insufficient numbers of scapule which have been examined

or to individual variation. From an examination of the literature on

the subject, especially from the papers of Sir William Turner’ and Pro-

fessor Dwight,‘ one would infer that the latter reason is the chief cause

for the unsatisfactory results. Indeed, Professor Dwight declares,’

“I do not know what range of variation a great series of the scapule

of the larger felidæ might present, but a small one shows nothing like

that of the human race—I might even add, that of the Caucasian.” It

must be confessed, however, that the numbers of observations s0 far

made have been exceedingly small. This is to be explained, of course,

This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

*“ Sur les indices de largeur de posean chey l’homme,” etc., Bull. de la

Soc. d'anthropologie de Paris, Feby. 21, 1878.

3 Challenger report, Zoology, Vol. XVI, “ Report on the Human Skeletons,”

p- 81.

‘The T of Variation of the Human Shoulder-blade,” AMERICAN NATUR-

ALIST, July, 1887

5“ The Range and Significance of Variation in the Human Skeleton,” Boston,

1894, p. 23

1897.] Anthropology. 737

in large part, by the fact that even in fairly well preserved skeletons

the scapula is extremely likely to be more or less damage

With the view of testing some of the conclusions of Professor Dwight,

chiefly for my own satisfaction, I made a hasty examination of the

scapulee of the Northwest Coast Indians in the Field Columbian Museum,

I was at once surprised at the apparently great individual variation in

the general form of the bones, in the surfaces, borders, angles, etc. I

then became curious to know if the indices would show a variation

correspondingly great. In all I found twenty skeletons, the scapule of

which were sufficiently well preserved to warrant an examination. Of

these, thirteen were of the Kwakiutl race, seven being males and six

females; and seven were Songish, four being males and three females.

I have studied topically the following subjects: I. Glenoid cavity ;

II. Borders and angles; III. Dimensions; IV. Indices; to which is

added a general summary.

I. GLENOID CAVITY.

My interest in the glenoid cavity was confined to a sexual study of

comparative size, and for this purpose two measurements were taken,

the maximum length and the maximum width. I made no distinction

of race in this study, and measured the cavity of the right bone only.

In Table I are given the individual measurements of twenty specimens.

TABLE [.

Males. Females. |

Length Breadth Length Breadth

41 mm 30 mm 35 mm 26 mm

4 33 34 25

28 25

44 35 37 26

30 35 25

43 30 37 27

3k 34 24

29 34 26

41 31 37 28

40 28

The sharp line of demarkation between the two sexes is perhaps

better shown in the following table, where the comparative distribution

of the measurements can be seen at a glance:

738 The American Naturalist. [August,

TABLE II.

Length. Males. Females. Breadth. Males. Females.

34 mm 3 25 mm 4

35 3 26 3

36 27 1

37 3 28 2 1

29 2

39 30 3

40 5 31 2

41 2 82

42 1 33 1

43 1 34

44 1 35 1

45 1

Total, 11 9 Total, 11 9

Mean, 41.4 35.3 Mean, 80.3 25.7

Or, to put the result in still another form, we may say the glenoid

cavity in the male measures 41 x 30 mm.,in the female 35 x 25 mm.

According to Professor Dwight the average length in the European

male is 39.2 mm., in the female 33.6 mm.

II. BORDERS AND ANGLEs.

a. Superior Border —The superior border necessarily includes a por-

tion of the vertebral border, or at any rate so much of it as is included

in the superior angle. As there is no peculiar variation, so far as I

can see, which is characteristic of either sex, or is confined to either the

Kwakiutl or Songish, I have put into a single group some of the

extreme forms. Naturally the chief interest in the superior border

centers in the definiteness of the supra-scapular notch. As may be

seen in Figure 1 there is an insensible gradation in the series, passing

a gradual parabolic curve with no indication of a notch to a well

defined notch. Another point to be noted is the very open superior

angle which prevails with very few exceptions, and forms a marked

contrast to the characteristic pointed termination of the European

shoulder-blade.

b. Vertebral Border—Again, as for the superior border, I have -

treated the collection as a whole, and reproduce here in Fig. 2 some

varieties, drawing upon the entire series: é

1897.]

SIS

Fic,

Anthropology. 739

1.—Variations in the Superior Border of the Scapula in Northwest Coast

Indians. (One-half natural size.)

Fic.

natural

2.—Vertebral Border of Scapulæ of Northwest Coast Indians. (One-half

size. )

740 The American Naturalist. [August,

c. Axillary Border and Inferior Angle——The variation here equals or

even exceeds that of the superior border. This, as is well known, is

due very largely to the variations in the attachment surface for the

teres major muscle. As Professor Dwight here pointed out, this sur-

face is prolonged after the nature of a spinous process in many of the

lower monkeys, and has been considered by him as “ the appearance of

a peculiarity of lower forms ”—analogous to the third trochanter. This

opinion is, I believe, not generally held by anatomists, the majority pre-

ferring to regard the process, when present, as due solely to the influence

of an unusually well developed teres major muscle. There being thus

an unusual amount of interest in this region I have reproduced the out-

lines (see Figs. 3 and 4) of all the Kwakiutl and Songish scapule,

keeping the two sexes distinct.

Fic, 3.—Inferior Angle of Scapule of Kwakiutl Indians. (One-half natural

size.)—a. Males. b. Females.

1897.] Anthropology. 741

It may first be noted in regard to these two sets of outlines that the

inferior angle itself is extremely variable. But I entirely agree with

Fic. 4.—Inferior Angle of Scapule of (One-half natural size.)

Songish Indians. a. Males. b. Females.

Professor Dwight in thinking that the value of the results obtained

from measuring it are not in proportion to the time necessary for the

work, and this in addition to the difficulty of not being at all times sure

of the results, especially when the axillary border is irregular in its

course, as it very often 1s. This angle is said by Mivart to be about

35°-40° in European scapule ; it certainly averages much higher in the

series under consideration.

In regard to the teres major spine, it seems to be fairly constant in

its development in the Kwakiutl males, about equally well developed

in the Kwakiutl females and Songish males, and only faintly indicated

in the Songish females.

III. DIMENSIONS.

E was interested in four points in the dimensions of the scapulæ,

: (a) individual variation ; (b) lateral variation ; (c) sexual varia-

thin and (d) ethnic variation. These may be seen in the following

table.

742 The American Naturalist. [August,

TABLE III.

Length. » Breadth. Infraspinous Length.

| 165 mm. | 165 mm. |104 mm.}104 128 mm. | 124mm.

wet 160 161 110 110 121 121

| 160 -c 100 94 126 —

| Males. | 160 160 109 107 122 125

177 177 Bune. A ie sin ae ee cae

159 164 102 104 127 125

169 169 107 104 133 133

Kwakiutl — MPI

154 154 99 100 122 122

140 130 93 94 111 : aa

134 138 84 87 109

Females.) 340. Lud Ome | for flees

ae nie PENA 92 SRR

canter Rees Joe 87 ONS 113

180 172 107 108 140 135

Mala 153 149 98 97 114 115

ET? 177 110 110 135 133

107 105 122 122

Songish pao E.

188 133 95 95 107 101

Females.| 144 — T E AS 111 —

133 151 95 95 111 115

a. Individual Variation.—Taking the entire series as a whole, the

range of variation in length is from 130 mm. to 180 mm.; in breadt

from 84 mm. to 110 mm.; the infraspinous length from 101 mm. to

140 mm. The greatest contrast is thus, naturally, found in the length,

the longest bone exceeding by almost one-third in length the shortest.

b. Lateral Variation.—In five instances the right bone is longer than

the left, the total aggregate additional length being 31 mm.; in fonr

instances the left bone is the longer, the total aggregate additional

length being 18 mm. Lateral variation in breadth occurs equally five

times for each side, but the total aggregate additional breadth for the

right bone is 14 mm., while for the left it is only 8 mm, For the infra-

spinous length the right bone is the longer six times, with a total of 20

mm., while the left is the longer in three instances with a total of 8 mm. :

Thus, it may may be seen that the number of instances where somè

dimension of the right bone exceeds that of the left is sixteen, while m ue

1897.] Anthropology. 743

twelve instances the right exceeds the right in some dimension,—a dif-

ference hardly so great as one might expect; and it is possible that a

larger series of observations would quite overcome whatever difference

seems to exist.

c. Sexual Variation.—Taking the scapulæ of the right side only and

of the two races together we have the following results, which I have

thrown into a Table:

TABLE IV.

Length. Breadth. |Infraspinous Length.

mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. mm.

Average, 165 141 105 94 125 111

It will thus be seen that the difference in the two sexes is a decided

one, and a careful examination of the preceding table shows very few

exceptions where the largest female scapula equals in size the smallest

of the males.

d. Ethnie Variation.—Although the two series are hardly large

enough to make it worth while to attempt to draw any conclusions, it

would appear that the scapula in the Songish is very slightly larger

than it is in the Kwakiutl. This difference is more pronounced in the

males than it is in the females.

IV. INDICES.

In Table V the range of variation may be seen for each index, in

each sex, and for both races.

The highest scapular index is 70, found in a Songish female; the

lowest is 59, in a Songish male. The highest infraspinous index is 90,

occurring both in a Songish female and a Kwakiutl male ; the lowest is

76, in a Kwakiutl female. Apart from the extremes this table shows

two very interesting points; the first is that there is very little sexual

variation ; the second is that while the scapular index is fairly uniform,

the infraspinous index is subject to great variation. The averages of

each index for both races are shown in Table VI,

The scapular index of 65.1 for the mean of both races may be re-

garded, it seems to me, as a trustworthy index for the Northwest Coast

Indians. This index, it may be noted, corresponds very closely to that

744 The American Naturalist. [August,

TABLE V.

| ;

Scapular Index, | Infraspinous Index.

In Kwakiutl Songish In Kwakiutl Songish

Index o] z ) ? Index È ¥ o) g

59 1 76 1 i

77 1

61 78

62 1 1 79 1

63 2 80 2

64 1 1 1 81 1 1 1

65 82

66 1 1 1 83 1

67 1 I 84

68 2 1 85 1 1

69 86

70 1 87 1

88 1 1

89 1

` 90 1 1

Total, | 6 4 4 3 Total, | 6 5 4 8

Index, | 64.6 | 64.7 | 64.0 | 68.0 || Index, | 83.6 | 81.6 | 82.2 | 87.6

TABLE VI.

Scapular Index. Infraspinous Index.

get tio fe

Kwakiutl, 64.7 82.3

E A

Songish, 65.7 84.5

mae

Both Races, 65.1 83.2

ies

given by previous investigators for European scapule ; the averages a.

for the latter being 65.9 (Broca), 65.2 (Flower and Garson’), 652

€“ On the Scapular Index as a Race Character in Man,” Journal of Anatomy

and Physiology, Vol. XIV, P. 13.

1897.] Anthropology. 745

(Livon’), and 63.5 (Dwight). The result is also similar to that obtained

by Professor Turner, 65.0, on the scapulæ of nine Fuegians.

he mean infrascapular index of 83.2 does not seem worthy of much

consideration, from causes which have already been mentioned. Itma

be noted, however, that according to the table given by Professor Tur-

ner,’ this index is lower than any yet recorded for any race except the

Eskimos, Hottentots and Tasmanians.

CONCLUSIONS.

From the present inquiry the following conclusions can be made :

1. There is a marked difference in the size of the scapula in the two

sexes; this is seen in the dimensions of the glenoid cavity, and in the

leugth, breadth and,infraspinous length.

. Lateral variations in the scapuls in linear dimensions are so slight

and so contradictory as to be explained perhaps as due to an insufficient

number of observations. The right bone is, however, a trifle larger than

the left in a small percentage of cases,—this percentage being larger

than that of the left bone exceeding the right in size.

3. There is no important difference in the dimensions or indices of

the scapula between the Kwakiutl and Songish.

4. There is very little difference in the two indices in the two sexes;

the female, perhaps, having indices a trifle higher than the male. This

is in accordance with the results of Livon. Broca, on the other hand,

considered the male to possess the higher index.

5. The range of variation for the scapular index is not excessive, and

there is a certain amount of uniformity in its distribution which makes

the mean index of value.

6. The range of variation for the infraspinous index, while not ex-

tensive, is so evenly distributed as to destroy in part the value of its

mean ; and so it cannot be considered to have a value equal to that of

the scapular index as representing the average for Northwest Coast

Indians—Grorce A. Dorsey, Pu. G., Assistant Curator of Anthro-

pology, Field Columbian Museum, Chicago. |

1“ De Pomoplate et de les indices de largeur dans les races humaines,” Thèse,

Paris, 1879.

Challenger Report, Vol. XVI, “ Report on the Human Skeletons,” p. 81.

746 The American Naturalist. [August,

MICROSCOPY.

Schaper’s Method of Reconstruction.'—The ingenious method

of reconstruction that has been described by Dr. Schaper has consider-

able advantage over the older method of Born, now long a familiar one

in embryological laboratories. The base line of the sections is not at

a distance from the section of the object as in the old method, but, on

the contrary, is in the edge of the section itself, so that it is always

in view, even where the section is so large as to be scarcely included

within the field of vision. And one may as safely say that it is fully,

if not more accurate than the older method.

Schaper first saturates the embryo with paraffin to prevent its drying

and shrinking during the second stage of the process. In this second

stage the embryo is taken from the bath and the superabundant melted

paraffin removed from it by means of bibulous paper. It is then

fastened by a drop of paraffin to a perfectly white piece of bristol-board.

This forms a background from which the object stands out in sharp

contrast, and allows of a good photograph being taken, or of an accu-

rate outline sketch being made of it with a camera. The photograph

or sketch is supposed to represent the natural size of the embryo.

The object is then removed from the bristol-board and replaced in

the bath. Next he draws a line on the sketch or photograph just touch-

ing the dorsal outline and another one perpendicular to the first just

touching the head, thus including the figure within a right angle. A

similar right angle is drawn on a piece of cardboard that fits into the

imbedding box. ‘The latter is filled with melted paraffin, and then

with warm needles the embryo quickly and carefully arranged in the

right angle to correspond as closely as possible with the position of the

figure in the sketch. The usual process of hardening the paraffin Is

then gone through and the object is ready for sectioning.

Care is taken in sectioning to have the plane of sectioning perfectly

perpendicular to the median plane of the embryo; and, of course, it 18

assumed that the embryo is as straight as possible. The thickness of

20 is chosen for the sections as the best, since in thinner ones the m-

ternal structures are apt to be broken and thicker ones are not likely

to be sufficiently transparent. Sketches of the magnified sections are

made on paper, and these, or whatever portion of them may

1 Schaper, A. (97), Zur Methodik der Plattenmodellirung. Zeit. Wiss. Mikros-,

XIII, 4, 446-59.

1897.] Microscopy. 747

mounted, later transferred to wax sheets. Buta pencil point is first

made on the dorsal side of the sketch in the median plane, and some-

times also one in the same plane

on the outline of the surface of

some central organ, such, for in-

stance, as the neural cord (r

and m, figs. 1 and 2).

The photograph or sketch of

the embryo is then enlarged

upon a piece of bristol-board to

correspond precisely with the

magnification of the sections and

the enlarged figure cut out with

a sharp knife (fig. 2). If only

an enlarged model of the en-

tire embryo is desired, the re-

mainder of the process is very

short and simple. One has only

to arrange the sections of wax

representing the sections of the

* embryo within the bristol-board

outline one after another and

then smooth off outer surface

Fig. 1. with a warm modeling tool.

If the sections are cut at right

angles to the dorsal guide line of the right angle as well as to the

median plane, the process will be easier to follow, for then the wax sec-

tions can be put in place with reference to this line. And if a model of

only a portion of the embryo is desired, the proper place of the wax

section in the bristol-board outline may be readily determined from the

known thickness of the sections and the numbers in the series of the

section with which the reconstruction is begun, by simply measuring

off the proper distance on this dorsal guide line. For example, if the

sections be 20» thick, the magnification 100, the number of sections

100, and one desires to reconstruct the middle region of the embryo,

beginning with the thirtieth section, the distance will be 20 x 30 x 100

If, as is usually the case, one desires a reconstruction of an internal

organ, the process is somewhat more complicated. Then one will have

need of the second guide point (m) already mentioned as on the surface

of one of the principal or centrally located organs. In cutting out of

748 The American Naturalist. [August,

the wax plates the outlines of the sections of the organ to be recon-

structed, this point, along with that on the dorsal surface, is cut out so

;

M |

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2.—The Bristol-Board Guide. x yz, the dorsal and cephalic guide lines

forming the right angle enclosing the figure of the embryo; 7, the guide point in

the dorsal surface and in the median plane; m, the guide point in the same plane

on the lower surface of the neural cord.

as each to form a point of a piece of wax that remains connected with

the sections of the organ by bridges of wax (fig. 1).. When the series

of wax sections have been cut out, they are then arranged in the

bristol board guide in their proper places, care being taken that the

two guide points fall within the plane of the bristol-board, and that the

line passing through them is perpendicular to the dorsal line of 4-2

(fig. 2). When all are in place, nothing further, of course, remains

than to smooth off the outer surface of model.—F. C. KENYON.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Torrey Botanical Club.—May 11, 1897.—Dr. N. L. Britton

presided. Three new members were elected. Three successful excur-

sions were reported. Resolutions were adopted commemorating Dr.

1897.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 749

Emily L. Gregory, the late honored Professor of Botany at Barnard

College, an active worker in the club. Announcement was made of

the gift by President Low to the Botanical Department of Columbia of

a valuable set of water-colors to illustrate mushrooms, the work of the

late lamented Wm. Hamilton Gibson.

Prof. Britton made a report relative to the progress of the Botanic

Garden. A beginning is made in planting the systematic herbaceous

garden. Eight acres are set aside for this with the families grouped

in beds; the intention is to get as many of each genus together as will

grow in this climate in the open. Several hundred species are already

in place, and quite a display is already produced by the beds of the

Ranunculacese, Composite, Iridaceæ and Cruciferæ. Seeds of some

8,000 different species are now germinating, including 2,240 species

generously sent from Kew. These will be transferred to the herba-

ceous garden as soon as ready. Meanwhile their permanent stake-

labels are in preparation.

The paper of the evening was by Mr. Marshall A. Howe, entitled,

“A Preliminary Comparison of the Hepatic Flora of California with

that of Europe and of the Eastern United States.”

Mr. Howe alluded to the distribution of Cephalogia turneri, a rare

hepatic of Europe, frequent in the coast ranges of California, and oc-

curring in limited numbers in a few localities in Ireland, England,

France and the Mediterranean region.

Mr. Howe presented the following table exhibiting the comparative

distribution so far as yet known.

California. Gray Manual Reg.

Total number of species 77 5

In common with the British Isles......... 34 or 44 per cent. | 78 or 54 per cent.

In central and northern Europe.......... 40 or 52 per cent. | 91 or 63 per cent.

In Mediterranean region 45 or 584 per cent. | 78 or 54 per cent.

Peculiar to Pacific Coast......++ s+ -sse+++e0 26 or 34 per cent.

In common with the Gray Manual Re-| `

gion 37 or 48 per cent.

Peculiar to Gray Manual Region.......+- 40 or 28 per cent.

In common with California 32 or 22 per cent.

It was shown that the hepatic flora of California has more in com-

mon with northern and central Europe than with the eastern United

States, and is still more allied to that of the Mediterranean region. In

particular species of Astorella and Riccia are better developed in Cali-

fornia and southern Europe than in the eastern United States.

750 The American Naturalist. [August,

The apparent absence in California of Bazzania and Mylia, which

are especially characteristic of medial and boreal regions, serves to

heighten the similarity to southern Europe.

The paper was followed by exhibit of photomicrographs of sections

of Cryptomitrium, illustrating the development of the archegonia.

In the discussion following, Prof. Underwood said that Hepatic spe-

cies are most numerous in the Amazon region and the eastern slope of

the Andes and in Java. Insular tropical regions have furnished many

where examined, as Cuba and Jamaica. Quite a number are peculiar

to Australia. New Zealand is well-supplied with species. Many have

been recently collected in Africa, and have been described by Herr

Stephani, of Leipsic, whose industry has doubled the number of de-

scribed Hepatic. As a whole, the maximum development of the

Hepatic is tropical, though some genera and certain groups within

genera are wholly high-temperate or subarctic.

Prof. Britton remarking the indications of circumboreal and circum-

tropical distribution of certain species, referred to the argument for an

equatorial distribution of flowering plants and of ferns, and queried if

there were anything corresponding among Hepatice. He expressed

the belief that it is the immediate environment which at present exerts

the principal influence on distribution, whatever the original cause OF

mode of distribution may have been.

Prof. Underwood referred to the influence of the Gulf Stream in

permitting the existence of the subtropical genus Lejeunia on the coast

of Ireland, a genus not elsewhere found in Europe. Comparing the

Hepaticæ of Florida, they are only in part known; a few species are

in common with the Appalachian flora; most of the Florida hepatica

are close-creeping forms found on bark, as Frullania and Lejewnia, -

having water sacs on their leaves as aid in resisting drought. Some

tropical Marchantiacee occur in Florida, and also, especially, species of

Riccia and Anthoceros. Thallocarpus is known only from Florida and

South Carolina. Adjourned to May 26.

' May 26, 1897.—The President, Hon. Addison Brown presided. ‘The

evening was devoted to a lecture by Mrs. Elizabeth A. Britton, entitled

“ The Moss Flora of the Adirondack Mountains,” illustrated by lan-

tern slides prepared by Mr. C. H. Van Brunt, and also by about 150

mounted sheets displaying specimens collected by Mrs. Britton in the

vicinity of Adirondack Lodge and Lake Placid in the years 1892, 1894

and 1896. Their various habitats were described, with the story of ®

climb up Whiteface. About 30 rare species were enumerated, includ-

ing Raphidostegium jamesii not previously reported from New York

1897]. Scientific News. 751

State, and Bryum conciunatum, found only once before in the United

States. Duplicates of Mrs. Britton’s collection have been deposited at

the State Herbarium in Albany, the main collection having been pre-

sented to the Herbarium of Columbia University. Partial sets were

sent to the Brooklyn Institute, Cornell University and other collec-

tions.

After discussion by Mr. A. P. Grout, Mrs. Britton and others, the

Club adjourned to the second Tuesday in October, field-meeting con-

tinuing meantime on Saturdays.—Epwarp S. Burcess, Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The College of Agriculture of the University of California at Berke-

ley was recently destroyed by fire, the loss amounting to $20,000. The

building was of comparatively little value as the department had out-

grown it.

Natwral Science again changes publishers. With the beginning of

the eleventh volume this valuable journal will be issued from the press

of J. M. Dent & Co., 67 St. James St., London.

Recent Appointments, America: Robert B. Yound, assistant biolog-

ist in the department of Agriculture; Frederick L. Ransome, assistant

geologist on the U. S. Geological Survey ; Herbert Richards, tutor in

botany in Columbia University ; Jas. H. McGregor, assistant in zoology

Columbia University ; Dr. Frederick D. Lambert, assistant in biology,

Tufts College; C. H. Townsend, chief of division of fisheries, U. S. Fish

Commission ; Dr. H. M. Smith, chief of the division of scientific enquiry,

U.S. Fish Commission ; J. F. Crawford, demonstrator of experimental

psychology at Princeton ; J. H. Pratt, mineralogist to the North Caro-

lina Geological Survey; T. A. Reakard, state geologist of Colorado.

At Johns Hopkins University: Dr. J. M. T. Finney, professor of

surgery; Dr. J. E. Humphrey, associate professor of botany ; Dr. J.

B. Shattuck, assistant in geology; Dr. C. R. Bardeen, assistant in

anatomy; Mr. F. C. Connant, Bruce fellow in zoology; Mr. Cleveland

Abbe, Jr., fellow in geology; Mr. G. A. Drew, fellow in biology; Mr.

C. W. Greene, fellow in biology ; Mr. J. L. Nichols, fellow in pathology.

Other American appointments are: Dr. Charles E. Beecher, professor

of historical geology at Yale University ; Dr. L. V. Pirsson, professor

752 The American Naturalist. [August,

of physical geology at the Lawrence Scientific school; Dr. Charles

Norris, tutor in pathology at Columbia University; Dr. E. B. Cope-

land, assistant professor of botany at the University of Indiana.

Germany: Dr. K. von Buchku, director of the department of scien-

tific enquiry at the sanitary office, Berlin; Dr. Jensen, privat-docent in

physiology in the University of Halle; Dr. Max Siegfried, professor

extraordinarius of physiology at Leipzig: Dr. Fritz Noll, professor of

physiology at the University of Heidelberg; Dr. E. Kaufmann, pro-

fessor of anatomy at Bonn; Dr. Max Walters, professor extraordinar-

ius of anatomy at Bonn; Dr. Ludwig Heim, professor extraordinarius

of bacteriology at Marburg; Dr. Noll, professor of botany at Bonn;

Dr. Siedentopf of Göttingen assistant in mineralogy at Griefsorald;

Dr. Beckenkamp, professor of mineralogy at Wiirzburg; Dr. E. A.

Wiilfing, professor extraordinarius of mineralogy at Lubingen; Dr.

Paul Samassa, associate professor of zoology in the University of Heidel-

berg.

Austria: Wladislow Szy monowicz, professor extraordinarius of histo-

logy and embryology at Lemburg ; Victor Folgner, assistant in the

botanical institute of the German University of Prag; Anton Heinz,

professor of botany at Agram; Dr. Mijat Kispatitch, professor of

mineralogy at Agram.

Great Britain: F. F. Blackman, lecturer in botany at Cambridge.

Other Countries: Dr. J. L. Prevost, professor of physiology at

Geneva; A. Gibb Martland, of the Innusland Geological Survey, geo-

logist of West Australia; Dmitri Klemenz, Curator of the Museum of

the Petersburg Academy of Sciences; Dr. Velain, professor of physical

geography in the University of Paris.

Mr. A. Smith Woodward, of the paleontological department of the

_ British Museum presents an appreciation sketch of the late Professor

Cope in the June number of Natural Science.

The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, is trying to raise

$50,000 to purchase the paleontological collections of Professor Cope.

Since the fund received from the sale of the collections is to go to the

Academy for the foundation ofa professorship of paleontology it would

seem appropriate that the collections themselves should become the

property of this society.

Fritz Miiller, well-known for his investigations upon the history of the

white ants, the embryology of Crustacea and especially for his sugges-

1897.] Scientific News. 753

tive little volume “ Fiir Darwin” died at Blumenau, Brazil, May 21,

1897, at the age of 75.

Dr. John Murray had just opened a new biological station at Mill-

port, on the Clyde.

Prof. Jacob G. Agardh, of Lund, the well known student of sea

weeds, secures the gold medal of the Linnean Society of London.

From Science we learn that the United States Geological Survey has

appropriations for the present fiscal year as follows: The topograph-

ical surveys $175,000; for geological surveys and researches $100,000 ;

for investigation of coal and gold in Alaska $5,000; paleontology

$10,000; chemistry $7,000; gauging streams and water supply, $50,-

000; numeral resources $20,000. Besides there are allowances for

illustrations, printing, etc. The same bill also appropriates large sums

for other surveys of the public forest lands; Indian Territory, etc.

The Museum at Bergen, Norway, has for several years been very

active and now is to be enlarged, the government furnishing half of the

$40,000 required for the addition. Over 50,000 people visited the

museum in 1896.

The Field Columbia Museum of Chicago, has purchased the Schott

collection of plants.

We have often had occasion to speak of appointments to scientific

office in the State of Indiana and Illinois. Illinois has again empha-

sized the domination of the politician in these matters by the appoint-

ment of a steamboat agent, Mr. C. H. Cranz, to the office of State Geol-

ogist and curator of the state museum; while Kentucky is adopting a

similar course if the recent appointment of G. W. Stone, a lawyer and

a politician, to be inspector of mines be any criterion,

Natural Science makes the astonishing statement that the tanks of

the Port Evin Biological Station now contain “ a cross between Myxine

and the cod.”

Recent Deaths: Max Sintenis, entomologist at Kupferberg, Silesia ;

Filipps Tognini, curator of botany in the University of Paris; M.

Thollen, botanist, at Libreville, Africa, in J anuary ; G. Gercke, student

of diptera at Hamburg; J. B. Barla, director of the Museum at Nizza ;

Dr. Julius Sachs, professor of botany in the University of Wiirtzburg ;

Sir Edward N ewton, ornithologist; Abraham der Bartlett, superin-

tendent of the London Zoological Gardens.

754 The American Naturalist. [August,

An important change has been effected at the National Museum by

which the various departments of the institution have been divided into

three sections—anthropology, biology and geology. The object is to

secure a more simple administration of the museum’s affairs.

Head curators, each with a salary of $3500 a year, have been ap-

ointed from the present museum personnel, as follows: Anthropology,

Professor W. H. Holmes; biology, Dr. Frederick W. True, executive

curator of the museum, which office he will also retain; geology, Dr.

George P. Merrill, Professor of Geology in Columbian University.

A herd of some seventy or eighty buffaloes has been discovered in the

northwestern part of Buchel County, Texas,

Trinity University, of Toronto, Ont., has offered the honorary degree

of D. C. L. to the following members of the British Association: Sir

John Evans, President of the association ; Lord Rayleigh, Lord Lister,

Sir John Lubbock, and Prof. Forsythe, of Cambridge.

The viticultural services of the late Professors P. Duchartre and F.

Laforgue are to be commemorated by marble plates in the houses in

which they were born. Both were born in the neighborhood of

Béziers. The former in 1806.

Mr. A. W. Bennett has been appointed by the council of the Royal

Microscopical Society to edit the well known journal of the society pre-

viously edited by Prof. F. J. Bell.

Dr. C. A. White and Mr. Charles Schuchert have gone under orders

from the U. S. National Museum to join the Peary expedition to the

Arctic regions. Their party will be put ashore at Disco island to

explore the island for fossils, while awaiting the return of Lieut. Peary’s

vessel.

Mr. Currie, who accompanied Prof. O. F. Cook to Liberia, Africa,

has returned, and reports that a large collection of insects and ani-

mals has been made. Prof. Cook is expected in August.

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(To observe the wonders and beauties of Nature.)

@” Official Organ of the Agassiz Association.

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E. F. BIGELOW, Managing Editor and Publisher, Portland, Conn.

tt ADVERTISEMENTS.

AN IMPORTANT WORK.

The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution.

ILLUSTRATIONS, 121. PAGES, 550. TABLES, BIBLIOGRAPHY AND INDEX. CLOTH, NET $2.00.

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VARIATION, CATAGENESIS, NATURAL SELECTION,

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PRESS COMMENDATIONS.

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“A work of No one can read the book without admiring the intimate knowledge

of facts and the great powers of gener ralization it discloses.””—Prof, J. McKeen Cattell, in Nature, London.

‘ Admirab j je ee be wer -room or ‘library. ”— Boston Journal

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‘A clear, pinepine pi eanan of the most important Piy: h upon which the doctrine of

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nde the whole field, it is necessarily H ra main the presentation of the facts of paleontol sped

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point of view from which the question has been approached.” rof. Lester F. Ward, in Puddic Opinion

Send for copy of our handsome Illustrated Biological Circular of works and articles by Romanes,

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1878 THE 1897

AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN

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PROF. T. F. kim Cambridge, Mass. PP ghion IN PALESTINE.

J. G. FRASER, LL. D., Sidney, Aust ralia—POLYN

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causes of their variation.

Monthly critiques of the articles in the leading German and American

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Subscriptions for the current volume 7p, should be sent by all scientific

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Copies, 20 cents—ten two-cent postage stamps.

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iw ADVERTISEMENTS.

Dringende Bitte

Um das Erscheinen des

Botanischen Jahresberichts

möglichst zu beschleunigen, wie eine Steigerung der Zuver-

lassigkeit in der Berichterstattung zu erlangen, richten wir

an die

Botaniker aller Lander

die dringende Bitte um gefiillige schleunige Zusendung ihrer

Arbeiten, namentlich auch der Sonderabdriicke aus Zeit-

schriften, etc.

Alle Sendungen sind zu richten an den Herausgeber.

Professor Dr. E. Koehne,

Friedenau-Berlin,

Kirchstrasse 5.

pete n

PLASTER CASTS OF THE FOLLOWING MAMMALIA

with dentition in good preservation, made under direction of

Professor E. D. Cope may be had by application to Jacob

Geisman, 2102 Pine St., Philadelphia.

Phenacodus primaevus Cope, (Wyoming) 100.00. Hy-

racotherium venticolum Cope, (Wyoming) $50.00. Protohipps :

micabilis Leidy, skull $7.00. Protohippus pachyops Cope, skulls

of adult and young, and P. fossulatus Cope, skull, $5.00 each.

Tetrabelodon shepardii Leidy, mandibular ramus and symphy " :

with two molars, $20.00. Dibelodon tropicus Cope, do., $15.00;

Mastodon precursor Cope, last molar $5.00. The horses and

sastodons from the Cenozoic beds of Texas, are uncolored

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Vol. XXXI. *

SEPTEMBER, 1897.

CONTENTS:

PAGE

BIOLOGY AND MEDICIN

William H. Weich, M.D; BL. D

HAIR AND FEATHERS, (IHustrated. )

J. S. Kingsley.

Bigps or THE GALAPAGOS ARCHIPELAGO: A CRITI-

CISM OF MR. ROBERT RIDGWAY’S PAPER.

755

767

G. Baur; Phe Dy Vil

THE A nvin

HE ADVANCE OF Biolocy IN 1895.

CF sess i

Tae Swamps: or Oswrco County, N;-¥., Al

: THEIR FLORA. (Concluded.) W. W. Rawlee.

Evrrors Tante. —Our Plans—-L’ Année Biologique

— Scattered Biological Data — American

_ Journal of Phy ysiology.

Recent LITERATURE — Tarr’s

ology U. sg.

Elementary Ge-

Commission of Fish and

A List of zai

GENER RAL Nor

Petrog:

f ia ENS “igneous Rocks of Trans-Pecos,

Apane pes of British Birds—

eals. g

792

Texas—Italian Petrographical Studies—Rock

Differentiation —Granites of Pyramid Peak =

District, California—Pegmatite. - . 805.

Botany— Gray's oes, E lora— Britton |

and Brown’s Hlustrated Flor :

Zoology—Fauna of pines List of e

Birds of the Vicinity of West Chester, aa

Co., Pennsylvania. (Continued.) Z:

Entomology—Protective Value of Mattos

Ambrosia Beetles—The Brown-Tailed Moth. - Si

Embryology—Spinning in Serpula Eggs, . a

Psycholegy—Some Ex periments on the Tactual

Threshold for the Perception of Two Points— -

The Année Biologique. 3

Anthropology—The Toinahiteck of sive North :

American Indian—A Triple Indian Grave in

Western New York. PUNTA . oA

SCIENTIFIC NEWS. .

PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.

SN een s DOCEER =

518 ano 520 MINOR STREET.

he idly bia Pont Office as RAIRE matter.

. ATURAL SCIENCE:

A okini REVIEW OF

SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

i FOLLOWING ARE A FEW FACTS AS TO THE WORK

OF “NATURAL SCIENCE” DURING 1895.

J URAL SCIENCE for 1895 has published eoutiibutions from

104 distinguished writers.

A TURAL SCIENCE for 1895 has published 63 specially doita

uted Articles in all branches of Zoology, Botany, and Geology;

besides the large July number, condensing the results of ie

hallenger ” Expedition. |

URAL SCIENGR for: 1898-0 nes published 24 fullpage Plates

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXXI. September, 1897. 369

BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE!

By Wittram H. Weron, M. DL LL. D.

It is a great pleasure to bring hearty congratulations to the

University and the city of Chicago upon the completion of

the Hull Biological Laboratories. This University, the off-

spring of unexampled private munificence, marvellous in its

birth and infancy, and clearly destined to great achievements

for education, for science and for humanity, may well rejoice

upon this occasion, but Miss Culver, by her beneficent gift,

has earned the gratitude not of this University alone, but of

all interested in the progress of the biological sciences. A

gift of such magnitude as this one, devoted to “the increase

and spread of knowledge within the field of the biological

sciences ” is of far more than any local significance. It must

awaken the cordial interest far and near of those who under-

stand the scope and meaning of the sciences of organic nature.

What is here planned and has already been accomplished,

gives assurance that the wishes of the donor and the expecta-

tions of others will be amply fulfilled, and that in these labor-

atories in unusual measure will knowledge of the forms and

activities of living things grow and hence be diffused.

‘Address delivered at the dedication of the Hull Biological Laboratories at

the apg of Chicago, July 2, 1897.

756 The American Naturalist. [September,

Laboratories are now so universally recognized as essential

for the systematic study and advancement of all physical and

natural sciences, that we can hardly realize that they are al-

most wholly the creation of the last three-quarters of the pres-

ent century. With the awakening of scientific thought in

Western Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, nat-

ural phenomena again began to be studied by those methods

of exact observation and experiment which had received their

last fruitful application centuries before in the hands of the

natural philosophers and physicians of Greece and Alexandria.

For the purposes of such study, learned academies and socie-

ties were founded, botanical gardens were planted, explora-

tions and collections of natural curiosities were made, appara-

tus was devised and individual investigators had their scientific

workships. All of these material circumstances greatly pro-

moted scientific inquiry and discovery, but with one exception

they did not lead to the formation of laboratories freely open

to students and investigators. The exception was the estab-

lishment of laboratories for the study of human anatomy.

It is of no little interest, both for the history of biology and

for that of science in general, that the first laboratory for the

training of students was the anatomical laboratory. For over

six hundred years there has been at least some practical in-

struction in anatomy, and for over three hundred years there

have existed anatomical laboratories for students and investi-

gators. Until the end of the first quarter of the present cen-

tury there was no branch of physical or natural science, with

the exception of anatomy, which students could study in the

laboratory. Only in this subject could they come into direct

personal contact with the object of study, work with their own

hands, investigate what lay below the surface, and acquire

that living knowledge which alone is of real value in the

study of natural science.

The era of modern teaching and investigating laboratories

was ushered in by the foundation of one devoted to another of

the biological sciences. In 1824 Purkinje established a phy-

siological laboratory in Breslau which antedated by one yeat

Liebig’s more famous chemical laboratory in Giessen. This

1897.] Biology and Medicine. 757

latter, however, which is usually, and, as we have seen, not

quite correctly, considered to be the first of modern teaching

laboratories, exercised the determining influence upon the

establishment and organization of scientific laboratories in

general. The significance of Liebig’s memorable laboratory

is that it provided a place, furnished with the needed facilities

and under competent direction, freely open to properly pre-

pared students and investigators for experimental work in the

entire field of the science to which it was devoted. Such an

impressive illustration of the value of laboratories for instruc-

tion and research could not fail to be followed by other depart-

ments of science. In this movement for the establishment of

laboratories, Germany has been from the beginning the leader,

and by their instrumentality she has secured the palm for

scientific education and discovery.

We owe especially to Louis Agassiz the introduction into

this country, fifty years ago, of laboratory methods in biologi-

cal study, but it is only within very recent years that nearly

the whole field of biology has been represented among us by

laboratories worthy of the name. To the small number of

suitably equipped biological laboratories existing in this coun-

try those whose opening we are assembled to celebrate, make

a most notable addition, unsurpassed, I believe, in construc-

tion, in equipment, in plan of organization, and in opportuni-

ties for scientific work. |

Modern laboratories have completely revolutionized during

the past half century the material conditions under which

scientific work is prosecuted. They have been the great instru-

ment of the unexampled progress of the physical and natural

Sciences during this period. Their educational value cannot

well be overestimated. They impart, or should impart, to the

student something of the scientific habit of thought which is

no less valuable in daily life and in other pursuits than in

Science. At the present day no University can hold even a

respectable place in the march of education and progress unless

it is provided with suitable scientific laboratories, and it is one

of the glories of this University that this conception prevailed

and bore fruit at its inception. The establishment and sup-

758 The American Naturalist. [ September,

port of good laboratories require large outlays of money, and

it is chiefly this requirement which calls for endowments of

Universities far surpassing anything needed but a few years

ago. But the benefits to mankind derived from such endow-

ments outweigh, beyond all computation, the money expended

which, as has been truly said, is “a capital placed at a high

rate of interest.”

One sometimes hears the remark, and it is of course true,

that large endowments, palatial buildings,splendid laboratories

do not make a University. The breath of life, the vitalizing

principle, must come from those, both teachers and students,

who work within their walls. If the phenomena of nature

could be learned by contemplation and by hearsay, that

famous University which consisted of a log with Mark Hop-

kins at one end and thestudent at the other, might exist some-

where outside of the imagination. But knowledge of nature

is not to be acquired otherwise than by observation and exper-

iment, for which the facilities at the end of a log are some-

what inadequate. The great teachers and investigators are

likely to be attracted to those Universities where the re

sources and opportunities for their special work are the most

ample.

Laboratories are only workshops; that which is of vital im-

portance is what is done within them. Provision has been

made in the Hull Laboratories for the cultivation of all

departments of what is ordinarily called biology. The domain

of biology embraces all living things, both vegetable and ani-

mal. Of vital manifestations it is only some of the mental

operations and doings of human beings which the biologist at

present excludes from his survey, and even this self-sacrificing

curtailment of his province may not be enduring.

The main directions of biological study relate to the forms

and anatomical structure, however minute, of living organ-

isms, to their functions or activities, to their developmental

history, both individual and ancestral, to their systematic affi-

nities and classification, and to their distribution over the

globe in present and in former geological epochs. This vast

field of study is far more than can be compassed by one man,

1897.] Biology and Medicine. 759

however versatile and industrious, or in one laboratory. It

necessitates such specialization and subdivision of labor as is

represented by these laboratories and by those appointed to con-

duct the work in them.

All that relates to the vegetable kingdom, whether it be

anatomical, physiological or paleontological, is included under

botany. The historical development of this science has been

far more consistent and symmetrical than that of animal

biology. In the latter the central position is appropriately

occupied by zoology in the widest sense. Unfortunately the

term zoology has not had the same comprehensive meaning in

reference to animals that botany has in reference to plants,

but there is a growing tendency, which I am glad to see is

here recognized, to include under the designation “zoology”

more and more of animal biology, and especially to discard

the artificial distinction between zoology and comparative

anatomy, a distinction which can be traced historically to the

early development and exceptional position of human anat-

omy, to which I have already alluded. Not less important

than the study of organized form and structure, and insepara-

bly intertwined with it, is that of physiology, which concerns

itself with the properties and actions of living beings. Subor-

dinate to physiology, but still deserving recognition as a spe-

cialized biological science, is physiological chemistry, which is

most fruitfully cultivated by one trained both as a chemist

and as a biologist, who gives his whole time to the subject.

The study of the structure and functions of the nervous system

has become so specialized and has such important relations to

psychology, that neurology has here received special recogni-

tion as a separate department. The same is true of paleontol-

ogy, which forms a connecting link between biology and

geology, and which has shed most valuable light upon funda-

mental problems concerning the origin and development of

animals and plants.

There are some who see in the setting up of all of these

divisions and subdivisions of biological science peculiar perils

resulting from the severance of natural relations and loss of

Perspective. This is the familiar cry of the general worker

760 The American Naturulist. [September,

against the specialist, a cry which, however loudly uttered,

will not be heeded. Where proper organization exists, I do

not share these apprehensions. The principle of specialization

and subdivision of labor has been the great factor in scientific

progress. Whenever a body of scientific knowledge has

reached a stage of development in which its extent is consid-

erable and its problems and the methods of attacking them

are special, it is convenient and proper to recognize it as a

branch of science whose interests will be best furthered by

workers specially trained to its service. |

But while conceding to the fullest extent the practical bene-

fits which attend the separate cultivation of different depart-

ments of biology, I would even more strongly emphasize the

essential unity of the biological sciences. In essence these

sciences constitute but one science, and the great service of the

word “biology” in its present use is to embody this concep-

tion. The fundamental problems everywhere in biology are

the same, the determination of the structure and the proper-

ties and the laws controlling them of living matter. In what-

ever department knowledge be gained as to these fundamental

questions, it is a contribution to all departments of biology.

The expansion of our knowledge brings closer together all

physical and natural sciences, physics with chemistry, and

both with biology. It is of incalculable advantage that the

surfaces of contact between the different branches of biological

study should be kept clearly in view, and that knowledge.

gained by one should be made readily available for others.

Hence it seems to me that the general plan of organization of

these laboratories, providing as they do for special develop-

ment in all proper directions of biological study, while retain-

ing the conception of biology as one science, is eminently

wise.

It would be a hopeless task for me to attempt to indicate to

you all of the more important questions in which biologists at

the present time are especially interested, even if I were my-

self familiar with them all. They penetrate into all provinces

of life and relate to such matters as the complex organization-

of cells, the problems of heredity and development, the causes

1897] Biology and Medicine. 761

of variation in living organisms, the influence of physical and

chemical agencies, and in general of environment, upon the

behavior of living cells and organisms, the relations of micro-

organisms to fermentation and disease, the finer architecture

of the central nervous system, and countless other themes.

An especially interesting and new direction of development, to

which the biological department of this University has made

important contributions, is the application of the experimental

method to the solution of certain morphological problems.

From this source we may reasonably expect valuable light to

be thrown upon the great problems of development, variation

and heredity, and thereby we may acquire a clearer and more

accurate insight than we now possess into the factors con-

cerned in organic evolution.

No branch of human knowledge exceeds in interest and im-

portance the study of biology; none has made greater advances

during this century of scientific progress; none is of more im-

portance to human welfare; none has more deeply impressed

modern philosophic thought. Biology has profoundly influ-

enced man’s attitude toward Nature and the views as to his

own position in the scale of being. It has important bearings

upon social and moral questions. With true religion it has

no contest, whatever may have been its influence upon dog-

matic theology. It reveals the marvellous fitness of organic

nature, and it cultivates one of the finest human sentiments,

the love of nature. Who but a biologist, who was also a poet,

could have sung of the chambered nautilus ?

‘Year after year beheld the silent toil

That spread his lustrous coil ;

Still, as the spiral grew,

He left the past year's dwelling for the new,

Stole with soft step its shining archway through,

Built up its idle door,

Stretched in his last-found home, and knew the old no more,”

To those who seek the practical utility of scientific study

biology can show its triumphs, but here as elsewhere in science

the important discoveries which have found useful applica-

tions have been made by the devotees of pure science rather

than by those who make technical utility their guiding prin-

ciple.

762 The. American Naturalist. [September,

No more striking illustration of the practical benefits con-

ferred by biological discoveries can be given than that derived

from the investigation of those lowly micro-organisms which

are partly our friends, the preservers of the very existence of

life upon this globe, and in smaller part our enemies, the

causes of infectious diseases. It would be a long story should I

attempt to rehearse the useful discoveries in this domain; how

Pasteur saved the silkworm industries of France by his studies

of a microscopic parasite; how agriculture and dairies and

industries concerned with fermentative processes have been

benefited ; how preventive inoculations have saved the lives

of thousands of animals; how surgery has been revolutionized

by Lister’s application of Pasteur’s discoveries; how the scien-

tific study of immunity has opened up new vistas in prevent-

ive and curative medicine, as exemplified by the antitoxic

treatment of diphtheria and preventive inoculations for rabies,

which have led to the saving of untold thousands of human

lives. All of the money ever expended for the promotion of

biological science has been repaid a thousand fold by the use-

ful applications of biological discoveries, and in making this

statement in this presence I trust that I shall not be thought

for a moment to countenance that Philistine view of science

which would estimate its value in money or in immediate

practical utility.

I have already had occasion to touch upon another side of

biology, which is not at present here provided for and which

may not be so familiar to all as a biological science. I refer

to pathology or the study of life in its abnormal forms and

activities. This is the pure science of medicine as distinguished

from the art of healing. It is just as truly a department of

biology as is the study of normal life. The relations of patho-

logy to practical medicine are so intimate that the broader

conception of this science as a part of biology is not always

appreciated. Nevertheless pathology may be cultivated as a

science no more subordinated to practical ends than is any

other natural science. Its subject matter is any living thing

which deviates from the normal condition. Its province isto

investigate abnormal structure, disordered function and the :

1897.] Biology and Medicine. 763

causes of these abnormalities. Pathological biology must rest

upon a knowledge of normal biology. Between these two great

divisions of biology no sharp lines of demarcation can be

drawn. The province of one encroaches at many points upon

that of the other and they are capable of yielding each other

mutual aid.

Although certain directions of pathological study can be

followed in a University independently of a medical school,

the natural environment of a pathological laboratory is the

medical school and hospital, where it can obtain the necessary

material for study. Here only can pathology flourish in its

entirety.

At the exercises connected with the laying of the corner |

stones of these laboratories, President Harper uttered these

significant words: “In laying these corner stones to-day we

are laying the foundations of a school of medicine, for aside

from the distinct work outlined in each department there is

that great and important service to be rendered in the establish-

ment of a school of medicine, the chief work of which shall be

investigation.” It will not therefore be out of place at the

dedication of these laboratories if I say a few words concerning

their relations to the proposed school of medicine and the need

of such a school.

A university is the historical and proper place for the estab-

lishment of a medical school. Before there wasa school of law

at Bologna or of theology at Paris, there was a school of medi-

cine at Salernum. For centuries all that there was of biology

was to be found in the medical faculty. The union between

medical school and university is of mutual advantage and each

receives renown from the other. The distinction of great

universities has often rested in no small measure upon their

medical faculties, as witness such names as Johannes Müller,

Virchow, DuBois-Reymond, Ludwig, Kölliker, to mention only

a few biologists. The advantages to the medical school of this

union are manifold. Among the more important of these may

be mentioned the encouragement of research, the development

of the scientific spirit and of university ideals, the proper

maintenance of laboratories, contact with other departments of

764 The American Naturalist. [September,

science, economy of organization, and improved methods of

instruction. To secure these advantages the union must be a

realone. There is nosaving grace in merely calling a medical

school a department of a university. The medical school must

be a vital, integral, co-ordinate part of the university. It

should also be said in this connection that the granting of the

doctor’s degree is the function of a university and it is a usur-

pation for it to be assumed by independent medical schools

responsible to nobody.

Medical science and art rest upon a knowledge of anatomy

and physiology and these latter subjects are included in the

special medical studies. But before undertaking these special

studies it is in every way desirable that the students should

have had a liberal education which includesa fair training in

physics, chemistry and general biology with the ability to read

French and German. You not only have here all that is

requisite for the training preliminary to medical education,

but you have in these biological laboratories the foundation of

a medical school and a part of the superstructure. The use-

fulness of these laboratories, great as it is under existing condi-

tions, would in my judgment be still further enhanced, espe-

cially in certain departments, by association with a medical

school, and I need not emphasize the enormous value which

the medical school would derive from them.

Not only this University but also the city of Chicago by its

size and situation offers peculiarly favorable conditions for the

foundation of a great medical school such as is here contem-

plated.

The present state of the science and art of medicine and of

medical education renders especially urgent the claims of

higher medical education. Medical science has made enor-

‘mous strides during the last two decades. The present is &

period of great and fruitful activity in medicine. New points

of view have presented themselves. Problems of the highest

importance to science and to humanity are awaiting only suit-

able opportunity and patient investigation for their solution-

Methods of the laboratory are now applied to the practical

study of disease for purposes of diagnosis, prognosis and treat-

1897.] Biology and Medicine. 765

ment. The practice of the healing art is a far more scientific

and rewarding pursuit now than formerly. The great discover-

ies relating to the agency of micro-organisms in the causation

of disease have given a firm basis to preventive medicine,

which has as yet been able to utilize only a relatively small

part of the available knowledge.

To the new conditions medical education has as yet only

imperfectly adjusted itself. The great need of our medical

schools is the establishment of thoroughly equipped and well

organized laboratories and these require endowments which

none in this country possess to any adequate extent and few

possess at all.

While the primary aim of a medical school is to train prac-

titioners of medicine and surgery, a great medical school

should also advance the science and art of medicine. This art

is becoming in increasing degree applied science, and it cannot

be fully acquired without training in the biological medical

sciences. I think that in a four years medical course, the

first two years should be devoted to the study of the funda-

mental medical sciences, such as human anatomy, physiology,

physiological chemistry, pharmacology, and pathology, and

the last two to strictly professional training in practical medi-

cine, surgery and obstetrics. It is one of the most important

problems of medical education to maintain the proper balance

between the purely technical training in the medical art and

the study of the medical sciences. The cultivators of pure

science in this or any other university need have no fear that

the introduction of a medical department, organized in accord-

ance with the present state of medical science, and to meet the

existing needs of medical education, will bring any elements

unsuited to the highest university ideals.

A suitably endowed medical school united with a university

has to-day in this country unequaled opportunities to achieve

success, and to confer a great service upon medicine and upon

humanity. The need of such schools is everywhere recognized

by the medical profession which would give to their establish-

ment enthusiastic support.

766 The American Naturalist. [September,

For this purpose you will need largeendowments. You will

require a hospital with dispensary service. This need not be

a very large hospital, but it should be entirely under your

control. You will require additional laboratories of pathology,

hygiene, pharmacology, and physiological chemistry. The

teachers selected should be also investigators and those engaged

in the scientific departments should be well paid, so that they

can give their whole time to their subjects.

Medical education has not been a favorite object of endow-

ment. Its needs are very imperfectly understood by the com-

munity, and our medical schools in the past have for the most

part not been such as to encourage their support by private

beneficence. But these conditions are changing as witness the

names of such benefactors of medical education as Johns Hop-

kins, Vanderbilt and Mary Garrett.

Every one who has a patriotic pride in seeing this country

take its proper place in the great movement forward in medical

science and education, would rejoice to see here in connection

with this University and in Chicago, such a medical school as

I have endeavored to indicate. In no other direction could

this University expand with greater promise of usefulness and

renown, than in the promotion of the highest medical educa-

tion. With the unbounded energy and will of this University

and of this city, never content with what has been accom-

plished, however wonderful, but building for the future, it is

not too much to say that you could attain something greater

and better than has been hitherto achieved.

In conclusion, I desire to express the hope, indeed the con-

viction, that the Hull Biological Laboratories, which are now

open for active work, will fulfil their high promise, will be

guided by wisdom, will cherish high ideals, will contribute

abundantly to knowledge, will be a centre to which students

will wander from far and near, will be a fortress of sound bio-

logical thought and education.

1897,] Hair and Feathers. 767

HAIR AND FEATHERS.

By J. S. KINGSLEY.

Birds and mammals, the highest groups of the whole animal

kingdom, are sharply marked off from each other and from

all other vertebrates by their tegumentary structures,

feathers in the one group, hair in the other. Naturally struct-

ures so characteristic and evident as these have been made the

subject of numerous investigations, but the more recent and

more thorough studies have been published almost exclusively

in German, and hence a summary of these may be acceptable

to American readers. In the preparation of the following

account the recent able review by Professor Keibel' has been

freely used. :

In the skin of the higher vertebrates two distinct portions

may be recognized, differing in origin, structure, etc. The

outer of these layers, the epidermis, arises from the ectodermal

layer of the embryo, while the other layer, the cutis or dermis,

has its origin in the mesoderm (mesenchyme). Wien fully

developed the epidermis consists of a basal layer of cells rest-

ing on the dermis and receiving nourishment from it. By

continual growth and consequent division, this basal layer

produces other cells which come to lie outside it, but these

more superficial portions, removed from any food supply, do

not grow or divide, but die, dry up and become hardened into

a horny cuticular layer which gradually wears away and is

as constantly renewed from beneath. Outside of this cuticular

layer comes a third layer, the epitrichium, only a single cell in

thickness, which is lost in the mammals at a very early date,

but which persists until a later stage in birds.

The deeper layer of the skin, the dermis or cutis, is largely

composed of dense fibrous connective tissue, the fibres of

which are tightly interlaced, and among them run nerves and

SON OT OR Lt nh¢

! Merkel und Bonnet’s Ergebnisse der Anatomi gs58

1896.

768 The American Naturalist. [September,

minute blood vessels, while here and there are developed mus-

cle fibres of the smooth or involuntary type. This dermis is

separated from the deeper tissues by a loose or aveolar con-

nective tissue, in which fat is often developed to a considerable

extent.

In the development of a hair slight differences are observa-

ble in different forms. In some the first phenomenon is the

appearance of small papille in the dermis at the points at

which hair is subsequently to be formed ; in others the pro-

cess of hair formation is initiated by changes in the epidermis,

which only appear after the formation of the papille in the

first mentioned types. This change consists in an elongation

of the basal cells in a direction at right angles to the surface

where the hair is to appear (fig. 1), the

result being that the epidermis becomes

slightly pushed into the dermis in these

areas. Beneath these thickenings, there

next follows a multiplication of dermal

ei ruS through Cells. As growth continues the inpush-

es per stage of hair ings increase in extent, while the

rmation in a mouse, after

Maurer. At cisshownthe dermal cells arrange themselves around

ET Pree . layer ” ingrowth to form a hair follicle with

a slight projection, the hair papilla, at

A base (fig. 2), the latter being supplied by a small capillary

So far the epidermal ingrowth has been solid, but now a

circular depression appears, which,

deepening with time, separates a ẹ ; SIPS Tee

central portion,therudimentary hair, 25 fa

from a surrounding sheath (fig. 3).

The relations will readily be seen

from the illustrations, but a few

- words may be added to make all clear.

In figure 3 the hair is shown as a ne

solid structure made up, as it pro- Kick r stages in t

trudes from the skin, of three con- diversi of the hair in ihe

centric layers; a central medulla, a prone enlier stage; on the

middle so-called cortical layer, and lefta later stage: Ses!

e, epi

: ‘ hf, h P ilicle; Pp

an outer cuticular layer. Inside the ae “a y, aie

1897.] Hair and Feathers. : 769

follicle two other layers are seen, known by the names of

those who first described them, the outer as Henle’s layer, the

inner as Huxley’s layer.

At one side of the folli-

cle is shown the gland

which secretes the oil,

and which is clearly a

derivation of the epider-

mis, while in several

places are medullated

nerve fibres connected

with the sheath of the

hair. The growing

point of the hair is at

the base of the follicle

where the deeper epi-

dermal cells, by con-

stant division, produce

other cells, which are

Diagrammatic section of hair and added to the base of the

¢, cortical layer of hair; ct, Ea ea tapes e hair, thus causing it

nd; he, Henles continually. to increase

odes he — agaga m, —— Page in length.

and y, ‘polis regahGeil by. Maater tac iotas: It may be well to say

gous with x and y of figure 13 with which parenthetically that

hair is not hollow; that

the natural oil does not flow through it as through a tube,

and that the singeing so strongly recommended by barbers

will not close up any “openings through which the vital

fluids of the hair escape.”

When we look at any hairy surface the hairs appear to be

arranged without any order. It is, however, interesting to

note, in the light of what is to follow, that Maurer claims that

the first hairs to be formed—at least in certain mammals—

are arranged in a few rows, and that these rows have a definite

Position (fig. 4). With the later increase in the number of the

hairs this regularity is lost, an intermediate stage showing

the hairs arranged in groups, but itis not yet settled exactly how

E gs SO

RAAE e,

7, gr pte r Eh

S EE Wye

io odo ae

os ae?

770 The American Naturalist. [September,

much of the increase in number is to be sae by the

division of hair follices and how much by new formation.

So, too, in the replacement of molted hairs it is doubtful

whether a new papilla is formed, or

whether the old papilla retains its

functions.

When we analyze the phenomena

of hair formation we find that the

epidermis takes the initiative so far

as cell multiplication is concerned.

With feathers, on the other hand, the

increase in cells begins in the dermis,

the result being a slight elevation of

the surface of the skin. Next th

deeper cells of the epidermis form

themselves into a double layer (fig.

5) and the whole is strikingly sugges-

tive of a scale, in that one edge of

the elevation projects more than the y

other. This outgrowth increases in

extent until there results a cylindrical process protruding from

the skin (fig. 6) with a very slight insinking, the rudiments of

the future feather follicle,

at its base. In this out»

growth, which is to give

T rise to the future down-

a n SET ithe development feather, both dermis and

epidermis; ep, splivichideac d, epidermis may be recog-

deri TEs

The epidermis has increased in thickness by cell multipli-

cation, while the epitrichium retains its primitiye condition.

Fic. 6. Pier esr section of a later oo of the down ecm after Davies,

bv, blood vessel ; i ermis; ep, epitri ium: >p pulp ra) illa. The

basal layer of iee Soli ermal cells have pict a cylindrical ch

1897.] Hair and Feathers. 771

The dermal portion, hereafter to be known as the pulp, has

undergone modifications best understood by reference to a

transverse section (fig. 7). Itno longer has a smooth contour,

but is produced in a radial manner in-

to longitudinal ridges which nearly

reach to the epitrichium. As a result

of this the epidermal portion becomes

divided into a corresponding number

of rod-like structures, each of which

becomes surrounded by a structureless

ensheathing envelope produced by the

basal layer of the epidermal cells. Se ee a oen

The pulp now begins to retract to- ne meie” aee.

wards the surface of the skin, leaving sheath - pu, pulp; r, ridges

the whole outgrowth hollow, except for sok pulp. dividing ve

phe A epidermis into a series o

structureless partitions—the pith of the rod-like structures.

quill—here and there, produced by

the retracting epidermis. The parts remaining external to

surface of the body gradually dry up and become cornified,

and, the epitrichial sheath breaking away, the epidermal rods

just mentioned separate at their free ends, so that the well-

known down-feather results, the basal, undivided portion of

the outgrowth forming the small quill.

During this formation of the down-feather the follicle be-

comes much deeper, so that at length it presents considerable

superficial resemblance to the hair follicle, and into it the der-

mal pulp retracts after the full formation of the down-feather

is complete.

According to Davies all contour feathers are preceded by

down-feathers, and even those cases which seem to form ex-

ceptions to this statement are found upon more accurate

observation to accord with it. The statement may be put in

another way: the germ of the definitive feather isa direct

- derivative of the germ of the down-feather. Let us now follow

the development of a symmetrical contour feather.

With the retraction of the pulp (fig. 8) the follicle widens

while the feather papilla enlarges so as to contain a much more

considerable pulp, but in other respects it is closely similar to

772 The American Naturalist.

[September,

the earlier down papilla except that it is seated in a follicle.

There now occurs the same outgrowth of ridges from the

pulp as before, divid-

ing the epidermis in

a similar manner,

with the following

exceptions: In the

down papilla these

ridges were parallel

to the axis of the

future feather; in the

contour feather (fig.

Fic. 8.—Longitudinal 9) they are oblique to

sectionthroughtheshaft that axis, the result

0 0 zi á .

feather, after Davies, necessarily bein

that the formations

ff, feather follicle; pi, of a series of long

mer

definitive feather germ;

pith; q, quill. slender processes—

the future barbs—which are connected

with an undivided portion, the shaft—

on the so-called dorsal side of the papilla.

Around all is developed a sheath as

before.

This dorsal or shaft region demands a

little closer attention. As seen in trans-

verse section (fig. 10) the shaft shows on

its inner edges longitudinal thickenings

which, increasing in size, meet each

other in differing ways in the different

parts of the feather. A glance at figure matic

11 will explain this better than pages of

description. The four sections are made

at different levels, A being near the tip

and D through the quill below the vane.

Around each is the feather sheath and

inside of each is the pulp cavity. In A the ingrowing edges

of the shaft meet each other, and form a solid rod. Farther

down, as in B and C, they include in the ingrowth a portion

1897.] Hair and Feathers. 778

of the pulp cavity thus making this portion of the shaft hollow ;

while in D, taken below the vane we have no barbs and only

the hollow quill.

With the contour feather, as with the down feather there is

vw the same retraction of the pulp

z and the same formation of pith

; as has already been described.

5 ‘ After the feather is complete

Ji the retracted pulp remains

t quiet until about the time of -

the molt when it comes to the

front again to form the new

feather. The feather, the de-

velopment of which we have

been following, is as yet cyclin-

drical in shape and is still

enclosed in the feather sheath.

With the retraction of the pulp

it dries and becomes horny as before, the sheath breaks away

and the barbs by their elasticity straighten out and become

arranged on either side of the shaft (see fig. 12) so as to form

the well-known vane.

There are here to be mentioned two points. The first is

that the upper and lower surfaces of the contour feather do not

Fic. 11.—Four transverse sections through fig. 9 at different levels, A, near the

tip; D, near the base.

correspond to the upper and lower surfaces of the papilla but

rather to the inner and outer surfaces of the feather-forming

epidermis, as may be seen by a comparison between figures 10

and 12. The other matter is this: With the withdrawal of

the pulp from the feather there is no longer any nerve or blood

774 The American Naturalist. [September,

supply to the parts of the feather. The cells of which it is com-

posed are dead and dry so that it seems impossible that any

change can take place in it. The whole

question of change in color of the fully

formed feather was recently reopened by

Mr. J. A. Allen who maintained that, once

formed, the feathers do not change in their

markings. The whole history of develop-

ment seems to afford him full support.

Yet this year the attempt has been made

to show that feathers do change in their

12.—A section markings. In this, as the matter now

n stands, the burden of proof is upon those

anpeire seri tha feather who support the possibility of change.

ing out of the barbs (b) Another aspect of the hair and feather

eine the vane; s, question must now be taken up. How

; did these two structures come into exist-

ence? They certainly were not formed de novo, for it is one of

the axioms—we had almost said—that all structures are to be

traced back as modifications of pre-existing structures. If this

be so, to what can these structures be referred ?

Until very recently the attempt was made to show that hairs

and feathers were homologous in origin. Thus the older

students sought to find intermediate stages in the pin feathers,

which are certainly hair-like in appearance; and to derive

both hair and feathers from the Reptilian scale, a view which

received much seeming support from the tarso-metatarsal

scales of birds and from the scale-like feathers of the penguins,

as well as from the scaly armor of pangolins, etc., on the mam-

malian side. The interested student will find all of these views

ably and concisely summarized by Keibel; our space will not

admit more than this reference to them. It may be said, how-

ever, that Davies, to whom we owe the most accurate account

of the development of the feather declines to regard pin feath-

ers as the simplest type of the avian tegumentary covering but

rather as a retrograde condition; and farther, that he regards

the scales upon the tarsal and digital regions of birds a$

secondary formations, agreeing in this with Jeffries.

gr :

Son):

z Te:

bo a

| ooo ee sso GG ~~ cha).

1897.] . Hair and Feathers. 775

If the Mammals be, like the birds, descended from the

Reptiles then it is natural that we should look for those struc-

tures which have given rise to hairs in connection with the

Reptilian integument. On the other hand there are those who

believe that the Mammals spring direct from some Amphibian

stock and to these the recent work of Maurer is full of interest.

Maurer maintains that hair and feathers are not homologous

structures. The feather, according to his view has been derived

from the Reptilian scale while hair has arisen from the dermal

sense organs of the Ichthyopsida as a result of a change in

' habits and conditions of life. As illustrating his views we

have copied (fig. 18) one of his figures, a diagrammatic longi-

udinal section of at

dermal sense organ

of Triton after the

metamorphosis,

which should be com-

pared with the dia-

gram of the structure

of the hair follicle

and hair already

Fic. 13.—Diagrammatic es of a cutaneous apis (fig. a ee

sa pe baig - kiss persr — hee — letters in each indi-

n: blood A EE T a 9; Hand: M, çarp Hie E gA

enle’s layer; hu, Huxley’s layer; np, primary logies recognized by

Pate a i bg secondary nerves; s, sense cells; sc, Maurer.

ng cells, x and y, points regarded as homo- 5

y in fig. 3. Slightly condens-

logous with x an

ing his account, Maurer says, that when an Amphibian,

like Triton after the metamorphosis, takes to the land, the

supporting cells of the sense organs undergo a process of

cornification and in this condition they show in the simplest

form all of the parts of the hair and the hair follicle. With

the transfer to land, as is well known, the dermal sense or-

gans lose their original function, itself dependent upon the

presence of water as a surrounding median. In the axis of

the hair lies the medulla, consisting of dry incompletely corn-

ified cells. In these I recognize the modified remains of the

sense cells? The cortical layer is derived from the horny

* A view considerably different from those earlier advanced by him.

776 The American Naturalist. [September,

supporting cells and the cuticula from the enveloping cells of

the dermal sense organs. Inthe epithelium around the sense

bud both Henle’s and Huxley’s layers may be seen forming

the inner root sheath as in the hair; while the connective

tissue envelope forms a sense bud follicle just as the same layer

forms the hair follicle. Even a papilla is frequently present

in many Amphibia; (e. g., Cryptobranchus), containing 4

capillary network; but since the hair has lost its sensory func-

tion the axial nerve of the sense organ has degenerated.

We cannot go into the wealth of fact and comparison which

Maurer has advanced in support of his position (which we may '

say in passing, has won the acceptance of Gegenbaur) but some

of his statements and conclusions should be summarized here.

According to Maurer two types of organs are developed from

the integument. The epidermoid organs are those structures

which both phylogeneti-.

q ;

Ba TE NEET ETA cally and ontogenetically

OR CNG oem € arise exclusively from the

Sree: QE we 2 epidermis, and to which

G. 14.—Section through the liest wen ai oniy Se

stage of a developing sense gadis of Triton when necessity for protec:

prises Care ee A . the pree e tion or nourishment arises.

its cells ‘becoming columnar, the Tak sues Here belong the tegumen-

Peon shold be aada nit t COM tary sense organs of the

lower vertebrates as We

as the “pearl organs” of the Teleosts, the femoral pores of the

lizards, dermal glands and lastly the hairs of the Mammalia.

Integumental organs in the narrower sense are those which

have their first foundation in an alteration of the corium and

always arise as an elevation of that layer, although the opr

dermis may be associated with it later and may secondarily

acquire great prominence. Here belong the scales of fishes

and reptiles, the feathers of birds and certain mammalian

scales.

From this statement it is clear, if ontogeny be a test, that

hair and feathers, are totally different structures; for as ws

have seen the development of hair begins with the epiderm!s;

that of feathers as clearly with the dermis.

1897.] Birds of the Galapagos Archipelago. 777

In the first appearance of the hair Maurer sees additional

evidence in favor of his view. We have already alluded to

the rows in which the earliest hairs are arranged. Maurer

finds that the first tactile hairs to appear are arranged in the

following rows: (1) supraorbital ; (2) infraorbital ; (3) zygom-

atic; (4) angular; (5) upper lip; (6) under lip ; and (7) submen-

tal; and that these rows follow in a striking way, the course of

the tegumentary branches of the tregeminal nerve. The other

hairs are not irregularly arranged but are also in regular rows

(see fig. 4) and, thinks Maurer, these rows are closely connected

with the rows of sensory organs in the Amphibian skin. The

grouped arrangement of hairs is secondary and the point of

origin of a group is a single hair the follicle of which by bud-

ding gives rise to other follicles and hence to the hair group.

Such a means of increase is found no where else than in the

sensory organs of the Ichthyopsida.

It would be interesting did space permit to go farther into

this subject and to take up other tegumentary structures. It

is, however, hoped that this brief review will lead to the read-

ing of Keibel’s summary already referred to with its biblio-

graphy of over one hundred titles.

BIRDS OF THE GALAPAGOS ARCHIPELAGO:

A CRITICISM OF MR. ROBERT RIDG-

WAY’S PAPER.

By G. BAUR,

UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO.

On the 30th of March, Mr. Ridgway published a paper on

the “ Birds of the Galápagos Archipelago,” in which he makes

the following remarks in regard to the genus Geospiza :

“ Few genera equal the present one in the extreme modifi-

cations in the form of the bill, which in some species (magni-

sae and strenua) is, perhaps, not excelled by that of any

roc. U. S. Nat. Mus. (No. 1116), Vol. XIX, p. 459-560, Pl. LVI-LVII,

Washo, 1896.

778 The American Naturalist. [September,

member of the family Fringullide in its extreme thickness ; in

others (members of the so-called genus Cactornis) slender and

decurved ; in others very acute, with straight outlines, and, in

others still, elevated and arched at the base. The most ex-

treme forms are, however, so gradually connected by interme-

diate types, that there seems no possibility of satisfactorily sub-

dividing the genus into two or more sections. The extreme

modifications of the bill and some of the connecting forms are

shown in the outline illustrations on plate LVII.

“The reduction of Cactornis to a synonym of Geospiza has

already been made in my paper describing the new species of

Galapagos birds in Dr. Baur’s collection, in which is announced

the discovery of species which absolutely bridge the previously

existing gap between the so-called genera Geospiza and Cac-

tornis, thus necessitating the suppression of one of those names

(the latter, according to the rule of priority). Dr. Baur, who

has had the advantage of studying these birds in life, disap-

proves of this, as the following extract from one of his letters

will show: ‘I should like to make a few remarks, if you will

permit me, about Cactornis and Geospiza. You place the spe-

cies of these two genera in one genus, Geospiza. I do not

think that this is natural. Both have their peculiar represen-

tatives on the different islands, and if you place them together,

this peculiar differentiation of each is lost sight of. Cactornis

is more slender than Geospiza, and has many more black in-

dividuals. I would keep the two genera apart, and would not

hesitate to place Geospiza propinqua in Cactornis.’ I am quite

willing to adopt Dr. Baur’s views concerning the position of

G. propinqua, which I had compared with G. conirostris (a true

Geospiza); but, while admitting that it would be very conven-

ient to recognize Cactornis if any definite characters could be

found which will serve to separate them. The character which

comes nearest to doing so, apparently, the relative width of the

mandibte between the bases of the rami to the length of the

gonys, which is very much less in typical Cactornis than in

true Geospiza. This greater compression of the bill even serves

to trenchantly separate Cactornis propinqua from G. conirostris,

some individuals of which are almost precisely alike in the

lateral profile and measurements of the bill.”

Albemarle I.

ood I

Chatham I.

Indefatigable I. James I. Jervis I. Duncan I. Barrington I. Charles I. Girihi T Tower I. Bindloe I. Abingdon I.

Nesomimus parvulus melanotis melanotis melanotis (0) barringtonensis | trifasciatus macdonaldi | adamsi Ridgw. | bauri Ridgw. bindloei personatus

(Gould) (Gould) (Gould) (Gould) (Gould) Ridgw. Ridgw. Ridgw.

Certhidia albemarli salvini Ridgw. | olivacea Gould spec. spec. bifasciata O cinerascens | luteola Ridgw. mentalis spec. fusca Sel. &

idgw. i Ridgw. Ridgw. Salv.

Pyrocephalus intercedens intercedens nanus Gould | nanus Gould? spec (0) carolinensis O dubius Gould. O spec. ae

Ridgw. Ridgw. Ridgw. Ridgw.

Cactornis Spec. fatigata Ridgw. | scandens Gould spec. spec barringtonensis | intermedia oO spec, propinqua spec. abingdoni Scl.

(fatigata ?) A : Ridgw. Ridgw. Ridgw. & Salvin

Geospiza strenua-magni- | strenua Gould | strenua Gould | strenua-magni- —_ — magnirostris conirostris magnirostris pachyrhyncha strenua Gould | strenua Gould

Series I. rostris Gould rostris Gould. Gould Ridgw. Gould Ridgw.

(Darwin) (Darwin)

Series II. (albemarli Ridgw. Gould. Ridgw.

Ridgw. )

Geospiza fuliginosa Gould fuliginosa Gould fuliginosa Gould|fuliginosa Gould fuliginsoa Gould) fuliginosa-par- |fuliginosa Gould/fuliginosa Gould ae acutirostris parvula Gould | parvula Gould

Series ILI. vula Gould vula Ridgw.

Camarhynchus | variegatus Scl. | variegatus Scl. | variegatus Scl. variegatus oO variegatus O bindloei Ridgw.| habeli Scl. &

Series I. & Salv. & Salv. & Salv. Sel. & Salv. Scl. & Salv. o Baly.

(crassirostris

Gould)

Camarhynchus | affinis Ridgw. psittaculus psittaculus psittaculus spec. spec. psittaculus O O

i Gould Gould Gould Gould

incertus Ridgw. | compressirostris

Ridgw.

Camarhynchus | prosthemelas | prosthemelas | prosthemelas | prosthemelas prosthemelas ? O salvini Ridgw o

Series III. Scl. & Salv. Scl. & Salv. Scl. & Salv. Scl. & Salv. 1. & Salvin

pauper Ridgw

Tropidurus albemarlensis | indefatigabilis | jacobii Baur jacobii Baur duncanensis_ | barringtonensis | grayi ( Bell) delanonis

Baur Baur Baur Baur Baur

Phyllodactylus | galapagoensis aeee oe — ne oe baurii Garm. en

Pet.

Schistocerca melanocera melanocera melanocera melanocera melanocera melanocera melanocera |literosa punctata

Stal. Stal. Stal. Stal Stal. Stal Stal Scudd.

Euphorbia vimi-| albemarlensis jacobensis jervensis barringtonensis carolensis

nea (eypica )

1897.] Birds of the Gulapagos Archipelago. 779

I shall show now that the Cactornis propinqua Ridgway from

Tower Island in the north and the Geospiza conirostris Ridgway

from Hood Island in the south of the Archipelago have no re-

lationship whatever. The distance between Hood and Tower

is one hundred nautical miles. Mr. Ridgway arranges the

different species of Geospiza (including Cactornis) in a single

line, to show the gradual connection between the different

forms. I can not agree with this.

My opinion is the following: All the plastic genera, which

are represented only by a single species on each island, as

Nesomimus, Certhidia, Pyrocephalus and Cactornis, show pecu-

liar species on nearly every island. The same is true for the

iguanoid lizard Tropidurus, the land tortoises, for Phyllodacty-

lus of the Geckonidz, of the genus Schistocerca of the Orthop-

tera,” and one of the most striking examples is offered by

Euphorbia viminea Hook. fil. of the Euphorbiacee.*

But there ‘are genera, like Geospiza and Camarhynchus,

which have more than one species on one island—two or

three, perhaps four.t How can we explain this? I think it is

not difficult to answer this question. We simply have to im-

agine that already, before the splitting up of the Galapagos

landarea into distinct islands, there existed at least 3 species

of Geospiza and Camarhynchus, each of which became differ-

entiated on the different islands. This shows at once that we

can not arrange these species in one series, but in 3 parallel

series. In some islands, as will be seen from the table, one or

the other form of the 3 series may be missing. This conclu-

*Baur,G. The differentiation of species on the Galápagos Islands and the

origin of the group. Biological lectures del. at the Marine Biol. Laborat. of

Wood’s Holl, summer session of 1894. Boston, 1895, p. 67-78.

* Robinson, B. L. and J. M. Greenman. On the Flora of the Galápagos Islands,

as shown by the collections of Dr. G. Baur. Amer. Journ. Science, Vol. L, Aug-

ust 1, 1895, p. 135-149.

tI consider Geospiza magnirostris Gould and G. strenua Gould as unseparable

Species which are based on a single specimen like Geospiza dentirostris Gould, and

the locality of which is unknown, are of no use. Geospiza difficilis Sharpe must

be restricted to Abingdon. This leaves 3 species only for Charles. If there are

more than 3 or 4 species of Geospiza said to occur on one island, I have no doubt

that there is some mistake.

780 The American Naturalist. [September,

sion I reached the 16th of August, 1891, on James Island, and

I have published it in 1892.°

If Geospiza was represented by three species, when all the

islands were still in connection, each of these, after the segre-

gation into different islands, developed its own races, which

gradually became species. We always can recognize these

three forms if they are present ona single island, and they

never intergrade on the same island. We can distinguish

three parallel series of Geospiza. First the large forms, repre-

sented by Geospiza strenua Gould; second, the medium-sized

forms represented by Geospiza fortis Gould, and, third, the

small forms represented by Geospiza fuliginosa Gould. The

same is true for Camarhynchus. The table shows these differ-

ent series.

Ishall now make a few remarks about the birds from

Charles, Hood, Barrington, and South Albemarle, which were

contained in a box which disappeared in Guayaquil. The loss

is not quite so unfortunate as stated by Mr. Ridgway. He re-

marks that it contained more than forty land birds from the

southern part of Albemarle Island, but this statement, as will

be seen from the list which I now give, is not correct. The

only two species of birds which are lost are two specimens of

Camarhynchus, and the new species of Nesomimus from Bar-

rington Island, of which accidentally no alcoholic specimens

were preserved. All the other species contained in the box

are represented by alcoholic material.

List of lost specimens from Charles, Hood, Barrington and

South Albemarle, and the number of alcoholic specimens pre

served :

CHARLES ISLAND.

2 Dendroica aureola (Gould), 5 in alcohol.

6 Geospiza fortis and fuliginosa Gould, 33 in alcohol.

26 Cactornis intermedia Ridgw., 8 in alcohol.

11 Camarhynchus.

2 Myiarchus magnirostris (Gould), 3 in alcohol.

‘Baur, G. Ein Besuch der Galápagos Inseln. Biolog. Centralbl. Bd. XI,

1892, p. 248-249.

1897,] Birds of the Galapagos Archipelago. 781

3 Pyrocephalus carolensis Ridgway, 3 in alcohol.

6 Coccyzus melanocoryphus Viell.

2 Nesopelia galapagoensis (Gould).

HOOD AND GARDNER ISLANDS.

10 Nesomimus macdonaldi Ridgw., 1 skin, 9 in alcohol.

1 Dendroica aureola (Gould), 2 in alcohol.

6 Certhidea cinerascens Ridgw., 5 in alcohol.

7 Geospiza sp.; 10 Geosp. conirostris Ridgw., in alcohol.

13 Geospiza fuliginosa Gould, in alcohol.

1 Myiarchus magnirostris (Gould), 7 in alcohol.

BARRINGTON ISLAND.

11 Nesomimus n. sp.

3 Dendroica aureola (Gould), 2 in alcohol.

1 Certhidia bifasciata Ridgw., 3 skins from alcoholic speci-

mens.

4 Geospica, 11 in alcohol.

7 Cactornis barringtonensis Ridgw., 3 skins from alcohol, 1

alcoholic.

2 Camarhynchus spec.

2 Myiarchus magnirostris (Gould), 4 in alcohol.

SOUTH ALBEMARLE ISLAND.

3 Nesomimus parvulus (Gould), 6 skins and 2 in alcohol.

6 Dendroica aureola (Gould), 6 in alcohol.

3 Certhidea albemarlei Ridgw., 2 skins, 2 in alcohol.

15 Geospiza (No. 316, large black; No. 336 large black, fine;

No. 358,366, large black); (3 medium size, 8 small).

6 Geospiza strenua Gould, in alcohol.

10 G. fortis Gould in alcohol.

44 G. fuliginosa Gould in alcohol.

8 Camarhynchus (3 large, 5 small), 11 in alcohol.

6 Cactornis fatigata Ridgw., 6 in alcohol.

2 Cactornis productus Ridgw., 2 skins are preserved.

4 Myiarchus magnirostris (Gould), 2 in alcohol.

x Pyrocephalus intercedens Ridgw., 1 skin preserved, 8 in al-

cohol.

782 The American Naturalist. [September,

2 Himantopus mexicanus (Müller), 2 skins are preserved.

1 Coccyzus melanocoryphus Vieill.

1 Nesopelia galapagoensis (Gould).

ADDITIONS TO THE List oF Brrps GIVEN BY RIDGWAY FOR

THE DIFFERENT ISLANDS.

ALBEMARLE ISLAND.

Ridgway enumerates 35 species from Albemarle, and re-

marks: “As Dr. Baur and his associate, Mr. Adams, collected

more than forty species in South Albemarle, there are, at least,

twenty-five species found there which are, as yet undeter-

mined. I cannot support this statement. Ridgway himself

names 33 species collected by us. The following have to be

added : Progne modesta Néboux, Coccyzus melanocoryphus Veillot,

Fregata aquila (Linn.), Ardea herodias Linn., Phoenicopterus ruber

Linn., Nesopelia galapagoensis (Gould), Larus fuliginosus Gould,

Aestrelata phaeopygia Salvin., Procellaria tethys Bonaparte.

The large white heron, of which I saw four specimens in

South Albemarle and one in East Albemarle opposite Cowley

Island, is certainly not a white phase of the large gray heron,

but Herodias egretta (Gmelin). I have observed different speci-

mens of Ardea herodias (Linn.) on South Albemarle. We have

therefore, in all, 42 specimens of birds on Albemarle, and I do

not believe that this number will be much increased, at least

in the land birds, by further examination.

BRATTLE ISLAND.

This very small island is very close to South Albemarle.

Besides Sula nebouxii Milne-Edwards and Creagrus furcatus

(Néboux), Fregata aquila (Linn.) breeds there. There are also

a few small land birds (Geospiza).

DUNCAN ISLAND.

To the 9 species mentioned by Ridgway the following have

to be added. Cactornis pallida Sel. and Salv. (?) besides the

black Cactornis sp.; Progne modesta (Néboux), Asio galapagoen

sis (Gould), Fregata aquila (Linn.), Pelecanus californicus Ridg-

way, Sula nebouxii Milne-Edwards; Anous galapagoensis Sharpe,

Aestrelata phaeopygia Salvin, Procellaria tethys Bonaparte.

1897.] Birds of the Galapagos Archipelago. 783

CHARLES ISLAND.

Arenaria interpres (Linn.); Haematopus galapagoensis Ridgw.,

Oceanites gracilis Elliot).

HOOD ISLAND.

Fregata aquila (Linn.) and Phaëthon aethereus Linn.

GARDNER ISLAND, NEAR HOOD.

Nesomimus macdonaldi Ridgw., Certhidia cinerascens Ridgw.,

Geospiza conirostris Ridgw., Geospiza fuliginosa Gould, Haema-

topus galapagoensis Ridgw., Nyctanassa violacea (Linn.), Anous

galapagoensis Sharpe.

STEEP ROCKS BETWEEN GARDNER AND HOOD.

Creagrus furcatus (Néboux), breeding.

CHATHAM ISLAND.

Cactornis pallida Scl. and Salv., possibly a new species ;

Phaéthon aethereus Linn., Aestrelata phaeopygia Salvin, Procel-

laria tethys Bonaparte.

BARRINGTON ISLAND.

Progne modesta (Néboux), and between Barrington and Inde-

fatigable, Creagrus furcatus (Néboux), Phaëthon aethereus Linn.

and Diomedea spec. :

INDEFATIGABLE ISLAND.

Ardea herodias Linn., Pelecanus californicus Ridgw., Oceanites

gracilis (Elliot).

NEAR SEYMOUR ISLANDS,

Forming the most northerly point of Indefatigable: Creagrus

furcatus (Néboux), Phaéthon aethereus Linn. and Diomedea spec.

JERVIS ISLAND.

Geospiza strenua-magnirostris Gould; G. fuliginosa Gould,

Cactornis pallida Scl. & Salvin, Buteo galapagoensis Gould, Pele-

6 This is not Gardner Island, which is a small rock east of Charles Island. This

fact shows at once that the Nesomimus found here is not N. trifaciatus (Gould)

as supposed by Ridgway, p. 478, p. 481, but N. macdonaldi Ridgw. The speci-

mens are not lost.

784 The American Naturalist. [September,

canus californicus Ridgw., Sula nebouxii Milne-Edw., Larus

fuliginosus Gould, Anous galapagoensis Sharpe, Nesopelia galapa-

goensis (Gould).

JAMES ISLAND.

Pelecanus californicus Ridgw., Creagrus furcatus (Néboux),

(Sullivan Bay, N.-E. end), Spheniscus mendiculus Sundevall.

TOWER ISLAND.

Haematopus galapagoensis Ridgw., Butoridesplumbeus(Sundev.),

Phaéthon aethereus Linn. Mr. Ridgway states p. (600) that

there were no specimens in the Baur-Adams collection; this

is not correct; six fine skins were secured.

BINDLOE ISLAND.

Camarhynchus bindloet Ridgw., which was based on our speci-

mens, is placed in Habel’s column. My list is: Nesomimus

bindloei Ridgw., Dendroica aureola (Gould), Certhidia spec., Geo-

- spiza strenna Gould, Geospiza fortis Gould, Geospiza parvula

Gould, Cactornis assimilis Gould, Camarhynchus bindloei Ridgw.,

Myiarchus magnirostris (Gray), Pyrocephalus spec., Asio galapa-

goensis (Gould), Buteo galapagoensis (Gould), Fregata aquila

(Linn.), Pelecanus californicus Ridgw., Sula nebouxii Milne-Edw.,

Sula brewsteri Goss, Nesopelia galapagoensis (Gould), Haematopus

galapagoensis Ridgw., Nyctanassa violacea (Linn.), Arenaria inter-

pres (Linn.), Larus fuliginosus Gould.

ABINGDON ISLAND.

Besides Nesomimus personatus Ridgway, the only bird men-

tioned as ascertained by us, the following species were col-

lected : Certhidia fusca Scl. and Salv., Geospiza fratercula Ridgw-,

G. parvula Gould, Cactornis abingdoni Scl. and Salv. ; and the

following birds were observed: Buteo galapagoensis (Gould),

Fregata aquila (Linn.), Pelecanus californicus Ridgw., Butorides

plumbeus (Sundevall), Creagrus furcatus (Néboux). z

One set of the Baur-Adams Collection is at Clark Univer-

sity, Worcester, Mass., but the bulk of the collection has gone

to the Zoological Museum at Tring.

1897.] The Advance of Biology in 1895. 785

THE ADVANCE OF BIOLOGY IN 1895.

By C. B. DAVENPORT.

The publication of L’ Année biologique for 1895, which is de-

scribed in another column, gives us an opportunity to make

use of the admirable summaries of the chapters to summarize

still further the advance of general biology in 1895.

Oytology—The group of unnucleated organisms was still

further diminished by Nadson’s discovery in Cyanophyces of

chromatin-like granules diffused throughout the cell, but ar-

ranging themselves during cell division in a way recalling

karyokinesis. The idea of the permanent nature of the cen-

trosome in the cell was strengthened by finding it in resting

cells of many plant and animal tissues. The identity of cen-

trosome and nucleolus in the infusorian Spirochona was in-

sisted upon by Balbiani.

In the study of cell-division we find the year characterized

by the variety of material employed—the attempt to build up

a broader comparative knowledge upon the basis of well-stud-

ied types. The nuclear origin of the spindle was strongly

maintained by Strasburger and others against the prevailing

view. New variations in the method of splitting of the chro-

mosomes were described. The mechanical (rather than the

magnetic or chemotatic) explanation of the intracellular

movements seemed to gain favor. The nature of the archo-

plasm, whether a part of the cytoplasm or different, was left in

debate. New intermediate conditions uniting direct and in-

direct nuclear division were described and the great variety in

the karyokenetic process was becoming generally recognized.

The sexual products and fecondation—The question of chro-

matic reduction before the introduction of new chromatin by

fertilization attracted many workers, and new data were ob-

tained on the number of chromosomes in different species, the

time at which reduction takes place and the details of the

method. New methods of formation of the tetrads by conju-

gation were described by Wilcox, Calkins and others.

786 The American Naturalist. [September,

In our knowledge of fecondation great advance was made,

largely by American workers. The derivation of the archo-

plasm of the fertilized egg exclusively from the sperm was

confirmed upon many organisms; but Wheeler found in My-

zostoma a case of the persistence of the archoplasm of the

ovum only. The independence of the nuclear matter derived

from the two germ cells united in fecondation was shown by

Riickert to be indicated in Cyclops by the bilobed condition of

the nucleus, even to the period of formation of the germ

layers.

Parthenogenesis—The accepted view that the unfertilized

hen’s egg may go through the early cleavage stages was shown

by Barfurth and by Lau, independently, to rest upon errors in

observation.

Ontogenesis-—The contributions to the preformation-epigene-

sis controversy were among the most important of the year,

pointing to acommon ground for both sides, one, consequently,

which probably lies near the truth. Driesch and Morgan,

opponents of Roux’s form of the theory of preformation, found

in the Ctenophore an organism in which, when one of the two

blastomeres is isolated, the other develops into a partial larva.

This indicated a degree of preformation, but not the degree

held by Roux ; for, first, more than half of the larva was pro-

duced from the 4 blastomere, and, secondly, when a piece was

cut out of the fertilized but unsegmented egg, there was still

a defect in the larva. The conclusion was: There is a rough

preformation in the cytoplasm, but not, in addition, a qualita-

tive divison of the nucleus as Roux supposes. On the other

hand, Zoja found that a whole medusa developed from even &

rz blastomere. We must recognize, consequently, a series 10

the capacity of developing a whole from a part, of which the

medusa occupies one extreme and the ctenophore the other.

Studies on amphibian eggs were made by Morgan, who foun

that half or whole embryos may be obtained from the } blas-

tomere, according as the contents of the egg preserve their nor-

mal positions or become intermingled by inverting the ¢8&

and by Herlitzka, who found that the isolated } blastomere of

Triton develops like the entire egg. All the facts seemed to

1897.] The Advance of Biology in 1895. 787

point to a combined action of epigenesis and evolution in de-

velopment.

The limiting size of the egg consistent with development

was studied by Morgan, who found that one-fiftieth of an un-

cleft echinoid egg would develop, and by Loeb, who believed

one-eighth of the total mass of the egg is necessary to the

formation of the pluteus, while, in the presence of nucleo-

plasm, the very smallest quantity of cytoplasm is capable of

growth and organization.

The theory that development is controlled by responses to

stimuli was extended by Herbst and by Davenport to particular

developmental processes. Roux brought forward his observa-

tions on the migration of isoiated blastomeres with reference

ot each other—cytotropism ; these migrations resembling those

of zoospores towards and from each other (Hartog, Sauvageau).

Advance was made in interpreting, on the ground of func-

tional activity, the details of the form of the skeleton (Hirsch)

and especially of the joints (Tornier).

Teratogenesis—Double monsters were produced in frogs by

inversion, which mixes up the contents, and in echinoids, by

immersing the egg in a salt solution and thereby producing

an “extraovat.” The effects of low temperature upon develop-

ment were studied in detail upon frogs and the chick; mag-

netism was shown again to have little or no effect upon de-

velopment, while electricity has (Windle); abnormal density

of solutions caused spina-bifida and other abnormalities in the

tadpole (Hertwig, Gurwitsch). The capacity for development

of enucleated egg-fragments into which a spermatozoan has

penetrated was reasserted, as a result of new studies, by Boveri.

Regeneration.—Progress was made along three lines: the dis-

tribution of the capacity for regeneration, the comparison of

regeneration and ontogeny, and the explanation of regenera-

tion. As for the distribution of the regeneration capacity, new

cases were described of the regeneration of internal organs

(spleen of rabbit, liver of mammals)—not subject to accidental

amputation. Failure to regenerate was reported of the thyroid

gland and nerve cells in vertebrates. Experiments revealed a

capacity for regeneration in the nervous system of earthworms,

788 The American Naturalist. [September,

the trunk segments of pantapods, and the body of ascidians.

It became clearer that regeneration may proceed along very

different lines from normal ontogeny— Wolff found the crystal-

line lens regenerating from the edge of the iris instead of the

outer skin. Girard found that well-fed and much exercised

tritons regenerate polydactylic feét.

Concerning the cause of regeneration, Nussbaum concluded

that both regeneration and heteromorphosis depend upon in-

different cells in the body; Loeb suggested that regeneration

depends upon special organogenic substances (Sachs); and

Rauber compared in much detail organic regeneration to that

of a crystal and believed a causal relation to lie behind the

similar phenomena.

Grafting—This year will be remembered as that in which

Born published the results of his marvelous experiments on

uniting bits of tadpoles belonging even to different families.

Important also are the experiments of Wetzel who obtained

from his grafts of hydra additional evidence for the polarity

theory.

Polymorphism, metamorphosis and alternation of generations.—

Advance was made (1) in the interpretation of many varieties

as polymorphic forms; (2) in the determination of polymor-

phic forms by external conditions, and (3) in the discovery of

a hidden alternation of generations in organisms. For the

first, Coutagne showed for molluscs and Standfuss for mosses —

that similar varieties, due to the same causes, recur so fre-

quently in different species that a few suffixes applied to the

different specific names will suffice to designate all varieties. -

As for the second, Dietel showed that, in the Uredineæ, the

succession of aecidio-, uredo- and teleutospores may be varied

at will; Wasmann got intermediate polymorphic forms in ants

by intermediate food conditions, and Bachmann modified, by

changing the character of the substratum, the form of the

sporangia of Thamnidium. As for the third, the idea of Stras-

burger (1894) was developed by others, so that the theory now

seems well formulated that, as in the vascular cryptogams and

the phanerogams, so also in all animals there is an alter-

nation of generations, the sexual generation including the

1897.] The Advance of Biology in 1895. 789

four cells arising from the o6goumni—a rudimentary genera-

tion corresponding to the rudimentary sexual generation of

angiosperms—and a non-sexual generation, which comprises

the soma, each of whose nuclei has double the number of

chromosomes found in the sexual generation.

Correlation—The development of the doctrine of internal

secretions was the most important contribution of this year to

the theory of correlation. Especially were the effects on other

_ organs of the removal of the sexual glands, the thyroid, the

superrenals, and the digestive glands carefully studied; and

the obliteration of these effects, by feeding extracts of the tis-

sues, observed. The specific action of one part of the organism

upon the other parts was being unravelled.

General morphology and physiology—This year witnessed the

memorable discussion between A. Sedgwick and Bourne as to

the morphological value of “ cells,” which served to emphasize

their physiological significance. To the subject of budding we

have the contributions of Chun, who showed that, in the me-

dusæ, both layers of the bud may be derived from one layer

only (the ectoderm); thus another blow was dealt to the germ

layer theory.

Especially memorable was the year for the appearance of

Verworn’s “Allgemeine Physiologie,” which, in one leap, gave

Scientific standing to that subject, and of LeDantec’s “La

matiére vivante,” much less extensive, but in the ground it

covers, more profound ; both works are dominated by the idea

of the chemical nature of vital phenomena. The numerous

papers on general physiology related to various subjects, es-

pecially general cell-physiology, muscle contraction, phagocy-

tosis, effect of external agents on organisms, geotropism

(Czapek), heliotropism, thermotropism (Mendelssohn), nutri-

tion, cell respiration (Loeb and Hardesty), immunity, toxines

and ferments.

Heredity —The year saw much discussion of the inheritance

of acquired characters and the theory of heredity, but little

Progress. The experiments of Charrin and Gley afforded

another example of transmission (but rare and incomplete) to

the first generation of the effects of vaccination. Hyatt pub-

790 The American Naturalist. [September,

lished in full his paleentological evidence that an impression

in the shell of fossil Ammonites, due to crowding of coils, per-

sists in (abnormally) uncoiled species. A masterly discussion

of the whole question of inheritance of acquired characters

appeared this year in Romanes’ “ Post-Darwinian Questions.”

Variation —If little new was added to our knowledge of

heredity, such was by no means the case with variation. New

facts were acquired, new methods of study employed, new ex-

perimental investigations made to determine its cause.

Osborn classified variations as ontogenetic (and either gona-

genic, gamogenic, embryonic or somatogenic) and phylogen-

etic. Scott distinguished between individual variation (of on-

togenetic value only) and mutation (of phylogenetic value).

Mehnert showed that variation occurs as abundantly in em-

bryos as in adults. Eigenmann showed that in certain fishes

the variants above the mode are more abundant than those

below, and that individual variation is greatest where the

number of species is greatest. The extraordinary variation of

meduse was investigated by Browne.

The development of the mathematical study of evolution,

for which this decade will ever be famous, took a great stride

in the publication of Pearson’s “Skew Variation,” by whic

methods of measuring unsymmetrical variation curves, their

variability and their skewness were given. Since most bio-

logical curves are skew curves, this method greatly extends

Galton’s, which was applicable only to symmetrical curves-

DeVries studied quantitatively a case of dimorphism in plants,

and Weldon investigated selection in crabs.

Among the studies on the causes of variation may be men-

tioned the experiments of Vernon on echinoderm larv®; of

Weismann, Standfuss, Ris and, especially, Fischer (similar

effect on heat and cold), upon lepidoptera; of Bonnier on

plants subjected to electric light (producing excess of chloro-

phyll and scragged form); and of Goebel, who found that

when cacti with foliaceous stems were grown in the dark the

stems became rounded. Davenport and Castle found that

tadpoles have the capacity for self-adaptation to heat.

1897.] The Advance of Biology in 1895. 791

As for variation due to internal causes, Meyer determined

that despite its fewer chromosomes, Ascaris wnivaleus is as var-

iable as A. bivalens, which is opposed to Weismann’s theory.

Brooks pointed out apropos of amphimixia that the number of

ancestors of an individual does not roll up according to the

formula 2n (in which the power » represents the number of

generations) because of constant intercrossing of relatives.

Origin of species—A trend towards facts is clearly discern-

able in the work of the year on this subject. Natural selection

was tested by the statistical method (Weldon). Galton called

for facts concerning sports and their pedigree, a call which

should not be unheeded by American naturalists. One such

case, excellently traced, was given in 1895 by Tracy in the

American Natrurauist. Aerial discussions still went on, how-

ever. Wallace still thought that specific differences arise by

the summation of slight variations, and Henslow still main-

tained the view that they arise from considerable self-adaptive

changes.

Mental functions.—The differentiation of comparative physio-

logical psychology from “metaphysics” made good progress

during 1895. Lloyd Morgan did much to give to instinct a

satisfactory biological definition. Among special works on

the senses of animals may be mentioned the Peckhams’ obser-

vations, showing that spiders recognize each other by sight,

and Riley’s experiments with moths, in which a marked male

found a female a mile anda half away. Hodge and Aikins

gave the records of the activities of a single Vorticella observed

during several consecutive hours.

Studies in the ontogenesis of mental functions were made by

Mills on the dog, and he and Lui agreed that there is a close

parallel between the appearance of certain functions and the

visible development of corresponding cortical centres. Bald-

Win had followed carefully the mental development of a child

and laid great stress upon the rôle of imitation in the process.

The development of memory, especially visual memory, and

the formation of abstract concepts were also studied.

_ General theories.—This year was productive of no new guid-

ing theories. It was still reasserted that it is vain to seek

792 The American Naturalist. [September,

further than for a teleological explanation of biological phe-

nomena. Weismannism was much attacked and much mended.

Cope issued several articles foreshadowing his now well-known

book. Whitman showed from the history of the discussion,

epigenesis vs. evolution, how the grounds of debate have com-

pletely changed.

In glancing over the work of the year, we see that the great

advances were made in cytology in the broad sense, in the in-

terpretation of the causes of the early ontogenetic changes, in

the general physiology of organisms, in the experimental de-

termination of form and in the quantitative study of variation.

All of these are subjects little considered a decade or two ago.

It is noticeable also that, although general biology has long

been regarded as a free field for all speculators, the greatest

activity among workers and the richest results are found

when the students of fact are busy. This is the most hopeful

sign for the future.

THE SWAMPS OF OSWEGO COUNTY, N. Y., AND

THEIR FLORA.

By W. W. Row tes,

CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y.

(Concluded from page 699.)

THE LAKES.

In the region of our ty pical swamps these lakes are frequently

of considerable depth. Usually, however, they are comparat

tively shallow. Stories are told here, as elsewhere, rs bot-

tomless lakes” where a line, no matter how long, would not

reach the bottom. The fine mud in the bottom was, in all prob-

ability, the cause of the deception. At the bottom of the lake

the mud is as mobile as water, and it is difficult to determine

where fluid ends and solid begins, and hence the difficulty »

sounding. There are at least three lakes in this region call s

Mud Lake, a fact which testifies to their character. One®

Mud Lake in Oswego town already described, another 18 10

Scriba in the same county two or three miles south of the

1897.] The Swamps of Oswego County, N. Y. 793

Lily Marsh, and the third is near Baldwinsville in Onondaga

County.

The mud of the swamps gives a decided character to the

streams of the region. Whether a stream rises in the lake or

flows through it or any other part of the swamp, the water is

colored by the mud a dark yellow or wine color. This color

of the water of many of the streams led to the application of

appropriate names, such as Wine Creek, Mud Creek and Black

Creek,

THE LAKE FLORA.

While the flora of the lakes present many interesting fea-

tures, the plants are much less unique than those of the sur-

rounding moor. Aquatic plants have long been noted for

their wide distribution. Darwin has pointed out that this de-

pends upon the distribution of their seed by birds. While we

are ready to accept this as one of the means by which the

plants disseminate themselves, we must also assert that the

ultimate causes of this is the similarity of conditions presented

- by aquatic conditions generally. The conditions are very

much the same in our lakes as in other similar bodies of

water, such as slow flowing streams and lakes with hard shores.

Aquatic floras are, however, quite distinct from terrestrial ones

of the same region. The moors surrounding our lake come

very near affording aquatic conditions. «Nevertheless the

shore line between lake and moor is a pretty definite one. The

following are species representative of the lake flora:

The Naiadacex afford a characteristic group belonging here.

None of them find congenial conditions outside the bounds of

the lake, and most of them are confined to water several feet

deep. Potamogeton amplifolius, P. lonchites and P. heterophyllus

are in the latter class, while Naias flexilis and P. foliosus ap-

proach nearer the shores.

Vallisneria spiralis is a plant which does not appear very

near the shores.

Eleocharis mutata must be considered, at least in this region,

a lake plant, as at Lake Neahtahwantah and Paddy Lake, our

only stations for it, it grows only in water. It seems essential,

however, that its roots only should be submerged ; the culms

794 The American Naturalist. | September,

always appear above water, and consequently it occurs only

upon rather shallow shores.

The Lemnacez are represented in the lakes by Lemna tri-

sulca, L. minor and Spirodela polyrhiza, none of which make any

attempt to grow in the bog.

Eriocaulon septangulare is one of the few plants that are com-

mon to the lake and the moor, in fact, it is about the only one.

Whether it grows upon sand in a few inches of water, or upon

the soft mud in the newest portions of the moor, it seems

equally at home. I have found it growing in four lakes in the

county, but never saw it in a swamp where there was no lake.

Paine says (Cat. of Plants of Oneida Co.), of the distribution of

this plant, “ Lakes and ponds of the north woods, throughout

and common.” I conclude, therefore, that the plant is, in this

region, a lake plant.

Heteranthera dubia is a deep water plant, and grows in these

lakes as well as in slow flowing streams.

The whole order Nymphæaceæ is a water-loving group. With

rare exceptions it is confined to the shallower portions of the

lake. The exceptions are cases where the strong rootstock of

Nymphxa and Castalia have persisted after the moor has ad-

vanced into the lake beyond them and sends up, for a few

years, its leaves and flowers through the thin turf. The con-

trast between the -black mud of the moor and the pure white

flowers of Castalia is very striking. Brasenia purpurea, Cas-

talia odorata, Nymphæa advena are the representative plants.

The depth of water in which these plants grow ranges from

one to six feet, only rarely going outside these limits.

Myriophyllum spicatum is a well-known aquatic finding @

place here.

The Lentibulariacee is represented by two species in the

lakes and several others in the moor. None of its species are

common to both lake and moor. Utricularia vulgaris and U.

minor are the lake plants. While occurring in other places,

they thrive particularly well in the muddy lakes surrounded

by moors,

And, finally, for the order Compositz, we have, in our lakes,

a single representative in Bidens beckii. :

1897.] The Swamps of Oswego County, N. Y. 795

THE FLORA OF THE MOOR.

There is no group of plants more interesting from the point

of view of their geographical distribution than the one which

constitutes the moor flora. Allusion has already been made

to the probable post-glacial history of the flora; and attention

has also been called to its relation to the Alpine flora of New

York State. The general fact that the two floras approach

each other toward the north until we find them closely asso-

ciated in Arctic regions, is pretty conclusive evidence of closer

association in post-glacial times. But their limited distribu-

tion and their relation to our Alpine flora is no more interest-

ing than their distribution in the moor itself. Some of the

plants are restricted to the newer portions of the bog; others

are only found in the older portions. Those of the newer por-

tion are, in general, the invading plants; those of the older

portion sometimes persist in the wooded belt. In the older

portions of the bogs there sometimes appear upland plants. A

general survey of the species may here be made.

The Juncaginacee are all marsh plants. In our region they

are, so far as I know, mainly confined to the newer portion of

the sphagnous moors. Triglochin maritima occurs at Mud

Lake, Oswego town, “ Paradise,” So. Mexico, Granny’s Orchard,

Palermo, and other places. According to the Manual (Gray’s)

it occurs at the seashore and in saline places across the Conti-

nent. Mud Lake is by no means a saline place. T. palustris

has not been seen, so far as I know, in Oswego County, but oc-

curs at Junius, Seneca County, in the same basin, also upon

the “ boggy borders of Onondaga Lake; at Salina, and north-

ward beyond Liverpool” (Paine, l. c., p. 81). Scheuchzeria oc-

curs in the newer portions of all our sphagnous moors.

There are but few grasses: Phragmites, Muhlenbergia racemosa,

Panicularia canadensis and Calamagrostis canadensis are fre-

quently found in the moors, but are not confined to them.

On the other hand the Cyperaceæ is one of the best repre-

sented orders. Here, and here almost exclusively, the species

of woolgrass (Eriophorum) grow. Oneof the most effective

bog-making plants in this region is Carex filiformis, the root-

stocks of which form a very strong warp into which other

796 The American Naturalist. [September,

plants are woven. It presses up close to the margin of the

lake, and affords a pretty sure indication as to whether it is

safe to venture upon the place or not. Other characteristic

carices are C. pauciflora, C. teretiuscula, C. magellanica, C. limosa,

C. exilis and C. redowskyana. Other species of Carex, as well as

some species belonging to other genera in this order, are often

found in the bog.

Peltandra virginica is in the moors, but occurs as well along

all our streams. Calla, while perhaps not exclusively a moor

plant, occurs here more frequently than anywhere else.

But a single species of the Liliaceæ is found, viz.: Vagnera

trifolia.

In distinct contrast we find this the chosen home of our

rarest orchids. The representative species are: Habenaria ble-

phariglottis, H. clavellata, H. dilatata, H. lewcophæa, Cypripedium

reginæ, Pogonia ophioglossoides, P. verticillata, Arethusa bulbosa,

Gyrostaichy romanzoffiana, Listera australis and Limodorum tuber-

osum.

Two willows, Salix myrtilloides and S. candida, are exclusively

moor plants in this region.

Sarracenia purpurea is confined to the moors, and is one of the

most unique in appearance and habits of moor plants. |

Drosera intermedia occurs only in the newest portions of

the moor, while U. rotundifolia is more often in the drier por-

tions, sometimes even growing upon rotten logs at the margi-

Three of the Rosacex are conspicuous moor plants. Comarum

palustre is usually upon the water’s edge, and is a pretty effect-

ive moor builder. The other species are Geum rivale and

Sanguisorba canadensis, both of which are in the more mature

portions. +

Decodon verticillatus occurs in considerable abundance 1

most of the lake-containing swamps, but, as is well-known, 18

not confined to them. It is also an important moor builder.

Two species of Epilobium are confined to the moors— E.

lineare and E. strictum.

Proserpinaca palustris must also be included here. ce

The Ericacee is one of the three most conspicuous orders m

the moors. The other two are the sedges and the orchids. — S

1897.] The Swamps of Oswego County, N. Y. 797

The species here which are exclusively moor plants are : Ledum

Groenlandicum, Kalmia glauca, Andromeda polifolia, Chame-

daphne calyculata, Chiogenes hispidula, Schollera oxycoccus and S.

macrocarpa. Many others, especially species of Vaccinium,

live in the moor, but are not confined to them.

Menyanthes trifoliata is a moor plant, and is not uncommon

in our region.

The Lentibuliariacee contribute to this group Utricularia cor-

nuta, U. gibba, U. intermedia and U. resupinata, all of which are

rare plants and grow only in the newer portions.

In the order Composite, but three species can lay claim to

being exclusively moor plants. These are Solidago ohioensis,

S. uliginosa and Aster junceus.

THE FLORA OF THE WOODED BELT.

The third zone of the whole swamp is still to be considered.

To attempt to enumerate the species as has been done in the

case of the bog and the lake would contribute little to our

picture of the swamp as a whole. The species are, for the

most part, the same as may be found upon the surrounding

uplands, especially in low places. In fact, we may say that

just as the moor is steadily invading the lake, so the wooded

belt is invading the moor, and there is by no means the sharp

limitation to the outer edge of the wooded belt that there is to

the outer edge of the moor or of the lake. It is always a tree-

covered tract in the natural state, the size of the trees increas-

ing as one passes from the edge of the moor to the hard shore.

. The trees which appear most frequently are Ulmus americana,

Acer saccharinum, Fraxinus nigra, Pinus strobus, Thuya occiden-

talis, Larix laricina, Picea mariana and Betula lenta. Of these

the predominating species are the first three or four. Shrubs

are more abundant in the more open portions near the moor.

Lindera Benzoin, Ilex verticillata, Ilictoides mucronata and several

species of Vaccinium are the most prominent. The herbaceous

the wooded belt is nota very rich one. Caltha often covers flora

of the ground. The most prominent plants are the Osmundas,

which grow in rank profusion. Smilax hispidia, Arisema tri-

phyllum, Dalibarda repens, Trientalis americana, Medeola vir-

798 The American Naturalist. (September,

giniana and many others also grow here. As might be ex-

pected, it is a flora made up of species which are by no means

confined to this particular place. Some of them flourish

equally well upon the surrounding uplands; a few grow in

the open moor; many grow in low grounds that do not have

the vegetable accumulations characteristic of these swamps.

THE DISAPPEARANCE OF SPECIES WITH THE MATURING OF THE

BOG.

The rareness of some of the bog plants attest the gradual

disappearance of species from these places. Specimens of

Listera australis were found by Father Wibbe at the Lily Marsh

in New Haven in 1877, where he reported it as growing abund-

antly.” The writer has visited the same place several times

? Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, VI, 192.

since 1888, and has failed to find it again. It is safe to say

that it is not abundant there now. A few plants were found

by the writer in “Granny’s Orchard,” in Palermo, in 1895.

Here continued and careful search resulted in the finding of

but a few plants. Dr. W. M. Beauchamp has found the same

species growing at Mud Lake near Baldwinsville, Onondaga

County. Here, too, only a few specimens were found. These

are, so far as known, the only stations for this species north of

New Jersey. It is significant that a considerable number of

species, not only those that affect bogs, but some Upland ones,

have the same general range as Listera australis. The most

conspicuous of these are: Rhexia virginica, Nyssa aquatica, Erio-

caulon septangulare, Triglochin maritima, Xyris montana, Scheu-

chzeria palustris and several of the Utricularias. It seems a rea-

sonable inference that formerly there existed in these regions

conditions much more congenial to these plants; that then

they were more abundant and continuous in their range than

now, and that they have settled in the limited tracts which

afford them a congenial home. The conditions which conduce

to their persistency are no doubt complex. The main ones,

however, seem to be a constant and abundant humidity in the

air and abundant moisture in the soil, and, at the same time,

a relatively even temperature throughout the year. Humidity

1897.] The Swamps of Oswego County, N. Y. 799

in the air is maintained by the extensive surface of the sphag-

nous moss from which it steadily evaporates great quantities of

water. Many plants, especially the delicate orchids, are found

only in the moss. The humidity of the air immediately at the

surface of the moss at once suggests the conditions in the trop-

ics where the epiphytic orchids thrive.

COMMERCIAL VALUE.OF THE BOGS.

The capacity of the moss to hold moisture and the evenness

and freedom with which it gives it up, has led to its extenstve

use in packing the roots of plants during shipment. In the

Lily Marsh and Mud Lake in Oswego township, the moss has

been removed from a large partof the moors. The effect upon

the bog itself is anything but wholesome. By this treatment

a clean, mossy moor is turned into a stinking, sour, unsightly

and treacherous mud-hole. Nowhere did I ever see ‘such vio-

lence done to nature as where the moss is removed from a

moor. The traditional woodman’s axe does not compare; a

burnt forest soon recovers itself to a certain extent; but a bog

from which the moss has been taken reclothes itself very

slowly, and will probably never become a thick turf as origin-

ally. Certainly none of the rarer plants will endure such

treatment.

CONCLUSIONS.

1. Swamps form one of the striking and important topo-

graphical features of Oswego County.

2. These may consist of a lake, a moor and a wooded belt

but in many the lake has been converted into a moor, and in

others both lake and moor have passed over into wooded tracts.

3. The surface of the county was fluted by the ice; this de-

termines the outline of all the swamps.

4. The finely pulverized remains of plants (mud) are stirred

up with every wind, so that material is constantly shifted from

the muddy shores to deeper water.

5. The agitation of the water by the wind has two import-

ant influences on the shore: its violence prevents sphagnum

from growing at the water’s edge; Cassandra, sedges and De-

codon, with others, form a barrier at the edge; second, it pre-

800 The American Naturalist. _ [September,

vents plants from gaining a foot-hold on the eastern shores

where the lakes are of considerable size.

6. The flora of the moor has among its species some of the

rarest plants of the region. |

7. A considerable number of species otherwise confined to

the Atlantic coast occur here. It does not follow, as Paine as-

serts (l. c., p. 92), that a maritime bay occupied this depression.

. The distribution of moor-loving plants suggests that once

conditions of humidity and temperature enabled them to grow

very much more abundantly than now.

9. The commercial value of the moss bids fair to devastate

the moors, and their recovery will, of necessity, be very slow.

EDITOR’S TABLE.

With the present number the Amerrcan NAruRALIsT comes into

the possession of new proprietors and under the charge of new editors.

We do not propose to make promises of improvement; but shall leave

the journal to speak for itself upon that score. We do think it due to

our readers, however, to state our convictions as to the position the

Natura ist should occupy in the future. |

As we see it, there are, under existing conditions in science, only

three kinds of scientific serials that can hope to prosper. There is, on

the one extreme, the technical journal devoted to a single strictly defined

subject and intended as a repertory of the results of research. At the

other extreme is the popular scientific journal which seeks to interest

and instruct those who are without specific scientific training. Lastly,

between these extremes, comes the general scientific journal which holds

a distinct position; it is intended for the students and workers in

science—a constituency which has already attained considerable size

in this country and is rapidly growing. The Naruraist aims at

being such a journal with such a constituency.

The objection may be made, however, that this constituency is an ill

defined one and is without common needs. There are two answers tO

this objection; the á priori answer and that of experience. The á

priori answer is that, despite the fact that science is becoming more

differentiated, its separate disciplines are expanding and coming to

1897.] Editor’s Table. 801

overlap. Especially is this true of the natural sciences. The fusion of

the biological sciences is wellnigh complete ; and they, in turn, grade

into geology through geographical distribution and physical geography

on the one hand, and through paleontology on the other. All of the

natural sciences, moreover, must seek for their bases within the realms

of chemistry and physics. Indeed in the development of the new fields

of biological geology, chemical geology, bio-chemistry, and bio-physics

we can foresee the clearer and more general recognition of the solidarity

of the sciences.

The answer of experience is not less decisive. No one can doubt

that journals of that classin which Nature, Science, La revue scientifique,

and Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschau are notable examples, meet a

perfectly well defined need, and their prosperity gives us hope for suc-

cess. We accept the answers á priori and 4 posteriori and fear no lack

of a constituency.

One other point. Every scientific man, as such, may well read two

general scientific journals, the weekly scientific newspaper and the

monthly review of scientific progress. We recognize that the first of

these is already admirably supplied in this country ; we believe that

THE American Natura.ist should furnish the second.

Certain matters of detail are determined by the proposed position of

the Narurauisr. We cannot publish very technical works but shall

welcome such results of research upon the broader problems of the

sciences as may be expected to interest a large share of our readers.

For example, it would be inconsistent with our plan to publish a min-

ute description of some anatomical feature or a mere list of the species

found in some region; unless, in the first case, the subject should ap-

pear to have broad morphological or physiological bearings, or, in the

second case, owing to the interesting character of the types or some

peculiarity of their distribution, the list should be shown to have

exceptional value. On the other hand, papers intended for beginners,

such as, “Some birds of the garden,” “Some common weeds,” are not

appropriate for this journal. What we desire is scientific papers writ-

ten by scientific persons and of interest to scientific workers in more

than one field. In addition to results of research, we shall look for

summaries of progress in natural science, discussion of scientific ques-

tions of the day, and reviews of books and the more important papers.

Remembering our title, while not forgetting that science is cosmoplitan,

we shall seek especially the advancement of natural science in America.

Such, then, is our programme. To carry it out we invite the coöpera-

tion of every American naturalist.

802 The American Naturalist. [September,

It was a very natural thing that Delage, after going over the ground

that he did in the preparation of his great work on ‘“‘ Les grands prob-

lèmes de la biologie générale ” should see the need of frequently gather-

ing together and classifying the widely scattered data belonging to this

field ; and thus came into existence the new annual, L’ Année Biologique,

whose first number lies before us.

Its scope is very broad. There are twenty general subjects treated

in twenty chapters. These subjects are: 1, the cell; 2, the sexual

products and fecondation; 3, parthenogenesis; 4, asexual reproduc-

tion! 5, ontogenesis; 6, teratogenesis; 7, regeneration; 8, grafting ; 9,

sex and secondary sexual characters ; 10, polymorphism, metamorphosis,

and alternation of generations; 11, latent characters; 12, correlation;

13, death, immortality, and the germ-plasm; 14, general morphology

and physiology ; 15, heredity; 16, variation ; 17, the origin of species,

phylogeny; 18, the geographic distribution of species; 19, mental

functions ; 20, general theories—generalities.

The organization of the journal is as follows: Professor Delage is

the director of the serial, Dr. Georges Poirault is secretary of the

“Redaction,” and there is a committee of fifty-three compilers who

review papers. - This committee is an international one, consisting of

forty-four Frenchmen, three Belgians, three Englishmen, one Russian,

one Swiss, and one American. In addition to reviews of individual

papers, some of these compilers have furnished summaries of progress

in a subject. With the reviews of any chapter in their hands, the

director and secretary have made a summary, exhibiting in a few pages

the salient points of progress made during the year in the subject under

consideration, This summary precedes the reviews in each chapter, 80

that the reader may first quickly read the accounts of progress in the

different subjects and then look up the more detailed reviews of any

particular papers. Finally, there is a “Table analytique” in which

are references to about 2500 subjects, groups, and authors; e. g-

tropisme, Helix, Helmholtz, Altogether much good judgment has

been exercised in the arrangement of the contents of the annual and in

making cross references so that the work shall be most serviceable to

the student.

As for the reviews themselves, they are in general reviews and not

abstracts, in which respect they quite throw in the shade the con

tents of the usual “ Berichte.” Most of them are, of course, less thet

a page long but important works command much more space. cme

the review of Roux’s “ Gesammelte Abhandlungen ” occupies 13 pages?

of Tornier’s “ Entstehung der Gelenkformen” 73 pages: of Verworn'’s

1897,] Editor’s Table. 803

“ Allgemeine Physiologie” 10 pages ; of Lloyd Morgan’s “ Definitions

of Instinct” 73 pages (complete translation); of Baldwin’s “Mental

Development” 8 pages; of Coutagne’s‘‘ Polymorphisme des Mollus-

ques” (by the author) 6 pages. Many of the reviews are accompanied

by valuable critical comments and some of them are illustrated by

simple figures.

The summaries of progress and comprehensive reviews are very valu-

able. Some of these are: Influence of stock on graft, by Daniel; Ex-

perimental data upon functional correlation in animals, by Gley; On

polyzoism and on the integrating organologic unity in Vertebrates, by

Durrand; The defences of the organism in the presence of virus (38

pages), by Charrin; The soluable ferments, by Bourquelot ; Compara-

tive study of microbic toxines and of venin, by Phisalix ; The modern

conception of the structure of the nervous system (25 pages, 7 figures)

by Mlle. Szezawinska ; Modern psychology and its recent progress (28

pages), by Binet; Note on the theory of plasomes, by Wiesner, with

response by Delage; On the phenomena of reproduction, by Hartog.

These summaries touch a large proportion of the biological subjects

whose advance characterized the year 1895.

Without going at all into the subject matter of this number, which

will be considered elsewhere, this much may be said: The appearance

of L’ Année biologique with its classification, analysis, and synthesis of a

vast array of facts, many of which find elsewhere no reception, is doing

an important work in bringing general biology into recognition as a

science codrdinate with, although overlapping, morphology and

physiology.

There is an important omission, it seems to us, in the list of over 500

periodicals consulted by the editors of L’Année Biologique. This

omission is of a class of journals which are on the borderline of the

scientific but yet contain important biological data. To this class be-

long the journals devoted to agriculture, horticulture, breeding veteri-

nary medicine, surgery and medicine. From such journals Darwin

obtained many of his most important facts. We open his “ Variation

of Animals and Plants” at random and quote some of his references;

Gardiner’s Chronical, Encyclopedia of Rural Sports, Horticultural

Transactions, Journal of Horticulture, Journal of the Roy. Horticult.

Soc., British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review, Jour. of Agricult.

of Highland Soc., Landwirthschaft. Wochenblatt, Jour. del’ Acad. Hort.

de Gand. Interspersed with such as these there are, of course, refer-

ences to the more scientific journals. There is no question, however,

. 8. Co

sioner for the year ending June 30, 1895. Washington, 1896.

804 The American Naturadist. [September,

but that now, as in Darwin’s time, many most valuable data are to be

gleaned from such serials as are enumerated above. It would be well

if the new annual could undertake this work also.

We welcome the news that America is at last to have a representa-

tive Journal of Physiology ; and it is especially gratifying that it is

~ to embrace all fields of physiology, including bio-chemistry, physiolog-

ical morphology and the physiology of invertebrates. The Journal

will be edited by a representative Committee of the American Physio-

logical Society, and will be under the immediate charge of Dr. W. T,

Porter of the Harvard Medical School. The price has been set at five

dollars per volume of about five hundred pages. The editors modestly

suggest that not more than one volume a year will be necessary; we,

however, confidently expect that in a few years the American Journal

of Physiology will be rolling up as many volumes a year as Pfliiger’s

Archiv does. To enable it to do this, however, it will need the subscrip-

tions of all who are interested in its success. The subscriptions may be

sent to Dr. Porter.

Prof. Baur’s Observations on the Origin of the Galapagos Islands,

begun in the August number, will continue in October.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Tarr’s Elementary Geology.'—A small octavo volume intended

by the author as a text-book for use in secondary schools. The main

facts of structural and dynamic geology are given in a graphic, concisé

way that will best impress a young student. Stratigraphic geology 18

somewhat curtailed in treatment in accordance with the author’s views

as to the need of the average high school student. We notice in the

time-scale that Pleistocene is adopted instead of the older Quaternary

and Eocene and Neocene used in place of Tertiary.

The illustrations are numerous, many of them being original. They

comprise 25 page plates and 485 reproductions from photographs and

diagrams in the text.

Mr. Tarr is to be congratulated upon having chosen judiciously 3

a mass of material the facts necessary to a good foundation for further

study of the history of the earth.

U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries.’—The report of

oc Elementary Geology. By R. S. Tarr. New York, 1897. 8vo, MacMillan &

USC mmission of Fish and Fisheries, Pt. XXI. Report of the Commis

from

1897] Petrography. 805

the Commissioner for the year ending June, 1895, comprises reports on

the propagation and distribution of food fishes, by W. C. DeRavenal ;

on food fishes and fishing grounds, by Richard Rathbun; and on the

statistics and methods of the fisheries, by H. M. Smith. In addition

there are several papers based on the work of the Commission. These

comprise the investigations of the steamer Albatross by Lieut. Com. F.

J. Drake; Biscayne Bay as a Marine Hatching and Experiment Sta-

tion, by H. M. Smith; Transplanting of Eastern Oysters to Willapa

Bay, Washington, by C. H. Townsend; Description of a New Shad

from Alabama, by B. W. Evermann ; and a Check-List of the Fishes

and Fossil-like Vertebrates of North and Middle America, by D.S.

Jordan and B. W. Evermann.

These various papers demonstrate the importance of the work carried

on by the Commission, both from an economic and scientific stand-

point. From year to year this organization accumulates and records

an immense amount of information that stands for all time as reliable

data.

Hand-book of British Birds.*—This book comprises an enum-

eration of every species of birds on the British list, with descriptions

of nearly all the species named. Records of the rarer forms have been

: carefully collected, and a tolerably complete life-history of the common

species isgiven. In the nomenclature the author adopts the American

system of trinominals, as he sees no other way of allowing a name to a

recognized race without giving it the rank of a species. In all, Mr.

Swann recognizes 381 species which are referred to 208 genera. The

volume constitutes a handy reference book for the student afield.

A List of Periodicals.—Nearly twenty years ago a small pam-

phlet was published containing a list of scientific periodicals, transac-

tions of learned societies, etc. accessible in the libraries in the vicinity

of Boston. The list became antiquated and has long been out of print.

- In the present year the Boston Public Library has taken up the same

idea and the result is a list of periodicals, etc.,* which must be of the

greatest value to students in any line as it is a catalogue of the largest

collection of serial publications accessible in any locality in America.

Unlike its modest predecessor, it is not limited to science but embraces

the periodicals of all kinds contained in thirty-six libraries in Boston,

3 A Concise Handbook of British Birds.. By H. Kirke Swann. London, 1896.

* A list of periodicals, newspapers, transactions, and other serial publications

currently received in the principal libraries of Boston and vicinity. Boston:

The Trustees of the Public Library, 1897, pp. 143.

806 The American Naturalist. [September

Cambridge, Somerville and Jamaica Plain. The titles are given and

with each title are index letters indicating in which library the period-

ical may be found. Numerous cross references add to the value of the

list, which, while intended for students in the neighborhood of Boston,

will prove of great value to investigators in any locality.

In this connection we might call attention to the fact that the Boston

Society of Natural History published,’ a few years ago a list ot serial

publications currently received in its library and that it has now issued

a supplement to this list as well as a list of discontinued serial publica-

tions in its library® of about four hundred titles.

General Notes.

PETROGRAPHY?

Igneous Rocks of Trans-Pecos, Texas.—The igneous rocks

intrusive in the sedimentary series of Trans-Pecos, Texas, according to

Osaun’ comprise plutonic, dyke and effusive types belonging toa series

of rocks rich in soda. They are characterized by the possession of al-

kaline pyroxenes and amphiboles (aegirine, aegirine-augite and arfved-

sonite), of microperthitic intergrowths of orthoclase and albite, and of

riebeckite, lavenite and a mineral resembling ainigmatite. In the

Apache Mountains the plutonic rocks are accompanied by dykes of

paisanite, tinguaite and bostonite. The intrusive phases of this series

are eleolite-syenites, normal and porphyritic varieties, aegirine-syenites

and normal syenites. The dyke rocks identified are tinguaite, boston-

ite, paisanite, (see analysis I, below), and the effusives are rhyolites and

phonolites. Several of these rocks have been noticed in the reports of

the Texas Geological Survey. The paisanite is regarded as & quartz

bearing member of the gromdite-tinguaite series as found in the neigh-

borhood of Christiana. The Texan phonolite is of such a peculiar typé

that it has been designated as apachite. It occurs in two laccolites 20° —

in sheet form. The rock is composed of phenocrysts of sanidine and

nepheline, the latter often surrounded by rims of amphiboloids 10 &

> Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. Vol. XXVI, 1894

ê Proceedings, vol. XX VIII, 1897. ;

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

? Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., XV, p. 394.

3 Cf. AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1894, p. 514.

1897.] Petrography. 807

groundmass consisting of diopside-malacolite, augite, aegirin-augite and

aegirine, amphiboles, related to arvfedsonite and katoforite, ainigma-

tite, several generations of feldspar and a small quantity of glass.

Apachite differs from normal phonolite in the great abundance of

ainigmite and the members of the hornblende group, and in the

younger age of the latter with respect to the pyroxene. It contains

also great quantities of microperthitic feldspars.

An analysis of the rhyolite of Fort Davis is given under II.

SiOz Al; 203 Fe.03 FeO M gO CaO NaO K H0 TiO P.O; Total

F: 73.85 14.38 1.96 .34 «6.09 26 4.33 100.37

SE: 71.10 1139 5.33 1.54 .08 3.95 a 44 .57 = 05 a = 100. 82

Italian Petrographical Studies.—In a recent paper, Washing-

ton‘ summarizes the results of his work on the Bolsena-Vesuvius vol-

canics, and presents some views on the classification of leucite rocks

and of those intermediate in composition between trachytes and basalts.

In accordance with the nature of their feldspathic constituent, he

would divide trachyte-basalts into a trachyte series, embracing those

rocks containing only an alkali-feldspar, a trachy-andesite series, in-

cluding those containing an alkali-feldspar and an acid plagioclase, a

trachy-dolerite series, composed largely of an alkali feldspar and a

basic plagioclase, an andesite series—acid plagioclase (andesine-oligo-

clase) rock, and a basalt series, a basic plagioclase series. Among the

trachy-andesites the author would place the Iceland rhyolites, vulca-

nite, dornite, the Euganean and the basic auvergne trachytes, an

among the trachy-dolerite series the toscanites, the vulsinites and the

Ciminites described by himself, and the banakites, shoshonites and ab-

sarokites of the western United States. The leucite rocks met with in

the Italian voleanoes are thought to be best classified as leucitites,

leucite-basalts, leucite-basanites, leucite-tephrites, leucite-trachytes and

leucite-phonolites. Upon comparing their analyses the silica contents

of these rocks are discovered to cluster around 49 per cent and 56 per

cent, a fact which is regarded as not due to accident. The original

magma, of which the Italian volcanoes are the differentiated products,

is thought to have had a composition approximating the following :

Si0,—57-58 ; Al,O,=17-18; FeO (Fe,0,)=6-7 ; MgO=2-3 ; CaO

=5-6.5 ; Na,O=2.95 ; K,O=7-8 ; H,O=1-1.5 per cent.

Rock Differentiation.—Iddings’ devotes a few pages to his theory

of rock differentiation as applied to the Electric Peak volcanics, reply-

*Jour. of Geology, Vol. V, p. 349

ë Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol: LU, 1896, p. 606.

808 The American Naturalist. [September

ing to criticisms recently made by Brögger. This author declares that

the order of primary differentiation can be learned only from a study

of large bodies of plutonic rocks, and that conclusions with respect to

this subject based on the study of extensive masses are not reliable.

He further states that the order of succession in eruptions is from basic

to acid magmas, often ending with basic ones, and not from interme-

diate magmas to greater and greater extremes. After describing at

some length the general distribution of the igneous rocks in Idaho,

Montana and Wyoming, and comparing the great volume of the effu-

sive rocks erupted in this volcanie district with the relatively small

(though actually great) volume of intrusive rocks, Iddings states that

he cannot but believe that the differentiation which gave rise to the

former must have been more fundamental than that which gave rise to

the intrusive rocks, and hence its products reveal the true character of

the primary differentiated of a molten magma at considerable depths

beneath the surface. Moreover, the sequence of the intrusive rocks is

practically the same as that of the effusive in the Electric Peak dis-

trict, viz., from intermediate through acid to basic rocks.

Granites of Pyramid Peak District, California.—Lindgrew’

describes the rocks of the Pyramid Peak district in the Sierra Nevadas

as consisting of an older series of slates, tuffs, schists, porphyrites and

granitic rocks overlain by Tertiary andesites, rhyolites and basalts.

The granites are intrusive in the old series, metamorphosing the latter

for a distance of several miles from their contacts with them. The clay

slates in their most metamorphosed forms are nificaceous schists or

gneisses. At a greater distance from the granite they are ‘ knoten

schiefer,’ often carrying andalusite. The granitic rocks include aplites,

granites, granite-diorites, diorites and gabbro. The highest ridges of

the district are composed of granitite. Granodiorite is the predomi-

nant rock. It consists of quartz, an acid plagioclase, biotite, hor

blende and a little sphene and magnetite. The rock is intermediate

_in composition between quartz-mica-diorite and Brogger’s quartz-mon”

zonite. While not always easily distinguished from the former rock,

the author would restrict the name granodiorite to rocks containing

59 per cent.69 per cent. SiO,, 14 per cent.-17 per cent. Al,O» wae 3

cent.-2} per cent. Fe,O,, 1} per cent—4t per cent. FeO, 3 per cent. s

per cent. CaO, 1 per cent.—24 per cent. MgO, 1 per cent.—34 per pega”

K,O and 24 per cent.-44 per cent. Na,O. Analyses of the granite a

and of the grano-diorite (II) follow :

ë Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. III, 1897, p. 301.

1897.] Botany. 809

SiOz TiO, Al2O3 Fe,03 FeO CaO MgO K,O NaO H,0 at 100 % HO at 100% +P205

I. 77.68 14 11.81 .72 51 .72 18 5.00 2.96 .04 27 10 =100.13

II. 67.45 .58 15.51 1.76 2.21 3.60 1.10 3.66 3.47 .14 63 12 =100.25

Pegmatite.—As the conclusion of a very thorough discussion of

the origin of pegmatite Crosby’ and Fuller declare that this rock is the

product of crystallization from an igneous magma saturated with water

—an igneo-aqueous solution. The authors, moreover, believe that no

sharp line of distinction can be drawn between dykes and veins and,

therefore, that veins are clearly entitled to some degree of recognition

_ in the lithological classification.

BOTANY:

Gray’s Synoptical Flora.°—On the tenth of June, just twenty

months after Fascicle I, Dr. Robinson brought out Fascicle II of the

new edition of Gray’s Synoptical Flora of North America. It includes

the “ orders ” Caryophyllacese (by B. L. Robinson), Ficoideæ (by B.

L. Robinson), Portulacacese, Tamariscines (by B. L. Robinson), Elati- .

nace, Hypericacez (by J. M. Coulter), Ternstroemiaceze, Cheirantho-

dendrex, Malvaces, Sterculiaceze, Tiliaceæ, Linaces (by W. Trelease),

Malpighiacex, Zygophyllacex, Geraniacese (by W. Trelease), Rutaceæ,

Simarubaceæ, Burseraceæ, Anacardiacez, Meliaceæ, Aquifoliacese (by

W. Trelease), Cyrillaceze, Olacinacese, Celastracee (by W. Trelease),

Rhamnacez (by W. Trelease), Vitaceæ (by L. H. Bailey), Sapindacese

(by B. L. Robinson), and Polygalacese (by B. L. Robinson). It is

thus seen that of these twenty-eight families, twelve were prepared by

other hands than Dr. Gray’s, and in several of the remaining sixteen

more or less extensive revisions were made by Dr. Robinson.

We note with interest the much freer acceptance of disputed names

than in the previous fascicle ; thus we have Impatiens aurea Mahl. and

I. biflora Walt. (instead of I. pallida Nutt. and 1. falva Nutt.); Vitis

vulpina L. (instead of V. riparia Mx.); Vitis rotundifolia Mx. (instead

of V. vulpina of American authors); Acer saccharinum L. (instead of

A. dasyearpum Ehrh.) ; Acer saccharum Marsh (instead of A. sacchari-

1 Technology Quarterly, IX, 1896, p. 326.

* Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

° Synoptical Flora of North America, Vol. I, Pt. I, Fascicle II. Polypetale

from the Caryophyllacez to the Polygalaceæ, by Asa Gray M. D., continued and

edited by Benjamin Lincoln Robinson, Ph. D., pp, 207 to 506. Issued June 10,

1897. New York, American Book Company.

810 The American Naturalist. [September,

num Wang.); and Acer negundo L. (instead of Negundo aceroides

Moench.). A title page and an excellent index to Fascicles I and II,

which are to be bound together, close this interesting part. The third

Fascicle is now in preparation by. Dr. Robinson.

—CHARLEs E. Bessey.

Britton and Brown’s Illustrated Flora.”—Last August the

first copies of Vol. I of this work were distributed, and about the mid-

dle of June of the present year copies of Vol. II reached the botanists

of the country. The good opinion of the work formed from an exami-

nation of the first volume is confirmed by even a glance through the

second. The outline figures continue to be most useful, and while not

always absolutely distinctive, they are often fully as much so as the

actual specimens. We have now and then seen criticisms of these

figures by those who forget that it is impossible to show striking differ-

ences between species which nature has not separated widely, especially

when the figures must be made as small as they are in this work. e

feel that the artists who made these illustrations are deserving of much

praise for the success with which they have done their work.

As to the text there remains little to be said beyond what was said

in our notice of Vol. I (Narura.istr, October, 1896). The selection

of type is so good that the eye catches without loss of time the

items sought. The consistent use of the modern rules of nomenclature,

readily familiarizes us with the comparatively small number of new

names made many by the “ reform movement.”

The families of most interest in this volume are Ranunculacee,

Cruciferex, Saxifragacez, Rosacee, Pomaceæ, Drupacese, Mimosacez,

Cæsalpiniaceæ, Papilionacese, Euphorbiacex, Violaces, Cactacese, Ona-

graces, Umbellifere, Ericaceze, Vaccıniaceæ, Oleaceae and Gentiana-

æ.

We notice that a list of metric units and equivalents is given at the

end of the table of contents. Of what service it can be in a volume in

which no metric measurements are used is difficult to make out. Tt

only serves to call attention to the anachronism of ancient units in a

modern text. The concluding volume will be looked for with great

‘interest by botanists everywhere.—CHARLEsS E. BEssEY.

10 An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States, Canada and the British

Possessions, by Nathaniel Lord Britton, Ph. D., and Hon. Addison Brown.

three volumes. Vol. II, Portulacacee to Menyanthaċeæ. New York, Charles

Seribner’s Sons, 1897.

1897.] : Zoology. 811

ZOOLOGY.

Fauna of Aldabra.—The following information concerning the

natural history of the island of Aldabra has been recently published by

Dr. W. L. Abbott. The most remarkable inhabitant of Aldabra is

the gigantic land tortoise, similar to those of the Galapagos group.

They were formerly very abundant, but being easily caught and in

great demand for their flesh, their numbers have been greatly dimin-

ished by the whalers and fisherman. Their greatest enemy is the com-

mon rat, which swarms upon Aldabra and eats the young as soon as

they are hatched.

The only other land reptiles upon Aldabra are a small lizard (A ble-

pharus poecilopleurus) and two geckos (Hemidactylus mabronia and

Phelsuma abbottii).

Turtles are plentiful. Many thousands annually ascend the sandy

beaches to deposit their eggs. Tortoise-shell was formerly gathered in

large quantities, but this fishery has been overworked and large “ carré”

are now scarce.

Manmals are represented by a large fruit bat (Pteropus aldabrensis

True) and two smaller bats. Rats (Mus decumanus) probably from

wrecked vessels, swarm everywhere, and are very destructive, Cats,

probably from the same source, are common upod Grande Terre, where

they have completely exterminated the flightless rail.

Land birds are represented by fourteen resident and six accidental

visiting species.

The most interesting of birds is the curious flightless rail (Rougetius

aldabranus Ridgway), the sole survivor of the numerous flightless birds

that inhabit the Mascarine Islands at the time of their discovery. The

present species is in great danger of being exterminated by the cat,

which svoner or later will overrun the smaller islands, as it has done

Grande Terre. The other land birds are apparently identified with

those of Madagascar.

- Insects are not numerous either in species or individuals. Six or

seven butterflies, a few moths, a dragon fly, a few beetles. some flies

and bees are found. Mosquitoes abound. (Proceeds, U.S. Natl. Mus.

XVI, 1894.)

A List of the Birds of the Vicinity of West Chester,

Chester Co., Pennsylvania. — (Continued from page 628.)—

-~ 72. Ammodramus savanarrum passerinus (Wils.), Grasshopper Spar-

812 The American Naturalist. [September,

row. Rather infrequent summer resident, during some years not seen

at all.

73. Zonotrichia leucophrys (Forst.), White-crowned Sparrow. Very

infrequent, if not rare, migrant in the spring and fall. I shot a bird of

the year on Oct. 18, 1890, and another Oct. 6, 1888 ; and during one

spring I saw an adult male. ;

T4. Z. albicollis (Gmel.), White-throated Sparrow. Abundant mi-

grant in the spring and fall, but it does not appear to remain through

the winter. (Dates of spring occurrences: April 25,1886; April 28

to May 10,1887; May 9-19, 1888; March 29, 1889; April 12, 1890;

April 18,1891. Latest fall occurrences: Nov. 6, 1886 ; Oct. 27, 1887 ;

Dec. 31, 1888; Nov. 1, 1890). :

75. Spizella monticola (Gmel.), Tree Sparrow. Abundant winter

resident. (Earliest arrival noted: Oct, 12, 1889; latest spring date:

April 2, 1895). :

76. S. socialis (Wils.), Chipping Sparrow. Abundant summer resi-

dent. (Earliest spring arrivals. Apr. 8,1887; April 1,1888; April

14,1889. Bulk arrived: April 11, 1887).

77. S. pusilla (Wils.), Field Sparrow. Summer resident, perhaps

not quite as abundant as the preceding. (Bulk arrived: March 10,

1888 ; April 19, 1890). :

78. Junco hyemalis (Linn.), Slate-colored Junco. Abundant winter

resident. (Earliest fall occurrence: Oct. 1, 1886. Latest spring 0¢-

eurrences: April 6,1895; June 7, 1890). :

79. Melospiza fasciata (Gmel.), Song Sparrow. Resident, but in cold

winters many migrate, at least from the higher, more exposed poma :

of the country. This is apparently our most abundant native bird. i

80. M. georgiana (Lath.), Swamp Sparrow. Common migrant m

the spring and fall. (Spring occurrence: March 23, 1886; April 21,

1888; April 13 to May 9, 1891; May 9, 1897. Dates of fall occur-

rences; Oct. 6, 1888 ; Oct. 5-18, 1890). ;

81. Passerella iliaca (Merr.), Fox Sparrow. Common migrant 1m

the spring and fall. (Spring occurrences: March 17,1885; March 16,

1886 ; Feb. 22 to March 21, 1888; March 15-28, 1889; March 2-9,

1890; March 10 to April 13,1891 ; March 10, 1895. Have found it

in the fall from the 1st to the 15th of November).

82. Pipilo erythrophthalmus (Linn.), Towhee. Common summa

resident. (Earliest spring arrivals: April 1, 1886; April 27, 1887 ;

April 20,1889; April 18,1891. Bulk arrived: May 1,1887; May 6,

1888).

83. Cardinalis cardinalis (Linn.), Cardinal Grosbeak. Rather in-

frequent; I have observed it only in the spring and fall. Itis quite

1897,] Zoology. 813

probable that it breeds in this vicinity, but I have never seen it in

summer.

* 84. Zamelodia ludoviciana (Linn.), Rose-breasted Grosbeak. Infre

quent migrant. I received, from a friend, two specimens in the flesh,

Oct. 1, 1887, and I shot another May 5, 1888.

85. Passerina cyanea (Linn.), Indigo Bunting. Common summer

resident. (Earliest spring occurrences noted: May 4, 1887; May 8,

1891; May 16, 1897).

86. Piranga erythromelas (Vieill.) Scarlet Tanager. Infrequent

summer resident, in thick woods. (Earliest spring date, May 6, 1887).

87. Progne subis (Linn.), Purple Martin. Tolerably common sum-

mer resident. (Arrives in the spring about the first half of April).

87. Petrocheliodon lunifrons (Say), Cliff Swallow. Infrequent sum-

mer resident, more abundant during the migrations.

89. Chelidon erythrogaster (Bodd.), Barn Swallow. Abundant sum-

mer resident. (Earliest spring arrivals: April 21, 1886; April 12,

1887 ; April 7,1888; April 21,1889; April 17, 1891. - Bulk arrived:

April 28, 1886 ; May 2, 1887. All depart in the fall at or before the

first week in October). X

90. Tachycineta bicolor (Vieill.), Tree Swallow. I shot two speci-

mens and saw two others on April 25,1891, by the Brandywine, and

saw another three days later in West Goshen. It is strange that it

should be so infrequent here, while it is so abundant during the migra-

tions in other portions of eastern Pennsylvania.

91. Clivicola riparia (Linn.), Bank Swallow. Infrequent migrant.

92. Stelgidopteryx serripennis (Aud.), Rough-winged Swallow. Com-

mon summer resident along the Brandywine.

93. Ampelis cedrorum (Vieill.), Cedar Waxwing. Common migrant

in the spring and fall; a few breed here. I have seen it only once in

the winter, Jan. 13,1886, (Earliest spring arrivals: March 14, 1889 ;

March 1, 1890).

94. Lanius borealis (Vieill.), Northern Shrike. A rather infrequent

and irregular winter visitant, from November until the middle of

March, but in 1890 I saw one as late as April 6th.

95. L. ludovicianus (Linn.), Loggerhead Shrike. I shot two adult

males, March 28, 1895, in West Goshen (these are now in the collection

of the Acad. Nat. Sci. Philada). This is the only published occurrence

of this species in Chester Co., and the second, of late years, for eastern

Pennsylvania,

96. Vireo olivaceus (Linn.), Red-eyed Vireo. Abundant summer

resident, more numerous than any other species of the family. (Earliest

814 The American Naturalist. [September,

spring arrivals: May 9, 1887; May 10, 1888; May 4, 1891. Bulk

arrived: May 13, 1887; May 12, 1888).

97. V. gilvus (Vieill.), Warbling Vireo. Common summer resident.

98. V. solitarius (Wils.), Blue-headed Vireo. Tolerably common

migrant in the spring and fall. (Dates of spring occurrences: April

28, 1888; April 20, 1889; May 10, 1890; April 22, 1891. Fall oc-

currence: Sept. 23,1890).

99. V. noveboracensis (Gmel.), White-eyed Vireo. Rather infre-

quent summer resident.

100. Mniotilta varia (Linn.), Black-and-White Warbler. Abund-

ant migrant in the spring and fall. I have never found it in the sum-

mer, though several nests have been taken in this county. (Spring

occurrences: May 7, 1887; May 3-17, 1890; April 25, 1891; May 2,

1897. Fall occurrences: Aug. 24 to Sept. 9, 1887; Aug. 21-28, 1888;

Sept 28, 1889; Sept. 6 to Nov. 29, 1890).

101. Helmitherus vermivorus (Gmel.), Worm-eating Warbler. In-

frequent summer resident; it isno more abundant during the migra-

tions. (Arrives about the second week in May).

102. Helminthophila pinus (Linn.), Blue-winged Warbler. I have

seen this species only once, when I secured a specimen in West Goshen,

May 17,1890. It must be considered rare in this immediate neighbor-

hood. Subsequently (May 9, 1897) I saw another.

103. H. chrysoptera (Linn.), Golden-winged Warbler. One male,

May 5, 1897).

104. H. ruficapilla (Wils.), Nashville Warbler. A not infrequent

migrant in May and September.

105. Composthlypis americana (Dinn.), Parula Warbler. Abundant

migrant. (Spring occurrences: May 6-10, 1888, May 3, 1890; May 4,

1891. Fall occurrences : Sept. 18-20, 1889; Sept. 23, 1890).

(To be continued.)

ENTOMOLOGY:

Protective Value of Motion.—Mr. F. M. Webster in an address

delivered before the Ohio Academy of Science and afterwards published

in the Journal of the New York Entomological Society? makes some

interesting remarks on the protective value of action, volitional or other-

! Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

? Journal of New York Ent. Soc., V. 67-77.

1897.] Entomology. 815

wise, in “ protective mimicry.” After citing a number of remarkable

cases more or less well known he remarks, “ Now in all these phenom-

ena we have form and color supplemented by action, the object of all

of which taken together is the protection of life. * * * * It was Mr.

Bates who wrote in his “ Naturalist on the Amazon,” that “on the wing

of the butterfly is written, as on a tablet, the story of the modification

of the species, so truly do all the changes register themselves there-

on,” and it seems to me that in the brains of so-called “mimicing” species

of insects, we might, if we could but understand the full significance ot

the brain cells, read therein the records of the development of a dim,

obscure consciousness, a volition and an intelligence that has kept pace

in the requirements of these organizations in protecting their lives and

perpetuating their race. Man himself comes into the world, little less

than a mere automaton but with an inherited basis for future develop-

ments of an individual consciousness, he begins his education with the

alphabet but does not transmit even a knowledge of this alphabet to his

children, who must begin precisely where he himself began. But there

has descended to his children that which will enable them to master

the alphabet with more aptitude and less difficulty. Now if we descend

the line of animal life until we reach these insects whose movements go

far toward perfecting the protection afforded by their form, color and

coloration, may we not expect to find the foundation for a “ species con-

sciousness” that will enable their possessors to protect their lives from

enemies of long standing, and gradually, though perhaps very slowly,

adapt themselves to shunning the attacks of more recent foes. Or, to

put it in other words, with a protective appearance, will there not go

either a consciousness of that appearance or an inherited foundation for

such a consciousness that will better enable an insect to apply its protec-

tive inheritance, and in the use of all these as a means of perpetuating

its kind, follow strictly in the line of all other animal life?”

Among the most wonderful cases of “ protective resemblance ” noted

was that of the moth Alaria florida “ which conceals itself during the

day in the withering blossoms of the Evening Primrose Cenothera bien-

nis. The inner two-thirds of the wings of the moth are bright pink

while the outer third, hind wings and abdomen are pale yellow. The

moth enters the flower before day with its body resting on the style, the

four parted stigma projecting beyond the tip of the abdomen, appear-

ing like a part thereof, and when the sun appears the two petals that were

above the moth soon wilt and fall down over the roof like wings, con-

cealing the rose colored portion and leaving the yellow part exposed as

a part of the blossom and so effectually is the moth concealed in this

816 The American Naturalist. [September,

way during the day that only a trained eye can detect its presence, and

then only with extreme difficulty.” The moth mentioned is very

common in central New Hampshire though it appears to be either very

rare or unknown nearer the sea and I have observed hundreds of spec-

imens in the position described. The deception is certainly well

carried out though not in every case so fully as described by Mr.

Webster but the larva is even more closely concealed.

I had read that it was to be found feeding on the seed pods of the

Evening Primrose and had several times looked for it in vain until one

day I discovered a specimen in the act of backing out of the hole which

they excavate in the pod, by gnawing a hole in the side and then eat-

ing the more juicy seeds. I broke off the whole stalk and was carrying

it home when I noticed that there was a second caterpillar resting be-

tween the pods and resembling them so wonderfully both in shape and

size as to escape my notice. J then began to examine the head more

closely and to my astunishment I found seven others resting in a similar

manner. I thought I had seen them all then, but on looking in the

breeding cage in which I had placed them, two or three days after, I

found the stalk so wilted as to be unpalatable to the caterpillars and no

less than eleven were wandering around the sides of the cage. The

other two were doubtless in the same position as those seen but were

overlooked even in a close inspection. There is the possibility that

they may have been in one of the hollowed pods but it is not at all

probable as they would have had much difficulty in completely enter-

ing one.— W, F. F.

Ambrosia Beetles.—In the year book of the Department of

Agriculture for 1896, Mr. Henry G. Hubbard has contributed an article

of more than usual interest to the general reader on the habits of the

“ Ambrosia beetles.” These beetles which are quite small and resemble

their relatives the bark boring Scolitide, differ from all other known

wood boring insects by not feeding on the wood itself but on a fungus

which grows on the interior oftheir burrows.

Their galleries may easily be known from wood feeding species by

being clear from bits of wood or other refuse and being black on the

inside as though burnt with a hot wire. These galleries are usually

excavated by the female but in some instances she is assisted later by

the young larva.

The food fungus, or “ ambrosia” does not “ make its appearance at

random in the galleries of the beetles. Its origin is entirely under the

control of the insect. It is started by the mother beetle upon 4 care-

1897.] Embryology. 817

fully packed layer or bed of chip, sometimes in the bark but generally

at the end of the branch galley in the wood.”

Jn some species the ambrosia is only grown in certain chambers of

peculiar construction. In many species it appears to be necessary that

the sap of the tree should be in a state of ferment and the beetles will

sometimes attack wine and ale casks. “In the care which they give

their young and in the methodical and complex provisions which they

make for the welfare of the colony, these beetle display the character-

istics of true social insects, such as are known among bees, wasps, ants

and termites, but which have not hitherto been found to exist among

any other representives of the order Coleoptera.”

The eggs of some species are laid in clusters of ten or twelve loosely

in the galleries, and the young wander freely about feeding on the

ambrosia. In other species each larva is contained in a cell of wood

the excavation of which is began by the mother but completed by the

partly grown larva. In this case they are fed by the mother beetle

who keeps the entrance to this cell closed with a plug of ambro-

sia. The males of some species are small and wingless and fertiliza-

tion of the female takes place in the burrow. In others the male

is large and winged and accompanies the female in her flight to

found new colonies. Should the number of beetles in a colony be

diminished by accident or disease the food fungus soon chokes up the

galleries and remaining inhabitants soon die of suffocation. In the case

of the wingless males this would soon take place when abandoned by the

females did they not unite in certain galleries and by keeping the

fungus cropped, prolong for a time their useless existence.—W. F. F.

The Brown-Tailed Moth.—There has recently been formed in

England a “ committee for the protection of insects in danger of exter-

mination ” and a list of the species which they desire to protect has been

published. Among them, are a few species like Melitea athalia or

M. cinzia or Lycena arion which are perfectly innoxious and confined

to a few isolated localities, for which it would not be unreasonable on

the part of the true butterfly lovers to ask for protection against “ pot

hunters” or those who collect them merely for their value for sale or

exchange. But there are others on the list and among them the

“brown tailed moth ” (Euproctis chrysorrhea) which will probably be

included in the next list of American lepidoptera.

In a late bulletin Prof. C. H. Fernald has given the history of this

Species in America with a short history of its life and descriptions of its

Stages. The moth itself belongs to the same family as the Gypsy moth,

818 The American Naturalist. [September,

Tussock moth and several other less known species. They are pure

white with a silky lustre and a reddish-brown tuft at the end of the

abdomen from which arises the common name. The young larva pass

the winter in a nest made by drawing together a few terminal leaves of

a twig and lining and surrounding them with a mass of silken threads.

It is not known exactly when or how it was introduced into America

but it has been noticeably injurious for at least four years and it is pos-

sible that it may have been imported with some foreign stock. It is at

present confined to a small area in the vicinity of Boston. —W. F. F.

EMBRYOLOGY.’

Spinning in Serpula Eggs.—In a paper’ published in the Jour-

nal of Morphology, G. F. Andrews described remarkable and hitherto

unrecorded phenomena in the eggs and larvee of star-fish and sea-urchins

and designated them filose protoplastic or “spinning ” activities.

These “ spinning” phenomena may be described as the formation of

filaments extending out from the surface of the egg or cell and either

straight, curved or bent; either separate or united to others; either

simple or variously branched ; attached at the base, and either free at

the tip or attached there also—to the egg membrane, to other filaments

or to the surface of some other cell. What makes these threads recog-

nizable as living protoplasm is chiefly the character of their activities.

They are spun out from the living egg or cell as are the filose pseudo-

podia of such creatures as Gromia, or as some of the pseudopodia of the

leucocytes of certain Invertebrates. The processes are seen to grow

longer or shorter, to branch, to join onto and fuse with others; they

grow thicker or thinner, and often show nodular enlargements that

pass along as in currents of living protoplasm.

Such filose spinnings connect the egg with its membrane, the cleav-

ing cells with one another, and the polar bodies with adjacent cells or

with the unsegmented egg. They traverse the cleavage cavity and

put cells of ectoderm, entoderm and mesoderm into communication

with cells of the same and of other germ layers.

Such intercellular connections are temporary, made and remade;

they spin out as a cell is separating from its fellow in division and

are not seen when the cells are closely pressed together.

1 Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and

preliminary notes may be sent.

2? See the AMERICAN NATURALIST. No. 363, March, 1897, page 242.

1897.] Entomology. 819

Having been shown these phenomena both in living and in preserved

echinoderm eggs I was able to find them again in the common Annelid,

Serpula ;—though as yet by no means as clearly and extensively as in

the more thoroughly studied and favorable star-fish material.

The egg of Serpula is much less favorable than that of the star-

fish, as far as the seeing of spinning phenomena is concerned, since it

has a thick, very highly refracting membrane that makes it difficult to

see fine structures within it, and since also the cells are so closely

crowded together and against the membrane (which remains as the

larval cuticle) that there are few free spaces which could be traversed

by spin threads. Ha.

Yet some filaments can be seen passing out from the egg, or cells, to

the membrane. As yet I have not seen spinning filaments connect one

cell with another though there was evidence that such probably exist

and are to be seen with good light and favorable point of view.

When the polar bodies have been formed, the membrane is raised up

from the egg sufficiently to leave a space all about the polar bodies.

Though at first no processes are seen, they gradually form and extend

out from the egg till they cross the space and become attached to the

membrane. These processes are unmistakably the same as the spin-

nings of the star-fish egg. They are of different lengths and thicknesses

and arise from the surface of the egg all around the polar bodies.

The polar bodies were not seen to spin.

_ In eases where the egg-membrane is raised up locally at the end

Opposite to the polar bodies, spin-threads were also seen passing from

this side of the egg to the raised membrane.

In abnormal individuals where the membrane is widely separated

from the egg, long and very numerous and distinct threads were seen

radiating out from the entire surface of the egg to the membrane. As

in the star-fish there is a marked difference between the spinning of

normal and abnormal eggs.

When the egg has divided into two cells and these are rounding off

at the edges preparatory to the next division, spin processes are seen

passing off from each cell to the membrane, both at the polar body

pole and at the opposite end.

Here I first observed the branching of filaments, so characteristic in

the star-fish. One common trunk arising from a cell presents a num-

ber of long branches that pass in various planes out to the membrane.

In later stages when eight or more cells are present, processes were

seen, both in profile and in surface view, passing out from various cells

to the membrane.

820 The American Naturalist. [September,

In the gastrula stage when the equatorial band of cilia is formed and

the cleavage cavity nearly closed up by the elongated entoderm cells,

spin processes were seen at the end opposite to the area of invagination,

passing from the ectoderm cells to the membrane where it was slightly

raised away from the ectoderm. Here also some movement and change

of form was seen in a process, though not satisfactorily. Within the

cleavage cavity a moving, pseudopodium-like process appeared to

extend out from the entoderm toward the ectoderm, but it could not be

seen clearly.

Some of these processes in Serpula, less difficult to see than the finest,

presented enlargements, suggesting the probability of slow flowing of

material along the process. The increase in number and length of

filaments from a definite area under observation for a few minutes

showed that they were gradually formed, and from the egg outwards.

Owing to poor light no higher than 8 eye-piece could be used with

2 mm. objective, so that it is probable many phenomena escaped ob-

‘servation. i

The occurrence of such filose activity of the surface of the eggs of an

animal so widely separated from the echinoderms supports the idea that

such phenomena are universally properties of protoplasm, —an hypoth-

esis put forth in a recent work’ and based not only upon egg, and other,

external spinnings, but upon numerous internal protoplasmic phenom-

ena of the same nature, such as spinnings into alveoli of Bütschli’s

structure in both fluid areas and contractile structures, and contraction

and strial displacements of the substance.

- E. A. ANDREWS.

PSYCHOLOGY.!

Some Experiments on the Tactual Threshold for the

Perception of Two Points.’™—The term “ space-threshold ” was

applied by Fechner to the distance which two small points must be

apart in order to be perceived as two. Weber had already devoted

3The Living Substance as Such and as Organism. G. F. Andrews. Gnin

& Co. Boston. August, 1897.

1 Edited by Howard C. Warren, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J;

2 The first group of experiments described here were reported in the Philo-

sophische Studien, 1897, XIII, 163-222, reprinted in Princeton Contributions te

Psychology, II, 1-60. The second group, viz., those with successive stimuli, will

appear in an early number of the Psychological Review.

1897,] Psychology. 821 .

much time to the determination of this distance for different spots on

the skin, for he found that the two points must be farther apart, to be

felt as two, on some spots than on others. On the bicepts muscle of

the upper arm, it is 66 mm. ; on the volar side of the forearm, 40 mm. ;

on the tips of the index fingers less than 2 mm., etc. Many questions

arose and many investigators have busied themselves with them; but a

number of questions in this field, in spite of the numerous books and

articles on the subject, have in some cases received no attention, and

in others have not been answered. With the exception of one article,

the question as to the threshold for the perception of spatial difference

in the case of two successive stimuli has never been raised. In experi-

ments with two simultaneously stimulating points, it has long been

known that the distance which two points must be apart in order to be

perceived as two at any one spot of skin can be reduced in a very

marked degree by practice. It was further noticed by Volkmann and

Fechner that when this distance is reduced by practice on any one

spot, the threshold for the symmetrically opposite spot on the other

side of the body undergoes a like reduction without being practiced.

These investigators gave a purely physiological explanation of the

phenomenon, viz., that the centre in which the two sets of fibres

(those from the symmetrical spots) meet is the seat of the change which

causes the reduction. Their experiment was not, however, so planned

as to test the question whether a similar reduction of this threshold

occurs over the entire body. 3

Our first duty was to undertake a series of such experiments. These

were carried out by the writer at the Leipzig Psychological Labora-

tory. As a result, it proved to be true that the same reduction does

occur over the entire body whenever it occurs on any part of the body,

and this`result points directly to the inference that the whole phe-

nomenon demands a central explanation based upon central psychic

processes. But in connection with these experiments several singular

phenomena came to light. (1) Not all subjects showed the reduction

of the threshold by practice: in fact, it occured only in the cases of

those who knew beforehand what the problem was and what results

had been hitherto reached by others. In cases where the subject did

not know these facts and did not surmise them from the nature of the

experiments, no reduction whatever occurred. (2) In all cases where

the reduction occurred, there appeared as one result of the practice an

increase in the frequency of the illusion called by the Germans Verir-

fehler, i, e., where the subject senses two points when touched by but

one. In cases in which the series began without these illusions, as

822 The American Naturalist. [September,

with some subjects, the illusion developed after some practice in the ex-

periments. This illusion sometimes becomes so frequent that no

thresholds can be determined ; the subject answers, in response to all

stimuli, whether of one or of two points, “two points.” (3) A long

series of experiments showed that this illusion is, for the most part, a

result of suggestion of some kind; a suggestion which the subject gets

either from the operator, from the nature of the experiments, or by

auto-suggestion. It was found that the frequency of the illusion,

and even its occurrence at all, could be influenced to a marked degree

by suggestion. In some cases the illusion could be prevented by the

subject’s discovering the suggestive influence and freeing himself from

it. (4) Subjects were found who, to start with, gave constant thres-

holds as long as nothing was suggested to them in regard to the object

and method of the experiments, but by a suggestion from the operator,

they were led to show a very rapid reduction of the threshold. After-

ward, by freeing themselves from the influence of the suggestion, they

returned, in some cases, to the old constant threshold, freeing them-

selves at the same time from the illusions which had developed as one

result of the suggestion. —

All of these facts go to indicate that both the reduction of the

threshold by practice and the illusion of two points are the results of

suggestion in some form. In every instance of the perception of space

relations by touch, there seems to be involved a process of assimilation

in which a visual or motor image is the assimilating, and the tactual

sensations the assimilated, elements. In ordinary life, we test contin-

ually our tactual sensations by visual images, turning the eyes to look

at the spot touched. In these experiments this was rendered impossi-

ble by the fact that the subject could not see the spot on which the ex-

periments were performed, as this was concealed from him by a screen.

Hence the place of these images is supplied by memory images con-

nectedjwith the tactual sensations by past experience, i. e., by associa-

tion. In our experiments the assimilating visual or motor copies of

past experiences are not called up by the association with the tactual

sensationsjalone, but are suggested by other factors. In the localiza-

tion of a single point, the “local sign” involved is not to be conceived

of as a simple quality of the tactual sensation, but is rather a relation

of association between the tactual sensation and some visual or motor

image.

Another series of experiments was undertaken in the Princeton

Laboratoryjby Dr. C. W. Hodge and myself, in which the two stimuli

were successive, instead of simultaneous, as in the above experiments.

1897.] Psychology. 823

In each series of such experiments, the first point touched each time

remains the same, the problem being to determine the distance from

this point at which the two stimulations seem to be spatially different,

and the distance at which the direction of this difference is first recog-

nized. These two determinations may be called the thresholds for

difference and direction respectively. In the results it is found that

the subject, as a rule, mistakes the direction of the second point from

the first after he has apparently become aware that the two points are

not the same. The inference has been drawn that the difference

threshold is shorter than the direction threshold. But a careful study

of the answers given seems to show that this apparent recognition of

difference without direction is again due to suggestion. This entire

group of experiments seems to sustain the inferences drawn in the

former group as to the ultimate nature of the process involved in all

tactual space perception. It is an assimilation process throughout, in

which visual, tactual and motor elements play the most important

parts. In cases where, as in these experiments, an extensive and rapid

reduction of the threshold, and a development of frequent illusions

of the kind described, occur as the result of practice, the explanation

of these phenomena is to be sought, not in any change in the physio-

logical structure or functions of the tactual end-organs, nor of the cen-

tres with which these end-organs communicate, but rather in a process

through which suggestion-influences get established in the reactions of

the subject’s attention —G. A. Tawney, Beloit College, Wise.

The Annee Biologique.—The new annual which has been

started by Yves Delage under this title has adopted a broad policy

with reference to psychology. The first number (that for 1895) has

just appeared, and we are pleased to note that a large section, of over

100 pages, is devoted to this department under the head of “ Mental

Functions.” A portion of this space is taken up with an able review

of recent theories of the structure of the nervous system, by Mlle. W.

Szezawinsky, but most of the section lies within the domain of psychol-

ogy proper. Prof. Binet furnishes a review of the development of ex-

perimental methods, which, though necessarily brief, contains a fair

résumé of the change that has come over this field within the past few

years. He sums up, in particular, the work on memory, the esthetic

sense, and the physiological concomitants of mental activity, where

considerable progress was made in the year 1895. The remainder of

the section consists of summaries by various writers of the leading

works and articles which appeared during that year. These are, in

some cases, very full; about sixty contributions are noticed in all.

824 The American Naturalist. [September,

As the scope of the Année is purely biological, psychologists have

certainly no ground to complain of the treatment which their science

receives: the entire section is conceived in a spirit entirely friendly to

its claims as a distinct science, and is written for the most part by per-

sons who rank high in the department. If any criticism were to be

offered, it would be that it is not perfectly clear why certain depart-

ments of psychology that are not mentioned do not deserve treatment.

in this connection fully as much as certain others that are admitted.

But to suggest this would be to look a fine gift horse in the mouth,

and we can do no better than express our delight at the whole-hearted

recognition which the older science has here accorded to the newer. It

is to be hoped that the plans of the Année biologique will not be altered

in this respect, and that in future the psychologist may always be able

to trace the progress of research on the biological side of his depart-

ANTHROPOLOGY.’

The Tomahawk of the North American Indian.—In regard

to your inquiries concerning tomahawks in the United States N ational

- Museum I would say that, in order to understand their structure, their

function and the places which they supplied in the armory of the In-

dians of the United States it is best to remember the following facts +

Aborigines of this Continent seem to have understood all the ways of

killing men and animals. Before the discovery they used both poison

and fire to take life, and they had the three great types of weapon,

namely : for bruising, for piercing and for cutting. Adrien de Mortil-

let somewhere calls attention to the additional fact that each one of

these classes of weapons, to-wit: bruising, piercing and cutting, is used

in the hand, at the end of a handle, or thrown from the hand. You

will see that underlying this division of Mortillet’s we have three

methods of applying force. First, directly utilizing the explosive force

of human muscle. Secondly, the additional impetus given to a weighty

weapon by affording it a longer excursion in the air and the added —

element of safety in that by means of a long handled bruiser, piercer

or cutter the attacking one produces his effect at a greater distance

from himself. The ballistic weapon, seldom thrown from the hand

alone, acquires its velocity and additional force by means of a sling,

throwing stick or a bow.

1 This department is edited by H. C, Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

1397.] Anthropology. 825

With this analysis in hand let us return to the tomahawk ; it is a

compound weapon, having for its function both bruising and cutting.

It is also a handled weapon. The addition of the pike to the poll of

the tomahawk is simply one of those delightful transitions which all

industrial things undergo in passing from the useful into the ceremon-

ial and mythic condition. In the aboriginal times tomahawks had no

pike attachment.

The iron tomahawks in the United States National Museum are of

two distinct classes: the one has an edge like a carpenter’s hatchet, the

other has a point and so belongs rather to the striking-piercing than to

the striking-cutting apparatus of the northern type. So far as the

record of these instruments go, the broad-edged, hatchet-like tomahawks

were first sold to the Indians by the English and Dutch, while those

with the pointed blade came through the Spaniards and the French or

through southern or Latin Europeans. Indeed, the blade of this toma-

hawk is that of a pike and is bent at right angles so as to work with a

blow rather than with a thrust.

Now, according to universal usage of savage peoples, they usually

accept from civilized traders those things which supply a “long felt

want.” This “long felt want” is usually, both in practical life and in

scientific pursuits, the consciousness of a mechanical incapacity or

weakness. Very frequently the artisan knows what he wants, but he

has not the practical skill to invent it. The savages of this country,

then, exploited the tomahawk and toek it in lieu of something they

were using, but which was far inferior to their desires in this direction.

For their bloody work the hatchet-tomahawk or the pike-tomahawk

was a boon .

The weapons of this class which preceded the metallic ones were

made of antler, in which the long prong furnished the handle and the

shorter prong the working portion with or without the addition of a

sharper point. In countries where the elk-horns of heavy antlers were

not procurable, and good working hatchet blades of volcanic stone

could be procured, the tomahawk was simply a celt or grooved blade

set into a handle by one of the many ways by which hafting was

formerly done.

In considering, therefore, the great mass of so-called celts and

grooved axes, it must be understood that while a portion of them were

industrial tools with the savage artisan, many of them were a striking-

cutting weapon attached to a handle to enable the warrior to do his

work at a short distance.

826 The American Naturalist. [September,

A most efficient form of the striking-cutting weapon was the Mexi-

can battle-axe, consisting of a handle of wood along the edges of which

spalls of obsidian and rugged stone were set. In some instances these

chipped blades were placed so close together and in such regular fash-

ion as to suggest the first steps in the invention of the sabre which is a

striking-cutting weapon.

Some of the Siouan tribes of the Missouri River, in later days, in-

serted heavy spikes or blades of butcher’s knives and other blood-

curdling objects, doing their work precisely after the fashion of the

Mexican axe.

In the Antillian area and over nearly all of South America north of

the parallel of Rio Janeiro, the blades of the tomahawks and battle-

axes were exquisitely fashioned and polished.—Ortis T. Mason.

A Triple Indian Grave in Western New York.—On Sep-

tember 10, 1885, I opened an Indian grave which was of interest in

many ways. In the first place, it was located near the site of Gana-

gari, which was, for many years, the principal village of the Seneca

nation, and for which they seem to have had an unusual degree of

pride and affection. This village was destroyed at the approach of

De Nonville’s invading troops in 1687, and was never rebuilt, perhaps

from sentimental motives. This village site occupies an area of at least

ten acres, and is still marked by burnt soil, chips of chert—brought

from a distance—fragments of pottery and of clay pipe-stems and even

more perfect relics. During the early days of the American village of

Victor, the settlers depended for old iron largely upon the lost toma-

hawks of the Indians, and quantities of French glass and wampun

beads, of chert and brass arrow-heads and of many other relics, attest

the richness of this Indian capital.

During the spring of 1885, Mr. George Ketchum, residing near Vic-

tor, plowed out a brass kettle and a few bones from the brink of a

slight fall of land. It is at such places as this that the plow is most

likely to detect ancient interments, the earth being gradually carried

down hill so that after the lapse of years, the original grade has been

so changed that the plow hooks into a skull, throws up a long bone, or

tears out some article deposited with the skeleton.

At my visit, it was comparatively easy to expose the remaining COn-

tents of the grave. The bones of the skeletons were not all present,

suggesting either that they had been disturbed by burrowing animals

or that the interment had been made after prolonged exposure on an

aerial scaffold as was practiced almost uniformly by many tribes, and,

1897.] Anthropology. 827

to some extent, by the Iroquois, In burials after exposure on scaffolds,

however, a dozen or twenty bodies were usually collected and interred

almost without relics and in a very limited area. Other burying

places were noted in the same field, but at much greater distances than

usual,

While it was impossible to ascertain the exact attitude in which the

bodies were laid, all of the heads pointed toward the west, and the

mummy position, so frequently noted in graves of the Iroquois, was not

apparent. Of the three skeletons, one was conspicuous for its develop-

ment, though not for its height. The femurs showed a “third tro-

chanter” almost as plainly as do those of the horse, while, in most

human skeletons, this projection has become merely a roughening of

the bone. The skull showed the lines of muscular attachment as I

have never seen on another, and, in general, it was evident that this

Warrior must have been a person of tremendous physical development.

‘The comparatively open sutures of the skull showed that he was still

below middle age, though fully matured. The second skeleton was

that of an adult of moderate build and apparently older than the first.

‘The third skeleton, which was very incomplete, was that of a small

child. The molars, which are usually cut in the sixth year, were not

quite out-of the bone of the jaws.

At the neck of the first skeleton, so as to discolor the upper part of

the breast bone and the first ribs, was a string of brass beads. These

had oxidized, and the verdegris had preserved the leathern string on

which they were worn, so that the loose single bow-knot, tied many

‘years ago, has remained intact. A number of red stone beads had

fallen away from the neck and lay at the level of the bottom of the

grave. - These were square on section, of about an inch in length, and

Some were nicked or rudely ornamented. They appeared to be made

of the western pipe-clay ; at any rate, they were of material not found

for many miles about the site of the grave. A pipe-stem, of the clay

of the vicinity, was found near this skeleton, and at the feet was a brass

kettle. At the feet of the second skeleton was another kettle and part

of an iron knife, rusted almost to disintegration. With the child’s

skeleton was found a brass sleigh-bell. Besides these relics must be

counted the kettle plowed out of the grave in the spring.

Within the kettle found near the feet of the second skeleton was a

mass of vegetable fibre resembling: moss. A similar mass found in a

kettle buried with a skeleton at the village site mentioned, showed a

right-angled crossing of some bands of fibres, and strongly suggested

-that the decayed vegetable tissue had been a basket or some similar

plaited receptacle.

828 The American Naturalist. [September,

It is possible to compute the age of this interment within somewhat

wide limits. Articles of European manufacture had not become com-

mon among the Senecas of this region till within quite a short time of

De Nonville’s expedition. On the other hand, the history of Victor goes

back about a hundred years, so that it is practically certain that this

grave is not earlier than 1650 nor later than 1800. So far as could

be judged by the appearance of the bones—by comparison with others.

in which some idea of the age of interment may be formed—and by

the state of preservation of the relics, the remains date back of English

influence and come within the period of French influence, somewhere

about the close of the seventeenth century.

The grave referred to as opened at the site of the village of Gana-

garū, was described in the Naruraxist several years ago. The skele-

ton was that of a young person, the wisdom-teeth not having been fully

developed and the bones being immature, though nearly of adult size.

The body had been put or had been left in the “mummy attitude,”

with elbows and knees bent at the sides of the trunk. Strangely

enough, the remains were found head downward. With this skeleton

rested that of a turtle—perhaps indicating the clan of the deceased—

thirty feet of French glass beads, ninety feet of wampum, a brass ket-

tle, a bone head-comb, showing in silhouette, the figures of a man on

horseback and of another person standing behind him, and other orna.

ments. These would seem to indicate that the person was a woman,

and doubtless a young lady of distinction, from the wealth buried with

her.

Other burials in the same vicinity have shown somewhat similar

relics, and belong to the period when the wares of the French traders

were mingled with the weapons and implements of the Stone Age.

A. L. BENEDICT.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Mr. J. E. S. Moore has an interesting sketch of some of the faunal

features of Lake Tanganyika in Nature of July 1. He concludes “ that

the fauna of Tanganyika is comparatively old, for it is unlike anything

now inhabiting the sea, and if it is derived form a previous freshwater

stock, much time would be required for the evolution of its widely

divergent present forms.” :

The natural history building of the University of Illinois, dedicated

a few years ago, was struck by lightning on June 17 and partially de-

1897]. Scientific News. 829

stroyed. The greatest damage occurred in the botanical and geological

departments; the library and the zoological collections were but slightly

injured. The total loss is estimated at $8000.

Dr. James Ellis Humphrey, Associate Professor of Botany in Johns

Hopkins University, died in Port Antonio, Jamaica, August 17, at

the age of 36. Dr. Humphrey had agreed to be one of the Botanical

Editors of the American Naturalist, under its new management. A

sketch of his life will appear in our next number.

The recent appointment of Mr. Ernest William MacBride, fellow of

St. Johns College, Cambridge to the professorship of zoology in McGill

University, Montreal, marks a distinct step in advance in that institu-

tion. Professor MacBride is well known through his researches on the

embryology of Echinoderms and Batrachia.

Dr. Japetus Steenstrup, until 1885 professor of zoology in the Uni-

versity of Copenhegen, has just died. He was born March 8, 1813.

His work was largely in the line of marine zoology and his essays on

hermaphroditism and on alternation of generations attracted wide atten-

tion in their day.

The efforts made to have natural history specimens admitted to the

mails of the Universal Postal Union has met with partial success in so

far that these objects are now classified as samples and are charged

postage at the rate of one cent for every two ounces.

The plans and significations for the new wing of the American Muse-

um of Natural History in New York, have recently been approved and

bids for the construction of the addition are now being received.

A new journal is the Annotationes Zoologice Japonensis. The first

number contains a short but interesting sketch of biology in Japan by

Professor Mitsukure.

ay e Cagnola Prize of $500 and a gold medal have been awarded to

Pro ir on the vegetation of Lombardy

in iter time.

Nearly 300,000 francs has been subscribed to the fund for a monum-

ent to Pasteur in Paris. The commission for the statue has been given

to M. Falguiéres.

Professor H. W. Conn of Wesleyan University will spend next year

in Europe. His biological courses will be conducted by Mr. Estin dur-

ing his absence.

830 The American Naturalist. [September,

Professors Wilhelm His and A. Ramsay have received the honorary

degree of Science from the University of Dublin.

Mr. A. W. Bennett succeeds Prof. T. Jeffrey Bell as editor of the

Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society.

Professor Sollas of Dublin, goes to Cambridge as successor to the late

Professor Green in the chair of Geology.

A zoological club has been organized at Springfield, Mass. with a

membership of nineteen.

Prof. T. W. Engelmann ot Utrecht, goes to Berlin as Professor of

Physiology.

Professor Leuckart has been made a Knight of the Prussian Order

of Merit.

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1 ain 88. dues t Bye pages, oad are sold f

i contents a as shown b y |

THE LAST PHOTOGRAPH OF PROFESSOR COPE.

for the Advancement of Science, 1896.

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

Voi. XXXI, October, 1897. 37°

EDWARD DRINKER COPE, NATURALIST—A CHAP-

TER IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE:

By THEODORE GILL.

Bitter constraint, and sad occasion, dear,

Compels me to disturb your season due;

For Lycidas is dead, dead ere his time,

Our Lycidas, and hath not left his peer.

On the morning of the 13th of April, in a car on my way

from a funeral in New York to Washington, a newspaper

notice of the death, the day before, of my old friend, E. D.

Cope, caught my eye. Shocked by the intelligence, I dropped

the paper, and memory recalled various incidents of our long

acquaintance,

The threnody of Milton? in commemoration of his friend

Edward King, also rose to recollection, and the lines just

quoted seemed to me to be peculiarly fitted for the great man

Just dead. He was, indeed, no longer young and had attained

his prime, but he had planned work for many years to come,

! Address by the retiring President of the American Association for the Ad-

vancement of Science at the Detroit Meeting, August 9th. Also printedin ‘* Sci-

ence,” August 13, 1897, and in the “Scientific American Supplement,” Aug. 14,

28, Sept. 4, 11, 1897.

*Milton, Poems, XVII.

*In the extract from Milton’s poem, time has been substituted for prime, and

our for young,

832 The American Naturalist. [October,

and had well advanced in the execution of some of it. He

had truly died before his time and had left no peer ; the great-

est of the long line of American naturalists was prematurely

snatched from science and from friends.

My acquaintance with Cope began in 1859. While looking

through the part of the Proceedings of the Academy of Natu-

ral Sciences of Philadelphia for the month of April, in which

my first paper published by the Academy had appeared, I

found one by E. D. Cope “On the Primary Divisions of the

Salamandridæ.” It seems that the papers by Cope and myself

had been passed on by the Committee on Publications on the

very same day (April 26th), and appeared in print in juxtapo-

sition. I had not previously heard of the new devotee of sci-

ence, and read his article with as much interest as my Own.

A well-equipped man had evidently come upon the field and

this was the first of the numerous articles that were destined

to appear in an uninterrupted flow for nearly four decades.

A few months afterwards I met the author in Philadelphia at

the Academy. A young man, nineteen years old, about 5 feet

9 or 10 inches high, with head carried somewhat backwards

and of rather robust frame, stood before me. He had an alert,

energetic manner, a pronounced, positive voice, and appeared

to be well able to take his part in any trouble. His knowl-

edge was by no means confined to herpetology, but covered a

wide range of science, and his preliminary education had been

good. We afterwards met from time to time in Philadelphia

and Washington, and found we had many sympathies in com-

mon and some differences.

In one of our first interviews we had quite an argument on

the nature of the family group in zoology, resulting from

criticisms I had made on the extended scope he had given to

that category in the classification of the Salamanders. Another

controversy, I remember, had reference to the vertebral theory

of the skull. In an article on the venomous serpents, pub-

lished in the Proceedings of the Academy for 1859, he had de-

fined the group in terms involving the adoption of that theory,

and I ventured to dissent from its reality. I had myself been

much impressed with it in former days, and when 16 years old

1897.] A Chapter in the History of Science. < OOR

had copied in colors an illustration of Owen’s so-called arche-

type reproduced in Carpenter’s Physiology. Subsequently,

however, the fact that there was only an approximation to the

realization of it in the most specialized of fishes and not at all

among the lower or higher vertebrate, with other considera-

tions, turned me from it, and I gave my reasons for dissent to

Cope. Ultimately he admitted the force of the argument, and

also abandoned the theory at one time so popular in England

and America.

Our acquaintance, thus begun in 1859, continued uninter-

ruptedly till death divided us. We rarely met, indeed, that

we did not express difference of opinion respecting some sub-

ject, but the difference was never of a serious nature, and gen-

erally little more than sufficient to enliven intercourse.

IL?

_ The future naturalist was born in Philadelphia on the 28th

of July, 1840, and the name Edward Drinker was given to him.

He was the descendant of a prosperous line long established in

Pennsylvania. His father, Alfred was a man of cultivated

literary taste, and did much to train his son’s mind in early

youth. He had retired from active business and lived in

luxurious ease near Germantown,’ a suburb of Philadelphia.

There he had formed an arboretum containing most of the

American trees which would thrive in the climate of that re-

gion. Amidst such surroundings the youthful Cope grew up.

An active and intelligent interest in Nature became mani-

fest at a very early age. When only about seven years old,

during a sea voyage to Boston with his father, the boy is said

to have kept a journal which he filled with drawings of “ jelly

fish, grampuses and other natural objects seen by the way.”

*I am indebted to a brother in-law of Prof. Cope, Mr. Philip C. Garrett, for

fuller information and rectifications of statements made in the original address,

which I have utilized in this edition in the form of notes.

_* According to Mr. Garrett, “ in strict accuracy, his father either had not re-

tired from active business or had never been in it, having been and remaining

What is called an active partner of H. & A. Cope, though, it must be admitted, a

rather inactive one at all times through very poor health. The home in which

Edward was reared from early boyhood was not in Germantown, but about a mile

east of it on the York road.”

834 The American Naturalist. [October,

When eight and a half years old he made his first visit to the

Museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences of his native

city ; this visit was on the “21st day of the 10th Month, 1848,”

as entered in his journal. He brought away careful drawings,

measurements and descriptions of several larger birds, as well

as of the skeleton of an Ichthyosaurus. His drawing of the

fossil reptile bears the explanatory legend in Quaker style:

“ two of the sclerotic plates look at the eye—thee will see these

in it.”

At the age of ten he was taken upon a voyage to the West

Indies. What were the impressions he derived from that voy-

age we have not been told. But what has been communicated

amply justified Professor Osborn in his declaration that “the

principal impression he gave in boyhood was of incessant

activity in mind and body, reaching in every direction for

knowledge, and of great independence in character and ac-

tion.” His school’ education was mostly carried on in the

Westtown Academy, a Quaker institution about 23 miles west

of Philadelphia. One of his instructors was Dr. Joseph

Thomas, a well known literary worker of Philadelphia and

future author of a “ Universal Pronouncing Dictionary of

Biography and Mythology ” (1870), and said to have been an

“ excellent linguist.” Under his guidance Cope obtained a pass-

ing knowledge of Latin and Greek. He appears to have had no

instruction in any biological science and had no regular col-

legiate training. He did, however, enjoy the advantage of

“a year’s study (1858-9) of anatomy and clinical instruction

at the University of Pennsylvania,” in which the illustrious

Leidy was professor of anatomy. But, in the words of his

literary executor (Professor H. F. Osborn), “ it is evident that

he owed far more to paternal guidance in the direct study of

nature and to his own impulses as a young investigator than

to the five or six years of formal education which he received

6 Osborn, in Science, N. s., V, 706.

‘Mr. Garrett informs me that Cope’s “ education appears to have been received

at home until 1851; then for two years at the Friends’ Select School in Philadel-

phia ; from 1853 to 1856 at West Town, and from 1856 to 1859 by private tuition,

and then again at the Select School in Philadelphia.

1897.] A Chapter in the History of Science. 835

at school. He was especially fond of map drawing and of

geographical studies.”

While a school boy he relieved his studies of the classics

and the regular course in which boys of his age were drilled

by excursions into the fields and woods. Reptile life espe-

pecially interested him, and he sought salamanders, snakes

and tortoises under rocks, stones, fallen trees and layers of

leaves, as well as in the ponds and streams of his vicinage.

The trophies of his excursions were identified from descriptions

in the works in which they were treated, as well as by compar-

ison with identified specimens in the museum of the Academy.

He early and almost without guidance learned to use the

library and collection of the Academy, although he did not

become a member until he came of age in 1861.

Cope’s first contribution to the Proceedings of the Academy

appeared in the part covering April, and was “On the Pri-

mary Divisions of the Salamandride, with Descriptions of the -

New Species.” In this maiden paper he instituted important

modifications of the systems previously adopted in the United

States. He soon afterwards catalogued the serpents preserved

in the museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences and like-

wise improved upon the systems previously in vogue. He con-

tinued with various papers, describing new species and giving

synopses of brief monographs of sundry genera of lizards and

anurous amphibians.

For five years his publication was confined almost exclu-

sively to the reptiles and amphibians. (The continuity was

only interrupted once in 1862, when he described a new shrew

caught by himself in New Hampshire. y Not until 1864 did

he begin to extend his field. In that year he described various

fishes and a supposed new whale, and gave his first contribu-

tion to paleontology in the description of the stegosaurian am-

Phibian called Amphibamus grandiceps. But although his at-

tention had become thus divided, he never lost his interest in

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1859, pp. RRS

* An unentitled communication u

published in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences ay - 1862

= (Proc. 1861, p. 522-524); It is not included in the list of Cope’s papers in the

~ tatalogue by the Royal Society

Boh in P

836 The American Naturalist. [October,

herpetology and continued to the end of his life to devote much

attention to that department. His studies extended to every

branch of the subject, covering not only specific details and

general taxonomy, but also the consideration of anatomical

details, the modifications of different organs, geographical dis-

tribution, chronological sequence, genetic relations and phy-

siological consequences. So numerous were his memoirs, so

entirely did he cover the field of herpetology, and so marked

an impression did he make on the science, that he was well

entitled to apply to himself the boast of the Vergilian hero,

“Pars magna fut.”

In his earliest essays he manifested the independence and

critical spirit which were so characteristic of him later. One

knowing all the circumstances of the case may be amused in

coming across a passage expressed in the tones of a veteran

published by him when 20 years old: “ In proposing the name

Zaocys * * * weare giving expression to an opinion long held

by us as to the unnatural association of species in the so-called

genus Coryphodon * * *. In it we find cylindrical terrestrial

species united with compressed subarboricole species, upon a

peculiarity whose value as an index of nature appears to us

entirely imaginary. The very nature of the coryphodontian

type of dentition, as distinguished from the isodontian and

syncranterian, would lead us to infer its inconstancy ; ” and so

on.” Bold as was the criticism of such herpetologists as Du-

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1860, p. 563.

meril, Bibron and Giinther, it was justified by the facts, and

the young author’s conclusions have received the endorsement

of the best succeeding herpetologists, including even the latest

author criticised. |

In 1863 he paid a visit to Europe, partly for the benefit of

his health which had suffered from overwork, and partly for

the purpose of seeing the great museums of England, France,

Holland, Austria and Prussia. Notwithstanding his ailments,

he made good use of his time abroad and systematically ex-

amined the collections of reptiles in the chief centers of science.

He did not even restrict his studies to herpetology, but ex

tended them to various other subjects. ;

1897.] A Chapter in the History of Science. 837

On his return from Europe 1 in 1864, he was appointed pro-

fessor of natural science in Haverford College, an institution

chiefly supported by Quakers, but retained the. position only

three years. During this time, in 1865, he married Miss

Annie, daughter of Mr. Andrew Pim, of Chester County, Pa.

In and after 1864, too, he enlarged the range of his studies

and publications and also extended them to ichthyology, mam-

malogy and paleontology. He had always been interested in

the philosophical aspects of science and early adopted the con-

ception of descent with modifications to account for the varia-

tions of animals and the differentiation into species and higher

groups, and in 1869 began to give expression to his peculiar

views.

On the death of his father" he became heir toa considerable

fortune. Part of this was invested in mines which for a short

time gave promise of good returns, but, it is said, the majority

of the stock was held by others, and owing to the incapacity

of superintendents and the operations of the controlling stock-

holders, he losts his interests. While in the enjoyment of his

fortune he spent large amounts in collections and personally

conducted or sent out expeditions to various places. One of

the most important was sent to South America. He filled a

large house from cellar to topmost story with his collections

and resided in an adjoining one.

In 1871 he conducted an expedition to Kansas and espe-

cially investigated the Cretaceous beds of that State and col-

lected their fossils. In 1872 and 1873 he became connected

with the U. S. Geological Survey, and for the fossils visited

Wyoming in the former year and Colorado in the latter. In

1874 he joined the survey under the command of Lieut.

Wheeler, of the Engineers, and explored New Mexico.

The collections made during these expeditions were large,

and the unwearied industry and energy, as well as cares, of

Cope were rewarded with many well-preserved fossils. These

were described in many communications to the Academy of

Natural Sciences and the American Philosophical Society, and

later in large volumes published by the abe government

u Cope’s father died a 4, 1875.

838 The American Naturalist. [October,

as reports of the respective surveys with which he was con-

nected.

The various investigations thus opened were continned

through the succeeding years. His collections continued to

grow in spite of reduced means. He refused even to sell por-

tions for which he was offered liberal sums, and, at the cost of

personal discomfort, held on to them and made his home, for

much of the time, in the midst of them, having sold his resi-

dential house but kept his museum.

In 1878 he purchased the rights of the proprietors of the

AMERICAN NATURALIST and removed it to Philadelphia. Pro-

fessor Packard, one of the original proprietors, cooperated with

him in the editing of it for some years, and he was also as-

sisted by various eminent specialists. In this journal numer-

ous articles of all kinds, including reviews and editorial com-

ments, were published by him. His last words appeared in

numbers issued after his death, the leading article in the

number for June having been written shortly before his death ;

it treats of the remarkable mammals of South America, known

as Toxodontia. : et

In 1886 he received an appointment to a chair in the Uni-

versity of Pennsylvania and became professor of geology and

paleontology. Such a man naturally awakened the interest of

apt pupils, and he was a facile and entertaining lecturer.

From the stores of a rich memory he could improvise a dis-

course on almost any topic within the range of his varied

studies. His views were so much in advance of those in any

text-book that for his own convenience, no less than for the

benefit of his pupils, he felt compelled to prepare a “Syllabus

of lectures on geology and paleontology,” but only “ Part HI,

Paleontology of the Vertebrata,” was published. It appeared

in 1891, and is still a valuable epitome of the classification of

the vertebrates, recent as well as fossil, giving in dichotomous

tables the essential characters of all the groups above families

and also the names of all the families. His own industry and

investigations did much to render this antiquated in even six

years, and a new edition of work became necessary. ‘‘ Upon

the Tuesday preceding his death he sent to the press an ela-

1897.] A Chapter in the History of Science. 839

borate outline of his University lectures containing his latest

ideas of the classification of the Vertebrata.”

The enormous mass of publications constantly flowing from

-his own pen might lead one unacquainted with the author to

suppose that he was probably a recluse, but there were few men

of his intellectuality who were less disposed to seclude them-

selves. He enjoyed and gave enjoyment to intellectual com-

pany and was a brilliant conversationalist. He was especially

fond of academical meetings and was an unusually frequent

attendant at the meetings of the American Association as well

as of the National Academy of Sciences. His election to the

Presidency of the American Association was highly esteemed

by him and doubtless his address would have been a notable

one.

In February (1897) Cope’s health became seriously affected

by a nephritic disorder, which, it is said, “ might possibly have

been remedied by a surgical operation,” but to this he would

not submit.’* Notwithstanding failing health, he continued ac-

tive almost to the last. Finally, the insidious disease invaded

his entire system and he died on the 12th of April, in the room

he had long used as a study, surrounded by the objects of his

life-long attentions.

Such were the chief episodes of Cope’s individual life; the

facts known are few, and the record belongs rather to his

family than to us. But Cope’s real life was in his work, and to

the consideration of that work we may now proceed. Let us

adopt the order in which he took up the subjects of his inves-

tigations and successively look into his contributions to her-

petology (III), ichthyology (IV), mammalogy (V) and paleon-

tology (VI); we may then examine his philosophical views

and especially those relating to evolution (VII); finally we may

attempt to forecast the position he is destined to enjoy in the

history of science (VIII). To know him as he was we must

” Osborn in Science, May 7, p. 705.

18 According to Mr. Garrett,“ as regards the disorder of which he died, it was

Cystic, not nephritic, the post-mortem showing little disease of the kidneys. The

Surgical operation he intended to undergo, but became too ill before it was ac-

complished.”

840 : The American Naturalist. [October,

recognize his weakness as well as his strength. He himself

has wished this and has asked in the spirit of the Moor:

Speak of me as I am; nothing extenuate,

Nor set down aught in malice.

III.

The extent of Cope’s contributions to herpetology have been

referred to. Herpetology was his first love and continued to

be the favorite branch of science to his life’s end. His impress

on it was, in some respects at least, greater than on any other

of the sciences he cultivated, and doubtless the systems he in-

troduced, with some modifications, will be the most lasting.

He found herpetology an art; he left it a science: he found it

a device mainly for the naming of specimens; he left it the

expression of the coordination of all structural features. The

reformations he effected in the classification of the anurous

amphibians and the saurian reptiles were especially notable.

The anurans had been chiefly differentiated in groups on

account of the most superficial characters. Such were the

modes of fixation of the tongue or its absence, the develop-

ment of disk-like expansions of the tips of the toes or simply

attenuated toes, and the presence or absence of teeth in a jaw.

Cope proceeded to investigate the group in an anatomical man-

ner and reached entirely new conclusions. He found that im-

portant differences existed in the structure of the sternum, and

especially in the connection of the lateral halves. In the com-

mon toads and tree toads of Europe and North America the

so-called clavicle and coracoid of each side are “ connected by

a longitudinal arched cartilage which overlaps that of the

opposite side,” while in the common frogs the clavicles and

coracoids of both sides are connected by a single median car-

tilage. The former type is now known as the arciferous and

the latter as the firmisternal. Although Cope was the first to

appreciate the significance of those characters, he did not at

once fully realize their morphological value, the name Arcifera

having been originally applied by him only to types of that.

group having teeth. . Ultimately he did so, and his views have

stood the test of time and the latest critical investigations.

1897,] A Chapter in the History of Science. 841

He also found that the characters so revealed served to fix the

places in the system of the groups in question. In their early

stages the Firmisternials (or frogs and their relations) have the

shoulder-girdle moveable, and thus resemble the Arcifers

(toads, ete.), which have the opposite halves movable during

their whole life time; thus it became evident that the latter

are the lowest or most generalized forms, and the former more

advanced and higher in the system. The development of

teeth, which had been supposed by the earlier systematists to

be of paramount value, and which Cope, following in their

footsteps, had also originally unduly valued, has been found

to be of quite subordinate importance.

The lizards were also in former times distributed into fami-

lies and other groups on account of variations in superficial

or external characters, such as the form of the tongue, the ar-

rangement of the scales and the development of legs and feet.

Cope dissected examples of all the types he could obtain and

found that such superficial characters were often misleading,

and he proceeded to arrange them with reference to the pre-

_ponderance of all characters. The structure of the cranium

especially was analyzed, and the variations and concordances

in the development of various bones were tabulated. These

characters were supplemented by others derived from the ver-

tebree, the shoulder girdle, the teeth, the tongue and the pho-

lidosis. Familiarity with his subject enabled him almost in-

stinctively to assess the relative values of the different charac-

ters, and he obtained fitting equations which resulted ina

system which has received the approbation of the most compe-

tent judges to the present time.

The extent of Cope’s influence on herpetology may be to

some extent inferred from the catalogues of the richest collec-

tion of reptiles and amphibians in existence—the British

Museum’s. Descriptive catalogues of both the Anurans and

Saurians have been published at different times. In the early

catalogues are adopted the views current at the dates of pub-

lication-—1845 for the lizards ; 1858 for the batrachians, New

editions were published many years later and the systems of

Cope were adopted with slight modifications. In his catalogue

842 The American Naturalist. [October,

on the Batrachia salientia Mr. Boulenger, the author, remarked

that it appeared “undeniable that the principles of classifica-

tion laid down by Mr. Cope are more in accordance with the

natural affinities of the genera of tailless Batrachians than

those employed by other authors; this is amply proved by all

we know of their geographical distribution, development and

physiology.”

In an article published in advance of his catalogue of the

lizards, Boulenger states that the old classifications are, “on

the whole, as unnatural as can be” and that, “like Cope,

whose lizard families I regard as the most natural hitherto

‘proposed, I shall lay greater stress on osteological characters

and on the structure of the tongue.”

It was a long time, however, before Cope’s views became pop-

ular. Even anatomists of repute refused to follow him. One”

of them, for example, admitted that “skeletal characters are,

indeed, most valuable ones in leading us to detect the deepest

and truest affinities of vertebrates, but [he urged] these affini-

ties once found, it is very desirable that zoological classifica-

tion should not, if it can possibly be avoided, repose upon them

only, but rather on more external and more readily ascertain-

able characters.” He, therefore, ventured “ to propose a clas-

sification derived from that of Dr. Günther.”

Cope replied" by a fierce review of the work of Dr. Günther,

and concluded with the utterance that such views “ will only

interfere with the progress of knowledge if sincerely held and

believed.”

But such views were evidently sincerely believed and they

did retard the progress of science. An eminent Russian her-

petologist objected to the use of anatomical characters. He

especially protested against those employed by Boulenger

after Cope to the grouping of the lizards, and Mr. Boulenger con-

sidered it incumbent on himself to defend the practice of using

such characters ;" he aptly replied that the use of “ purely ex-

s en goat of the families of existing Lacertilia. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.

(5),

ee in Proc. Zool, Soc. are 1869, p. 2>1.

*Cope in Am. Journ. Sci. (3), I .

1" Boulenger in Ann. and Mag. Nat. ak (5), XIX, 385.

1897.] A Chapter in the History of Science. 843:

ternal characters * * * does not meet the requirements of

modern science,” and that classifications are not made simply

“for the convenience of beginners.’

At last, however, the principles of classification adopted by

Cope have become generally accepted, and doubtless this was

in no small degree hastened by their application to all the

amphibians and reptiles by Boulenger.

Cope’s attention to the extinct reptiles was excited by the

examination and consideration of a Carboniferous lizard-like

amphibian which he was requested in 1865 to report upon.

It was a new species which he named Amphibamus grandiceps

and considered to be the type of a new order to which the

name Xenorachia was applied, but which he subsequently

referred to the new comprehensive order Stegocephali.

He sought for specimens of the extinct species with as much

enthusiasm as he had for the recent. Extinct and living he

considered together and light was mutually reflected from the

two to guide him in the perfection of the entire system. In

1869 he gave expression to the results of his studies in a well

illustrated “Synopsis of the Extinct Batrachia, Reptilia and

Aves of North America.” This was supplemented in 1874 by

addenda and a “Catalogue of the air-breathing Vertebrata

from the coal measures of Ohio.”

A rich field was opened to him in 1877, when he received

the first instalment of reptilian remains from Texas, which

were at first considered to be of Triassic age, but subsequently

determined to be Permian. Successive instalments of amphi-

bian as well as reptilian skeletons enriched his collection, and

his investigations revealed a new and wonderful fauna rich

in species and often differing widely from any previously

known. These were described in many articles. The results

for the amphibians were summarized in 1884 in a memoir on

the “ Batrachia of the Permian period of North America.”

The Permian amphibians were found to vary much in the

composition of their backbones. Instead of having single cen-

tra arranged in a continuous row as in existing Vertebrates,

they had distinct bones on which were devolved portions of

the functions fulfilled by the centra of higher Vertebrates.

844 The American Naturalist. [October,

Some had “the vertebral bodies represented by three segments

each, a basal intercentrum and two lateral pleurocentra ; ”

these were named “ Ganocephali” and “ Rhachitomi.” Some

“differ remarkably from all other Vertebrata in having be-

tween the centra another set of vertebral bodies, so that each

arch has two corresponding bodies ;” these were called “ Em-

bolomeri.”

In tracing the development of these bones, Cope came to the

conclusion that they were only partially represented in higher

or more specialized types; they did not become consolidated,

but one or the other became reduced and finally lost or at least

greatly atrophied. In the living amphibians the vertebral

centra are homologous only with the intercentra, while, on the

contrary, the centra of the reptiles, birds and mammals are

represented by the pleurocentra of the Rhachitomes.

The studies of Cope on those classes which had earliest at-

tracted his attention were more nearly completed than for any

others. Many years ago he had contemplated the publication

of monographs of the amphibians and reptiles of North Amer-

ica and happily he had at last finished his work.

In 1889 his monograph of the “ Batrachia of North Amer-

ica” was given to the world as a Bulletin of the United States

National Museum (No. 34). It forms a goodly volume of 525

pages illustrated by 81" plates and 120 figures inserted in the

text. No large country has a more elaborate and scientific

exposition of the class than is given in this volume. A syn-

opsis is furnished of all the families and genera wherever

found, and detailed descriptions are supplied for all the groups

and species represented in the zoological realm of North Amer-

ica, 31 genera and 107 species are recognized, and of these

Cope had first made known about a quarter, 7 of the genera

and 27 of the species having been described by himself.

Shortly before his death, and during his last visit to Wash-

ington he delivered to the National Museum the report on all

the reptiles of North America which he had been long prepar-

ing. This was prepared on the model of his “ Batrachia of

North America,” but will, of course, be a much larger work,

' 18 The last plate is nambered 86, but five were cancelled, 80, 81, 82, 84 and 85.

1897.] A Chapter in the History of Science. 845

inasmuch as there are nearly three times as many reptiles as

batrachians.” His last elaborate memoirs dealt with special

anatomical features of the serpents and lizards, which he ex-

amined with the view of perfecting the system of those groups.

IV.

In 1864 Cope” became especially interested in the fresh-water

- fishes of the United States, and then as well as in succeeding

years published enumerations and descriptions of many spe-

cies. His first papers in 1864 and 1865 were “Ona blind

Silurid from Pennsylvania” and a “ Partial catalogue of the

cold-blooded Vertebrata of Michigan ;” in 1868 he published

“On the distribution of fresh-water fishes in the Allegheny

region of southwestern Virginia,” and in 1869 appeared a

“Synopsis of the Cyprinide of Pennsylvania.” In addition

to these, various minor papers were published, and in some of

them marine forms were considered.

When in Europe he had purchased a large collection of

skeletons of fishes from all parts of the world prepared by Pro-

fessor Joseph Hyrtl, of Vienna, one of the most skillful practi-

cal anatomists of the day. He had a number of other skele-

tons made te represent missing types. With these as a basis

he proceeded to recast the classification of fishes. The first

contribution to the subject was embodied in an introductory

chapter of his “Contribution to the Ichthyology of the Lesser

Antilles,” published early in 1871.

The same chapter, with the same title, “ Observations on the

Systematic Relations of Fishes,” but with some modifications

and additions, was later published in the Proceedings of the

American Association for the Advancement of Science for 1871.

his was a notable paper and replete with original observa-

tions of value. It was not, however, up to the standard of

his work on amphibians and reptiles. The subject, indeed,

was too vast and only a superficial examination was made of

19 Cope’s monograph of the reptiles will not include the tortoises, those having

kanea left to Dr. G. Baur to monograph.

A short unentitled communication (before alluded to) was — as early

as 1863.

846 The American Naturalist. [October,

special parts. It was not a classification based on the exami-

nation of the entire structure, but rather an exposition of the

development of a few particular characters, which more expe-

rience subsequently convinced him were of less value than he

had supposed. Nevertheless, in some respects the proposed

classification was much in advance of those previously adopted, .

and useful hints were given for the further improvement of

the system.

Later Cope followed up this attempt at the reformation of

the ichthyological system with several others especially treat-

ing of extinct types. One of them, “On the classification of

the extinct fishes of the lower types,” was published in the

Proceedings of the American Association for 1877. The

results of his studies were summarized, in 1889, in “ A synop-

sis of the families of Vertebrata,” and two years afterwards

(1891) with modifications, in an article “ On the non-actinop-

terygian Teleostomi.” These results were very valuable, and

attention was for the first time directed to the importance and

morphological significance of the skeletal fin structures of the

ancient fishes long confounded under the name of Ganoids.

Instead of this single order (or subclass) of the old systematists,

he named four superorders of the Teleostomi or true fishes,

and recognized seven orders, including the old ganoids after

eliminating the Lepidosteids and Amiids, which were referred

to the Actinopterygians. Only two of the seven orders are

represented by existing forms—one (Cladistia) by the bichirs

of Africa, and the other (Chondrostei) by the sturgeons. |

His work on the extinct fishes was incomparably better than

any that had been done before in the United States. He far

surpassed all his predecessors, not only by his knowledge of

morphological details manifest in the extinct as well as living

forms, but by his keen philosophical instinct and taxonomic

tact. But this philosophical instinct was sometimes at fault,

and occasionally he indulged in the wildest speculations, for

which he has, not unjustly, been taken to task. Yet even his

blunders were the result of the facility of his mind in seizing

and adapting the latest utterances of science. One notorious

case may be given. The great Russian embryologist Kowal-

1897.] A Chapter in the History of Science. 847

evsky published a memoir sustaining the thesis that the Tun-

icates were members of the vertebrate phylum, and that the

larval stage of most of the species had the homological equiv-

alent of the backbone of the true vertebrates. Cope foresaw

the morphological consequences of this view and sought the

vertebrates nearest the Tunicates. He settled upon some

strange forms of the Silurian and Devonian times known as

Pteraspids and Cephalaspids. They were the earliest known

of vertebrates and, therefore, likely to be the most primitive

in structure. Most of them had a shell-like encasement, com-

posed of bone-like plates. He happened to find illustrations

of the living Chelyosoma, a true Tunicate, having a system of

plate-like indurations of the integument, somewhat similar in

appearance to those of some of the ancient fishes. It was as-

sumed that this mere superficial similarity indicated genetic

relationship. To those acquainted with the structure of

Chelyosoma this approximation seemed strange indeed ; its

anatomy was known and the form is simply a well marked

relation of the typical Ascidiids, but highly specialized by the

development of integumentary plate-like horny indurations.

Histologically and otherwise they were very different from the

plates of the extinct armored vertebrates. Cope’s guess was

simply the result of the tendency to jump at conclusions which

he was constantly obliged to curb, and unfortunately he

rushed into print before he had timetothink. He soon recon-

sidered the case with calmer mind, and abandoned his hypo-

thesis. Few men were ever more willing to reconsider evi-

dence and retrace false steps than was he.

In spite of errors of detail and somewhat hasty generaliza-

tion the ichthyological labors of Cope were unusually valuable

contributions to science, and the progress of ichthyology has

‘been much accelerated, not only by these labors, but by the

investigations they challenged.

Cope’s attention was early drawn to the mammals. His

first published article (1863) was a description of a supposed

new Shrew found in New Hampshire, and in 1865 he described

848 The American Naturalist. [October,

various cetaceans. In 1868 he began the collection and inves-

tigation of the fossil mammals of the western territory, and

thenceforward devoted the larger share of his attention to the

description and restoration of the numerous new species which

he from time to time brought to light. The previous investi-

gators of the extinct mammals of America had almost exclu-

sively confined themselves to descriptions and illustrations of

the crania and dentition, but a new era was introduced when

Marsh and Cope sent out exploring expeditions or themselves

collected. No parts of skeleton were neglected ; all were col-

lected. Gradually the numerous bones from different parts of

the skeleton were identified, and finally many of the beasts of

old were resurrected into skeletons almost as complete as those

just divested of muscles.

The discoveries resulting from such thorough work quite

modified or even overturned old conceptions. It became evi-

dent that there was a great contrast between the development

“of the mammals and that of the invertebrates, and even,

though in a less degree, of fishes. It appeared that there was

a much more rapid process of evolution for the mammals than

for the lower classes. All the mammals of the oldest of the

Tertiary periods were strange and very unlike those of recent

times, and no descendants of even the same families lived to

be the contemporaries of civilized man. The views of the

founder of vertebrate paleontology were also to a considerable

extent subverted. Cuvier taught that there was always a co-

-ordination between the various systems of the animal frame

and that from the remains or impress of one part the approx-

imate structure of the other parts could be inferred. He even

pushed this doctrine to such an extreme that he overlooked

some obvious counter facts, One such case is so remarkable

because it originated with Cuvier and was endorsed by Hux-

ley” that it is worthy of mention here, and Huxley’s introduc-

tion to it and translation of it may.be given. Huxley himself

protests against the too literal application of Cuvier’s law, and

‘recalls Cuvier’s own reserve:

2 Huxley: ‘Introduction to the Classification of Animals,” 1869, in first chap-

iter “On Classification in General.”

1897.] A Chapter in the History of Science. 849

Cuvier, the more servile of whose imitators are fond of citing his mis-

taken doctrines as to the nature of the methods of paleontology against

the conclusions of logic and of common sense, has put this so strongly

that I cannot refrain from quoting his words.

“ But I doubt if any one would have divined, if untaught by observation,

that all ruminants have the foot cleft, and that they alone have it. I

doubt if any one would have divined that there are frontal horns only in

this class; that those among them which have sharp canines for the most

part lack horns.

However, since these relations are constant, they must have some suf-

ficient cause; bnt since we are ignorant of it, we must make good the

defect of the theory by means of observation. It enables us to establish

empirical laws, which become almost as certain as rational laws, when

they rest on sufficiently repeated observations ; so that now, whgso sees

merely the print of a cleft foot may conclude that the animal which left

this impression ruminated, and this conclusion is as certain as any other

in physics or morals. This footprint alone, then, yields to him who ob-

serves it, the form of the teeth, the form of the jaws, the form of the

vertebrae, the form of all the bones of the legs, of the thighs, of the

shoulders, and of the pelvis of the animal which has passed by. It is a

surer mark than all those of Zadig.”

The first perusal of these remarks would occasion surprise

to some and immediately induce a second, more careful read-

ing to ascertain whether they had not been misunderstood.

Some men, with much less knowledge than either Cuvier or

Huxley, may at once recall living exceptions to the positive

Statements as to the coordination of the “ foot cleft” with the

other characters specified. One of the most common of domes-

ticated animals—the hog—would come up before the “ mind’s

eye,” if not the actual eye at the moment, to refute any such

correlation as was claimed. Nevertheless, notwithstanding

the fierce controversial literature centered on Huxley, no allu-

sion appears to have been made to the lapsus. Yet every one

will admit that the hog has the “foot cleft” as much as any

ruminant, but the “form of the teeth ” and the form of some

vertebree are quite different from those of the ruminants, and,

of course, the multiple stomach and adaptation for rumination

do not exist in the hog. That any one mammalogist should

make such a slip is not very surprising, but that a second

-® Ossemens fossiles, ed. 4°, tome, 1", p. 184.

850 The American Naturalist. [October,

equally learned should follow in his steps is asingular psycho-

logical curiosity.

I need scarely add that the law of correlation applied by

Cuvier to the structures of ruminants entirely fails in the case

of many extinct mammals discovered since Cuvier’s days.

Zadig would have been completely nonplussed if he could

have seen the imprint of an Agriocherid, a Uintatherid or a

Menodontid.

I have given this quotation for two reasons : first, to indicate

how the increase of our knoweldge has revolutionized old

conceptions; and second, to show how even the ablest of men

may stumble.

Cope has been much criticised for the mistakes and false

generalizations he made. Unquestionably he did make many.

But error seems to be inseparable from investigation, and if

he made more than the other great masters he covered more

ground and did more work. He was also, it must be admit-

ted, more hasty than some others in that he availed himself

of the more frequent means of publication he enjoyed.

The great merit of Cope’s work on mammals is that he al-

ways considered the old and new—the extinct and recent—

forms together. He refused to be bound by consistency or by

precedent, either set by himself or others. Fresh discoveries

opened new vistas to him, and he modified his views from

time to time and as often as he received new evidence.

He introduced many new families in the system and sought

to improve the system by the comparison of all the elements

of the skeleton. He came to the conclusion that the affinities

of the ungulate quadrupeds were best expressed by the manner

of articulation of the bones of the carpus and tarsus; he asso-

ciated those having the “carpal and usually tarsal bones 10

linear series ” in a great order which he called Taxeopoda, and

contrasted them with the Proboscidea and typical Ungulata,

which he named anew Diplarthra. In the Taxeopoda he

gathered many extinct families and associated with them

forms of the existing fauna known as the Hyracoidea, Dau-

bentonioidea, Quadrumana and Anthropomorpha. I cannot

altogether assent to this collocation inasmuch as I think the

1897.] . A Chapter in the History of Science. 851

common characteristics of the three groups last mentioned—

especially the structure of the brain and the development of

the posterior cornua of the ventricles as well as calcarine sulci

—justify the old order Primates. Nevertheless an important

character was first appreciated in the composition of the podial

bones, and fresh insight was obtained into the relations of

ancient types. ;

I can only name a few more of Cope’s discoveries in this

connection. One was the generalization of “ trituberculy,” or

the original development of three tubercles to molar teeth,

and that subsequent modifications of the corresponding teeth

were based on this original plan. Another was the remarka-

ble Phenacodus of the Eocene, which was considered to be

nearly in a line of descent for the Ungulates as well as the

series culminating in man and which led him to the concep-

tion of the taxeopodous group.

The past history and genealogy of the Camels and their

relations were likewise elucidated. In the present epoch only

two nearly related types exist separated by half the globe—

the true camels of central and northern Asia and the llamas

of the Peruvian Andes. Cope revealed numerous species from

various Tertiary beds and showed that the type was originally

richly developed in America.

Paleontology, from more than one point of view, may be di-

vided into Invertebrata and Vertebrate. The subjects of the

former are generally to be found in an approximately com-

plete condition so far as the exterior is concerned, and early

attracted the attention of investigators, often little familiar with

recent zoology, and received names. The subjects of the lat-

ter—especially the higher types, as mammals, birds and rep-

tiles—are rarely found, except in a fragmentary condition.

Special knowledge of osteology, even to its minutest details, is

requisite to successfully deal with such remains. Consequently

* Prof. Osborn in a recent letter has justly remarked, that ‘‘in the mammals I

hardly feel you do Cope sufficient justice, his work has been so potent.” The

exigencies of time and space alone prevented me from doing that justice, and I

may remedy that defect later.

852 The American Naturalist. + [October,

the fossil vertebrates of the United States were neglected and

left to the few who had cultivated the requisite knowledge to

deal with them.

Another reason existed for the tardy attention to Vertebrate

paleontology, which continued till nearly the last quarter of

our present century in the United States. No deposits con-

taining many fossil vertebrate remains had become known in

the east. Zoologists interested in the past and in the geneal-

ogy of existing forms lamented the poverty of the United

States, which contrasted with the richness of some parts of

Europe. It was even thought that there was no hope of find-

ing here such trophies of the past asthe beds of the Paris

Basin or those of Grecian Pikermi had yielded to European

paleontologists. But all this was to be changed. Rumor had

long before hinted that numerous skeletal remains could be

found incertain parts of the wild west, but the information was

very vague. Enough was known, however, to induce Professor

Marsh to visit certain deposits of which he had heard. In 1870

he explored an Eocene lake-basin in Wyoming, drained by

the Green River, the main tributary of the Colorado, and there-

in found numerous bones, belonging to almost all parts of the

skeleton, of some remarkable gigantic mammals which he

called Dinocerata. The results of this exploration interested

Cope in the highest degree. He visited the same region in

1872, and thenceforth his attention to the Vertebrate paleon-

tology of the western States and Territories was never inter-

rupted. An intense rivalry arose between Professor Marsh

and himself which, in time, it must be confessed, became very

bitter. Nevertheless, as in most quarrels respecting facts, in-

vestigations were provoked by mutual recriminations which

resulted in a more speedy accumulation of data and a more

critical examination of those data than would have been likely

under less perturbed conditions. Most of those data relate to

morphological and anatomical considerations, and therefore

belong rather to mammalogy and herpetology than to geol-

gy-

The relations of the ancient forms to each other in point of

time; to those of other lands, and to those whose remains

1897.] A Chapter in the History of Science. 853

were imbedded in other rocks, had necessarily to be investi-

gated. The earliest conclusions of Cope were brought together

and published in 1879 in a memoir on “ The Relations of the

Horizons of Extinct Vertebrata of Europe and North Amer-

ica.”* He attempted therein to synchronize, or rather, homo-

taxially correlate the various ancient faunas of North America

and “ West Europe” from the “ Primordial” to the “ Pliocene.”

Naturally the greater part of the memoir was devoted to the

consideration of the Tertiary divisions; of these he admitted

for the American faunas six primary divisions, and four of these

were dichotomously subdivided. Of the primary divisions

three were referred to the Eocene, one (White River) to the

Oligocene, one (Loup Fork) to the Miocene, and one to the

Pliocene. The exposition thus made represents views not very

different from those now held, although, of course,{modifica-

tions in details have since been necessary.

The evolution of the various animal, and especially mam-

malian types, were also continually the subject of Cope’s re-

searches, and he attempted to trace the passage from those of

the most ancient periods to those of later ones.”

VIL

Cope was not satisfied with the study of morphological de-

tails or simple taxonomy. He aspired to know how animals

came into existence; why they varied as they did, and what

laws determined their being. His was an eminently philo-

sophical mind, but at the same time with a decided tendency

to metaphysical speculation. In one of his earliest papers he

manifested this tendency and it persistod through life. It is

with much hesitation that I venture to give an exposition of

his most salient views, for I must confess I do not altogether

like his philosophy and am able to subscribe to it only in part.

* Bull. U. S. Survey Terr., V, 33-54.

i a eah been reminded we aro Osborn of aa “ t disqovery of the Puerco—

also the definition of the John Day and Deep river beds,” Prof. Osborn “adds,

that “ practically the whole fauna of the Wasatch is also Cope’s.” I recognized

these facts, but, as in herpetology and ichthyology, was obliged to limit my

address and to refrain from going into details.

854 The American Naturalist. [October,

I cannot but wish that one of his numerous disciples could

have been chosen for this task. But I must not pass it by, for it

is the most characteristic feature of Cope’s work and the one

he most esteemed.

Cope began his public scientific career, it will be remem-

bered, in the same year in which Darwin’s long studies had

fructified into his “ Origin of Species.”

As was quite natural with his keen instincts, Cope early

adopted the doctrine of transmutation of species and recognized

the truth that all the animals of the present epoch are de-

scendents from those of past times with modifications which

separate them as species, and eventually as representatives of

genera, of families and orders differing from the earlier ones

as we retrace the the steps of Time farther and farther back.

He was not, however, satisfied with Darwin’s theory, and de-

nied that natural selection was a sufficient factor for differen-

tiation. He would not admit that animals were passive sub-

jects and that the slight variations which were manifested in

the progeny of species were sufficient to enable Nature to select

from and to fit for future conditions. He contended that the

volition and endeavors of an animal had much to do with

- future progeny as well as its own brief life. In short, he

claimed that characters acquired by animals through their

own efforts or forced on them by various external agencies or

accidents might be transmitted to their offspring. He further,

first in a chapter in his “ Synopsis of the Cyprinide of Penn-

sylvania,” outlined, and later, in “ The Origin of Genera,” he

elaborated, a peculiar theory characterized mainly by what he

called (with Professor Hyatt) “the law of acceleration and re-

tardation” in development. Darwin complained that he could

never understand this law, and Cope complained that Darwin

had not stated his views correctly in an attempted abstract. I

therefore give Cope’s views, restated in his own language,

summarizing them years afterwards. “The following doc-

trines,” he says, were taught: ”

First, that the development of new characters has been accomplished

by an acceleration or retardation in the growth of the parts changed. This

was demonstrated by reference to a class of facts, some of which were new, -

which gave ground for the establishment of the new doctrine.

1897.] A Chapter in the History of Science. 855

Second, that of exact parallelism between the adult of one individual or

set of individuals and a transitional stage of one or more other individ-

uals. This doctrine is distinct from that of inexact parallelism which had

already been stated by von Baer. And that this law expresses the origin

of genera and higher groups, because,

Third, they can only be distinguished by single characters when all their

representatives come to be known

Fourth, that genera and various other groups have descended, not

from a single generalized genus, etc., of the same group, but from cor-

responding genera of one or more othergroups. This was called the doc-

trine of homologous groups.

Fifth, the doctrine that these homologous groups belong to different

geological periods, and,

Sixth, to different geographical areas, which, therefore, in some instan-

ces, are,

Seventh, related to each other in a successional way like the epochs of

geological time.

f these doctrines it may be observed that the first and second are now

the common property of evolutionists, and are recognized everywhere as

matter of fact. The names which I selected to express them have, how-

ever, only come into partial use. The author believes that, although the

doctrine was vaguely shadowed out in the minds of students prior to the

publication of this essay, it had not previously been clearly expressed,

nor been reduced to a demonstration. Of the truth of the doctrine the

author is more than ever convinced, and he believes that paleontological

discovery has demonstrated it in many instances, and that other demon-

Stratious will follow. The fonsth Propestion (that of homologous groups)

is now held as a hypothesis explaining the phylogeny of various groups of

animals. For the descent of one homologous group from another, the

term polyphyletic has been coined. It remains to be seen whether the

doctrine is of universal application or not. That homologous groups be-

long to different geological horizons, as stated under the fifth head, has

been frequently demonstrated sincs the publication of the essay. That

the sixth proposition is true in a certain number of cases is well known,

and it follows that the seventh proposition is also true in those cases.

The latter hypothesss, which was originally advanced by Professor Agas-

8iz, is, however, only partially true, and the advance of paleontological

study has not demonstrated that it has had a very wide application in

geological time.

A proposition which was made prominent in this essay was that the -

prevalence of non-adaptive characters in animals proves the inadequacy

of hypotheses which ascribe the survival of types to their superior adap-

tion to their environment. Numerous facts of this kind undoubtedly in-

856 The American Naturalist. [October,

dicate little or no activity of a selective agency in nature, and do point to

the existence of an especial developmental force acting by a direct influ-

ence on growth. The action on this force is the acceleration and retarda-

tion appealed to inthis paper. The force itself was not distinguished until |

the publication of the essay entitled “ The Method of Creation” [1871],

where it was named growth-force or bathmism. The energetic action of

this force accounts for the origin of characters, whether adaptive or non-

adaptive, the former differing from the latter in an intelligent direction,

which adapts them to the environment. The numerous adaptive char-

acters of animals had by that time engaged the attention of the author,

and he found that they are even more numerous than the non-adaptive.

Some of the latter were accounted for on the theory of the ‘‘ complement-

ary location of growth-force.

We can only consider the “law of acceleration and retarda-

tion.” Again it behooves us to seek his own definition :

a. The succession of construction of parts of a complex was originally

a succession of identical repetitions ; and grade influence merely deter-

mined the number and location of such repetitions.

b. Acceleration signifies addition to the number and location of such

repetitions during the period preceding maturity, as compared with the

preceding generation, and retardation signifies a reduction of the number

of such repetitions during the same time.%6

His meaning may best be inferred from his application to

mankind. This was done in the following terms in 1872:

Let an application be made to the origin of the human species. It is:

scarcely necessary to point out at the start the fact, universally admitted

by anatomists, that man and monkeys belong to the same order of Mam-

malia, and differ in those minor characters, generally used to define a

“ family ” in zoology.

Now, these differences are as follows: In man we have the large head

with prominent forehead and short jaws ; short canine teeth without 1m-

terruption behind (above); short arms and thumb of hand not oppo-

sable. In monkeys we have the reverse of all these characters. But

what do we see in young monkeys? A head and brain as large, rela-

tively, as in many men, with jaws not more prominent than in some

races ; the arms not longer than in the long-armed races of men, that is,

a little beyond half way along the femur. * * * Atthis age of the

individual the distinctive characters are therefore those of homo, with the

exception of the opposable thumb of the hind foot, and the longer canine

tooth, * * *

* Proc. Am, Phil. Soc., 1871; Origin of the Fittest, p. 182.

™ Penn. Monthly Mag., 1872; Origin of the Fittest, p. 11, 1887.

1897,] A Chapter in the History of Science. 857

Now, in the light of various cases observed, where members of the

same species or brood are found at adult age to differ in the number of

immature characters they possess, we may conclude that man originated

in the following way : that is, by a delay or retardation of growth of the

body and fore limbs as compared with the head ; retardation of the jaws

compared with the brain case, and retardation in the protrusion of the

canine teeth.

There is a good reason for thinking that fallacy is involved

in this argument, and that quite a different interpretation

should be put on the evolution of charasters in question. It

is not the fore limbs that are retarded in man, but the hind

limbs have become enlarged (compare the adult and the in-

fant). There is not retardation, of the jaws, but a special tele-

ological adaptation. Man has, for the most part, at least, dis-

continued the use of his teeth for war-fare, and, as a result of

diminished use, the canines have become reduced and the

diastemata of the dental series obliterated. The brain has

grown after birth and become enlarged, and, as a conse-

quence, the brain case has extended forward—the reverse of

what occurs in the apes. Concomitantly with the diminished

use of the teeth and jaws, the masseter and temporal muscles

have become reduced, and the sagittal and lambdoidal ridges

have consequently become atrophied. The ecarinate rounded

voluminous calvarium is the result.

It has been claimed that the young of higher species “are

constantly accelerating their development.” In man, how-

ever, development is retarded, inasmuch as infancy and ju-

venility are prolonged far beyond the periods observed in our

simian relatives.

Such examples as this give cause to believe that the “law

of acceleration and retardation” has been at least unduly ex-

tended. Acceleration and retardation are, however, to a large

extent, terms which express facts of evolution; whether the

word law is applicable may depend on the meaning one gives

the word.

The transmission of acquired characters was one of the ac-

cepted and most cherished dogmas of Cope, and the belief in

transmissibility of such characters is an essential of the ereed

858 The American Naturalist. [October,

of so many who have become his followers in America that a

special school came into existence known as the Neo-Lamarck-

ian and also as the American School. My own prejudices

have inclined me to that school. Nevertheless, when I have

divested myself of such prejudices as well as I could, I have

been compelled to admit that the evidence of the heredity of

acquired characters was rather weak. There was, indeed, evi-

dence for, as well as against, but that against the doctrine of

the transmissibility of acquired characters seems to be the most

weighty.

It is to be understood that the acquired characters consid-

ered in this connection are such as have been developed dur-

ing post-natal life as a result of endeavors of the animal or of

the influence of external agencies. The evidence presented

has been mostly in support of the contention that the characters

acquired have been directly inherited by offspring, and conse-

quently the transition from the form not possessing the char-

acter to one having it is rapid. The evidence adduced has not

been conclusive, to say the least. There is, apparently,a germ

of truth in the proposition that acquired characters are trans-

mitted, but in a modified sense, and the case has been weak-

ened rather than strengthened by the evidence offered.

The evidence for inheritance of acquired characters was fre-

quently given by Cope, and in his last published work—“ The

Primary Factors of Organic Evolution ”—he marshalled the

testimonies of many witnesses with his accustomed skill. He

evoked “ evidence from embryology,” “evidence from paleon-

tology,” “evidence from breeding ;” he considered the “ char-

acters due to nutrition,” “characters due to exercise of func-

tion,” “characters due to disease,” “ characters due to mutila-

tion and injuries” and “ characters due to regional influence ; ”

he inquired into “ the conditions of itheritance,” and he fought

against the “objections to the doctrine of inheritance of ac-

quired characters.” I have gone over all this evidence and

yet I have not been convinced that the eontention has been

sustained that character acquired during the external life of

an animal are transmitted. Many cases are alleged to sustain

_ the “inheritance of characters due to mutilation and injur-

1897.] A Chapter in the History of Science. 859

ies.” Some of these may be considered as mere coincidences;

others provoke skepticism for one reason or other. To discuss

them would be out of place here. But at least we may meet

evidence with counter-evidence.

On the one hand, all the data and experiments recapitula-

ted in the cases enumerated concern only two, or, at most, very

few, generations of the animals in question, and were within

the compass of a single man’s life-time.

On the other hand, we have data and observations of the

most reliable nature, and of an extraordinary compass. These

have resulted not from experiments for the determination of a

specific question, but from observances of a religious character.

They were really in the nature of surgical operations, but for

our purpose may be looked upon as experiments, and have the

value of contrived experiments. In no other field has such a

series of disinterested experiments been available. They were

conducted on countless millions of mankind and for thousands

of years. The subjects experimented upon were kept isolated

from others alike by their own prejudices and the prejudices

of their neighbors. Circumcision is the term applied to the

experiments in question.

For about 4,000 years circumcision has been practiced on a

gigantic scale. Every male child among the Jews was opera-

ted upon, not only in Palestine, but wherever representatives

of the race had wandered and adhered to their religion ; reli-

gion itself was involved in the operation and it was regarded

as a holy rite; the most scrupulous attention was paid to de-

tails. The operation was performed eight days after birth,

and consequently there could be no functional activity of the

tissues concerned. But after 4,000 years the new-born boys of

the race come into the world with the special integument de-

veloped as much as in those of other races. Even the princi-

ciple of atrophy through disuse has not become manifest in the

case.

Other evidence, it seems to me, is the result of confounding

the potentiality of a function with its manifestation. I allude

to one set of examples on account of the interest of the cases,

and I do so with the deference due to the eminence and abil-

860 The American Naturalist. [October,

ity of the gentleman who has furnished the evidence. That

evidence has been collected under the head of “ inheritance of

characters due to the exercise of function.” The evolution of

the American trotting-horse was considered. It was recorded

that “ by 1810 the taste for trotting as a sport had * * * in-

creased here, and in 1818 it became a recognized sport under

specific rules.” * * * “At the end of 1824, six years after the

first accepted three-minute record, the record had fallen to

2:34.” * * * “By 1848 the record was lowered to 2:294; the

next decade lowered the record five seconds.” Finally, at the

close of 1895, the record had been further lowered to 2:033.

* * * It is deduced from these premises that “ there is noth-

ing whatever in the actual phenomena observed anywhere

along the line of this development of speed that would lead us

to even suspect that the changes due to exercise of function

had not been a factor in the evolution.” But to me it seems

that there is no evidence to show that the speed attained was

other than would have resulted from taking the same animals

untrained and then speeding the last. The speed is, of course,

simply the expression of functional adaption, and the horses

were selected merely because, by their manifestation, they

showed that they had the co-ordination of structural and psy-

chological characters needed for the manifestation of the func-

` tion, The manifestation guided the breeder to the selection

of the animals. The successful animals were the pick of thou-

sands unknown to fame. à

But there is much in the history of the development of ani-

mals that seems to lead to the belief that eventually modifica-

tions may be due in part to acts of representatives of the phy-

lum to which they belong. It is difficult to believe that some

structural features are simply the result of natural selection

operating on chance variations. An application of the doc-

trine of chances to some such cases appears to be adverse to

the conception that they represent the influence of natural

selection unaided,

A feature characteristic of most cave animals of widely di-

verse groups and classes is the atrophy of the eyes, and it seems

-to be most logical to attribute this to disuse of those organs 1n

1897.] A Chapter in the History of Science. 861

remote progenitors, and to assume that the atrophy may have

resulted from a failure of nourishment by the nutrient fluid of

the organs on account of the loss of functional activity rather

than to selection by nature of forms with successively dimin-

ishing eyes. The presence of eyes in most cases certainly

would scarcely be an element of disadvantage to animals, and

it may be allowable to invoke some other agency than chance

selection. We may be justified in postulating that the contin-

uous disuse of the organs would in time react on the nutrition

of the parts affected, and finally atrophy or disappearauce

would result. Like explanation would be applicable to the

innumerable cases of atrophy of parts known to the naturalist.

But if cessation of nutrition culminates in final atrophy, in-

creased nutrition of parts may result in hypertrophy and in-

creased nutrition may be the concomitant of increased activity

of parts. The exercise of such parts continued for many gen-

erations may react on the organization and the progeny at

length be affected thereby. Of such cases Cope adduced

many examples. The feet of the horse line furnish illustra-

tions. The existing horse has the median toes and hoofs

greatly hypertrophied and the lateral ones atrophied, but the

Temote ancestors had feet of nearly the same general pattern

as the rhinoceroses and tapirs. Atrophy of the lateral digits

has progressed inversely to hypertrophy of the middłe ones.

An analogous line of development culminating in feet super-

ficially much like those of the horse was followed by another -

quite remote family of hoofed mammals, the Prototheriids of

South America.

The idea of acceleration and retardation was associated by

Cope with the idea that the course of evolution was determined

from the beginning of things, and that life, to use his own

words, is “ energy directed by sensibility or by a mechanism which

has originated under the direction of sensibility.” He maintained

that “ consciousness as well as life preceded organism,” and he

-called this conception “the hypothesis of archesthetism.” This

idea I refer to especially because it was broached in his vice-

presidential address, delivered at the meeting of the American

862 The American Naturalist. [October,

Association for the Advancement of Science, in Philadelphia,

in 1884.”

I am, myself, unable to comprehend consciousness except as

a product or result of organization, and those who wish to

learn more about Cope’s views respecting the question must

refer to one of his many papers. ;

Whatever may be thought of Cope’s philosophical views, hi

presentation of them is always interesting, and some of them

are illustrated with a wealth of facts that renders his commu-

nications valuable as repertories of well digested information.

His first special paper, on “ The Origin of Genera,” published

as early as 1868, is especially noteworthy for the mass of mor-

phological data contained in it, and for the apt manner in

which they are tabulated. `

VII.

I venture to conclude with some reflections on the rank that

may be assigned to Cope in the world of science.

Among those that have cultivated the same branches of sci-

ence that he did—the study of the recent as well as the extinct

Vertebrates—three naturalists have acquired unusual celeb-

rity. Those are Cuvier, Owen and Huxley.

Cuvier excelled all of his time in the extent of his know-

ledge of the anatomical structure of animals and appreciation

of morphological details, and first systematically applied them

to and combined them with the remains of extinct Vertebrates, —

especially the mammals and reptiles. He was the real founder

of Vertebrate paleontology.

Owen, a disciple of Cuvier, followed in his footsteps, and,

with not unequal skill in reconstruction and with comman

of ampler materials, built largely on the structure that Cuvier

had begun.

Huxley covered as wide a field as Cuvier and Owen, and

likewise combined knowledge of the details of structure of the

recent forms with acquaintance with the ancient ones. Huis

actual investigations were, however, less in amount than those

of either his predecessors. He excelled in logical and forcible

presentation of facts.

38 Origin of Fittest, p. 425.

1897.] A Chapter in the History of Science. 863,

Cope covered a field as extensive as any of the three. His

knowledge of structural details of all the classes of Vertebrates

was probably more symmetrical than that of any of those with

whom he is compared; his command of material was greater

than that of any of the others; his industry was equal to

Owen’s; in the clearness of his conceptions he was equalled

by Huxley alone; in the skill with which he weighed dis-

covered facts, in the aptness of his presentation of those facts,

and in the lucid methods by which the labor of the student

was saved and the conception of the numerous propositions

facilitated, he was unequalled. His logical ability may have

been less than than that of Huxley and possibly of Cuvier.

He has been much blamed on account of the constant changes

of his views and because he was inconsistent. Unquestion-

ably he did change his views very often. Doubtless some of

those changes were necessitated by too great haste in formula-

tion and too great rashness in publication. The freedom to

change which he exercised, and which was exercised too little

by at least one of his predecessors, was an offset to his rash-

ness. He exercised.a proper scientific spirit in refusing to be

always consistent at the expense of truth.

His reputation at present is much inferior, at least among

the people at large, to those of the men with whom he has

been compared. Immediate reputation depends on various

circumstances, some of which are quite adventitious, and it is

often long before men find their true levels. It is scarcely”

premature to prophesy that Cope’s reputation will grow and

that in the future history of science his place will be at least

as large as that of any of his predecessors.

864 The American Naturalist. [October,

NEW OBSERVATIONS ON THE ORIGIN OF THE

GALAPAGOS ISLANDS, WITH REMARKS

ON THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF

THE PACIFIC OCEAN.

By G. Gave, PED.,

ASSOCIATE-PROFESSOR OF PALEONTOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO.

No. II.

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS IN

THE PACIFIC AND INDO-PACIFIC OCEANS.

We will now examine the distribution of a number of ani-

mals in the Pacific, in order to find out how this distribution

agrees with the theories of the origin of this Ocean.

Ortmann” has shown that there is a uniform Indo-pacific

Litoral Region.

Distribution of Pocillopora Lam.

Pocillopora,” a coral of the Madreporaria, is found only in

the Indo-pacific region. It is represented by an extraordinary

large number of forms reaching north to the Loo Choo and

Sandwich Islands, and it is also common on the west coast of

America. It is totally absent, however, from the Caribbean

or West Indian Sea and the eastern American coral region.

A few fossil forms are known since the miocene, Pocillopora

madreporacea (Lam.), from Dax and Turin.

It is of the highest interest, that the members of the Decapod

Family Trapeziide” shows exactly the same distribution as

Pocillopora. I am greatly obliged to my friend Dr. Ortmann

for calling my attention to this fact. In his recent paper on

28 Ortmann, Arnold E. Grundzüge der marinen Thiergeographie. Jena, 1896.

* Ortmann, A. Studien über Systematik und geographische Verbreitung der

Se Zoolog. Jahrb. Abtheil. f. System., II, Band, p. 143-188, Tafel

* Ortmann, Arnold E. Die geographische Verbreitung der Decapoden Familie

Trapeziide. Zool. Jahrb., Abth. f. System., X, Band, p. 201-216, 1897.

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 865

the geographical distribution of the Trapeziide, he makes the

following remarks: “It isa very important fact, that all the

members of this family are limited to an exceedingly peculiar

habitat, the coral reefs; only a single species, Quadrella coro-

nata, is said to occur between pearl-shells in the Panama Bay ;

but this case is certainly an exceptional one. All the other

species are known from coral reefs. The Trapeziide are

especially inhabitants of living corals, and live between the

network of their fine branches. This mode of life character-

izes them as typical littoral forms, which are found from the

tidal zone to the same approximate depth to which the corals

reach; the greatest depth mentioned is 22 fathoms in Trapezia

cymodoce (Herbst).”

I shall now give the geographical distribution of the Trape-

ziidæ from Ortmann.

Geographical Distribution of the Decapod Family Trapeziide.

: Trapezia Latreille 1825.

1. Trapezia eymodoce (Herbst) 1801.

Distribution : Probably everywhere in the Indo-Pacific lit-

toral region, where coral reefs are found, from tide mark to 22

fathoms; Red Sea; East Africa: Dar-es Salaam; Glorioso,

Amirante Islands, Seychelles; Maledives; Southern India ;

Ceylon; Mergui Islands; Singapore; Java; Borneo; Phiiip-

Pines; Loo Choo Islands; Moluccas; New Guinea; Queens

land; New Caledonia; Fiji Islands; Tongatabu; Tahiti;

Marquesas Islands.

2a. Trapezia ferruginea dentata (Macleay), 1838. »

Distribution: Sulu Islands; Pelew Islands; Fiji Islands;

Tongatabu ; Samoa Islands; Tahiti; Paumatu Islands.

. Trapezia ferruginea Latreille, 1825.

Distribution: Red Sea; Zanzibar; Mauritius; Seychelles ;

Ceylon; New Caledonia; Samoa; Tahiti; Marquesas; Sand-

Wich Islands; Panama Bay: Pearl Islands; Acapulco.

2c. Trapezia ferruginea guttata Riippel, 1830.

Distribution: Red Sea; Seychelles; Loo Choo; Fiji; Samoa

Islands; Tahiti.

866 The American Naturalist. [ October,

2d. Trapezia ferruginea maculata (Macleay), 1838.

Distribution: Red Sea; Zanzibar; Glorioso Group and

Amirantes; Rodriguez; Ceylon; New Caledonia; Samoa;

Tahiti; Sandwich Islands; west coas€ of Mexico: Socorro

Islands.

2e. Trapezia ferruginea areolata Dana, 1852.

Distribution: Ceylon ; Nicobares; Java; Celebes; Amboina ;

Sulu Sea; Loo Choo Islands; New Caledonia; Fiji; Samoa

Islands; Tahiti.

3a. ER rufopunctata (Herbst), 1799.

Distribution: East Africa: Dar-es-Salaam; Ceylon; Tuti-

corin; Java; Philippines: Samboangan ; Amboina; Samoa ;

Tahiti; Marquesas ; Sandwich Islands.

3b. Trapezia rufopunctata flavopunctata Eydoux et Souleyet,

1841

Distribation. Mauritius ; Ness Caledonia ; Tahiti; Sandwich

Islands.

4a. Trapezia digitalis Latreille, 1825.

Distribution: Red Sea; Mauritius; Marquesas Islands; west

coast of Central America ; Panama Bay: Pearl Islands: Ver-

agua; Cape St. Lucas.

4b. Trapezia digitalis speciosa Dana, 1852.

Distribution : Mauritius; Paumotu Islands.

4c. Trapezia digitalis bella Dana, 1852.

Distribution : Paumotu Islands.

Tetralia Dana, 1852.

1. Tetralia glaberrima (Herbst), 1790. |

Distribution: Red Sea; Zanzibar; Dar-es-Salaam; Ibo;

Natal; Madagascar; Nossi Bé; Rodrighes : Amirantes ; Sey-

chelles ; Southern India ; Java: Hong Kong; Loo Choo Is-

lands ; Amboina; New Caledonin ; Fiji; Tongatabu ; Tahiti ;.

Paumotu ; Marquesas Islands.

Quadrella Dana, 1852.

1. Quadrella coronata Dana, 1852. :

Distribution: Indian Ocean; Providence Island ; Sulu Sea;

Panama Bay: Pearl Islands, between pearl shells.

< 1897.) The Origin of the Galapagos Islands, 867

Ortmann makes the following remarks: “The distribution

nof the Trapeziide is very simple but characteristic, and agrees

-very well with the limitations of the modern geographical

regions of animals... Wherever in the whole Indo-Pacific area

coral reefs are found, there are also Trapeziidæ.- Most of the

species and subspecies extend over the whole Indo-Pacific

region, from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Loo Choo

-and Sandwich Islands, to Queensland in Australia and to the

- Paumotu Islands [and even the west coast of Central America].

Some forms, according to the present data, seem to be a little

- more limited, for instance, Trapezia ferruginea dentata has not

yet been recorded from the Indian, but is found from the Sulu

‘Sea eastwards; Trapezia ferruginea areolata is known eastward

from Ceylon; Trapezia digitalis bella only from the Paumatu

- Archipelago. It is quite possible, however, that these forms

will be discovered later in those places where they at present

have not yet been found. Some species (Trapezia digitata

speciosa and Quadrella coronata) have been found only in few

-isolated places, but these places are so far distant from each

- other, that we can assume with certainty their general distri-

bution, even if they might be rare forms.

At the west coast of America it is not possible to distinguish

-any well characterized. peculiar species; the four species men-

tioned from this region are also found.in the Indo-Pacific

“region. Therefore, we must conclude, that the west American

Region received these species from the Indo-Pacific. How

these forms were able to pass the barrier of the open Pacific

Ocean, can only be. guessed. Migration along. the North

- Pacific. shore line is impossible, the Trapeziide being exclu-

5 sively tropical forms; the conditions of former geological times

can not be considered, since this family, as will be’seen im-

: mediately, is of very recent age. Only onesupposition remains,

` that the. Trapeziide possess means of migration in free swim-

Ming planctonic larvae, which enable them to reach inside the

tropics, the western coast of America from the Pacific Islands.

| This, however, remains a simple supposition ;. we know noth-

-ing whatever about the propagation and ee: of the

Trapeziide and about their eventual larve.

868 The American Naturalist. [October,

Ortmann believes that this is also the reason why so few

forms of the Trapeziide are found in the West American

region. After this he makes some very important remarks

about the geological age of the Trapeziide.

“The distribution of the Trapeziide also demonstrates an

important fact, which is of significance for the consideration

of the geological age of this family. While represented on

the western side of America, it is totally absent from the east-

ern side, especially in the West Indian Seas, so rich in corals.

This fact is to be considered still the more, since the West and

East American littoral regions show considerable relationship.

This resemblance, however, must be explained by the former

history of the American seas; that is, the well known and

generally accepted union between the Caribbean Sea and the

Pacific Ocean, which- existed in the middle of tertiary time.

The fact that the Trapeziide were unable to migrate into the

Caribbean Sea, indicates that the land connection between

North and South America was already finished during the

time of their origin or their immigration into the West Amer-

ican littoral region, preventing their further eastern advance.

From this reason we have to consider the Trapeziide as a

relatively young family, which can not be older than the for-

mation of this land barrier; that is, not older than Middle

Tertiary (Miocene), but possibly still younger.

“ Especially the Trapeziide indirectly prove that the rela-

tions between the tropical West Indian and tropical Indo-

Pacific faunas can only be explained by a connection in for-

mer times, which does no longer exist, for they demonstrate

that a group of animals, arising in the Indo-Pacific region

after its isolation in its present form, and which seems to have

the power to pass over extensive areas of the sea, was unable

to reach the eastern American region. The Trapeziide could

pass the barrier of the open Pacific and thus reach the west-

ern coast of America, but they could not enter the Atlantic

Ocean; on one side they were prevented by the Isthmus of

Central America, on the other side they could not pass the

southern point of Africa, which is doubtless caused by the

prevailing conditions of temperature in that region.”

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 869

The general distribution of Pocillopora and the Trapeziide

in the Indo-Pacific region, can only be explained by a former

land connection of thisregion. Let us suppose for one moment

that the Pacific Islands had been elevated gradually by vol-

canic activity, how was it possible that Pocillopora and at the

same time the Trapeziide reached all these islands? There

were no corals or Trapeziide near these islands which were

elevated from theogean. If we consider the Pacific Islands as

the remains of a former Pacific continent, we have no difficulty

whatever in explaining the general distribution of Pocillophora

and the Trapeziide. Both are of recent origin (miocene) and

demonstrate that the Pacific continent must have still existed

just before this time. I have shown that the Galapagos Is-

lands were separated from Central America during the miocene,

and the geology of the Fiji Islands shows that the first sedi-

mentary strata are also miocene.

We may now examine the distribution of a family of Decap-

ods, the Atyidæ, which is confined to the fresh-water."

Geographical Distribution of the Decapod Family Atyidæ Kingsley.

ATYIDZ.

Hiphocaris v. Martens, 1872.

1. Hiphocaris elongata (Guérin), 1857.

Distribution: Fresh-waters of the Antilles; Cuba; Hayti;

Dominica ; San Domingo.

2. Hiphocaris compressa (de Haan), 1849.

Distribution: Fresh-water of Australasia; Japan: Yoko-

hama, Tokio; Island of Adenare, near Flores; Queensland :

Burnett.

Troglocaris Dormitzer, 1853.

1. Troglocaris schmidti Dormitzer, 1853.

Distribution: In the waters of the caves of Carniola; caves

of Kumpole and Gurk (Dormitzer).

3 Ortmann, Arnold E. A Study of the Systematic and Geographical Distribu-

tion of the Decapod Family Atyide Kingsley. . Proc. Acad, Nat. Sci. Phila.,

1894, p. 397--416.

870 The American Naturalist. [October,

Atyaéphyra Brito- Capello, 1866.

ip Atyaëphira desmarestii (Millet), 1832.

Distribution: Fresh-water of southern Europe.—Portugal :

Coimbra ; Southern and Western France; Corsica ; Sicily ;

Dalmatia:

Caridina Milne-Edwards, 1837.

1. Caridina typus Milne-Edwards, 1837.

Distribution: Fresh-water of the islands of the Indian Ocean

and of Indo-Malayasia; Mauritius; Rodriguez; Seychelles ;

Siam; Flores; Timor ; Saleyer; Celebes; Amboina; Loo

Choo.

2. Caridina americana Guèrin, 1857.

_ Distribution; Cuba; Dominica.

3. Cardinia brevicarnalis de Man, 1892.

Distribution: Celebes ; Amboina.

4. Cardinia weberi de Madi 1892.

Distribution: Sumatra; Java; Saleyer; Celebes; Flores.

- 5. Cardinia japonica de Man, 1892

` Distribution: Japan: Kagar, Hayagana.

6. Cardinia pareparensis de Man, 1892.

Distribution :' Celebes.

7. Cardinia timarensis de Man, 1893.

Distribution: Timor.

8. Cardinia parvirostris de Man, 1892.

Distribution : Flores.

9. Cardinia richtersi Thallwitz, 1 1891.

Distribution: Mauritius.

10. Caridina laevis Heller, 1862.

Distribution: Java. |

11. Caridina multidentata Serapetn: 1860.

Distribution: Bonin Island ; Celebes.

12. Caridina africana Kingsley, 1882.

Distribution: S. Africa: Zulu Land.

13. Caridina fonarum Heller, 1867.

Distribution: Persia: Schiraz.

14. Caridina:serratirostris.de Man, 1892.

- Distribution : Flores; Saleyer ; Celebes.

:1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 871

15. Caridina wycki (Hickson), 1888.

Distribution: From East Africa to Eastern Astralis: — East

Africa; Dar-es-Salaam; Ceylon; Celebes; Saleyer; Flores ;

Timor; Queensland: Burnett.

‘16. Cidin nilotica (Roux), 1833.

‘Distribution : ‘Northern Africa ; Nile ; Algiers River Macta

near Oran:

17. Caridina graniiti Stimpson, 1860.

Distribution : Loo Choo Islands.

18. Caridina gracilirostris de Man, 1892.

Distribution : Sumatra ; Celebes; Saleyer ; Flores.

19. Caridina singhalensis ‘Ortmann, 1894. :

Distribution : Ceylon:

20. Caridina brevirostris tiie vache, 1860. -

Distribution : Loo Choo.

21. Caridina pasadene Kingsley, 1896.*

Distribution: Southern California. —

Atyoida Randall, 1839.

1. Atyoida potimirim F. Müller, 1881.

Distribution: Brazil: Itajahy.

2. Atyoida bisulcata Randall, 1839. :

Distribution: Hawaiian Islands; Oahn; Tahiti.

Atya Leach, 1817.

1 Atya moluccensis de Haan, 1849.

Distribution: Fresh-water of the Indian Archipelago; Su-

matra; Java; Batjan; Bali; Celebes; Saleyer; Ceram ;

Timor ; Flores; Amboina ; Philippine Islands: Samar.

2. Atya, spinipes Newport, 1847.

Distribution: This species represents ‘A. molluccensis in the

fresh-water of the Pacific Islands ; silica Islands; Caroline,

Fiji, Samoa Islands.

3. Atya brevirostris de Man, 1892.

Distribution : Flores ; Timor; Amboina.

24, Atya margaritacea A. Milne-Edwards, 1864. .

- * Added by Prof. Kingsley.

872 The American Naturatist. [October,.

Distribution : New Caledonia.

?5. Atya robusta A. Milne-Edwards, 1864.

Distribution : New Caledonia.

6. Atya scabra Leach, 1815.

Distribution: Fresh-water of Central America and the

West Indies and the Cape Verde Islands——Mexico ; Nicaragua ;

Cuba; Hayti; Jamaica; Dominica; Martinique; Tobago.—

Cape Verde Islands; San Nicolao; San Jagoo.

7. Atya gabonensis Giebel, 1875.

Distribution: Gaboon ; Orinoco.

8. Atya crassa Smith, 1871.

Distribution: Nicaragua; Mexico: Presidio.

I have to thank my friend, Dr. Ortmann, for calling my at-

tention to this paper. I make the following quotations from

it: “Some species of Atyidæ were formerly considered to be marine

animals; there is now no doubt that this family contains only

fresh-water forms. This family is probably one of the most prem-

itive groups of Decapods living in fresh-water, having immigrated

at an early geological period.” (Italics are mine).

“ The geographical range of the Atyide embraces the whole

of the circum-tropical parts of the world, members of the fam-

ily being recorded from all the localities explored within these

limits. Only in two localities does the range exceed the true

tropics; in Japan, where it extends as far north as Tokio, and

in the Mediterranean province, where it extends northward to-

Southern France and Southern Austria.” The description by

Kingsley of Cuaradina pasadene from Pasadena, California,

since Ortmann wrote these words hardly makes necessary &

modification in them, for Southern California is sub-tropical

in its temperature. (Kingsley). ee

“ The most primitive genus, Hiphocaris, shows a distribution

the peculiarity of which can only be understood by supposing

that the range of this genus was formerly a more extende

one, but that in most parts of the world the representatives

were exterminated. Only three species survived, one of which

lives now in the fresh-waters of the West Indies, the other in

Indo-Malaysia, from Japan to Australia, and the third in New

Zealand. The closely allied genus Troglocaris, the only spe-

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 873

cies of which might be regarded as a fourth form of Xipho-

caris, lives in the subterranean waters of Carinola, a perfectly -

isolated locality in no way connected with the others named.

The third primitive genus, Atyaéphyra, is found near the

locality of Troglocaris on the northern borders of the Medit-

erranean Sea. The scattered localities at which are found the

species of these three genera forming the subfamily Xipho-

carine are no doubt the remains of a more universal distribu-

tion in former times; the species now living show the charac-

ter of true survivals.”

“In the subfamily Atyine, the genus Atyoida shows a sur-

vival character similar to that of the Xiphocarine, being

recorded from the Sandwich Islands, Tahiti and Southern

Brazil.”

“ The genus Caridina appears to be nearly a circumtropical

one. Its range is divided into two very unequal parts; the

one comprising the West Indies [and California] and contain-

ing only one [two] species, the other comprising a continuous

area of the Old World and containing at least nineteen other

species. This area extends from South Africa along the east

coast to the southern borders of the Mediterranean Sea and to

Persia, crossing the islands of the Indian Ocean and Indo-

Malaysia to Japan and Australia. It is very probable that

further investigations will prove that the range of Caridina is

a somewhat different one, since fresh-water crustacea of smaller

size are mostly neglected by collectors, and the fauna of the

fresh-waters of most tropical countries are very little known.”

“The distribution of the most extreme genus of the family

Atya is somewhat similar to that of Caridina. Itis found,

like the latter, in the West Indies and Indo-Malaysia, but there

are some modifications. One species is known from West

Africa, which is identical with another described from the

Orinoco, and there is recorded one species from the Cape

Verde Islands, identical with the common West Indian form.”

“The other range of the genus Atya extends over the islands

of the Pacific from Sumatra to the Samoan Islands” [and

western Central America].

“The conditions of geographical distribution of the Atyidee

are as follows :—

‘874 The American Naturalist. [October,

1. The sr Sener can not endure cooler climates (climatic bar-

riers).

2. They are true fresh-water animals (oceans and tracts-of

‘land without water form topographic barriers).

3. Being animals of ‘an ancient type, they are Seubably re-

stricted by the occurrence of other fresh-water animals (brono-

mic barriers).

4. The faculties of distribation aré very limited.

The Atyide are, therefore, confined to the fresh-waters of

the tropics and subtropics; the distribution of the genera and

species, especially of the more primitive ones, shows a remark-

able character of survival. Only Caridina and Atya are of a

‘more recent character, extending over continuous areas within

the tropics. Because of the antiquity of the family it has no

‘relations maong the recént forms of the littoral regions of the

— tropical seas.”

The AEE EN TEN can be drawnfrom thedistribution

of the Atyidæ. The distribution of Cardinia shows that there

must have existed a land connection between Africa, the Mas-

caren Islands, the Seychelles, Persia, Ceylon,the Sunda Islands,

the Mollucas, Siam, the Loo Choo Islands, Japan and the Bo-

nin Islands, and between the Mollucas and Australia.

The distribution of Atya shows that this land area extended

over the Philippine, Caroline, Fiji and Samoa Islands, and the

presence of Atyoida bisulcata on the Society and Sandwich Is-

lands, proves that this land extended also to these islands and

probably also to the west coast of America (Atya scabra Mex-

ico, Nicaragua Baur). The presence of Cardinia paredena

‘Kingsley, in Lower California is another proof of this connec-

tion. The presence of Atya scabra‘on the Cape Verde Islands,

and of Atya gabonensis in Gaboon and the Orinoco, can only

be explained by a former connection of neni rar America

(Ortmann).

Geographical Distribution of the Formicidæ of the Pacific Ocean.

The Formicidæ are a very old: group. Their first remains

have been found in the lowest Jurassic : Palæomyrmex prodro-

mus Heer,” Lower Lias of. Schamblen, Canton pan Swit-

* Heer O, Die Urwelt der Schweiz. Zürich., 1865, p. 9I-~ :

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 875

zerland. In the lower Purbeck of Durdlestone Bay, England

occur Formicium brodiei Westwood, and Myrmecium heeri West-

wood, and several forms have been described from the Kim-

meridgean of Solnhofen, Bavaria. Very rich are the Amber-

Beds of the lower Oligocene of the Samland,* north of Kénigs-

berg, and the well-known Florissant Beds of Colorado. Scud-

der remarks, that about one-fourth of all the Insects from

Florissant are ants, more than 4000 specimens, representing 34

genera and 170 fossil species. Among Miocene localities may

be named Oeningen in Baden, and Radoboj in Croatia.”

I now give a list of the distribution of the Formicide of the

Pacific Ocean, from Ihering,” with some additions from

Emery” and Smith. Many of the additional localities have

been kindly supplied by Mr. Theo. Pergande of the Depart-

ment of Agriculture, Washington.

Family FORMICIDÆ,

Subfamily: Ponerine Mayr.

Ponera insulana Mayr. Samoa.

Ponera sp. aff. contracta Latr. Sandwich Islands,

Ponera castanea Mayr. New Zealand. :

Ectatomma metallicum Smith. Samoa, Australia.

Ectatomma mayri Emery. New Zealand (or Australia ?).

Ectatomma brownii Forel. New Zealand.

Amblypone cephalotes Smith. New Zealand.

Amblypone saundersii Forel. New Zealand.

Leptogenys insularis Smith. Sandwich Islands.

Pore ce ee te ee a

33 Westwood J. O. Contributions to fossil entomology. ` Quart. Journ. Geol. -

Soc. X, pp. 388, 393, 390, 396, 1854.

“ Mayr. Gustav Leopold. Die Ameisen des Baltischen Bernsteins. Mit 106,

Figuren auf. 5 Tafeln. (Beiträge z. Naturkunde Preussens I), pp. 4, 102, (10),

tab. 5. 4° Königsberg, 1868.

* Mayr. Gustav Leopold. Vorläufige Studien über die aper ghg

Jahrbuch.d. k. k. geolog. Reichs-Anstalt, Bd. XVII, p. 47-62, Taf. I, 1867.

% Ihering, H. von. Die Ameisen von Rio Grande Sul. Berliner Entom. Zeits-

chr. Bd. XXXIX, pp. 434-436, 1894. "

angel C. Notice sur quelques Fourmis des îles Galapagos. Ann. Soc,

m. France, vol. LXII, p. 89-92, 1893.

wih Trek [Hymenoptera Galapagos]. Proc. Zool. Soc., p. 83, 1877.

876 The American Naturalist. [October,

1. Odontomachus hematodes Linn. Tonga,-Samoa, Fiji,

Borneo, Java, Celebes, Ceylon, Amboina, Australia, Guiana,

Columbia, Mexico, Texas, Florida.

2. Odontomachus angulatus Mayr. Fiji Islands.

3. Odontomachus bauri Emery. Galápagos Islands.

1. Anochetus greffei Mayr. Samoa.

Subfamily : Myrmicine Mayr.

Strumigenis antarctica Forel. New Zealand.

Strumigenis godeffroyi Mayr. Samoa.

Orectognathus antennatus Smith. New Zealand.

Orectagnathus perplexus Smith. New Zealand.

Monomorium pharaonis Linn. Samoa, Australia, Chile,

La Plata, India, Singapore, Batavia, Manilla, Ceylon, Brazil,

Eastern and Southern States, N. A., Egypt, Cape Colony, Italy ,

France, South Germany, England.

2. Monomorium speculare Mayr. Samoa, Tonga, Borneo,

India.

Monomorium antarctium White. New Zealand.

. Monomorium suteri Forel. New Zealand.

Monomorium smithii Forel. New Zealand.

Cardiocondyla nuda Mayr. Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, India.

Tetramorium pacificum Mayr. Tonga, Samoa.

Tetramorium simillimum Smith. Samoa, Java.

Tetramorium tonganum Mayr. Tonga. |

Tetramorium guineense Fabr. Fiji, Tonga, Sandwich Is.,

Galápagos Island, Manilla, Sidney, Madagascar, Cuba, 6.

Domingo, California.

1. Vollenhovia samensis Mayr. Samoa.

J. Huberia striata Smith. New Zealand.

1. Solenopsis geminata Fabr. New Zealand, Tahiti, Sand-

wich Islands, Chile, La Plata, Brazil.

1. Pheidole megacephala Fabr. Sandwich Islands, Ceylon,

Madeira, Bahamas, Brazil.

_ 2. Pheidole sexspinosa Mayr. Samoa, Ellice Islands.

3. Pheidole umbonata Mayr. Samoa, Tonga Islands.

4. Pheidole oceanica Mayr. Samoa, Tonga, Ellice Islands.

rer

oo PO Pt Pt OTe go

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 877

Subfamily Dolichoderinz.

1. Tapinoma melanocephala Fabr. Samoa, Tonga, Galapa-

gos Islands, Singapore, Cayenne, West Indies, Madagascar.

1. Plagiolepis gracilipes Smith. India, Singapore, Celebes,

China, Australia, Samoa, Tonga, Ellice Islands, Chili.

1. Technomyrmex albipes Smith. Ceylon, Sunda Islands,

Samoa, Tonga, India, Hong Kong, Papua. ;

1. Tridomyrmex gracilis‘Lowne. Samoa, Australia.

2. Tridomyrmez rufoniger Lowne. Samoa, Australia.

Subfamily Camponotinæ Forel.

1. Camponotus nove-hollandie Mayr. Australia, Samoa,

Tonga, Ellice Islands.

2. Camponotus cristatus Mayr. Fiji Islands.

3. Camponotus laminatus Mayr. Fiji Islands.

4. Camponotus schmeltzi Mayr. Fiji Islands.

5. Camponotus sexguttatus Fabr. Sandwich Islands, South

America, Island of Santa Cruz, West Indies, Canary Islands.

6. Camponotus pallens Guill. Tonga Islands.

7. Camponotus pallidus Smith. Fiji, Tonga, Samoa Islands.

8. Camponotus subtilis Smith. Fiji Islands.

9. Camponotus senex Smith. Galapagos Islands, Brazil,

Central America, Mexico.

10. Camponotus planus Smith. Galápagos Islands.

11. Camponotus macilentus Smith. Galápagos Islands.

12. Camponotus peregrinus Emery. Galápagos Islands.

Colobopsis dentata Mayr. Fiji Islands.

Colobopsis carinata Mayr. Fiji Islands.

Colobopsis oceanica Mayr. Fiji Islands.

Colobopsis nigrifrons Mayr. Tonga Islands.

Colobopsis conica Mayr. Tonga Islands.

Colobopsis rufifrous Smith. Tonga, Fiji, Molluccan Is-

s. ,

B D ote go po H

amea

l. Prenolepis vividula Nyl. Tonga, Samoa, Ellice Islands,

Australia, Madagascar, Texas.

2. Prenolepis longicornis Latr. Samoa, Chile, Senegal, N.

America, Batavia, Ceylon, Mexico, Cuba, Madeira.

3. Prenolepis clandestina Mayr. Sandwich Islands, Java.

878 _ The American Naturalist. [ October,

I have very little doubt, that on many groups of Islands, on

which, so far as I know, no Formicide have been recorded,

they will be found, when these Archipelagos will be thoroughly '

examined ; for instance the Pelew and Marianne Islands, the

Carolines, the New Hebrides, the Cook, Paumatou, Marquesas

and Juan Fernandez. — |

' It is quite evident, that this distribution of the Formicide

cannot be explained by accidental introduction. Also here we

are forced to accept a former Pacific Continent.

The Fiji Islands have four endemic species of Camponotus ;

three of Colobopsis; one of Odontomachus; the Tonga Islands

one endemic species of Camponotus ; two of Colobopsis, one of

Tetramorium ; the Samoa Islands, one endemic species of Ano-

chetus, one of Strumigenys and one of Vollenhovia; the Sand-

wich Islands one endemic species of Ponera, and one of Leptog-

` enys ; the Galapagos Islands three endemic species of Camponotus,

and one of Odontomachus. —

The Fiji, Tonga and Samoa Islands have in common one

species of Camponotus and one of Cardiocondyla (also found in

India); the Samoa, Tonga, Ellice Islands and Australia one

. Camponotus ; the Fiji, Tonga, Moluccan Islands, one Colobopsis ;

the Sandwich Islands and Java, one Prenolepis; Samoa and

Australia, two Tridomyrmez, one Ectatomma; Samoa and

Java, one Tetramorium; Samoa and Ellice Islands, one Pheidole;

Samoa and Tonga Islands, one Pheidole and one. Tetramorium;

Samoa, Tonga, Sunda Islands, Ceylon, Indi , Hong. Kong,

Papua, one Technomyrmex ; Tonga, Samoa, Borneo, India, one

Monomoriwm; Samoa, Tonga, Ellice Islands, one Pheidole ;

India, Singapore, Celebes, China, Australia, Samoa, Tonga,

Ellice Islands, Chile, one Plagiolepis; one Tahiti, Sandwich

Islands, New Zealand, Chile, La Plata, Brazil, one Solenopsis.

Distribution of Lacertilia,

We shall now examine the distribution of some genera of

Lizards; the data are from Boulenger. "

w aiik, GA, i Dik Klimida Beit, Mus. (eee edit.), vol. I, pp- 147-156.

162-168. London, 1885

1897,] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 879

Family Geckonide.

Gehyra Gray.

1. Gehyra mutilata Wiegm. Mascarene Islands: Mauritius

and Rodriguez; Seychelles; Ceylon; Birma, Pegu; Malay

Peninsula ; Indian Archipelago ; Philippines: Negros ; Celebes ;

Timor Laut; New Guinea—Western Mexico: San Blas and

Presidio.

2. Gehyra oceanica Lesson. Moluccas; New Guinea; Admir-

alty Islands: Wild Island; Solomon Islands: Faro I.; Short-

land Islands; Lord Howe’s Island ; Fiji Islands; Tonga Islands:

Tongatabu ; Samoa Islands; Savage Island; Rarotonga Is-

land. |

3. Gehyra voraz Girard. Loyalty Islands; New Hebrides:

Erromango ; Fiji Islands; Norfolk Island.

4. Gehyra brevipalmata Peters. Pelew Islands.

5. Gehyra insulensis Girard. Sandwich Islands.

6. Gehyra baliola A. Dum. New Guinea.

T. Gehyra variegata Dum & Bibr. Islands of Torres Str. ;

Murray Island; Sunday Island; Australia: Champion Bay,

Houtman’s Abrolhos, Peak Downs.

8. Gehyra australis Gray. Australia: Swan River, Port

_ Essington, Port Darwin.

Perochirus Boulenger.

_ 1. Perochirus ateles A. Dum. Philippines: Mindanae.

2. Perochirus guentheri Bouleng. New Hebrides: Erromango,

8. Perochirus depressus Fischer. Carolines: Ruk Island.

4. Perochirus articulatus Fischer. Carolines: Ponape.

_ 5. Perochirus scutellatus Fischer. Greenwich Island, south of

Carolines.

Lepidodactylus Fitzinger.

ae Lepidodactylus aurantiacus Beddome. Southern India.

2. Lepidodactylus ceylonensis Boulenger. Ceylon.

3. Lepidodactylus lugubris Dum. & Bibr. Malay Peninsula ;

Celebes; Amboyna; Murray Island; Pelew Islands; New

Hebrides, Fiji, Society Islands: Tahiti; Island of Vati, South

Pacific, ©

880 : The American Naturalist. [October,

Lepidodactylus labialis Peters. Philippines: Mindanao.

Lepidodactylus pulcher Bouleng. Admiralty Islands.

Lepidodactylus guppyi Bouleng. Solomon Islands: Faro I.

Lepidodactylus crepuscularis Bavay. New Caledonia.

Lepidodactylus cyclurus Giinther. New Caledonia.

Lepidodactylus sawvagii Bouleng. New Caledonia.

There can be little doubt that the Geckonide are a very

old family of the Lacertilia, which go back at least to the lower

Cretaceous, if not to the upper Jurassic. The distribution of

the genera enumerated is very instructive.

Gehyra mutilata Wiegm. extends from the Mascarene Islands

to the Seychelles, Ceylon, to the Malay Peninsula, Indian

Archipelago, Philippines, Moluccas and New Guinea; it also

occurs in western Mexico. This distribution again shows that

there has been a land area reaching from the Mascaranes to

New Guinea. The next species Gehyra oceanica Lesson reaches

from the Moluccas eastward to the Cook Islands (Rarotonga),

being found on the Admirality, Solomon, Fiji, Tonga an

Samoa Islands, Savage Island and Lord Howe's Island. Gehyra

voraz Girard extends this area to the New Hebrides, the

Loyalty Islands and Norfolk Island; Gehyra brevipalmata to

the Pelew group and Gehyra insularis to the Sandwich Islands.

This distribution can only be explained by a former Indo-

Pacific Continent extending from Malaysia to the west coast of

America.

The distribution of the species of Perochirus Boulenger and

Lepidodactylus Fitzinger give new proof for the former exist-

ence of this continent.

ye SS ot e

Family Seincide.

The family Scincide contains several genera, showing @

very interesting geographical distribution.” These genera

are Lipinia Gray, Emoa Gray and Ablepharus (A. bouton

Desjard).

Lipinia Gray.

1. Lipinia semperi Peters. Philippine Islands: Mindanao.

2. Lipinia pulchella Steindachu. Philippine Islands.

3 Boulenger, G. A. Catalogue of Lizards. Brit. Mus. (Sec. Ed.), vol. III, P.

253-256, p. 290-299, p. 346-348, London, 1887.

1897,] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 881

3. Lipinia vulcanica Girard. Philippine Islands: Caldera,

Mindanao.

4. Lipinia virens Peters. Southeastern New Guinea.

5. Lipinia anolis Bouleng. Solomon Islands.

6. Lipinia noctua Lesson. New Guinea, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa,

Society and Sandwich Islands.

Emoa Gray.

1. Emoa cyanura Lesson. Moluccas; Ternate, Mysol, Timor

Laut; New Guinea: Admiralty, Solomon Islands, New He-

brides, Fiji, Savage I., Samoa, Rarotonga, Cook’s Islands,

Tahiti.

2. Emoa mivarti Bouleng. Admiralty Islands: Wild Island.

3. Emoa cyanogaster Lesson. Moluccas, New Guinea, Murray

Island, Duke of York Island, Solomon Islands and New

Hebrides. , :

4. Emoa samoénsis A. Dum. New Hebrides, Fiji, Tonga and

Samoa Islands.

5. Emoa callisticta Peters & Doria. N. W. Guinea: Soron.

6. Emoa atrocostata Lesson. Philippines, Celebes, Moluccas,

New Guinea, Santa Cruz and Caroline Islands.

7. Emoa baudinii Dum. & Bibr. Celebes, Moluccas, New

Guinea. !

8. Emoa singaporensis Steindachn. Singapore.

9. Emoa nigra Hombr. & Iacq. Caroline Islands, New

Ireland, Solomon, Banks’s, Fiji and Samoa Islands.

10. Emoa adspersa Steind. Fiji and Samoa Islands; Savage

Island.

11. Emoa parietalis Peters. Borneo: Sarawak.

12. Emoa jerdoniana Stoliczka. Pinang.

13. Emoa breviceps Peters. Gaboon, Camaroons,

Ablepharus boutonii Desjard.

l. boutonii Desj. - Mauritius, Zanzibar, Mozambique, Com-

oro Islands.

GOA 6 The American Naturalist. [October,

2. A. boutonii pecilopleurus Wiegm. Peru: Pisacoma Is-

lands; Puna Island, Gulf of Guayaquil; Sandwich Islands;

Savage Island; Aldabra (Stejneger).”

3. A. boutonii peronii Cocteau. Java; Timor; Timor Laut;

Amboina; Fly River, New Guinea; Murray Island ; Islands of

Torres Straits; W. Australia ; Tasmania, Fiji Islands; Samoa,

and Society Islands, New Hebrides, New Caledonia.

4. A. boutonii rutilus Peters. Fly River, New Guinea.

5. A. boutonii metallicus Boulenger. North Australia.

6. A. boutonii quinqueteniatus Günther. West coast of Africa.

7. A. boutonii cognatus Bottg. Nossi Bé, Madagascar.

8. A. boutonii gloriosus Stejneger. Glorioso Island.”

The genus Lipinia is found on the Philippines, New Guinea,

Islands; Emoa in Pinang; on the Moluccas New Guinea,

Admiralty, Duke of York Island, New Ireland; Solomon Is-

lands, New Hebrides, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa Islands. Tahiti,

Savage Island; Rarotonga and Carolines and one species in

W. Africa. Ablepharus boutonii Desjard. shows a most interest-

ing distribution. West-coast of Africa, Madagascar; Mauri-

: tius, Comoro Islands, Glorioso Island, Zanzibar, Mozambique;

—Java, Timor, Moluccas, New Guinea, Islands of Torres

Straits, North Australia, West Australia, Tasmania; New Cale-

donia; New Hebrides, Fiji, Samoa, and Society Islands, Savage

Island, Sandwich Islands, Puna Island, Gulf of Guayaquil,

Pisacoma Islands, Peru.

The distribution of these genera is only to be explained by

the former existence of an Indo-Pacific Continent.

- The Distribution of the Hydrophide.

This family is found in the Pacific; but in the Indian Ocean

it only reaches west to the Persian Gulf." It is totally absent

“ Stejneger, Leonhard. On some collections of Reptiles ana Batrachians from

East Africa and the adjacent islands, recently received from Dr. W- L. EFT

Nat. Mus., vol. XVI, p. 711-741. [No. 970]. Washington, 1893. _

“ Boulenger, G. A. Catalogue of Snakes. Brit, Mus., vol. ILI, p. 264-80.

1896.

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. < 889

from the Atlantic, and the whole African portion of the Indian

Ocean. The Hydrophide extend north to Japan, south to

Tasmania and New Zealand; east to the west-coast of Amer-

ica from Mexico to Ecuador. Only one species is found on

this coast Hydrus platurus Linn.; recorded from Salina Cruz,

Mexico; Panama; and off the coast of Ecuador.

This family is certainly younger than Miocene, since no

members of it, are found in the Westindian Sea. It probably

became much differentiated after the formation of the Indo-

pacific Ocean.

The geographical distribution of different genera of Birds on the

Pacific Islands.

Let us consider the distribution of different genera of

the COLUMBIA. Our knowledge of the fossil Columb com-

mences with the lower miocene of Allier in France, Columba

calcaria Miln. Edw. The very peculiar group, represented by

the Dididæ (Didus and Pezophaps) from the Mascarene Is- '

lands, Mauritius and Bourbon, were exterminated long ago.

Living specimens of (Didus ineptus) were seen as late as in

1679 ; of Pezophaps solitarius (the Solitaire) in 1761.

The Columbide are certainly geologically an.old group.

Family TRERONID#.

Subfamily Ptilinopodine.

Distribution of the genus Ptilinopus Swainson, 1825 (from

Salvadori).

1. Ptilinopus flavicollis Finsch & Hartl. Timor and Flores.

2. Ptilinopus xanthogaster Wagl. Banda, Khoor, Ké, Tenim-

ber Islands, Damma Island, and Lettie.

3. Ptilinopus ewingi Gould. Northern Australia from Port

Essington to Cape York.

4. Ptilinopus swainsoni Gould, Eastern Australia from Cape

York to New South Wales, the Islands in Torres Strait and 8.

E. New Guinea.

+? Salvadori T. Catalogue of the Columbe or Pigens in the collection of the

British Museum, p. 83-112. London, 1893. Catalogue of the Birdsinthe British

Museum, vol. XXI. London, 1898. oe

884 The American Naturalist. [October,

5. Ptilinopus richardsi Rams. Solomon Islands: Ugi.

6. Ptilinopus greyi G. R. Gray. New Caledonia, with Island

of Pines; Loyalty Islands: Livu; New Hebrides: Erromango,

Aniva, Vaté, Mallicolo; Santa Cruz Islands: Vanicoro.

7. Ptilinopus perousei Peale. Fiji, Tonga and Samoa Islands.

8. Ptilinopus porphyraceus Temm. Fiji, Tonga Islands and

Savage Island.

9. Ptilinopus fasciatus Peale. All the Samoan Islands.

10. Ptilinopus rarotongensis Hartl. & Finsch. Rarotonga.

11. Ptilinopus purpuratus Gmel. Society Islands: Tahiti.

12. Ptilinopus chrysogaster G. R. Gray. Society Islands:

Huaheine and Raiatea.

13. Ptilinopus huttoni Finsch. Austral Group: Island of

apa.

14. Ptilinopus coralensis Peale. Paumotu Group: Island of

Carlsoff.

15. Ptilinopus smithsonianus Cass. Paumotu Group (some Is-

land).

16. Ptilinopus dupetit-thouarsi Néboux. Marquesas: Christ-

ina, Nukahiwa.

17. Ptilinopus mercieri Des Murs & Prév. Marquesas Is-

lands: Nukahiwa.

18. Ptilinopus tristrami Salvad. Marguesas: Hivaoa.

19. Ptilinopus pelewensis Hartl. & Finsch. Pelew Islands.

20. Ptilinopus ponapensis Finsch. Eastern Carolines: Ruck

group.

21. Ptilinopus hernsheimi Finsch. Eastern Carolines: Kus-

ai.

22. Ptilinopus roseicapillus Less. Ladrone or Marianne Is-

lands. |

Chrysenas Bonaparte, 1854.

This genus is confined to the Fiji Islands. There are three

species, each confined to special islands of the group.”

1. Chrysænas luteovirens Hombr. & Jacg. Fiji Islands: Balau,

Ovalau, Viti Levu.

£2 Salvadori, l. c., p, 155-158.

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 885

2. Chrysænas victor Gould. Fiji Islands: Bua, Vanua Levu,

Taviuni, Nyami, Lanthala.

3. Chrysænas viridis Layard. Fiji Islands: Kandavu.

Drepanoptila Bonaparte, 1855.

This genus with the single species Drepanoptila holosericia

Temm. & Knip. is confined to New Caledonia, with the Isle of

Pines.”

The geographical distribution of these genera is very inter-

esting.

Ptilopinus. The Moluccas have two peculiar species con-

fined to different islands; Northern Australia has one, and

Eastern Australia with the Island of Torres Strait another

peculiar species. Seventeen species are found on the following

islands: Solomon I., New Caledonia, Loyalty I., New Hebrides,

Santa Cruz Islands, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, Savage Island; Rara-

tonga, Society Islands; Austral group: Island of Rapa; Pau-

motu group: Island of Carlsoff; some Island of Paumotu

group; Marquesas; Pelew; Eastern Carolines: Ruck group:

Kushai; LadroneIslands. Of these 17 species, 15 are confined

to special islands. This fact and the differentiation of the

genus Chrysoenas restricted to Fiji Islands, into three peculiar

species confined to special islands, and Drepanoptila with a

single species on New Caledonia shows that these many islands

were not stocked by immigrants, but that they were formerly

connected to form a continent.

The genus Alectroenas G. R. Gray, 1840, which belongs to

the subfamily Ptilinopodine is confined to the Madagascarian

region.” There are four species:

1. Alectroenas madagascariensis Linn. Madagascar with Nos-

sibe Isl.

2. Alectroenas nitidissima Scop. Mauritius.

3. Alectroenas sganzini Des Murs. Comoro Islands.

4. Alectroenas pulcherrima Scop. Seychelles Islands.

This again shows the close relationship between the Mada-

gascarin and the Indo-Pacific region, which, as we have seen

before, can only be explained by former land connection.

“ Salvadori, 1. c., p. 158-160.

“ Salvadori, 1. c., p. 160--165.

886 The American Naturalist. [October,

Subfamily Carpophagine.”

Serresius Bonaparte, 1855.

Bonap., to the Marquesus Islands.

Globicera Bonaparte, 1854. `

1. Globicera pacifica Gmel. From the Samoa Islands on the

east to New Guinea; Port Moresby, New Guinea; New Hebri-

des; Louisiade Archipelago; Fiji Islands; Tonga Islands;

Samoa Islands. 3

2. Globicera myristicivora Scop. Western New Guinea and

the surrounding western Papuan Islands; Waigiou, Mysol.

3. Globicera rubricera G. R. Gray. New Ireland; New Brit-

ain; New Hanover and Duke of York Island.

4. Globicera rufigula Salvad. Solomon Islands.

5. Globicera oceanica Less. Carolines and Pelew Islands.

6. Globicera awrore Peale. Aurora or Maitea Island, Society

oup. i

7. Globicera wilkesi Peale. Tahiti, Society group.

The species of these two genera are found from the Papuan

Islands and New Guinea to the Marquesas Islands.

Family COLUMBIDÆ.®

* Subfamily Columbine.

` Janthoenas Reichenbach, 1852.

1. Janthoenas palumboides Hume. Andamanesand Nicobars.

2. Janthoenas janthina Temm. Japan and Loo Choo Islands.

3. Janthoenas jouyi Stejneg. Loo Choo Islands.

4. Junthoenas versicolor Stejneg. Bonin Islands. :

5. Janthoenas nitens Stejneg. Bonin Islands; Parry group:

Bailey Islands and Sulphur Islands.

6. Janthoenas griseogularis Wald. & Layard. Philippine Is-

lands, from Luzon to Mindanao; and also Sulu Islands and

N. Borneo.

` Salvadori, l. c., p- 171--181.

Salvadori, l. c., p. 308--319.

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 887

7. Janthoenas metallica Temm. Timor.

8. Janthoenas albigularis Bonap. From the Halmahera and

Amboyna groups through the Papuan Islands to the Louisia-

des. ;

9. Janthoenas pallidiceps Rams. Duke of York Island.

10. Janthoenas philippana Rams. Solomon Islands; Ugi.

11. Janthoenas hypoenochroa Gould. New Caledonia; Isle

of Pines; Loyalty Islands.

12. Janthoenas leopoldi Tristr. New Hebrides.

13. Janthoenas vitiensis Quoy & Gaim. Fiji Islands.

14. Janthoenas castaneiceps Peale. Samoa Islands.

This genus shows a very extensive distribution; Andamans

and Nicobars, N. Borneo, Sulu Islands, Philippines, Loo Choo

Islands, Japan, Bonin Islands, Timor, Halmahera group, Am-

boina group, Papuan Islands, Louisiade Archipelago, Duke of

York Islands, Solomon, New Hebrides, Loyalty Islands, New

Caledonia, Fiji Islands, Samoa Islands.

This distribution is easily explained by the former land

connection of the different islands.

Family PERISTERID”.

Subfamily Geotrigonidx.®

Genus Phlegoenas Reichenbach, 1851.

1. Phlegoenas luzonica Scop. Luzon, Philippines.

2. Phlegoenas crinigera Reichenb. Mindanoa, Basilan, Phil-

ippines.

3. Phlegoenas platen Hartert. Mindoro, Philippines.

4. Phlegoenas tristigmata Temm. N. Celebes, Menado.

5. Phlegoenas bimaculata Salvad. S. Celebes, Makassar.

6. Phlegoenas rufiguia Pucher. & Jacq. New Guinea, with

the N. W. Papuan Islands: Waigiou, Salawatti, Mysol and

- SObi.

7. Phlegoenas helviventris Rosenb. Aru Islands and southern

New Guinea. i

8. Phlegoenas beccarii Salvad. N. W. New Guinea.

9. Phlegoenas margaritz D’Alb. & Salvad. New Guinea, Jobi,

Duke of York Island, New Britain.

“Salvadori, 1. c., p. 583--604.

888 The American Naturalist. [ October,

10. Phlegoenas johanne Sclat. Duke of York Island.

11. Phlegoenas granti Salvad. Guadalcanar, Solomon Is-

lands.

12. Phlegoenas vitiensis Finsch. Fiji Islands.

13. Phlegoenas stairi G. R. Gray. Tonga Islands.

14. Phlegoenas samoensis Finsch & Hartl. Samoa Islands.

15. Phlegoenas canifrons Hartl & Finsch. Pelew Islands.

16. Phlegoenas virgo Reichenow. Pelew Islands.

17. Phlegoenas pampusan Quoy et Gaim. Marianne or Lad-

rone Islands.

18. Phlegoenas kubaryi Finsch. Ruk I., Carolines.

19. Phlegoenas erythroptera Gmel. Eimeo, Society Islands.

20. Phlegoenas albicollis Salvad. Bow Island, Paumotu Is-

„ands.

21. Phlegoenas pectoralis Peale. Carlsoff, Paumotu Islands.

22. Phlegoenas yapensis Hartl. & Finsch. Uap, Mackenzie

Islands.

The genus Phlegoenas shows a very extensive differentiation

of species on the different groups of islands. On the Philip-

pines there are three species, two confined to single islands,

and the third to two other islands. Celebes has a peculiar

species on the north and one on the south end. One species

is found on the N. W. Papuan Islands and New Guinea,

another one on the Aru Islands and southern New Guinea, a

third one is on New Guinea, Duke of York Island and New

Britain. All the other 14 species are restricted to single local-

ities: New Guinea ; Duke of York Island ; Guadalcanar, Sol-

omon Islands; Fiji Islands; Tonga Islands; Samoa Islands;

two to the Pelew Islands; Marianne Islands; Ruk Island,

Carolines; Eimeo, Society Islands; Bow Island, Paumotu

group; Carlshoff, Paumotu group; Uap, Mackenzie Islands.

This peculiar differentiation of Phlegoenas can only be ex-

plained by the former connection of these islands, and not by

accidental immigrants. This is another proof for the former

existence of a Pacific Continent. | 2

I shall now discuss the geographical distribution of two

genera of the Sturnoid Passerine Birds, the Sturniformes.

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 889

Section StuRNIFORMES.

Family Sturnide.

Subfamily Sturnine.®

Genus Aplonis Gould, 1836.

1. Aplonis cantor Müll. Mysol, Salawatti, Batanta, New

Guinea, Louisiade Islands, Admirality groups of islands, New

Britain, Duke of York Island, Solomon Islands.

2. Aplonis feadensis Ramsay. Fead Island.

3. Aplonis crassa Scl. Tenimber Islands, Larat, Timor Laut.

4. Aplonis rufipennis Layard. New Hebrides.

5. Aplonis atronitens Gray. Loyalty Islands.

6. Aplonis striata Gmel. New Caledonia, Isle of Pines.

7. Aplonis fuscus Gould. Norfolk Island and Lord Howe’s

Island.

8. Aplonis vitiensis Layard. Fiji Islands, Rotumah Island,

(north of Fiji Islands).

9. Aplonis tabuensis Gmel. Tonga Islands.

10. Aplonis fortune Layard. Fortuna Island (between Fiji

and Samoa Islands).

11. Aplonis brunnescens Sharpe. Savage Island.

12. Aplonis atrifusca Peale. Samoa Islands.

13. Aplonis brevirostris Peale. Samoa Islands.

14. Aplonis cinerascens Hartl. & Finsch. Rarotonga, Cook

Islands.

15. Aplonis inornata Sharpe. Raiatea, Society Islands.

16. Aplonis kittlitzi Finsch. & Hartl. Carolines, Ponapé,

Kuschai, Ruk and Lugunor.

17. Aplonis pelzelni Finsch. Interior mountains of Ponapé.

Family PLOCEIDÆ.

Subfamily Viduinæ.

Genus Erythrura Swainson, 1837.

1. Erythrura prasina Sparrm. From Southern Tenasserim,

down the Malayan Peninsula to Sumatra, Java and Borneo.

“Sharpe, R. Bowdler. Catalogue of the Passeriformes, or Perching Birds in

the collection of the Brit. Mus. Sturniformes. London, 1890, p. 125--137, p.

380--387. Catalogue of the Birds in the Brit. Mus., Vol. XIII. London, 1890,

890 The American Naturalist. [October,

2. Erythrura forbesi Sharpe. Tenimber Islands.

3. Erythrura tricolor Vieill. Timor.

4. Erythrura trichroa Kittl. Ternate, New Guinea, Carolines,

Solomon Islands. i

5. Erythrura psittacea Gmel. New Caledonia.

6. Erythrura cyaneifrons E. L. Layard. Lifu, Loyalty Is-

lands, Tanna, New Hebrides.

1 Brylane serena Sel. Island of Aneitum, New Hebrides

8. Erythrura regia Scl. Island of Api, New Hebrides.

9. Erythrura pealii Hartl. Reva, Taviuni, Fiji Islands.

10. Erythrura kleinschmidti Finsch. Viti Levu, Fiji Islands.

11. Erythrura cyanovirens Peale. Samoa Islands.

Of the seventeen species of Aplonis only one, A. cantor Müll.,

has a more extensive distribution. It extends from Mysol,

Salavati, Batanta, small islands at the west end of New Guinea,

through New Guinea and the Louisiade Islands, and from the

Admiralty Islands, New Britain and Duke of York Island to

the Solomon Islands. A. fuscus Gould, occurs on Norfolk and

Lord Howe’s Island. The other fifteen species are restricted

to special localities: Tenimber Islands; Fead Island; New

Hebrides ; Loyalty Islands; New Caledonia, with Isle of Pines;

Fiji Islands and Rotumah Island; Tonga Islands; Fortuna

Island; Savage Island; two Samoan Islands; Rarotonga Is-

land; Raiatea, Society Islands; Carolines: Ponapé, Kuschai,

Ruk and Lugunor; Interior mountains of Ponapé.

The genus Erythrura Swainson, also shows a very interest-

ing distribution; Æ. prasina Sparrm., is found from southern

Tenasserim, down the Malayan Peninsula to Sumatra, Java

and Borneo; E. trichroa Kittl., on the Moluccas, New Guinea,

Carolines and Solomon lands, E. cyaneifrons E. L. Layard,

on the Loyalty Islands and the New Hebrides. The remain-

ing eight species have special localities: Tenimber Islands;

Timor; New Caledonia; Island of Aneitum, New Hebrides ;

Island of Api, New Hebrides ; Rewa, Taviuni, Fiji Islands;

Viti Levu, Fiji Islands; Sumos Telande.

The peculiar differentiation of Aplonis and Erythrura on

the different groups of islands can only be explained by their

continental origin.

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 891

The distribution of the genus Myzomela of the T eaters

or Honey-suckers may next be considered.

Group CINNYRIMORPHÆ.“

Family Meliphagidæ.

Subfamily Myzomelinæ.

Genus Myzomela Vigors and Horsfield, 1826.

1. Myzomela chloroptera Walden. Celebes.

2. Myzomela wakoloensis H. O. Forbes. Island of Bourou.

3. Myzomela simplex Gray. Halmahera Group.

4. Myzomela rubrobrunnea Meyer. Misori Island in the Bay

of Geelwink.

5. Myzomela rubrotincta Salvad. Obi Island.

6. Myzomela boiei S. Müller. Banda Islands.

7. Myzomela vulnerata S. Müller. Timor.

8. Myzomela annabellæ Sclater. Tenimber Group: Loetoer

Island.

9. Myzomela adolphinæ Salvad. New Guinea, Arfac Mount-

ains.

10. Myzomela rosenberyi Schleg. New Guinea: Astrolabe

_ Mountains.

11. Myzomela eques Less. New Guinea, Dorey and Mysol

Island.

12. Myzomela nigrita Gray. Western and Southern New

Guinea and Aru Islands.

13. Myzomela erythrocephala Gould. Northern Australia to

Aru Islands and New Guinea.

14. Myzomela forbesi Ramsay. Woodlark Islands, north of

Louisiade Islands.

15. Myzomela guentheri Gadow. New Britain..

16. Myzomela cineracea Scl. New Britain.

17. Myzomela cruentata Meyer. New Guinea, New Ireland,

New Britain.

“ Gadow, Hans. Catalogue of the Passeriformes, or Perching Birds, in the

: Collection: of the British Museum. Cinnyrimorphx containing the Families

Nectarinid and Meliphagide (Sun-Birds and Honey-Eaters), London, 1884, p.

128--144, Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum, Vol. IX, London,

1884, si :

892 The American Naturalist. | October,

18. Myzomela sclateri Forbes. Palakuru Island, off New

Britain.

19. Myzomela sanguinolenta Creeper. Australia.

20. Myzomela nigra Gould. Greater part of Australia.

21. Myzomela pectoralis Gould. North Australia.

22. Myzomela obscura Gould. North Australia and opposite

parts of New Guinea.

23. Myzomela pulcherrima Ramsay. Solomon Islands, Ugi.

24. Myzomela cardinalis Gmel. New Hebrides.

25. Myzomela caledonica Forbes. New Hebrides to New

Caledonia.

26. Myzomela jugularis Peale. Fiji Islands.

27. Myzomela nigriventris Peale. Samoa Islands.

28. Myzomela rubrata Less. Caroline Islands.

29. Myzomela chermesina Gray. Caroline Islands, Ponapé

Island, New Hebrides, Rotumah (north of Fiji).

` Myzomela has a very extensive distribution, reaching from

Celebes over the Moluccas, Papuan Islands, New Guinea to

Australia. From New Britain and New Ireland (Bismarck

Archipelago) to the Solomon Islands, New Hebrides, New

Caledonia, Fiji, Samoa Islands, Rotumah, Carolines.

Of the 29 species, 21 are restricted to special localities.

Here we have again the peculiar differentiation, which can

only be explained by former land connection.

Subfamily Zosteropine.

Genus Zosterops Vigors & Horsfield,* 1827.

The genus Zosterops has the most remarkable geographical

distribution. Range: All over Africa south of the Sahara ;

Island of St. Thomas and Prince’s Island in the Bight of Be-

- nin, W. Africa ; Socotra ; Madagascar ; the Mascarene Islands ;

Comoro; Glorioso; Seychelles Islands; entire Indian penin-

sula and Ceylon; Burmese countries ; the whole of China, ex-

tending into Amoor Land; Japan; Formosa; Hainan;

Malay peninsula; all the Indo-Malayan islands; Moluccas;

New Guinea and adjacent Papuan Islands; throughout the

“ Gadow, 1. c., p. 146--203.

1897] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands, 893

islands of the Pacific Ocean (with a few exceptions); New

Caledonia; Lord Howe’s Island; Norfolk Island; Australia

with Tasmania, New Zealand, Chatham Islands.

Gadow enumerated in 1884 eighty-five species of Zosterops.

The number of species known to-day must certainly be much

greater. The differentiation into species is very remarkable,

and a great many are restricted to single islands. I mention

the following species.

1. Zosterops cxrulescens Lath. Australia; New Zealand;

Chatham Island.

2 and 3. Zosterops albigularis Gould and Z. tenuirostris Gould.

Norfolk Island.

4. Zosterops strenua Gould. Lord Howe’s Island.

5. Zosterops tephropleura Gould. Lord Howe’s Island.

6. Zosterops griseonata Gray. New Caledonia and Erro-

mango, New Hebrides.

7. Zosterops vatensis Tristr. Vate, New Hebrides.

8. Zosterops flavifrons Lath. Aneitum, Erromango, New

Hebrides.

9. Zosterops inornata E. L. & C. L. Layard. Lifu, Loyalty

Islands.

10. Zosterops minuta E. L. & C. L. Layard. Lifu, Loyalty

Islands.

11. Zosterops melanops Gray. Loyalty Islands.

12. Zosterops flaviceps Peale. Levuka, Ovalau, Taviuni, Fiji

Islands.

13. Zosterops explorator Layard. Kandavu, Levuka, Ovalau,

Fiji Islands.

14. Zosterops hypolais Hartl. & Finsch. Island of Uap, Mac-

kenzie Group.

15. Zosterops oleagina Hartl. & Finsch. Island of Uap, Mac-

- kenzie Group.

16. Zosterops cinerea Kittl. Kushai Island, E. Carolines.

i 17. Zosterops ponapensis Finsch. Island of Ponapé, Caro-

ines.

18. Zosterops semperi Hartl. & Finsch. Eastern and Central

Carolines; Pelew Islands.

19. Zosterops finschii Hartl. Pelew Islands.

894 The American Naturulist. [October,

20. Zosterops conspicillata Kittl. Island of Guam, Ladrones.

21. Zosterops rendove Tristram. Island of Rendova, Solo-

mon Islands.

22. Zosterops hypoxantha Salvad. New Britain.

23. Zosterops griseotincta Gray. Louisiade Islands.

24. Zosierops xanthochroa Gray. New Caledonia and the Isle

of Pines.

25. Zosterops grayi Wall. Ké Islands, Moluccas.

26. Zosterops aureigula Salv. Island of Jobi, Bay of Geel-

wink, N. W. New Guinea. ;

27. Zosterops chloris Bonap. Banda Island, Moluccas.

28. Zosterops buruensis Salvad. Island of Bouru, Moluccas.

29. Zosterops uropygialis Salvad. Little Ké Island, Moluc-

cas. -

30. Zosterops atriceps Gey, - Island of Batchian, Malua

31. Zosterops fuscifrons Salvad. Halmahera, Moluccas.

32. Zosterops mysoriensis SERN Misori Bay of Geelwink,

N. W. New Guinea.

33. Zosterops longirostris Ramsay. Heath Island, south-

eastern end New Guinea. |

34. Zosterops griseiventer Sclater. Tenimber Islands.

35. Zosterops citrinella Bonap. Timor. :

36. Zosterops muelleri Hartl. Timor.

37. Zosterops aureifrons Wallace. Flores and Sumbawa.

38. Zosterops gallio Salv. Java.

39. Zosterops javanica Horsf. Java.

40. Zosterops fallax Gadow. Java and Sumatra.

41. Zosterops frigida Hartl. Sumatra.

42. Zosterops atricapilla Salv. Mount Singalan, Sumatra.

43. Zosterops chlorates Hartl. Mount ar Sumatra, 8000

eet.

44, Zosterops flava Horsf. ai. Saihai and Borneo. Bor-

nean specimens lighter.

45. Zosterops atrifrons Wallace. Celebes.

46. Zosterops everetti Tweed. Philippine Islands: Dinagat.

47. Zosterops meyeni Bonap. Philippine Islands: Luzon.

48. Zosterops japonica Temm. & Schleg. Japan.

49. Zosterops ceylonensis Holdsw. Hills of Ceylon.

1897.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 895

50. Zosterops palpebrosa Temm.* All over India from the

Himalayas to Ceylon with the Laccadives ; Burmese countries

eastwards into South China; Andamans and Nicobars.

51. Zosterops abyssinica Guérin. Socotra Island, also Abyssi-

nia, 3000-10,000 feet high.

52. Zosterops anjuanensis E. Newton. Comoro group: An-

juan and Grand Comoro Islands. vi

53. Zosterops madagascariensis Gmel. Madagascar and Glo-

rioso Islands.

54. Zosterops kirki Shelley. Grand Comoro Island,

55. Zosterops modesta E. Newton. Seychelles.

56. Zosterops semiflava E. Newton.’ Seychelles: Marianne

Island.

57. Zosterops mayottensis Schleg. Island of Mayotte.

58. Zosterops mauritiana Gmel. Mauritius.

59. re borbonica Gmel. Bourbon or Island of Ré-

unio

60. Voawtwe olivacea Linn. Bourbon or Reosion?

61. Zosterops chloronota Gray. Mauritius.

62. Zosterops lugubris Hartl. Island of S. Thomen in the

Bay of Biafra, W. Africa.

63. Zosterops leucophxa Hartl. Isla do Principé in the Bay

of Biafra, W. Africa.

64. Zosterops ficedulina Hartl. Isla do Principé in the Bay

of Biafra, W. Africa.

Of the 85 species of Zosterops mentioned by Gadow, 61 are

restricted to special localities, and of these 58 to special islands

orisland groups. This genus traverses Africa from the west

(islands in the Bay of Biafra) to the east (Abyssinia and Soco-

tra). It is found on all the islands on the southeast coast of

Africa, Madagascar, Comoro Islands, Grand Comoro, Island of

Mayotte, Glorioso Islands, the Mascarenian Islands, Bourbon

and Mauritius, Aldabra and the Seychelles. The next localities

eastwards are the Laccadives, Ceylon, the whole of India with

the Himalayas ; then follow the Burmese countries to south-

“ Gadow believes that all the specimens from these localities belong to Z. pal-

pebrosa Temm. It would be strange if this species is different from the others,

which have often very restricted localities.

896 The American Naturalist. [October,

ern China and north to southern Amoor Land; it occurs also

on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Japan has a peculiar

species, but the greatest differentiation is found on the Sunda

Islands, Celebes and especially the Moluccas, and the numer-

ous small islands and groups of islands known a» the Papuan

Islands. From New Guinea Zosterops ranges $ver to Aus-

tralia, Tasmania, New Zealand and the Chatham Islands.

Peculiar species are found on Lord Howe’s (2) and Norfolk

Islands (2); New Caledonia, the Loyalty Islands (3); New

Hebrides, (2) ; Fiji Islands (8); Carolines (8) ; Mackenzie Group

(2); Pelew Islands; Ladrones; Solomon Islands: Rendove;

Louisiade Islands; New Britain.

The extensive distribution of Zosterops and the very great

differentiation into many species on islands which are often

close together, or separated by very great distances from each

other, can only be explained by postulating the existence of a

former continent.

(To be continued.)

EDITOR’S TABLE.

THE meeting of the British Association, held in Toronto in August,

was a success in every respect. The attendance (some 1300) was large, _

the addresses were good and many of the papers read were important,

while the city of Toronto outdid itself in entertaining its guests. The

way in which the spirit of the Victorian Jubilee was manifested was

noticeable, and the guests could not but realize that they were attend-

ing the meeting of a British Association. We do not mean to infer

by this that the guests were made uncomfortable, but that the national

feeling could not help showing itself, in spite of such utterances as those

of Sir John Evans in his Presidential Address, when he said :

“Our gathering this year presents a feature of entire novelty and

extreme interest, inasmuch as the sister association of the United States

of America—still mourning the loss of her illustrious President, Pro-

fessor Cope—and some other learned societies have made special ar-

rangements to allow of their members coming here to join us. I need

hardly say how welcome their presence is, nor how gladly we look for-

ward to their taking part in our discussions and aiding us in an inter

1897.] Editor’s Table. 897

change of thought. To such a meeting the term ‘international’ seems

almost misapplied. It may rather be described as a family gathering,

in which our relatives, more or less distant in blood, hut still intimately

connected with us in language, literature and habit of thought, have

spontaneously arr:nged to take part.”

Our space will not allow us to print a list of the papers presented

nor to reproduce in full the various valuable addresses given. Any

summary or abstract would do injustice to some of the most scholarly

summaries of progress which we have ever known. As these are pre-

sented in full in both Science and Nature, the limitations of our pages

are the less to be regretted. We may, however, indulge in a few notes

Upon matters suggested by the meetings and by the addresses given.

Naturally the contrasting features of the two associations come first

to mind. In some respects our association seems the better, in others

we have something to learn from our transatlantic cousins; while in

still other features the two organizations are essentially identical.

Thus both are subdivided into sections (the sections, however, not hav-

ing the same limits in the two). These sections listen to papers and to

Presidential Addresses, and the association, as a whole, is offered num-

erous entertainments, junkets, and the like, by its hosts.

It is not necessary to detail the points in which we think our own

association is the better, but we may be pardoned if we point out some

features in which we think the British Association superior to our

own. '

In the first place the Presidental Addresses delivered before the

British Association strike us as, on the whole, better than those with

which our audiences are greeted. While now and then an American

address will rise to as high a standard as anything that Great Britain

can boast, theirs are on the average the more thoughtful and scholarly,

‘While ours too often have a prefunctory air and lack in breath of view.

In personnel of those who attend, the British Association again has

the advantage. In England it is the fashion to attend these annual

meetings, and no one there has reached such a pinnacle of greatness

that he can afford to ignore or neglect this national society. As a re-

sult, at their gatherings one can be reasonably certain of meeting most

of those who are the leaders in English scientific thought. In Amer-

tea, on the other hand. the tendency is in the other direction. It would

an easy matter to give a considerable list of names of those promi-

nent in American science, whose faces are never seen at the association

Meetings.

898 The American Naturalist. [October

In England many of the local scientific societies are affiliated with

the British Association and send their delegates regularly to the meet-

ings. This year, as in years past, there was.a conference of these dele-

gates, and Professor Miall, of Leeds, made some remarks before them,

which seem to us so suggestive and so valuable that we must make

them the text for a short digression from our main subject.

‘One who is at all familiar with the material which is constantly sub-

mitted for publication in our scientific journals soon realizes that there

is an immense amount of wasted, or misdirected energy among the

scientifically inclined. Naturally these persons attack the most prom-

inent questions—questions far beyond their capacities, or at least be-

yond their facilities for doing good work. As we once heard it ex-

pressed, only the editor of a scientific periodical can realize how many

second class men write upon first class problems. Now there is work,

good and valuable work, which these willing individuals can do. In

most cases they are removed from library facilities and large collec-

tions ; not unfrequently they are ignorant of all languages except their

mother tongue. They are good observers, have good reasoning powers,

but are the victims of their environment. It was to such provincial

naturalists that Professor Miall spoke, and he advised them to turn

their attention to the study of the life-histories of the common forms

about them, and to his every word we say a hearty “amen.” We

know too little about our intimate neighbors ; we are too apt to think

that some form from the interior of Africa or from some remote island

of the South Seas is far more interesting, far more important, than

those objects which we see every day. Yet these forms often possess

extreme interest. We have only to think how glad our European fel-

low workers are to get our ganoids and our Limulus, to realize that we

have important animals and plants in our own country. This study

of the life-histories needs no library, no collections, no acquaintance.

with foreign tongues. It needs only a pair of sharp eyes to turn out

work which shall be as full of interest and as valuable as the classic

paper of Smeathman upon the white ants. That our most familiar

forms will reveal new and unsuspected points of interest, is evidenced

by Dr. H. H. Wilder’s recent discovery that, contrary to all our text

books, several of our salamanders are lungless. One cannot read the

pages of the late W. H. Gibson, without realizing that there is much

to be found out about the animals andiplants about our very doors;

and every new fact about the commonest form is a positive contribution

to knowledge.

1897.] Editor’s Table. 899

But revenons á nos moutons. Is it not possible for some of our

smaller local societies to become affiliated with the American Associa-

tion in such a way as to be productive of mutual assistance? Cannot

the association act as a medium of intercourse and of exchange of

ideas? Cannot the members of these societies have conferences simi-

lar to those which take place in England? We are aware that what

have been termed “ affiliated societies” meet with the American Asso-

ciation, hut these societies are not the ones to which we refer. We are

also aware that the Society of Naturalists started out with a somewhat

similar idea. It was dropped by that organization, not because there

was no need of it, but for other reasons.

Again, the British Association annually appropriates large sums

(this year $7,750) in aid of various scientific investigations. Our asso-

ciation has recently entered upon a similar course, but so far its appro-

priations have been small. To the statement that it appropriates all

that it can, there is a ready reply. Look at the annual report of the

expenditures. of the association and you will find chances for economy.

Read through one volume of the “ Proceedings ” and you will conclude

that that portly annual volume could be reduced in size without the

slightest loss to science. The money saved by this could be very ad-

vantageously used in other ways, and it would not be insignificant in

amount.

Where all the addresses were so good it seems somewhat invidious

to select one as especially noteworthy, but the review of thirteen years

Progress in physiology by Professor Michael Foster, seems to the non-

physiological writer as, perhaps, the most striking and suggestive. We

call it up however, not for the purpose of making any comparisons, but

for the purpose of quoting from it,one portion which seems especially

timely after the recent attempts to get Congress and the Legislatures

of Massachusetts and other States to pass anti-vivisection laws. When

one knows the misstatements and perversions—to use no harsher term

—of the advocates of these bills, it is a pleasure to be able to quote a

direct reply to one of their deliberate misrepresentations. In his con-

cluding remarks Professor Foster said :

“ And I will be here so bold as to dare to point out that this devel-

“pment of his science must, in the times to come, influence the attitude

of the physiologist towards the world, and ought to influence the atti-

tude of the world towards him. I imagine that if a plebiscite, limited

‘ven to instructed, I might almost say scientific men, were taken at the

Present moment, it would be found that the most prevalent conception

of physiology is that it is a something which is in some way an appen-

900 The American Naturalist. [October,

dage to the art of medicine. That physiology is, and always must be,

the basis of the science of healing is so much a truism that I would not

venture to repeat it here were it not that some of those enemies, alike

to science and humanity, who are at times called anti-vivisectionists,

and whose zeal often outruns, not only discretion, but even truth, have

quite recently asserted that I think otherwise. Should such a hallu-

cination ever threaten to possess me, I should only have to turn to the

little we yet know of the physiology of the nervous system and remind

myself how great a help the results of pure physiological curiosity—

I repeat the words, pure physiological curiosity, for curiosity is the

mother of science—have been, alike to the surgeon and the physician,

in the treatment of those in some way most afflicting maladies, the dis-

eases of the nervous system. Now physiology is, and always must be,

the basis of the science of healing; but it is something more. When

physiology is dealing with those parts of the body which we call mus-

cular, vascular, glandular tissues and the like, rightly handled she

points out the way not only to amend that which is hurt, to repair the

damages of bad usage and disease, but so to train the growing tissues

and to guide the grown ones as that the best may be made of them for

the purposes of life. She not only heals, she governs and educates.

Nor does she do otherwise when she comes to deal with the nervous tis-

sues. Nay it is the very prerogative of these nervous tissues that their

life is above that of all the other tissues, contingent on the envi-

ronment and susceptible of education. If increasing knowledge gives

us increasing power so to mould a muscular fibre that it shall play to

the best the part which it has to play in life, the little knowledge we

at present possess gives us at least as much confidence in a coming far

greater power over the nerve cell. This is not the place to plunge into

the deep waters of the relation which the body bears to the mind, but

this at least stares us in the face, that changes in what we call the body

bring about changes in what we call the mind. When we alter the

one, we alter the other. If, as the whole past history of our science

leads us to expect, in the coming years a clearer and clearer insight

into the nature and conditions of that molecular dance which is to us

the material token of nervous action, and a fuller, exacter knowledge

of the laws which govern the sweep of nervous impulses along fibre and

cell, give us wider and directer command over the moulding of the

growing nervous mechanism and the maintenance and regulation of

the grown one, then assuredly physiology will takes it place as a judge

of appeal in questions not only of the body, but of the mind; it will

raise its voice not in the hospital and consulting-room only, but algo in

the Senate and the school.”

1897. | Botany. 901

WE have received notice of the recent formation at New Orleans of

“The Louisiana Society of Naturalists” with Prof. J. H. Dillard, of

Tulane University, as President, and Mr. E. Foster, Secretary. The

Society has already about 45 members, nearly all of whom are workers

in some branch of natural science. It proposes to work up the fauna

and flora of the State in a systematic manner, a task never before at-

tempted. One has only to look at the map of Louisiana—possessing

the mouth of one of the largest rivers in the world, numerous bayous,

vast salt and freshwater lakes, large islands and bars, extensive swamps

and forests—to see what grand possibilities are in store for this society

if its members will study geogtaphical distribution in the broad and

yet detailed way in which it is done by the Biological Survey of the

Department of Agriculture. We hope to receive reports from time to

time of the results achieved by the society.

General Notes.

BOTANY.

Pfaffs Observations on the Nature of Ivy Poisoning.—

Considering the frequency of Rhus poisoning and the abundance of

our two noxious species, it is remarkable that the exact nature of the

irritant has so long eluded discovery. The most widely divergent

views upon the subject have from time to time been advanced. Khit-

tel, in 1858, regarded the poisonous principle a volatile alkaloid ;

Maisch, in 1865, believed it a volatile acid; while Burrill at one time

thought a bacterial germ might be the responsible agent. However,

none of these observers has made a very satisfactory case, and it is

-accordingly a matter of more than ordinary interest that the poisonous

principle has at length been isolated by Dr. Franz Pfaff, of the Harv-

ard Medical School. As Dr. Pfaff’s preliminary article’ upon the sub-

ject is published in a medical journal and may, therefore, escape the

notice of biologists who are not also physicians, his results may be sum-

marized in these columns.

After a résumé of the investigations on Rhus poisoning, the fact is

pointed out that skin irritants are, in general, rapid or slow in their

* Journal of Experimental Medicine, II, 181-195, t. 10.

902 The American Naturalist. [October,

action according as they are more or less volatile. In the case of Rhus

poisoning the latent period between exposure and the first symptoms

of dermatitis, is a comparatively long one, amounting often to several

days. This would suggest that the poison is not a volatile substance

but something of a more fixed nature. However, as the prevailing

opinion strongly favored the idea that Rhus poison pervaded the air in

the neighborhood of the plant, Dr. Pfaff first proceeded to extract by

steam distillation Maisch’s “ toxicodendric acid,” which after combina-

tion with barium and sodium was found to be nothing more nor less

than acetic acid. Hethen tried quite a different plan and by distilling

alcoholic extracts of Rhus toxicodendron and R. venenata he obtained

a black oily residue, which when purified gave an oil of agreeable odor.

This oil was readily soluble in alcohol, ether, benzol, etc., but insoluble

in water. On prolonged exposure to air it turned toa resin. The

effects of the oil, for which the appropriate name Towicodendrol is sug-

gested, were repeatedly tried upon the persons of several assistants and

others offering themselves as subjects. In all cases it proved a most

active skin irritant, producing, even when applied in very small quan-

tities, highly characteristic cases of Rhus poisoning. There can, there-

fore, be scarcely a doubt that the true principle has now been discov-

ere

Notwithstanding the popular impression that a volatile poison emi-

nates from the Rhus, which thus acts upon sensitive persons even at a

distance, no signs of such action have been detected by Dr. Pfaff and

his assistants. Although they have experimented upon many pounds

of fresh R. toxicodendron and R. venenata, no case of poisoning has

occured except after actual contact with the plants or with objects

which the plants have touched. Dr. Pfaff suggests that the pollen may

at the time of anthesis act as a transporting agent, but that the popu-

lar opinion has probably arisen through frequent cases of poisoning by

. unconscious contact with the plants or with clothing or other objects to

which the viscid oil has adhered. The extended latent period, of

course, adds greatly to the difficulty of eliminating such possibilities in

particular cases. The practical outcome of Dr. Pfaff’s discoveries 18

that we may now have an intelligent treatment in cases of Rhus poison-

ing, and he points out that the best remedy at all stages is the very

simple one of removing the irritant by thoroughly brushing the affected

parts with soap and water, while on the other hand, the application of

oils, vaseline, or even alcohol, if not at once removed, only serves to

spread the poisonous principle, since it is readily soluble in these

media.

1897,] ; Botany. 903

The newly discovered toxicodendrol appears to be present in all

parts of the plant, even in the roots. Old and dried stems also yielded

it. No difference has as yet been detected between the oil extracted

from Rhus toxicodendron and that from R. venenata. Successful

analyses have not yet been made, but further investigations along these

lines are in progress in Dr. Pfaff’s laboratory. It is to be hoped that

he will extend his researches to other species of Rhus, notably R.

pumila Michx., concerning which there has been considerable contro-

versy, some writers maintaining its innocence, others its extreme viru-

lence.—B. L. ROBINSON.

Botany in Detroit.—The botanists appeared to share the feeling

of many other scientific men that it was inadvisable to hold a separate

meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,

preferring to arrange for a joint meeting with the British Association

which met a week later in Toronto. At any rate, the botanists pretty

generally did not go to Detroit. When Section G organized on Mon-

day forenoon, there were in addition to the Vice-President and Secre-

tary but three duly qualified members who were eligible to appointment

upon the sectional committee, and it was not until the second day that

all the committees were filled. And yet in spite of this discouraging

beginning, the sessions were interesting and profitable.

Vice-President Atkinson delivered his address upon “ Experimental

Morphology ” on Monday afternoon, August 9th, detailing with some

particularity the results of his experiments upon ferns of the genus

Onoclea, in which by mutilation at certain periods he was able to bring

about the transformation of the sporophyll into a normal or nearly

normal foliage leaf. The possibility of applying experimental methods

_ to the solution of many morphological problems was discussed at some

length.

The following papers were presented, some in extenso and others by

title only. ,

Trillium gree fena its variations, normal and teratological, by

Charles A. Davi

A discussion of the structural KARIES of the order Pezizinæ of

Schroeter, by J. E. Durand.

The taxonomic value of fruit characters in the genus Galium, by K.

E. Wiegand.

Report upon "E progress of the botanical survey of Nebraska, by

Charles E. Besse

Chan on aga winter in the perithecia and ascospores of certain

Brysiphees, by B. T. Galloway.

904 The American Naturalist. [October,.

The Erysiphex of North America, by B. T. Galloway.

Some contributions to the life-history of Haematococcus, by L. R.

Jones.

Bacteriosis of Carnations, by Albert F. Woods.

Wakker’s Hyacinth bacterium, by Erwin F. Smith.

Notes on some new genera of fungi, by George F. Atkinson.

Are the trees receding from the Nebraska plains?, by Charles E.

Bessey.

Reproductive organs and embryology of Drosera, by C. A. Peters.

Development of some seed-coats, by J. O. Schlatterbeck.

Contributions on the wild and cultivated roses of Wisconsin and

neighboring States, by J. H. Schuette.

Morphology of the flower of Asclepias cornuti by Fanny E. Lang-

don, presented by V. M. Spalding.

Comparison of the pollen of Pinus, Taxus and Peltandra, by George

F. Atkinson.

Some characteristics of the foothill vegetation of western Nebraska,

by Charles E. Bessey.

On the distribution of starch in woody stems, by B. Shimek.

Mechanism of root-curvature, by J. B. Pollok, presented by V. M.

Spalding.

The toxic action of phenole in plants, by R. H. True and C. G.

Hunkel.

Cellulose ferment, by F. C. Newcombe.

__ Is the characteristic acidity of certain species of the Arum family a

mechanical or a physiological property or effect, by Charles P. Hart.

How plants flee from their enemies, by W. J. Beal.

Stomata on the bud-scales of Abies pectinata, by A. P. Anderson.

Comparative anatomy of the normal and diseased organs of Abies

balsamea affected with Aecidium elatinum, by A. P. Anderson.

On a new and improved self-registering balance, by A. P. Anderson.

Several other papers were presented, the titles of which were not

obtained, and two hours were given to a joint session with the Zoologi-

eal Section in the discussion of Organic Selection as presented by H.

F. Osborn.

In the Botanical Club, it was found on assembling, that President,

Vice-President and Secretary were absent; accordingly J. J. Davis

was elected President, and Albert F. Woods, Secretary. The follow-

ing notes were presented :

An epidemic of Erysiphe communis on Polygonum aviculare, by

Charles E, Bessey, noting the universal presence of this parasite upon

the host mentioned in eastern Nebraska in 1897.

1897.] Botany. 905

A phosphorescent mosquito (Chironomus sp.), by Charles E. Bessey,

noting phosphorence upon all parts of the insect which, while living,

was evidently suffering from some disease. No hyphe or bacteria

were found after careful examination, although the presence of the lat-

ter is suspected.

Photographs of the Botanical Gardens of the Michigan Agricultural

College were shown by W. J. Beal.

_ Charts of fungi and large sheets of preparations of weeds, to be used

in botanical lectures before distant audiences were shown by W., J.

Beal.

Dicranum spurium and some other mosses, by R. H. True, noting

certain structural peculiarities.

Sensitive stamens in Opuntia, by Charles E. Bessey, ( O. fragilis and

O. missoouriensis).

Some south Michigan Oaks, by Messrs. Britton and Wheeler, being

the report of a committee which visited some oaks near the city. The

trees in question may belong to the species Quercus texana and Q. mich-

auxii, but further study is necessary.

On a method of preserving chlorophyll-bearing tissues, by A. F.

Woods. After precipitating the chlorophyll with copper, the material

(as leaves, etc.) may be preserved indefinitely in glycerine jelly.

Why moss-eapsules nod, by R. H. True, concluding that while the

curvature is geotropic, the direction is influenced by light.

The botanical garden of the University of Michigan was spoken of

by V. M. Spalding.

Frost injury to fruit trees and the falling of Ailanthus leaves were

discussed by A. D. Selby.

Professor Conway MacMillan, of the University of Minnesota, Min-

neapolis, Minnesota, was elected President for the ensuing year.

Professor C. B. Waldron, of the University of North Dakota, Fargo,

N. D., Vice-President.

A. B. Seymour, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., Secretary.

CHARLES E. Bessey.

The Botanical Society of America held its third Annual Meet-

ing in Toronto, August 17th and 18th. The address of the retiring

President, Prof. C. E. Bessey, upon the Phylogeny and Taxonomy of

the Angiosperms, will be published in full by the Society. The fol-

lowing papers were read:

B. L. Robinson: Ecblastesis in Lepidium apetalum.

J. C. Arthur: Movement of protoplasm in ceenocytic hyphe.

906 The American Naturalist. [Ootober,

J. M. Coulter: The pollen grain and the antipodal region.

D. P. Penhallow: Studies of the species of Picea.

H. J. Webber: The fertilization of Zamia.

D. T. McDougal and D. H. Campbell: Report upon the proposed

tropical laboratory.

E. L. Greene: Bibliographical difficulties.

The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President,

Dr. N. L. Britton; Vice-President, Prof. J. C. Arthur; Secretary,

Prof. C. R. Barnes; Treasurer, Arthur Hollick. The next meeting

will be held in Boston just previous to the meeting of the American

Association for the Advancement of Science.

Government Timber-tests.—The Division of Forestry of the

United States Department of Agriculture issued some months ago. a

summary of mechanical tests on thirty-two species of American woods

(Circular 15) which is worthy of something more than a passing remark.

These tests were made in St. Louis, Mo., by Professor J. B. Johnson.

This work has been carried on for six years, resulting in the collection

of a great deal of valuable information in regard to the timbers inves-

tigated. The work thus far has been very carefully done, and the

results cannot but prove of the greatest value to engineers and others

who make use of timber for large constructions. It is a pity that the

Chief of the Division has to say “at the present writing all work in

timber-testing has been abandoned.” It is to be hoped that the Secre-

tary of Agriculture will make strenuous efforts to secure the means for

continuing the work. Certainly our American timbers are worthy of

being carefully studied, and having their values rated in standard

works on the strength of materials. A Secretary who wishes to bring

things American to the favorable notice of the world could not do 1t

more certainly than by securing the exact data demanded by engineers

as to the value of our native timbers.—Caar.es E. Bessey.

Notes.—J. M. Greenman, of the Gray Herbarium of Harvard

University, contributes three papers to the Proceedings of the Ameri-

can Academy of Arts and Sciences (Vol. XXXII, No. 16), namely,

a Revision of the Mexican and Central American Species of Houstonia,

a Key to the Mexican Species of Liabum, and Descriptions of new or

little-known Plants from Mexico.

Among the recent papers on mosses is an important one by J. Car-

dot on the Mosses of the Azores and of Madeira, in the Eighth Annual

Report of the Missouri Botanical Garden. It includes twenty-four

1897.] Zoology. 907

pages of text, consisting of an annotated catalogue with descriptions of

new species, and eleven plates.

Dr. J. C. Arthur’s bulletin (65, Purdue) on Formalin for prevention

of Potato Scab, shows that by the use of this substance “ seed-potatoes ”

may be practically freed from scab germs by an immersion for two

hours in a solution of the approximate strength of 1:300.

In a recent number of the Journal of School Geography, Professer

Conway MacMillian contributes some useful notes for teachers on the

Geographical Distribution of Plants. Copies can probably be obtained

of the author by addressing him at the University of Minnesota.

Professor G. B. Frankforter, of the University of Minnesota, has be-

gun the chemical study of the common poke-weed (Phytolacca decan-

dra), and has published the first part of his results in the American

Journal of Pharmacy. Among the results thus far obtained is the

remarkably high per cent. (41.62) of potassium oxide found in the ash.

From the Experiment Station Record we learn that the following

amounts were included in the Congressional appropriations for the

United States Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year 1897-8,

viz.: Division of Botany, $23,800; Division of Agrostology, $18,100 ;

Division of Forestry, $28,520; Division of Vegetable Physiology and

Pathology, $26,500. This is hopeful; nearly $100,000 for the study of

some phase of botanical science! But one is disappointed in tinding

that Congressmen have wasted $130,000 for a free distribution of seeds.

We hoped that the day of this unwisdom had passed:—CHARLES E.

Bessey.

ZOOLOGY.

A List of the Birds of the Vicinity of West Chester,

Chester Co., Pennsylvania.—(Continued from page 814.)—

106. Dendroica estiva (Gmel.), Yellow Warbler. Rather common

summer resident, but more abundant during the migration period.

(Earliest spring occurrences: May 5, 1888; May 14, 1889).

107. D. cerulescens (Gmel.), Black-throated Blue Warbler. Abund-

ant migrant. (Spring occurrences: May 14, 1887; May 9-12, 1888 ;

May 11, 1889; May 9, 1891. Fall occurrences: Sept. 7-29, 1889;

Sept. 23 to Oct. 5, 1890).

108. D. coronata (Linn.), Myrtle Marbler. The most abundant mi-

grant of the family, unless Compsothlypsis americana should be assigned

908 The American Naturalist. [October,

that position. (Spring occurrences: April 19, 1886; May 7, 1887;

May 4-19, 1888; May 3-17, 1890; April 22 to May 9, 1891. Fall

occurrences: Oct. 12, 1889; Oct. 18, 1890).

109. D. maculosa (Gmel.), Magnolia Warbler. Common migrant in

the spring and fall. (Spring occurrences: May 9-15, 1888; May 14,

1889 ; May 10-17, 1890; May 9, 1891).

110. D. cerulea (Wils.), Cerulean Warbler. Very rare migrant. I

shot a female in a swamp in West Goshen, May 10, 1890 (now in col-

lection Acad. Nat. Sci. Philada.). I believe this to be the only pub-

lished record of this species in eastern Pennsylvania, with the excep-

tion of one recentty secured in Delaware Co. Dr. B. H. Warren

claims (“ Birds of Pennsylvania,” 2d ed., 1890) to have seen five indi-

viduals in this part of the State, but since he does not mention to have

taken specimens, the identity of these cases must be questioned.

111. D. pennsylvanica (Linn.), Chestnut-sided Warbler. Abundant

migrant in the spring and fall. (Spring occurrences: May 7, 1887;

May 9, 1888; May 11,1889; May 10-17,1890; May 9, 1891).

112. D. castanea (Wils.), Bay-breasted Warbler. Infrequent mi-

grant. I shot a male on May 11, 1889, and a male and female May 17,

1890, also a bird of the year Sept. 17, 1890,

113. D. striata (Forst.), Black-poll Warbler. Common migrant in

the spring and fall. (Spring occurrences; May 17, 1887 ; May 9-27,

1888; May 11-14, 1889; May 17,1890; May 8, 1891).

114. D. blackburnie (Gmel.), Blackburnian Warbler. Tolerably

common migrant in the spring and fall. (Spring occurrences: May 5

-19, 1888; May 4, 1891; May 7, 1897. Fall occurrences: Aug. 28,

1888 ; Sept. 19, 1890).

115. D. virens (Gmel.), Black-throated Green Warbler. Abundant

spring and fall migrant. (Spring occurrences: April 28 to May 12,

1888; April 25 to May 8, 1891. Fall occurrences: Oct. 7. 1887 ;

Sept. 19-29, 1889; Sept. 19 to Oct. 5, 1890). i

116. D. vigorsii (Aud.), Pine Warbler. Common migrant in the

fall. (Fall occurrences: Oct. 1-8, 1857; Sept. 19, 1889; Sept. 17 to

Oct. 18,1890). No spring occurrences have been noted by me.

117. D. palmarum hypochrysea Ridgw., Yellow Palm Warbler.

Rather infrequent migrant in the spring. I have never seen it in the

fall. In April, 1891, I shot five specimens and. saw a few others, and

saw a single one April 25, 1897.

118. D. discolor (Vieill.), Prairie Warbler. Rather rare migrant,

which I have seen only twice, on May 10, 1890, when I secured a

_ female and saw two other individuals, and May 2, 1897.

9897.) Zoology. 909

119. Seiurus aurocapillus (Linn.). Oven-bird. Common summer

resident, though more abundant during the migration periods. (Earliest

arrivals: May 2, 1887; May 12,1888; May 11, 1889; May 3, 1890;

April 25,1891. Bulk arrived: May 10,1887; May 19,1888; May 1,

1891).

120. S. noveboracensis (Gmel.), Water Thrush. I have collected

only one specimen of this species, on May 10, 1890, in West Goshen.

~ 121. Geothlypis formosa (Wils.), Kentucky Warbler. Infrequent

summer resident. I shot a male July 29, 1888. It is considerably

more frequent during the migrations.

120. G. agilis (Wils.), Connecticut Warbler. Infrequent migrant

in the early fall; the only specimens I have found were two collected

in 1889, on Sept. 20th and 28th, respectively, and I saw another on

Sept. 25th (all in West Goshen).

123. G. trichas (Linn.), Maryland Yellow-throat. Common sum-

mer resident. (Earliest arrivals: May 9, 1888; May 3, 1890; April

24,1891. Bulk arrived: May 7, 1887).

124. Icteria virens (Linn.), Yellow-breasted Chat. Infrequent sum-

mer resident. I noticed one on May 6,1887, in West Goshen, and

shot a pair (male and female) in Birmingham on July 6th of the same

year. In the spring of 1897 I saw four pairs, the first of which arrived

May 9th.

125. Sylvania pusilla (Wils.), Wilson’s Warbler. Common migrant

in the spring and fall. (Spring occurrences: May 18, 1886; May 12,

1888 ; May 10-17, 1890).

126. S. canadensis (Linn.), Canadian Warbler. Common migrant in

the late spring and early fall. (Spring occurrence: May 19, 1888 ;

May 11,1889; May 10, 1890).

127. Setophaga ruticilla (Linn.), American Redstart. Abundant

migrant in the spring and fall. (Spring occurrences: April 14 to May

17, 1886; May 7-13, 1887; May 12-19, 1888; May 10-17, 1890;

April 28 to May 9, 1891. Fall occurrences: Aug. 11, 1886; Aug. 25,

1887 ; Sept. 20, 1889 ; Sept. 6-23, 1890).

128, Anthus pennsylvanicus (Lath.), American Pipit. Not uncom-

mon, though of irregular occurrence in the fall and spring. (Earliest

fall occurrence : Oct. 13, 1888. Latest spring occurrence: Apor 14,

1888, when I saw a flock of about 100).

129. Galeoscoptes carolinensis (Linn.), Catbird. Abundant summer

resident. (Earliest spring arrivals: May 4, 1886; May 2, 1887 ; May

1, 1888; May 1, 1891; April 28,1897, Bulk arrived : May 5, 1886 ;

May 3, 1887 ; May 6, 1888 ; May 4,1891. This species is more regu-

910 The American Naturalist. [October,

lar in regard to the time of its arrival than any other that I have ob-

served.

130. Harporhynchus rufus (Linn.), Brown Thrasher. Common

summer resident. (Earliest arrivals: April 25,1886; April 23, 1887;

April 28, 1888; April 20,1889. Bulk arrived: April 26, 1887).

131. Troglodytes aédon Vieill., House Wren. Abundant summer

resident. (Earliest spring arrivals: April 22,1886; April 27, 1887 ;

March 31, 1888; April 17, 1891, Bulk arrived: April 29, 1887;

April 4, 1888).

132. T. hiemalis Vieill., Winter Wren. Tolerably common winter

resident. (Earliest occurrence: Sept. 25; latest occurrence, March

133. Certhia familiaris americana (Bonap.), Brown Creeper. Toler-

ably common resident during the late fall, winter and early spring.

(Earliest occurrence: Sept. 25, 1890. Latest occurrence: April 21,

1886).

134. Sitta carolinensis Lath., White-breasted Nuthatch. Common

resident.

135. S. canadensis Linn., Red-breasted Nuthatch. A very infrequent

migrant. I shot a female on April 27, 1889, and saw another individ-

ual on Sept. 29th of the same year ; also a brightly colored individual

on Oct. 17,1896, and shot another April 28, 1897.

136. Parus bicolor Linn., Tufted Titmouse. Common migrant in

the spring and fall.

137. P. atricapillus (Linn.), Black-capped Chickadee. Common

winter resident, sometimes abundant.

138. Regulus satrapa Licht., Golden-crowned Kinglet. Common

resident in the fall, winter and spring.

139. R. calendula (Linn.), Ruby-crowned Kinglet. Common mi-

grant in the spring and fall.

140. Turdus mustelinus! Gmel., Wood Thrush. Common summer

resident.

141. T. fuscescens Steph., Wilson’s Thrush. Not infrequent migrant.

I have taken it only in the spring.

142. T. ustulatus swainsonii (Cab.), Olive-backed thrush. I have

shot only two specimens of this species, on Sept. 9, 1887, and Sept. 2,

1895, both in West Goshen. :

143. T. aonalasehke pallasii (Cab.), Hermit Thrush. Common mr

grant in the spring and fall. (Spring occurrences: May 17-21, 1886 ;

April 2, 1888; May 11, 1889; April 15-28, 1891. In the fall it re-

mains until about Nov. 15th). pe

1897.] Entomology. 911

144. Merula migratoria (Linn.), American Robin. Abundant sum-

mer resident. (Earliest spring arrivals: Jan. 26, 1887; Feb. 21, 1888 ;

March 13, 1889; March 1, 1890; Feb. 24, 1891. Bulk arrived:

March 13, 1887; March 10, 1888; March 14, 1889. Latest fall

occurrences: Dec. 18, 1885; Nov. 25, 1887; Dec. 31, 1889; Nov. 1,

1890). To judge from these data, it would seem probable that a few

remain through the mild winters.

145, Sialia sialis (Linn.), Bluebird. Common resident, but now not as

numerous as at the commencement of the period of my observations.

It migrates in severe winters.

—Tuos. H. MONTGOMERY, JR., Pu. D.

May 26, 1897, Wistar Inst. of: Anat., Philada.

ENTOMOLOGY.

Scudder’s Guide to the Orthoptera. —Mr. Scudder has again

placed the workers in systematic entomology under obligation to him,

by the publication of an exceedingly useful manual of Orthoptera.

This little volume consists of analytical tables, bibliographical notes,

and a list of papers treating of North American Orthoptera. The

scope of the work is well stated by the author in his preface as fol-

lows: ;

“ The following tables and bibliographies are published, not as a final-

ity, but for temporary use by students of Orthoptera in this country, who

have few means for working up their collections. The author contem-

plates a general work on the classification of our Orthoptera. of which

this is merely a prodromus, and which may serve its purpose until the

material at hand has been more thoroughly studied ; the frequent de-

mands made for information have prompted it. The greater number of

tables are based upon those of Stal, Brunner and de Saussure, but these

authors are in no way responsible for the form in which they here ap-

ar 3)

The work will be warmly welcomed by all having collections of Or-

thoptera. For the first time, it is now possible for one not a specialist

in the Orthoptera, to determine the North American genera of all

families of this order.

1 Guide to the Genera and Classification of the North American Orthoptera

found north of Mexico. By Samuel Hubbard Scudder. Cambridge, Edward W.

Wheeler, 1897, 8vo, pp. 89, $1.00.

Do-

912 The American Naturadist. [Octoher,

If the appearance of the more general work is to be long delayed,

which is probable, owing to the magnitude of the undertaking, it is to

be hoped that Mr. Scudder will soon give us a catalogue of the known

North American species of this order. Such a catalogue, even thopgh

it were merely provisional, would be of great use to those having col-

lections to arrange, and would stimulate more careful collecting in

regions which have not yet been thoroughly explored. In this way

much would be done to hasten the day when a fairly complete general

work could be published.

One has only to consider the great usefulness of our lists of Lepidop-

tera to appreciate the value of even an imperfect catalogue. And there

is no one else so well qualified as is Mr. Scudder to prepare a catalogue

of the Orthoptera.—J. H. C.

PSYCHOLOGY.’

Notes on the Experimental Study of Memory.’—The expe-

rimental investigation of memory began only a few years ago. In the

books on modern psychology which date ten years back, there was no

mention of it whatever. Wundt’s treatise on physiological psychology,

which may rightly be considered a typical work,.devotes but very few

ages to memory and not a word to experiments upon this faculty ;

nevertheless, this is a work which has passed through several editions,

in which the author has endeavored to keep abreast with the science.

The first investigators who directed their attention to the subject were

Galton, Jacobs and Ebbinghaus; their studies were confined to a few

points, and there still remain to-day many unexplored regions in this

domain. The memory of sensations is merely outlined, and the mem-

ory of ideas still remains to be covered, at least for the most part.

However, within the last two years, attention has been turned in the

direction of the memory. Miinsterberg, Calkins, Bigham, Miiller and

Schumann and many others have already published results which are

exceedingly interesting, although still fragmentary. As it is certain

that these studies are more likely than some others to render great ser-

vice to pedagogy, it is to be hoped that the movement already begun

will not be arrested too soon.

! Edited by Howard C. Warren, Princeton University, Princton, N. J.

1897.] Psychology. ; 913

The experiments on memory, whether made collectively on an as-

semblage of persons, as (e. g.), on an entire class of students, or individ-

ually upon single subjects, or again on the experimenter himself, who

serves as his own subject—these experiments, I say, consist chiefly in

giving the subject a certain impression, and then seeking to find out

what becomes of this impression in his memory at the end of a certain

time. The experimenter endeavors above all to take account of the

greater or lesser transformation which the memory causes the impres-

sion to undergo. To discover this, three principal methods are em-

ployed.

1. Method of reproduction—This consists in making the subject

reproduce his impression ; if it is a story that he has listened to, he re-

peats or writes it ; if it is a visible form, he sketches it; if it is a sound

or an inflection, or some visible movement, he imitates it; if it is a

color, he reproduces it by mixing the tints on a palette or varying the

sectors of rotating discs. This is certainly the most natural method, in

that it follows closely our ordinary procedure; but as a method of

studying the memory it is somewhat indirect; it requires a translation

or transposition of the impression, and a special aptitude, e. g., in

sketching or painting; it should, therefore, be expressly reserved for

the verbal memory. 2. Method of selection.—This consists in the rec-

ognition of the impression when it is presented again in company with

others; thus a tint is exhibited at first and the subject must remember

it; at the end of a certain time he is shown a graded series of the same

color, comprising fifteen different tints, and must recognize the one

which was shown him before; the second presentation may give the

whole series simultaneously or successively. This method is simpler

than the preceding, since it bears more directly on the memory ; there

remains to consider the sources of error which it contains. One has

already been noted. Whenever we have to make a choice from among

a set of objects our attention is drawn towards the centre of the series ;

if the impression to be recognized is the sixth in a series of 15, the

Seventh impression is more apt to be indicated than the fifth, because

the former is nearer the centre; consequently the arrangement of the

Series, that is, the application of the method, exerts some influence upon

the character of the results. 3. Method of comparison.—The subject

compares the remembered impression with another impression which is

shown him, and answers that the latter is “equal, greater or smaller.”

* This classification of the methods for the study of memory was first proposed

by V. Henri and myself; Baldwin has arrived at analogous methods quite inde-

pendently.

914 The American Naturalist. [October,

Thus if it is a line that he is to remember, he is shown another line and

judges the relation of the two.

These two methods may be used with many variations of detail into

which we need not enter; it is sufficient to have shown that it is pos-

sible to make an experimental study of memory. I shall proceed to

indicate the principal results which have up to the present been reached

by science. There is, perhaps, no question of more importance to

pedagogy. As I can only give a bird’s-eye view of the whole, I will

not mention any name, nor will I enter into the details of any experi-

ment ; it is sufficient to sum up in a few bare statements the results

that have been attained.

1. Partial memories—We know to day that the memory is not a

unit, but that there exists for each individual a series of partial memo-

ries which are distinct and independent; that these memories are un-

equally developed, and that in a certain number of pathological cases

one of the memories may disappear altogether, leaving the rest intact

or nearly so. The most striking example of this that can be cited is

aphasia, a disorder in which the memory and images of words are

affected in a special manner; the patient usually retains the memory

and images of objects, and remains in possession of his intellect. Ex-

amples of the partial development of memory are met with among some

professional exhibitors, such as chess players and (more especially)

lightning calculators. j

2. The measurement of memory.—Although the methods used for

measuring the memory may have been crude, as they still are, it 1s

nevertheless a great advance to be able to introduce the concept of

measurement into this problem at all. So far attempts have been made

to measure but one kind of memory, the direct faculty of acquisition.

The experiments deal with the number of memory-images that can be

stored up at a single trial, without allowing the subject time to rest.

This is called in English the “ mental span ” of the memory; I have

proposed for it the term “ faculté de prehension.” Several successive

investigations have already been made on the measurement of the

memory for figures and syllables; these are localized memories, the

development of which cannot be considered as a sign of the develop-

ment of the other memories; we must, therefore, make many reserva-

tions in interpreting the conclusions to be drawn from these experi-

‘ments. The experiment may be made as follows: a series of figures

is read to the subject at a regular speed (the speed used is in general

_ two figures per second) and without any special accentuation ; as s000

as he has heard the series, the subject, having been told beforehand of

1897.] Psychology. 915

the requirement, endeavors to repeat the figures without error and in

the order in which he heard them. The experiment is repeated several

times, beginning with a small number of figures, e. g., four, which any

adult can give correctly ; it is then increased to five figures, then to

six, and so on, until a number is reached which the subject can no

longer repeat correctly ; care is taken to repeat each trial, and to al-

low sufficient intervals of rest to avoid fatigue and the confusion of

figures in’ the memory. This procedure, adopted by Jacobs, Galton

and many others, has already borne fruit. It is not, properly speak-

ing, a test of the memory alone ; it is extremely diffcult, be it said in

passing, to experiment on any isolated psychological phenomenon ; the

experiments taken together show, on the contrary, that the subject em-

ploys not only his memory but also his powers of voluntary attention ;

this explains why children retain fewer figures by this method than

adults ; their inferiority is certainly due to the fact that they have less

control over their attention. The average educated adult retains seven

figures; a child from 6 to 8 retains five; a child of 10 retains six. A

difference of one single figure is of considerable importance in the

results, and it is one of the drawbacks of this method that we cannot

Operate with fractions of figures. I have had occasion to measure the

retentive memory of Jacques Inaudi, the celebrated lightning calcula-

tor; he is able to commit more than 40 figures at one trial ; it will be

seen from this how far his memory is above the average.

Instead of finding out the number of figures, letters or words that

can be retained by one person after a single hearing or reading, a dif-

ferent procedure may be adopted ; we may endeayor to find the time

required by different individuals to learn a given number of figures,

Say twelve ; further, we may try to find the time necessary to learn

again a series once learned and afterwards forgotten. For details in

regard to these rather complex methods I refer the reader to the work

of Ebbinghaus. ( Ueber das Gedachtniss). ;

A rather curious question, which is closely related to that of the

measurement of memory, is the simulation of the memory for figures.

emory can be simulated as well as other things. This is done by

means of mnemonics, a process which consists in associating arbitrary

ideas with figures; I have indicated, in a study undertaken with V.

Henri, how real memory can be distinguished from simulated memory,

by measuring the time required to learn and reproduce.

3. Fi orgetfulness— We now reach a question that has an important

Pedagogical bearing: the problem of forgetfulness. In what does it

consist? What is its course? What memories are attacked first?

916 The American Naturalist. [October,

What are the best means to adopt for preserving memory-images?

What should be done in order to strengthen the memory, etc., etc. ?

On all these points there have accumulated within the last ten years a

countless number of documents; no synthesis of these data has yet been

made, and I know of no general work in which the author has at-

tempted to compare the results of these special studies and to draw

forth their underlying principles; I except, of course, works on the

mental pathology of the memory (Ribot, Sollier, etc.), which we are

not concerned with here; I am only speaking of normal memory,

studied with exactness by means of laboratory experimentation.

The analysis of these experiments leads us to one conclusion regard-

ing the nature of forgetfulness. It is of two kinds, and is due to two

principal causes: (1) Forgetfulness through lack of retention ; the im-

pression is not stamped in and does not leave a trace, this is the first

kind; (2) Forgetfulness through lack of reproduction; the impression

has been stamped in, but cannot be brought out or reproduced at will,

e. g.,100 words being read to a person, how many does he forget?

The answer varies according to the way in which the term forgetful-

ness is interpreted. If we ask the subject to repeat the words, he will

perhaps not be able to give more than 20, hence he has forgotten 80—

forgotten them, in the sense that he cannot repeat them. This number

can, therefore, be placed to the credit of forgetfulness through lack of

reproduction. Now if we take these 80 words which the subject can-

not repeat and mixing them up with one or two hundred new words,

ask him to distinguish the old from the new words, we will see that he

makes a very small number of errors ; I suppose that on the average 60

words will be recognized out of 80, so that in the end there are scarcely

20 words in 100 (and, perhaps, even fewer) that are completely for-

gotten; the others were retained, inasmuch as they were recognized.

The amount of forgetfulness through lack of retention is always small.

The position of the forgotten elements in a series of memories ap-

pears to be quite regular; the first elements in the series are almost

always better retained than the rest, no doubt because they strike the

attention when it is fresh; the same is true of the last elements, no

doubt because they are the ones acquired most recently; most of the

forgotten elements, then, belong to the centre of the series. The in-

fluence of novelty, repetition and other factors on forgetfulness have

been studied (Calkins), as well as the influence of the time elapsed (in

numerous investigations), the organ stimulated, the attention, distrac-

tion, etc. These investigations, many of them minute, have furnished

us with matters of detail, rather than general ideas ALFRED BINET.

1897.] Scientific News. 917

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

A Statement to the Corporation from the! Trustees of the

Marine Biological Laboratory.—The annual meetings of the

corporation will hereafter be held at Woods Holl in August, instead of

Boston in November, and absent members can now vote by proxy.

The board of trustees has been enlarged to twenty-seven members, and

the new board, it is believed, fairly represents nearly all sections of

this country and Canada. The closer co-operation of all institutions

of learning is now actively encouraged.

These changes will make possible the attendance of a large number

of members at annual and special meetings, who have been unable to

reach Boston during the month of November, and there are already

signs of increasing interest in the institution over a much wider area.

The members will be glad to learn that, at the recent meeting of the

British Association in Toronto, Dr. Dohrn, Director of the unrivalled

station at Naples, took occasion to speak as from personal knowledge in

terms of warm commendation of the work at Woods Holl. The past

summer has been highly satisfactory ; but the trustees have been ham-

pered by lack of funds for needed repairs and renewals, and, to some

extent, for current expenses. At least $1,000 should be raised before

resuming work next summer, and there remains a debt of about $4,700

incurred for the erection of new buildings. This debt should be can-

celled in order that a clear balance sheet may be shown before under-

taking several most desirable extensions of the plant, some of which

are urgently needed. Salaries should be increased and greater induce-

ments offered to the strong corps of instructnrs and workers, whose

collaboration has enabled the institution to attain its present position

in the scientific world. Moreover, there is no assurance of permanence

in an institution of this nature, until it shall have acquired a sufficient

endowment or maintenance fund, independent of its land, buildings

and equipments (which now represents an investment of over $33,000),

to relieve it from danger of extinction by one or more seasons of small

attendance. The endowment fund now amounts to over $3,500, and

has been carefully husbanded ; but it should be increased to at least

$50,000, and the special funds, the Lucretia Crocker Fund for scholar-

ships and the library fund, may profitably be added to.

One effect of the recent changes in the by-laws will be, or may be,

to diminish the special interest in and sense of responsibility for the

laboratory heretofore shown in the city of Boston and its immediate

918 The American Naturalist. [October,

vicinity, to which, as is well known, the institution owes its initial im-

pulse and much continuous and generous support. In appealing, as

they do now, to a wider constituency, the trustees are in nowise unmind-

ful of the debt which the cause of science and of sound learning owes

to this intelligent and kindly support in the past, some of which sup-

port, as they are assured, will hereafter be extended, with unwearied

generosity, from the same locality. The laboratory now looks to the

country at large for its main source of income. Uponall the corporate

members, in whose hands the recent changes have placed the entire

control, now rests the correlative Hily of subporine the work. With

power comes responsibility.

The trustees, therefore, have decided to raise the annual dues of

members of the corporation to two dollars ($2). The fiscal year now

begins in the second Tuesday in August, and this sum is now due for

the year ending August 9, 1898. Members of the corporation will

kindly forward it, together with all back dues, to the Treasurer, D.

Blakeley Hoar, 220 Devonshire St., Boston, Mass.

For the reasons above given, the trustees also appeal to the members

of the corporation to send, with their annual dues, such further sums,

however small, as the means and interest of each in the work may in-

spire. All contributions will be duly noted in the annual report,

which is in course of preparation, and will be issued early in*the com-

ing year. A contribution of not less than $100 entitles the donor to a

life membership, exempt from annual dues, or at his option, to nomi-

nate a person to occupy a private room in the Laboratory, free of

charge, during one season. A contribution of $50 entitles the donor

to a free scholarship, exempt from tuition fees, during one season.

Contributions of smaller amounts will be gratefully received and duly

acknowledged.

The forth-coming report will show fully all the recent changes in

the organic law of the Association, and will be sent to all members in

good standing.

By order of the Trustees,

H. C. Bumpus, Secretary

Edward G. Gardiner, Ohien

D. Blakely Hoar, Treasurer,

Camillus G. Kidder,

- Henry F. Osborn, President,

y James I. Peck, Asst. Director,

C. O. Whitman Director,

Executive Committee of Trustees.

1897.] Scientific News.: 919

All matters relating to the scientific administration of the Marine

Biological Laboratory should be addressed to Prof. C. O. Whitman,

University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.; all applications for membership

to the Secretary, Prof. H. C. Bumpus, Brown University, Providence,

R. L.; all dues and subscriptions to the Treasurer, D. Blakeley Hoar,

220 Devonshire St., Boston, Mass.

Recent Appointments: Dr. Frech, professor of geology in the Uni-

versity of Breslau; Dr. Paul Samassa, professor extraordinary of

zoology at Heidelberg; Dr. E. B. Copeland, assistant professor of

botany in the University of Indiana, Bloomington, Ind.; Dr. G. Boc-

cardi; associate professor of histology at the University of Naples ;

Ernest B. Forbes of the University of Illinois, assistant state entomo-

logist of Minnesota; Dr. James E. Hamphrey, associate professor of

botany in Johns Hopkins University; Dr. George B. Shattuck, assis-

tant in geology in Johns Hopkins University; Dr. Charles E. Beecher,

advanced to University, professor of historical geology and Dr. L. V

Pirsson, professor of physical geology in Yale University; Miss Bertha

Stoneman, professor of botany in the Huguenot College for Women in

Cape Colony; J. L. Prevost, professor of physiology in the University

of Geneva; Dr. J. J. Zumstein, professor of anatomy in the Uni-

versity of Marburg; Dr. H. Baum, professor of osteology in the

Technical High School at Dresden; Dr. W. Ule, professor of geogra-

phy in the University of Halle; Dr. A. O. Kihlmann, assistant pro-

fessor of botany at Helsingfors ; Dr. Alex. Bittner, chief geologist ; G:

Geyer, geologist, G. von Bukowski and August Rosiwál, adjunct, Drs.

J. Dreger, F. von Kerner, J. J. Jahn and F. Fichluter, assistants of

the imperial Austrian Geological Anstalt at Vienna; Dr. Karl Toldt,

professor of anatomy, has been elected Rector of the University of

Vienna for the coming year; W. Garstang, naturalist of the Plymouth

(England) Laboratory; Dr. E. Kaufmann, professor of anatomy at

Breslau; Dr. Max Walters, professor of anatomy at Bonn; W. H.

Lang, lecturer in botany in Queen Margaret College, Glasgow; Dr.

Walter Kruse, professor of hygiene at Bonn ; Dr. Raphael Slidell, pro-

fessor extraordinarius of zoology at Heidelberg ; Prof. Johannes Ruch-

ert, professor of anatomy in the University of Munich ; Miss D. Clark,

demonstrator in botany, Queen Margaret College, Glasgow ; Freiher

von Erlanger, professor extraordinarius of zoology at the University of

Heidelberg; Dr. George J. Pierce, professor of plant physiology in

Leland Stanford University; Miss M. Maclean, demonstrator in

anatomy, Queen Margaret College, Glasgow ; Prof. C. L. Herrick, lately

professor of biology in Denison University, has been elected President

of the University of New Mexico at Albuquerque; Miss Arma Anna

920 The American Naturalist. [ October,

Smith, assistant in botany in Mt. Holyoke College; Prof. Ph. Stöhr,

of Zürich, professor of anatomy in the University of Würzburg, Prof.

von Kölliker restricting himself to histology and embryology; Prof.

Hugo de Vries of Amsterdam, professor of botany in the University of

Wiirzburg, as successor to the late Prof. Sachs; Dr. H. Fling, profess-

or of biology and chemistry in the Oskosh Normal School; Dr. Bruno

Hofer, director of the institute for the study of diseases of fishes at

Munich; Henry Kraemer, professor of botany and microscopy in the

Philadelphia College of Pharmacy; Dr. Albert Schneider, professor

of botany in Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.; Dr. Jumelle,

assistant professor of botany in the faculty of sciences at Grenoble,

France; Johannes Martin, Director of the Natural History Museum in

Oldenburg; Dr. Philippi, assistant in the Museum of Natural History

in Berlin; T. I. Pocock, assistant geologist on the British Geological

Survey; Dr. W. F. Hume and L. Gorringe, assistants on the geological

Survey of Egypt; Dr. H. V. Neal, professor of biology in Knox College,

Galesburg, Ill.; Prof. George Ruge, to the chair of anatomy at Zürich,

as successor to Prof. Stéhr; Dr. Ossau of Hiedelberg to the chair of

mineralogy in Mülhausen ; Dr. J. Biittikofer of Leiden, director of the

zoological gardens at Rotterdam; Dr. Antoneo Crocicha, professor of

biology in the Catholic University at Washington ; Adolf Beck, pro-

fessor of physiology at Lemburg; Dr. Ludwig Heim, professor ext. of

bacteriology at Erlangen; Dr. H. Baum, professor of osteology at the

Dresden Technical School; Dr. George Voikens, assistant in the Botan-

ical Museum at Berlin; Dr. A. O. Kihlman, professor extraordinary of

botany at Helsingfors; W. S. Boulton, of Mason College, lecturer in

geology at University College, Cardiff, Wales.

James Ellis Humphrey, the son of James and Susan (Cushing)

Humphrey, was born in Weymouth, Mass., August 5, 1861. He re-

ceived his early education in the Weymouth schools, and at the early

age of sixteen was appointed master of one of the grammar schools in

his native town. Then after a short experience in the Prang Educa-

tional Company, he entered the Lawrence Scientific School of Har-

vard University, from which he received the degree of S. B. in 1886.

During his college studies he paid especial attention to botany, and

immediately upon graduation he received an appointment as assistant

in the botanical laboratories under Professor G. L. Goodale. In 1887

he was appointed instructor in botany in the University of Indiana,

and the next year he accepted the position of botanist in the State

Agricultural Experiment Station at Amherst, Mass., where he re-

mained until 1892. While at Amherst he continued his studies under

JAMES ELLIS HUMPHREY.

See page 920.

1897.] Scientific News. 921

the direction of the Harvard Faculty, and in 1892 received the degree

of Sc. D. from his alma mater. This same year he spent three months

in Jamaica collecting botanical material. He then went to Germany

where he studied until 1894 under Professor Edouard Strasburger at

Bonn. Upon his return to America he was made a fellow in the

Johns Hopkins University, and the next year received an appoint-

ment as lecturer in botany in that institution. This present year he

was advanced to the position of associate professor of botany. In early

June, he sailed with a party of Johns Hopkins students to Jamaica,

where the Johns Hopkins marine laboratory was established for the sum-

mer. The work was most successful and Professor Humphrey obtained

some most important material upon the embryology of the palms and of

ginger. On August 12 he was taken sick, but his condition was not

considered at all serious until the 17th, when he rapidly grew worse,

dying the same day of pernicious malarial fever.

Early in his botanical career, Dr. Humphrey became interested in

the study of the Algae, and his first published paper (his thesis for the

degree of S. B.) was on the development of the frond of Agarum tur-

neri, in which he explained the method by which the peculiar perfora-

tions found in that species are formed.

Upon his removal to Indiana and later to Amherst, it became neces-

sary to pay especial attention to the fungi, and more particularly to

those which cause plant diseases. His reports as botanist to the Am-

herst Experimental Station include valuable papers on the black-knot

of the plum, on diseases of cucumbers and potatoes, and on other kin-

dred diseases. More important and more elaborate than: these was his

dissertation for the doctor’s degree, a monograph of the Saprolegniacez,

which will long remain a classic upon this subject.

Naturally, upon his introduction to Strasburger’s laboratory, his

studies took a cytological turn and his several papers upon the cell and

cell-contents were published in the Berichte of the German Botanical

Society and in the Annals of Botany. For many years he furnished

abstracts of American botanical work for the Botanische Centralblatt,

and he also translated and edited Zimmermann’s “ Botanical Micro-

technique.”

Personally, Dr. Humphrey was straightforward and outspoken, and

little inclined to tolerate what seemed to him inferior work. The work

he had already done showed what might have been expected of him in

the future, connected with a university with whose scientific staff he

was in full sympathy, and upon whose students his enthusiasm and his

sincerity were already producing happy results. He was very optimis-

922 ` The American Naturalist. [October,

tic and had the happy faculty of believing that the future would turn

out well, whatever the discouragements of the moment.

To his older botanical friends his sudden death at an age when so

much was hoped from him for years to come, is a great shock, and they

recall vividly his many sterling qualities as well as his capacity asa bot-

anist. To us, connected editorially with the AMERICAN NATURALIST,

his loss is a severe one, as he had made all arrangements to act as one

of the editors of this magazine.

Recent deaths: Dr. Alfred Stocquart, chief demonstrator of anatomy

in the University of Brussels; Dr. Legros, professor of physiology in

the same university ; H. V. Carter, professor of anatomy and physiology '

in Grant College, Bombay; E. Russow; former professor of botany at

Jurjiew, April 23d, aged 56; Lucien Biart, naturalist and collector, in :

Mexico; L. Jurani, professor of botany in the Royal University of

Hungary, Feb. 27th, aged 59; C. J. M. Bugnion, entomologist, at

Lausanne, Jan. 19th, aged 86; Mrs. Alice Bodington, a well-known

contributor to the American Naturalist, ‘at New Westminster, British

Columbia; H. D. Achon, coleopterist, at Orleans; Leon du Pasquier,

professor of geology and paleontology in the Neuchatel Academy, in

April, aged 33; V. Maurice Teinturier, coleopterist, in Clayeures,

France; Madame Jean Dollfus, editor of La Feuille des jeunes Na-

turalistes; Edmund Neminar, formerly professor of mineralogy and

petrography in the University of Innsbruck; Victor Lemoine of

Rheims, paleontologist; Karl Kolbel of the Vienna Hofmuseum,

student of Arthropods, at Ponape, Caroline Islands; Alexis Jordan,

botanist, at Lyons, France, Feb. 7th, aged 83; J. B. Hodgkinson,

entomologist, Ashton on Ribble, England, Feb. 17th, aged 73; Fr.

Wilh. Klatt, botanist, at Hamberg, March 3rd ; Geo. W. Traill, marine

algologist: Alex. N. Kortschagin, curator of the zoological museum at

Moscow, Feb. 7th; Alfred Dewevre, botanist, Feb. 27th in Congo

State; Friederick Seelig, ichthyologist, in Cassel, March 18th; Prof.

Hermann Friederich Kessler, student of Aphides, in Cassel; Hugh

Nevill, collector and naturalist, at Hyères, France, April 10th; Hein-

rich Waukel, Anthropologist, in Olmutz, aged 76; Emile Magitot,

President of the Anthropological Society of Paris; Joseph Ewing Mac-

farland of the U. S. Geological Survey, in Baltimore ; Sir Augustus

Wollaston Franks, a well-known archwologist and trustee of the British

Museum, May 21st, aged 71; W. Preyer, professor of physiology, at

_ Wiesbaden, aged 56; Professor Chudzinski of the Paris School of An-

thropology ; Frederick C. Straub, botanical collector in Liberia, Africa,

March 21st, aged 26; Sir John Bucknell, neurologist, at Bournemouth,

1897]. Scientific News. 923

England, July 20th, aged 79; Dr. J. Hammond Trumbull, student of

American linguistics, at Hartford, Conn., Aug. th, aged 76; Capt.

Bertram Lutley Sclater, African explorer, son of P. L. Sclater, at Zan-

zibar, July 24 aged 31; Dr. Alfred Moquart, professor of anatomy at

Brussels on June 5th ; Count Victor Trevisan, cryptogamist in Milan,

April 8th

For many years we have heard tales from the southwest regarding

the “Enchanted Mesa” which in brief were to the following effect.

Many years ago this table-land was inhabited by a tribe of Pueblo

Indians, but a sudden catastrophe rendered the top of the mesa no longer

accessible. To investigate this legend was one of the objects of Pro-

fessor Libbey in his recent trip to New Mexico and we summarize the

results of his ascent of the Mesa Encantada from the dispatches in the

daily papers. The ascent was made July 23, 1897 and was successful

in every respect. Ropes were thrown over the mesa by means of a

cannon borrowed from the Life-Saving Service of the U. S. Government

and by means of a boatswains chair the party were hauled to the top,

550 feet above the surrounding plain. The level top was about fifteen

acres in extent, its sides being precipitous. No traces, whatever of

former human habitation were found, the legend apparently being

without any foundation. Here, however, there is room for a difference

of opinion. In Science, for September 17, W. S. M.,” whose initials

will readily be recognized, states that on September 3, 1897, Mr. F. W.

Hodge, of the Bereau of Ethnology, sealed the mesa and found frag-

ments of pottery, two broken stone axes, a stone arrow point and some

other evidences of former occupancy.

Col. Theodore Lyman died at Nahant, Mass., Sept. 9, 1897. He

was born at Waltham, Mass., Aug. 23, 1833, graduated at Harvard in

1855, and then spent three years in study under the late Professor

Louis Agassiz. He served in the Union Army from 1863 to the close

of the war. In 1865 he was appointed Commissioner of Fisheries in

Massachusetts, a position which he held for 17 years, and in 1882 he

was elected a representative in Congress. He was connected with

many educational and philanthropic interests. In zoology he was

largely interested in Echinoderms, and published several important

papers upon the Ophiuroids, his chief work in this line being the large

monograph of 400 pages and 48 plates in the Results of the “ Chal-

lenger Expedition.” For more than ten years he had been an invalid.

From Science we learn that the Berlin Academy of Sciences has

made the following subsidies for scientific work. Prof. F. E. Schulze,

924 The American Naturalist. [October,

to aid in the publication of Das Theirreich, Mk. 35,000; Prof. Engler,

for publication of monographs on African botany, Mk. 2000; Dr. G.

Lindau, for studies on lichens, Mk. 900; Prof. F. Frech, for geological

studies, Mk. 1500; Prof. H. Hiirthle, for studies on muscles, Mk. 850;

Prof. R. Bonnet for work on blood vessels, Mk. 800; Dr. Liihe, study

of the fauna of the salt lakes of Northern Africa, Mk. 2000; Dr. G.

Brandes for studies on Nemertines, Mk. 300; Dr. R. Hesse for studies

on eyes of lower invertebrates, Mk. 500; Prof. E. Cohen, study of

meteorites, Mk. 1500; Dr. L. Wulff, for experiments on artificial

erystals, Mk. 1500.

The first number of the Zoological Bulletin, edited by Whitman and

Wheeler has appeared from the press of Ginn & Co., Boston. It con-

tains four articles: E. P. Allis on the petrosal and sphenoid regions of

Amia; C. W. Hargitt, experiments on regeneration in Ccelenterates;

C. L. Bristol, the metamerism in Nephelis, especially as shown by the

nervous system ; G. Baur, a criticism and reply to the recent paper by

umpus in so far as the latter denies the probability of the infercala-

tion of vertebræ. The Bulletin is gotten up in the same shape as the

Journal of Morphology. It is to be issued six times a year, each num-

ber containing at least fifty pages. The subscription price is $3.00 per

annum. The title page gives a list of 73 well-known names as colla-

borators.

The Academy of Sciences of Berlin, offers a prize of 2000 marks for

the best memoir upon the origin and characteristics of the different

cereals during the past twenty years. The memoirs which may be

written in German, Latin, French, English or Italian, must be sub-

mitted to the Academy on or before December 31, 1898. Another prize

of 1000 marks, is offered by the Prince Jablonowski Society of Leipzig

for the best memoir on the causes which produce and control the direc-

tion of the lateral axes of shoot and root systems of plants. The com-

peting memoirs are due on or before November 30, 1900.

Dr. Franklin Story Conant died in Boston, Sept. 13, of pernicious

malarial fever. He was a graduate of Williams College, and had just

received the degree of Ph. D. from Johns Hopkins University, as well

as the appointment to the Adam T. Bruce Fellowship in that institu-

tion. He accompanied the Johns Hopkins party to Jamaica this sum-

mer, and was taken sick on the return voyage. Dr. Conant’s only

published work was upon the Cheetognaths, but he had other and im-

portant papers nearly ready for the press.

1897] Scientific News. 925

An expedition started from Sydney, Australia on June 2d, to bore

into the coral reef of Funafuti. The expedition is supported by the

mining department of the New South Wales government and by

private subscriptions. In the light of the recent similar expedition of

the Royal Society we cannot but think that they would have done well

to have put the practical work of boring in the hands of an American

familiar with the boring of gas and oil wells.

We would call the attention of those purists in terminology who

would replace such names as Ellobius, Gymnura, Gyge, etc., because

of similarity to Ellobium, Gymnurus, Gyges and the like to the advis-

ability of changing Raja, Iza and similar names because of possible

confusion with words like Rana, Ixa, ete. This seems to have been

neglected by them in their attempts to introduce confusion into nomen-

clature.

Plans have been drawn for two additions to the American Museum

of Natural History in New York City. One addition is for a lecture

hall at the north end of the present structure to cost $150.000; the

pee a Penn addition to the west wing at an estimated cost of

$400

On J Ane 6th Professor Albert von Kölliker celebrated his eightieth

birthday and his fifty year jubilee as ordinary professor of anatomy.

He was presented with an album with carved ivory and ebony covers

containing the photographs of hundreds of scientific men.

The tenth annual winter meeting of the Geological Society of

America will be held at McGill University, in the city of Montreal, on

December 29, 30 and 31,1897. Details of the meeting will be announced

in a circular to be issued about November 1.

Dulau and Co. of London, have issued an album of half tone portraits

of the Collaborators of the Scientific Reports of the Challenger Expedi-

tion arranged on nineteen plates. The edition is limited to 200 copies

and is sold at 12s. 6d.

The Geological Survey of India, is engaged in investigating the

recent earthquake near Calcutta in the most thorough manner, every

available assistant being detailed to study some aspect or some locality.

The Vienna Academy of Sciences recently celebrated the fiftieth

anniversary of its foundation. The government grant tothe Academy

has been increased from $16,000 to $20,000 yearly.

Mr. Alexander White has received the silver medal of the Zoological

Society of London in recognition of his zeal in making large botanical

and zoological collections in Nyassaland.

926 The American Naturalist. [October,

Professor A. P. Karpinski has resigned from the chair of geology in

the Mining Institute at St. Petersburg and Dr. Ivan V. Muschketoff

has been elected his successor.

The Woodwardian Museum of Cambridge, England, has received the

geological library of Prof. Thomas Wiltshire. It contains about 600

volumes and 900 pamphlets.

Prof. Raphael Blanchard, of Paris, will begin the publication of a

new journal the Archives de Parasitologie, the first number of which

will appear in January.

The meeting of the German Zoological Society next spring will be

held at Heidelberg. There wasa total attendance of 50 at the pai

at Kiel this year.

The Deutsche Botanische Gesellschaft met this year at Brunswick,

September 21 as a section of the Versammlung Deutscher Naturfors-

cher und Arzte.

The Hopkins Marine Biological Laboratory at Monterey, California,

is the subject of an article by Dr. Bashford Dean in Natural Science

for July.

Dr. Zwaardemaker of Utrecht, has received the Tilanus gold medal

from the University of Amsterdam for his work on the physiology of

smell.

In the Imperial College of Science at Tokyo, there are 89 students.

Of these 12 are taking Botany and Zoology and 14 are taking Geology.

Professor Virchow has been elected a foreign associate of the Paris

Academy of Scienes in the place of the late Dr. Tchebitchef.

The German Anatomical Society will meet next year in April at

Kiel. At its meeting in Ghent this year fifty were present.

Professor Wilhelm His has received the degree of Doctor of Philoso-

phy, honorio causa, from the University of Leipzig.

The Prussian government will assist the fresh-water biological station

at Plön after October, 1898.

The Zoological Gardens of Amsterdam, are described in Macmillan’s

Magazine for July.

Prof. R. Leuckart has been made a knight of the Prussian Order of

Merit. :

The American Naturalist.

ae the September number the AMERICAN NATUR-

ALIST passed into the hands of a number of persons

well known in the history of natural science in America.

They have elaborated plans looking to the material im-

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Static Homonocies. A CONTRIBUTION TO THE | Eprrors TasLe—Milk Supply—Government Pub-

ERMINATION OF THE ANCESTRY OF VERTE- lications. LCS a eee

ey: Charles Sedgwick Minot. 927 | GENERAL NOTES Te

Tue Diit OF OadAnic SRERCRON |, General Biolog 7 Reactions to Stimuli in.

Henry Fairfield Osborn. 944 | Paramecium, ; ae oF oe i : Er she

7 Ze o

P tHE one ve

THE Gro 2

Li . ee

: area ae a AT Boest | of ioga Primævus, the most Primitive =~

Charles Palache. 951. | Ungulate. 975.

pS vations on os Distribution of |

980

Bons k

ES History OF THE NAPLES

a ZOOLOGICAL STA SIGN, o ee OO SOs Along Shore at Lake = the Woo

RIVER AND Bripcer BEDS IN THE HUER- Zoology—-The Cæcal A do

ANO LAKE BASIN. Henry Fairfield Osborne. 966 | teran Mid-Gut—Zoologieal peere in Recent ,

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VoL. XXXI. November, 1897. 371

CEPHALIC HOMOLOGIES. A CONTRIBUTION TO

THE DETERMINATION OF THE ANCESTRY

OF VERTEBRATES:

By CHARLES Sepewick MInNot.

PROFESSOR AT THE HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS,

1. THE AFFINITIES OF AMPHIOXUS.

That Amphioxus has affinities both with Tunicates and

with Vertebrates is, with our present knowledge, quite clear ;

but the relative degree of affinity on the two sides has not been

settled. Amphioxus was originally classed with the fishes,

but is now universally separated from them. Perhaps the

most usual opinion is, that which classes Amphioxus with the

Vertebrata, and divides the Vertebrata into two groups :—

I. CEPHALOCHORDA, (Amphioxus).

II. VERTEBRATA PROPER, (Craniota).

This division recognizes the fact that Amphioxus differs

fundamentally from all the true vertebrates, but holds that the

concept “ Vertebrata” must be greatly extended and essen-

tially modified, so as to admit the lancelet. The first writer

known to me to deny that the Branchiostoma could be classed

as a vertebrate was Carl Semper in 1875. This position has

l Read before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at

Toronto, Canada, August 20, 1897.

928 The American Naturalist. [November,

hitherto found little favor. Nevertheless, I hold that Amphi-

oxus is more closely related to the Tunicates than to the Ver-

tebrates, and that we ought to establish a group, which might

be named Atriozoa,and would comprise Amphioxus and Tun-

icata.

The systematic value of embryology has been hitherto little

recognized, but it certainly is of the greatest significance. It

is not true that embryos are alike; on the contrary they show

class, ordinal and generic differences from one another. I

think, therefore, great stress must be laid upon the very close

similarity in the embryonic development of Amphioxus and

Tunicates. The fact of this similarity is now so familiar that

it is superfluous to dwell upon it. On the other hand, it is

desirable to renew attention to the large factor, which inter-

pretation becomes, as soon as we attempt to establish a similar-

ity between the ontogeny of Amphioxus and of the Verte-

brates.

As regards the adult organization. The entire absence of

lateral eyes and of lateral ears sharply separates both Tuni-

cates and Amphioxus from the Vertebrata, while in the sense

_ organs, they do possess, namely, the pigment spot or so-called

eye, and the so-called olfactory pit, they are closely similar to

one another, and quite unlike vertebrates. The attempt to

identify the eye of Amphioxus with the pineal eye rests upon

sheer speculation, and assumes that an organ developed in

front of the neuropore is identical with one developed behind

it. As regards the “olfactory pit,” Kupffer’s attempt to

demonstrate a lobus olfactorius impar in Vertebrates is ob-

viously unsuccessful. The atrium is another feature common

to the Atriozoa, and is so highly distinctive, that it affords,

what seems to me, an appropriate name for the whole group.

The differences in the development of the atrium in the two

classes of the Atriozoa are not, it is generally believed, such as

to upset the homology, which is commonly maintained. The

pharynx with its endostyle and ciliated bands, shows almost

identity in Tunicates and Amphioxus, but only remoter

resemblance to the Vertebrate pharynx, even to that of Am-

mocoetes with its hypobranchial groove. The gill clefts of

1897.] Cephalic Homologies. 929

Amphioxus, both by their large number and by their peculiar

subdivision, by secondary bars, resemble strikingly Tunicate

gill clefts, but differ strikingly from those in'any of the true

vertebrates. How far the sexual organs of the cephalochorda

and urochorda are comparable is not yet clear, but they show

this striking resemblance that, in both, the sexual elements

are discharged by dehiscence and pass through the ectoderm

into the atrium, whereas in all vertebrates the sexual elements

are discharged into the body cavity, or a duct derived from

the body cavity. The excretory organs of Amphioxus in their

association with the gills, and in their exterior or ectodermal

openings show features which cannot be considered vertebrate,

but I venture to express the expectation that homologous

organs will be found in Tunicates. Finally as regards the

central nervous system, the resemblance, which is almost

identity, between Tunicates and Amphioxus has been often

emphasized, but if we follow Howard Ayers in his attempt to

homologize the parts of the brain in Amphioxus with those in

true Vertebrates, we shall become only more and more im-

pressed with the wide divergence between the two.

There remains the muscular system, which presents a strik-

ing and genuine resemblance to the metameric musculature of

fishes, despite the secondarily acquired asymmetry in Amphi-

oxus. It is a singular coincidence that some of those, who

consider the segmentation of the body morphologically so in-

significant, that it has no value to prove the kinships of An-

nelins and Amphioxus, yet consider it of great importance as

evidence of the relationship of Amphioxus to the Vertebrates.

But if we consider Amphioxus as a type intermediate between

Annelids and Tunicates, the segmented musculature has been

lost in the latter, an hypothesis which seems to me plausible,

for as I have pointed out in my essay on “ Senescence and Re-

juvenation,” all evolution of animals depends not only on the

acquisition of characteristics, but also very largely on the loss

of characteristics ; this loss, as exemplified in the gill clefts

and arches of the higher Vertebrates, affects the early embry-

onic stages, apparently to allow the embryonic material to un-

dergo a new development. The assumption that the Tunicates

930 The American Naturalist. [November,

have lost segments offers fewer difficulties than the assumption

that they acquired segments to develop into the vertebrate

ty pe.

If morphological evidence has any value whatever, the con-

clusion seems to me inevitable that the Tunicates and Amphi-

oxus constitute a natural group, Atriozoa, which are somewhat

distantly allied to the Vertebrata.

2. THE CHORDATA.

Zoologists are generally agreed that the Chordata is a nat-

ural group, in the sense that the Tunicates, Amphioxus and

Vertebrates are more closely allied to one another than with

any other known animals. I can find no reason for dissent

from this view, it therefore suffices to follow those who have

insisted that the problem of the origin of Vertebrates is part

of the problem of the origin of Tunicates.

5. THE PRINCIPAL THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF VERTEBRATES.

It is, in my judgment, unnecessary to discuss the theories of

Adam Sedgwick as to the origin of metameric segmentation,”

or of Hubrecht that the Nemertinesare the ancestral type from

which Vertebrates have sprung. The latter I have discussed

previously. Of the former I will only remark in passing that

it seems strange that Sedgwick has persistently denied the

concrescence theory of the embryo, and yet puts it forward as

a new idea upon which he founds his hypothesis of metamer-

ism.

There are five theories known to me which certainly require

` consideration, namely, Gaskell’s, Patten’s, Bateson’s, and the

Appendicularia and Annelid theories.

A. Gaskell’s theory was ably presented in Dr. Gaskell’s ad-

dress, delivered last year at Liverpool before the Sections of

Physiology and Zoology. The main points in this theory are

that the Vertebrata arose from Crustacea like animals, the 1n-

testine of the latter becoming the tubular nervous system of

* Of course, not because the theory does not need consideration, but because >

deals not directly with the origin of Vertebrates, but with the origin of segmented

animals.

1897.) Cephalic Homologies. 931

the former, while a pharynx arose by the concresence of

branchiate crustacean legs, the spaces between the legs becom-

ing gill clefts. There are two fatal objections to this theory.

I consider it a first and sufficient objection that it sets aside

the evidence that the primary germ layers, ectoderm and en-

toderm are homologous throughout the metazoa. The evidence

on this point is overwhelming. Gaskell’s theory leaves a

heart between the pharynx and the nervous system, so that to

save his theory he has to make two supplementary hypotheses,

first, that the crustacean heart disappears, and second, that a

new or vertebrate heart is formed by the tips of the legs where

they grow together. It is, indeed, difficult to give morpholog-

ical credence to these two hypotheses. If Gaskell’s hypotheses

were true, we should expect to see some trace in the ontogeny

of Vertebrates of the development of the pharynx by the con-

crescence of solid outgrowths, but, as well known, the pharynx

is a series of hollow entodermal evaginations. As regards the

neuron, Gaskell supposes that the ependyma represents the

epithelium of the crustacean intestine, while the nervous mat-

ter represents that which collects in the walls of the crustacean

intestine. This view, which is essential to his hypothesis,

overlooks the fact that in Vertebrates the same epithelium

produces both ependyma and nerve cells. .Very numerous

other objections can be raised, and consequently I am ready

to go so far as to maintain that the acceptance of Gaskell’s

theory is impossible.

B. Patten’s theory seeks in the Arachnid type the ancestral

form of Vertebrates. Under Arachnids Patten includes the

Arachnida sensu strictu, and the Trilobites and Limulus also.

It is noteworthy that the original articles by Patten and Gas-

kell appeared in the same number of the Quarterly Journal of

Microscopical Science, (August, 1890). I have often wondered

whether the juxtaposition was due to editorial design. Patten

rests his case chiefly upon comparison of the nervous system,

and makes only somewhat uncertain and tentative suggestions,

as to the three serious difficulties offered by vertebrate char-

acteristics, namely, 1, the disappearance of the invertebrate

and origin of the vertebrate mouth; 2, the origin of the

932 The American Naturalist. [November,

pharynx; 3, the origin of the notochord. Under these cir-

cumstances it is inevitable that the whole hypothesis seems

highly tentative. Patten emphasizes the fact that the brain’

and oesophageal commissures of Arachnids form an angle

with the ventral nerve chain, and he compares this with the

head bend of Vertebrates, and seeks to homologize the supra-

oesophageal and suboesophageal nerves with these of Verte-

brates. After a careful study it seems to me that he fails to

render these comparisons morphologically justifiable. This

failure does away with the only important argument offered

by Patten.

C. Bateson’s theory that Balanoglossus represents an ances-

tral type of the Chordata has attracted considerable attention,

and Wiley apparently considers the theory proven. Bateson

seeks to demonstrate a close homology between Balanoglossus

and Amphioxus. Yet according to his own observations the

structure of Balanoglossus is extremely different in every

organ and in every part of every organ from what is found in

Amphioxus, except as regards the pharynx, where there occur

striking resemblances in the disposition of the gill bars. But

Spengel has demonstrated that these are resemblances only,

and that the arrangement of the bars in Balanoglossus is so

fundamentally different from that in Amphioxus that it is out

of the question to deduce one from the other. Again, accord-

ing to Bateson’s observations on the development of Balano-

glossus, Tornaria is one of the forms least like the embryonic

lancelet, for it entirely lacks the segmented mesoderm, the

notochord and elongated medullary plate. Bateson, in my

opinion, has drawn exactly the reverse of the conclusions as

to the phylogenetic value of Balanoglossus, which are war-

ranted by his own published observations. Spengel’s criticisms

of Bateson’s theory are so conclusive, that it is superfluous to

go over the ground again. But two points may be briefly

mentioned, if only to escape the charge of trifling with the

theory. Buteson lays much emphasis upon a structure, which

he names the notochord of Balanoglossus; this so-called

“notochord” is a short diverticulum of the cephalad end of

the alimentary canal, running into the proboscis; this diver-

1897] Cephalic Homologies. 933

ticulum remains hollow throughout life; whether it is of en-

todermal origin or not isunknown; Spengel considers it prob-

ably ectodermal. A notochord is a band of entodermal cells

differentiated along the dorsal median line and ending origi-

nally at the blastopore, with the walls of which it is fused, and

it lengthens by additions at its blastoporic end ; it is never

hollow and never a canal. These characteristics of a notochord

are invariable, but not a single one of them pertains to the

alleged notochord of Balanoglossus. The question arises, if

two organs are found to have no resemblance to one another,

is their homology demonstrated? Surely, a morphologist can

give but one answer. My second point touches upon Bate-

son’s views concerning metamerism. These views are based

on the tacit assumption that serial repetition of organs or parts,

even if irregular, is the same as segmentation of the body.

But embryology had demonstrated, before Bateson’s time, the

true morphological basis of metamerism in segmented animals.

This basis is the division of the mesothelium, as above stated,

into paired symmetrical blocks. That this is the case is not

an opinion, it is merely the summary statement of thousands

upon thousands of direct observations. Serial repetitions,

therefore, of ectodermal or entodermal organs, without these

mesothelial segments, are morphologically not segmentation.

Bateson’s assumption that there is, what we may name a

“miscellaneous metamerism,” which, beginning in various parts,

may lead on to true mesothelial metamerism is contrary to

all morphological canons. That he considers this assumption

necessary is another indication of the inherent weakness of his

case.

So far as knowledge and discussion have brought us to-day,

morphology has the choice between the two theories as to the

origin of Vertebrates, the Appendicularia and the Annelid

theory. A decision between these two alternatives, which

shall be convincing to zoologists, is not at present possible, yet

something, I think, may be determined as to the probabilities

of the final choice. :

D. The Appendicularia theory is the direct outcome of Kowa-

lewski’s embryological researches, and has been the subject of

934 The American Naturalist. [November,

general attention from zoologists for a quarter of a century

past. The full and able defense of it by W. K. Brooks in his

Salpa monograph is so recent and well-known that it will suf-

fice to recall that the theory assumes that Appendicularia is

near the ancestral pelagic type of the Chordata; that it gave

rise to a form with multiple gill openings leading to Tunicates,

and by the further acquisition of segmental structure leading

to Amphioxus, and from this last on to the true Vertebrata.

It must be carefully noted that by the Appendicularia theory

the prime morphological importance and significance is attri-

buted to the notochord and the branchial pharynx, and a

secondary importance to the metamerism, while the Annelid

theory reverses this and attributes prime importance to the

metamerism, and secondary to the notochard and pharynx.

E. The Annelid theory was founded independently by Dohrn

and Semper, and has always been supported in my opinion by

far more numerous and sounder arguments than any other

theory of Vertebrate descent, with possibly the exception of

the Appendicularia theory. The fullest presentation known

to me, of the Annelid theory, is that by Hugo Eisig in his

monograph of the Capitellide. Those, who have had theories

of their own to defend, have never attempted (ought we not

say, have never dared tc attempt?) to confute the Annelid

theory. Sedgwick, Bateson, Willey, Gaskell, Patten, Morgan

and others have either left the subject alone, or at most, have

spoken slurringly and in disparagement of it, so that there are

literally no important direct criticisms against the theory

known tome. I take this to signify that the writers in ques-

tiod have attacked the problem of the ancestry of Vertebrates

not in a judicial but in a somewhat partisan spirit.

4. APP ARLE VS. ANNELIDA AS THE ANCESTORS OF

THE CHORDATA.

The most essential difference between the two theories under

consideration is formulated above in the paragraph on the

Appendicularia theory. The alternative of choice between

the two theories hinges upon the interpretation of Amphioxus

which we accept, i. e.:

1897.] Cephalic Homologies. 935

1. Is Amphioxus a Tunicate becoming a Vertebrate by the

acquisition of segments?

2. Is Amphioxus an Annelid becoming a Tunicate by the

acquisition of a notochord and gill bearing pharynx ?

Of course, we all understand that Amphioxus is probably

not the exact transitional form, but merely the nearest living

ally, known to us, of the transitional form.

5. FURTHER AFFINITIES OF AMPHIOXUS.

We have already maintained that the nearest affinities of

Amphioxus are with the Tunicates. We now are confronted

by the question: Are its affinities on the other side closer with

A, the Vertebrates, or B, the Annelids? Here I believe we

we must start with the decision to leave the pharynx and

notochord out of consideration, because these structures are

characteristic of the Chordata as a whole and not of the Ver-

tebrata. But there are three sets of organs in Amphioxus which

offer special peculiarities morphologically ; these are the seg-

ments, the sexual organs and the excretory organs. Let us

consider these in order.

1. Segments—The mesothelial segments of Amphioxus arise

with their cavities in open communication with the archente-

ron. Ray Lankester has advanced, and O. Hertwig and

others have adopted, the hypothesis that the coelom of Verte-

brates is an enterocoele, but hitherto, although special investi-

gations have been made, no conclusive evidence has been

found that in any true Vertebrate there is a clear resemblance

in the early condition of the mesoderm to the disposition char-

acteristic of Amphioxus. Traces of evagination of the meso-

derm along the edge of the notochord, as required by the en-

terocoele theory, have been described in various Vertebrate

embryos by a number of authors. These traces are so slight

and so variable, that I believe they would be considered as

meaningless variations in the grouping of cells, similar to

those occurring in other parts of the same embryos, were

investigators not unduly influenced by the preconceived

theory. No investigator has claimed, so far as I am aware,

that any Vertebrate exhibits segmentally arranged mesoder-

936 The American Naturalist. [November,

mic diverticula. In other words, even if Lankester’s entero-

coele hypothesis holds true of the Vertebrates, they would still

show only a very remote resemblance with Amphioxus so far

as the early stages of the mesoderm are concerned. But there

is yet another important difference between Amphioxus and

the Vertebrates, namely, in the former the segments are total,

in the latter partial. In Amphioxus the whole of the meso-

thelium is segmented, in Vertebrates only the dorsal regions of

the mesothelium are segmented, the ventral regions or walls

of the splanchnocoele are not segmented. That there is an

impressive similarity between the formation of the mesoder-

mic bands in Amphioxus and Annelids was shown by the

discoveries of Hatschek, and in both types the segments are

total. Itis perfectly clear, therefore, that the early history of the

mesoderm indicates a much closer affinity of Amphioxus with

the Annelids than with the Vertebrates. The existing differ-

ences may be explained by the assumption that the cavities

of the segments are formed in Annelids after, in Amphioxus

during, the morphological separation of the mesoderm from

the entoderm. ?

2. Sexual organs.—The sexual organs of Amphioxus are con-

fined to the branchial region, they are segmentally arranged

and they are lateral of the excretory organs. Those of Verte-

brates do not appear in the branchial region, they are not seg-

mented and are mediad of the excretory organs. The view

that the sexual organs are developed from segmental anlages

has been advanced, and such anlages have been named gono-

tomes. I have shown elsewhere, that this view is based upon

an incomplete consideration of the facts, and recently C.

Rabl has fully confirmed my arguments. In Annelids the

sexual organs are segmented, and are so disposed that we can

understand how, from an Annelid ancestor, they may have

given rise to the disposition found in Amphioxus, but, unfor-

tunately, no careful study of such possible comparisons 1$

known to me. Evidently a direct comparison of the sexual

organs of Amphioxus with those of Vertebrates involve the

most serious difficulties, while the comparison with Annelids

promises well.

1897.] Cephalic Homologies. 937

3. Excretory organs.—Boveri has shown that the excretory

organs of Amphioxus are tubules which begin with a ciliated

internal funnel and open through the ectoderm, and that their

primitive arrangement is probably segmental]; they are confined

to the branchiate region. They differ, therefore, from the seg-

mental organs of Vertebrates, which open into a longitudinal

internal duct, and occur only behind the branchiate region.

It is true that the attempt has been made to show that the

duct is originally derived from the ectoderm, but the weight

of evidence—see especially Price on Bdellostoma, and Rabl

on Elasmobranchs—is at present against this view and in favor

of the mesothelial origin of the duct. In Annelids segmental

organs have the same arrangement as in Amphioxus, they

open directly through the ectoderm, and they also may occur

in that part of the body which, on the theory of Annelid an-

cestry, must have been evolved into the pharynx. The mor-

phology of the excretory organs is thus readily perceived to

indicate the Annelidian rather than the Vertebrate relation-

ships of Amphioxus.

And now I ask, must we not conclude that Amphioxus is a

Chordate nearly related to Tunicates, more remotely related to

Vertebrates, and revealing in its organization important dif-

ferences from other Chordata, which differences demonstrate a

true kinship with Annelids? Now certainly no one would

venture to regard Amphioxus as the ancestor of the Annelida,

hence we are obliged to consider the Annelida as representing

the ancestral type of the Cephalochorda, and, therefore, of all

Chordata.

b. The position of Appendicularia—The conclusion just stated

involves the assumption, so far as now appears, that Appen-

dicularia is not an ancestral but a secondary type. But

Appendicularia much resembles a young stage of other Tuni-

cates (free swimming larve), and we have learned to trust so

much to the law of recapitulation (Haeckel’s Biogenetisches

Grundgesetz) that it is hard to believe that it does not govern

Appendicularia, which would then be of the phylogenetic sig-

nificance assumed by W. K. Brooks, whose argumentation is

so strong, that even while defending the Dohrn-Semper theory,

one must have in reserve readiness to change sides.

938 The American Naturalist. [November,

7. ORIGIN OF VERTEBRATA.

If the Annelids gave rise to the Chordata, we must consider

the possible origin of certain anatomical characteristics of the

Vertebrates, sensu strictu. Of such characteristics three are

specially prominent, the general arrangement of the meso-

derm, the pronephric duct, and the head with its arrangement

of mouth, brain and eyes so unlike that in Annelids.

1. The mesoderm of Vertebrates, as already remarked, is

characterized by having a large splanchnocoele and by being

segmented only in its dorsal or epiaxial part. In Amphioxus

the mesoderm is at first totally segmented as in Annelids, and

later develops a splanchnocoele, and assumes in other respects

an arrangement (of sclerotome and cutis plate) wonderfully

comparable, according to Hatschek, with the vertebrate type

of mesoderm. Amphioxus seems to really afford the key for

the transition of the mesoderm from the Annelid to the Ver-

tebrate type, and the occurrence of the actual transition onto-

genetically renders it natural to advance the theory of the cor-

responding transition phylogenetically, thus obviating one of

the former difficulties in the Annelidan theory of the origin

of Vertebrates. 7

2. The pronephrie duct, (often referred to as the Wolffian

duct). This is a longitudinal epithelial tube, into which the

segmental organs of Vertebrates open. Hatschek, in his paper

on Polygordius, suggested that the segmental organs might

acquire a direct secondary connection with one another; a

series of such connections would make a longitudinal duct.

Edward Meyer found such connections in adult Annelids, and

other instances are known, see Willey’s Amphioxus, 80-82.

Price’s observations on the Californian Myxinoid, and Rabl’s

on Elasmobranchs, tend to show that this is the actual origin of

the duct. We no longer, therefore, need to take refuge 1n

Haddon’s or Boveri’s hypothesis of the origin of the duct, since

Hatschek’s theory is sufficient and is supported by such actual

evidence as we possess. i

3. Cephalic homologies.—Up to this point we have dealt with

knowledge and ideas derived from previous scientific publica-

1897.] Cephalic Homologies. 939

tions, and have done little more than attempt to present the

problem critically. As regards the head, however, even theo-

ries have hitherto failed us, and no hypothesis as to the evolu-

tion of the vertebrate head from the Annelidan type has been

brought forward, which could not be shown to encounter in-

superable objections, or at least which appeared insuperable

to those who were opposed to the Annelidan theory. The

suggestion most widely known and discussed is that the in-

vertebrate mouth disappeared, the oesophageal ring with the

neighboring ganglia formed the vertebrate brain, and a new

vertebrate mouth was evolved, according to Dohrn, by the

fusion of two gill clefts in the ventral median line.

[ask your consideration for an entirely different theory of

the homologies of the vertebrate head. A morphologist must

feel grave hesitation in assuming that such important struct-

ures as the main lateral eyes and as the oral evagination

should have totally disappeared during the evolution of Ver-

tebrates, for they are an advancing type, not a degenerate type

losing its organs. He must also feel grave hesitation in as-

suming that main lateral eyes have been evolved in the Artic-

ulates and Vertebrates without any genetic relationship. It

is natural, therefore, to test the assumption that the articulate

eyes and vertebrate eyes are phylogenetically homolgous, it

being, of course, understood that the comparison excludes

ocelli, accessory eyes in Annelids and the pineal eye of Verte-

brates. We note at once that the visual sensory apparatus in

both cases is epithelial in type, and is derived immediately

from the ectoderm, and further that in both cases the sensory

apparatus is directly connected with nervous substance, in

Articulates the so-called optic ganglion, in Vertebrates the ner-

vous tissue of the retina, and finally that in both cases there

runs from the optic apparatus a fibre tract, which is not a

nerve, but a commissure, that is to say, a differentiation of a

part of the central nervous system itself; this tract we calla

part of the oesophageal commissure of the Articulate, and the

optic nerve of the Vertebrate. We are thus lead to the sup-

position that eyes and optic nerves represent in Vertebrates

the main eyes, the supra-oesophageal ganglia, and the oseopha-

940 The American Naturalist. [November,

geal commissures of the Articulates. Can this supposition be

upheld? I do not think that the invagination of the optic

vesicles in Vertebrates will be said by any morphologist to

invalidate the comparison. At first it seems to reduce the so-

called “ brain” of Articulates to insignificance, but as we know

that this brain, or more correctly, supra-oesophageal ganglion,

is mainly a visual ganglion in Articulates, and it is by no

means a great degradation for it to appear merely as a retina

in Vertebrates. We must not be influenced by the misuse of

the word “brain ” applied to Invertebrates. But how can two

diverging vertebrate eyes, which form a Y with the main ner-

vous system, be the same as a complete nervous ring around

the oesophagus? This difficulty is met by assuming that the

eyes and optic ganglia fail to meet in the median line in front.

In connection with this assumption, remarks upon two points

are necessary. First, in Invertebrates with oesophageal nerve

rings, the supra-oesophageal ganglia do not apparently arise in

the median line, but as two symmetrical anlages, which sub-

sequently meet in the median line. I recall that this is the

method of development in Lumbricus (E. B. Wilson), Arach-

nids and Insects (Patten), Crustacea (Kingsley), and in Crepi-

dula (Conklin). Other observations could be cited.” Hence

we have only to believe that in the Vertebrates the separation

is maintained and increased. Second, there should be found a

cause for the separation of the eyes (supra-oesophageal gang-

lia) in the Vertebrates. This is given by the growth of the

vertebrate brain, which is enormous and precocious. If the

brain acquires great size, the eyes are correspondingly sepa-

rated. It is evident that our assumption makes the brain

homologous with the suboseophageal ganglia probably plus

several ganglia of the ventral chain, the remainder of the ven-

tral chain becoming homologous with the spinal cord.

Next as to the invertebrate mouth. If the eyes and optic

nerves represent the oral nerve ring, we must look for the 1m-

vertebrate mouth between the eyes. The invertebrate mouth

3? That the observations are conflicting as to the paired origin of the Articul ya

brain is well known, but the theory that the median Scheitelplatte evolved into

the Articulate brain encounters difficulties which seem to me very serious.

1897.] Cephalie Homologies. 941

is an ectodermal invagination, which has a direct or acquired

open communication with the entodermal cavity or archente-

ron. Is there such an evagination in the Vertebrates? Un-

questionably there is, and a large conspicuous and well known

one, which gives rise to the olfactory pits and to the hypophy-

sis proper. It is important to recall that the naso-hypophysal

invagination is single, and we may homologize it with the

Annelid ectodermal stomodaeum. It seems to me a very sig-

nificant fact that in the lowest Vertebrates (the Myxinoids) the

naso-hypophysal invagination opens through the entoderm

into the pharynx. This connection, which has been known

but the significance of which has remained obscure for three-

quarters of a century, may, under the supposition we are con-

sidering, be interpreted as the survival of the Annelidan con-

dition. In other Vertebrates (Petromyzon and Gnathostomes)

the opening mentioned does not recur, although contact be-

tween the ectoderm of the invagination and the pharyngeal

entoderm can, it is claimed, be observed in certain forms

(Accipenser, etc). To avoid confusion, it must be pointed out

that the hypophysis is only a part of the invagination, and

neither it nor the general invagination are connected with the

neuropore; the hypophysis of Vertebrates is, therefore, not

homologous with the neuroporic pit, which Willey and others

have erroneously named the hypophysis of Amphioxus and

Tunicates.

‘What is the actual vertebrate mouth? If we interpret the

naso-hypophysal invagination as the homologue of the Anne-

lidan mouth-gut, we find that the oral invagination 1s sepa-

ted from the hypophysal by a fold, which becomes the upper

jaw in Cyclostomes, and which is present in the embryos of

all Vertebrates. (In Anmiote embryos this fold forms a ridge

between Seesel’s pocket and the hyphophysis). It, therefore, |

still remains necessary to look upon the vertebrate mouth as

a new acquisition. It seems to me that, under the new con-

ception of the head, Dohrn’s hypothesis is more promising

than before. But beyond this I can add nothing to the ex-

planations of the vertebrate mouth previously attempted.

942 The American Naturalist. November,

The brain arose, by the present supposition, from the gang-

lia of the “ ventral ” chain of Annelids. Even in Articulata,

in the Crustacea and Arachnida, we encounter a tendency of

the thoracic ganglia to make a brain. If the brain did thus

arise, its enlargement would cause, as we see in the Vertebrate

embryo, the brain to expand forwards, and since there is no

corresponding growth on the hemal side, this expansion would

cause the projecting head to bend over towards the hemal

(Annelid dorsal, or Vertebrate ventral) side, and thus carry

the mouth into a new position, and at the same time prevent

the eyes and praeoral ganglia from meeting in the median

line and force the visual organs into lateral positions. We

thus reach a natural and simple explanation of the difference

between the Annelid and Vertebrate head. The conception

brought forward is favored by the conditions observed in

Myxine and Petromyzon, for the eyes in these forms are

small, in Myxine without a lens. The large size of the eyes is

a subsequent acquisition of the Gnathostomes. By my hypo-

thesis we should expect the evolution of the brain to precede

that of the eye in Vertebrates. Finally, the vertebrate brain,

by our supposition, was segmented originally throughout, and

that this idea is correct is indicated by the trend of recent

opinions formed by investigators of the cephalic neuromeres,

and the morphology of the cephalic nerves in the Verte-

brata.

The series of considerations outlined justify the hypothesis

presented, namely, the Vertebrate head was evolved from the

Annelid head. The three principal factors in this evolution

were: 1. The formation of the vertebrate brain from several

of the post-oral ganglia of the ventral chain. 2. The preser-

vation of the ectodermal mouth-gut (Vorderdarm) of Annelids

as the naso-hypophysal invagination. 3. The conversion of

the visual apparatus and supra-oesophageal ganglia, which

are prevented from fusing in the median line by the enlarge-

ment of the vertebrate brain, into the vertebrate eyes (retina),

the oesophageal commissures persisting as optic nerves.

If this hypothesis be ultimately verified and shown to be 10

full accordance with the facts, it will obviate those difficulties

1897.] Cephalic Homologies. 943

of the Dohrn-Semper Annelid theory of the origin of Verte-

brates, which at present are the most serious.

One more point, the cephalic homologies advocated increase

the morphological importance of the eyes, and further empha-

size the divergence between Amphioxus and Vertebrates, and

makes the absence of lateral eyes in Amphioxus more signifi-

cant even than before, and affords a further justification for

the union of Amphioxus with the Tunicata.

I have presented the subject in the merest outline, for al-

most every sentence might be expanded to a paragraph, often

into a chapter, without making the treatment exhaustive, but

I hope enough has been said to make the argumentation clear

and to justify it.

The origin of Vertebrates is one of the most difficult and

obscure problems which at present occupy the general atten-

tion of zoologists. I am well aware that my own studies have

concentrated upon the embryology of Vertebrates, and that it

is difficult, perhaps, impossible, for one man to have a first

hand mastery through his own observations of all the evidence

which must decide the final solution. I have expressed, there-

fore, not convictions, but probabilities, and must certainly

reserve the right to adopt other conclusions than those above

advocated. The rival theories have sometimes taken on a

very positive tone, and their advocates have referred to the

Dohrn-Semper theory as a thing of the past, discarded and

quite disproved. This attitude is regrettable, and I hope, by

showing that much can still be said in favor of the origin of

Vertebrates from Annelids, to contribute towards a sober and

judicial discussion of an important and interesting topic.

8. CONCLUSION.

It remains only to present the following simple and com-

prehensive phylogenetic table :—

Tunicata

ss manera

Metlonte

Annelida—Protochorda—— “~~~ Amphioxus

“~ Vertebrata

944 The American Naturalist. [November,

THE LIMITS OF ORGANIC SELECTION.

By Henry FAIRFIELD OSBORN,

OPENING A DISCUSSION BEFORE THE SECTIONS OF GEOLOGY AND BOTANY

i ROIT:

The object of this paper is to set forth certain views as to the

limits of the supplementary natural selection hypothesis re-

cently proposed by Prof. James Mark Baldwin, Prof. C. Lloyd

Morgan and myself as “ Organic Selection.”

The line of thought which led me to Organic Selection

was as follows: The distinction between the ontogenic and

phylogenic variation was drawn in my mind in 1894, because

it was evident in the current researches upon variation by

Weldon, Bateson and others, and in the line of reasoning fol-

lowed by Cope, Ryder, Scott, Osborn and other Neo-Lamarck-

ians that the importance of such a distinction was being over-

looked. There are three main types of variation: First, for-

tuitous congenital variations which are the temporary and transi-

tory fluctuations around a mean, Second, ontogenic variations?

which are the departures from normal or typical development

arising during ontogeny; they include all the effects of the reac-

tion of the individual to new or disturbed conditions of life

which rise in the course of individual growth and may disap-

pear with the death of the individual; the mooted question

whether ontogenic variations are or are not heritable does not

affect their distinctness. Third, phylogenie variations, also con-

genital, which belong in the phylum, as observed principally

in fossil series; they are stable and inheritable departures from

ancestral types towards a new type; they correspond with the

“mutations” of Wagner and Scott, i. e., they are. departures

‘Alte und Neue Probleme der Phiylogenese. Ergeb. d. Anat. ti. Entwick.,

Merkel u. ‘Bonnet, III Band, 1893, pp. 584-625. :

* Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan has proposed to apply the word “ modification,” vati-

ously used by Cope, Bailey and other authors, to what is above described as acta

togenic variation” and to restrict the term “ variation ” to congenital variation.

This excellent suggestion subseryes clearness, and should be adopted by all writ-

ers,

1897.] The Limits of Organic Selection. 945

from ancestral types which have become permanently estab-

lished. They constitute the main evidence for determinate

variation and as a consequence determinate evolution.

In every analysis of variation these distinctions are of pro-

found importance, because every adult organ we study

(whether with Weldon it is the frontal measurement of a crab

or, with Cope and Tornier, the articular facet of a bone), may

be an exponent either of constitutional, phylogenic, or stirp

factors, or of new environmental and ontogenic factors, or of

the fortuitous or chance elements in development, or finally

of all three factors combined.

In March, 1896, the application of this distinction to the

problem of the causes of “ determinate variation” was pointed

out by myself in course of a discussion in the New York Acad-

emy of Sciences (p. 141) as follows: “ For example, if the hu-

man infant were brought up in the branches of a tree as an

arboreal type instead of asa terrestrial, bi-pedal type, there is

little doubt that some of the well known early adaptations to

arboreal habit (such as the turning in of the soles of the feet, and

the grasping of the hands) might be retained and cultivated ;

thus a profoundly different type of man would be produced.

Similar cl) oges in the action of environment are constantly

in progres: in nature, since there is no doubt that the changes

of environment and the habits which it so brings about far

outstrip all changes in constitution. During the enormously —

long period of time in which habits induce ontogenic varia-

tions, it is possible for natural selection to work very slowly

and gradually upon predispositions to useful correlated varia-

tions, and thus what are primarily ontogenic variations become

slowly apparent as phylogenic variations or congenital charac-

ters of the race. Man, for instance, has been upon the earth

perhaps seventy thousand years; natural selection has been

slowly operating upon certain of these predispositions, but has

not yet eliminated those traces of the human arboreal habits,

nor completely adapted the human frame to the upright posi-

tion. Thisis as much an expression of habit and ontogenic

variation as it is a constitutional character. This fact, which

has not been sufficiently emphasized before, offers an explana-

946 The American Naturalist. | November,

tion of the evidence advanced by Cope and other writers that

change in the forms of the skeletons of the vertebrates first

appears in ontogeny and subsequently at birth in phylogeny.”

On April 18, 1896, I formulated the matter in a paper

before the Academy entitled “A Mode of Evolution Requiring

neither Natural Selection nor the Inheritance of Acquired

Characters,’ which has since appeared in Science. Professor

Baldwin, of Princeton, and Professor Lloyd Morgan, of Uni-

versity College, Bristol, had at the same time, independently

reached the same hypothesis, and Professor Baldwin has aptly

termed it “ Organic Selection.” Both writers have presented

valuable critical papers upon it, including in Science and Nature

a complete terminology for the various processes involved. I

concur entirely in their proposal to restrict the term variation

to congenital variation, to substitute the term “ modification”

for ontogenic variation, and to adopt the term “ Organic Selec-

tion” for the process by which individual adaptation leads and

guides evolution, and the term “orthoplasy” for the definite

and determinate results.

The hypothesis, as it appears to myself is, briefly, that

ontogenic adaptation is of a very profound character, it enables ani-

mals and plants to survive very critical changes in their environ-

ment. Thus all the individuals of a race are similarly modified

over such long periods of time that, very gradually, congenital

variations which happen to coincide with the ontogenic adaptive

modifications are collected and become phylogenic. Thus there

would result an apparent but not real transmission of acquired

characters.

It is a subsidiary question whether this hypothesis is new,

and a more important one whether it is true and constitutes a

distinct advance towards the discovery of the unknown factors

of evolution, or a satisfactory substitute for the Lamarckian

theory of transmission of acquired characters.

_* A writer in the Fortnightly Review has given a somewhat extreme illustration

of the difference between ontogenic and phylogenic progress when he says :

“Man is still, mentally, morally and physically, what he was during the later

Paleolithic period.” “The Artificial Factor in Man.’ Fortnightly Review,

October, 1896.

1897.] The Limits of Organic Selection. 947

It appears that the idea involved in Organic Selection is

by no means a new one, it is formulated, for example, but not

with especial stress or clearness by Weismann ‘ in his Romanes

Lecture of 1894, as shown in the following selections from pages

11-17 (italics our own) :*

“ Hermann Meyer seems to have been the first to call atten-

tion to the adaptiveness as regards minute structure in animal

tissues, which is most strikingly exhibited in the architecture

of the spongy substance of the long bones in the higher verte-

brates. . . . . But the direction, position and strength of

these bony plates are by no means innate or determined in ad-

vance: they depend on circumstances. . It is

not the particular adaptive structure themselves that are

transmitted, but only the quality of the material from

which intra-selection forms these structures anew in every in-

dividual life. Peculiarities of biophors and cells are trans-

mitted, and these may become more and more favorable and

adaptive in the course of generations if they are subject to

natural selection. . . . . JIntra-selection effects the special

adaptation of the tissues to special conditions of development in each

individual. . . . . Let us take the well-known instance of

the gradual increase in development of the deer’s antlers, in

consequence of which the head, in the course of generations,

has become more and more heavily loaded. . . . . It is

by no means necessary that all the parts concerned—skull,

muscles and ligaments of the neck, cervical vertebra, bones of

the fore-limbs, etc—should simultaneously adapt themselves

by variation of the germ to the increase in the size of the ant-

lers ; for in each separate individual the necessary adaptation will

be temporarily accomplished by intra-selection—by the struggle of

parts—under the trophic influence of functional stimulus.

But as the primary variations in the. phyletic metamorphosis

occurred little by little, the secondary adaptations would prob-

ably, as a rule, be able to keep pace with them. Time would

thus be gained till, in the course of generations, by constant selection

of those germs the primary constituents of which are best suited to

‘The Effect of External Influences upon Development. The Romanes Lec-

. ture, 1894. London, 1894. i

948 The American Naturalist. [November,

one another, the greatest possible degree of harmony may be

reached, and consequently a definite metamorphosis of the

species involving all the parts of the individual may occur.

”

What appears to be new therefore in Organic Selection is,

first, the emphasis laid upon the almost unlimited powers of

individual adaptation; second, the extension of such adapta-

tion without any effect upon heredity for long periods of time ;

third, that heredity slowly adapts itself to the needs of a race in a

new environment along lines anticipated by individual adaptation,

and therefore along definite and determinate lines. This hypo-

thesis, if it has no limitations, brings about a very unexpected

harmony between the Lamarckian and ultra-Darwinian (Weis-

mannian) aspects of evolution by mutual concessions. While

it abandons the transmission of acquired characters, it places

individual adaptation first and fortuitous variation second as

Lamarckians have always contended, instead of placing sur-

vival conditioned by fortuitous variations first and foremost

as Selectionists have contended. If true, it is thus a com-

promise between the pure Lamarckian and pure Darwinian

standpoints in which the concessions are about equal. And if

true it gives us at least a partial explanation of determinate

variation which Lamarckians have recently contended for,

and Darwinians have strenuously denied.’

Professor Alfred Wallace has recently endorsed this hypo-

thesis in a review of Professor Morgan’s work, “Habit and

Instinct,” in the March, 1897, number of Natural Science in the

following language: “Modification of the individual by the

environment, whether in the direction of structure or of hab-

its, is universal and of considerable amount, and it is almost

always, under the conditions, a beneficial modification. But

every kind of beneficial modification is also being constantly

effected through variation and natural selection, so that the

beautifully perfect adaptations we see in nature are the result

of a double process, being partly congenital, partly acquired.

è See Osborn: Cartwright Lectures, Present Problems in Evolution and Her-

edity, 1891. Also, “ Is Variation Definite or Indefinite?” American Naturalist,

1889. i

1897.) The Limits of Organice Selection. 949

Acquired modifications thus helps on congenital change by

giving time for the necessary variations in many directions to

be selected, and we have here another answer to the supposed

difficulty as to the necessity of many coincident variations in

order to bring about any effective advance of the organism.

In one year favorable variations of one kind are selected and

individual modifications in other directions enable them to be

utilized; in Professor Lloyd Morgan’s words: ‘ Modification

as such is not inherited, but is the condition under which con-

genital variations are favored and given time to get a hold on

the organism, and are thus enabled by degrees to reach the

fully adaptive level? The same result will be produced by

Professor Weissman’s recent suggestion of ‘ germinal selection,’

so that it now appears as if all the theoretical objections to the ‘ ad-

equacy of natural selection’ have been theoretically answered.”

(Italics our own.)

Alfred Wallace thus accepts this new phase of the natural

selection theory and maintains that it removes the last of the

theoretical objections to the adequacy of that theory. I donot

wish to be understood as taking such a sanguine view ; I rather

maintain the conservative position which I have held for

many years in regard to the adequacy of both the Lamarckian

and Darwinian theories.

Moreover, in course of discussion of this subject with my

friends Professors Lloyd Morgan, Baldwin and Poulton, a

very fundamental difference of opinion becomes apparent; for

they agree in believing that the power of plastic modification

to new circumstances, or what the Rev. Dr. Henslow has termed

“self-adaptation,” is in itself a result of natural selection. In

other words they hold that natural selection has established

in organisms this power of invariable response to new.

conditions, which, in the vast majority of cases is essentially

adaptive. I disagree with this assumption in toto, maintain-

ing that this plastic modification is, so far as we know an in-

herent power or function of protoplasm. This view, I under-

stand, is also held by Driesch, E. B. Wilson, T. H. Morgan

and probably by many others. The only cases in which self-

adaptation may be demonstrated as produced by natural se-

950 The American Naturalist. [November,

lection are where organisms are restored to an environment

which some of their ancestors experienced. We can then im-

agine that the adaptive response to the old environment is

something which has never been lost as in the well known

reappearance of the pigment in flounders.

It may be urged against the Morgan, Baldwin, Poulton

views that the remarkable powers of self-adaptation, which, in

many cases are favorable to the survival of the individual, are

in many cases decidedly detrimental to the race, as where a

maimed or mutilated embryo by regeneration reaches an adult

or reproductive stage. It is obvious that reproduction from

imperfect individuals would be decidedly detrimental, yet

from the view taken by the above authors such reproduction

would be necessary to secure the power of plastic modification

for the race.

It is certain, that at the present time, one of the surest and

most attractive fields of inductive research, leading towards

the discovery of the additional factors of evolution or what I

have elsewhere called “the unknown factor,” is in experi-

mental embryology and experimental zoology. If we could

formulate the laws of self-adaptation or plastic modification

we would be decidedly nearer the truth. It appears that Or-

ganic Selection is a real process, but it has not yet been dem-

onstrated that the powers of self-adaptation which become

hereditary are only accumulated by selection. They may pos-

sibly be accumulated by the inheritance of acquired modifica-

tions as Lamarck supposed.

Furthermore, another difficulty which I find with the com-

pleteness of the Organic Selection hypothesis is identical with

that which almost from the outset made me hesitate in regard

to the completeness of the Lamarckian hypothesis, namely,

many structures, such as the teeth, which exhibit no power of

self-adaptation or plastic modification during life, which are,

in fact, rendered decidedly less effective instead of more effect-

ive by use and habit—these structures, I repeat, show precisely

the same determinate and definite variation and consequent

evolution as that which is exhibited in plastic and self-adapuve

structures. This being the case, it is clear that “ Organic Selec-

1897.] The Geological Congress in Russia. 951

tion” leaves a very large field of determinate evolution entirely

uncovered and unexplained, and there remains a tertium quid

which requires further investigation. Determinate evolution

in these non-plastic structures at present strikes me as part of

the mechanical necessities of development, if I may so express

it. That is, given a certain primitive form, there is only one

route along which it can attain a certain end, provided the

intervening stages are mechanically effective. It is some such

law of mechanical necessity as this which out of the conical

type of reptilian teeth has evolved first the triconodont type,

the tritubercular, and finally the multitubercular, and from

these main stages have arisen sub-stages which are repeated

and independently acquired over and over again in different

branches of the mammalian class. This is not an explanation,

or a theory, it is a fact yet to be understood.

Organic Selection constitutes a distinct advance, and is, at

least, a very useful working hypothesis, but it is by no means

the conclusion of the whole matter, as Alfred Wallace main-

tains. We must persevere in our analysis of life processes ~

as revealed in living organisms and in fossils with a perfectly

open mind, perhaps for many decades, perhaps for another

century, before we reach final conclusions in regard to the

complex processes of evolution.

Columbia University.

THE GEOLOGICAL CONGRESS IN RUSSIA.

By CHARLES PALACHE.

The Seventh International Geological Congress assembled

in St. Petersburg during the first week of September, 1897.

The Congress was notableamong the meetings of this organ-

ization for the large number in attendance. It will certainly

be memorable, to such of its members as took part in them,

for the extent and interest of the excursions planned in con-

952 The American Naturalist. [November,

nection with it and for the warm-hearted hospitality tendered

them in every part of the broad empire which they visited.

The program of excursions, issued early in the year by the

Committee of Organization, was carried out in all its essential

details. Moscow was the starting point of the first excursion

to the Urals preliminary to the Congress, and consequently it

was that city which most of the excursionists made their first

objective point on entering the country. We found wherever

we crossed the border that our membership tickets made the

passage through the Custom House easy, although they did

not replace our passports which we had. often to show. Our

railroad passes too, were accepted without question, and the

most courteous treatment greeted us on every hand.

At Moscow we found the Bureau of the Congress established

in the halls of the University, and here and in the parlors of

the Continental Hotel, frequent gatherings of the excursionists

took place during the three days we were in the city. The

excursions in the vicinity of Moscow were of moderate inter-

est geologically, the greatest attaching to that which visited

the richly fossiliferous middle Carboniferous beds of Miatch-

kowo on the bank of the Moskwa River. On the other hand,

the city itself with its wholly oriental character in architecture,

coloring and street life, offered more than enough attractions

to occupy the time at our disposal, and there were doubtless

few who did not regret leaving this, the centre and fountain-

head of the Russian national life.

About one hundred and thirty-five persons took part in the

Ural excursion, of whom nine were ladies. A special train of

thirteen cars was our means of transport and place of abode

for the first three weeks of the trip, while a restaurant train of

box cars, provided with tables and chairs, preceded us and

furnished forth our meals. If there were numerous discom-

forts associated with this style of living, one could not but re-

member that there was no precedent for or experience of such

an excursion as ours in the remote regions which we visited,

and criticism was disarmed by the conditions.

From day to day excursions of various kinds were made

along or away from the general line of the railroad which was

1897.] The Geological Congress in Russia. 953

our base of operations. A steamer trip from Samara, on the

Volga—a walk along the railroad, fifteen miles from Acha to

Miniar, giving a fine section of the Carboniferous and Devonain

strata—a two day’s wagon trip to the iron mines (limonite) of

Bakal—a visit to the foundry at Simsk and its charming en-

virons—such were a few of the earlier excursions which, be-

sides showing interesting geological sections, gave us a good

opportunity to become acquainted with the customs and mode

of living of the people of the region. And at every mine and

foundry, in many of the towns and even at the railway sta-

tions, we found the heartiest welcome awaiting us, great con-

courses of people who looked upon us with undisguised curios-

ity but evident good will, receptions by the local authorities,

and numerous lunches and banquets of the most lavish de-

scription. It is difficult indeed, to express the feeling of grow-

ing wonder which all shared at the continuous ovation that

greeted us on all sides as we made our progress through these

mountainous regions, seemingly so little calculated to afford

such entertainment as we found. Still, harsh as it may seem

to criticise in such a case, it must be confessed that there was

too large a share of our time devoted to social functions, and

we might have seen many additional localities of geologic

interest had we not been compelled by our kind hosts to

arrange our movements in accordance with their too frequent

hospitalities,

The guide book of the excursions was prepared in the form

of separate pamphlets for various localities or regions, written

by the men who were best acquainted in each and who were

to be our leaders. The descriptions were generally good,

though often lacking in details; the sections and illustrations

were satisfactory, though the mine sections rarely corresponded

With the visible exposures. The accompanying geological

map of Russia, scale 1:6,300,000, reduced from the larger map

published bythe Geological Committee in 1892,scale 1:2,520,000

served asa very convenient means of orientation.

In the region between Moscow and Oufa where our leader

was Nikitin, we saw horizontal or slightly disturbed strata

ranging from Cretaceous downward to middle Carboniferous.

954 The American Naturalist. [ November,

At Oufa, at the foot of the Ural Mountains, we entered a zone

of openly folded paleozoic rocks including the Devonian

series, the folds becoming rapidly more compressed and the

disturbances greater as we advanced into the mountains. At

Slatoust we encountered the first crystalline schists, considered

by Tschernyscheff our leader, on stratigraphic evidence which

but few of the party considered conclusive, to be metamorphic

Devonian.

Within this band of schists or on its borders, is a group of

mineral localities which have produced many interesting and

beautiful specimens obtained by the efforts of many engineers

of the Russian Mining Bureau through a long series of years,

and now in large part preserved in the cabinet of the Mining

Academy in St. Petersburg. These minerals all appear to be

contact products between clay slates and limestones and mas-

sive eruptive rocks of the character of diorite or peridotite.

One of the best known and most typical of these occurrences

is the Achmatoff mine. Here, on a more or less chloritic

matrix, were found beautiful crystallizations of garnet, epl-

dote, pyroxene, vesuvianite, such titamium minerals as perof-

skite, titanite and ilmenite, zircon, apatite and various mem-

bers of the chlorite group.

Passing eastward still across the Ural divide, we entered a

region of gneisses and granitic rocks. The day spent at

Miass, in the Ilmen Mountains, under the joint leadership of

Karpinsky and Arzruni, was replete with interest. The Ilmen

Mountains are a subordinate range of the Ural chain composed

largely of eleolite-syenite, classical under Gustav Rose’s name

of miascite. This rock is well exposed, is rich in a variety of

minerals and offers numerous interesting problems to the pet-

rographer. The most notable minerals here collected, chiefly

from the pegmatitic facies of the rock, were nepheline, can-

crinite and sodalite, zircon, apatite, ilmenite and biotite 1m

huge plates. In the pegmatite veins traversing the neighbor-

ing gneiss and granite, we saw a very different group of mIn-

erals including albite and microcline, topaz, zircon and euclase

and samarskite, pyrochlor and other rare earth minerals.

1897.] The Geological Congress in Russia. 955

At Miass, also, was the first of the gold placers which are

worked, by what seemed crude and primitive methods, in

various parts of the Urals.

At Tcheliabinsk, the eastern limit of our excursion, as well

as at Beresof, near Ekaterinburg, we saw gold-bearing quartz

veins, the former only recently explored, the latter with ex-

tensive workings dating back many years.

At Ekaterinburg, the principal city of the Ural region, we

we were hospitably entertained by the Ural Society for Nat-

ural Science, and were shown an interesting exhibit of the

products of numerous local establishments for the cutting of

gems and semi-precious stones.

Continuing northward our next halt was in the busy min-

ing town of Njni-Taghilsk. Within this district are the exten-

sive iron mines (magnetite) of Wyssokaia and Blagodat; the

copper mine of Mednoroudiansk, famous for its former pro-

duction of the malachite so prized in Russian decoration ;

largely worked deposits of manganese ore, and the platinum

placers at Platina. This last metal appears to occur in the

peridotitie rocks which constitute the bed rock of the region ;

their decomposition sets it free, so that it may be won by

placer washing.

Again crossing the water-shed of the Urals and descending

rapidly to the plain we reached Perm on the Kama River,

where we left our train for a roomy and comfortable steamer

on which for three days we floated down the stream to its con-

fluence with the Volga. Numerous excursions on the banks

made us acquainted with the Permian series, including the

upper, Permo-triassic division, the so-called “ etage tartarien.”

Turning up the Volga we halted at the old tartar city of

Kazan, where we were entertained by the university and later

by the city. And the end of the fourth day from Perm found

us at Njni-Novgorod. A day was spent here seeing the fair,

and then we took train directly for St. Petersburg, where we

found the quarters previously assigned us in the many hotels

of the city or in the large dormitory of the university, where

some fifty of the members were located. The hundred and

twenty members of the Finland excursion reached St. Peters-

956 The American Naturalist. ` [ November,

burg the same morning (August 28th) by steamer, reporting a

most interesting week’s trip, during which they had enjoyed

quite as lavish hospitality as had been the lot of those in the

Urals. They were under the guidance of Sederholm, and saw

much glacial geology in addition to the old crystalline forma-

tions of western and southern Finland.

The formal opening of the Congress took place the afternoon

of Sunday, August 29th, in the hall of the Zoological Institute

of the University, which was well filled by a large and brilliant

audience. The Honorary President of the Congress, the Grand

Duke Constantine Constantinovitch, presided and opened the

session with an address of welcome. It was followed by sim-

ilar addresses by the Princess of Oldenburg, President of the

Imperial Society of Mineralogy, and by the Minister of Agri-

culture, Ermoloff. Renevier, President of the preceding Con-

gress, announced the officers named by the council, the Amer-

ican Vice-Presidents being Marsh, Emerson, Emmons and

Frazer. The address of the President, Karpinsky, was chiefly

occupied with a brief statement of the questions to come before

the Congress, and after a resumé by Tschernyscheff, Secretary-

General, of the work of the Committee of Organization in ar-

ranging for the Congress and excursions, the session came to a

close. 7

Of the eight hundred and fifty names which appeared in

the official list of the members of the Congress, upwards of

six hundred were recorded as in attendance. Despite this

very large membership the actual number at the meetings was

very small, rarely more than one hundred being present.

But the adjoining hall where numerous exhibits were arranged

was always occupied by a throng of members, showing very

clearly that here as generally in such meetings, it is the per-

sonal intercourse that is desired by the members rather than

the formal discussions.

The subjects which it was desired to have specially brought

before this Congress, as announced in an early circular of the

Committee of Organization and as stated in the President’s

address, were as follows : :

_.1. Shall stratigraphic nomenclature be based upon an artl-

ficial or upon a natural classification.

1897.] The Geological Congress in Russia. 957

2. Establishment of rules governing introduction of new

terms in stratigraphic nomenclature.

3. Adoption of definite principles of classification of rocks

and of petrographic nomenclature.

The discussion of the first question showed clearly the opin-

ion of most of the geologists present that the accepted artificial

classification was the only admissable one, its abandonment

for what must necessarily as yet be a somewhat vague and ill-

defined substitute, being certain to result only in a state of

confusion in the science.

Discussion of the second proposition centered upon papers

presented at an early meeting by Frech, Breslau, Ueber Ab-

grenzung und Benennung der geologischen Schichtengruppen,

and by Bittner, Vienna, Vorschläge für eine Normiring der

Reglen der stratigraphischen Nomenclatur.

The propositions of these writers as modified and accepted

by the Congress amounted to little more than a formal state-

ment of the ordinary practice of geologists with regard to new

names. They were in brief as follows:

1. Introduction of a new stratigraphic term into the inter-

national nomenclature, should be based only on a well deter-

mined and peremptory scientific necessity, should be accom-

panied by full deseription of deposits to which it is applied,

and should be founded on facts observed on more than a sin-

gle exposure.

2. A name applied to any deposit in a definite way is not to

be used in another sense.

3. Date of publication determines priority of terms.

4. In giving new names to minuter stratigraphic subdivis-

ions, it is desirable to take paleontological characteristics as a

base. Geographic names should only be used in default of

the former, or for series of importance containing numerous

paleontological horizons.

5. Names etymologically false or badly formed are to be re-

jected or corrected.

One afternoon meeting was devoted to subjects of petro-

graphic character, and in order to facilitate discussion of the

_ general questions in that department, a special meeting of pet-

958 The American Naturalist. [November,

rographers, to the number of over fifty, was held, Zirkel presid-

ing. The discussions were animated, centering upon classifi-

cation, but resulted in the following almost unanimous expres-

sion of opinion, which was presented through the council to

the Congress:

“Tt is not desirable, in view of the present rapid develop-

ment of the science of petrography, to attempt to establish

definite principles of classification of rocks by a resolution of

the Congress.

“To attain the simplification of petrographic nomenclature

demanded by geologists, it is necessary to define with greater

precision than has yet been done such general terms as are

required in geological mapping.”

A resolution presented by Brégger expressed the view that

it was desirable and probably practical to establish a interna-

tional journal of petrography devoted chiefly to reviews and

abstracts of the current literature. This resolution excited

considerable debate, but was finally adopted and transmitted

to the Congress with the request that a committee be appointed

to ascertain the feasibility of the plan. The committee named

consists of fifteen men, the American members being Iddings

and Pirsson.

Papers of interest presented in this department were by

Walter, Jena, Versuch einer Classification der Gesteine auf

Grund der vergleichenden Lithogenie, and by Loewinson-Les-

sing, Dorpat, Note sur la Classification et la Nomenclature des

Roches Eruptives.

Walter attempts a general classification, his basis being the

recognition of primary and of secondary characters in rocks,

of which the first alone determines the place in the system.

Thus every metamorphic rock, however altered by “ secondary

characters,” is grouped under the rock from which it is derived.

He makes four main groups, Mechanical, Chemical, Organic

and Volcanic Rocks.

Loewinson-Lessing bases his classification of the eruptive

rocks wholly on their chemical composition, expressed in terms

of the “oxygen equivalent,” and of the proportions of the

various oxides.

1897.] The Geological Congress in Russia. 959

The Congress endorsed strongly a proposition by Androus-

soff, Dorpat, for the establishment of an International Floating

Institute, or laboratory, for the study of Oceanography, to be

supported by various Governments in place of the isolated ex-

peditions sent out for this purpose from time to time by differ-

ent ones.

The invitation of the French geologists to hold the next ses-

sion of the Congress in Paris in 1900 was accepted. A bulle-

tin was distributed showing the proposed excursions to Brit-

tany, to Normandy, and, after the session, to the Central Pla-

teau and the French Alps.

A sad incident of the Congress was the sudden death in St.

Petersburg of one of its members, Spendiaroff, Dorpat, who

had taken part in the Ural excursion and was to have been a

leader during a part of the Caucasus excursion. At the clos-

ing session of the Congress it was announced that the father of

the deceased had presented a sum of money to commemorate his

son, the interest to be awarded as a prize for the best paper on

a stated subject at successive meetings of the Congress.

Numerous festivities and excursions were a part of the

week’s program at St. Petersburg. The Tsar received in

audience at his palace of Peterhof,a small number of the more

distinguished representatives of each country. At a later day,

but in his absence, the whole Congress visited the palace and

beautiful grounds, journeying down the harbor by steamer

and enjoying a luncheon in the magnificient imperial dining

hall.

Another day was devoted to a visit to the cataract of Imatra

in Finland, a hundred miles north of St. Petersburg, where a

sumptuous banquet was served ina pavilion erected for the

purpose on the edge of the thundering torrent.

Among the entertainments in St. Petersburg, the most nota-

ble were the reception by the Grand Duke Constantine at his

palace and that by the Mayor and city officials at the City

Hall. Many pleasant reunions took place at the German Club

which was placed at the disposal of the members during the

session. The museums and collections of the city were made

easy of access through special open hours, and their manifold

960 The American Naturalist. [November,

attractions doubtless were to blame for the frequently slim

attendance at the meetings.

The close of the session was marked by the departure of a

large proportion of the members for Moscow, the starting

point of the three excursions which journeyed by different

routes toward the Caucasus and the Crimea. Upward of four

hundred people participated in these excursions which pro-

mised so many and so varied interests.

SOME UNWRITTEN HISTORY OF THE NAPLES

ZOOLOGICAL STATION.

All American biologists are familiar with the Zoological

Station at Naples, either through having enjoyed its unrivalled

facilities or from accounts of it which have been published

again and again in the journals, both scientific and popular,

of the two worlds. It is, beyond question, the greatest estab-

lishment for research in the world. But while it occupies this

position to-day, and while its history since it first threw its

doors open to the investigator is a part of the history of biology,

the station has an unwritten history which is extremely inter-

esting, especially since it shows, in strongest light, the inde-

fatigable industry and resourcefulness of its founder and

director, Dr. Anton Dohrn, in overcoming obstacles of every

sort, many of which would have discouraged a man of less

persistence. On the evening of August 10, 1897, Dr. Dohrn

told the students at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods

Holl, some of the difficulties which he encountered before the

station was ready forstudents. His talk is summarized in the

following account, his own words being used in some cases.

After apologies for possible linguistic mistakes due to the

use of a foreign tongue and for the prominence of himself in

what he had to say, Dr. Dohrn continued by asking his audi-

ence to imagine a young privat-docent of the University of

Jena, with rather more money than he well knew how to

spend; with more time than he knew how to use, but with a

1897.] Unwritten History of the Naples Zoological Station. 961

strong desire to do something of lasting benefit for science, and

you have an idea of one of the factors in the foundation of the

Naples Station. This young man had already opened a small

laboratory in a modest way at Messina, but it was far from

meeting his ideals. Location, equipment, support, were not

the best imaginable.

On his return journey to Germany several points were visi-

ted and critically examined as to availability for a large sta-

tion, and Naples seemed in every respect to promise best, but

the great problems were how to get the proper location, how to

obtain the necessary influence and support. For a young doc-

tor with a reputation to make and with only the money

granted by an indulgent father, both obstacles were rather

serious.

One day in the late sixties, while returning from Berlin to

Jena, an idea came which promised, at least in part, to remove

some of the difficulties; it was to combine with a station for

research, an aquarium for the entertainment of the people.

Both Hamburg and Berlin had aquaria which were most suc-

cessful, why should not Naples be equally favorable? So back

to Naples he went at once.

At this time Naples was making great preparations for a

Maritime Exposition, and it was thought that the aquarium

project would work in well with this, and that, the exposition

over, the building could continue and develop its scientific side.

The director of the exposition was interviewed ; he favored the

plan, and arrangements were at once made by which the

aquarium was to be inaugurated as a part of the exposition,

the young privat-docent in his eagerness and enthusiasm,

agreeing to meet all bills, while the director was to assume

charge of the plans and the ordering of the material and

equipment. Soon Dr. Dohrn saw his mistake. The director

planned as he liked, ordered as he liked and soon bills came

in for things totally different from anything which Dohrn

himself would have ordered. So there was a break in the ar-

rangements, and the privat-docent was back exactly where he

was before—location and support still to be obtained.

962 The American Naturalist. [November,

He drew up a few plans, designed an elevation of the build-

ing he desired, and with these he aroused the interest of Pro-

fessor Panceri of the University of Naples, who advised a con-

sultation with the authorities of the city, who had then in

progress plans for a park or garden on the shores of the beau-

tiful bay. They, too, were attracted by the project and designs,

and since they were to have the aquarium free of expense to

the city, the very location desired was granted, the grant, how-

ever, being coupled with several conditions. Some of these

restrictions were almost laughable. Thus no one.was ever to

sleep in the building, and when it was pointed out that the

proprietor of the restaurant in the garden spent the night in

his building, the reply was made that this was an exception.

Again, it was stipulated that there should be no kitchen con-

nected with the station, the reasons for this proviso being that

if there were a kitchen it would be so easy to convert the

structure into a hotel, and it would never do to have a hotel

in the gardens. The other restrictions were far more serious,

and Dr. Dohrn felt that he could not subscribe to the agree-

ment in the shape it was presented to him by the Naples coun-

cil. At this juncture he applied to the Italian Government,

which then had its seat at Florence, and in a few days received

the characteristic advice, “subscribe to everything, and then

do as you please,” advice which later was to make trouble for

im.

Then came the Franco-Prussian war and the station plans

were set aside for a time, for Dr. Dohrn was ordered to his reg-

iment, and he went to France to take part in that struggle.

When the war was over he was soon back in Naples. An

architect was engaged and the station and its aquarial adjunct

seemed on the straight road to accomplishment. But this

bright prospect was soon darkened. The architect, like others

of his class, had his own ideas of what a zoological station

should be like, although up to the moment of his engagement

he had never seen such an establishment, nor had he ever

dreamed of one. At last he returned with his plans, Dr.

Dohrn glanced at them, saw that they were totally unfitted for

a zoological station and pushed them aside on the table, whist-

1897.] Unwritten History of the Naples Zoological Station. 963

ling, as he did so, the closing phrases of Beethoven’s Ninth

Symphony, a reminiscence of a concert of the evening before.

The architect rushed from the room in rage, and shortly his

representative called upon Dr. Dohrn to make arrangements

fora duel. The matter was finally settled, the architect re-

ceived a thousand franes for his unusable sketches and another

was installed in his place.

At last actual building was commenced and slowly the walls

went up. Dr. Dohrn’s father was dead and the patrimony

was all invested in the new building. Three times the pro-

jector was at a loss as to from where the money for the week’s

payment was to come, and at as many times were friends

found who aided in the undertaking. At last all resources

were exhausted, friends had given all they could, Dr. Dohrn’s

private fortune had gone into brick and iron and marble.

The thought came, this station is to be educational in its ends,

cannot the German Ministry of Instruction_be induced to

: by giving the 30,000 marks necessary to finish the build-

“So there followed another trip to Berlin. Dr. Dohrn called

on the Minister, told his story and asked if the Government

could make such a grant and received for an answer, “no.”

As Dr. Dohrn tells it, the Minister made no attempt after this

refusal to close the interview, but seemed to wait as if the an-

swer were not final, but as if he were still open to conviction

upon proper argument, and so the Doctor told a story to the

effect that after the battle of Sedan he obtained a leave of ab-

sence to attend the meeting of the British Association for the

Advancement of Science. When in England a friend com-

mented upon the Franco-German war and the successes of

the Germans, to the effect that this was a beginning of the

end of the German pre-eminence in intellectual matters; that

now Germany would develop into a military power and in all

other respects would fall behind. “For years” said he, “ we

have been translating books from the German, in the next ten

years you will be translating English books into German.”

The moral of the story was appreciated and the Minister prom-

ised that if Dr. Dohrn could obtain the endorsement of the

964 The American Naturalist. í [November,

Berlin Academy of Sciences the desired grant would be forth-

coming.

So Dr. Dohrn. immediately interested the sympathies of

three of the most prominent members of the Academy, Helm-

holz, DuBois Reymond and Virchow. They promised their

aid and assured him that the desired endorsement would be

forthcoming, and, rejoiced by the good prospects, back he went

to Naples, only to find new troubles which he had never sus-

pected.

-In the agreement with the municipality it was stipulated

that the station building should not exceed a certain heighth,

but the architect whose discharge has already been mentioned,

had gone to the officials and had shown them that the walls

were nearly a metre higher than was permitted, a fact which

was really the result of this architect’s own act. He was tak-

ing his revenge.

There, was trouble immediately. The papers were filled

with denunciations of the young German who had thus dared

to violate the stipulations of the city, and many there were in

the council who demanded that the whole building should

come down. Certainly the prospect looked blue enough, but

there was more to follow. On that very Christmas eve word

was received from Berlin that the Academy had refused to en-

dorse his petition, and that the ministry consequently refused

to grant the necessary money. The grounds for non-endorse-

ment were that the aquarium gave the enterprise a mercenary

rather than 4 scientific aspect, and, again, that Dr. Dohrn had

as yet done no scientific work that gave him the standing nec-

essary for the head of such an establishment. Dohrn imme-

diately wrote his friends, but was in Berlin before his letters.

He personally called upon every member of the Academy, and

such were his representations that he received the desired en-

dorsement at the next meeting of the Academy, and the grant

of funds immediately followed.

There still remained the matter of the quarrel with the city

of Naples. In this Dr. Dohrn thought that possibly diplomacy

could be made to play a part, and so the German Crown

Prince was interested in the matter and shortly the Govern-

1897.] Unwritten History of the Naples Zoological Station. 965

ment at Berlin began to exert its influence upon the powers of

Italy. Long before this, however, Dohrn was back in Naples,

where, upon his return, matters were even more unpromising

than upon his departure. Soon the results of diplomacy be-

gan to make themselves felt, while Dr. Dohrn used his own

influence with the officers of the city. Soon he had won to

his side a member of the clerical party, and in a short time

every obstacle on the part of the municipality was removed.

The building was at last completed and the time came to

turn the water into the huge aquarial tanks, which have since

proved such an attraction in the station. Here was more

trouble. In Naples when a water-proof surface is needed itis

the custom to use, instead of cement, a kind of volcanic earth

beaten tightly together with rammers. So the builders used

this for the bottom of the tanks regardless of the fact that they

were to withstand salt water instead of fresh, and this some

feet, instead of a few inches, in depth. The water poured

through these bottoms in streams. This part of the work had

to be done over again.

At last the station was opened and students began to come.

There was a demand for such a place and the station fulfilled

the demands made upon it as no other institution could. Yet

it lived from hand to mouth, and many were the desirable

features which must be omitted from the lack of funds. The

whole was started, but it was far from the ideal station which

its director had in mind. It was at this juncture that the

German Embassador to the Italian Government visited the

station. He was pleased with all that he saw and impressed

with the needs of the enterprise. “I think” said he, “that

the difficulties are not insuparable,” and shortly after, as a

result of his representations to the German Government,

backed as they were by the endorsement of Virchow, DuBois

Reymond and Helmholz, the Reichstag granted an annual

subsidy of $40,000 to the Naples Zoological Station.

966 The American Naturalist. [November,

WIND RIVER AND BRIDGER BEDS IN THE

HUERFANO LAKE BASIN:

By Henry FAIRFIELD OSBORN.

In 1888 Professor R. C. Hills, of Denver, announced his very

important discovery of tertiary beds in the Huerfano River

basin of southern Colorado. He contributed three papers to

this subject in the Proceedings of the Colorado Scientific Society

in 1888, 1889 and 1891, and finally divided the beds into three

series, namely:

; Huerfano Bed Bridger Group ..-.++++-s+.sseeseeerees 3,300.

Huerfano Series Cachara Bod

(Eocene) T sea lis ower Eocene Asie aa River

| Poison Canon Beds ) Wasatch and Pu 3,500

The identification of the Huerfano Beds proper was made by

means of a large collection of fragmentary fossils. The iden-

tification of the lower beds was upon stratigraphic evidence

only, Professor Hill observing that they underlay conformably

the upper beds. The essential features of his conclusions were

as follows:

(1) That the Huerfano series of 3,300 feet are equivalent to

the Bridger or middle eocene, and the Cuchara and Poison

Cafion series are probably equivalent to the lower eocene.

(2) At the close of the Laramie period a great anticlinal

axis arose to the east and southeast of the Wet Mountain

Range and east of Spanish Peaks, forming the eastern border

of the lake, extending fifty miles north and south, and from

ten to twenty miles east and west.

(3) The eruption of the laccolithie Silver Mountain and

Spanish Peaks was subsequent to the Upper Lake Deposits of

Bridger age. Hence these deposits are found upon the slopes

of Spanish Peaks.

(4) The drainage of the Huerfano Lake was to the north

through the Wet Mountain Valley.

‘Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science at

Detroit.

1897.] Wind River and Bridger Beds. 967

In May, 1897, the writer accompanied by Dr. J. L. Wortman,

made a brief reconnaissance of this basin, and came to the fol-

lowing conclusions; differing from those reached by Professor

Hills:

(1) That west of the Huerfano Cañon the variegated marls,

clays, soft shales and sands aggregate only 800 to 1000 feet in

thickness, are nearly horizontal in position, and constitute

alone the true Huerfano Lake deposits. They may be positively

divided into Upper Beds, equivalent to the Bridger. From

the observations and conclusions made in the basin there are

also undoubtedly Lower Beds, equivalent to the Wind River.

(2) That the so-called Cuchara and Poison Cañon Beds are

unconformable with the Huerfano and are of older age, prob-

ably of Cretaceous, as partly determined by the presence of

Baculites in the Poison Cafion section, which was selected by

Professor Hills as typical.

(3) That the eastern boundary of the Huerfano Lake is

partly indicated in the present cañon of the Huerfano River;

that this boundary extended to the south so as to include the

base of Silver Mountain toward the Cuchara Divide; that it

lies from three to seven miles west of the ‘anticlinal axis’ de-

scribed by Professor Hills, and that, therefore, the Huerfano

Lake deposition did not extend as far to the east or south as

the Spanish Peaks.

The geological features of these Eina E can hardly be

dignified by the term “ A theory of the Huerfano Lake,” for

they were formed during a hasty survey of this basin; while

Professor Hill’s results certainly deserve the deliberate con-

sideration of a prolonged survey. In fact this basin with its

volcanic disturbances and eruptions presents a fascinating

problem in the geology of tertiary times. Among the Bridger

forms discovered were many portions of the skeleton of Tillo-

therium, beside remains of Hyrachyus, Palxosyops, Microsyops,

Calamodon, Stypolophus and Pachynolophus. This region is

peculiar in the absence of Uintatherium. In the Lower Beds

. are found teeth and limb bones of Coryphodon, Lambdotherium,

Oxyæna, Pantolestes and other Lower Eocene forms, probably of

Wasatch age.

968 The American Naturalist. [November

The writer is greatly indebted to Professor R. C. Hills for

his very full information in regard to the topography of the

basin, and for assistance and advice in connection with the

trip.

PECULIAR ZONAL FORMATIONS OF THE

GREAT PLAINS.

By FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS.

The traveller through the sand hills of Nebraska has often

brought to his notice the striking way in which nature has

marked, as though for all time, the fields and groves which

once dotted the country. Such areas are always most conspic-

uous, because of the strange contrast between their sharply

marked dark green and the thin, brown vegetation of the sand

hills. Frequently the waste is a flaming mass of the western

sunflower, Helianthus petiolaris, in which case it is distinctly

visible for several kilometers. In many localities, such wastes

have existed for more than a score of years, and, instead of

diminishing in any respect, become each year more and more

accentuated.

The elevated prairies and tablelands, which are so typical

of the Great Plains before the latter rise into the foot hills of

the Rocky Mountains, are characterized by a floral covering

monotonous in the extreme. Trees and shrubs are entirely

absent, and undershrubs are present only in peculiar alkaline

areas, and in “bad lands.” The color-tone of the floral cover-

ing is green only for one or two spring months: after the first.

of June, it becomes a uniform straw color, stretching in all

directions to the horizon. The two principal formations of the

high plains of western Nebraska are the Stipa comata forma-

tion, and the peppergrass-cactus formation. Rarely, the

former is traversed by a sandy zone several kilometers wide

and 20-30 kilometers long, characterized by the Artemisia fili- -

folia formation. An individual of A. filifolia regarded alone

is scarcely green, but the mass of individuals, by contrast with

1897.] Peculiar Zonal Formations of the Great Plains. 969

the straw-colored Stipa, give a dark green tone to the forma-

tion. The floral covering, composed of the Stipa and the pep-

pergrass-cactus formations, is seamed here and there with old,

abandoned trails, and what may by courtesy be called roads.

These have necessarily originated extremely narrow, but often

very long, minor tensions between the original floral covering

and the invading roadside flora. Along the roads travelled at

present, these tensions have attained expression in a narrow

zone at either side. In some instances, this zone consists of

dwarf individuals of Helianthus petiolaris, in others of Malvas-

trum coccineum, or of Gutierrezia sarothræ, in still others, of

dwarfed plants of Salsola tragus, closely appressed, but conspic-

uous on account of the unusual deep green color. Not infre-

quently, Malvastrum and Salsola intermingle to constitute the

zone. A common result of such a tension in the Stipa forma-

tion is to accentuate the size, and density of growth of the

Stipa to such a degree that the formation is bordered along the

road by a most conspicuous zone composed wholly of its own

facies. In the same formation, the Stipa zone is sometimes

suppressed, and its place is occupied in part by scattering,

silver-purple bunches of Artemisia frigida. In trails a long

time abandoned, the sterile strip between the bordering zones

disappears, being encroached upon and vanquished by the

plant constituting these zones. Such trails then become not

only striking members of the floral covering, but not altogether

- canny features of the landscape as well. From the base of

Scott’s Bluff, a deeply sunken trail extends far toward the Wild

Cat mountains in the southeast, marked over sun-browned

plain and ridge by an endless band of dark green, due to the

dense bunches of Gutierrezia: sarothre. The stage-road from

Harrisburg over the hills and undulating plains of Kimball

county is flanked on either side by a trail, once well-worn, but

now densely crowded with the silver-purple tufts of Artemisia

frigida. These floral land-marks run parallel to the stage route

for perhaps a half-score of kilometers, then swinging abruptly

to the southwest, they pass on over valley and ridge, disappear-

ing in the one only to reappear upon the ri until the we

refuses to follow further.

970 The American Naturalist. [November,

It is impossible to determine how long such subruderal

formations have persisted. The size and thoroughness of

establishment of Gutierrezia and Artemisia would indicate

occupation for several decades. After a long period, however,

it usually happens that Stipa comata, driving out the subruderal

inhabitants, reconquers these trails. It is significant that the

dark patches of Opuntia humifusa, or O. polyacantha so charac-

teristic of this formation, never reappear with the Stipa. But

even the speargrass is unable to resist the modifying influence

of the trail, and its abnormally tall stems and compact growth

find easy interpretation in connection with the ruts and ridges

on which it grows. The old California trail is the most inter-

esting example of this. Throughout the upper valley of the

North Platte in Nebraska, this historic overland route is marked

by such a zonal formation. From the base of Scott’s Bluff, the

California trail, first travelled more than three-score years ago,

and abandoned for over a score of years, “ angles ” southeast-

ward in a broad band of innumerable ruts, painfully insistent

in their matted cover of bleaching grass-stems.

THE CRICKET AS A THERMOMETER.

By A. E. DotBear.

An individual cricket chirps with no great regularity when

by himself and the chirping is intermittent, especially in the

day time. At night when great numbers are chirping the reg-

ularity is astonishing, for one may hear all the crickets in a

field chirping synchronously, keeping time as if led by the

wand of a conductor. When the numbers are so great, the

resting spells of individuals are unnoticed but when the latter

recommence they not only assume the same rate but the same

beat as the rest in that field. The crickets in an adjoining

field will have the same rate, that is, will make the same num-

ber of chirps per minute, but with a different beat as one may

easily perceive by listening.

1897.] The Cricket as a Thermometer. 971

The rate of chirp seems to be entirely determined by the

temperature and this to such a degree that one may easily

compute the temperature when the number of chirps per min-

ute is known.

Thus at 60° F. the rate is 80 per minute.

At 70° F. the rate is 120 a minute, a change of four chirpsa

minute for each change of one degree. Below a temperature

of 50° the cricket has no energy to waste in music and there

would be but 40 chirps per minute.

One may express this relation between temperature and

chirp rate thus.

Let T. stand for temperature and N, the rate per minute.

T1504 728:

For example. What is the temperature when the concert of

crickets is 100 per minute?

T.=50-+-"~ =65°.

EDITOR’S TABLE.

—One of the most important advances based upon scientific re-

searches is now under discussion in Boston. The Associated Boards of

Health of Massachusetts now advocate the licensing of every person

engaged in the milk business, the licenses only to be granted after the

thorough inspection of the locations of the business and the sources of

the supply, even to an examination of the cows. Within the past year

several severe epidemics of typhoid fever in and near Boston have been

traced to milk supplies, and the very source of infection found. Only

a few years ago milk was looked upon as the very safest drink and food

for mankind, but one has only to consider the facts brought out by

Prof. W. T. Sedgwick in his report upon milk to the Associated

Boards of Health to see that we must sooner or later come to some

governmental supervision in this matter, for as the case now stands in

our cities, milk is about the most dangerous substance that enters our

houses,

—Every one who reads the foreign journals is frequently gratified

by the praise they accord to our government publications. Typo-

972 The American Naturalist. [ November,

graphy, illustration and the matter itselfall come in for commendation.

There is, however, one department of our government with which fault

must be found in this respect—the Department of Agriculture. Here

the fault lies in the multiplicity of serials issued. It would seem that

in this department each head clerk considered it necessary to issue his

own publication, and, in many cases, several series of publications. The

result is that in the present decade there have issued from this depart-

ment about one hundred series of documents, so that students and

librarians have great difficulty in keeping track of them. Then, too,

these serials are unduly padded, the truly valuable matter which occa-

sionally appears in them being buried among a mass of valueless mate-

rial, apparently prepared from a spirit of rivalry between the ditferent

bureaus and divisions.

The following list of publications is probably not complete, but it is

published here for two reasons: first to show the senseless extent to

which this division into series has been carried ; and, second, as an aid

to librarians in arranging these publications and noting deficiencies.

The Department of Agriculture issues the following publications

which are not distributed among the separate bureaus: Circulars, Mis-

cellaneous Circulars, Farmers’ Bulletins, Special Reports, Miscellaneous

Special Reports, Reports of the Secretary, Year Book—a total of

seven,

From the separate divisions appear the following :—

Bureau of Animal Industry: Circulars, Circulars of Information,

Bulletins, Special Bulletins, Annual Reports.

Division of Soils: Bulletins. :

Division of Agricultural Soils: Bulletins.

Division of Agrostology: Circulars, Bulletins.

Division of Biological Survey : Circulars, Bulletins.

Division of Botany : Bulletin (octavo), Bulletin (quarto), Circulars,

Contributions from the U. 8. National Herbarium, Special Bulletins,

Illustrations of North American Grasses, Report of the Botanist.

Division of Chemistry: Bulletins, Circulars, Report.

Division of Entomology: Circulars, Circulars (second series), Bul-

letins, Bulletins (new series), Periodical Bulletins, Special Bulletins,

Technical Series, Reports, Insect Life.

Division of Forestry: Circulars (octavo), Circulars (quarto), Bul-

the Chief of the Division of Forestry.

Division of Garden and Grounds: Report.

Division of Microscopy: Report, Food Products.

1897.] Editor’s Table. 973

Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy : Bulletins, Reports, North

American Fauna.

Division of Pomology: Bulletins, Circulars, Report of the Pomolo-

gist, Report of the Assistant Pomologist, Special Reports.

Division of Publications: Circulars, Reports.

Division of Records and Editing: Report.

Division of Statistics: Circulars, Crop Reports, Miscellaneous Re-

ports, New Series Reports, Special Reports, New Series Miscellaneous

Reports, Miscellaneous Series Bulletin, Miscellaneous Series Reports,

Reports of the Statistician. —

Division of Vegetable Pathology: Bulletin, Circular, Report, Jour-

nal of Mycology.

Division of Vegetable Physiology and ce ET i Bulletin.

Fibre Investigation Series.

Library (octavos).

Library Bulletin (quarto).

Office of Experiment Stations: Circulars, Experiment Station Bul-

letin, Experiment Station Record, Miscellaneous Bulletin, Bulletin,

Reports.

Office of Irrigation Inquiry: Bulletin.

Office of Road Inquiry: Circular, Bulletin.

Section of Foreign Markets: Circular, Bulletin.

Seed Division: Report.

Silk Section: Circulars, Bulletins, Reports.

Weather Bureau: Annual Summary of New England Weather Ser-

vice, Bulletin, Bulletin of New England Weather Service, Lake Storm

Bulletin, Monthly Weather Review, Report of Ohio Weather and

Crop Service (octavo), Ohio Section of Weather and Crop Service

(quarto), Report of the Chief, Weather Crop Bulletin, Report of the

North Dakota Weather and Crop Service, Circulars of Information.

This list is, we think, sufficient to support our contention that multi-

plication of serials in the Department of Agriculture has been carried

to an absurd extent. It is high time that the Secretary call a halt and

give the “Division of Records and Editing” a blue pencil and the

authority to use it.

974 The American Naturalist. [ November,

General Notes.

GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Reactions to Stimuli in Paramecium.'—The plan of the au-

thor has been to study the reactions of one organism so completely and

exactly that we may gain a good idea of its daily activities. Phenom-

ena such as these are to be explained. When a large number of Para-

mecia are transferred, together with a bit of decaying vegetable mat-

ter, from the culture jar to the glass slide and covered with a properly

supported cover-glass, we see the Paramecia at first uniformly dis-

tributed, a few minutes later beginning to gather about the decaying

particle, and soon all accumulated there. Some minutes later the Para-

mecia begin to disperse, but are always sharply confined within an

ever extending circumference. If an electric current is now passed

through the water, the infusoria swim towards the cathode, but do not.

pass the circumference. We seek an explanation of the aggregation

of the infusoria, their subsequent dispersion and their limitation by an

invisible boundary, even when urged to pass it by the electric current.

The results of a series of experiments which cleared up one difficulty

after another in a manner very interestingly described are as follows:

The beginning of the accumulation of the Paramecia is due to thigmo-

taxis. An individual, hitting the solid body by chance, stops, perhaps

starts back and whirls on its axis, then settles against the object and

remains there. Others do likewise; thus the accumulation begins.

No response occurs to smooth hard bodies. The close application of

the Paramecium to the surface and the gliding over it are the results

of the peculiar reactions of the cilia induced by the stimulus. But the

rapid and complete aggregation cannot be accounted for alone on the

ground of thigmotaxis. The author finds that Paramecia are attracted

by a not too strong concentration of carbon dioxide. The CO, produced

by the thigmotactic individuals serves to lure the others. But after the

crowd has become very dense the CO, becomes so strong in their vicin-

ity that the Paramecia are repelled from the region of the solid body _

and begin to disperse. They do not scatter widely into the culture

1 H, S. Jennings. Studies on Reactions to Stimuli in Unicellular Organisms.

I. Reactions to Chemical, Osmotic and Mechanical Stimuli in the Ciliate Infu~

soria. Jour. of Physiology, X XI, p. 258-332, May, 1897.

Pages numbered 975 through 990 have been copied from JSTOR.

htto:/Awww/stor.org/stable/i320055

Page missing

from book

at time

of scanning.

1897.] General Biology. 975

fluid, however, for they are repelled by the latter also, but they keep

in a zone of weak concentration o » The chemotactic movements

of Paramecium were seen also in their repulsion by strong solutions of

all acids, including CO,, by all alkaline solutions, to which category

the culture fiuid belonged, and to certain neutral salts and organie

compounds. Towards other organic substances, e. g., sugar, glycerine,

urea, Paramecia is indifferent. Tonotaxis plays no important part in

the normal activities of the organism. The reason why the infusoria

are not forced beyond the circumference by the electric current is that

they are less strongly electrotactic than chemotactic.

The following weighty conclusion is now drawn: Since infusoria are

negatively tactic to their native fluid and positively tactic to the unad-

vantageous CO,, negative or positive taxis is not necessarily an adap-

tive movement, is not always determined by its advantage to the spe-

cies.

PALZONTOLOGY.

Archegosaurus.'—The results of this preliminary paper are based

on the rich material of Archegosaurus contained in the “ Kgl. Museum

fir Naturkunde” and the collection of the “ Kgl. geologische Landes-

anstalt in Berlin, The archegosaurs are preserved in clay-geodes,

and in spliting these the bones are generally broken. After the

bones had been removed with chisels or fine steel-needles, a mixture of

gelatine and glycerine was poured over the plates and very good reliefs

of the skeleton were thus produced.

Jickel intends to write a monograph on Archegosaurus and gives

only the more important results. He commences with the skull, and

afterwards discusses the vertebral column, the limbs and the dermal

skeleton.

The skull.—In the palatal region he finds some differences from the

statements so far given. There exist series of teeth on the inner sides

of the vomers and palatines, which show essentially the same arrange-

ment as in the Labyrinthodontia. Larger teeth are placed between the

anterior ends of the choanæ, and behind these. The choanæ are very

much longer than in the Labyrinthodonts, This elongation is certainly

in relation to the anterior extension of the muzzle of Archegosaurus.

1 Jackel, Otto. Die Organisation von Archegosaurus. Zeitschr. deutsche Geol.

Ges. Jahrg., 1896, Heft 3, p. 505-621, fig. 10.

976 The American Naturalist. [November,

The teeth of both the inner and outer rows are separated by consider-

able spaces from each other and are less crowded than in the Labyrin-

thodonts.

The outer side of the lower jaw of Archegosaurus decheni is figured.

It consists of four sculptured bones. Following E. Fraas,? he names

the upper element outside of the articular. face, the articular, but he

doubts whether it belongs to the endoskeleton. This element is the

supranngular, the angular is correctly determined, and the “ infra-

dentale ” is one of the splenials.*

The vertebral Column.—There are said to be 25 presacral, one sacral

and over one hundred caudal vertebrae. Jackel believes that there is

uncertainty about the morphology of the vertebral column of the Stego-

cephalia and the higher vertebrata

Among the Rachitomi he distinguishes four elements: 1. The

paired upper arches [neural arches Baur] which in Archegosaurus

unite dorsally into a spinous process [neurapophysis Baur]; 2. The

paired upper Pleurocentra (Interdorsalia Gadow), which are intercal-

ated between the upper ends of the Hypocentra; 3. The paired lower

Pleurocentra, which in the tail separate themselves from the upper Pleuro-

centra, (Interventralia Gadow, Hypocentra pleuralia). 4. The unpaired

Hypocentrum which in the tail may split into two centres of ossifica-

tions.

First I may mention that the name Intercentrum, first introduced by

Cope,‘ antedates Gaudry’s’ name Hypocentrum five years.

Cope says “ The basal portions of the chevron bones are continued

throughout the greater part of the Vertebral column in the Permian

Genera Clepsydrops, Metarmosaurus and Epicordylus [Eryops], form-

ing intervertebral elements to which I have given the name intercentra ”

— The free elements of the cervical series of some reptiles are prob-

ably the same.”

The name Pleurocentrum was introduced by Gaudry* in 1879 ; in the

*Fraas, Eberhard, Die eager or der Schwebischen Trias. Palæonto-

graphica Bd. XXXVI, p. 73, Aug. 2

? Baur, G. Uber die Moralee. A Unterkiefers der Reptilien. Mit 4, Ab-

Micmnpen Anat. Anz. Bd., XI, Nr, 13, Dec. 21, 1895, p. 410-415.

a The Homology of the Chevron Bones. AMER, NATURALIST,

May, 1875, p. 319 ( Published, April 22d).

audry, Albert. Les Enchainments du Monde Animale dans les Temps

Géologiques Fossiles Primaires. Paris, 1883, p. 273, fig. 273, A. B- C.

*Gaudry, Albert. Les Reptiles de l'époque permienne aux environs d'Autun.

Bull. Soc. Géol. d. France. (3) Tome VII, 1878-1879, Paris, 1879, p. 68, and

p- 65 in explanation of fig. 7.

1897.] Palwontology. 977

same paper he designated, Cope’s intercentrum as “ Pièce inférieure du

centrum.” I do not believe that there has been any uncertainity

about the morphology of the vertebral column of the Stegocephali and

the higher Vertebrates. The whole question was definitely solved.

Everybody is convinced that the pleurocentra of the Rachitomi re-

present the centra of the higher Vertebrates; and that the intercentra

are homologous to the intercentra of the Sphenodontide, Geckonide,

Uroplatidx, Pelycosauria. These intercentra support in the tail the

chevron bones, or hæmal arches; both are firmly united.

In some papers published this year by Dr. Hans Gadow’ and Prof.

Alexander Gotte,? it is maintained, that the intercentrum of the

Rachitomi forms the centrum of the Amniota; Prof. Jackel comes to

the same conclusion. Gadow and Gétte have never examined any

fossil Stegocephali or Pelycosauria and Jiickel, by some unfortunate

caleulation, has completely misunderstood the true nature of the

archegosaurian vertebral column.

I shall show that this new opinion is in opposition to all morpholog-

ical facts. In Archegosaurus the rib-heads are articulated below with

the intercentrum, behind with the pleurocentrum and above with the

pointed base of the neural arch. In the tail the lower arches (hemapo-

physes, chevron bones) are united with the intercentra. In the Pely-

cosauria; Clepsydrops, Dimetrodon, Naosaurus, Embolophorus, Thero-

pleura and others we have exactly the same condition. There are very

well developed intercentra between the centra, which are suturally united

with the neural arches. The capitulum the lower part of the rib-head

is articulated to the intercentrum, the tuberculum to the anterior por-

tion of the centrum and the base of the upper arch. In the tail the

lower arches (hreemapophyses, chevron bones) are united with the inter-

centrā,

According to Gadow, Götte, Jäckel the Intercentrum Cope, of the

Rachitomi is homologous to the centrum of the Amniotia. There is no

doubt, that the intercentrum plus hemal arch (chevron) of the Pelyco-

sauria is homologous to the intercentrum plus hemal arch (chevron), of

Archegosaurus; therefore the intercentra of the Pelycosauria are

centra, according to the authors named above. Therefore, the Pelyco-

sauria have two centra. This of course is absurd, therefore the

™Gadow, Hans. On the evolution ofthe vertebral column of Amphibia and

Amniota, Philos. arai Roy. Soc. London, vol. 187 (1896), B. pp. 1-57.

pipe 1896, June 1

lex. Seber den Wirbelbau bei den Reptilien ond einigen anderen

Wee Zeitschr, wissensch. Zool., vol. LX V, p. 843-394.

978 The American Naturalist. [November,

intercentra of the Rachitomi are not centra, but true intercentra, as

everybody has believed so far.

We only need to examine some of the Stegocephalia in which the

ossification of these elements is more advanced. In old specimens of

E megacephalus Cope, the pleurocentra are closely united to the

posterior hase of the neural arches; the intercentra are placed between

the pleurocentra below and do not reach the neural arches. Only the

first intercentrum is connected with the neural arches of the first verte-

bra the atlas, forming an atlas-ring as in all Amniota. How is it pos-

sible that this first intercentrum can be a centrum? ‘The pleurocentra

of Eryops are homologous to the centra of the Amniota. The rachito-

mous condition is the most primitive one. Before Jackel, I described

the condition in Archegosaurus as follows:® If we examine the

vertebral column of Archegosaurus, we see that the notochord is still

developed and that in the dorsal region each body of the vertebra

consists of three parts, two lateral ones, the pleurocentra, and one

inferior one, the intereentrum (hypocentrum). In the tail region we

find even five elements; the two pleurocentra and below them two

small hemacentra Hay” (hypocentra pleuralia) and the intercentrum

to which the hemal arches (chevron bones) are attached.

There is very little doubt, that in the caudal vertebra of the Rachi-

tomi the hzmacentra, if they were present, formed with the pleurocentra

a cartilaginous ring, In the precaudal region only the pleurocentra

become ossified and support the neural arches. The intercentra were

continued dorsad as cartilage, also forming a ring. In the tail the

chevrons, lower arches, are united with them. This primitive condition

is modified in two ways. First: the tntercentrum increases in size,

especially the lower portions, become broader, until they meet with each

other. The pleurocentra become reduced, or confluent with the upper

arch. The intercentra form the body ofthe vertebre of the Labyrin-

thodontia, they are wedge-shaped, the notochord never passes through

the centre, but is placed in an excavation at the upper free border of

the intercentrum, or there is a small fossa at the upper posterior face of

the atlas, or there may be a chordal foramen just below the upper

border. From all this it is evident, that the “ centra ” of the Labyrin-

thodontia are intercentra. This opinion is now generally accepted,

*Baor, G. TheStegocephali. A ip aaa Study. With 8 Fig. Anat Anz,

XI, Bd., N. 22. Merz 20, 1896, p. 657-6

Hay, O. P. On the structure and ee of the Vertebral column i

Amia. Field Columbian Museum. Publication 5, Zoolog. Series. Vol. I, No. I,

p- 40. Chicago, U. S. A. October, 1896.

1897.] Paleontology. 979

The Paras reached a large size and became extinct at the

end of the

The nee caudate of the rachitomous condition is seen in Cri-

cotus Cope. Each vertebra consists of two fully ossified elements. The

centra in the precaudal region completely support the neural arches,

which have well-developed diapophyses. These diapophyses are placed

on the neurocentral suture which is, however, completely obliterated.

The centra are 15 mm. long, 25 mm. broad, and 25 mm. high; they are

very deeply biconcave and notochordal. In front of this centrum is a

complete intercentral disc, of the same breadth and heighth as the cen-

trum, but only 8 mm. long; laterally at the posterior border it posses-

ses a small process to which the capitulum of the rib is articulated.

These flat intercentral discs have a very large notochordal foramen (4

mm, in diameter). In the tail the intercentral discs carry the

chevrons. This condition has been called by Cope embolomerous and

the suborder Embolomeri. It is evident that the centra are homologous

to the pleurocentra. The Embolomeri became extinct in the Permian.

Only two genera are known, Cricotus Cope and Diplovertebron, From

the Rachitomi the Amniota developed. The pleurocentra formed the

centra, and the intercentra were more and more reduced, Intercentra

are present between all the vertebre in the Pareiasauria (Cotylosauria)

Pelycosauria, Rhynchocephalia, Geckonidx, Uroplatide. In the Ich-

thyosauria, and Lacertilia they are confined to the anterior cervical

vertebra. In the Megalosauria, Iguanodontia, Pterosauria and Birds;

the first intercentrum forms the lower piece of the atlas ring, and the

second intercentrum is united with the centrum of the atlas (odontoid

process) and the centre of the axis into one mass. In all mammals the

first intercentrum always remains, forming the lower piece of the atlas

ring, and in some mammals they are even present in the dorso-lumbo-

sacral region, for instance in the Insectivora (Talpa, Erinaceus, Myo-

gale) and in Atherura among the Rodents.”

T gave in 1886 a full historical account of the views on the

morphogeny of the vertebral column of the Amniota from 1844, giving

all the morphological, paleontological and embryological evidence.”

Dr. Gadow certainly did not study this paper, for, after the quotation

of it in his Literature, he puts in parenthesis “ Extract, in German, of

Cope’s discoveries.”

n Baur, G., L. C,

1? Baur, G. Uber pty Morphogenie der Wirbelsäule der Amniolen. Biolog.

Centralbl. Band VI, Nr. 11 and Nr. 12, Aug. 15, 1886, p. 322-342; 353-363.

980 The American Naturalist. [November,

After the discussion of the vertebra] column, Jekel makes some re-

marks on the ribs, limb-skeleton and the dermal covering, and con-

cludes his paper with a short summary of his results. I hope that

Jekel in his final monograph on Archegosaurus will give up the

absolutely unfounded opinion of the homology of the intercentrum of

Archegosaurus with the centra of the higher Vertebrata.—G. B.

Reconstruction of Phenacodus primzvus, the most Primi-

tive Ungulate."—This paper was accompanied by the re-mounted

skeleton of Phenacodus and a wax model executed by Charles Knight.

As originally mounted in Professor Cope’s laboratory, the famous

skeleton of Phenacodus primevus conveyed a very imperfect impres-

sion of its actual form and proportions. Several serious errors were

committed by the restorer, the most important of which was the im-

planting of two of the cervical vertebra in the tail, The author, there-

fore, considered it advisable to completely re-mount the animal, and

this has been done by Mr. Adam Hermann and Mr, Martin, of the

American Museum, at an expenditure of five months time. The animal

is placed as nearly as possible in a natural position, It shows that the

feet were not plantigrade, or soled upon the ground, but digitigrade, as

in the tapir. The body is characterized by the great convexity of the

back, characteristic of the Carnivora and of all the early ungulates. A

further unguiculate feature is the great development of the hind quar-

ters and of the tail. The disproportion between the hind and the fore

quarters is heightened by the extremely small size of the head, contain-

ing a brain which was about the size of that of the opossum, as fully

described by Cope.—H. F. OSEORN.

BOTANY.

Observations on the Distribution of Plants Along Shore

at Lake of the Woods.'—Professor MacMillan’s paper upon the

vegetation of the shores at the Lake of the Woods is the most import-

ant contribution to American phytogeography since the Metaspermse

of the Minnesota Valley of the same author, In this paper, as in the

latter work, the elements of the flora have been determined with almost

13 Read before the British Association at Toronto

1 MacMillan, Conway : Observations on the Distribution of Plants along Shore

at Lake of the Woods. Minnesota Botanical Studies, I, 949, 1897.

1897.) Botany. 981

exhaustive minuteness, and it is not too much to say that, for a large

portion of the two regions in which this territory falls, Professor Mac-

Millan’s work upon the floral elements will be found to be substan-

tially final. But in the present paper, the author has done much

more. He has given a sketch of the shore and beach vegetation from

the standpoint of ecology, and a résumé of the formations which it

presents. Although several papers of minor importance have dealt

with certain aspects of some ecological und formational problems,

Professor MacMillan has undoubted right to the honor of being the

first in the field in this country, if not indeed in the English tongue,

with an account of extended research in these lines. Pointing this out

with pardonable pride, he has offered his contribution as an incentive

to others to undertake and to continue a sort of botanical work which

stands in need of many investigators, The author is emphatically a

man of ideas, as he has demonstrated in more than one department,

and his contribution at this time, when investigation in this country is

but beginning, is weleome and opportune.

At the ontset, it should be noted that the author’s standpoint is

purely ecological, not phytogeographical. He is concerned solely

with the physical environment of the plants of the locality, not with

the biological environment that in so many instances proves of no less

moment, It is not easy to make distinctions of this sort, since they

depend largely upon the point of view of each writer. But, in general,

the phytogeographer looks primarily at the floral covering as such.

He studies, analyzes, and traces the development of the floral covering

as a whole, and in restricted areas. For this purpose, he brings to bear

his knowledge of the physical and biological environment and of the

plants themselves as well, their morphological adaptations as shown in

primary and secondary biological characters, modifications for pur-

poses of duration, seed-production, dissemination and so forth. But

the ecological phytogeographers appear to restrict themselves for the

most part to the investigation of certain aspects of the relation of the

floral covering to its physical environment. This investigation is,

without doubt, of great importance, but the limitations of such a pro-

cedure appear clearly in the paper under review.

The discussion of the physical conditions prevailing upon the shores

at Lake of the Woods is a masterpiece of analysis. Everything has

been taken into account, and every modification which might affect the

floral covering has been investigated and pointed out. This analysis

has been made not only with reference to the more important factors

—water-content, illumination and temperature, but also with reference

982 The American Naturalist. [November,

to all minor influences. That portion of the paper dealing with the

physical conditions of the locality is the most important, since it sug-

gests methods of procedure for other regions. It deserves study at the

hands of all who are engaged with similar problems. But, at the same

time, it must be said that for most purposes the analysis will be found

too exhaustive. The perception of the relation of habitat and organ-

ism stands at the foundation of phytogeography ; yet all of the physical

factors are not of equal importance. Plants have more to do than

merely to contend against physical conditions; they have to contend

with other plants. Individuals contend with each other, vegetation

form with vegetation form, floral element with floral element, and

formation with formation ; a struggle goes on everywhere in the floral

covering that forces plants to adapt themselves to strange and even

unwelcome environments. The influence of modifications due to this

necessity is one that may never be overlooked. Extended investigation

of a large territory is required to enable one to measure the relative

importance of these factors, but it cannot escape notice that a number

of species listed by Professor MacMillan are ruderal species of varied

habitat, which may be met with in meadow, clearing, high prairie or

sand hill, as well as in the situations where he found them. In fact, it

is only by beginning at the other end, by studying the vegetation forms

of a region and the accessory characters of this vegetation, and so

reaching an understanding of the means by which plants are enabled

to take possession of the soil and to maintain themselves there, that

one can comprehend the really characteristic and dominant vegetation

and arrive at an understanding of formations.

The discussion of the biological factors which determine the vegeta-

tive covering of the region, therefore, seems quite inadequate, An

analysis of these biological factors made with the same minuteness as

that of the physical factors, might not be necesssary, and yet it cannot

fail to suggest itself to those who have been engaged in the study of

like problems in other regions, that the former, in general, is likely to

be the much more valuable, if carried beyond a certain point. The phy-

siographical and climatological conditions are undoubtedly of control-

ling force while vegetation is establishing itself in a new area. Once

established, vegetation reacts upon its environment and upon itself,

and new forces have to be reckoned with. One would think that a

more careful consideration of these and of the influence of vegetation

forms and their distribution would bave made such phenomena, as the

occurrence of Celastrus and Parthenocissus in the back-strand rather

than in the mid-strand (p. 979} much more clear.

1397.] Botany. 983

It has been pointed out in a previous paper that the formation is a

definite phytogeographical concept, determined by its statistic, vegeta-

tion forms and habitat groups. The determination, or better, the

recognition of a formation is conditioned by the previous analysis of

its constituents from these various standpoints. This fact was first

appreciated by the Continental phytogeographers, and Drude was the

first to carefully elaborate the formations of an entire flora in accord-

ance with this principle. The fundamental nature of his work in this

line renders his researches classic, and his conclusions superlatively

final, for the present at least, As is well shown in his Deutschlands

Pflanzengeographie, I, it is necessary to first comprehend the floral

covering by a careful analysis of its floristic, vegetation forms and hab-

itat groups, and then by even more careful synthesis, determine the

formations thus pointed out. While the floral covering may be truth-

fully likened to a mosaic in which the various pieces are formations, it

is not true that every distinguishable bit of difference is a formation.

It must likewise be borne in mind that formations are by no means of

fixed and absolute expression: they are at all times more or less plas-

tic, manifesting modification, incipience, decadence, and most intimate

relations with other formations.

It is, at present, so common to reproach European botanists, and par-

ticularly those upon the Continent, for their disregard of the results

of American investigation, that it is odd to be obliged to call attention

to American neglect of European research. Yet the article in hand

manifests justs such a lack of acquaintance with the fundamental con-

tributions of Drude. Drude’s concept of the plant formation is un-

doubtedly to be regarded as the correct one. Measured by this stand-

ard, the great number of formations noted for a small area by Profes-

sor MacMillan fall in most cases to the rank of facies, or patches, or

they are at best only incipient or decadent stages of real formations.

The author has committed two serious mistakes in his elaboration of

the Lake of the Woods formations: the first is lack of perspective, the

second is too minute analysis. It is impossible to delimit formations

accurately by studying the floral covering of a restricted area. Such

limitation can be done intelligently and well only in a natural vegeta-

tion area; except in the rarest cases, in nothing smaller than a vegeta-

tion region. A formation must be studied in all its various stations

and in its many phases, before final conclusions can be reached con-

cerning its validity. From the lists given, the floral covering in the

vicinity of the Lake of the Woods is composed of the most heterogenous

elements, which have crowded together in peculiar fashion. Apprecia-

984 The American Naturadist. [November,

ting this fact, then, such a floral covering could be well comprehended

only after the exhaustive study-of the formations of the entire vegeta-

tion region. Had this been done for the present contribution, many

of the so-called formations would have been referred to the real forma-

tions of which they are immature or incomplete expressions. Asa

concrete illustration, all of what Professor MacMillan terms surf-bar-

rier formations are merely isolated facies and patches of certain water-

plant formations common throughout the Allegheny and Prairie prov-

inces,

In analysing too carefully, the author has noted everything distin-

guishable as a formation, a method which serves very well for the mere

cataloguing of phytogeographical phenomena, but is one scarcely to be

commended as affording a basis for work of much value. Upon many

such points, one not familiar with the country studied is incapable of

passing judgment, but, in some instances, the mistakes are apparent

even to one not conversant with the particular floral covering. Front-

strand, mid-strand and back-strand represent merely a more or less

radially biologically symmetrical formation, the nucleus of which is

found in the back-strand, from which the formation “shades out” to-

ward the lake with accustomed zonation. As for strand pools, the

three sorts are merely developmental aspects of one formation. The

formation is best represented by the back-strand pool, which is simply

the ultimate expression of the water plant formation represented in its

earlier stages by mid strand and front-strand pools. Dune pools are

likewise to be referred to the same formation. Soil shore formations

are not at all peculiar to the Lake of the Woods; they are aspects of

formations which occur over a large portion of the continent. Talus

formations are such only in rare instances ; they are usually incipient

formations of very various types. It is perhaps unnecessary to point

out further instances of such incorrect analysis. It only remains to re-

mark the similarity between the many lists of species of different for-

mations,and to call attention to the large number of meaningless ruderal

and subruderal plants contained in them. Formational statistics to be

of value must be arranged with reference to facies, principal species,

secondary species, etc., and not in bald lists.

—Roscoe Pounn,

Freperic E. CLEMENTS.

1897.] Zoology. 985

ZOOLOGY.

The Cæcal Appendices of the Orthopteran Mid-Gut.'—

Continuing his observations on the glands connected with the intestine,

Bordas points out that in all the Orthoptera, with the exception of the

Forficulide and Phasmide, the well known cecal appendices of the

grasshopper, though varying in form from family to family, may be

recognized. The presence or absence of the cxca corresponds more or

less closely with different external morphological characters and allows

the orthoptera to be divided into two sections. Moreover, the number

of these organs, their disposition, their mode of insertion, the folds pre-

sented by their internal surface and especially the presence or absence

of posterior diverticula, are characteristics by which a number of

families may be recognized. For instance, the Mantidæ and the Blat-

tide are provided with 8 intestinal ceca, while the Acridiids possess

but 6, and the Locustids as well asthe Gryllidx possess but 2. From

his observations upon numerous specimens, he concludes that a series

may be distinguished in which paired appendices stand at one end and

multiple appendices at the other, or in other words, that the Pseudo-

phyllinis connect the Acridiide with the Locustide.—TF. C, K.

For many years one of the problematic structures of vertebrate mor-

phology has been the hypochorda or sub-notochordal rod, a slender

cord of tissue developed like the notochord from the entoderm and

lying ventral and parallel to the larger and better known chorda dor-

salis. Its phylogenetic origin, its function and its fate have been un-

certain. In the last number of the Morphologisches Jahrbuch,

Bd. xxv, are two papers dealing with the subject. In the first, Dr.

K. Franz deals with this structure in the Teleostean fishes. His con-

clusions in brief are that the structure in question is entodermal, that

at no time does it contain a lumen, and that it sooner or later entirely

degenerates without contributing any elements to the longitudinal ven-

tral ligament of the vertebral column, a view contrary to that of some

observers, but in full accord with broader views of morphology. The

second paper is by Professor Hermann Klaatsch, and deals with the

morphological significance of thesubnotochordal rod. He summarizes

his conclusions as follows: The hypochorda is a common possession of

the higher vertebrates inherited from their ancestors. It is the rudi-

iL. Bordas: Compt. Rend. Acad, Sci. Paris, CXXIV, (1897), 376--378.

986 The American Naturalist. [November,

ment of an organ still functional in Amphioxus, the epibranchial

groove . In the adult Amphioxus this organ is confined

to the branchial region, but in the young it extends farther caudally.

The great extension of the rudimentary organ above the gut of the

higher forms is a secondary appearance.

There exists no ground for the view that the hypochorda arises from

metameric dorsal entodermal diverticula. ‘The fate of the epibranchial

groove is connected with that of the hypobranchial groove, the modifi-

cations of the pharyngeal region causing both to become rudimentary.

The hypochorda seems in general to degenerate, yet in part it is re-

tained as an elastic band [see Franz, above]; perhaps its elements also

play other roles. The reduction of the hypochorda is of signifi-

cance of an important advance in the Chordate organism in that it

renders possible the development of an unpaired [dorsal] aorta.

It is apparent that our most studied forms will repay new and care-

ful study. A few years ago Dr. H. H. Wilder startled the world with

his discovery that many of our salamanders were absolutely lungless,

and now Professor F. Maurer, one of the most suggestive of German

students, has made a strange discovery with regard to certain, Amphi-

bia. It is, in short, that in the oral epithelium of at least some terres-

trial forms (Rana, Bufo, Hyla, Salamandra, Triton alpestris) capillary

blood vessels pass through the basal membrane and penetrate the strat-

ified epithelium. After a full description of the conditions found and

a few remarks upon the histological and anatomical considerations, he

concludes his paper (in the Morphol. Jahrbuch, Bd. xxv) with the

suggestion that no doubt these vessels have an important physiological

function in that they with the oral epithelium are concerned in respira-

tion. Histological investigations of the oral epithelium of certain of

our turtles where Gage (Am. Nat., xx, p. 233, 1886) has described a

respiration in the mouth cavity might prove interesting.

Mr. W. G. Ridewood calls attention (Anat. Anzeiger, XIII, p. 499)

to the fact that the cartilages recently described by Mr. White and

Miss Foote as occurring in Elasmobranchs, are fully described in the

older monographs on these forms.

The view advanced by Gervais and Lucus that Scolopendra is ovo-

viviparous has remained uncontradicted until the present time. Filippo

Silvestri (Atti dei Lincei) now states that last year he discovered a

specimen of Scolopendra cingulate carefully guarding its eggs under a

stone, and in June of this year he has found several specimens with

1897,] Zoology. 987

their eggs. The ova are pale yellow, ellipsoidal in shape, measuring

2.5x3 mm.—Nature, August 26, 1897.

Zoological Articles in Recent Journals.—In Vol. 105 of the

Sitzungsberichte of the Vienna Academy, Dr. Franz Werner writes

upon the Sealing of the Reproduced Tail in Lizards; Dr. F. Stein-

dacher upon some Zoological Results of the Expedition of the “ Pola”

to the northern part of the Red Sea;, Dr. P. Knold upon the Blood

Corpuscles of Vertebrates; and Dr. H. Albrecht upon the Comparative

Anatomy of the Mammalian Larynx.

PSYCHOLOGY.’

Odor-mixture.—The relation of elementary sensations to the

sensation of their compound has given rise to much theoretical discus-

sion. In the senses of sight and hearing it has also been the subject of

considerable experimental work. The laws of color-mixture have long

since been formulated, and the sequence of the color series, like that of

the tone series, is well known. In the domain of smell, owing to prac-

tical difficulties that attend the investigation, little progress has been

made. Certain odors stand marked as qualitatively distinet, but their

relations to one another and the arrangement of their “shades ” into a

single graduated series has never yet been satisfactorily demonstrated.

On the other hand, it has been shown that odor-mixtures (of many

odors, at least) give rise to new and qualitatively simple odors, thus

resembling the color-mixtures rather than the accords of tone combina-

tions. Zwaardemaker, in a recent work, gives a series of nine distinct

classes of odors, into one or other of which he thinks any particular

odor can be placed. He resolves compound odors into elements belong-

ing to two or more of these classes. When the organ of smell is fatigued

for one class of odors, the remaining elements in the compound are

sensed, and if the compound consists of but two elements they may

readily be distinguished by this means. Both this author and Aron-

sohn, an earlier writer, speak of certain odors which do not combine to

form a mixture, but when placed together give rise to a blended sensa-

tion, each element of which may be sensed separatively at will, In

some compounds, again, one element predominates so strongly that the

other is wholly indistinguishable.

1 Edited by Howard C. Warren, Princeton University, Princeton, N, J.

988 The American Naturalist. . (November,

Nagel has lately taken up the investigation’ by a. different method—

that of simply sensing the- various compounds without fatiguing the

organ of smell. Asa result of his investigations he concludes that

odor-mixtures without exception follow the law of color-mixture. When

one element of a compound extinguishes the other it is because the

former is of far greater intensity ; but by reducing this intensity suffi-

ciently a combination is at length reached in which the two unite to

form a true mixture. He therefore takes exception to the earlier view,

and believes that any two odors can be mixed in such proportions as

to produce, at least momentarily, the sensation of a simple odor, of a

quality distinct from the components, Whether the new odor is sensed

as such permanently, or not, depends on the condition of the sense-

organ; if the latter is less fatigued for some of the elements than for

others, the former will gradually tend to predominate. The true color-

mixture—that in which none of the elements predominate—“ resembles

each of its components, without, however, being like them.” Thus the

principles of odor-mixing, according to Dr. Nagel, are similar to those

of color-mixing ; and the correspondence extends, as far as the author's

observation goes, to the law of intensity ; the intensity ofan odor-mix-

ture is never stronger than that of its components. The author has

found several pairs of odors that are more or less complementary and

produce an almost odorless mixture, though he has never succeeded in

reaching this limit. As regards the arrangement of simple odors into

a series, Dr. Nagel’s experiments do not tend to verify the classifica-

tions hitherto proposed ; but he does not venture upon a classification

of his own, since he has been unable to discover any odors which can

be regarded as really “ elementary.”—H. C. W

Psychology at the British Association.—At the Toronto

meeting of the British Association, last August, a cordial invitation

was given to psychologists to participate. There being no Psycholog-

ical Section in the Association, the department was assigned to Section

I (Physiology), and Dr. Kirschmann, of Toronto, was appointed a

secretary of that Section to represent the interests of psychology in the

arrangement of the program.

Among the papers of special psychological bearing presented in the

Section were the following: On visual reaction to intermittent stim-

ulation, by Dr. Griinbaum, of Cambridge, England; on the nature

and physical basis of pain, by Prof. L. Witmer; on the physiology of

instinct, by Prof. Lloyd Morgan; and two on various problems of

4‘ Zeitsch. f. Psychologie, 1897, XV, p. 82.

1897.) Psychology. 989

animal psychology, by Prof. Wesley Mills. Physiological psychology

was well represented on the program. Prof. H. P. Bowditch discussed

the rhythmic action of smooth muscles, and Prof. Carl Huber, of

Michigan, reported experiments on the innervation of motor tissues

with special reference to nerve endings in the sensory muscle spindles ;

Prof. F. 8. Lee, of Columbia, read a paper on the ear and lateral line

in fishes, in which he discussed the bearing of the semi-circular canals

on the sense of equilibrium; and Prof. W. P. Lombard, of Michigan,

discussed the effect of frequent excitations on the contractility of mus-

cle. One session was devoted to the demonstration of physiological and

psychological apparatus. Prof. Lombard exhibited a new and inex-

pensive type of chronograph. Prof. Scripture demonstrated the use of

the Pendulum Chronoscope as a means for measuring small periods of

time, and exhibited a “tricolor lantern” for illustrating the laws and

effects of color combination, Prof. C, S. Sherrington performed some

experiments in visual contrast and upon the flicker phenomenon ; and

Dr. J. H. Kellog exhibited a new dynamometer, especially adapted for

clinical use. A combined meeting of the physiological and botanical

Sections was held for the discussion of the chemistry and structure of

the cell; Profs. Meldola, J. R. Green, and Macallum contributed papers

at this session.

In addition to the foregoing, a number of papers having a distinctly

psychological bearing were presented in Sections H (Anthropology)

and D (Zoology). At one session of Section H several papers on

Indian customs and folk-lore were contributed by Miss Fletcher and

Messrs. Hill-Tout, R. N. Wilson and Hagar. At another session of

the same Section reports were presented on the subject of anthropome-

tric measurements in the schools, and the treatment of dull and slightly

abnormal children. A paper by Dr. Franz Boas was read, embodying

a statistical examination of the growth of Toronto school children;

Prof. Witmer reported the results of some comparative tests—both men-

tal and physical—between white men, white women and Indian men.

The Presidental Address of Section H, by Sir. W. Turner, was an ex-

amination of some of the dist tics of human struct-

i=! oe

Th the zoological Section the subject of variation and selection

received some attention, Prof. C. 5. Minot spoke on the origin of

vertebrata, and Prof. H. F. Osborn on the origin of mammalia. Prof.

E. B. Poulton discussed the value of mimicry as evidence of the truth

of Natural Selection; Mr. W. Garstang, of Plymouth, England, spoke

on Recapitulation, and Prof. Lloyd Morgan on the natural history of

990 The American Naturalist, [November,

instinct. Two papers bearing on the genetic problem were also given

in the anthropological Section; one by Mr. George [les entitled :

“Why Progress isin Leaps;” and a note by Prof. J. C. Ewart on the

transmission of acquired characters.

Considerable material of interest and value to the psychologist was

presented in these and other papers. The arrangement of the program,

however, though admirable in most ways, was not especially suited to

the exigencies of the department, Through the dividing up of these

papers among three different Sections some were found to conflict with

with each other; at best the auditor was compelled to watch his

time closely, and literally pursue his subject from one building to an-

other—H. C. W.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The Ninth Annual Meeting of the Association of Economie Entomo-

logists was held at Detroit, Aug. 12-13, 1897.—The address of the

retiring president, Prof. F. M. Webster, treated of “The Present and

Future of Applied Economie Entomology in the United States,” and

contained, among other very interesting features, a tribute to the value

of the systematist and a somewhat caustic criticism of the “species

maker,” helpful suggestions for the experiment station worker, and a

yery frank discussion of the unfortunate results which attend the

attempts sometimes made to combine politics and science. Seven were-

elected to active membership and three foreign members were elected :

The Association now consists of 93 active and 31 foreign members.

Seventeen papers were presented during thesessions of the Association.

Resolutions were passed requesting the publication of the proceedings.

as bulletin of the Divsion of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

and expressing familiarity with the efforts of the state of Massachusetts.

to exterminate the gypsy moth and commending the results already

accomplished.

The election of officers resulted as follows: President, Herbert Os-.

born, Ames, Iowa; ist Vice-President, Lawrence Bruner, Lincoln,

Neb.: 2nd Vice-President, C. P. Gillette, Ft. Collins, Colo. ; Secretary-

Treasurer, C. L. Marlatt, Washington, D.C. The next ram of the-

Association will be held at Boston, Mass., Aug. 19-20, 1

The Archeological Institute of America is about to commence the-

regular and uniform publication of its papers, reports, and other docu-

ments. For this purpose it has obtained control of the American

Journal of Archeology, formerly edited by Professor Forthingham..

1897.) Scientifie News. 991

The new series of the Journal will be conducted by an editorial board

chosen by the Council of the Institute, Professor John H. Wright, of

Harvard, being the Editor-in-Chief. The publishers will be the Mac-

millan Company, New York.

The Academy of Sciences at Berlin has made the following grantsin

the aid of research :—Prof. Engler, 2000 mk. for African botany; Dr.

R. Hesse, 500 mk. (eyes of lower marine animals) ; Prof. H. Hürthle,

850 mk. (study of muscles) ; Prof. Cohen, 1500 mk. (meteorites); Dr.

G. Lindau, 900 mk. (Lichens) Prof. R. Bonnet, 800 mk. (blood vessels) ;

Dr. Lühe, 2000 mk. (fauna of north African salt lakes); Prof. F.

Frech, 1500 mk. (geology); Dr. G. Brandes, 300 mk. (Nemertines).

The total attendence of the German Universities for the summer

semister of 1897 is reported as follows: Berlin, 5163 ; Munich, 4033 ;.

Leipzig, 3221; Bonn, 2015; Breslau, 1646: Halle, 1641; Freiburg

1544; Würzburg, 1443; Heidelberg, 1322; Tübingen, 1301; Göt-

tingen, 1229; Erlangen, 1153; Marburg, 1097; Strasburg, 1047 ;

Greifswald, 853 ; Kiel, 764; Jena, 754; Konigsburg, 787; Giessen,

692; Rostock, 509; Münster, 497.

We learn from the Botanical Gazette that Mr. William Wesley

Woolen, a prominent citizen of Indianapolis and a member of the

Indiana Academy of Sciences, has indicated his intention of presenting

to the city a tract of fifty-six acres of land to be used as a botanical

garden and ornithological preserve. The tract is easily accessible and

is admirably adapted to these purposes. The details of management,

etc. are now under consideration.

The U.S. Fish Commission is engaged in stocking the Penobscot

river with the California quinnat salmon. Last year over 2,000,000

fry were turned loose in the river while in August of this year 35,000

young about two inches in length were put into the water, while 20,000

more are to be liberated soon. It will be some time before the results

of these attempts can be ascertained, but even moderate success would

fully repay all the outlay.

Henry Holt & Co. have recently published The Elements of Com-

parative Zoology by Prof. J. Sterling Kingsley of Tufts College. While

containing the usual text-book information, it is more than usually full

of laboratory illustration, and makes a special feature of suggestive

questions under “ Comparisons.” Thesame house has issued, Laborat

Directions in General Biology by Harriet Randolph, instructor in

Bryn Mawr College.

The Plant World, a new illustrated monthly botanical journal, is

announced, to be published by Willard N. Clute & Co., Binghamton,

` 992 The American Naturalist. [ November,

N. Y. at one dollar a year. It will be under the editorial charge of

Dr. F. H. Knowlton, of Washington, assisted by six well-known botan-

ists. It aims to fill a position intermediate between the technical and

the amateur journals.

The Association of German Naturalists and Physicians met this year

on September 20th to 25th at Brunswick. Among the more important

papers read was one by Professor Waldeyer upon Impregnation and

Heredity, the publication of which in full will be awaited with interest.

The Deutsche Botanische Gesellschaft met at the same time and place.

The University of Minnesota has maintained a summer school this

season for the sixth time with a good attendance, 14 took the work in

entomology ; 88 that in geology; 18 that in animal physiology and

12 that in vegetable physiology. Courses were also given in chemis-

try and physics, as well as several non-scientific subjects.

The annual report of the Essex Institute has just been issued. From

it we learn that the annual income was $7,400, the membership 904

and the addition to the library,which now contains about 70,000 bound

volumes and 200,000 pamphlets, amounted to over 9,000 entries.

The American Museum of Natural History in New York has just

received two large collections of butterflies.» That of Mr. William

Schaus contained over 10,000 tropical species; that of Dr. E. A. Hoff-

man is said to be complete in North American species.

Professor Albert von Kölliker has recently received the gold medal

of the Leopold-Carolina Academy. We have previously referred to

the memorials presented him upon the completion of his eighthieth year

and the fifty year jubilee of his professorship.

The rules of the civil service of England have been set aside in the

case of Dr. Henry Woodward who retains his position of keeper of the

department of geology in the British Museum two years longer than

e regulations otherwise would allow.

The University of Lyons has appropriated Fr. 42,000 for the com-

pletion of the biological laboratory at Tamaris, near Toulon, and will

probably contribute annually to its maintenance.

We learn that there were hardly 400 in attendance upon the meet-

ing of the French Academy of Science held this year at St. Etienne.

Dr. Bradley M. Davis of the University of Chicago will spend the

coming year in Europe. ,

A slightly cracked egg of the great auk has just been sold in London

for £168. .

The American Naturalist.

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SSE Henry Fairfield Osborn.

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ME eion OF THE ERES

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ATURAL SCIENCE:

| A MONTHLY REVIEW OF

SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

ons | 5 Saran ane

THE FOLLOWING ARE A FEW FACTS AS TO THE WORK

OF “NATURAL SCIENCE 2» DURING 1895.

T SCIENCE for 1895 has published CORTEO from

| 104 apite writers.

4 10 Papers, Pamphlets ad Periodicals:

$ oe for 1895 has ore 45 Texefigures.

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXXI. December, 1897. 138

TRITUBERCULY: A REVIEW DEDICATED TO THE

LATE PROFESSOR COPE.

By Henry FAIRFIELD OSBORN,

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY.

The morphology of the crowns of the mammalian teeth has

sprung up practically as a new branch of study since Edward -

D. Cope and other paleontologists have demonstrated the

unity of derivation of all the complex forms from the trituber-

cular type. The older works and ideas of Cuvier, Owen, Hux-

ley and others are of comparatively little service now, for they

treat the teeth of each order of mammals as of so many distinct

types, whereas they must now be treated as modifications of

one type. This new odontography of the mammalia may be

dated from the time when it was recognized that the crowns of

the teeth of the Unguiculata and Ungulata, in the compre-

hensive Linnsean sense, are based upon a common type and

are composed of homologous elements of similar origin, as de-

veloped by Cope, Osborn, Scott, Schlosser and others. It

dates also from the new embryology of the teeth as studied by

Leche, Kükenthal, Taeker, Röse, Woodward and others, with

‘the revelations as to primitive form, number, and milk succes-

sion.

But to fully establish the morphological branch in its new

era we must first demonstrate the theory of a tritubercular

994 The American Naturalist. [December,

archetype. This has been opposed in one form or other by

nearly all English morphologists, namely: Lankester, Forsyth-

Major, Newton Parker, M. A. Woodward, E. S. Goodrich,

Marion Tims. It has been accepted only by Flower and

Lydekker. In Germany it has been accepted by v. Zittel,

Schlosser and Riitimeyer; Schlosser, especially, has made

important contributions to the evidence. The theory is ac-

cepted somewhat reservedly by the embryologists Röse, Leche,

Taeker and others, who have attacked rather the homologies

of the upper and lower cusps than the theory itself. In

France it appears to have made little headway. In America,

Scott, Allen, Wortman, Earle and many others are working

upon the tritubercular theory and have made important addi-

tions to it. It is difficult for the writer to take the “ primitive

polybuny ” hypothesis seriously, although it is advocated more

ma ps or less positively by

such able morpholo-

gists as Forsyth-Major,

Lankester, Goodrich

and Parker. The fact

that the Multitubercu-

oralno. A otistik lates and Monotremes

Fig. 1.—Horse Morar, Merychippus, Show- and certain Rodents

ing secondary folds. exhibiting this type

are primitive is no evidence that the polybunic type itself is

primitive. We know nothing of the history of the degenerate

Monotreme teeth, but we know that the further we go bac

among the ancestors of the Multituberculates and Rodents

the less “ polybunic” and more tritubercular they appear.

This demonstration once made, as a matter of convenience

in thought and description, we must revise the old systems of

nomenclature which were based upon secondary forms rather

than upon primary homologies, and which, as a rule, differ 1n

every type of mammals and among odontologists of every land

and establish a new odontography or descriptive method.

Finally, we must trace out all the lines of divergence in both

forms and determine the principles which guide them. The

importance of a uniform nomenclature is seen at once in the

postfossette= c+

Molar teeth of all

the Mammalia.

For Horse Molars.

Huxley and Lydekker

(1886)

For Rhinoceros Mo- For Rhinoceros Mo- For Ungulate

lars. Molars.

a based up- Terminology used by peee, sane wt — a Russi.

on evolution from a nglish authors, uvi an authors, Riitimeyer

tritubercular, ances- Bo A akino (’67) De Blainville (1846), and Kowalevsky

tral molar type. Busk(1870), Lydek- Ga (1878) Pav- (1893)

(1882), low (1892).

Foote (1882).

Pilea Protocone Denticule interne du pr. lobe innenpfeiler des vorjochs........ Anterior pillar

Molar | Paracone Second Costa Denticule externe, pr. lobe terior crescent

m AS OOD Costae (in part) Denticule externe, sec. lobe Posterior crescent

Denticule interne, sec. lobe Innenpfciler des nachjochs.....Posterior pillar

Toas (pp

Tetartocone

Second { Parastyle First Costa = Buttress Pericones, Randgipfeln Anterior ridge |

Pilar s or f Mesostyle ddle ridge

1 Metastyle Posterior ridge

t Hypostyle -caca Posterior collis (in part) Or

Second Ectoloph ...... Exterior lamina = Dorsum j= == COPÈI externe.....s.ssssesececssseressssssor Aussenwand

Greate E Protoloph.....-++++.0+++00+/ Anterior collis Colline secant es iki antérieure... eee orjoch

Metaloph Median collis La troisiéme - a be postérieure.......... Nachjoch

7 P Anterior Valley isese s Vallon oblique oes

Valleys { Postsinus Posterior Valley......... te postérieure

Sen Crochet Posterior combing plate Uncas T ; ee

Folds” | Aiteroche pecan ee aceéeler S

Crista Anterior combing plate { agan caes.. Amter(erochet) —

Secondary { Prae, Medi, and Fossettes — } Cement Lakes

Cavities Postfossettes Fossette postérieure a : | =

Cingulum { Cingulum 7 Wulst

Posterior collis (in part) — cingulum, Bourrelet

guard

1897,] `: Trituberculy : 995

accompanying table of terms used among the rhinoceroses and

horses alone. It could not have been anticipated that the

diverse molars of the horse

and of the rhinoceros, for

example, would be limited

in their variations, in a late

geological period, by their

unity of origin in an ex-

tremely early geological

period. Yet. such is un-

doubtedly the case. Com-

pare the accompanying

figures of Merychippus and

nr a of Aceratherium. Imagine

_ Fig. 2.—RutNoceros Morar. Unde- that you see the simple

I 8 y folds. bunodont molar of such a

form as Deen's Hyracotherium vulpiceps, underlying these

diverse crests and crescents. Consult Taeker’s “ Zur Kenntniss

der Odontogenese bei Ungulaten ” and you will find that this

sexitubercular archetype is not imaginary, but is a constantly

recurring fact of embryonic development—all the crests and

crescents being preceded in the embryo by simple cones. Then

compare carefully the variations in the two teeth as follows:

The two “cement lakes” of Merychippus with the two “ fos-

settes” of Aceratherium, enclosed in the former by crescentic

spurs, and in the latter by the “ antecrochet” and “ crochet ;”

seas}

postfossette

perastyle-<— protoconid Aypooonid,

protoconule ~- tee ~hypoconulid

protocone ~ ~~ 5

` mataconid’ entoconid:

Fig. 8. SSNS BUNODONT Morar. —Hyracotherium vulpiceps, after Owen.

the posterior “lake” and “ fossette ” similarly enclosed. by

an upgrowth of the posterior. basal cingulum. Can any.one

question the homologies between these secondary adaptations

to a diet of grasses when it is seen that they spring from the

996 The American Naturalist. [December,

same primary cusp centres? In the lower Eocene the sexi-

tubercular prototype passes directly back into the tritubercu-

lar archetype. So throughout the whole mammalian scale

not only ungulates, but primates, carnivores, insectivores,

rodents are found playing similar variations upon the primi-

tive tritubercular type. There are surprisingly few distinct

types, but an almost unlimited number of sub-types, or varia-

tions of form. As we descend among the older rocks and the

various series begin to converge, it becomes increasingly diffi-

cult to distinguish the different orders by their teeth alone.

Thus it came about that all the Eocene monkeys were at first

referred to the ungulates, or to transition groups, as expressed

in M. Filhol’s composite term Pachy-lémuriens.

TRITUBERCULAR HOMOLOGIES.

Embryological Evidence—The progress which has been made

in the embryology of the teeth is largely in the matter of the

succession of double series, as indicated by vestiges of earlier

and later sets of teeth, the so-called milk and permanent sets.

Embryogenesis, however, has also led to a very minute study

of the order of succession of the cones in the molar teeth, and

without entering into the matter in detail, it may be briefly

stated that all authors are unanimous in describing the cones

of the lower molar teeth in different groups as developing in

the same order in which they are supposed to have arisen in

the past, according to the tritubercular theory, namely: Pro-

toconid, Paraconid, Metaconid, Hypoconid. In the upper

teeth, on the other hand, embryogenesis has been found to

contradict the conclusions reached by the tritubercular theory

or palingenesis, for all authors have agreed that the order is

Paracone, Metacone, Protocone, instead of Protocone, Paracone,

Metacone. When these facts were first brought out by Taeker,

Rose and others, the writer, with undiminished confidence 1n

the force of paleontological evidence, advanced as an expla-

nation the fact that the protocone had become secondarily re-

duced in the upper molars, and that the embryogeny N°,

longer recapitulated the order of evolution. This explanation

has received a measure of support in the latest researches by

1397.] Trituberculy : 997

Woodward, in which it is shown that in those Insectivora in

which the protocone is still the most prominent cusp of the superior

molars, this cusp also appears first in embryogeny, the paracone

and metacone following. Woodward points out that this is not

the case in other Insectivora, for they agree with the Primates,

Ungulates and other types which have been carefully investi-

gated, in the late appearance of the protocone. Woodward

infers from these conflicting facts that there were two modes of

wun ee

4.—THE THREE PRIMARY Forms.

A ese of the Dolphin.

B. Triconodont (? Secondary) of the Seal, Leptonyz.

C. Tritubercular of the Cape Mole, Chrysochloris.

cusp evolution within the order Insectivora, one in which the

protocone appeared first, and another in which the protocone

appeared third or last. Such a double genesis seems to the

writer highly improbable.

It is, however, certainly important, as Woodward and many

others have observed, to strengthen the paleontological evi-

dence for the tritubercular theory. The writer has recently

998 The American Naturalist. [December,

made strenuous efforts to secure additional evidence, which

have not thus far been successful. In the meantime too great

emphasis cannot be laid upon the fact that all the existing palæ-

ontological evidence points in the same. direction, namely, to the

presence of the chief cone upon the inner side of the upper

molars, and upon the outer side of the lower molars. An im-

portant oversight on the part of those who are still uncon-

vinced of the tritubercular theory, is the necessity of a mechan-

ical adaptation of the upper to the lower teeth in every stage

of development, which is perfectly met by the tritubercular

theory. Given the universally acknowledged trigonid or tri-

angular arrangement of cusps in the lower teeth, no mechani-

cal relations can be imagined in an upper molar crown which

originated with the external cusps, paracone and metacone.

If the main object of paleontological research is to trace

back various lines of descent as far as possible, the very unity

of primitive type makes this apparently more difficult than

before, but not really so. We were working before upon a

false basis, or no basis at all; we can now advance upon the

certain basis of primitive form and the one requisite of progress

is to employ much more exact methods of description and

analysis.

1. THE THREE PRIMARY FORMS.

So far as the molar teeth were concerned, there were, to our

present knowledge, but three great primary forms, which suc-

ceeded each other as stages and also persisted. From one or

other of these all the known recent or fossil mammalian teeth

have diverged, including probably the Multituberculates.

These types are illustrated in the accompanying cut. First,

the haplodont crown, which links the mammals with the rep-

tiles; second, the triconodont crown which was predominant in

the Lower Jurassic period ; third, the tritubercular crown which

appeared in the Lower Cretaceous' and has been by far the

most productive. The transitions between these great types

1 Tt now appears advisable that the ‘so-called Como (Atlantosaurus) Beds of

North America and the Purbeck Beds of England should be placed in the base

of the Cretaceous instead of in the Upper Jurassic as formerly.

1897.] Trituberculy : 999

are found among the Mesozoic mammalia and have already

be2n worked out with considerable care.

From each of these great primary stages it would at first

appear that some of the mammalia directly derived their den-

tal type, for both the “ haplodont ” and “ triconodont” crowns

are seen to-day among the Cetacea. Yet there is ground for

uncertainty here, for as the progressive stages are “ haplodont,”

“triconodont,” “ tritubercular,” so the retrogressive stages re-

verse this order, passing from “ tritubercular” back to “ tri-

conodont ” then into “haplodont.” Another view therefore is

that such primary forms have been secondarily acquired.

The apparently “triconodont” lower molar of Thylacinus is,

for example, an indirect retrogression from a tritubercular

ancestral form. Again, among the aquatic carnivora, in the

series of molars of the Seals, the eared Seals and the Walruses,

we see the backward stages from the “triconodont” to the

“haplodont ;” and it is therefore probable that the “ trituber-

cular” was the form of molar possessed by the Pinnipedia

when they diverged from the Fissipedia. There is consider-

able evidence that a similar retrogression has simplified the

i a

SSS

Fig. 5.—Amphilestes, a Jurassic triconodont, primary.

molar crowns of modern Edentates, for it is now certain that at

least the Gravigrada were descended from tritubercular ances-

tors, the Ganodonta. Again, among the Cetacea, all their oldest

allies, such as Zeuglodon, are triconodont, not haplodont.

With both these groups, therefore, there are therefore the possi-

bilities of direct or of retrogressive origin of the “ triconodont ”

molar.

This uncertainty hardly extends to the “ triconodont” stage,

which is typically shown in the lower Jurassic Amphilestes,

1000 The American Naturalist. [December,

Phascolotherium and the later Triconodon. It is a very signifi-

cant fact that this type dies out in the Upper Jurassic. It is

true we find many more recent “ triconodont ” teeth, the lower

molar of Mesonyx for example, which are positively known to

be of tritubercular origin. Richard Owen compared the lower

molars of Thylacinus with those of Triconodon, but we have

found that what appeared to him to be similar cusps are not

really homologous. Thus while it is possible that the ances-

tors of some of the modern haplodont and triconodont mam-

mals never reached the tritubercular stage, it is by no means

a settled fact. On the other hand, excepting the isolated

group of Multituberculates and the single genus Dicrocynodon

Marsh, the molars of every known fossil mammal from the close of

the Lower Cretaceous until the close of the Eocene period bear the tri-

tubercular stamp.

This would appear to support the generalization that all

mammals passed through the third primary or tritubercular

stage, yet it must be borne in mind that all our evidence is

derived from inhabitants of fresh water basins, and that the

persistent haplodont and triconodont types may have been

living contemporaneously in the seas.

But the Multituberculates and Monotremes, were they tri-

tubercular in origin? The teeth of Ornithorhynchus are so

degenerate and irregular that many features of primitive form

may be lost; they may quite as readily be interpreted as

tritubercular as multitubercular, especially in the embryonic

stage as described by Poulton.

It is not difficult however to establish the principle that a

true multitubercular tooth may spring from a tritubercular

tooth. As pointed out elsewhere, my friend, Prof. J. A. Allen,

directed my attention to the “multituberculate” rodents. A

comparison of Mus, Dipodomys and Perognathus beautifully

illustrates the stages between “trituberculy ” and “ multitu-

berculy ” in living types. The three rows containing twelve

tubercles in the later genus are derived respectively from the

“ external,” “intermediate” and “internal ” cusps of a sexitu-

bercular bunodont type similar to the Hyracotherium molar on

a small scale. The additional cusps are successively added to

1897.] Trituberculy : 1001

each row. Thus the upper molar of Perognathus is closely

analogous to that of the Mesozoic Multituberculata, especially

to such a type as Tritylodon. Passing also from the higher

Multituberculata to the lower and more ancient, we find fewer

and fewer cusps until we reach a “ paucitubercular” parent

form in the upper Triassic Microlestes. Microlestes itself was

not tritubercular; it had a basin-shaped crown surrounded by `

irregular tubercles; this basin, however, was not dissimilar to

that in molars of the Eocene rodent Plesiarctomys which is ob-

viously of tritubercular origin.

This evidence has been recently reinforced in a most strik-

ing manner by the discoveries of Professor Seeley in the Karoo

Beds of South Africa, from which two principal conclusions

may be derived: First, that Tritylodon, formerly placed with

the mammalia, contains a large number of reptilian characters.

Since the fossil is closely related on the other hand to the re-

trigon

Fig. 6.—Tricon AND TALON. Mechanical relations of tritubercular molars ;

also homologous and functionally analogous parts.

maining Multituberculata, it appears possible that we have in

the Gomphodontia the group from which the Multituberculates

sprang. A study of the dentition of other Theriodonts in the

Karoo Beds shows that while Tritylodon and Trirachodon are

typically Multituberculates, others, such as Diademodon have a

trituberculate pattern, exactly such a pattern as we find in

certain Lower Eocene mammals. Altogether there is certainly

1002. The American Naturalist. [December,

increasing support for the writer’s hypothesis, that the multi-

tuberculate tooth is of tritubercular origin.

2. THE EARLY STAGES OF SEXITUBERCULY.

The Trigon.—Respect for Cope’s priority should not prevent

our ultimately adopting the late Professor Riitimeyer’s term

trigonodont for the third stage, retaining the term “ tritu-

tubercular” as descriptive of the whole transformation, and as

peculiarly appropriate to certain types of teeth, such as the

superior molars of the lemurs. “ Trigonodont ” is most appro-

priate because the first step in molar morphology is to identify

the “primitive triangle,’ and the term “tubercular” hardly

applies to a lofty pointed cutting crown. Our studies among

the Mesozoic mammals have left no doubt that the upper and

lower triangles, or “ trigon ” and “ trigonid,” were derived from

the reptilian protocone by the addition of lateral cusps. The

mechanical perfection of this type consisted in the fact that the

lateral cusps were developed upon or shifted to the outer side

in the upper molars, and to the inner side in the lower molars,

thus producing an interlocking “shear.” The “trigon” was

essentially a cutting apparatus, so perfect that many mam-

mals retained it without further evoluiton. Thus Chrysochloris,

the little Insectivore of the Cape, presents a fine example o

this type, persistent in its molars. (See Figure 4).

The Talon.—But in the great majority of trituberculates the

“talon” was added as a crushing apparatus. It invariably

appeared first in the lower molars (where we may distinguish

it as the “ talonid ”) and pressed into the basin of the superior

“trigon.” At first it was a mere spur (hypocone) as in Amphi-

therium or in the existing Calcochloris (allied to Chrysochloris),

but between the Jurassic and Upper Cretaceous periods the

talonid widened into a basin-like shelf supporting an outer

cusp, the “hypoconid ;” an intermediate cusp, the “ hypocon-

ulid,” and an inner cusp, the “entoconid.” Thus we find

in the majority the Upper Cretaceous (Laramie) and Puerco or

lowest Eocene mammals that the lower molars bear six cusps;

the above-mentioned three on the talonid and three on the

trigonid (protoconid, paraconid, metaconid). With these six

1897.] Trituberculy : 1003

cusps the equipment of the lower molar.was complete, and it

was ready for transformation into the molar of a i un-

gulate or carnivore, as the case might be.

But why notice such a detail as the posterior intermodikta

cusp or hypoconulid? Because, to give only two reasons, this

1 0 0 0 2 eee

a a l NA

VAWA © VEAP Ol

o VARIAN » UF

Fig. 7.—PHYLETIC AND ‘MECHANICAL HISTORY OF THE (See CuspPs,

A. Reptilian stage, Haplodont, Permian. B. Protodont stage (Dromatherium)

Triassic. C. Triconodont stage aA D. Tritubercular stage ( Spala-

cotherium). E. Tritubercular-tuberculo sectorial, Lower Jurassic. F. The

same, in Upper Jurassic. G. The same, in Upper r Cretaceous. H. The same,

Puerco, Lower Eocene: J. Sexitubercular-sexitubercular, Puerco. J. Sexi-

tubercular-quadritubercular, Wahsatch,

cusp plays an important rôle in the ungulates ; itis invariably

present, except perhaps in the Coryphodons, and forms the

third lobe of the last lower molar, which is thus proved to be

1004 The American Naturadist. [December,

a primitive character, Again, it is found throughout all the

Primates, and although seldom availed of, this cusp constitutes

an important and distinctive character as between the differ-

ent races of man. Its extreme antiquity is appreciated by few

anthropologists, and at the present time it is degenerating.

(See Figure 8).

__-protoconid \ _ Protoconid

Fig. 8.—EPITOME OF THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN MOLAR TEETH.

1. Reptile. 2. Dromatherium. 3. Microconodon. 4. Spalacotherium. 5.

Amphitherium. 6. Miacis. 7-8. Anaptomorphus. 9-12. Various Primates

11-12. Homo. A succession of molar types, not of ancestral types.

While these changes were taking place, the upper molars

remained comparatively stationary in the persistence of the

simple trigon, up to the close of the Cretaceous period, the

main change being a depression of the level of the trigon. All

three cusps in some groups were depressed from the high

secodont to the low bunodont level. In the majority of the

carnivorous types we find that only the protocone was de-

1897.] Trituberculy : 1005

pressed and that the pair of outer cusps, paracone and meta-

cone, persisted on their high primitive level; the crown being

thus prepared for the transformation into the true “ sectorial.”

But in the omnivorous and herbivorous types, all three

cusps are depressed and the upper molars always increased

their crushing area by the addition of a heel or “talon,” ex-

actly analogous to that previously developed upon the lower

molars. As is well known, this “hypocone” is an upgrowth

from the cingulum and its typical mode of development is

well shown in the Primates (Fig. 9). While this was going

on, the trigon was also supplementing its bunodont equipment

Fig. 9.—Superior molars of Primates, Anaptomorphus to Homo, showing

evolution of hypocone, hy, from the cingulum,

by the addition of the little intermediate cusps “ protoconule ”

and “metaconule.” These always appeared where the “ tal-

onid” abuts against the “trigon.” Thus, finally, the upper

molar, like the lower, was provided with six cusps and both

were ready to diverge into any ungulate form.

All these foregoing stages persist and may be readily stud-

ied and verified among some of the living marsupials, insecti-

vores, lemurs and monkeys, and can be seen in any well-

equipped osteological museum almost as well as among the

fossil series.

THE NOMENCLATURE OF THE MOLAR CUSPS AND CRESTS.

The system proposed by the writer some years ago has now

been adopted by many of the American, English and German

writers who are studying the fossil series. It is based upon

simple principles :

1°. The termination “ -cone” is employed for all the primary

central cusps derived from the crown of the tooth, while the

1006 The American Naturalist. [December,

diminutive -conule is employed for the smaller “ intermediates ”

or cuspules. .

2°. All peripheral cusps or elements developed mainly from

the cingulum or external borders of the crown are distin-

guished as -styles (“ pillar” or “ buttress”). The only exception

is the “hypocone,” which, while arising from the cingulum,

soon takes its place upon the crown.

3°. The crests, transverse and longitudinal, are always com-

posed of two or more cusps and styles, and are distinguished

by the termination -loph.

4°. The prefixes “ proto-,” “ para-,” “ meta-,” “ hypo-,” “ ento-,”

etc., refer back to the primitive position or order of develop-

ment in the triconodont and tritubercular stages.

5°. The suffix -id is employed arbitrarily to distinguish the

elements of the lower molars from those of the upper.

» 2) 6

ene y

i \ s '

metalophid hypolophid hypoconntid metalophid hypolophid Av

Teir Lophiodon

Type. Type.

Fig. 10.—MODELLING oF THE Cusps.

The use of the terms “ trigon ” and “ talon ” for the cutting

and crushing regions of the crown, respectively, is especially

„advantageous among the the upper Mesozoic and lower Caino-

zoic mammals, where it is necessary to refer constantly to the

1897.] Trituberculy : 1007

relations of the upper and. lower crowns in apposition, as in

the evolution of the sectorial and lophodont types. As to the

form of the cusps, we pass from simple pointed cusps to three

well known modes of modification to which the adjective

“bunoid,” “lophoid,” and “ selenoid” may be applied. A

combination of these terms gives us a permanent system of

distinguishing the complex forms of ungulate molars from

each other, by referring first to the form of the protocone;

second, to that of the outer paracone and metacone. Thus in

Palzxosyops, as the protocone is bunoid and the outer cusps are

selenoid, the crown may be distinguished as “ buno-seleno-

dont.” In Palæotherium the protocone is “ lophoid,” and it may

be described as “lopho-selenodont.” Rhinoceros is truly

“lophodont,” since all its six cusps are “ lophoid.” These are

preferable to the terms “ tapirodont,” “symborodont,” “ bath-

modont,” “loxolophodont,” etc., proposed by Cope, because

the latter are associated with generic types.

THE EVOLUTION OF THE UNGULATE MOLAR.

The fact of derivation of all ungulate molars (excepting in

the Amblypoda) from sexitubercular upper and lower crowns,

leads us to look sharply for traces of these six tubercles from

the primitive plan of Euprotogonia. These six cusps are almost

invariably found in the upper molars of both perissodactyls

and artiodactyls up to the middle of the Eocene period, as ty-

pified in Hyracotherium and Homacodon or Dichobune. In the

lower molar the trigon loses the “ paraconid ” and the talon

loses the “ hypoconulid,” the latter persisting only in the last

molar as the “third lobe.” This loss was accompanied by the

complete transformation of the lower molars from the “ seco-

dont ” to the comparative “ bunodont” type, as effected in the

lowering of the “ trigonid ” to the level of the “talonid.” This

is exemplified in the steps between the first and third molars

of the creodont genus Miacis (Fig. 8). In a side view of

all early ungulate molars, such as Hyracotherium, we see that

the “ trigonid” is still the highest portion of the crown. In

the ungulates, unlike the carnivores, all three molars were

affected simultaneously. An exactly similar levelling pro-

1008 The American Naturalist. | December,

cess can now be observed in a comparative series of recent

Lemurs and Monkeys. To summarize the five steps toward

the establishment of the ungulate primitive type: the addition

of the lower talonid, the lowering of the cusps of the upper

trigon, the addition of the upper talon and simultaneous

lowering of the lower trigonid, the loss of the paraconid and

hypoconulid. By these changes the cutting was transformed

into the crushing type. The development of the talon

necessitated the loss of the “ paraconid,” for they both occupy

the same space when the

jaws are closed; the stages

of this gain to the upper

molar and loss to the lower

are well shown in the species

of Euprotogonia.

All these changes belonged

to the constructive period

and took place presumably

before the great divergence

of the ungulate orders began;

or it may have been partly

due to paralellism or homo-

plasy, because we find that

the molars of Trigonolestes,

Fig. 11.—PREMOLAR TERMINOLOCY, the earliest known artiod-

PROPOSED BY Scorr. Primitive Unga- actyl, are tritubercular. Some

late Types. Fourth upper premolar and groups, such as those to

first molar of A. Euprotogonia, and B. which Coryphodon, Uintather-

Hyracotherium. j

ium and Periptychus belong,

built up their whole molar structure upon the tritubercular

or trigonal basis. :

From this point onward dated the period of “ moderniza-

tion.” An important legacy of the old triangular form was the

oblique arrangement of the outer and inner cusps parallel with the

sides of the primitive triangles. Thus all the primitive crests

developed upon these cusps were oblique and not directly

transverse. The main features of modernization upon which

we must now closely direct attention are:

1897,] Trituberculy : 1009

1°. The addition of one or more peripheral cusps or “ styles ”

as upgrowths from the cingulum. ‘These reached their most

extreme development in the Equidæ. (See Fig. 10.)

2°. The persistence or degeneration of the cingulum at cer-

tain points, for all primitive molars are completely invested by

a broad cingulum.

3°. The moletling of the cusps into the “bunoid,” “ lophoid”

or “selenoid ” form.

4°. The metatrophic or unequal growth of the cusps, espe-

cially as affecting the external pair, ee and metacone,

in the upper molars.

5°. The shifting of the cusps kom their primitive position

upon the crowns.

6°. The shifting point of union of these transverse crests

with the external crest.

The differential features of the development of ungulate

molars all group around these six heads. If we were examin-

ing an isolated molar tooth from the lower Eocene, the first

step would be to locate its primary cusps and then note its

divergence as tested by the above differentia. We would then

be in a position to make a conjecture as to the series in which

this molar belonged—as no two series are modified similarly

in all these respects. Yetthe prevailing method among many

paleontologists is to pass lightly over most of the differentia

and, for example, group widely divergent forms under the

Lophiodontide as if in the constitution of these dense enamelled

tissues nature could lightly pass from one to another.

A few words now upon the secondary “styles.” Their func-

tion is evidently to increase and elaborate the crushing surface

of the crown. In Phenacodus the first to appear is the “ meso-

style ” between the paracone and metacone, but this genus was

on a side line of the Condylarthra. In all true perissodactyls

and artiodactyls, the first peripheral cusp to appear is the an-

tero-external buttress of the upper molars, which we call the

“ parastyle,” since it adjoins the paracone. The “mesostyle ”

appears later, and only in those ungulates in which the para-

cone and metacone are moulded into crescents. Thus the ~

lower Eocene Hyracotherium does not exhibit this cusp, but it

1010 The American Naturalist. [December,

appears as a distinctive feature of the middle and upper

Eocene Pachynolophus (Orohippus). The mesostyle was strongly

developed in all the selenodont, buno-selenodont and lopho-

selenodont types, such as the Artiodactyla and Meniscotherium,

halicotherium, Paleosyops, the paleotheres and horses. Look

at an upper molar of Merychippus and see what an important

role these styles play (Fig. 1). First, we observe the “ para-

style” and “mesostyle,” next most important is the “hypo- |

style,” which develops near the hypocone upon the posterior

cingulum of Mesohippus and Anchitheriwm and finally com-

pletes the border of the

“anterior fossette” or

cementlake. The horse

molar, by the way, furn-

ishes the best illustra-

tion of the value of trac- A

ing back the various depoety

portions of the crown

to their birth-place in 27% \

the ‘primitive crown of

Hyracotherium. Every

turn in this labyrinth

of folds is thus made

perfectly clear.!

A corresponding set

of styles grows up on

the lower molars, and

it is very easy to locate ji) í

them with reference to pariotitid pene e

the reci Fig. 12.—THE HIGHEST DEVELOPMENT OF T

if pa oe Baty ji Srvies es. A. Upper molar of Horses, Anchitherium

and B. Merychippus.

mind the fact that

throughout the whole course of development the elements of

each trigonid are placed just in front of those of the corre-

sponding trigon; that is, the protoconid and metnoonid fit just

parastyle mesostyle metastyle

1 Mr. Lydekker has dirti called attention to the fact thiat i in the earlier

study of. ymae the writer ESERIES the T terms n ed by

Huxley; , i

1897.] Trituberculy : 1011

in front of the paracone and protocone, as shown in the dia-

gram (Fig.6). Thus the inferior entostylid is developed

near the entoconid, while the superior hypostyle develops near

the hypocone. The first of the inferior styles to develop is the

“ metastyle,” a reduplication of the metacone, the well known

“a-a” of Riitimeyer.

In all ungulates in which the “ mesostyle” is developed the

external cusps remain of the same size. In the tapirs no

“ mesostyle” appears, yet these cusps are symmetrical; but in

the rhinoceroses, which also lack the mesostyle, the first fact

to note is the asymmetrical growth of these cusps; the meta-

cone is elongated while the paracone is reduced and crowded

up against the parastyle. This point was observed by Cope in

seeking for a definition of the Rhinocerotide in 1875. The

rhinocerotine molar, whether of Hyrachyus, Amonodon or Acer-

atherium, has the further distinction that it is the only type in

which a complete ectoloph is formed, and second, as Cope has

already observed, the asymmetry of the external cusps is em-

phasized by the flattened metacone and conic paracone. Fig-

ure 2 illustrates also the three projections from the ectoloph,

protoloph and metaloph, namely, the “ crista,” “antecrochet ”

and “crochet.” These, with the

three “fossettes” formed by them,

were noted and named by Cuvier,

and, as shown by Falconer, Flower,

Lydekker and others, are of great

specific value? We have already

seen that Cuvier’s term “ fossette”

may be substituted for the “cement

lakes” in the horse’s molar. The

Fig. 18.—Tarır Mortars.. terms formerly adopted, or proposed,

Primitive ronden: and by Lydekker*,; after English usage,

=e Tapirus. in and those in German and French

usage, id already been given in the Table

7As pointed out by Lydekker, the writer mistakenly transposed these terms

“crochet: vis and s SRT ” in a former ee, Ban. Mos. bits Zool., 1890,

81.

ee be

gie Siwalik Riiiotioüda ts Pal, Inia

1012 The American Naturalist. [December,

There is another line of perissodactyls in which the meta-

cone is flattened but not elongated, and no complete ectoloph

is formed. I refer to the little Wasatch genus Heptodon (which

Cope has erroneously placed in the ancestry of Hyrachyus),

also Helaletes of the Bridger, an undoubted successor of Hepto-

don, which Marsh was wrongly led to consider an ancestor of

the Tapirs. The molars, studied by our six differentia, are

found to differ from those of the rhinocerotine Hyrachyus by

the incomplete ectoloph, also by the shifting inwards of the

metacone and consequent shortening of the metaloph. - In

looking about for molars with similar differentia, we find

those of the true Lophiodon of Europe, L. isselense, for example,

stand nearest.

Now, how shall we distinguish the early Tapirs? First,

there is no mesostyle ; second, the paracone and metacone (as

observed by Cope) are both conic and symmetrical ; third, a

feature of great importance, apparently unnoticed hitherto, is

that the protoloph and metaloph spring from the anterior

bases of the paracone and metacone, and not from near the

apices of these external cusps as in all molars of rhinocerotine

affinity. We find, as a general law, that where the external

cusps are symmetrical as in Paleotheres, Horses and Tapirs,

the transverse crests always arise in front; where they tend to

asymmetry as in Helaletes, Lophiodon and Rhinoceros, the

crests tend to rise from or near the apices. `

Enough has been said to make clear the new method of pro-

cedure in the analysis and discrimination of early ungulate

molars. Let us apply this form of statement and description

to the aberrant lower Wasatch genus Meniscotherium as a re-

sumé:

Upper Molars, buno-selenodont ; paracone, metacone and

protoconule selenoid; metaconule reduced, lophoid, united

with hypocone; a large parastyle and mesostyle. Lower

Molars, seleno-lophodont; metaconid reduplicated by metasty-

lid. We find that a similar analysis may be given of Chalico-

therium, excepting only “ protoconule reduced.” It is thus

suggested that Meniscotherivm may be related to Chalicother-

ium.

1897.] Trituberculy : 1013

This method may be summarized as follows: Look for

traces of primitive ancestral structure in the form and position

of the cusps. Second, de-

termine the divergent

form, position, proportions

and relations of the cusps.

Third, determine the

secondary cusps, crests

and foldings, their form

and relations. Finally, let

us turn to a wholly differ-

ent molar type and ex-

amine the complex and

aberrant molars of Coryphodon. Can we establish any homo-

logies between its elements and those of any of the ungulates

we have been considering? Fortunately we are partly guided

by.the molar of the Puerco PERO E iaaii

genus Pantolambda Cope, )

which is eyen older than

the Coryphodons. This is

our key to the ancestral

or primitive form, and b

Fig. 14.—Molars of Pantolambda, the

ancestor of Coryphodon.

parastyle-,

rightly interpreted the

homologies of the Cory-

phodon molar elements. protocone~

We first note that nature

has here evolved a lopho- —p”conid

dont crown from the tritu- ,

bercular or trigonal basis,

for there is no distinct

talon or hypocone except 7

in the unique form Mante-

on. Pantolambda has

no parastyle, but a promi- metsssnia n entoconid

nent mesostyle and a pair Fig. 15—Molars of Coryphodon, showing

of selenoid external cusps, Shifting of the Crests. |

also a selenoid protocone with a spur leading toward a proto-

1014 The American Naturalist. [December,

conule and:suggesting an incipient protoloph. The selenoid

external cusps of this type suggest a comparison with the

lopho-selenodont perissodactyls, and we are able to reach the

following result.

In a large series of Coryphodon molars we see first that the

protoloph is formed of the protocone, protoconule and para-

style, exactly as in the horses. Unlike the horse (Anchither-

ium), the ectoloph is more or less detached from the protoloph,

but the examination of a large series of specimens in the

American Museum and Cope’s collection convince us that it is

composed of the same elements as in Anchitherium, namely,

the paracone, which has almost lost its crescentic form, the

mesostyle, which is much less prominent, and the metacone,

which is still crescentic. This enables us to describe this

molar as follows: It is of buno-selenodont origin and has a

complete protoloph and ectoloph, but no metaloph. Its homo-

logies with the elements of the Anchitherium molar are clearly

shown by a comparison of Fig. 12 and Fig. 15. This illus-

trates again the necessity of starting upon the trigonal basis

instead of upon the basis of two lobes, as in the work of French

paleontologists. In his“ Enchainements du Monde Animal,”

Prof. Gaudry has admirably worked out the upper molars of

the perissodactyla and artiodactyla from the sexitubercular

stage onwards. He divides the tooth into two lobes, a “ pre-

mier lobe,” including our protocone, protoconule and paracone

and a “second lobe” including our hypocone, metaconule and

metacone. All subsequent authors in France follow this sys-

tem, which indeed works well for one group. But what we

need now is a system which will apply not only to all groups

of ungulates, but to unguiculates as well, so that when we

reach the upper Cretaceous borderland between unguiculates

and ungulates we can employ the same set of terms and the

same basis of description.

I can only conclude by expressing the conviction that the

tritubercular theory of Cope rests upon such conclusive evi-

dence that its universal adoption as the key to the interpreta-

tion of all molar teeth cannot be long deferred. It is one of

the chief anatomical generalizations of the present century.

1897.] Trituberculy : 1015

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The materials for this article have been partly collected from

previous papers by the author: (1) “The Evolution of Mam-

malian Molars to and from the Tritubercular Type,” Am. Nat.,

December, 1888. (2) The Cartwright Lectures, No. II, Ameri-

can Nat, ——, 1892. (3) “The Perissodactyla,” Bull. Mus.

Comp. Zool., 1890. (4) “ Fossil Mammals from the Wasatch

and Wind River Beds,” Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., October,

1892. (5) “The Rise of the Mammalia in North America,”

Address Am. Assoc. Adv. Science, August, 1893. Also from

unpublished papers before the Society of Morphologists, De-

cember, 1891, and the Marine Biological Laboratory, August,

1892.

Core—“ Primitive Types of Mammalia Educabilia,

1873, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., March, 1874).

Cuvrer—Anatomie Comparée, 2 ed., 1835.

Dosson—A Monograph of the Insectivora, Systematic and

Anatomical, 1882-1883.

Dyzsowski—Studien über Séugetierzihne. Verb. d. zool.-botan.

Ges. in Wien, 1889.

FLEIscHMANN—Die Grundform der Backenzihne bei Säuge-

tieren und die Homologie der einzelnen Hocker. Sitz-

ungsber. d. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin, 1891.

GirpEL—Odontographie, Leipzig, 1855.

GoopricH—On the Fossil Mammalia from the Stonesfield Slate,

Quarterly Journal of Microse. Sc., Vol. 35, 1894.

Kowatevsky — Monographie d. Gattung Anthacotherium,

Palaontographica Bd., 22, 1876.

Osporn—(1) The Triassic Mammals, Dromatherium and Mi-

croconodon, Proceed. of the Am. Phil. Soc., 1887.

Osporn—(2) The Structure and Classification of the Mesozoic

Mammalia, Journ. Acad. Nat. Se. Philadelphia, 1887

and 1888.

-Owrn—Odontography, 1840-45.

Povutton—The True Teeth and the Horny Plates of Ornitho-

rhynchus, Quart. Journ. Mic. Se.f 1689.

”?

May,

1016 The American Naturalist. [December,

Rose—Uber die Entwickelung des Menschlichen Gebisses,

Verh. d. Deutsch. Odont. Ges. Bd., 3, 1891.

Rose—Das Zahnsystem d. Wirbelthere, Ergeb. d. Anat. u.

Entwick., Merkel u. Bonnet, IV, 1894.

RUTIMEYER—Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Fossilen Pferde und

zu Einer Vergleichenden Odontographie der Huftiere

tiberhaupt. Basel, 1863.

Scutosser—Die Differenzierung des Siiugetiergebisses, Biol.

Centr. X, 1890-91.

Scort—The Evolution of the Premolar Teeth in the Mam-

mals, Proc. of the Acad. of Nat. Sc. of Philadelphia,

1892.

BIOLOGICAL STUDIES IN MASSACHUSETTS.

By GrorcEe C. WHIPPLE.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MICROSCOPICAL ORGANISMS.

The geographical distribution of the various microscopical

organisms is not only an important subject, but it is an ex-

tremely vexatious one. A great deal of study has been given

to it, but we are yet very far from understanding this as well as

other laws governing this kingdom. Why it is that these organ-

isms grow vigorously in one pond and are at the same time

absent from a neighboring one where the conditions are appar-

ently as favorable, or why it is that they suddenly appear in

ponds where hitherto they have never been seen, we are unable

tosay. Solution of these problems can only be accomplished by

long continued observation and experiment, and by the work-

ing out of the life history of each particular organism. The

following statistics are of some value in connection with this

1897.] Biological Studies in Massachusetts. 1017

subject as they show the relative abundance of the different

classes of organisms in some of the important surface water

supplies of Massachusetts, together with some of the elements

of the sanitary chemical analyses.

For the purpose of this comparison 57 ponds and reservoirs

were selected where monthly examinations, both chemical and

biological, have been carried on for a number of years by the

State Board of Health. The results of these examinations were

carefully studied and the ponds (which, for convenience, we

may consider to include lakes, ponds and storage reservoirs)

divided into groups as shown in Table 4.

The first two columns in this table give the names of the

ponds and the cities which they supply. The third gives the

depth of the pond, whether shallow or deep. The next four

columns show the relative abundance of the four most impor-

tant classes of organisms, namely, Diatomaceæ, Chlorophycee,

Cyanophycez and Infusoria. The four groups are charac-

terized as follows: and the group to which each pond belongs

is indicated by a number.:

Group I. Number of organisms often as high as 1000 per

C, C. :

Group II. Number of organisms only occasionally as high

as 1000 per c. c.

Group III. Number of organisms ordinarily between 100

and 500 per c. c.

Group IV. Number of organisms never above 100 per c. c.

These figures refer not to the numbers present in the aver-

age sample of water, but to the numbers during the season of

maximum growth. The boundaries of the groups were not

sharply defined, and in a number of cases it was hard to tell

whether a pond should be classed in group II or III. The

last five columns show the ponds divided into classes ac-

cording to some of the elements of the chemical analysis,

namely, color, excess of chlorine, hardness, albuminoid ammo-

nia (in solution), free ammonia and nitrates. In each case

four classes are given, division being made according to the

schedule given at the bottom of the table.

The American Naturalist. [December,

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£ 4 3 K 0 puod yog uus

£ 4 3 í 3 { 0 puog speoig uu

g p f 2 z z Th: E r 1NI A CERE TST IOAIƏSIH səuíep sosscerersncsarees IOJSUTUIOT 5

€ 5 g l ked £ { >g puog 5905

uospnyy

1020 The American Naturalist. [December,

If we consider the ponds with reference to the growths of or-

ganisms, we obtain from the above table the following sum-

mary:

TABLE No. 5.

Number of Ponds and Reservoirs

Group Number per c. e. j

Diato- Chloro- | Cyano= F ‘7, fusoria.

mace. phycee. | phyceæ. | y

| |

BEN TED 7h, O VEBE a Baca Mh : aioe i | — -| =

I Often above 1000 per c. c. 24 5 | 7 | 8

II Occasionally above 1000 per c. c. 8 11 | 10 | 7

III | Usually between 100 & 500 per c. c. 19 29 18 | 35

IV | Below 100 perc. c. 6 12 | 22 |

From this it appears that the Diatomaceæ are the organisms

most commonly found in large numbers. There are 24 ponds

(42 per cent of the ponds considered) which often have these

organisms as high as 1000 per c. c., while in only 6 (11 per

cent) are they always below 100 per c. c. The Chlorophyceæ

are not often found in great abundance, though many ponds

contain them in moderate numbers. Only 5 ponds (9 per

cent) have growths of 1000 per c. c., while 29 (70 per cent)

have growths of from 100 to 500 per c. c. The Cyanophyceæ

are notas common as the Chlorophyceæ, but where they do

occur their growth is usually greater and they cause more

trouble. There are 7 ponds (12 per cent) that commonly

have growths above 1000 per c. c., while in 22 (39 per cent)

they are never above 100 per c.c. The Infusoria are some-

what more abundant than either the Chlorophyceæ or Cyano-

phyceæ. 8 ponds (12 per cent) often have growths above 1000

per c. c.; 35 ponds (60 per cent) have growths between 100

and 500 per c. c.

From Table 4 it also appears that 28 ponds (49 per cent)

often have high growths of one or more of these classes of or-

ganisms at one time or another during the year. Such

growths, except in the case of certain diatoms, are almost

always noticeable and frequently are very troublesome. In

in one pond the Cyanophycee alone; and in three ponds the

Infusoria alone. One pond has high growths of Diatomace®,

1897.] Biological Studies in Massachusetts. 1021

Chlorophyceze and Infusoria; two of Diatomaceæ, Chloro-

phycez and Cyanophycee ; two of Diatomacee, Cyanophycee

and Infusoria. In two ponds all four classes are found in

large numbers. There is but one pond where the organisms

never rise above 100 per c.c.; there are sixteen where no

class of organisms shows numbers greater than 500 perc. c.

For the purpose of determining whether the depth of the

pond exercises any important influence upon the growth of the

organisms the following table has been compiled. Ponds re-

ported as having a maximum depth of more than 30 feet have

been called “deep ponds,” and those having a less maximum

depth “shallow ponds.” This arbitrary dividing line was

selected after considering the relation between the maximum

and the average depth, the temperature changes at various

depths, and the depth to which the water is kept in circulation

by the wind. Ina general way it may be said that the shal-

low ponds are those in which the water is kept in vertical cir-

culation by the wind over the greater part of their area and

for the greater portion of the year, while the deep ponds ex-

hibit the phenomena of stagnation over a considerable portion

of their area.

TABLE No. 6.

Number of Ponds

Depth Number per c. c.

Diato- Chloro- Cyano- n

maces. phycee. | phycece. Infusoria.

Often above 1000 per c. c. í

Deep Occasionally above 1000 per c. c.

Deep Usually between 100 & 500 per c. c.

Deep Always below 100 per c. e.

Shallow | Often above 1000 per c. c.

Shallow | Oceasionally above 1000 C. 6.

Shallow | Usually between 100 & 500 per c. c.

Shallow | Always below 100 per c. c.

There are 16 deep and 41 shallow ponds. Of the deep

ponds 63 per cent at times have growths of the Diatomaceæ

above 1000 perc. c., while of the shallow ponds 54 per cent

have such growths. There are no deep ponds where the

Diatomacee are lower than 100 per c. c., while 15 per cent

of the shallow ponds have them lower than that figure. It

oor Go bo we

aaa Pow

_— —_

DUT OPNA

1022 The American Naturalist. [December,

thus appears that the heavy growths of the Diatomacex are

somewhat more likely to be found in the deep than in the

shallow ponds. The same may be said of the Chlorophycee,

though the difference is not so marked. 31 per cent of the

deep ponds and 27 percent of the shallow ponds at times

have growths as high as 1000 per c.c. The Cyanophyce and

Infusoria, on the other hand, incline towards shallower water.

In the case of the former, 18 per cent of the deep ponds and

34 per cent of the shallow ponds at times have growths of 1000

per c.c., while in the case of the latter the figures are 12 per

cent and 32 per cent respectively.

In this connection it would be of interest to show statistically

the relation that undoubtedly exists between the growths of

organisms and the character of the material forming the bot-

toms of the ponds, but unfortunately the necessary data is

lacking in too many cases. So far as observations have been

made, however, it appears that muddy bottoms are very largely

responsible for "p excessive growth of microscopical organ-

isms.

An important question, and one which is of particular in-

terest to water analysts, is the relation between the growths of

organisms and the chemical analysis of the water in which the

organisms are found. Unquestionably there is such a relation,

and we should very much like to be able to take up a chemi-

cal analy sis and say “ this water contains such and such sub-

stances in solution, and, therefore, such and such organisms

may be expected to ihirivë well in it.” In other words, we.

desire to know better the nature of the necessary food oe

of the microscopical organisms.

The following tables are designed to show in a very oneta

way the relation between the organisms in our 57 selected

ponds and some of the important elements of the chemical

analysis. These bring out several important facts.

First, it is seen, that the color of a water has an important,

influence upon the number of organisms that. will be. found.

therein. Of the 24 cases where the Diatomaceæ are commonly

found higher than 1000 per c. c., 12 (or. 50 per cent) occur, in,

light colored waters, i, è. Water having a color lower than 0, 30

1897.]

Biological Studies in Massachusetts.

TABLE No. 7:

Chemical Analyses (parts per 100,000).

1023

Number of Ponds and Reservoirs in which

Diatoms are

eean

Occasionally Panton | be-

above ` tween 100 Be i a

1000 pr c./1000 per c. 0.1600 per c FC. €.

tiie Fae |

Color Oto. eee eS 9 4

(Nessler Scale) 30 to .60 6 2 | 4 0

60 to 1.00 6 1 | 5 1

to 0 1 | 1 1

xcess of 0 4 2 1 2

‘closes Ol to .03 8 1 8 2

04 to .25 8 3 10 2

5to — 4 2 0 0

Hardness Ot 5 2 1 3 8

5to 1.0 7 4 5 2

1.0 to 2.0 8 0 10 1

2.0 to —- 7 8 1 0

Albuminoid 0 to .0100 2 0 2 1

Ammonia -0100 to .0150 6 1 5 3

(dissolved ) .0150 to .0200 8 6 | 7 1

.0200 to —— 8 1 | 5 1

Free -0000 to .0010 3 2 | 5 3

Ammonia -0010 to .0030 6 1 10 2

0030 to .0100 8 5 4 1

to 7 0 0 0

Nitrates Oto. 3 3 5 6

0050 to .0100 11 3 13 0

0100 to .0200 6 2 1 0

to 4 1 0 0

TABLE No. 8.

Number of Ponds and Reservoirs in which

the Chlorophycez are

Chemical Analysis (parts per 100,000).

Often EE E Usually be- ia

above above (tween por t 100 ae

1000 per c. c. per c. c. 500 per c. per ig

Color 0 to .20 2 5 ve 8

(Nessler Scale) -30 to .60 2 4 5 1

.60 to 1.00 1 3 8 ae

1.00 to — 0 0 2 1

Excess of 0 i- 3 ARAE | ee

Chlorine .01 to .03 1 Ae | sa Geen Red

.04 to .25 0 4 Bo 6

.25 to — Bi: 2 1 ore

Hardness Oto .5 0 ae o$ 4

to 1.0 Eo 4 8 5

1.0to 2.0 1 $55 Nee 2

2.0t0 — 3 2 cme 1

Albuminoid 0 to .0100 0 0 ou 3

anns 0100 to .0150 . ~ RE E T

oe eae 3 20 io 7s

Free 0 to .0010 0 LA a a 4

‘Ammonia .0010 to .0030 Hea ne 1 13 l 5

-0030 to . : ae 5 us. | 3

0100 to APES a eae 0

Nitrates bea | 8 3.8 ee ree |

0050 to .0100 Ts eee ay S

0100 to .0200 ete raa 7 0

to 3 pA: 1 0

1024

Taste No. 9.

The American Naturalist.

| December,

Chemical Analysis (parts per 100,000).

Color Oto .30

(Nessler Scale) to .60

60 to 1.00

to —

Excess of 0

Chlorine -01to .03

-04 to

25 to ---

Hardness 10.56

5 to 1.00

1.00 to 2.00

to —-

Albuminoid 0 to .0100

Ammonia .0100 to .0150

(dissolved) .0150 to .0200

0200 to ——

Free 0 to .0010

Ammonia -0010 to .0030

.0030 to .0100

-0100 to ——

Nitrates

; 0 to .0050

-0050 to .0100

-0100 to .0200

.0200 t

Number of Ponds and Reservoirs in which

the Cyanophycee are

Often

perce c

NRO BOOS ANOS SNNO WRENS ONN

POR FANN NAVO FOND mwe HVA

Occasionally|Usually be-

above above

1000 per c. c. |1000

tween = “y

500 per

—

Nook HACK COOH ANA NVON Hew

Below

100 per c. c.

pd ji

OSDO SCHOO MANTA HASA ODON mN

Taste No. 10.

Number of „eou and — in which

e Infusoria ar

Chemical Analysis (parts per 100,000).

e Occasionally resco

above above sins =

1000 per c. c.|1000 per c. c. 1500 1 mare

: Oto .30 5 2 20

(Nessler Scale) -30to .60 1 3 6

-60 to 1.00 2 2 8

, 1.00 to -— 0 0 1

Excess of 0 1 z 5

Chlorine 01 to .03 1 3 13

: ; -04 to .25 2 3 15

25 to — 3 0 3

Hardness Oto 5 0 0 T

.5 to 1.00- 3 0 12

1.0 to 2.0 1 6 10

2.0 to —- 4 1 6

0 to .01 0 0 4

-0100 to .0150 0 0 13

0150 to .0200 6 » 2 12

to — 3 4 7

0 to .0010 1 1 9

0010 to .0030 1 2 13

«0030 to .0100 2 5 10

-0100 to — 4 0 3

— Otw 0 1 12

eam) 66s EO OY

mun | 2 0

Below

100 per c. ¢.

CROW OF RN FON ONKS Ovum VMN

1897.] Biological Studies in Massachusetts. 1025

on the Nessler scale, and none occur in water where the aver-

age color is above 1.00. The same fact is noticed in the case

of the other organisms, but not as strongly emphasized as with

the Diatomaceæ. The reason for this is doubtless on account

of the difference in specific gravity between the diatoms and

the other organisms. The diatoms, by reason of their silicous

cell walls are heavy, while the other organisms not only are

much lighter, but some of them liberate gas, causing them to

keep near the surface. Being thus kept near the surface, the

depth to which light penetrates in a body of water makes less

difference with the growth of the Cyanophycee, for example,

than it does with the diatoms, which constantly tend to sink,

and which are kept near the surface chiefly by the vertical

currents in the water.

The “excess of chlorine ” means the difference between the

amount of chlorine found in a sample of water and that found

in the unpolluted water of the same region. To x certain

extent it represents the amount of pollution which the water

has received. It is important to know whether this element

of the analysis bears any relation to the organisms and whether

one may rightly infer that a large growth of organisms in a

reservoir is any indication of the pollution of a water supply.

A study of the tables shows that only to a small extent does

the excess of chlorine influence the number of organisms ob-

served, though there is a slight tendency for heavy growths of

organisms to accompany high excess of chlorine. This fact

corresponds with the common observation that vigorous

growths of organisms are often observed in ponds far removed

from any possible contamination.

The hardness of a water, i. e., the abundance of carbonates

of calcium and magnesium, appears to have some influence

upon the organisms. This is noticed in all four classes, though

it is most marked in the case of the Diatomacez and Infusoria.

For example, of the 10 ponds low in hardness not one ever has

the Infusoria as high as 1000 per c. c., while of the 11 ponds

high in hardness not one but that has Infusoria above 100

per c. c, and 4 of them commonly have them above 1000

per c. c.

1026 The American Naturalist. [December,

The sanitary chemical analysis ordinarily states the amount

of nitrogen present in four different forms, namely, albuminoid

ammonia (dissolved and suspended), free ammonia, nitrites

and nitrates, which represent four stages in the change of or-

ganic to inorganic matter. Since nitrogen is essential to all

living matter we naturally expect that organisms will thrive

best in waters rich in that element. Our statistics show that

this is the case, and that it is true for each class of organisms

and for the different conditions of nitrogen tabulated. The

free ammonia and nitrates appear to be particularly influen-

tial in determining the amount of life present. For example,

10 of the 13 ponds low in free ammonia never show maximum

growths of the Cyanophycee above 100 per c. c., while 4 of the

7 ponds high in free ammonia commonly have growths above

1000 per c. c.

One must be careful in these matters, however, not to mis-

take cause for effect. Free ammonia, for example, indicates

organic matter in a state of decay, and instead of representing

the food of the organisms in question it may represent their

decomposition. The interaction of the various organisms is a

very complicated question, and to what. extent one species

lives upon the products of decay of another is not well known.

The food supply of the different organisms can only be deter-

mined by experiments made upon pure cultures, and this sub-

ject is as broad as the host of the microscopical organisms is

numberless. For a long time we have been groping in dark-

ness, but the active interest which is awaking in the study of

the plankton gives us hope to believe that light has begun to

awn.

1897.] Hammar’s Ectoplasmie Layer. 1027

HAMMAR’S ECTOPLASMIC LAYER.

By E. A. ANDREWS.

Twenty years ago Selenka observed and figured a connection

between the outer parts of the cells in cleaving eggs of

several Echinoderms, but it remained for Professor Hammar

to point out, in 1895,' the great significance of this intercellu-

lar structure.

In the sea urchin, Echinus miliaris, he found a thin outer

coat that did not take part in cleavage, but remained as a con-

tinuous envelope over all the cells. This he interpreted as an

ectoplasmie part of the egg, as a living connection between the

cells, and as such of greatest import in understanding the in-

teractions of cells in cleavage and in throwing light upon the

divergent results of recent experimental work upon cleaving

eggs. This, he thought, might be that organic intercellular

connection potulated as = by Whitman, es and

others.

Proof, however, of the living nature of this ie seems

wanting ; the figures of preserved sections raise a question as

to how far the result may be due to or affected by the reagent

used; and that the layer has a structure somewhat like an

alveolar layer of Biitschli indicates, but does not prove, that

the layer was actually living substance.

Later, E. B. Wilson? stated that he had, in the main, verified

Hammar’ s results upon sea urchin eggs, presumably upon pre-

served material also.

The same objection may be raised against accepting all the

results -stibsequently obtained by Hammar,’ for though he

found the outer ends of the cleaving cells of the eggs in Coelente-

rates, Annelids, Molluses, Arthropods and Tunicates connected

by a thin line of substance, and though a similar connection is

shown in the epithelium of peye vertebrate embryos, yet the

1 Archiv. f. Mik. Anat., V, 47.

2 The Cell, p. 43. Macmillan Co.. N. Y.

SArchiv.-f. Mik. Anat., 49: —

1028 The American Naturalist. [ December,

nature of the methods employed, the use of corrosive sublimate

solution to shrink the cells!apart save at the outer surface,

raises grave suspicion as to the real nature of this outer con-

nection.

Some observations upon living eggs of Lamellibranchs seem,

however, to strengthen the position assumed by Hammar and

to make it probable that the intercellular connection observed

by him is, in some cases at least, really a living ectoplasma.

It is well-known that eggs frequently present a clear outer

protoplasm that forms a true ectosare over the more gran-

ular, yolk bearing interior part. In the eggs of the Lamelli-

branch, Nucula delphinodonta, this is very marked. Here the

ectosarc rises up into waves and also into blunt pseudopodia-

like papille, as seen under oc. 8. obj. 4mm. These waves and

processes change shape in such a way as to leave no doubt of

the living nature of this ectosare. In one ease the ectosare

extended all over the polar body, so that it was included as a

bubble might be escaping through a film of jelly, and a clear

stalk or base of ectosare was left between the egg and the

polar body. But as these eggs were probably never fertilized

and did not develop, the above phenomena may well have

been abnormal.

Yet in another Lamellibranch,

Angulus tener, much the same was

seen: figure 1, drawn from camera

sketches of the living egg with oe. 4,

obj. 2 mm., indicates the ectosarcal

waves and a polar body buried in

the ectosare that surrounds it. In

the two-cell stage

marked ectosarcal

waves rise up like

frills on each side

of the cleavage plane. When these cells

divide to make four, the ectosare is seen to

follow the groove as it sinks down, figure |p

2, and not to leave the surface as Hammar sho n

described in Echinus. When the actual cleavage plane cuts

1897.] Hammar’s Ectoplasmie Layer. 1029

across the cell it does not affect the ectosarc which thus re-

mains continuous from one cell to the other, figure 2. When

the four cells formed flatten out

against one another, figure 3, the

HASAN ectosare is continuous all over

Sa nA -the egg, and not cut by the cleav-

Ney age planes. That this is still a

living ectosare seems to be shown

by the waves that rise up in it,

especially over the smaller cells

where they may be very high

and sharp.

Se Similar waves were seen in the

E one cell stages of Yoldia, and

may be common enough in Lamellibranchs. Thus Professor

Brooks, in£1880,‘ called attention to contraction waves in the

egg of the oyster. His figures indicate a clear outer layer con-

tinuous over all the cells in various stages of cleavage, and,

apparently, continuous with the polar bodies which adhere

together;and to this layer up to a late stage of cleavage, and in

spite of the fact that a membrane is thrown off early in the cleavage.

It would seem necessary to interpret this layer as a living,

membrane-forming substance, though with the low powers

used, the wavy appearance figured was interpreted as being a

wrinkling produced by contractions “which travel rapidly

toward the formative pole, near which they disappear” (p. 42).

These wrinkles vanished in about fifteen seconds, but came

again upon other cells later in cleavage. It seems probable

that further study will show that such waves are largely due to

contractions in the ectosarc itself, as they seem to be in the

cases I have examined with higher powers.

The connection between such ectosareal portions of the

Lamellibranch egg and the ectoplasmic layer of the Echino-

derm egg is indicated by the appearance seen in figure 4.

This represents a surface view of the opening into the cleay-

age cavity of a four-cell stage of the Echnius common at Ros-

* Development of the American Oyster. Report of the Commissioners of Fish-

eries of Maryland, 1880.

1030 The American Naturalist. [December,

coff, France, and was drawn from a preserved egg with camera

lucida, oc. 18 and obj.2 mm. A thin film of broken vesicular

appearance stretches

across the cleavage

pore from one cell to

the other, and is con-

tinuous with the sur-

faces of the cells, ex-

cept where they arch

down between the

cells and on the sides

of the cleavage pore.

This film is absent, or

broken, over part of

fy oe

a a ie

5i ss es os 4

sy ane

mee SRDA a

a e

the cleavage poreand “Eu lie ‘

beneath it are certain vale rs HAF: Se Aa

linear structures to Fic. 4:

be mentioned later.

The peculiar official appearance of the layer makes it highly

probable that it was a living ectosarcal substance extending

from one cell to others. Assuch it seems the same as the con-

tinuous ectosare of the Lamellibranch. It would appear to be

the same thing seen by Hammar in Echinoderms both in

section and in surface view—“ In der Interstitien der Zellen

kann man unter giinstigen Umstinden das abgehobene

Ectoplasma auch im Flichenbild zum Gesichte bekommen ”

(1, p. 16)

= We would conclude that the living, ectosarcal, membrane-

like connection between the outer parts of cleavage cells ac-

tually exists in some eggs, whether in all the cases claimed by

Hammar is still in doubt.

Another form of intercellular connection has been described

by G. F. Andrews’ in the cleaving eggs and larve of sea

urchins and star fish; namely, fine filaments of living sub-

stance that are spun out from one cell to another much as a

filose Rhizopod might connect with another by means of its

delicate pseudopodia.

5Some Spinning Activities of Pilolo. Journal of Morphology. Vol.

XII, 1897.

1897.] Hammar’s Ectoplasmie Layer. 1031

Figure 4 indicates the difference between the two modes of

intercellular connection as seen in preserved material, where,

however, the threads are fewer, thicker and otherwise altered

by the Killing fluid and by subsequent treatment. Be-

neath the outer film of connecting substance and on various

levels, (some quite far down), very definite protoplasm-like

threads extend out from a cell and crossing the cleavage cav-

ity become continuous with the surface of some other cell.

These filaments have a characteristic shape, mode of origin,

_ Insertion, structure and size. They are the altered remnants

and representatives of the living filaments seen in the live egg.

Besides the long filaments the specimen shows pseudopodia-

like processes or tufts of threads, arising from-one of the four

cells. These came upward toward the membrane-like ex-

panse and seemed to be continuous with it, so that the filament-

ous substance and the filmy expanse appeared to have been

one common material.

In life the filaments are subject to flow and to change, and

the same may be true of the ectosarcal expanse.

Though the filamentous and the membranous connections

of cleaving cells seem so different, it is not improbable that

they are both expressions of the same contractile powers in the

ectosarcal part of the egg cell, and they both serve to make the

living material continuous from one cell to another.

In the living eggs of representatives of widely separated

groups of animals we thus see reasons for believing that the pro-

cess of cleavage does not isolate the cells as much as'has been

thought; either the cells remain connected from the first and

are but areas in a common mass of living material, or they

may make and break connection with one another by living

filaments, formed as fast as cleavage tends to organize the egg

into cell areas. In preserved material we see remnants of such

connections, and it becomes probable that such connections

will be found throughout the animal series.

With the ever increasing knowledge of intercellular bridges

in animals and in plants, and the recently demonstrated fact

that in Echinoderms these bridges are used as means of trans-

portation, that the filaments allow material to pass from one

1032 The American Naturalist. [December,

cell to another, being, like Gromri’s pseudopodia, unstable

sensitive, conductive, contractile, we are on the road to admit not

only the existence of such statical ectosarcal connections as

Hammar discovers, but to accept as working hypothesis a

conception of these bridges as dynamical factors of the greatest

importance.

A NORTH AMERICAN FRESH WATER JELLY FISH. .

By Epwarp Ports,

On June 10, 1880, the first known fresh water jelly fish

(Limnocodium sowerbii, Allman & Lankester) was discovered in

the Victoria Regia tanks in Regent’s Park, London. Near the

end of November, 1884, a primitive “hydriform organism ”

from which it was supposed the jelly fish might have been de-

rived, was found in the same tanks and described by Alfred

Gibbs Bourne.’

About two months after Mr. Bourne’s discovery, I first de-

tected Microhydra ryderi upon some stones collected the pre-

vious autumn from the rocky bed of Tacony Creek, a rapidly

flowing mill stream near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, a small

affluent of the river Delaware, but far above tide level. Some

peculiarities in its structure and mode of gemmiparous multi-

plication were described by my valued friend the late Dr. John

A. Ryder.’

Dr. Ryder had not, at the time of writing the above paper,

seen the living organism which he there described. Speci-

mens were, however, some years later, placed in his hands for

study and watched for many months with exceeding interest.

His early death has left in the possession of his representatives

many excellent drawings and some valuable micro-slides as

the only evidences of his interest and labor. No descriptive

‘The Living Substance. G. F. Andrews. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1897.

* Proceedings of the Royal Society, Dec. 11, 1884, Vol. 38, p. 9, ete. See also

_ paper by F. A. Parson, Jour. of Queckett Club, 2nd series, vol. 2, 1885-6.

~ _ "American Naturalist, Extr , Dec., 1886, p. 1232, ete.

1897.] Fresh Water Jelly Fish. 1033

text has been found, and the sorrow that his many friends feel

at his early removal, has, to me, this added regret—that he

was not able to complete an investigation, which, not unnatu-

rally, perhaps, I felt to be of so great importance; and that

he cannot now share with us our great delight in witnessing

the further development from Microhydra ryderi of a “ medusi-

form adult stage.”

As may be seen by a comparison of the papers above

named, all of them preliminary and incomplete,—there are

obvious points of resemblance as well as of difference between

these minute organisms that appeared, almost simultaneously,

at geographical points so widely distant. The supposition that

the form observed by Mr. Bourne is the earlier condition of

Limnocodium is, of course, greatly strengthened by my actual

observation of the budding and separation of free-swimming

Medusee from M. ryderi.'

We read that the specimens of Limnocodium often, perhaps

generally, disappeared from the tanks about the end of June

or July? It is greatly to be regretted that the glass jars con-

taining my species were not carefully examined throughout

June and July of the present year, during which period there

may have been a larger production of maturing jelly fish. On

the first day of August, however, my attention was arrested by

the spasinodic contraction of an evident Medusa in the above-

mentioned jar, and, during several following days, Prof. E. P.

Cheyney and myself, on frequent occasions, watched the swell-

ing buds upon colonies of Microhydra that had attached them-

selves to the glass. We witnessed the spreading of the disc, dis-

closing, from the first, eight marginal tentacles, a well-defined

velum, whose aperture was from one-third to one-fourth the

diameter of the disc, and a manubrium depending, about one-

half the height (or depth) of the bell. Violent pulsating

spasms finally resulted in an entire separation from the hy-

droid and the free life of a roving medusa. I kept no record

of numbers, but it is believed that from twelve to twenty were

seen.

1 This alternation and progression may have been seen, later, in England, but

I shall have to plead ignorance of the fact.

2 In one case “swarms” are reported Aug. 18, 1882, at Kew Gardens.

1034 The American Naturalist. [December,

Measurements were difficult, but as nearly as I could make

it out, the jelly fish was, at this time, about one-thirty-second

of an inch in diameter. It was of a somewhat prolate dome-

shape, and when seen from the polar aspect, the manubrium

had a clearly quadrate appearance, from whose corners or

lobes four radial canals curved downward to the marginal

canal. At every point of junction occurred a single tentacle,

and another of equal size was found midway between them.

These eight tentacles (the only number as yet observed), al-

ways pendent, were plentifully charged with thread cells, and,

while susceptible of much variation in length, were not seen

much longer than one-half the diameter of the disc.

As to temperature, it is obvious that the water of the jars in

which this Medusa was developed, must have had nearly that

of the surrounding atmosphere, with its diurnal changes, say

from 60° to 85° at this season: during the winter, in our

heated rooms, the temperature is probably more uniform. The

hydroid form, in Tacony Creek, being but a few inches below

the surface, must be subjected frequently to a temperature

at or below the freezing point.

It is quite improbable that under the present artificial condi-

tions, any Meduse will attain full maturity this season. It is

therefore manifestly unsafe to compare their minute size and

general appearance with the totally dissimilar drawings given

us of Limnocodivm, where the latter had attained a diameter

of about one-halfaninch. The full life-history of the organism

must, therefore, be again left imperfectly recorded; but I am

happy to be able to state that my friend, Dr. Charles B. Daven-

port, of Harvard University, has consented to undertake the

further technical study of it from material we have recently

collected; and the drawings, etc. left by Dr. Ryder and to

hope that many points, now obscure, may, through his efforts,

be solved. :

To aid the search of others for this—probably the most

primitive ccelenterate—it may be well to state that, in my

experience, I have only found M. ryderi in a natural condition,

living as a messmate among colonies of Bryozoa that may be

considered almost perennial in habit, where its own disabili-

1897] Pylorie Ceca of Asterias Vulgaris. 1035

ties as a food collector, on account of local inertia and the total

absence of tentacles, were supplemented by the life sustaining

currents induced by its more active neighbors. These condi-

tions are near Philadelphia furnished by Urnatella gracilis

Leidy and Pottsiella erecta Kreepelin (Paludicella erecta Potts).

I regret to be obliged to add that Iam not aware that either

of these has been collected in any other neighborhood.

Philadelphia, August 19th, 1897.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL

FUNCTION OF THE PYLORIC CHCA OF

ASTERIAS VULGARIS.

By ELLEN A. STONE.

The size and position of the pyloric ceca of our common

star-fish, Asterias vulgaris, indicate an organ of great import-

ance, yet their physiological function has been surprisingly

little touched upon in any of the standard text-books of zo-

ology. The most we can learn from them isa confused notion

that they secrete some digestive fluid, which, according to

some authors, is of unknown function, while others state that

it is probably the representative of the bile of higher animals.

Dr. Griffiths and Dr. Fredericq, however, have demonstrated

in the European species, Uraster rubens, the presence of active

digestive ferments.' Their results, together with the abund-

ant material and opportunity for studying these organs in

Asterias, suggested the following experiments, which were car-

ried on at the Laboratory of Physiological Chemistry, Brown

University, under the direction of Mr. Ralph W. Tower.

The experimental methods and results are embodied in the

following observations:

A. PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF THE GLAND.

I. The Reaction of the Secretion.

Before making any examination for the ferment or ferments

that might be contained in the secretion of the pyloric cca,

‘A. B: Griffiths, “ Physiology of the Invertebrata,” pp. 83-85.

1036 The American Naturalist. [December,

the glands were first examined as to the nature of the reaction

of this secretion, and this was found to be slightly acid since

it produced a tinge of red in a neutral solution of litmus. This

trace of acidity, however, was found to be due to some organic

acid, since a neutral solution of tropaeolin 000, which is ex-

tremely sensitive to mineral acids, showed no change in color

upon the addition of a small piece of the freshly crushed

glands.

II, Examination for Leucine.

For the extraction of leucine, should any be present, the

glands of several star-fishes were macerated with water and

allowed to stand for some time. After filtering through

cheese-cloth the filtrate was acidulated with acetic acid and

boiled. A considerable coagulum of native albumen appeared,

which was filtered off, and to the filtrate lead acetate added.

The small precipitate was filtered off and sulphuretted hydro-

gen passed through the filtrate to remove the excess of lead.

This precipitate was removed by filtration and the filtrate then

evaporated to dryness. The residue was extracted with boil-

ing alcohol, filtered and evaporated to a syrup. On standing,

knots of crystals collected on the sides of the beaker which

showed, by microscopic examination, the characteristics of

very impure leucine. They could not, however, be certainly

identified as such, since their quantity was insufficient to try

Scherer’s test. In all probability, however, if this method

were applied to a number of glands sufficient to give a con-

siderable yield of crystals, they could be purified and would

undoubtedly prove to be leucine with probably some clusters

of tyrosin.

B. Proor or tHE Non-ExIstENCE OF GLYCOGEN.

In determining whether the function of the pyloric cæca of

the star-fish is more similar to that of the liver or to that of

the pancreas of higher animals, one of the most reliable crite-

ria would be the existence or non-existence of glycogen in the

organ.

Therefore the ceca of about twenty living star-fishes were

quickly removed and placed in boiling water where they were

1897.] Pylorie Ceca of Asterias Vulgaris. 1037

allowed to boil for some time ; the liquid was then filtered off

and Pfliger’s method for extracting glycogen? was carefully

carried out. At the end of the process a portion of the result-

ing liquid gave with dilute iodine a very slight mahogany

color, which seemed to indicate the presence of a little glyco-

gen. But on boiling the remaining portion of the extract with

dilute hydrochloric acid for half an hour, and then neutraliz-

ing with sodium hydrate, no substance was produced which

would reduce Fehling’s solution. The total amount of glyco-

gen present in the glands of these twenty star-fishes must, there-

fore, have been very small, thus indicating that these organs

do not possess a function characteristic of the true livers of

higheranimals. The following experiment also confirmed this

view: Working upon the supposition that if glycogen were

present in the pyloric cases, it would almost immediately be

converted into glucose, the glands of several star-fishes were

removed and allowed to stand in an open dish for about half -

an hour. At the end of that period a cold water extract was

made of one portion while a hot water extract was made of

another part. Both extracts were subjected to the test for

glucose with Fehling’s solution, and neither gave the slightest

reduction, thus showing that the glands contained no glucose,

and hence no antecedant of glucose in the form of glycogen.

C. EXAMINATION FOR DIGESTIVE FERMENTs.

I. Proteolytic Ferment.

In carrying out this examination the proteid used was co-

agulated egg albumen, which was experimented upon in the

following manner:

The white of one boiled egg was cut into small pieces and

placed in 1000 cc. of a mixture of a 1 per cent. solution of sod-

ium carbonate (Na, CO,) and sodium bi-carbonate (NaHCO,)

to which was added 100 cc. of a fresh water extract of the py-

loric ceca of the star-fish and the whole was digested for 48

hours at a temperature of 37°C, the medium being kept free

from bacteria by the presence of thymol. At the end of this

2 Pfliiger’s Archiv. fur Physiologie, 1894, pp. 394-396.

1038 The American Naturalist. [December,

period the albumen appeared considerably corroded and easily

crumbled upon slight pressure between the fingers.

The substance was filtered and the filtrate then neutralized

with dilute hydrochloric acid, upon which a slight precipitate

of albuminate appeared. This was separated by filtration and

the filtrate boiled, when a considerable coagulum of native

albumen occurred. The native albumen was filtered off and

the fluid then evaporated to about 300 cc.

To this concentrated fluid strong alcohol was added in con-

siderable excess upon which a copious fine floculent precipi-

tate of albumoses and peptones appeared which slowly settled

to the bottom of the beaker. This precipitate was collected

upon a filter and dissolved in 600-700 cc. of water. The pre-

cipitate completely dissolved, yielding an opalescent fluid

which gave a strong xanthoproteic reaction and also a charac-

teristic biuret test tending more strongly towards the rose-pink

of a peptone. Ammonium sulphate was added to this solu-

tion in the form of crystals till the whole was completely sat-

urated, and after standing for several hours a copious precip-

itate of albumoses gathered. This precipitate of albumoses

was separated by filtration and the fluid was then treated with

barium carbonate and barium hydroxide to precipitate the

sulphate from the solution. After repeated treatments all the

sulphate was finally precipitated and removed by filtration

and the fluid was then boiled to a small bulk. About three

volumes of strong alcohol were added and a fine floculent pre-

cipitate appeared which settled on standing. This precipitate

‘was collected and dissolved in water, and the solution then

gave the various characteristic reactions for peptones.

The first alcoholic filtrate was evaporated to a very small

bulk, filtered and allowed to cool. After standing some time

crystals of leucine and tyrosin were found upon microscopic

examination, while the fluid also gave Hoffman’s test for ty-

“rosin.

At another time a set of parallel experiments was carried on

in which equal amounts, by weight, of egg albumen were al-

lowed to digest for an equal time with the same amounts of

water extract of the glands, but under different circumstances.

1897.] Pylorie Ceca of Asterias Vulgaris. 1039

Two portions were digested in a medium of 1 per cent. sodium

carbonate and sodium bi-carbonate, the one at a temperature

of 37° C., the other at a temperature of 21° C. Two other por-

tions were digested in a medium of 3 per cent. Ditman’s sea-

salt solution ; one at 37° C., the other at 21° C. Still a fifth

portion was digested in a medium of 0.2 percent. hydrochloric

acid at 37° C. All media were kept free from bacteria by the

presence of thymol. The native and derived albumins were

Temoved in each case in the same manner and then the fluids

were all evaporated to the same small bulk, 200 cc. To each,

600 ce. strong alcohol were added, and the albumoses and pep-

tones thus precipitated were collected upon balanced filter

‘papers and weighed in order to determine the relative amounts

formed in the different digestive processes. The results

showed that digestion had gone on most rapidly in the medium

of sodium carbonate and sodium bi-carbonate, and moreover

that it had gone on in this medium at a temperature of 37° C.

more rapidly than at 21° C. This same relation held in the

case of digestion in the sea-salt medium, that being the more

rapid which was allowed to go on at the higher temperature.

‘In the case of digestion in the acid medium, scarcely any al-

-bumoses and peptones were formed, showing that in so weak

an acid medium even as 0.2 per cent, digestion was greatly

retarded.

II. Diastatic Ferment.

For this examination a dilute starch paste was made with

-3 grams of starch to 200 cc. of water. To each of two portions

of this paste was added an equal amount of fresh water ex-

tract of the pyloric ceca. Both were allowed to digest, one at

a temperature of 37° C., the other at 21° C. Within fifteen

minutes the substance digesting at 37° C. showed, upon test-

‘ing with iodine, the port wine color peculiar to dexterine and

also reduced the copper of Fehling’s solution. Within half

‘an hour these same reactions were produced in the portion

of starch paste digesting at 21° C. Somewhat later both por-

‘tions showed the presence of maltose in giving a negative test

‘with iodine and a‘ reduction of Fehling’s solution. In this

1040 The American Naturalist. [December,

case, too, that portion which was digesting at the higher tem-

perature showed the presence of maltose first.

The digestive process converted the starch no further than

maltose, for even after digesting all night no test for glucose

was obtained by Barfold’s test (acidified copper acetate solu-

tion).

III. Fat-Splitting Ferment.

The presence of a fat-splitting ferment in the secretions of

the pyloric ceeca was proved by the fact that neutral olive oil,

after being digested in the presence of thymol for same time,

with a fresh neutral water extract of these cæca at a tempera-

ture of 374° C., gave a decided acid reaction with litmus paper,

thus showing that the neutral olein had been converted into

free fatty acid and glycerine. A control portion of olive oil

alone, which was submitted to the same digesting process

under the same conditions, showed no acidity at the end of

the experiment.

To sum up the conclusions that the results of the foregoing

experiments seem to warrant, it seems that the pyloric ceca of

the star-fish have no properties whatsoever—except, perhaps,

their size and possibly color—which entitle them to a com-

parison with the liver of higher animals. On the contrary,

however, they may be said to be closely related to the pan-

creas of the higher animals. Their secretion is abundant and

contains three ferments :——

1. A Proteolytic ferment comparable to trypsin which acts

best in a slightly alkaline medium, to good advantage in a

neutral solution, but scarcely at all in an acid medium; con-

verting proteids into diffusible peptones and breaking down

some of these even further into amido acids, as leucine and

tyrosine.

II. A Diastatic ferment comparable to the diastatic enzyme

of the pancreas which acts quite rapidly upon starch, convert-

ing it through the dextrines into maltose.

II. A Fat-splitting ferment comparable to that of the pan-

creas which breaks fats into their fatty acids and glycerine.

Upon these few but important and well-established facts it

seems necessary, then, to abandon the old ground of charac-

1897.] Editor’s Table. 1041

terizing the pyloric ceca of the star-fish as of unknown func-

tion, and to advance so far, at least, as to characterize them as

important digestive glands, very similar in function to the

pancreas of higher animals.

Laboratory of Physological Chemistry, Brown University, Providence, R. I.

EDITOR'S TABLE.

The confusion in the popular mind in regard to what biologists mean

by “acquired character” is shown in a recent article by Prof. Cesare

Lombrose,' and more strikingly in an editorial, apropos of this same

article, which appeared a short time ago in the Boston Medical and

Surgical Journal.’

Lombroso cites a number of cases which he regards as furnishing

proof of the inheritance of acquired characteristics. In speaking of

the development of the well known mental traits of the modern Hebrews

he says: “ Here we havea series of acquired psychical characteristics

which have become heredity. This, no doubt, is due to some extent to

climatic influences—transportation to colder countries—but more par-

ticularly to selection by persecution, as only by activity and the

appearance of meanness and sordidness could the Hebrews haye been

saved from the fierce persecutions against which bold resistance would

have been of no avail. It is this fact that made these vices prevail,

and that caused the extinction, little by little, of those qualities—cour-

age, generosity and boldness—that would have been more harmful than

useful under the particular conditions.” Again, in speaking of Amer-

ican traits of character, Lombroso says: “It happens because a race

among the most robust of Europe has been transported to different

surroundings; and the struggle for existence—rendered fiercer in the

wilderness and among hostile tribes—if it served to destroy the weaker,

gave room for the greater development of the strong, in whom quali-

ties, perhaps already existent in the pacific Briton, but not yet unfolded

for lack of oceasion, emerged in the new adaptations required for new

adventures.” One might almost suppose these sentences to have been

1 Lombroso, C.: The Heredity of Acquired Characteristics. The Forum,

October, 1897, pp. 200-208.

-Bonok 4 Medical and Surgical Journal, October 21, 1897, Vol. 137, No. 17, p.

427.

1042 The American Naturalist. - [December,

written by the most orthodox of neo-Darwinians. Nowhere in his

paper does Lombroso offer any proof that the characteristics mentioned

are not fortuitous variations. He -takes it for granted that because a

character is new and adaptive, that it is an acquired character become

hereditary. There seems to be in his mind the very common confusion

between the terms “new ” and “ acquired.”

The editor of the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal is suffering

from a much worse confusion of the terms, for he has not yet learned

to distinguish between infection and heredity. When the medical

profession has demonstrated that syphilis is not an infectious disease,

we shall be ready to accept congenital syphilis as an acquired charac-

ter that has been inherited. Besides other cases of this kind, the edi-

tor cites the case of a child born of a mother who had taken from eight

to fourteen grains of morphine daily, commencing soon after marriage.

The three preceding children had died soon after birth. In this case

the child, a ten pound girl, on the third day became sleepless, pale and

prostrate, and five minutes later died. What possible bearing can a

case like this have upon the question of the inheritance of acquired

characters? Knowing the effect of morphine upon the adult, it is far

from surprising that a child that had been bathed in and fed on morphine

from the moment of conception until birth, should show some results

of such treatment. We may have here an acquired character, but the

evidence of inheritance is absolutely nil. It is a case of poisoning, not

of inheritance.

The report of the proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Boston

Society of Natural History’ has been lying upon our table for some

time. We are glad to note that Prof. Hyatt has nearly completed the

descriptive part of his work on the Achatinellinz of the Hawaiian

Islands. It is to be hoped that this very complete collection of land

shells purchased by the Society in 1890 from the Rev. J. T. Gulick,

will soon be placed on exhibition. It is one that will be of the greate

est interest to all students of evolution.

It is annouced, also, that considerable progress has been made upon

the collection illustrative of “dynamical zoology,” and it is gratifying

to know that it will be put in place during the present year.

; 3 Proceedings Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. 28, No. 2, p. 45-72.

1897.] General Biology. 1043

General Notes.

—

GENERAL BIOLOGY.

The average Contribution of each several Ancestor to the

total Heritage of the Offspring.'—We inherit not only from our

parents but also from our grandparents to remote generations. The

problem is: What proportion of the whole is, on the average, inherited

from each generation ?

In an earlier work, Galton, as a result of experiments on sweet peas,

reached the conclusion that 50 per cent. of our qualities are on the

average derived from our two parents, and he suggested the probability

that 25 per cent. comes from our four grandparents, 12.5 per cent. from

all our great-grand-parents, and so on, the sum being 100 per cent.

thus accounting for the whole inheritance. The present paper brings

the required proof of Galton’s hypothesis.

The method of proof is noteworthy. Galton had access to pedigree

records of ‘ Basset’ hounds bred through twenty years. These exhibited

only two color types—tricolor (T) and non-tricolor (N). There were

817 hounds of known color derived from parents of known color: 567

of these had all four grandparents of known color; and 188, all great-

parents. Galton determined, for example, whether the proportion of

T-progeny of a known ancestry corresponds to the law of contribution

enunciated above. He separated the progeny into three lots; namely,

those which have 2 T-parents, 1 T-parent or 0 T-parent; each of these

may be subdivided into lots having 4, 3, 2, or 1 T-grandparent. Do

the percentages of T-progeny in these lots accord with what we might

calculate from the law? Let us take acase; there are 119 individuals

which have 2 T-parents and 3'T-grandparents. What per cent. should

be tricolor? The two T-parents should each determine 25 per cent.

total, 50 per cent. Each of the 3 T-grandparents should determine

+25 per cent., 6.25 per cent., total 18.75 per cent. together 68.75 per

cent. To this must be added the influence of the T-great-grandparents

and earlier ancestors. The probable percentage of unobserved T-

ancestors and hence of T. -generating influence may be calculated on the

assumption that the percentage ¢ of T-parents producing T or N progeny

will be the same for unknown as for known generations. By an exten-

' Francis Galton: Proc. Royal Soc. lxi, p. 401-413, 1897.

1044 The American Naturalist. [ December,

sive calculation, not necessary to reproduce here, Galton found that

the totality of the ancestors of each T-grandparent determines the tri-

color character of 4 per cent. of the progeny, and all the ancestors of

each N-grandparent determines the T-characters of 2 per cent. of the

progeny, so we must add to our sum 34 per cent.=12 per cent. for

the 3 T-grandparents and 2 per cent. for the N-grandparent which

gives the grand total of 68.7-+-12-++-2=83 per cent. of the 119 progeny

(or 99 individuals) which should be tricolor. Asa matter of fact of

_ the 119 individuals which had the ancestry in question 101 individuals

were tricolor. Many comparisons between calculations and observa-

tions were made which agreed as well as this and thus confirmed the

truth of the conclusion that we inherit on the average one-half of our —

qualities from our parents and half the remainder from each successive

earlier generation of ancestors.—C. B. D.

Preformation vs. Epigenesis.—That the modern revival of the

preformation—epigenesis controversy is resulting in a harmonious

middle position through the application of the experimental method is

a source of gratification as well to the believers in the application of

this method to embryology as to those who desire the settlement of the

dispute. Incidentally, however, these experiments are giving a clearer

insight into the form-producing and form-maintaining factors. One of

the latest contributions of this sort is that of Crampton who has de-

scribed in the Annals of the New York Academy of Seiences, Volume

X, experiments on isolated blastomeres of the Ascidian Molgula man-

hattensis. He finds that here, much as in the sea-urchin, the one-half

blastomere undergoes a strictly partial cleavage, but rearrangements of

blastomeres soon occur which tend to mask the partial nature of the

development. Eventually a nearly complete larva of less than normal

size and with defects in certain organs is produced. The missing half

has been supplied by the cells already present. Thus there is here no

pure epigenesis, no strict preformation, but a remarkable regulation

phenomenon, as Driesch would say, by which the mutilated organism

attempts, but. not altogether successfully, to develop normally despite

the unfavorable conditions.

Dissemination of organisms.—Experiments of Dr. Amedeo

Berlese showing how insects and especially ants and some species of

flies aid in the diffusion, preservation, and multiplication of yeasts, are

described in a recent number of Nature.’

2 Nature, Oct. 14, 1897, pp. 575-577.

1897.] Mineralogy. 1045

It is shown that yeasts not only may be carried in the digestive tract

of flies (as weil as upon the external parts of the body) but that they

actually multiply there. The belief is expressed that many yeasts

ordinarily pass the winter within the digestive tracts of insects, rather

than upon the surfaces of plants or in the soil.

A Plankton Note.—Another illustration of the abundance of cer-

tain small animals in the ocean is furnished in a letter from W. A

Herdman published in Nature. While crossing the Labrador current

at about long. 50° W. in the steamship Parisian the party were served

with a copepod stew. The little crustacea were caught by pumping

` the water into the ship and straining it through silk nets. In this way

it was easy to obtain a sufficient number to make a “ respectable dish.”

MINERALOGY.

New Minerals. Derbylite.—Hussak and Prior’ give a full de-

scription of a new antimono-titanate of iron, of which they had given

a preliminary notice.” The mineral, named Derbylite in honor of the

distinguished geologist of Brazil, O. A. Derby, occurs in the cinnabar-

bearing sands of Tripuhay, Minas Geres, Brazil, and has also been

found in place in certain muscovite schists in the near vicinity. Der-

bylite is orthorhombic, a: b: c=0.96612: 1: 0.55025. Twins on 011.

Fracture parallel to 001 but no good cleavage. Crystals minute, color

pitch-black, lustre resinous, hardness about 5, specific gravity 4.530.

Optical properties undeterminable on account of opacity. Composition

probably FeO, Sb,O s+ 5 FeO, TiO, neglecting small amounts of silica,

alumina and alkalies

Zirkelite.—Prior® gives a revised analysis of this new mineral‘

ZrO, TiO, ThO, Ce,O, (Y,0,?) UO, FeO CaO MgO Ignition Sum

52.89 14.95 731 252 021 1.40 7.72 10.79 0.22 1.02 99.03

corresponding to the formula (approximately) RO.2 (Zr Ti Th) O,.

3 Nature, Vol. 59, p. 565, Oct. 14, 1897.

1 Min. Mag., Vol. XI, No. 52, p. 176.

2 Min. Mag., Vol. XI, No. 50, p. 85.

3 Min. Mag., Vol. XI, No 52, p. 180.

4 First described in Min. Mag., Vol. XI, No. 50, p. 88. See abstract this

journal, Vol. XXXI, July, 1897, p. 601.

1046 The American Naturalist. | December,

Wellsite, a new Zeolite.—Pratt and Foote® describe a new

mineral found in the Buck Creek Corundum Mine, Clay Co., N. C.

They name it wellsite in honor of H. L. Wells, Prof. of Chemistry in

Sheffield Scientific School. It occurs together with chabazite on albite,

rarely also on hornblende and corundum, these minerals constituting a

vein in a large mass of dunite near its contact with gneiss. Wellsite

is monoclinic, forming doubly-twinned crystals like those of harmotome

with pseudotetragonal aspect. Twinning planes are c, 001 and e, 011.

Forms observed c, 001; a, 001; b, 010; m,110; a: b : c=0.768 : 1:

1.245 B=23° 27’. Cleavage none, lustre vitreous, colorless or white,

hardness 4-4.5, specific gravity varying between 2.278 and 2.366 prob-

ably depending on differences in the ratio of barium to calcium in

different crystals. Double refraction positive and weak. Plane of

optic axes at right angles to 010, the obtuse bisectrix inclined 52° toc

in the obtuse angle. 2 E probably between 120° and 130°. Chemical

composition :

SiO, AlO, BaO SrO CaO MgO K,O NaO H,O Sum

43.86 24.96 5.07 115 580 062 340 1.80 13.35 100.01

corresponding to the formula R AI,Si,O,,.3H,O. R contains BaO:

CaO: (Na,O+K,O) in the ratio of 1:3:2. It was found that the

Water appeared to be in three conditions in the molecule, one-

third being given off between 100° and 200°, another third between

200° and 300°, and the remaining third only at a red heat. The rela-

tions of wellsite to the phillipsite group of the zeolites is shown in the

following table :

& D 0 B

Wellsite. . . . RAI,Si,O,,.3 HO. 0.768 ;:1: 1.245 53 27

Phillipsite. . . RA1,Si,O,,.44 H,O 0°70949:1:1.2563 55 37

Harmotome . . RA1,Si,0,,.5H,O 0.70315:1:1.2310 55 10

Stilbite . . . -RA1,Si,O,.6H,O 0.76227:1:1940 50 49

The authors predict the probable occurrence of a fifth member of the

group corresponding to a hydrated anorthite which would have the

composition RA1,8i,O, ‘2 H,O.

Silicate containing lead.—Penfield and Foote? describe a new

mineral from the Franklin, New Jersey, zine deposits to which they

give the name roeblingite in honor of Mr. W. A. Roebling, the distin-

guished engineer of Trenton, N. J. Roeblingite occurs at the one thou-

5 Am. J. Sci., Vol. CLIII, 1897, p. 443.

€ Am. J. Sci., Vol. CLIII, 1897, p. 413.

1897.] Mineralogy. 1047

sand foot level of the Parker shaft of the N. J. Zinc Company, on or

near the contact between granite and white limestone. There are many

minerals in the immediate vicinity especially garnet and axinite, in `

the cavities of which itis generally is found. It forms dense, white, com-

pact masses consisting of an aggregate of minute prismatic crystals

which were doubly refracting but whose crystal system could not be

determined. Specific gravity 3.433, hardness a little less than 3.

Chemical composition :

SiO, SO, PbO MnO CaO SrO K,O NaO H,O Sum

23.66 9.00 31.03 2.48 25.95 1.40 0.13 0.40 6.36 100.32

corresponding to the complicated formula H,,Ca,Pb,Si,S,0,,, the small

amounts of MnO, SrO and alkalies being united with the calcium,

This is equivalent to 5H,CaSiO,+-2CaPbSO,, This adds one to the

small list of silicates containing lead and is the first observed occur-

rence of a sulphite in nature. Pyrognostics: fuses at 3 to a globule,

giving blue lead flame and with soda a lead coating; Mn reaction ;

soluble in weak acids with separation of gelatinous silica.

Bixbyite.—Penfield and Foote’ describe a new mineral from the

topaz locality in the mountains, thirty-five miles southwest of Simpson,

Utah. The crystals are implanted upon topaz and altered garnet and

rhyolite and are evidently a product of fumarole action.

Bixbyite is isometric, crystallizing in cubes sometimes modified by

the icositetrahedron, 112, the crystals being upwards of 5 mm. on the

edge. Irregular fracture with traces of octahedral cleavage, color

brilliant black with metallic lustre, streak black; hardness 6-6.5,

specific gravity 4.945. Fuses at 4 and becomes magnetic; powder dis-

solves with difficulty in HC1, liberating chlorine. The analysis (by

Foote) showed the following composition ;

SiO, Al,O, FeO, TiO, MnO MgO O Sum

1.21 2.538 47.98 1.70 42.05 0.10 4.38 99.95.

The silica and alumina are regarded as due to a small amount of

topaz which could not be separated. The composition may then be ex-

pressed as R,O, where R is Fe, Mn, and a little Ti. But other con-

siderations, especially its isometric form, point rather to the formula

RO.RO, or FeO.MnO, with small amounts of MgO and MnO replacing

FeO, and TiO, replacing MnO,. It thus corresponds closely to

- braunite, MnO.MnO, and to the isometric perofskite, CaO.TiO,. The

1 Am. J. Sci., Vol. CLIV, 1897, p. 105.

1048 The American Naturalist. [December,

name is in honor of Mr. Maynard Bixby of Salt Lake City, who first

, brought the mineral to notice

Associated with the bixbyite are topaz crystals showing combinations

of the following forms:

E IVUS 6, OUIS 8,110; T, 1207 ¢, ZOls £021; y OTI; 0, 221 3 u,

111.

There are also rough pseudomorph crystals, probably after the man-

ganese garnet, spessartine, now composed of a mixture of bixbyite with

either topaz or quartz or botb.

Zinkenite Group.—Spencer® describes a twin crystal of chalcos-

tibite (wolfsbergite) from Wolfsberg with 102 as twin plane, not before

observed. Also (rare) simple crystals of zinkenite from the same place

showing the new form 001. He then shows that by a proper orienta-

tion of the crystals of these two minerals the similarity in habit, stria-

tion, and twinning may be shown and also their place in the isomorphic

zinkenite group as follows:

i ee Fe

Zinkenite . . PbS.Sb,S, 0.5575: 1: 0.6353

Wolfsburgite Cu,S.Sb,S, 0.5312: 1 : 0.6376

(Chalcostibite, Penfield) 0.5312 : 1 : 0.63955

Sartorite PbS.As,S, 0.5389 :1 :0.6188

Emplectite Cu,S.Bi,S, 0.5430 : 1 :0.6256

He states on the ground of crystallographic measurements that prob-

ably the mineral guejarite described by Cumenge as having the com-

position Cu, S.2Sb,S, will be found to be identical with chalcostibite.

This has been proved by Penfield and Frenzel’ by a re examination of

material from Guejar and a study of new material from Huanchaca,

Bolivia, supposed to be guejarite. Measurements of crystals from these

two localities gave results entirely agreeing wlth those from typical

chalcostibite from Wolfsburg. The chemical constitution of the

minerals from the three localities was also shown to be identical, and

to satisfy the chalcostibite formula: Cu,S.Sb,S,._ On the chaleostibite

from Huanchaca Penfield observed 20 forms of which 13 were new as

follows: 130, 209, 207, 205, 203, 302, 065, 136, 133, 265, 263, 261,

4.12.5. He also shows that the forms observed by Laspeyres, 7.14.8,

and 7.21.27, should be 6.12.7, and 134 respectively. In Penfield’s

paper is further a description by Spencer of a chaleostibite specimen’

_ Min. Mag., Vol XI, No. 52, p. 188.

’ An. J. Sci., Vol. CLIV, 1897, p. 27.

1897.] Mineraloyy. 1049

in the British Museum, likewise from Huanchaca, on which were the

further new forms: 233, 354, 474, 475, 476.

The axial ratio adopted is a: b:¢:=0.5312 : 1: 0.6395, and elabor-

ate tables of angles show the thorough agreement of the observations

on which is based the identity of guejarite and chalcostibite.

Terrestrial Iron from Missouri.—Allen” describes three occur-

rences of native iron, considered to be of undoubted terrestrial origin,

in the Coal Measures’ of Missouri. In each case the iron was found

during the drilling of a well; at Cameron, Clinton Co. the iron formed

a mass several inches in thickness in the midst of a solid sandstone,

fifty-one feet below the surface; at Weaubleau, Hickory Co. a few

pieces of iron were found in a stratum of gray clay, interbedded with

sandstone and thin seams of lignite at the depth of thirty-five feet; at

Holden, Johnson Co. a mass of iron was struck but not passed through,

in a bed of fireclay, underlying an eighteen-inch coal-seam, thirty-seven

feet below the surface.

The character of the iron was the same in all the occurrences. It

was free from rust, of a lustrous silvery white color, very malleable,

hardness 3, specific gravity varying from 7.43 to 7.88. The largest

piece obtained weighed 45.4 grams. Some pieces exhibited a layered

structure almost amounting to a cleavage. Polished surfaces, etched,

showed no Widmanstitten figures. The chemical composition of the

iron was nearly the same in the three localities:

I II Ill

Fe 99.16 99.39 97.10

SiO, 0.87 0.31 1.65

P 0.207 0.13 0.176

C 0.065 undet’d undet’d

99.802 99.83 98.926

The writer appears to consider that these irons represent cases of

local reduction, the association with coal or coal-bearing strata being

held as significant. It seems worthy of note in this regard that the

amount of carbon, both in the irons and in the rocks in which they

were situated, was very small.

1 Am, J. Sci., Vol. CLIV, 1897, p. 99.

1050 The American Naturalist. [December,

PETROGRAPHY:?

Petrography of the Marquette Iron Range.—Van Hise and

Bayley’ in their recent description of the Marquette Iron Range in

Michigan, give accounts of the petrography of the Archean and of the

Algonkian rocks occurring in the region. The pre-Algonkian rocks

comprise granite-gneisses, syenites, hornblendic and micaceous schists,

and a series of green schists that are cut by peridotites, and by acid

and basic dykes. The granites or gneisses are notable for the large

quantity of microcline they contain. Although this is present in the

most massive phases of the granite, it is much more abundant in those

phases that are schistose as the result of pressure. These rocks are

much crushed, and have developed in them great quantities of new

plagioclase, quartz and muscovite in addition to the microcline above

referred to. The syenites are mainly granitic aggregates of orthoclase

and hornblende, with some plagioclase and a number of secondary pro-

ducts formed under the influence of pressure. These are the same in

character as the secondary products formed in the granite under simi-

lar conditions. The green schists are squeezed surface materials.

Some of them are squeezed tuffs and others squeezed lavas. The for-

mer contain numerous pebble-like masses that are taken to be bombs

and rounded lava fragments. The present constituents of the schists

are chlorite, sericite, calcite, plagioclase, quartz and sometimes epidote.

Much of the plagioclase is in broken crystals lying in a matrix formed

of smaller fragments of the same mineral cemented together by a felt

of the others in a very finely crystallized groundmass. The structure

of many of the schists is typically tuffaceous. These rocks indicate

clearly the existence of volcanoes in pre-Algonkian time. The basic .

schists are associated with acid ones that seem to be squeezed rhyolitic

lavas. Analyses of these two classes of schists follow :

SiO, TiO, AlOs FeO; FeO CaO MgO K,O Na:0 P,O; CO: H,0 Total

Basie schist 61.35 .26 94 4.20 3.46 3,121.05 5.24 .18 1.98 2.61 = 100.84

Acid schist 70.76 .33 gre 1.46 3.09 .86 1.99 3.50 .47 .26 2.79 =, 99.84

The basic rocks cutting the gneisses and schists are diabases in

various stages of alteration, and the acid ones are quartz porphyries.

These have been carefully described by Williams.’ The peridotite of

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Maine.

? Monograph XXVIII U. S. Geol. Survey, Washington, 1897.

1897,] Petrography. 1051

the Marquette district was carefully described years ago by Wads-

worth. The only additional fact of importance added by the authors

with respect to this rock concerns its composition. An analysis of a

very fresh specimen gave :

SiO, TiO, Al,O3 Cr203 Fe,03 FeO MnO rd CaO SrO BaO MgO K0 Na,0 CO, P20; H0 Total

89.37 .66 4.47 .68 4.96 9.13 .12 3.70 tr tr 26.53 .26 .50 1.23 17 7.95 = 99.94

A few hornblende-schists met with in certain portions of the area

studied are shown to be altered igneous rocks, possibly recrystallized

lavas.

The micaceous schists are well banded rocks with a distinct dip and

strike. They are often interlaminated with thin bands of hornblende-

schists with which they are perfectly conformable. These micaceous

schists embrace muscovite-schists, biotite-schists and feldspathic biotite-

schists, most of which are so much decomposed that their original com-

position is difficult to determine. It is probable that they are crystal-

lized acid lavas or tuffs.

In the Algonkian series are quartzites, conglomerates, graywackes,

slates, dolomites, griinerite-magnetite schists, jaspilites, mica-schists and

a series of basic tuffs that have suffered metamorphism until they are

now largely hornblende-biotite-schists. The production of hornblende

in these tuffs is on a very extensive scale. ‘The amphibole is in large

plates that are more or less idiomorphic, and nearly all of these are

cellular in structure. The greenstones that are intrusive in the iron

formation are altered diabases, in only a few of which augite can still

be detected. These rocks have heretofore been generally known as

diorites. In the western part of the district where the squeezing has

been more intense than elsewhere much quartz and biotite has been

developed in them, and the rocks present a very different aspect from

the more normal phases.

All the rocks mentioned above are described in detail, and many

colored reproductions of polished hand specimens of limestones, slate

and jaspilite illustrate the report.

The Rock-formation of the Silver Cliff and Rosita Hills

District, Colorado.—The mines of the Silver Creek and Rosita dis-

trict are mainly in volcanic rocks. The eastern portion of the area is

the seat of an old voleano which erupted andesite, rhyolites and trach-

ytes both in lava and in tuff form. ` These constitute the Rosita Hills.

North and east of these are the old granites and gneisses. In the

3 Bull, 62 U. S. Geol. Survey.

1052 The American Naturalist. [December,

neighborhood of Silver Cliff only the rhyolites are present. The gran-

ites intrude the gneisses, both being early Cambrian or pre-Cambrian.

The voleanic series dates from the early Eocene; in this and in some

other respects being like similar rocks at Cripple Creek and at other

volcanic centres in the State. Both the Rosita and the Cripple Creek

voleanoes are regarded as small outlying vents connected in origin

with the much larger eruptions of the San Juan and South Park re-

gions.

The gneisses of the Silver Cliff-Rosita Hills district are described by

Cross‘ as variable in composition, no one type persisting over any great

area. They consist of microcline, orthoclase, quartz and biotite, mus-

covite, hornblende or augite, and by variation in the amounts of either

one or several of these constituents they grade into quite different types.

The quartz and the bisilicates are often segregated in thin layers or

streaks, thus giving the gneiss a banded aspect. Among the principal

types represented in the complex, the augite-hornblende-gneiss is the

most definite. It is a basic gneiss composed of a basic plagioclase and

numerous intergrowths of augite and hornblende. The old gneisses

and granites are cut by dykes of syenite, diabase and peridotite.®

The earliest member of the volcanic series is a hornblende-mica-an-

desite which occurs principally as a tuff. This was followed by mas-

sive effusions of an augite-biotite-andesite containing large phenocrysts

of orthoclase and small crystals of plagioclase surrounded by orthoclase

rims. The andesites are cut by dykes of an augite-diorite containing

biotite and altered olivine, and in some facies of the rock considerable

orthoclase.

A later lava than the andesite was the dacite, which differs from the

augite-andesite in the presence of quartz and in the subordination of

the dark silicate to the feldspars. Orthoclase is absent from the

dacites, and the plagioclases present are nearly all andesine.

The next in age and the most abundant of the lavas are rhyolites.

These vary greatly in character, but nearly all phases are devoid of

dark silicates. They occur in massive and in banded ledges, and in

others remarkable for the great abundance in them of very large spher-

ulites. These have been carefully studied by the author and reported

upon in another place. In addition to the lavas tuffs, agglomerates and

other evidences of explosive voleanic activity are noted in the vicinity

of Rosita. Following the rhyolite came another biotite-augite-an-

desite, and finally a trachyte of normal character.

Rises Ann, Rep. U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 269.

Cf. Proc. Colorado Sci. Soc., Vol. II, “1887, p- 223.

1897,] Paleontology. 1053

One of the most interesting rocks of the district is the Bassick Mine

agglomerate made up of fragments of many different rocks cemented

by fine debris of the same character. This is now usually so much de-

composed that its original constituents can in many cases no longer he

recognized,

In addition to the voleanic rocks mentioned above, a mica-dacite

and a limburgite were observed. They are, however, quite rare, All

the volcanic rocks have been decomposed by solfataric action, yielding

products of various kinds, the two most important of which area white

siliceous clay resulting from the alteration of pitchstone and a quartz

alunite rock produced from rhyolite, Analyses of the pitchstone and

its alteration product follow:

SiOz AlO; FeO; FeO = CaO MgO K:O Na,O H:O Total

Pitehstone 71.56 13.10 .66 .28 .16 .ī4 .14 4.06 3,77 5.52= 99.99

Clay 71.71 12.36 1.10 pa 111 1.21 36 .17 11.97 = 100.16

The andesite is often muscovitized, all of its constituents but augite and

orthoclase passing over into aggregates of muscovite apparently with

great ease.

The report closes with a discussion of differentiation in which the

author does not reach any definite conclusions, except that in the case

of the Rosita rocks much of the differentiation which resulted in the

different phases of the various types must have taken place either after

the lavas had reached their present position, or at any rate at no great

depth under the surface.

Notes.— Wolff! gives a description and a map of the exposures of

eruptive rocks occurring in Sussex Co., N. Y. These exposures in-

clude those of the well known eleolite-syenite and associated dyke

rocks at Beemerville.

PAL ONTOLOGY.

Schuchert’s Synopsis of American Fossil Brachiopoda.’

—Students of Brachiopoda, as well as Mr. Schuchert, are to be con-

gratulated upon the publication of this important work. Its prepara-

tion has extended over a period of eleven years, and entailed references

' Ann. Rep. State Geol. of New «agente 1896, p. 91.

2 A Synopsis of American Fossil Brachiopoda, including Bibliography

Synonymy. By Serene Bulletin U. 8. Geol, Survey, No. 87.

1054 The American Naturalist. [December,

and cross references to upwards of 2,500 species, necessitating about

10,000 citations. All the literature relating to North and South Amer-

ican fossil Brachiopods is recorded in this synopsis, and 2,053 valid

species are recognized, of which 1,922 are North American, and 1,859

are restricted to the Paleozoic. It is estimated that 6,000 Paleozoic

species have been described for the whole world ; therefore about one-

third of the number occur in North America.

In the American Mesozoic, a marked scarcity of Brachiopods exists,

since but 49 species have been recorded, and many of these are rare.

The Cenozoic representation is even smaller, there being but 14 species.

In the North American Cambrian, there are 116 known species, with

319 in the Ordovician, 311 in the Silurian, 662 in the Devonian, while

the Carboniferous representation declines to 478. In America, the

class practically became extinct with the close of the Paleozoic, for but

11 species are known from the Triassic and 13 from the Jurassic. Dur-

ing the Ordovician, the increase was extremely rapid and all the essen-

tial types occur near the base of the system in the Calciferous. The

culmination of the class was attained during the Devonian.

Under the geographic distribution of Brachiopods, it is stated that

537 species had great areal or horizontal dispersion, and 121 species

are common to North America and other continents. The specific dis-

tribution increases with ordinal rank, so that while 25 per cent of the

Atremata had dispersion, the Neotremata show 27 per cent; and the

higher orders, the Protremata and Telotremata, each show 32 per cent.

The order Atremata is best developed in species and genera in the Cam-

brian and Ordovician systems; the Neotremata in the Ordovician ; the

Protremata in the Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian ; and the Telo-

tremata in the Devonian. The climax of differentiation is, therefore,

chronologically related to phylogenetic or sequential origin. But 8

genera are known to pass from the Paleozoic to the Mesozoic. There

are in all 327 Brachiopod genera, 227 of which are Paleozoic.

After the discussion and tables illustrating the geologic development

and geographic distribution of the American fossil forms, the author

presents a chapter on Brachiopod terminology, in which all the

current descriptive terms are defined. The biologic development is

then taken up in detail for the separate orders and for special important

features, as the protegulum, prodeltidium, cardinal areas, articulation,

deltidium, spondylium, etc. The morphology of the brachia is dis-

cussed in a separate chapter prepared for this work by C. E. Beecher.

_ The various schemes of classification applied to the Brachiopods are

taken up chronologically, and the strong and weak points of each are

1897.] Botany. 1055

critically reviewed. The author then enunciates the principles of a

classification based on the history of the class and the ontogeny of the

individual. The ordinal grouping proposed by Beecher in 1891 is the

only one for the Brachiopods which is founded upon these principles,

and is therefore adopted. Schuchert has greatly elaborated and devel-

oped the classification along these lines until it is now very complete

and satisfactory.

The orders are based mainly upon the nature of the pedicle opening ;

superfamilies upon the persistent internal characters of the shell; and

families within the superfamilies upon a combination of common ex-

ternal and internal generic characters. The generic limitations and

the disposal of species are largely in accordance with the work of Hall

and Clarke.

The final chapter containing the index and bibliography necessarily

constitutes the bulk of the work. The arrangement is alphabetical and

will greatly facilitate references to any species or genus. The plan of

treatment is as follows: The generic name and author are first given,

and also the genotype, or type species of the genus, together with refer-

ences to all the literature. Then follow the species under the genus,

each with its geological distribution, references and synonymy, geo-

graphical position, and in many cases, observations on the synonymy,

structure, and affinities.—C. E. B

BOTANY.

Bailey’s Principles of Fruit Growing.'—This volume of the

Rural Science Series, which is issuing under the editorial management

of Professor Bailey, contains only eight chapters, but* goes into an

unusual amount of detail in the discussion of all phases of fruit-grow-

ing, from the primary location of the fruit farm to the handling and

marketing of its produce. Few problems are as complicated as those

underlying the art of horticulture, and the author has done well in

analyzing them quite fully, for there is little doubt that intelligent ob-

servation in any locality can supply better data for local practice than

can be laid down empirically in the best book. Though a rather

curiously classified inventory of fruits occupies the early pages, the dis-

- cussion of practical details is chiefly limited to the varieties growing in

the temperate part of the United States.—T.

` 1The principles of fruit-growing. soi L. H. Bailey, New York. The Mac-

millan Company, 1897, pp. xit+-508. $1.25

1056 The American Naturalist. [December,

EMBRYOLOGY:

Fertilization.—Our present conceptions of the meaning and of the

cell factors concerned in the act of fertilization have been based so

largely upon the views of Boveri and these arose so directly from the

study of the eggs of Ascaris megalocephala that it is of the greatest im-

portance to know how far we rest assured in the knowledge of the truth

in this classical object.

The well-known editor of La CELLULE has with M. H. Labrun re-

studied fertilization in this worm and obtained facts quite at variance

with those commonly accepted. Professor Carnoy studies sections that

are obtained after killing the eggs with a mixture of absolute alcohol,

chloroform and acetic acid saturated with corrosive sublimate and this

certainly yields most beautiful pictures of reticular appearances

throughout cell and nucleus.

While Boveri regarded the introduction of a centrosome by the sperm

as a most important part of fertilization Carnoy denies that there is any

such fact. For Boveri, the sexes are not alike since the egg has no

centrosome to start the process of fertilization and the sperm has such

a centre. For Carnoy, there is entire equality of the sexes since both

sperm and egg each furnish a centrosome for the first cleavage and in

every other way the fertilized egg is a combination of the same elements

from both sexes.

A cardinal point in Carnoy’s observations is the fact, as claimed,

that the nucleoli pass out from the nuclei and become the centrosomes !

The centrosomes also vanish after each cleavage and do not divide to

make new ones!

A summarization of his facts includes the following assertions: 1.

At the last division of the series of cells that form eggs, the centrosome

vanishes from the protoplasm and new ones are formed in the nucleus

of the unripe egg. 2. In the formation of the polar bodies these cen-

trosomes emerge from the nucleus and function; perhaps they disap-

pear after the first, and are formed again for the second, polar body. 3.

Both polar bodies are formed with the presence of centrosome and

asters; but these structures then disappear and there is no centre left.

in the protoplasm of -the ripe egg. 4. The sperm introduces a large |

mass of reticulum and this acts upon the reticulum of the egg to pro-

1! Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and

reliminary notes may be sent.

1897.] Psychology. 1057

duce a radiating change that gradually works over and modifies the

entire egg. Boveri’s archoplasm does not exist except as this radiating

area of influence. 5. In this radiating mass there is no centrosome,

no sperm centre—nothing but a mass of nucleo-albuminiferous enchy-

lema discharged from the sperm and in process of solution. 6. Up to

the time of cleavage there are no centrosomes in the protoplasm and

there can be no “quadrille of the centres.” 7. The centrosomes arise

early in the pronuclei, one in each, as nucleoli. 8. One centrosome comes

out of the sperm nucleus and one out of the egg and they function as

soon as they get into the eggs protoplasm, to form asters. 9. The

spindle is made from the network of the nucleus, (fused sperm and egg

nuclei), under the influence of the centrosomes. 10. The centrosomes

do not divide but dissolve; the asters also disappear without dividing.

11. In each new nucleus two new nucleoli arise and after a dormant

period pass out to function as centrosomes in the next cleavage.

Fertilization is thus a most complex process in which two individuals

of different origin merge into one new entity of mixed nature; mixed

not only in chromosomes but in all parts; cytoplasm, caryoplasm, cen-

trosomes, all of double origin, male and female.

The egg may transmit the properties of both parents since it acts as

a mixed being of double origin in all parts, throughout cleavage and

subsequently. The entire egg not only the nucleus but also the outer

protoplasm may be concerned in heredity.

As life remains a complex of mysterious and unexplained phenom-

ena the author deems it folly to venture hypotheses as to the nature of

heredity. “Sachons avouer notre ignorance profonde et nous arrêter

à la limite de notre modeste savoir.”

PSYCHOLOGY.’

The Physical Basis of Pain.—The unsettled state of opinion

among psychologists in regard to the nature of pain was touched upon

last year in these notes.” The chief points at issue are whether pain

and pleasure should be classed as sensations or as affective elements of

consciousness, and how far a distinction should be drawn between so-

called physical pain (Schmerz) and pain in the sense of displeasure

(Unlust). The older theories in general regarded pain solely asa feel-

1 Edited by Howard C. Warren, Princeton University, Princton, N. J.

2 November, 1896, p. 948.

1058 The American Naturalist. [December,

ing, without any distinct physiological basis at all. The use of a single

term in English for both Schmerz and Unlust has tended to obscure

their difference, but recent discussion has brought it out with greater

distinctness, and many writers now regard pain—at least when it in-

volves some definite locality, as in the case of head-ache, tooth-ache,

pricking, etc.—as a real sensation.

Attempts have been made, in connection with this view, to discover

definite end-organs and nerve tracts for the pain sense. The probabil-

. ity of the existence of such a physical basis has lately been urged with

great force by a number of writers, on the evidence furnished by cer-

tain pathological cases, where laino hyperalgesia or analgesia

occur without any marked alteration in the senses of pressure or tem-

perature. They argue that if pain can be heightened or deadened

without disturbance of the other dermal senses, it must be furnished

with a distinct sensory apparatus of its own. Numerous clinical cases,

reported by Dr. Henry Head in a series of articles in “ Brain,” ë lend

considerable support to this view. These observations and others

have been regarded as direct evidence that pain has a distinctive

anatomical and physiological basis—either a complete set of end-

organs and nerve apparatus, or at least a separate conducting tract

and cortical center. Several objections have been raised against the

more radical view, the chief being that no type of end-organ has been

found in the skin, apart from those required for the senses of pressure

and temperature.

A recent paper by Prof. Witmer, of Pennsylvania, reported at the

British Association this summer and since published,‘ recognizes the

force of this criticism, and favors the modified view of a spinal tract

and center for pain. Prof. Witmer reviews the clinical and experi-

mental evidence in great detail, taking up the parts of the sensory ap-

rE separately.

ere is no conclusive anatomical evidence,” he says, “ for the ex-

istence of a peripheral sense organ or nervous end organ for pain.

There is no conclusive evidence for the existence of peripheral pain

nerves or peripheral sensory neurons. Much evidence justifies the

conclusion that all or some peripheral nerves may, under adequate

stimulation, act with specific pain-producing function ; that such nerves

may lose this function without a loss of other functions or may lose

their other specialized sensory functions without losing the pain func-

tion. Local peripheral analgesia and mR due to compression or

< 3 Vols. XVI, p. 1; XVII, p. 339, and XIX,

* Twentieth Century Practice of Medicine, Ah eA p. 905.

1897.] Psychology. 1059

disease of the peripheral sensory neuron make the assumption of peri-

pheral pain nerves and sense organs one that stands closely related to

the facts.

“There is a specialized pain tract in the spinal cord which is cer-

tainly constituted in part by the gray column, and which may be com,

posed of a part of the gray column on both sides, including the com-

missure and a part of the lateral tract. Into this pain tract, nerves

from the sympathetic system and from the internal organs, together

with all specialized nerves from the periphery, discharge their stimu-

lation when this is relatively intense. The intensity necessary to bring

about this discharge may be that which is sufficient to overcome the

resistance offered by the tract. This tract passes up through the optic

thalamus and posterior limb of the internal capsule, the ‘carrefour

sensitif, into the cerebrum, and reaches some region unknown, but

probably a part of the somesthetic area. This hypothetical region of

the somesthetic area may be looked upon as the pain centre.

“ There is some warrant of justification for considering the pain tract

in the spinal cord as the spinal nerve organ of pain, which, together

with the hypothetical specialized cortical centre, constitutes the specific

organ of pain. Any part of this central pain organ may be stimulated

‘in the cortex or below it, either by stimuli discharging into it through

normal physiological processes, by spinal or cortical association, by

irritation due to disease, and perhaps by a vascular disturbance within

the central nervous system.

“Thus pain may be a sensation of purely central nervous origin.

The arousal of pain by stimuli and its presentation in consciousness

along with other sensations may be explained by the simultaneous

association of pain with other forms of stimulation—an association that

may take place at any level of the nervous system. When such asso-

ciation takes place in the cortex, we have conscious association, the

sangre of pain with other sensations, with percepts, or with ideas.”

ei The universality of pain association with sensations of

sees intensity is explainable anatomically and physiologically by

the discharge of intense stimuli carried by all peripheral nerves into

the central pain organ: that this central pain organ has no peripheral

nerves of its own, possessing a specific pain function and no other, can

receive satisfactory explanation only from biological considerations of

the significance of pain as a warning against dangerous stimuli of the

environment. This fact would suggest an early phylogenetic develop-

ment of a pain sense in the organism ; in fact, the pain sense may have

been the first of all the special senses.” *

5 Op. cit., pp. 940-941.

1060 The American Naturalist. [December,

If this analysis be accepted, it will naturally follow that pain must

be regarded as a sensation alongside of the sensations of pressure, tem-

perature, etc., but differing from them in having no specific end-organ,

and depending upon them for its stimulation. It is scarcely necessary,

then, to turn to introspection for further evidence. Prof. Witmer

says: “Pain is a simple, unanalyzable mental content. It should

therefore be called a sensation.” The advocates of a dual or triple

divison of the elementary data of consciousness will, of course, deny

this argument ab initio. But the physiological evidence is another

matter, and the hypothesis is sufficiently well grounded to call for

careful consideration and discussion.—H. C. W.

Baldwin’s Social and Ethical Interpretations in Mental

Development.’—Following up the line of thought of his earlier

work, on “Mental Development in the Child and the Race,” Prof.

Baldwin, in the present volume, considers the social aspects of that

development. The connection between the individual and society he

believes to be very close. On the one hand the mental growth of the

individual is more or less controlled by conditions in the social en-

vironment; on the other hand, the forms of organization, growth and

activity of society are analogous to those of the individual organism.

Prof. Baldwin examines both of these relations in turn. The develop-

ment of the notion of Self in the child proceeds pari passu with the rise

of the notion of Other. The social environment furnishes him with a

vast store of traditions and customs (social heredity) which form an

important factor in his mental life; this same environment supports

him where he conforms to its standards, and “ suppresses ” him where

he does not. The inventive function, too—that by which the individ-

ual arrives at new results, different from his mere imitations of others—

is guided by social approval and disapproval. In all these phases of

individual growth the social environment supplements the instincts

and other endowments derived from biological and psychological

heredity. The author concludes this part of his work with an analy-

sis of the elements in man’s mental constitution which fit him for the

social relation (sympathy, social intelligence, ethical sentiment, etc.),

aid a comparison of the sanctions, personal and social, which deter-

mine his acts.

In taking up the problem from the standpoint of the social organiza-

tion, the author considers (1) the forces which control society, (2) the

8 Social and Ethical Interpretations in Mental Development. atl James Mark

Baldwin. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1897, pp. xiv, 574, $2.60

1897,] Psychology. 1061

material and process of social organization, and (3) the nature of

social progress. As regards the first question, he finds two distinct in-

fluences at work in society; the individual is a partieularizing force,

while the social organization itself tends in the direction of generaliza-

tion. The matter of society consists, he says, of “ intellectual states,

such as imaginations, knowledges and informations.” These “ origin-

ate in the mind of the individuals of the group, as inventions, more or less

novel conceptions, what we have called ‘ particularizations.’

origin there is no reason for calling them social matter, since they are

SELECTION.!

At their

SORT.

MEANS.

RESULT.

1, 2. Natural

lace, Spencer

Selection )|

[40].

. . (Darwin, Wal-

II. (Eimer) [40].

3. Germinal Selection (Weismann). |

4. pe a

: mann, Delage).

. Functional Belection (Baldwin).

6. "ongni Eann (Baldwin, Os-

yd Morgan) [Appen-

qe Artif ‘Selection (Darwin).

8. Personal Selection? [40].

9. Sexual Selection (Darwin) [40].

10. Social Selection 2 [40, 120].

11. Social Suppression2 [38 ff.].

Imitative Selection2 [40, 121,

12.) 307).

OTe: Generalization2 [121, 310

(Roux, Weis- |

| i Occ. for Existence (Darwin,

| 2. Inherent Weakness, without

Struggle.

3 Struggle of Germinal Elements.

4. Struggle of Parts (Roux).

5. Cee iction of Movements,

Geert £

6. Accom

piren veen an promt ei

7. Choice for Plant and for

Mating Together

Choice.

9. Conscious Selection by Courting,

10. Social yi. etapa a ~ ete groes

and Groups with 1 Se-

lection (Malthus, ste es f

il. Su paa of Socially Unfittest

w, Custom, ete. ).

12. Imitative Pro eerie from uan

to Mind wlth Social Heredity

t: hog of ore Fittest” Indi-

ials (Spencer).

2. Destruction of Unfit Individuals.

3. Survival of Fittest Germinal Ele-

ments.

4, Survival of Fittest Organs.

5. Survival of Fittest Functions.

6. Survival of Accommodating In-

dividuals.

oe of Desirable Indi-

8. Emp reba and Survival of So-

productio agar uve &

9. ser es e In-

10. garsia 7 gee — Indi-

viduals and Grou

11. Survival of Socially Fit.

12. Survival of Ideas.

ed in this wor

1 I am indebted to Professor Lloyd Morgan fi

i k.

i Ss

They become social only when society—

particular to the individual.

that is, the other members of the social group, or some of them—also

thinks them, knows them, is informed of them. This reduces them,

from the individual and particular form to a general or social form,

and it is only in this form that they furnish social material, gah

what has been called, again, the ‘ generalization ’ effected by society”

(pp. 487-8). The process of organization is through imitation : the

individual particularizes in his exercise of imitation; society, by

ee the come of particular individuals, generalizes them.

1062 The American Naturalist. [December,

The progress of society is, in its method, direction and impelling mo-

tives, “ analogous to the growth of consciousness rather than to that of

the biological organism ;” hence Prof. Baldwin objects to the application

of the term organism to society, and prefers organization.

It would be impossible here to enter into any more minute examina-

tion or criticism of the positions maintained in this work. Attention

should be called, however, to Prof. Baldwin’s classification of the

various sorts of developmental “ Selection.” The accompanying table,

reproduced from Appendix B of the book, shows a number of distinct

types, together with the autbors who have discovered or elaborated

them. The arrangement begins with the purely biological agencies,

and proceeds up through the psychological to the social. The table

furnishes a valuable contribution to evolution literature; the distinc-

tion drawn between the means, the result, and the name given to the

process itself, clears up a number of points in regard to which consid-

ANTHROPOLOGY.

The History of Mankind.’—The second volume of the transla-

tion of Prof. Ratzel’s “ History” more than meets the expectations of

students of ethnography and others who have awaited its appearance

with no little interest. The ‘“ modern method” of treatment and the

wealth of illustrations continue to be prominent and pleasing features.

“ Book II” describes (1) The Cultured Races of America; (2) The

Ancient Civilized Races of America; (3) The Arctic Races of the Old

World. Book IIT, The Light Stocks of South and Central Africa.

Book IV, The South and East Africans.

The American tribes are not considered in detail, but in culture

groups as the Forest and Prairie Indians of North America, the

Forest Indians of Central and South America, the Pategonians, the

Fuegians, ete. No general treatise has heretofore so fully described

the inhabitants of the southern portion of the South American Conti-

nent. Some of the prevailing stories regarding their utter wretched-

ness are contradicted, and we learn that “ the Fuegians are, at the bot-

tom, Indians like all the rest,” and our estimate of their disposition and

1 The History of Mankind. By Professor Friedrich Ratzel. Translated from

the second German edition by A. J. Butler, M. A., with introduction by E. B.

Tylor, D. C. L., F. R. S., with colored plates, maps and illustrations. 1897, N.

Y., Macmillan, Vol. II, pp. 562.

1897.] Anthropology. 1063

intellect increases with nearer acquaintance. Throughout the volume,

attention, justly due but seldom paid, is given to that important factor

of culture growth, geographical environment. The author describes

the advantages offered by the flora and climate of temperate and trop-

ical America, and briefly comments upon the disadvantage to the

nascent civilizations of the absence of the larger domestic animals.

Very little space is given to speculations regarding the origin of the

American race. We are told that “there can be no doubt America

possessed human inhabitants as early as the Age of the Drift, though

the conflict as to Tertiary man is as far from being settled there as it

is in Europe.” The date of the workshop for the manufacture of chert-

flakes, which was discovered in Minnesota, is accepted without question

as “interglacial.” The Trenton Ghost is not raised. The belief in

the unity of the American race is based upon the ground of long isola-

tion and consequent assimilation rather than upon community of de-

scent. Virchow’s statement is quoted with approval “ that from the

point of view of anthropological [somatological] classification there is

no real unity among the aboriginal population of America,” a typical

American skull does not exist, “in every large burying-ground all

lengths and shapes are represented.”

The Eskimos are connected with the Indians, “ as it seems too hazard-

ous to rank them with the true Monogoloids. But northeast Asia is

unquestionably a region of transition which finds its continuation in

northern America.” We may hope that the results obtained by the

Jesup expedition will have an important bearing upon this question.

Notwithstanding the excellent authorities quoted we can scarcely ad-

mit that the stature of the Eskimo is “low,” but are more inclined,

after a journey through the entire region occupied by the “ Western

Eskimo” west of the Mackenzie, to agree with a recent paper by Mr-

Murdoch, in which he states that they are of “medium height, while

much taller men are far from uncommon.” The Eskimo has been

cleared of the charge of stuffing himself with raw meat and drinking

quantities of train oil, but not so the reindeer—Chukchi, by whom

“ frozen fish is eaten raw; the head ot a freshly-killed reindeer has also

to be devored raw, and his liver, ears, and kidney-fat are regarded as

tid-bits only when raw. Melted fat or butter is a favorite drink, and `

is consumed in quantities of several pounds.” Among the Hyperbor-

eans as among so many races in more favored climes, the withering in-

fluences of civilization are at work. “ The pastoral and hunting races

of northern Asia have begun to die out extensively ” (p. 217).

Weare given the benefit in Books II and III of compilations from

the recent extensive additions to our knowledge of Africa and its

1064 The American Naturalist. [December,

inhabitants. Type specimens from the immense African collections

which have been acquired recently by European museums are repre-

sented by numerous drawings and many new and excellent photo-

graphs of natives are reproduced. We are led to believe (p. 250) that

Africa was peopled from the “eastward,” probably by way of Arabia.

The similarity of certain art products, social customs and anatomical

characters between the African and Oceanic races would seem, to

many anthropologists, to be of greater value as evidence of unity of

origin than the resemblances between the myths of the two regions

` upon which Professor Ratzel lays some stress. Whatever his origin

may have been, the future of the African is considered to be of greater

importance ; what that future will be we may form some estimate from

the excellent account given of his present condition.

It is to be regretted that a map of America, at least of the South

American tribes, is not given. Ornithologists will certainly not admit

the oe aN ee among American Tetraonide (p. 9), and if the “ par-

tridge ” is “ a species of quail,” as in the south where Colinus virgini-

anus is so called, then it cannot be of “about the same size” as the

prairie hen, which, however, does equal the size of Bonasa wnbrellus,

the “ partridge” of the north. The pigeon was, notis, abundant. Ursus

ferox is given for U. horribilis. A cheerful and lively disposition

might have been ascribed to many other Indian tribes besides those of

the “sunny regions in the southern Rocky Mountains,” for example,

the northern Athabascans who possess a cheerful temperament in spite

of the depressing influences of their inhospitable environment. The

Athabascan tribe referred to as “ Ojibbeways” on p. 28, is probably

the Chippewyan group which occupies the region between the Great

Slave Lake and Lake Athabasca, a thousand miles northwest of the

territory of the Ojibzways of Algonquin stock.

The work, as a whole, is clear and comprehensive, a contribution

which we believe will do much toward explaining the nature and pur-

pose of this department of anthropology to the lay reader, and which

supplies the student with a text-book of the greatest value—F. R

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The French School of Anthropology entered upon the work of its

rig a ee year on November 3d. The program for 1897-98 is as

follows:

1897.] Scientific News. 1065

(1). G. de Mortillet—Prehistoric Anthropology; Paleontology by

regions ; Prehistoric and Protohistoric of divers countries.

(2). Capitan—Pathological Anthropology ; maladies arising through

auto- intoxication or auto-infection. Their role in anthropology.

(3). André Lefévre—Ethnography and Linguistics; The Origin

and Development of the French Language.

(4). Georges Hervé—Ethnology ; Ethnology of Europe. First,

The Ibero-Aquitains and the Basque Question ;-second, The European

Blonde Populations.

(5). J. V. Laborde—Biological Anthropology ; The Transformation

and the Equivalence of the forces of Biological Anthropology; The

Nerve Cell or Neuron according to the Modern Conception ; The Spe-

cial Senses of Hearing and of Sight (organic and functional evolution).

(6). P. G. Mahoudeau—Zoological Anthropology ; The Zoological

Origin of Man.

(7). Franz Schrader—Geographical Anthropology; Earth and

Man ; Oceanica and Africa.

(8). L. Manouvrier—Physiological Anthropology ; The Anatomical-

physiological Components of Character.

(9).—Ch. Letourneau—Sociology (History of Civilization) ; Mental

Evolution in the various Races and Societies.

(10). A. de Mortille-—Comparative Ethnography ; Ceramics among

Primitive Peoples, Ancient and Modern.

The courses are open to the public and are gratuitous.

Recent deaths: Ferdinand Béclard, paleontologist in the Brussels

Museum.—Prof. Michael Angelo Consoli, botanist, at Palermo, May

13th, aged 85.—Dr. Heydenreich, lepidopterist, at Osnabruck, May

18th.—Dr. J. Braxton Hicks, well known for his papers on zoology

and botany, at the age of 74.—Dr. Holmgren, professor of physiology

in the University of Upsala, and well known for his researches on color

blindness, aged 66.—Rev. Robert Hunter, botanist, at Epping Forest,

England, February 25th, aged 74.—Jules Jullien, of Havre, student of

Polyzoa.—Dr. Anders Johann Malmgren, the well known student of

northern annelids and fishes, at Uleaborg, Finland.—Dr. Felix Georg

Hermann August Mojsisovies, Count of Mojsvar, professor of zoology

in the Technical School and custodian of the zoological collections in

Graz, August 27th—Alfred Moquart, professor of anatomy at Brus-

sels, June 5th, aged 42.—Dr. Jules Bernard Luys, neurologist, at the

age of 69.—Dr. G. Ossonski, geologist, at Tomsk, Siberia, April 6th.—

Franz Pulozky, author of the Copper Age in Hungary and former

director of the National Hungarian Museum at Budapest, aged 82.—

1066 The American Naturalist. | December,

Samuel James Augustus Salter, botanist, at Basingstoke, England,

February 28th, aged 72.—Prof. Paul Schutzenberger, physiological

chemist of Paris, aged 67.—P. B. L. Verlot, botanist, at Verriéres-les-

Brusson, France.—R. Allan Wright, economic entomologist, near Auk-

land, N. Z., December 22, 1896, aged 73.

Among the recent appointments we notice the following: Dr.

Charles R. Bardeen, assistant in anatomy at Johns Hopkins Univer-

sity ; Prof. Belajeff, director of the botanical gardens at Warsaw; Dr.

Pio Bolson, assistant in the botanical institute at Padua; Dr. Edward

Fischer succeeds his father (Prof. L. Fischer) as professor of botany

in the University of Bern; Dr. Elisha Gregory, Jr., has been appointed

instructor in histology and embryology in Harvard Medical School ;

Dr. Herbert L. Jones, associate professor of botany in Oberlin College ;

Dr. Julius Paoletti, of Padua, professor of natural history in the Melfi

Technical Institute ; Dr. M. Raceborski, of Cracow, goes to Java as

professor of botany in the experiment station for sugar production at

Kagok Tegal; Dr. Hans Reusch, director of the Geological Survey of

Norway, Sturgiss-Hooper professor of geology in Harvard University ;

Dr. Rodet, professor of bacteriology in the University of Lyons; Dr.

W. Ernest Thomson goes to Anderson College, Glasgow, as successor

to Dr. Campbell Black in the chair of physiology ; W. W. Watts,

assistant professor of geology in Mason College, Birmingham, England ;

Henry C. Williamson, naturalist to the Fishery Board for Scotland ;

Dr. Zehntner, professor of entomology at the station at Kagok Tegal,

Java; Dr. Zelinka, of Graz, professor of zoology in the University of

Czernowitz, Austria.

Mr. Gary N. Calkins presents in Science an account of the

Columbia Expedition to the Pacific Coast. The party consisted

of seven. The work began at Port Townsend on Puget Sound, but

when the party arrived there it was too early to obtain much in the

way of embryological material, so all proceeded to Alaska where, al-

though the facilities for collecting were poor, large collections were

made both for anatomical and for embryological studies. In its return

to Puget Sound the expedition had difficulty in getting return pas-

sage on account of the numbers of excursionists crowding the regular

boats. They took passage finally in a returning boat the “ Mexico,”

which had brought up a Klondyke party. On the return voyage the

Mexico ran into a rock in a fog and sank in about two hours in about

500 feet of water, carrying down with her all the collections, instru-

ments, notes, etc., of the expedition. There was no loss of life and all

were landed soon after at Port Townsend.

1897.] Scientific News. 1067

Among the work accomplished by the Johns Hopkins party at Port

Antonio, Jamaica, the past summer was the following: The late Pro-

fessor Humphrey collected material giving the complete embryology

of one of the palms, of Casuarina and of the wild ginger, as well as

much material upon the shell-boring alge. The late Dr. Conant con-

tinued his studies of the rare group of Cubomeduse. Dr. Clarke paid

especial attention to the embryology of the echinoderms. Mr. Sudler

obtained abundant material of the metamorphoses of the crustacean

Lucifer. Mr. Grave studied the development of the brittle stars, while

Mr. Berger collected a large amount of material for the study of the

false scorpions. Mr. Duerden, of the Institute of Jamaica, was a guest

of the laboratory and studied the sea anemones. Until the fatal last

week the work of the laboratory was most successful. All of the speci-

mens and drawings of the party have been preserved, and the results

will be worked up later.

A correspondent has been kind enough to call our attention to an

error on page 829 of the September number, where we say that natural

history specimens are now charged postage at the rate of one cent for

every two ounces. Asa matter of fact, we are informed, this ruling of

the recent postal congress does not take effect until January 1, 1899.

The late Theodore Lyman, whose death was recently noticed in these

pages, gave his library of works upon Natural History to the Museum

of Comparative Zoology of Harvard University.

The Indian section for the collection of funds for the Pasteur memo-

rial has sent to Paris £442 17s. 6d

The American Naturalist.

ide de ie ek A eT eh

RE ORS the September number the AMERICAN NATUR-

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w"SYIG fortunes have been made by a small

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